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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8385b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62817 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62817) diff --git a/old/62817-0.txt b/old/62817-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2c98abe..0000000 --- a/old/62817-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19442 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815, by H. Morse Stephens - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815 - -Author: H. Morse Stephens - -Release Date: August 1, 2020 [EBook #62817] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE 1789-1815 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY - REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE - 1789–1815 - - - - - REVOLUTIONARY - EUROPE - 1789–1815 - - BY - - H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A. - BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD - PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, U.S.A. - AUTHOR OF ‘A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,’ ETC. - - _PERIOD VII_ - - London - RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL, & CO. - 1896 - - _Third Edition_ - - _All Rights Reserved_ - - - - - AUTHOR’S PREFACE - - -In this volume I have endeavoured to write a history of Europe during -an important period of transition. I have reduced military details to -the smallest possible limits, and have preferred to mention rather -than to describe battles and campaigns, in order to have more space -to devote to such questions as the Belgian revolution of 1789, the -reorganisation of Prussia in 1806–12, and the Congress of Vienna. -I have throughout tried to describe the French Revolution in its -influence on Europe, and Napoleon’s career as a great reformer rather -than as a great conqueror. The inner meaning of the period and its -general results I have sketched in a short introductory chapter, on -which the rest of the volume is really a detailed historical commentary. - -The maps which accompany the volume are intended to show the changes -in the boundaries of States, and not to give the position of places -mentioned in the text. Every one who reads such a volume as the -present must use an atlas as his constant companion, for no book of -this size could possibly contain a sufficient number of maps adequate -to the illustration of the events narrated. - -In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Mr. W. R. Morfill, Reader -in Slavonic to the University of Oxford, for giving me a canon for -the spelling of Russian proper names, and to the Editor, Mr. Arthur -Hassall, for willing assistance and friendly encouragement. - - H. MORSE STEPHENS. - - CAMBRIDGE, 1893. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - INTRODUCTION - - PAGE - - The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: I. The - Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; II. The Principle - of Nationality; III. The Principle of Personal Liberty—The - Eighteenth Century, the Era of the Benevolent Despots—The - condition of the Labouring Classes in the Eighteenth Century: - Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper Classes—Why France - led the way to modern ideas in the French Revolution—The - influence of the thinkers and writers of the Eighteenth - Century in bringing about the change—Contrast between the - French and German thinkers—The low state of morality and - general indifference to religion—Conclusion, 1 - - CHAPTER I. - - 1789 - - The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, 1788—The - Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph II.—His Internal - Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: Catherine—Poland—France: - Louis XVI.—Spain: Charles IV.—Portugal: Maria I.—Italy—The - Two Sicilies: Ferdinand IV.—Naples—Sicily—Rome: Pope Pius - VI.—Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: - Duke Hercules III.—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - III.—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George III.—The Policy - of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick William II.—Policy of - Prussia—Holland—Denmark: Christian VII.—Sweden: Gustavus - III.—The Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trèves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion, 11 - - CHAPTER II - - 1789–1790 - - The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph II.—The Turkish - War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of Foksany and - the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in Sweden—Affairs - in Belgium—Policy of Joseph II. in Belgium—Revolution in - Liége—Elections to the States-General in France—Meeting - of the States-General: struggle between the Orders—The - Tiers État declares itself the National Assembly—Oath of the - Tennis Court—The Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the - King—Dismissal of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture - of the Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis XVI. visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration - of the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the - women of Paris to Versailles—Louis XVI. goes to reside in - Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph II.—Failure of his reign—The attitude - of Louis XVI. to the French Revolution—The new French - Constitution—Civil Constitution of the Clergy—Measures of the - Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger threatened to the new - state of affairs in France by a foreign war—Mirabeau and the - French Court—Probable causes of a foreign war—Avignon and the - Venaissin—Affair of Nootka Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights - of Princes of the Empire in Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master - of the situation, 42 - - CHAPTER III - - 1790–1792 - - The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly - in France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France - and Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death - of the Emperor Leopold—Murder of Gustavus III. of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - II. crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia and - Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of Louis - XVI.—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres of September - in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the National - Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest of - Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest - of Belgium—Execution of Louis XVI.—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and - Poland, 82 - - CHAPTER IV - - 1793–1795 - - France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year III. - (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again enters the Comity - of Nations, 124 - - CHAPTER V - - 1795–1797 - - Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy of - France—Constitution of the Year III.—The Directory—The - Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five Hundred—Local - Administration of France—The Insurrection of Vendémiaire—The - Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The First French - Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution of - the Convention—England and the _Émigrés_—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and - Austria, 158 - - CHAPTER VI - - 1797–1799 - - Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest of - Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France, 187 - - CHAPTER VII - - 1799–1804 - - Constitution of the Year VIII.—The Consulate—The Council of - State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The Senate—Internal - Policy of the Consulate—General Reconciliation—The - Code Civil—Ministers of the Consulate—Foreign Policy - of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The Pope—Campaign of - Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter Campaign of Moreau - and Macdonald—The Treaty of Lunéville—Arrangements in - Italy—Policy and Murder of the Emperor Paul of Russia—The - Neutral League of the North—Battle of Copenhagen—War - between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of Badajoz—Campaign - of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between England and - France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation of - the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis II. - resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that of Emperor - of Austria, 212 - - CHAPTER VIII - - 1804–1808 - - Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt, 237 - - CHAPTER IX - - 1808–1812 - - Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of the Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812, 263 - - CHAPTER X - - 1810–1812 - - Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis XVIII., and his - Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris, 299 - - CHAPTER XI - - 1814–1815 - - The Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis XVIII. in - France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The - Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of - Paris—Napoleon sent to St. Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return - of Louis XVIII.—Government of the Second Restoration—The - Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and Naples—Territorial - Results of the Congress of Vienna—The Principle of - Nationality—Permanent Results of the French Revolution - in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the Principles of - Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality, 336 - - - APPENDICES - - APPENDIX I. The Rulers and Ministers of the Great Powers of - Europe, 1789–1815, 364 - - APPENDIX II. The Rulers of the Second-rate Powers of Europe, - 1789–1815, 366 - - APPENDIX III. The Family of Napoleon, 368 - - APPENDIX IV. Napoleon’s Marshals, 370 - - APPENDIX V. Napoleon’s Ministers during the Consulate and - Empire, 1799–1814, 372 - - APPENDIX VI. Concordance of the Republican and Gregorian - Calendars, 374 - - INDEX, 377 - - - MAPS - - Europe in 1789.} - Europe in 1802.} _At end of book._ - Europe in 1810.} - Europe in 1815.} - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: I. The - Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; II. The Principle - of Nationality; III. The Principle of Personal Liberty—The - Eighteenth Century, the Era of the Benevolent Despots—The - condition of the Labouring Classes in the Eighteenth Century: - Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper Classes—Why France - led the way to modern ideas in the French Revolution—The - influence of the thinkers and writers of the Eighteenth - Century in bringing about the change—Contrast between the - French and German thinkers—The low state of morality and - general indifference to religion—Conclusion. - - -[Sidenote: A Period of Transition.] - -The period from 1789 to 1815—that is, the era of the French Revolution -and of the domination of Napoleon—marks one of the most important -transitions in the history of Europe. Great as is the difference -between the material condition of the Europe of the nineteenth century, -with its railways and its electric telegraphs, and the Europe of the -eighteenth century, with its bad roads and uncertain posts, it is not -greater than the contrast between the political, social, and economical -ideas which prevailed then and which prevail now. Modern principles, -that mark a new departure in human progress and in its evidence, -Civilisation, took their rise during this epoch of transition, and -their development underlies the history of the period, and gives the -key to its meaning. - -[Sidenote: The Sovereignty of the People.] - -The conception that government exists for the promotion of the -security and prosperity of the governed was fully grasped in the -eighteenth century. But it was held alike by philosophers and rulers, -alike in civilised England and in Russia emerging from barbarism -that, whilst government existed for the good of the people, it -must not be administered by the people. This fundamental principle -is in the nineteenth century entirely denied. It is now believed -that the government should be directed by the people through their -representatives, and that it is better for a nation to make mistakes -in the course of its self-government than to be ruled, be it ever so -wisely, by an irresponsible monarch. This notion of the sovereignty of -the people was energetically propounded during the great Revolution in -France. It is not yet universally accepted in all the states of modern -Europe. But it has profoundly affected the political development of -the nineteenth century. It lies at the base of one group of modern -political ideas; and, though in 1815 it seemed to have been propounded -only to be condemned, one of the most striking features of the modern -history of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, has been its gradual -acceptance and steady growth in civilised countries. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Nationality.] - -The second political belief introduced during the epoch of transition -from 1789 to 1815 was the recognition of the idea of nationality in -contradistinction to that of the State, which prevailed in the last -century. In the eighteenth century the State was typified by the -ruling authority. National boundaries and race limits were regarded as -of no importance. It was not felt to be an anomaly that the Catholic -Netherlands or Belgium should be governed by the House of Austria, -or that an Austrian prince should reign in Tuscany and a Spanish -prince in Naples. The first partition of Poland was not condemned as -an offence against nature, but as an artful scheme devised for the -purpose of enlarging the neighbouring states, which had appropriated -the districts lying nearest to their own territories. But during the -wars of the Revolution and of Napoleon the idea of nationality made -itself felt. France, as a nation in arms, proved to be more than a -match for the Europe of the old conceptions. And it was not until her -own sense of nationality was absorbed in Napoleon’s creation of a new -Empire of the West that France was vanquished by coming in contact with -the Spanish, the Russian, and the German peoples in the place of her -former foes, the sovereigns of Europe. The idea of nationality, like -the idea of the sovereignty of the people, seemed to be condemned in -1815 by the Congress of Vienna. The Catholic Netherlands were united -with the provinces of Holland; Norway was forcibly separated from -Denmark; Italy was once more parcelled out into independent states -under foreign princes. But the Congress of Vienna could not eradicate -the new idea. It had taken too deep a root. And another striking -feature of the European history of the nineteenth century has been the -formation of new nations, resting their _raison d’être_ on the feeling -of nationality and the identity of race. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Personal Liberty.] - -The third modern notion which has transformed Europe is the recognition -of the principle of personal and individual liberty. Feudalism left the -impress of its graduation of rights and duties marked deeply on the -constitutions of the European States. The sovereignty of the people -implies political liberty of action; feudalism denied the propriety and -advantages of social and economical freedom. Theoretically, freedom -of individual thought and action was acknowledged to be a good thing -by all wise philosophers and rulers. Practically, the poorer classes -were kept in bondage either as agricultural serfs by their lords or as -journeymen workmen by the trade-guilds. Where personal and individual -liberty had been attained, political liberty became an object of -ambition, and political liberty led to the idea of the sovereignty of -the people. The last vestiges of feudalism were swept away during this -era of transition. The doctrines of the French Revolution did more -than the victories of Napoleon to destroy the political system of the -eighteenth century. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 might return to the -former notions of government and the State, but it did not attempt -to restore the old restrictions on individual liberty. With personal -freedom acknowledged, the reactionary tendency of the Congress of -Vienna was left of no effect. Liberty of thought and action led to the -resurrection of the conceptions of nationality and of the sovereignty -of the people, which were but for the moment extinguished by the defeat -of France in the person of Napoleon by the armies of united Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Benevolent Despots.] - -The period which preceded the French Revolution and the era of -war, from the troubles of which modern Europe was to be born, may -be characterised as that of the benevolent despots. The State was -everything; the nation nothing. The ruler was supreme, but his -supremacy rested on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for their -good. This conception of the _Aufgeklärte Despotismus_ was developed -to its highest degree by Frederick the Great of Prussia. ‘I am but the -first servant of the nation,’ he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly -recalls the definition of the position of Louis XVI. by the first -leaders of the French Revolution. This attitude was defended by great -thinkers like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal policy of the -monarchs of the latter half of the eighteenth century towards their -people. The Empress Catherine of Russia, Gustavus III. of Sweden, -Charles III. of Spain, the Archduke Leopold of Tuscany, and, above -all, the Emperor Joseph II. defended their absolutism on the ground -that they exercised their power for the good of their subjects. Never -was more earnest zeal displayed in promoting the material well-being -of all classes, never did monarchs labour so hard to justify their -existence, or effect such important civil reforms, as on the eve of the -French Revolution, which was to herald the overthrow of the doctrine -of absolute monarchy. The intrinsic weakness of the position of the -benevolent despots was that they could not ensure the permanence of -their reforms, or vivify the rotten fabric of the administrative -edifices, which had grown up in the feudal monarchies. Great ministers, -such as Tanucci and Aranda, could do much to help their masters to -carry out their benevolent ideas, but they could not form or nominate -their successors, or create a perfect body of unselfish administrators. -When Frederick the Great’s master hand was withdrawn, Prussia speedily -exhibited a condition of administrative decay, and since this was -the case in Prussia, which had been for more than forty years under -the rule of the greatest and wisest of the benevolent despots, the -falling-off was likely to be even more marked in other countries. The -conception of benevolent despots ruling for their people’s good was -eventually superseded, as was certain to be the case, owing to the -impossibility of their ensuring its permanence, by the modern idea of -the people ruling themselves. - -[Sidenote: The Condition of the Labouring Classes.] - -[Sidenote: Serfdom.] - -And, in truth, while doing full justice to the sentiments and the -endeavours of the benevolent despots, it cannot honestly be said that -their efforts had done much to improve the condition of the labouring -classes by the end of the eighteenth century. The great majority of -the peasants of Europe were throughout that century absolute serfs. To -take once more the example of Prussia, the only attempts to improve -the condition of the peasants had been made in the royal domain, and -they had only been very tentative. The dwellers on the estates of the -Prussian nobility in Silesia and Brandenburg were treated no better -than negro slaves in America and the West Indies. They were not allowed -to leave their villages, or to marry without their lords’ consent; -their children had to serve in the lords’ families for several years at -a nominal wage, and they themselves had to labour at least three days, -and often six days, a week on their lords’ estate. These _corvées_ or -forced labours occupied so much of the peasant’s time that he could -only cultivate his own farm by moonlight. This state of absolute -serfdom was general in Central and Eastern Europe, in the greater part -of Germany, in Poland and in Russia, and where it existed the artisan -class was equally depressed, for no man was allowed to learn a trade -without his lord’s permission, and an escaped serf had no chance of -admission into the trade-guilds of the cities. Towards the west a -more advanced civilisation improved the condition of the labourers; -the Italian peasant and the German peasant on the Rhine had obtained -freedom to marry without his lord’s interference; but, nevertheless, it -was a leading prince on the Rhine, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who -sold his subjects to England to serve as mercenaries in the American -War of Independence. In France the peasant was far better off. The only -serfs left, who existed on the domain of the Abbey of Saint-Claude -in the Jura, on whose behalf Voltaire wielded his powerful pen, were -in a far happier condition than the German serfs; they could marry -whom they pleased; they might emigrate without leave; their persons -were free; all they were deprived of was the power of selling their -property or devising it by will. The rest of the French peasants -and the agricultural classes generally were extremely independent. -Feudalism had left them some annoyances but few real grievances, and -the inconveniences they suffered were due solely to the inequalities -of the copyhold system of tenure and its infringements of their -personal liberty. The French peasants and farmers were indignant at an -occasional day’s _corvée_, or forced labour, which really represented -the modern rent, and at the succession-duties they had to pay the -descendants or representatives of their ancestors’ feudal lords. The -German, Polish, and Hungarian peasant, on the contrary, crushed beneath -the burden of his personal servitude, did not dream of pretending to -own the plot of land, which his lord kindly allowed him to cultivate in -his few spare moments. - -[Sidenote: The Middle Classes.] - -The mass of the population of Central and Eastern Europe was purely -agricultural, and in its poverty expected naught but the bare -necessaries of existence. Trade, commerce, and manufactures were -therefore practically non-existent. This meant that the cities, -and consequently the middle classes, formed but an insignificant -factor in the population. In the West of Europe, on the Rhine, and -more especially in France, where the agricultural classes were more -independent, more wealthy, and more civilised, existence demanded more -comforts, and a well-to-do and intelligent commercial and manufacturing -urban element quickly developed to supply the demand created. Commerce, -trade, and the concentrated employment of labour produced a prosperous -and enlightened middle class, accustomed for generations to education -and the possession of personal freedom. With wealth always goes -civilisation and education, and as there was a larger middle class in -France and Western Germany than in Central and Eastern Europe, the -peasants in those parts were better educated and more intelligent. - -[Sidenote: The Upper Classes.] - -The condition of the upper classes followed the same geographical -distribution. The highest aristocracy of all European countries was -indeed, as it has always been, on much the same intellectual and social -level. Paris was its centre, the capital of society, fashion, and -luxury, where Russian, Austrian, Swedish, and English nobles met on an -equality. But the bulk of the German and Eastern European aristocracy -was in education and refinement inferior to the bulk of the French -nobility. Yet they possessed an authority which the French nobility had -lost. The Russian, Prussian, and Austrian nobleman and the Hungarian -magnate was the owner of thousands of serfs, who cultivated his lands -and rendered him implicit obedience. The French nobleman exacted only -certain rents, either copyhold quit-rents or feudal services, from the -tenants on his ancestral estates. His tenants were in no sense his -serfs; they owed him no personal service, and resented the payment -of the rent substituted for such service. The patriarchal feeling of -loyalty to the lord had long disappeared, and the French peasant did -not acknowledge any subjection to his landlord, while the Prussian and -Russian serf recognised his bondage to his master. - -[Sidenote: Why France experienced the Revolution.] - -These considerations help to show why the Revolution, which was after -twenty-six years to inaugurate modern Europe, broke out in France. It -was because the French peasant was more independent, more wealthy, and -better educated than the German serf, that he resented the political -and social privileges of his landlord and the payment of rent, more -than the serf objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed -an enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found -leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession of a great -measure of personal freedom that they were ready to strike a blow -for political liberty, and eventually promulgated the idea of social -equality. The ideas of the sovereignty of the people, of nationality -and of personal liberty, did not originate in France. They are as -old as civilisation. But they had been clouded in the Middle Ages by -feudalism, and, after the Reformation, had been succeeded by different -political conceptions, which had crystallised in the eighteenth century -into the doctrines of the supremacy of the State, of the arbitrary rule -of benevolent or enlightened despots. England and Holland had developed -separately from the rest of the Western World. For reasons lying deep -in their internal history and their geographical position, they had rid -themselves alike of feudalism and absolute monarchy; they had developed -a sense of their independent nationality, and had recognised the -importance of personal freedom. In England especially, the abolition -of the relics of feudalism in the seventeenth century had placed the -English farmers and peasants in a different economical position from -their fellows on the Continent. There existed in England none of the -invidious distinctions between nobleman and _roturier_ in the matter -of bearing national burdens, which had survived in France, and, though -owing to the curiosities of the franchise the larger proportion of -Englishmen had but a very small share in electing the representatives -of the people, the government carried on as it was by a small oligarchy -of great families possessed an appearance of political liberty, and of -a wisely-balanced machine for administrative purposes. - -[Sidenote: Intellectual movement of the eighteenth century.] - -Nor must the influence of intellectual ideas, as bearing on problems -which the French Revolution was to force on the attention of the more -backward and more oppressed nations of Europe, be underrated. The -great French writers of the eighteenth century—Voltaire, Montesquieu, -Diderot, and Rousseau—had been deeply impregnated with the ideas of -Locke and the English political thinkers of his school. In their -different lines they insisted that government existed for the good -of the governed, and investigated the origins of government and the -relations of man in the social state. It was their speculations which -altered the character of absolute monarchy and based its retention on -its benevolent purposes; they, too, insisted upon the rights of man to -preserve his personal freedom, as long as it did not clash with the -maintenance and security of civil society. The great French writers of -the eighteenth century exercised by their works a smaller influence on -the outbreak and actual course of the French Revolution than has been -generally supposed. The causes of the movement were chiefly economical -and political, not philosophical or social: its rapid development was -due to historical circumstances, and mainly to the attitude of the -rest of Europe. But the text-books of its leaders were the works of -the French thinkers of the eighteenth century, and if their doctrines -had little actual influence in bringing about the Revolution, they -influenced its development and the extension of its principles -throughout Europe. It is curious to contrast the opinions of the great -French writers of the middle of the eighteenth century, whose arguments -mainly affected the general conceptions of man living in society, -that is, of government, with the views advocated by the great German -writers of the end of the century, who concentrated their attention -upon man in his individual capacity for culture and self-improvement. -Schiller, Goethe, Kant, and Herder were, further, more cosmopolitan -than German. The problems of man and his intellectual and artistic -development proved more attractive to the great German thinkers than -the difficulties presented by the economical, social, and political -diversities of different classes of society. Goethe, for instance, -understood the signification of the French Revolution, and was much -interested in its effects on the human race, but he cared very little -about its impression on Germany. - -[Sidenote: Morality and Religion in the eighteenth century.] - -Finally, the low state of morality in the eighteenth century had sapped -the earnestness in the cause of humanity of men of all classes in all -countries. Disbelief in the Christian religion was general in both the -Protestant and Catholic countries of the Continent. The immorality -of most of the prelates in Catholic countries was notorious, and was -equalled by their avowed contempt for the doctrines of the religion -they professed to teach. The Protestant pastors of Germany were quite -as open in their infidelity. In the famous case of Schulz, the pastor -of Gielsdorf, who openly denied Christianity, and taught simply that -morality was necessary, the High Consistory of Berlin held that he was, -nevertheless, still fitted to hold his office as the Lutheran pastor of -his village. Christianity in both Catholic and Protestant countries was -replaced by the vague sentiments of morality, which are best presented -in Rousseau’s _Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard_. In reaction to -this vague and dogmaless morality, there existed many secret societies -and coteries of mystics, such as the Rosati and the Illuminati, who -replaced religion by ornate and symbolical ceremonies. - -Such was the political, economical, intellectual and moral state -of Europe in 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution. The whole -continent was to pass through twenty-six years of almost unceasing -war, at the end of which it was to emerge with new conceptions and new -ideals of both political and social life. The new ideas seemed indeed -to be checked, if not destroyed, in 1815, but once inspired into men’s -minds they could not be forgotten, and their subsequent development -forms the history of modern Europe in the nineteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER I - - 1789 - - The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, 1788—The - Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph II.—His Internal - Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: Catherine—Poland—France: - Louis XVI.—Spain: Charles IV.—Portugal: Maria I.—Italy—The - Two Sicilies: Ferdinand IV.—Naples—Sicily—Rome: Pope Pius - VI.—Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: - Duke Hercules III.—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - III.—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George III.—The Policy - of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick William II.—Policy of - Prussia—Holland—Denmark: Christian VII.—Sweden: Gustavus - III.—The Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trêves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion. - - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of 1756.] - -The states of Europe at the commencement of the year 1789 were ranked -diplomatically in two important groups, the one dominated by the -connection between France, Austria, Spain, and Russia; the other -by the alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland. The great -transformation which had been effected by the treaty between France -and Austria in 1756 in the relationship between the powers of Europe -was the crowning diplomatic event of the eighteenth century. The -arrangements then entered into and the alliances tested in the Seven -Years’ War still subsisted in 1789. But the spirit which lay at the -root of the Austro-French alliance was sensibly modified. The Treaty -of 1756 had never been really popular in either country. In France, -Marie Antoinette, whose marriage with Louis XVI. had set the seal -on the Austrian alliance, was detested as the living symbol of the -hated treaty, as _l’Autrichienne_, the Austrian woman, and the most -accredited political thinkers and writers were always dwelling on -the traditional policy of France, and on the system of Henri IV., -Richelieu, and Louis XIV., which held the House of Hapsburg to be the -hereditary and the inevitable enemy of the House of Bourbon and of -the French nation. The dislike of the alliance was felt with equal -intensity in Austria by the wealthy and the educated classes. The -Austrian generals resented the inefficacy of the French intervention -during the Seven Years’ War, and the Austrian people attributed its -reverses in that war to it with as much acrimony as if France had -acted as an enemy instead of as an ally. The same sentiment actuated -even the Imperial House. ‘Our natural enemies, travestied as allies, -who do more harm than if they were open enemies;’[1] such is the -language in which Leopold of Tuscany, brother of Marie Antoinette, -characterised the French in a letter written in December 1784 to his -brother, the Emperor Joseph II. The Emperor Joseph was himself of the -same opinion. He preferred his Russian ally, the Empress Catherine, -to his brother-in-law, Louis XVI., King of France, and the tendency -of his foreign policy was to strengthen his friendship with Russia, -even at the expense of sacrificing his alliance with France. Russia, -whose expansion under the great Empress had been enormous since the -conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, cared but little for either of the -allies, and pursued independently its course of steady development. -Catherine had, indeed, during most of the later years of Frederick -the Great, remained in alliance with Prussia, and to some extent had -been on friendly terms with England. But her natural tendency was to -distrust England. In 1780 she had placed herself at the head of the -‘Armed Neutrality,’ which opposed the naval pretensions of England, -and in 1788 she had formally proposed a close quadruple alliance -between Russia, Austria, France, and Spain. - -[Sidenote: Prussia, England, and Holland.] - -If the relations between France, Russia, and Austria were unsettled, -the Triple Alliance between Prussia, Holland, and England was hardly on -a more stable footing in 1789. Prussia, since the death of Frederick -the Great, had become really decrepit, while apparently remaining a -first-rate military power. Though still preserving the prestige of -its famous King, who died in 1786, and recognising its alliance with -England, Prussia in 1789 exhibited a decaying internal administration, -and a vacillating foreign policy. England had received a heavy blow by -the success of the colonists in North America, and by the Treaty of -Versailles, and the powers of the Continent, while envying her wealth, -held her military power of but small account. This opinion prevailed -even at Berlin, and the new King of Prussia gave many evidences that -the alliance of England was rather distasteful to him than otherwise. -The third member of the alliance, Holland, was in the weakest condition -of all, and it was only by invoking the armed interference of Prussia -that England had maintained the authority of the Prince of Orange, as -Stadtholder, in 1787. Though this interference had led to the formation -of the famous Triple Alliance of 1788, in reality the English and -Prussian statesmen profoundly distrusted each other, while the forcing -of the yoke of the Stadtholder upon them caused the Dutch democratic -party in Holland to abhor the allies and to look for help to France. - -[Sidenote: The Minor Powers of Europe.] - -The rest of the European states were bound more or less firmly to -the one or the other of the two coalitions. The smaller states of -Germany, aggravated or intimidated by the measures of the Emperor -Joseph II., had rallied to the side of Prussia. In the north, -Denmark, whose reigning house was connected by family ties with the -royal families of England and Prussia, was completely under Russian -influence, while Sweden, under Gustavus III., was actually at war with -Catherine II. Poland, torn by internal dissensions, and threatened -with complete destruction by its neighbours, was awaiting its final -partition. The southern states of Europe were almost entirely bound -to the Franco-Austrian alliance. Spain had been united to France by -the offensive and defensive treaty, known as the ‘Pacte de Famille,’ -concluded by the French minister, Choiseul, in 1761, and tested in the -war of American Independence. Portugal, though connected with England, -commercially by the Methuen treaty, and politically by a long course -of protection against Spanish pretensions, was striving by a series -of royal marriages to become the ally of Spain. In Italy, Naples was -ruled by a Spanish prince married to an Austrian princess; Sardinia -was closely allied with France, and the remainder of the peninsula was -mainly under Austrian influence. Turkey, now travelling towards decay, -was looked upon by Russia and Austria as their legitimate prey, and -met with encouragement in resistance, but not with active help, from -England and France. - -After thus roughly sketching the general attitude of the powers of -Europe to each other in 1789, it will be well to examine each state -separately before entering on the history of the exciting period which -followed. Great and sweeping alterations were to be effected; many -diplomatic variations were to take place. The most important result of -the period of the French Revolution and of Napoleon was its influence -upon the minds of men, as shown in the growth of certain political -conceptions, which have moulded modern Europe. But great changes were -also brought about in dynasties and in the geographical boundaries of -states, which can only be understood by a knowledge of the condition of -Europe in 1789. - -[Sidenote: Austria: Joseph II.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph II.: Internal Policy.] - -The figure of most importance in the beginning of the year 1789 was -that of the Emperor Joseph II., and his dominions were those in which -an observer would have prophesied a great revolution. Joseph was at -that date a man of forty-seven; he had been elected Emperor in the -place of his father, Francis of Lorraine, in 1765, and succeeded to -the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria on the death of his -mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780. He was, perhaps, the best type of the -class of benevolent despots. A singularly industrious, enlightened, and -able ruler, his ideas were far in advance of those of his age,—so much -in advance, indeed, that his efforts to impose them upon his subjects -brought upon himself hatred instead of gratitude, and among the people -turbulence and insurrection instead of peace and tranquillity. The -history of the Emperor Joseph’s reforms, and of the disturbances which -resulted from them, belongs to an earlier volume of this series. In -1789 the whole of the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg -were in a state of ferment. The Emperor’s scheme of welding them into -an Austrian nation, by insisting on the use of the German language, -by simplifying the state of the law and the administration, and -assimilating the various religious and educational institutions, had -roused the fire of local patriotism. In Hungary and in the Tyrol, in -Bohemia, and, above all, in the Austrian Netherlands, or Belgium, -there was declared rebellion, fanned by local prejudices, religious -fanaticism, and the spirit of caste. The first and second of these -causes were chiefly responsible in the Austrian Netherlands, the third -in Hungary. The Belgians, and more especially the Brabançons, were in -arms for their local rights and ancient constitutions, which had been -infringed by the Emperor’s decrees. The Belgian clergy, who looked upon -Joseph as worse than an infidel for his treatment of the Pope and his -suppression of religious houses, were inflamed at the establishment -of an Imperial Seminary in Brussels as a rival to the Roman Catholic -University of Louvain. But in Hungary it was the magnates of the -country who had fought so gallantly for Maria Theresa and saved her -throne, who were in an attitude of open disaffection. This was partly -due to Joseph’s infringement of their Constitution and his removal of -the Iron Crown to Vienna, but still more to his abolition of serfdom. -As has been already stated, serfdom in Europe was practically extinct -in the western part of the Continent, that is, in France, in Belgium, -and on the Rhine, while it increased in intensity steadily towards -the east, and was as bad in Prussia Proper, Poland, and Hungary, as -in Russia. ‘Most merciful Emperor,’ ran a petition from an Hungarian -peasant to Joseph, ‘four days’ forced labour for the seigneur; the -fifth day, fishing for him; the sixth day, hunting with him; and the -seventh belongs to God. Consider, most merciful Emperor, how can I -pay dues and taxes?’[2] The iniquity of serfdom, with its practice of -forced labour, was accentuated in Hungary by the constitutional custom -which exempted the nobility from all taxation. The Emperor Joseph -abolished serfdom in Hungary on 22nd August 1785, and inaugurated a -system of removing feudal burdens, and converting forced labour, by -means of a gradually diminishing tax. The condition of the hereditary -dominions of the House of Hapsburg was thus, in 1789, one of seething -discontent where it was not open rebellion; Belgian burghers and -Hungarian magnates were alike infuriated by the Emperor’s efforts at -reform; and the poor serfs of Hungary and Bohemia and the working men -of Belgium, whom he designed to benefit by direct legislation and -financial measures, were too weak to render him any help. His hope of -creating an Austrian state and an Austrian people out of his scattered -dominions was fated to be thwarted; obstacles of distance, race, and -language, cannot be overcome by legislation, however wise; and the -Emperor’s well-intentioned endeavours nearly lost his House its ancient -patrimony. - -[Sidenote: Joseph II. Foreign Policy.] - -The foreign policy of the Emperor Joseph II. was dictated by the same -leading principle as his internal reforms—the desire to form his -various territories into a compact state. His schemes to exchange the -Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria in order to unite his possessions in -Swabia with the nucleus of the Hapsburg territories were frustrated by -the policy of Frederick the Great. His attempt to make his authority as -Emperor more than nominal, and to create a real German empire based on -a German patriotic feeling, proved an utter failure. Foiled in these -two projects, the creation of an Austrian compact state, which he -deemed practicable, and the resurrection of a mighty Germany under his -headship, which he acknowledged to be but a dream, Joseph II. turned -his thoughts towards Russia. The ideal of his early manhood had been -his mother’s foe, Frederick the Great of Prussia; the ideal of his -later years was the Empress Catherine of Russia. Both were specimens of -the enlightened despots of the age; both had extended the realms they -ruled; both endeavoured to form their states into compact entities; -both had succeeded in administration and in war; and both were -cynical disciples of the eighteenth-century philosophers. They were -successively his models. It is characteristic of the Emperor Joseph II. -that the only picture in his private cabinet in the Hofburg at Vienna -was a portrait of Frederick; the only picture in his bedroom one of -Catherine. After the death of Frederick the Great, the Emperor Joseph -II., despising his successor, expressed more loudly his admiration for -Catherine. In 1787 he accompanied her in her famous progress to the -Crimea. Fascinated by her personality and dazzled by her projects, the -Emperor was persuaded to ally himself with Russia against the Turks, -and hoped to partition Turkey with her, as his mother, Frederick, and -Catherine had accomplished the first partition of Poland. In 1788 he -accordingly declared war against the Sublime Porte. But he found that -the Turks, in spite of the corruption of their government, were still -no contemptible foes. His own army was demoralised by the misconduct -of the aristocratic officers; disease decimated his troops; and the -Emperor Joseph returned from the campaign of 1788 with the seeds of -mortal illness in his system, but with his determination to pursue the -war unabated. - -[Sidenote: Russia: Catherine.] - -[Sidenote: Poland.] - -Russia, the chosen ally of Joseph II., was in 1789 ruled by the Empress -Catherine II. This great monarch, though by birth a princess of the -petty German state of Anhalt-Zerbst, ranks with Peter the Great as a -founder of the Russian Empire; more Russian than the Russians, she -understood the importance of the development of her adopted country -geographically towards the Baltic and the Black Sea, and the capacity -of her people to support her in her enterprises. She was at this time -sixty years of age, in full possession of her remarkable powers, and -having ruled for twenty-seven years, she had fortified her authority -by experience. Peter the Great had seen the absolute necessity that -the Russian Empire should have access to the sea, and had built Saint -Petersburg; Catherine had moved southward and extended her dominions -to the Black Sea. She hoped to make the Baltic and the Black Sea -Russian lakes, and on that account was the consistent and watchful -enemy of Sweden and the Turks. Upon the western frontier of Russia -lay Poland. The natural policy of Russia was to maintain and even to -strengthen Poland as a buffer between Russia and the military powers -of Austria and Prussia. But the extraordinary Constitution of Poland, -which provided for the election of a powerless king, and recognised -the right of civil war and the power of any nobleman to forbid any -measure proposed at the Diet by the exercise of what was called the -_liberum veto_, kept the unfortunate country in a state of anarchy, -unable either to defend or to oppose. It might have been possible to -reform the Constitution, and make the Poles an organised nation, but -the neighbouring monarchs considered it easier to share the country -amongst them, and had, under the guidance of Frederick the Great, -carried out in 1772 the first partition, which excluded Poland from the -sea, brought the borders of the three powers, Austria, Prussia, and -Russia, nearer to each other, and caused Russia to become an European -instead of essentially an Eastern monarchy. Catherine grasped the -fact that in her present position Russia must intervene in European -politics, owing to the condition of Poland, and decided to derive what -benefit she could from this circumstance. In her internal government -Catherine was one of the benevolent despots. The patroness of Diderot, -she expressed her admiration for the new doctrines of the Rights of -Man, and even summoned a convention to draw up a Russian constitution. -But she knew that the new doctrines were not applicable to the Russian -people, and would be absurdly inappropriate to the nomad Tartar tribes -which wandered over the southern districts of the Russian Empire. She -was fully aware that their village organisation protected the peasants -from many of the evils which prevailed in seemingly more enlightened -countries, and gave them a right and interest in the soil to which -they were attached. Russia, in fact, had experienced no Reformation, -no Renaissance, no awakening of the ideas of individual and political -liberty, and therefore was eminently fitted for the rule of a -benevolent despot. - -[Sidenote: France: Louis XVI.] - -Next to the Austro-Russian alliance, the Austro-French alliance, sealed -by the Treaty of 1756, was of the greatest significance to the peace -and welfare of Europe in 1789. As has been said, in neither country -was the alliance popular; France and Austria were hereditary enemies; -classical policy in both courts favoured a resumption of this enmity; -the friendship was rather dynastic than national, the work of Kaunitz -and Maria Theresa, the Abbé de Bernis, Madame de Pompadour, and Louis -XV. France still appeared a very powerful nation. Its intervention in -the American War of Independence had largely contributed to England’s -loss of her American colonies, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 had -involved a confession that England was beaten by her cession of the -West India islands of St. Lucia and Tobago. But in spite of her seeming -power, France was from political and economic causes really very weak. -She had been unable in 1787 to effectually support the republican and -French party in Holland, and had been forced to allow England and -Prussia to reinstate the Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange. In spite -of her alliance with Austria, she had been obliged in pursuance of -a peace policy, made necessary by her financial condition, to draw -near to England, and had made a commercial treaty with her in 1786. -The weakness of France arose from internal circumstances. The State -and the Court were financially identical. The Court was extravagant, -and the result was a chronic national deficit. Efforts had been made -to meet this deficit, but all expedients, even partial bankruptcy, -had failed. It was evident that a systematic attempt must be made to -rearrange the finances by introducing a regular scheme of taxation -to take the place of the feudal arrangements for filling the royal -treasury, which with some modifications still survived. But a regular -scheme of taxation, which should abolish feudal privileges, and make -the government responsible to the nation for its expenditure, could -not be established without the consent of the people, and the educated -classes, who were both numerous and prosperous, claimed a voice in its -establishment. The feeling of political discontent went deeper. The -French people had outgrown their system of government; the peasants and -farmers resented the existence of the economic, social, and political -privileges dating from the Middle Ages, which had survived the duties -originally accompanying them; the bourgeois argued that they should -have a share in regulating the affairs of the State; the educated -classes sympathised with both. The day for benevolent despotism was -over in France; Louis XVI. was benevolent in disposition, but too weak -to reform the system under which he ruled; and it was the system, not -the person of the monarch, which the French people disliked; it was the -system as a whole which they had outgrown. - -[Sidenote: Spain: Charles IV.] - -Much of the strength of France rested on its intimate alliance with -Spain. The two great Bourbon houses had been closely united by the -‘Pacte de Famille’ concluded in 1761, which bound them in an offensive -and defensive alliance. Spain had loyally fulfilled her part of the -bargain, and had suffered much in the War of American Independence -against England. Spain had had the good fortune to be ruled by one of -the most enlightened of the benevolent despots, Charles III., whose -minister, Aranda, was one of the greatest statesmen of his century. -Aranda is best known from his persecution of the Jesuits, who had -spread their influence over the minds of the Spanish people so far -as to be the dictators of education and opinion. Their expulsion -contributed to the power of the Crown, which undertook the direction -of every form of national energy. Aranda was a great administrator; -he spent vast sums on the improvement of communications and on public -works, and he built up a powerful Spanish navy. The two evils which -had depressed the fame of Spain, the personal lethargy of the people, -due to the stamping out of liberty of thought by the Inquisition, and -the poverty, caused by the influx of gold from the Spanish colonies, -which prevented any encouragement of national industry, were however -too great for any administrator to subdue, without a national uprising -and the development of a national love for liberty. Aranda was ably -helped by Campomanes, who founded a national system of education to -take the place of the Jesuits’ schools and colleges, by Jovellanos, a -great jurist and political economist, by Cabarrus, a skilful financier, -who founded the bank of St. Charles, and developed a system of national -credit, and by Florida Blanca, who superintended the department of -foreign affairs, and succeeded Aranda in supreme power in 1774. Charles -III. died on 12th December 1788, and his successor, Charles IV., whose -weakness of character was manifested throughout the period from 1789 to -1815, commenced his reign by maintaining Florida Blanca at the head of -Spanish affairs, with Cabarrus and other experienced ministers. - -[Sidenote: Portugal: Maria I.] - -Portugal was the intimate ally of England as Spain was of France. The -hereditary connection of Portugal and England dated back for many -centuries, and had been strengthened by the Methuen Treaty in 1703, -which had made Portugal largely dependent on England. The great -Portuguese minister, Pombal, who had commenced the persecution of -the Jesuits and had effected internal and administrative reforms, -comparable to those of Aranda in Spain, had been disgraced in 1777, -but the offices of State were filled by his pupils and managed on the -principle, which he had initiated, of advancing the prosperity of the -people. Pombal, while holding the strongest views on the importance -of maintaining the royal absolutism, believed in the modern doctrines -of reform; he had abolished slavery, encouraged education, and in -the received ideas of political economy had encouraged by means of -protection manufactures and agriculture. The essential weakness of -Portugal rested, like that of Spain, on the exhaustion and consequent -lethargy of its people; the Jesuits and the Inquisition had stamped out -freedom of thought. Financially, also, its condition resembled that -of Spain, for the sovereign derived such wealth from Brazil as to be -independent of taxes, levied on the people. Politically the aim of the -House of Braganza, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, -had been to endeavour to free itself from dependence on England by -uniting closely through inter-marriages with the reigning family in -Spain. Queen Maria I., who had succeeded Joseph, the patron of Pombal, -in 1777, was a fanatical lady of weak intellect, and in 1789 the royal -power was in the hands of the heir-apparent, Prince John, who was -recognised as Regent some years later, and eventually succeeded to the -throne in 1816, as John VI. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Naples: Ferdinand IV.] - -[Sidenote: Sicily.] - -[Sidenote: Rome: Pope Pius VI.] - -[Sidenote: Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold.] - -[Sidenote: Parma: Duke Ferdinand.] - -[Sidenote: Modena: Duke Hercules III.] - -[Sidenote: Lombardy.] - -[Sidenote: Sardinia: Victor Amadeus III.] - -[Sidenote: Lucca: Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Genoa: Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Venice.] - -Italy, in the eighteenth century, was composed of a number of small -states. The idea of Italian unity lived only in the minds of the great -Italian writers and thinkers; it met with no support from the powers -of Europe. Italy was still the home of music and the arts, which -were fostered by the numerous small Courts; but politically, owing -to its subdivision, it hardly counted as a power, and its diplomacy -had little weight in the European State system. It was entirely under -the influence of France and Austria, and showed the tendencies of the -century in the good government of most of the petty rulers. The most -important of the Italian states was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, -which comprised the southern part of the peninsula and the island of -Sicily. The kingdom had been granted to Ferdinand IV., when his father, -the celebrated Don Carlos, succeeded as Charles III. to the throne -of Spain in 1759. It was in Naples that Charles III. had commenced -his career as a reforming monarch, and the great Neapolitan minister, -Tanucci, continued to administer the affairs of the kingdom in a most -enlightened fashion during the early years of the new monarch’s reign. -His policy was to check the feudal instincts of the Neapolitan barons, -whom he deprived of the lucrative right of administering justice, and -thus to strengthen the influence of the Crown; and he also opposed -the pretensions of the Pope, and concurred in the suppression of -the Jesuits. The power thus acquired for the Crown was wisely used; -the financial system was revised, education was encouraged, and an -attempt was made to procure a general reform of the laws. The young -publicist, Filangieri, whose _Science of Legislation_ contained the -most enlightened views on political economy and government, and who -ranks next to Montesquieu as a typical political thinker of the -eighteenth century, was a Neapolitan, and his speculations largely -influenced the current of Italian thought. Sicily, however, remained -to a great extent untouched by the influence of the great Neapolitan -minister owing to its insular jealousy and the maintenance of its -mediæval parliament. Ferdinand IV., in 1768, married Maria Carolina, -the ablest daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, who at once assumed -the most entire sway over her ill-educated and indolent husband. She -secured the dismissal of Tanucci, whom she disliked on much the same -grounds that her sister, Marie Antoinette, disliked the reforming -French ministers, Turgot and Necker, in 1776, and after an interval -replaced him by Acton, a native of France of Irish descent, who, owing -to the temper of his patroness, was not able to continue efficiently -the work of Tanucci. The States of the Church, including the Legations -of Bologna and Ferrara and the principalities of Benevento and Ponte -Corvo, were also governed in accordance with the enlightened ideas of -the eighteenth century. The Papacy had much fallen in influence, and -had been forced to comply with the demands of Pombal, Choiseul, Aranda, -and Tanucci for the suppression of its spiritual mainstay, the order of -the Jesuits; but it nevertheless maintained its temporal sovereignty -in Italy. Giovanni Angelo Braschi, who had been elected Pope in 1775, -and taken the title of Pius VI., was a man of singular ability and -courtly manners. But he had to assent to vast reforms in Tuscany, -which seriously affected the wealth of the Church in that part of the -country, and had been unable, in spite of a personal visit to Vienna, -to persuade Joseph II. to alter his policy towards the Papacy. His most -notable internal measures in the Papal States were the draining of the -Pontine marshes, and his reconstitution of the Clementine Museum at -Rome, which he placed under the charge of the eminent antiquary, Ennius -Quirinus Visconti. Tuscany flourished under the rule of the Grand Duke -Leopold, brother and eventual successor of Joseph II., the ablest -administrator of all the benevolent despots. His reforms extended in -every direction; with the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, -he reduced the number of bishoprics and monasteries; he drained many of -the marshes, and so benefited agriculture; he reorganised education and -encouraged the Universities of Pisa and Siena. But his greatest reforms -were legal and economic. Tuscany having originated from a number of -mediæval republics, had been hitherto administered as a collection of -semi-independent cities and districts, with their own laws and local -finances. Leopold was one of the first monarchs to project a uniform -code of laws for his state, which he intrusted to the great jurist, -Lampredi, to compile, and he abolished all personal privileges before -the law, torture, the right of asylum for malefactors, confiscation of -the property of condemned malefactors, and secret denunciations. In -economics he was the pupil of the French physiocrats, and the friend of -the Marquis de Mirabeau, the ‘Ami des hommes,’ and in consonance with -their doctrines he swept away all the internal customs duties and other -restrictions on industry and commerce. Lastly, Leopold, seeing that -his state was not strong enough to carry on a real war, abolished the -Tuscan army, to the great advantage of his finances. Next to Tuscany, -the best-governed state in Italy was Parma. Ferdinand, Duke of Parma -and Piacenza, was the only son of Don Philip, the second son of Philip -V. of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, by Elizabeth of France, daughter -of Louis XV. He was educated by the celebrated French philosopher, -Condillac, and early in his reign showed the influence of the best -eighteenth century ideas. He had succeeded his father in 1765, and -continued his minister, a Frenchman, Du Tillot, Marquis of Felino, in -office. Du Tillot, though working in a smaller sphere, was as great a -reformer as Pombal and Tanucci. He brought about the suppression of -the Inquisition in Parma, improved the internal administration, and -encouraged education so greatly that the University of Parma, under the -management of the learned scholar, Paciaudi, became one of the most -famous in Europe. In 1769 Duke Ferdinand married Maria Amelia, daughter -of the Empress Maria Theresa, who two years later secured the dismissal -of Du Tillot from office. This dismissal was not, however, followed -by a reaction, though it put a close to the progress of reform, and -Parma, under the administration, first of a Spaniard, Llanos, and then -of a Frenchman, Mauprat, retained its reputation as a well governed -state. It was otherwise with Modena, where the last Duke of the House -of Este, Hercules III., reigned. This prince had succeeded to the -duchies of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola in 1780, when already a man -of fifty-three, and had added to them by marriage the principalities -of Massa and Carrara. His only daughter and heiress, Maria Beatrice, -was married to the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, younger brother of -the Emperor Joseph, and Governor-General of Lombardy. Duke Hercules -was a superstitious and avaricious ruler, whose chief care was to -amass money, and, politically, he followed out the wishes of Austria. -While the House of Austria, by its scions or by marriages, ruled the -greater part of Italy indirectly, it possessed the direct sovereignty -of Lombardy, or, more accurately, of the Milanese and Mantua. This -province profited by the salutary policy of Joseph II., and was -administered, under the governor-generalship of the Archduke Ferdinand, -by a great statesman, Count Firmian, who understood and carried out the -most important reforms. His patronage of the arts and of education was -especially remarkable; he laboured ardently to restore the efficiency -of the Universities of Milan and Pavia, and appointed Beccaria, the -celebrated philanthropist, Professor of Political Economy at the -former, and Volta, the equally celebrated man of science, Professor -of Physics at the latter. The only other monarchy of Italy, that of -Sardinia, was more closely related to France than to Austria. Its -king, Victor Amadeus III., had married a Spanish princess, and two -of his daughters were married to the two brothers of Louis XVI. of -France—Monsieur, the Comte de Provence, and the Comte d’Artois. His -dominions comprised the island of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice, -and it was a great subject of complaint to his Piedmontese subjects -that he unduly favoured his French-speaking province of Savoy. He, too, -was influenced by the spirit of his century; he encouraged agriculture -and commerce; he patronised literature and science; he built the -Observatory at Turin, and founded academies of science and fine arts; -and he undertook great public works, of which the most important was -the improvement of the harbour of Nice. But in one matter he pursued an -opposite policy to the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, for he increased -and reorganised his army, and constructed fortifications of the most -modern description at Tortona and Alessandria. Lastly must be noticed -three Italian republics, survivals of the Middle Ages. Of these the -smallest was the Republic of Lucca, which was entirely surrounded by -the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Its trade suffered from the encouragement -given by the Grand Duke Leopold to Leghorn; but, on the whole, it was -well governed and prosperous. It was otherwise with the two great -aristocratic republics, in which the long continuance of oligarchical -government had stamped out all vestiges of political liberty. The -Republic of Genoa, of which Raphael di Ferrari was Doge in 1789, was in -utter decay. Its people were poverty-stricken; its trade had gone to -Leghorn and Nice; and its laws and customs were unreformed. It was so -weak that it had been unable to subdue the rebels in Corsica, who had -risen under Paoli for the right of self-government, and it had ended by -ceding the island to France in 1768. The Republic of Venice, of which -the Doge in 1789 was Paul Renier, had not fallen so low in the eyes of -Europe. Its possessions on the mainland, which extended from Verona to -the Tyrol and along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, and included -the Ionian Islands, were administered for the benefit of the Venetian -oligarchy, and supplied it with wealth. From Dalmatia was raised a -considerable army, but the administration was wholly selfish, and did -not keep pace in enlightenment with that of Lombardy, Parma, Tuscany, -and Naples. On the whole, where monarchy existed in Italy, it tended in -the eighteenth century to benevolent despotism; and such rule was far -more beneficial to the people than that of the antiquated republics. -Politically, the whole country might be reckoned as a factor in the -Franco-Austrian alliance. - -[Sidenote: England: George III.] - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Pitt.] - -The chief power of the Triple Alliance, which balanced the -loosely-defined league of Russia, France, and Austria, was England. -The severe blow which had been struck by the revolt of her American -colonies had made Great Britain appear weaker than she really was to -the powers of the Continent. The Treaty of Versailles, by which she -had been obliged to make cessions to France, seemed to have set the -seal on her humiliation. But in reality her finances were more affected -than her fighting strength, and the English navy, which, from her -insular position, must always constitute the principal element of her -force, was as excellent as ever. The policy of the younger Pitt, who -had come into office in 1783, was one of peace and retrenchment. The -country had lasted well through the financial strain of the American -War, and the chief aim of the minister was to allow its vast commercial -and industrial resources to expand. As a pupil of Adam Smith, Pitt -understood the great principles of political economy, and the most -significant part of his foreign policy was his conclusion of the -Commercial Treaty with France. A fiscal system, far in advance of that -in any continental country, enabled the English Government to draw on -the wealth of the nation more effectively than any other government, -if the money was needed for patriotic purposes. In spite of his love -of peace, Pitt was induced by his first Foreign Secretary, the Duke of -Leeds, to take an active part in European politics, and was eventually -led by the state of affairs in Holland to enter into the Triple -Alliance. At home, England was unaffected by the intellectual movement -which led to the French Revolution. She had in the previous century -got rid of the relics of feudalism, which pressed so heavily on the -continental farmer and peasant, and had won the boons of individual and -commercial liberty, and of equality before the law; while politically, -though her government was an oligarchy, supported by the class of -wealthy merchants and traders, an opportunity was afforded through -the existence of a free press and of the system of election, however -hampered by antiquated franchises, for public opinion to make itself -felt. - -[Sidenote: Prussia: Frederick William II.] - -Prussia, the other principal member of the Triple Alliance, contrasted -in every way with England. Seemingly, owing to the prestige of -Frederick the Great’s victories and that able monarch’s careful -organisation of his army, Prussia was the first military state in -Europe; in reality, her reputation was greater than her actual power. -Prussia was weak where England was strong. Prussia had no financial -system worthy of the name, no industrial wealth, and no national bank; -her only resources for war were a certain quantity of specie stored -up in Berlin. The Prussian Government was an absolutism, in which the -monarch’s will was supreme; its administration was based on feudalism, -of which England had entirely and France had practically got rid, with -all its mediæval incidents of serfdom, privilege of the nobility, and -social and commercial inequalities. The Prussian army was not national; -the soldiers were treated as slaves, and the officers, who were all of -noble birth, were tyrants in the maintenance of military discipline. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Prussia.] - -Frederick the Great was one of the finest types of the benevolent -despot of the eighteenth century, but in him the belief in the -importance of his despotic power outweighed his benevolence. While -wishing for the prosperity of the people, he deliberately maintained -the authority of the nobility, and discouraged any desire for change -on the part of the agriculturists or citizens. The former were left -at the disposal of their lords, the latter trammelled by antiquated -civic constitutions. The weakness of Prussia was not only inherent in -its government, but was also due to geographical causes. Its component -parts were scattered; its Rhenish duchies and East Friesland were -separated from its main territories by many German states; its central -districts, the Marks of Brandenburg, were sparsely populated, and cut -off from the sea; its largest provinces, Prussia Proper, Pomerania, -Silesia, and Prussian Poland were, in spite of German and French -Huguenot colonies, mainly Slavonic, and as backward in civilisation as -other Slavonic races in the eighteenth century. In Russia, however, -the Slavonic population in its barbarism yet retained sufficient local -organisation to make its lot fairly endurable; in eastern Prussia, -and especially in Prussian Poland, the people had been brought -into contact with the mediæval and Latin civilisation, and were -consequently treated as absolute serfs without the relief afforded by -local institutions. The policy of Prussia, as laid down by Frederick -the Great, had both Prussian and German aspirations, and in both was -utterly selfish. The example set by the cynical monarch in the Silesian -wars had left a deep impress on the minds of Prussian statesmen, and -the maxims of justice and international law were subordinated by them -to expediency. The Prussian policy of Frederick the Great culminated -in the first partition of Poland, which he had suggested, by means -of which Prussia united her eastern province of Prussia Proper to -Brandenburg, and cut off Poland from the sea, and the aim of his -successors was to pursue this path of aggrandisement, and, by further -annexations, to connect Silesia directly with Prussia Proper. The -German policy of Prussia was to assume the leadership of the Empire -by pretending the greatest zeal for the rights of the Princes of the -Empire, and posing as their protector, and it was on this ground that -Frederick the Great formed the League of the Princes. The hereditary -enemy of Prussia was Austria, which, though distinctly injured by -the conquest of Silesia, still retained the chief influence over the -Empire, and also showed a tendency to check the designs on Poland. -It was Frederick the Great of Prussia who had thwarted the Emperor’s -scheme of exchanging the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, and he -intrigued against Austria at the Courts both of Russia and France. It -was as a counterblow to the Franco-Austro-Russian alliance that Prussia -intervened in Holland, at the request of England, and formed the Triple -Alliance with England and Holland in 1788. King Frederick William -II. of Prussia, who succeeded his famous uncle in 1786, was a man of -feeble intellect and undecided nature, but he had thoroughly imbibed -the classic ideas of Prussian policy, and regarded Austria as the -inevitable foe of Prussia, to be duped and taken advantage of on every -possible occasion. His chief minister, Hertzberg, was a consistent -enemy of Austria, but owing to the curious character of the king, the -real power of the State rested not with the minister but with the royal -favourites, of whom the chief at the end of 1788 were Bischofswerder -and Lucchesini. - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -Holland was the link which bound England and Prussia together. Its -military power was of no account, but the wealth of its inhabitants, -derived from their vast commercial expansion in Asia and aptitude -for banking, made the Republic of the United Provinces of the -greatest importance. The Seven Provinces preserved the most complete -autonomy; only the veriest semblance of federation held them -together. Practically, the only bond of union was in the power of the -Stadtholder, which had been restored in 1747. In the more wealthy -provinces, such as Holland, the commercial aristocracy, which filled -the ranks of the local governments, resented the position of the -Stadtholder, who held the command-in-chief of the army and navy; but in -the poorer and agricultural provinces, such as Friesland and Groningen, -the landed aristocracy generally supported the Stadtholderate. In 1780 -the United Provinces had joined in the Neutral League of the North, -invented by Catherine of Russia to break the commercial supremacy of -England, and in the war which followed they had suffered severe losses, -and had been compelled to cede Negapatam in India to England in 1783 on -the conclusion of peace. The Stadtholder, William V., Prince of Orange, -in whose family the office had been declared hereditary, was vehemently -accused of favouring England during this war, and when peace was -declared a movement was set on foot, headed by the authorities of the -Province of Holland, to oust him from his position, and to draw up a -new constitution for the Dutch Netherlands on the same lines as that of -the United States of America. This movement grew to its height in 1786; -a French Legion, commanded by the Comte de Maillebois, was raised; the -Stadtholder had to fly from the Hague, and the armed intervention of -France was requested. But, as has been said, France, in spite of her -seeming power, was too weak to intervene, and the Dutch patriots were -abandoned to their fate. On the other side, that of the Stadtholder, -England, through its able ambassador at the Hague, Sir James Harris, -afterwards Lord Malmesbury, induced Prussia to act. England and Prussia -had dynastic and political reasons for this conduct. The Stadtholder -was, through his mother, a first cousin of George III., and had married -a sister of Frederick William II., while politically, the acquisition -of Holland to the Franco-Austrian alliance, through the expulsion of -the Stadtholder, would bring nearly the whole of Europe into that -system, and would practically enclose the Austrian Netherlands or -Belgium. In September 1787, therefore, a Prussian army, under the Duke -of Brunswick, had occupied Amsterdam, and placed the Stadtholder firmly -in power; the Dutch patriots fled to France; the Legion of Maillebois -was disbanded; and in 1788 the work was consummated by the signature of -the Triple Alliance. - -[Sidenote: Denmark: Christian VII.] - -[Sidenote: Sweden: Gustavus III.] - -The two northern kingdoms, Denmark and Sweden, had adhered to the -Neutral League against England in 1780, but for generations a bitter -animosity had existed between them. Denmark, which in 1789 included -Norway, was in an extremely prosperous condition. The philanthropic -ideas of the eighteenth century had made great way, and on 20th -June 1788 a royal ordinance had destroyed the last vestige of -serfdom. Efforts were made to improve the condition of the people by -reorganising the state of the finances, law and education, and progress -was made in every direction. These reforms were not the work of the -King, Christian VII., who had fallen into a state of dotage, but of -the Prince Royal, afterwards Frederick VI., and of his minister, Count -Andrew Bernstorff, the nephew of the greatest Danish statesman of the -eighteenth century. Sweden, which in 1789 included the greater part -of Finland as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen, was -under the sway of one of the most enlightened rulers of the century, -Gustavus III. That monarch had in 1772, by a _coup d’état_, overthrown -the power of the Swedish Estates, with their division into the two -parties of the Caps and the Hats, subsidised respectively by Russia -and France. He had made use of his absolutism to carry out some of -the benevolent ideas of the time. He had abolished torture, regulated -taxation, encouraged commerce and industry, and diminished, where he -did not destroy, the privileges of the nobility. Had he contented -himself with these internal reforms he would have won the lasting -gratitude of the Swedish people, but he insisted on playing a part -in continental politics, which involved the maintenance of a large -army and the consequent exhaustion of the people. Though he too had -joined the League of the North in 1780, he afterwards assumed a -strong anti-Russian attitude, and resolved to take advantage of the -Russo-Turkish war in order to regain some of his lost provinces. -Accordingly he invaded Russia in the summer of 1788, while his fleet -threatened St. Petersburg. - -[Sidenote: The Empire.] - -[Sidenote: The Diet.] - -[Sidenote: College of Electors.] - -[Sidenote: College of Princes.] - -[Sidenote: College of Free Cities.] - -Hitherto a sketch has been given of states, which in 1789 possessed a -certain unity, and were able to play a part as independent countries -of more or less weight in European politics. It was otherwise with -the Holy Roman Empire, which still remained in the same condition, -and was ruled in the same manner, as had been arranged at the Treaty -of Westphalia in 1648. True Germany, that is Germany to the west of -the Oder, had been under this arrangement split up into a number of -independent sovereignties, loosely bound together as the Holy Roman -Empire. The number of these petty states caused the Empire to be, from -a military point of view, utterly inefficient; the bond was too loose -to allow of general internal reforms or of a consistent foreign policy; -and the federal arrangements were too cumbrous and unwieldy to allow -of Germany ranking as a great power. The Imperial Diet or Reichstag -consisted of three colleges, and a majority was required in each of -the upper colleges to agree to a resolution, which, when confirmed by -the Emperor, became a _conclusum_ of the Empire. The first of these -colleges was that of the eight Electors, three ecclesiastical, the -Elector-Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, and Cologne, and five lay, the -Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, and Hanover, who were also Kings of -Hungary, Prussia, and England, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector -Palatine, who in 1789 was also Elector of Bavaria. The president of -this college was the Elector-Archbishop of Mayence, as Chancellor of -the Empire. The second college was that of the Princes, which consisted -of one hundred voices, thirty-six ecclesiastical and sixty-four -lay. In this college all the Electors had voices under different -designations; Hanover possessed six for different principalities, -Prussia six for the duchy of Guelders, the county of Mœurs, etc., -Austria three, and so on, while the Kings of Denmark and Sweden also -were represented as Dukes of Holstein and of Pomerania. Less important -princes differing in power from the Landgraves of Hesse, the Margraves -of Baden, and the Duke of Würtemburg to the petty princes of Salm and -Anhalt, possessed single voices, and made up the number of temporal -voters in the college to sixty. The ecclesiastical princes included -thirty-four of the wealthiest bishops and abbots, many of whom ruled -over considerable territories, and of whom the most important were the -Archbishop of Salzburg, the Bishops of Bamberg, Augsburg, Würtzburg, -Spires, Worms, Strasbourg, Basle, Constance, Paderborn, Hildesheim, -and Münster, and the Abbots of Elwangen, Kempten, and Stablo. The -other six voices were called collegiate, and representatives to hold -them were elected by the petty lay and ecclesiastical sovereigns -who abounded in Franconia, Swabia, and Westphalia, to the number of -four lay and two ecclesiastical representatives. The presidency of -this college was held alternately by the Archduke of Austria and the -Archbishop of Salzburg. The third or inferior college was that of the -free cities, and any opposition on its part could prevent a decision -arrived at by the two upper or superior colleges being presented -to the Emperor for his assent as a _conclusum_ of the Empire. It -consisted of the representatives of fifty-two imperial free cities, -divided into two ‘benches,’ of which the Bench of Westphalia included -Frankfort-on-the-Main, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Hamburg, Bremen, and -Lübeck, and the Bench of Swabia included Nuremberg, Ratisbon, Ulm, -and Augsburg. The presidency of this college belonged to the city -of Ratisbon, in which the Diet held its sittings. By this elaborate -federative system, all sense of German unity was lost; the electors, -princes, and free cities were represented only by delegates; the -smaller states felt themselves swamped and were obliged to look to a -great power, Austria or France, Prussia or Hanover, to preserve their -political independence. - -[Sidenote: The Imperial Tribunal.] - -[Sidenote: The Emperor.] - -[Sidenote: The Aulic Council.] - -[Sidenote: The Circles.] - -The other important institution of the Empire, the Imperial Tribunal -or Reichskammergericht, which sat at Wetzlar and was intended to -settle disputes between the German sovereigns, had also fallen into -desuetude. Its venality and procrastination became proverbial, and it -possessed no machinery to put its decrees into force. At the head of -the Empire was the Emperor, who was elected and crowned with all the -elaborate ceremonial of the Middle Ages. The office had been, with one -exception, conferred on the head of House of Austria, since the Treaty -of Westphalia, but it brought little actual authority on the holder. -It was as ruler of the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg -that the Emperor exerted some influence, not as an Emperor. Joseph II., -indeed, endeavoured to be Emperor in more than name, with the result -that Frederick the Great was enabled to form the League of Princes -against him. As the chief Catholic state, Austria, however, possessed -a great influence in the Imperial Diet, for the ecclesiastical members -of the Colleges of Electors and Princes naturally inclined to support -her, and it was on their votes that she relied. She even went so far -as to establish the Aulic Council at Vienna, which intervened in cases -between sovereign princes, and usurped some of the prerogatives of -the Imperial Tribunal of Wetzlar. The executive power of the Empire, -when it had come to a decision, was entrusted to the circles. These -circles each had their own Diet, and it was their duty, for instance, -to raise money and troops when the Empire decided to go to war. Of the -ten circles of the Empire, originally created, one, that of Burgundy, -had been extinguished or nearly so by the conquests of Louis XIV., -and those situated in the eastern portion were entirely controlled by -the important states of Prussia, Saxony, and Austria. It was only in -Western Germany, in the circles of Westphalia, Franconia, and Swabia -that the organisation was fairly tried, and the result was signal -failure, whenever those circles put their contingents in the field. -It could hardly be otherwise, when, owing to minute subdivision and -divided authority, a single company of soldiers might be raised from -half a dozen different petty sovereigns, each of whom would try to -throw the burden of their maintenance on his colleagues. The Holy Roman -Empire, in short, like other mediæval institutions, had fallen into -decay with the mediæval systems of warfare and religion; some of its -component states, such as Austria and Prussia, or in a lesser degree -Bavaria, might possess a real power; but, as a whole, it was utterly -inefficient to defend itself, and formed a feeble barrier between -France and the kingdoms of Eastern Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Princes of Germany.] - -[Sidenote: Bavaria.] - -[Sidenote: Baden.] - -[Sidenote: Würtemburg.] - -[Sidenote: Saxony.] - -[Sidenote: Saxe-Weimar.] - -The impotence of the Empire for offensive and defensive purposes did -not, however, greatly affect the German people; the educated classes -prided themselves on being superior to patriotic impulses, and on being -cosmopolitan rather than German; the poorer classes thought more of -the internal administration which affected them than of the attitude -of the Empire to European politics. The tendency towards benevolent -despotism, which distinguished the greater powers, showed itself also -in the petty states of Germany in the diminution, if not the abolition, -of the ancient Estates and in the restraints placed on the authority -of the nobility. The increased power of the sovereign was generally, -if not universally, used to foster the prosperity of his subjects, -or at least to promote literature and art. A notice of a few of the -principal rulers of Germany will justify this view. Charles Theodore, -the Elector Palatine, who in 1778 had succeeded to the Electorate -of Bavaria, and united once more the territories of the House of -Wittelsbach, was a most enlightened sovereign. In the Palatinate he had -founded a brilliant University at Mannheim, and one of the most famous -picture galleries in Europe at Düsseldorf; in Bavaria he suppressed -some of the numerous convents, which stifled progress, in spite of his -sincere Catholicism. He took as one of his ministers the celebrated -American, Benjamin Thompson, whom he created Count Rumford, and that -man of science and learning endeavoured to suppress mendacity, and made -efforts to bring material comforts within reach of the very poorest. -Nevertheless, in some points, the Elector Charles Theodore showed -himself a bigot; he left education entirely in the hands of the Roman -Catholic priesthood and ex-Jesuits, and he allowed the Protestants in -his dominions to be persecuted. The Margrave Charles Frederick, who -in 1771 reunited in his person the two margraviates of Baden-Baden -and Baden-Durlach, was a more thoroughly enlightened prince. He was -truly a benevolent despot; he was a student of political economy, on -which he himself wrote a treatise, and applied its principles to his -little state; he established a scheme of primary education; and on 23d -July 1783 he abolished serfdom in his dominions, while maintaining -the royal _corvées_ and the prohibition for a subject to leave the -country without obtaining his permission. The Duke Charles Eugène of -Würtemburg formed a contrast to his neighbours. He established, like -them, his own absolutism, but he used his power to impose heavy taxes -and raise an army out of all proportion to the size of his duchy. -He treated his subjects like slaves, and his administration was so -cruel that the Aulic Council threatened to take measures against him. -Nevertheless, he was a patron of literature and the arts. He built a -theatre at Stuttgart and founded the Academy of Fine Arts there, and -he defrayed the expense of the education of the poet Schiller, who, -however, afterwards satirised him and fled to Weimar. Yet Charles -Eugène of Würtemburg appears an enlightened monarch to such princes as -Duke Charles of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), whose successor, Maximilian -Joseph, was to succeed the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, and -to become the first King of Bavaria, for that prince sacrificed his -people to his passion for the chase, and to William IX., Landgrave -of Hesse-Cassel, who sold his subjects by the hundred to the English -Government to carry on the war in America. Going further east, Saxony, -which had ranked among the great states of Germany, was in a state of -decline. The Electors Augustus II. and Augustus III. had been Kings -of Poland, and had ruined their hereditary dominions to support their -royal dignity and position. Fortunately Frederick Augustus, who was -Elector in 1789, had not been elected to the Polish throne, and had -been able to do something for the prosperity of his subjects. He -formed a commission to draw up a code of laws, he abolished torture, -encouraged industry and agriculture, and founded an Academy of Mines. -But he did not go so far, for instance, as the Margrave of Baden, and -made no attempt to suppress serfdom. The glory of Saxony was not, -however, on the eve of the French Revolution its electoral house; -its intellectual capital was not the beautiful city of Dresden. That -place was taken by Weimar, where Duke Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar -collected around him the great philosophers and men of letters who made -the German name famous at the end of the eighteenth century and the -beginning of the nineteenth. To his Court resorted the most illustrious -Germans of the time, Goethe and Schiller, Herder, Wieland, and Musæus; -and the University of his state at Jena became the most famous in -Germany. It is not necessary to particularise the other states; it is -enough to say that those in the north were generally very backward, -especially the duchies of Mecklenburg, and that Hanover was left to the -rule of an aristocratic oligarchy, which allowed no reforms, although -its University at Göttingen, founded by George II., took rank with the -best. - -[Sidenote: Mayence.] - -[Sidenote: Trèves.] - -[Sidenote: Cologne.] - -The Ecclesiastical States followed also the movement of the century. -The ecclesiastical rulers were often enlightened men, but they were -to a great extent the slaves of their chapters. These chapters were -generally filled by younger sons of the smaller princes, who insisted -on the newly-elected prelates entering into the closest bonds with -them to make no changes in the feudal system in the bishoprics. The -prince-bishops and abbots at the close of the eighteenth century were, -therefore, generally scions of noble houses, such as, for instance, -Francis Joseph, Baron of Roggenbach, Bishop of Basle, Baron Francis -Louis of Erthal, Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg, the Baron of Rödt, -Bishop of Constance, the Count of Hoensbroeck, Bishop of Liége, -Count Augustus of Limburg, Bishop of Spires, Count Jerome Colloredo, -Archbishop of Salzburg, and the Baron of Plettenberg, Abbot of Münster. -One curious point deserves notice, that in some instances, Protestant -princes had the right to present to Catholic prince-bishoprics, and -in 1789 the Duke of York was Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück, and Prince -Peter Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck. Of -higher rank and more independent of their chapters were the three -archbishop-electors, who were therefore more able to rule their states -in consonance with the ideas of the century. The chief of these was -Baron Frederick Charles of Erthal, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, and -Prince-Bishop of Worms, the Chancellor of the Empire _ex officio_. This -great prelate busied himself mostly with his pleasures, but his rank -caused his countenance to be sought by all parties, and his adhesion -to Frederick the Great’s League of Princes was the greatest gain the -King of Prussia made in his anti-Austrian policy. In 1789 he had -completely abandoned the cares of internal and external politics to his -coadjutor Charles, Baron de Dalberg, who was to play a leading part -in the history of Germany during the period of the French Revolution -and Napoleon. The Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789 was Clement -Wenceslas, a Saxon prince, and an excellent ruler, who, in 1783, -even issued an edict of tolerance, allowing men of any religion to -settle in his state, and exercise any trade or profession there. The -last Elector-Archbishop was the Archduke Maximilian, the youngest -brother of the Emperor Joseph, Archbishop of Cologne, who shared his -brother’s liberal opinions, and patronised his predecessor’s creation, -the University of Bonn, which had been founded in opposition to the -ultramontane University of Cologne, for the encouragement of the modern -developments of science. The tendency of all these governments, lay and -clerical, was to promote the prosperity of the people; Joseph II. was -but the type of the German princes of his time; all wished to do good -for the people, but not by them; their characters differed widely, from -the enlightened Margrave of Baden to the hunting Duke of Deux-Ponts; -but in their different ways and in different degrees they generally -meant well. But, while the more important princes showed the tendency -of the century, their poorer contemporaries were unable to do so. -They were mostly in debt, owing to their efforts to rival the wealthy -princes, and in order to raise money resorted to all the devices of -mediæval feudalism. The few villages over which they ruled suffered -from this tyranny, and it was always possible to know when a traveller -crossed the frontier into one of these ‘duodecimo duchies.’ Beneath the -petty princes were the Ritters or Knights of the Empire, who abounded -in Franconia and Swabia. These knights had no representation in the -Imperial Diet, and were consequently dependent directly on the Emperor. -Their poverty made them take service with the wealthy princes; and -to quote but two instances, Stein, the great Prussian minister, and -Würmser, the celebrated Austrian general, were both Knights of the -Empire. The result of this minute subdivision of Germany was to destroy -the sense of national patriotism; which was not to rise again until -after Germany had passed through the mould of Napoleon’s domination. - -[Sidenote: Switzerland.] - -[Sidenote: Geneva.] - -The other European confederation, Switzerland, presented the same -symptoms of internal decay as the Holy Roman Empire, but it was -preserved from the same political degradation by the consciousness -of its nationality and the persistence of its local governments. The -eighteenth century was marked in Switzerland by struggles between -canton and canton, Catholics and Protestants, nobles and bourgeois. -In some cantons, such as Berne, an oligarchical system was maintained -in the hands of a few noble families; in others, such as Uri, a -purely democratic form of government was preserved, which allowed -every peasant a voice in the local administration. Where feudalism -had been established, the peasants were in no better condition than -in the rest of Europe, but in the mountain cantons such a _régime_ -was impossible, and individual and political freedom still existed. -It must be remembered that the Switzerland of the eighteenth century -was not identical with that of the nineteenth. The Grisons formed no -part of the confederation, Neufchâtel belonged to Prussia, and Geneva -was an independent republic. The part the latter had played in the -intellectual movement of the century was most conspicuous. Rousseau -was born in Geneva, and Voltaire retired and spent his last years in -its neighbourhood. But Geneva had just before 1789 been the scene of a -revolution resembling that in Holland. A struggle broke out between the -bourgeois families, which monopolised the magistracy, and the mass of -the people, which had ended in the victory of the former. The Genevese -democrats were expelled, and many of them, notably Clavière, exercised -a considerable influence on the course of the Revolution in France. - -The state of Europe in 1789 showed everywhere a sense of awakening -to new ideas. The bonds of feudalism were ready to break asunder; -the benevolent despots had recognised the rights of individual and -commercial freedom; the French Revolution was able to sow in ripe -ground the two new principles of the sovereignty of the people and the -sentiment of nationality. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - 1789–1790 - - The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph II.—The Turkish - War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of Foksany and - the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in Sweden—Affairs - in Belgium—Policy of Joseph II. in Belgium—Revolution in - Liége—Elections to the States-General in France—Meeting of - the States-General: struggle between the Orders—The Tiers - État declares itself the National Assembly—Oath of the - Tennis Court—The Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the - King—Dismissal of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture - of the Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis XVI. visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration - of the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the - women of Paris to Versailles—Louis XVI. goes to reside in - Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph II.—Failure of his reign—The attitude - of Louis XVI. to the French Revolution—The new French - Constitution—Civil Constitution of the Clergy—Measures of the - Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger threatened to the new - state of affairs in France by a foreign war—Mirabeau and the - French Court—Probable causes of a foreign war—Avignon and the - Venaissin—Affair of Nootka Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights - of Princes of the Empire in Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master - of the situation. - - -[Sidenote: Catherine and Joseph II. 1789.] - -At the commencement of the year 1789 the thoughts of European statesmen -were mainly turned to the events which were passing in the east of -Europe. The alliance between Catherine of Russia and the Emperor Joseph -II. was regarded with anxiety not only by Pitt in England and by King -Frederick William II. of Prussia, but by the French ministers and by -all the smaller states of Europe. The projects of Russia and Austria -for the extension of their boundaries at the expense of Turkey, Poland, -and Bavaria, were viewed with alarm, and the ambitious ideas of their -rulers with dismay. The attention of educated people, who were not -statesmen or politicians, but disciples of the philosophical teachers -of the eighteenth century, was entirely concentrated on the progress -of the Emperor Joseph’s policy in the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. -Success seemed to have crowned the warlike measures of General d’Alton; -the Belgian patriots were in prison or in exile; and the philanthropic -and centralising reforms of the Emperor seemed to have ended in Belgium -in the establishment of a military despotism. France was known to be -in an almost desperate financial condition; and the convocation of the -States-General for 1st May 1789, was generally looked upon as a means -adopted by Louis XVI. to obtain financial relief. The great results, -which were to follow the meeting of the States-General, were little -expected by even the most acute political observers, and it was not -foreseen that for more than a quarter of a century the interest of -Europe was to be fixed upon France, and that a series of events in -that country, unparalleled in history, were to bring about an entire -modification in the political system of Europe, and to open a new era -in the history of mankind. - -[Sidenote: The War with the Turks.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph’s prediction.] - -The campaign of 1788 had, upon the whole, terminated favourably for -the Austrians and Russians in their war with the Turks. Loudon, who -commanded the Austrian forces, had taken Dubitza, and penetrating into -Bosnia had reduced Novi on 3d October. Francis Josias, of the House of -Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, commonly known as the Prince of Coburg, at the -head of an Austrian army, had in conjunction with a Russian force under -Prince Soltikov taken Choczim on 20th September. But, on the other -hand, the Turks had overrun and laid waste the Banat of Temesvar and -routed the Austrian army in that quarter, which was under the personal -command of the Emperor. The Russians had also made some progress, and -on 6th December Potemkin, with terrible loss of life, and owing mainly -to the intrepidity of Suvórov and Repnin stormed Oczakoff (Ochakov). -These successes, despite his own failure, greatly inspirited Joseph, -who, in a letter to Prince Charles of Nassau, made the following -curious predictions in January 1789:[3]—‘If the Grand Vizier should -come to meet me or the Russians near the Danube, he must offer a -battle; and then, after having defeated him, I shall drive him back -to take refuge under the cannon of Silistria. In October 1789 I shall -call a congress, at which the Osmanlis will be obliged to beg for peace -from the Giaours. The treaties of Carlowitz and Passarowitz will serve -as the basis for my ambassadors on which to conclude peace; in it, -however, I shall claim Choczim and part of Moldavia. Russia will keep -the Crimea, Prince Charles of Sweden will be Duke of Courland, and the -Grand Duke of Florence King of the Romans. Then there will be universal -peace in Europe. Until then, France will have settled affairs with the -notables of the nation; and the other gentlemen think too much about -themselves and too little about Austria.’ - -[Sidenote: The Campaign of 1789.] - -The campaign of 1789 was far from fulfilling the expectations of -the Emperor Joseph. His own health had suffered too much from the -privations of the previous year to enable him to take the field again -in person, but he was well served by his generals. The Grand Vizier -determined to adopt the offensive, and crossed the Danube at Rustchuk -in March at the head of an army of 90,000 men, with the intention of -invading Transylvania. But an unexpected event led to the recall of -the most experienced Turkish general. The Sultan Abdul Hamid died at -Constantinople on 7th April, and his nephew and successor, Selim III., -at once disgraced the Grand Vizier, and replaced him in the command -of the western army and the office of Grand Vizier by the Pasha of -Widdin. This incompetent commander rashly advanced, and was defeated -by the Prince of Coburg and Suvoróv at Foksany on 31st July in an -attempt to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. The -allies then took the offensive and inflicted a crushing defeat on the -main Turkish army on the Rymnik, in which 18,000 Austrians and 7000 -Russians routed nearly 100,000 Turks, and took all their baggage and -artillery. This great victory was vigorously followed up. Loudon was -appointed Commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, and he took Belgrade -on 9th October, and after occupying the whole of Servia, laid siege -to Orsova. For these services Joseph conferred upon him the title -of generalissimo, which had only been borne before by Wallenstein, -Montecuculi, and Prince Eugène. Among other results of the victory on -the Rymnik, the Prince of Coburg took Bucharest and occupied Moldavia, -while the Prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg forced his way into Wallachia. -In the eastern quarter of the Turkish frontier Prince Potemkin was -equally successful. He defeated the Turkish High Admiral, Hassan Pasha, -in a pitched battle at Tobac, and conquered Bessarabia, capturing -Bender, and laying siege to Ismail. - -[Sidenote: Revolution in Sweden.] - -Doubtless Catherine and Joseph would have met with even greater -successes, and perhaps they might have driven the Turks out of Europe, -had not their attention been diverted directly by the affairs of Sweden -and Belgium, and indirectly by the startling events which were taking -place in France. The Triple Alliance looked with great disfavour on the -alliance between Austria and Russia. Pitt, as has been said, prepared -a great fleet, which is known in English naval history as the Russian -Armament, and Frederick William II. began to negotiate an alliance with -Turkey. But they limited their direct interference to inducing Denmark -to make peace with Sweden. Gustavus III. of Sweden had, in 1788, forced -his way at the head of 30,000 men into Russian Finland, and the sound -of his guns had been heard in Saint Petersburg, which, owing to the -absence of the bulk of the Russian troops, was almost defenceless. But -the Swedish nobility had great influence over the army; they disliked -the war with Russia; and took this opportunity to declare themselves. -Under the secret leadership of Prince Charles, Duke of Sudermania, -they refused to obey the king’s orders, and hoped in the embarrassment -which ensued to regain their former power. At this moment Christian -VII., King of Denmark and Norway, at the instance of Catherine, -invaded Sweden and prepared to besiege Gothenburg. Gustavus saw the -opportunity which this invasion offered to rouse the patriotic feelings -of the Swedes. He appealed to the people, and leaving the command of -the army in Finland to the Duke of Sudermania, raised a fresh army of -volunteers to resist the invaders. In spite of his efforts, Sweden was -in great danger of falling before the combined attacks of Russia and -Denmark. The Triple Alliance now intervened promptly and decisively, -and by threatening to attack Denmark by land and sea, they induced -Bernstorff, the Danish minister, to evacuate Sweden and to agree to -an armistice. Gustavus III. returned to Stockholm with the reputation -of having repulsed the invaders, and summoned the Diet to meet on 2d -February 1789. Sure of the support of the Commons he proposed a new -Constitution, or rather a new fundamental law for the Swedish monarchy, -which is summed up in one of the articles: ‘The king can administer -the affairs of the State as seems good to him.’ The nobility opposed a -fruitless resistance; Gustavus imprisoned their leaders and completed -the work of his former revolution of 1772 by this _coup d’état_. He -then renewed the war with Russia, but the military operations of his -campaign in 1789 were not marked by any event of importance. - -[Sidenote: Affairs in Belgium, 1789.] - -While Catherine of Russia was being distracted from the vigorous -prosecution of the war against Turkey by the invasion of the Swedes, -her ally, the Emperor Joseph, was chiefly concerned with the state of -affairs in the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. It seemed at first -as if he was to be as successful as Gustavus in changing the old -constitution of the country. But there was this difference. Whereas -Gustavus III. was enacting the part of a national deliverer, and -had the Swedish people on his side in his overthrow of the nobility, -Joseph II. was opposed not only by the Belgian nobles, but by the -clergy and the people also. The country seemed quiet enough under -the government of Count Trautmannsdorf and the military rule of the -Captain-General d’Alton. The suppression of the risings at Brussels and -Louvain, Malines and Antwerp seemed to have established the Austrian -sway most firmly, and the leading opponents of the Emperor’s policy -were in exile. The Estates of the different provinces were convoked -as usual, and all of them, except those of Hainault and Brabant, -voted the customary subsidies. The Estates of Hainault were at once -dissolved by a military force, and their constitution abolished on -31st January 1789. By this example the Emperor hoped to overawe the -wealthy and populous province of Brabant, and when it did not have -the expected effect, he directed Trautmannsdorf to summon a special -meeting of the Estates of Brabant, and to require them to increase -the number of deputies of the Third Estate or Commons, and to grant a -permanent subsidy. He also maintained his attitude towards the Church, -and tried to compel Cardinal Frankenberg, the Archbishop of Malines, to -withdraw his opposition to the new Imperial Seminary at Brussels, or -to resign his see. The Archbishop stoutly refused to comply, and the -Estates of Brabant proved equally stubborn. Joseph then decided on a -sudden blow, and by his orders Count Trautmannsdorf, on 18th June 1789, -declared the ‘Joyeuse Entrée,’ or Constitution of Brabant abolished. -The day was the anniversary of the battle of Kolin, in which, at the -crisis of the Seven Years’ War, the Austrians had defeated Frederick -the Great. D’Alton thought he made a happy comparison in saying: ‘The -18th of June is a happy epoch for the House of Austria; for on that -day the glorious victory of Kolin saved the monarchy, and the Emperor -became master of the Netherlands.’ But the victory was not to be won -so easily. The two parties of opposition, the Van der Nootists, or -partisans of Van der Noot, the supporter of the ancient constitutional -rights, and the Vonckists, or followers of Vonck, the advocate of -popular or democratic ideas, united. The Triple Alliance was as glad -to hamper Joseph’s activity in the East by encouraging these Belgian -patriots, as it had been to leave Gustavus free to harass Catherine, by -stopping the interference of Denmark in the north, and the ministers of -England, Holland, and Prussia all entered into relations with Van der -Noot. That partisan, encouraged by hopes of active assistance, formed -a patriotic committee at Breda, on the Dutch frontier, and raised an -army of exiles, which was placed under the command of Colonel Van der -Mersch. Joseph was not to be intimidated. D’Alton put down popular -riots, which broke out in various towns, notably at Tirlemont, Louvain, -Namur, and Brussels, with unrelenting severity. A sweeping decree was -issued on 19th October against the exiles or _émigrés_, declaring that -ordinary emigration would be punished by banishment and confiscation -of property, and that joining an armed force on the frontier for the -purpose of invasion would be punished by death, and that informers -against _émigrés_ would receive a reward of 10,000 livres and absolute -impunity.[4] But all the Emperor’s measures and decrees were of no -effect. The meeting of the States-General in France had been followed -by the capture of the Bastille and the bringing of the King of France -from Versailles to Paris by a Parisian mob; and the effects of the -French Revolution on affairs in Belgium was soon to be perceived. - -[Sidenote: Revolution in Liège.] - -In the bishopric of Liège, which, from its situation, always -reflected and repeated any political troubles that took place in -Belgium, the influence of the French Revolution was immediately -felt. The inhabitants of the bishopric had long resented the rule -of the prince-bishops, and felt the anomaly of being subject to an -ecclesiastical sovereign. Many exiles from the democratic party in -Belgium assembled in the bishopric, and on the news of the capture of -the Bastille, the people of Liége needed little persuasion to renew -their former insurrection. The revolution was carried out without the -shedding of blood. On 16th and 17th August 1789 the people of the city -of Liége rose in rebellion; on the 18th MM. Chestret and Fabry were -chosen burgomasters by popular acclamation, the garrison was disarmed, -and the citadel occupied by bourgeois national guards. On the same day -the Prince-Bishop, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de Hoensbroeck, was -brought into the city, and he signed a proclamation acknowledging the -revolution and abrogating the despotic settlement of 1684. The other -towns in the bishopric followed the example of the capital, and in each -of them free municipalities were elected and national guards raised and -armed. The Prince-Bishop, after accepting the loss of his political -power, fled to Trèves, and considered himself fortunate to be allowed -to escape. - -[Sidenote: The Elections to the States-General.] - -It is now time to examine the course of the events in France, which -led to such important developments upon its north-east frontier, and -which distracted the attention of all the monarchs and ministers of -Europe, except Catherine of Russia, from the wars in the North and -East. It was owing to the increasing difficulty of raising money for -carrying on the administration of the State and paying the interest -on the national debt, and the consequent necessity for revising the -system of taxation and reorganising the financial resources of France -that Louis XVI., on the advice of his minister, Loménie de Brienne, had -vaguely promised in November 1787 to summon the States-General for July -1792, and had definitely convoked the ancient assembly of France on 8th -August 1788 to meet at Versailles on 1st May 1789. But the arrangements -for the elections were not made by Loménie de Brienne, who retired -from office in the same month as the States-General was convoked, -but by his successor Necker, who was recalled to office as an expert -financier, in view of the fact that the summons of the States-General -was looked on as a purely financial expedient. The procedure to be -adopted in electing deputies gave rise to much anxious deliberation -and heated controversy in the public press, and the Notables of 1787 -were again assembled to give their advice. The burning question was -as to the representation of the Tiers État, Third Estate or Commons. -The ancient representative assembly of France was known to consist -of the three orders of the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Tiers État, -and the disputed question was as to the proportion of the number of -deputies of the Tiers État to that of the two other orders. This and -the other electoral questions were finally settled by the Résultat du -Conseil published on 27th December 1788. It was decreed that the royal -bailliages and royal sénéchaussées, feudal circumscriptions which had -long fallen into disuse, should be treated as electoral units, and that -they should elect, according to the extent of their population, one or -more deputations, each consisting of four members, one chosen by the -Nobility, one by the Clergy, and two by the Tiers État. The elections -were to be made in two and sometimes in three degrees, and at each -stage _cahiers_ or statements of grievances and projects for reform -were to be drawn up by the electoral assemblies.[5] In provinces, where -there were no royal bailliages or sénéchaussées, and consequently -no Grand Baillis or Grand Sénéchals to preside, corresponding -circumscriptions were adopted or invented. During the early months -of 1789 the French people were fully occupied in the election of the -deputies to the States-General. Whatever might be the opinion of the -French Court or the French Ministry, the people,—and more especially -the educated bourgeois of the towns and the country lawyers,—looked -upon the future assembly as something more than a financial expedient; -they trusted to it to draw up a new political system for the State, -which should admit the representative principle and allow the taxpayer -a voice not only in the granting, but in the spending of the national -revenue. The working classes, whether in the towns or the rural -districts, did not take much active interest in the elections, and -their representatives in the secondary electoral assemblies were -generally educated bourgeois, but they vaguely built high hopes on the -meeting of the States-General, and expected it to give them land or -higher wages. Considering the novelty of choosing representatives in -France, it is extraordinary that the electoral operations were carried -out as peacefully and as efficiently as they were. This was mainly -due to the success of a little revolutionary movement in Dauphiné, -where an unauthorised and irregular assembly had met in July 1788 to -protest against the abolition of the provincial Parlements by Loménie -de Brienne. That minister had left office when he was not permitted -to put down the assembly in Dauphiné by force, and Necker hoped to -save the prestige of the monarchy by summoning a new assembly of the -province in its place. But the ruse was quickly perceived; the men who -had sat in the illegal assembly were elected to its successor, and in -the eyes of France the representatives of the Dauphiné had won a signal -victory over the Court. The new assembly in Dauphiné became the court -of appeal in every electoral difficulty, and its secretary, Mounier, -the leader of the Tiers État of France. Owing to his energy and ability -local jealousies of town against town, province against province, -class jealousies and personal rivalry, were set at rest, and it was -more owing to Mounier than to any one else that the deputies to the -States-General were legally and quietly elected, and that the acts of -the future assembly could not be stigmatised as the work of a factious -or unrepresentative minority of the French nation. - -[Sidenote: Meeting of the States-General.] - -On 5th May 1789 the first States-General held in France since the -year 1614 met at Versailles. Barentin, the Keeper of the Seals, and -Necker harangued the collected deputies, and the latter explained -the desperate financial situation of the State and the necessity for -immediate action to relieve the national treasury. The representatives -of the nobility and clergy then retired to separate chambers, -leaving their colleagues of the Tiers État in the great hall. No word -was spoken about the relation of the three orders to each other. -It was assumed that each order was to deliberate separately. The -representatives of the Tiers État were placed in a most difficult -position. There was no advantage in their being as numerous as -the two other orders put together, if the three orders were to be -independent of each other, for in that case the majorities of the -privileged orders could outweigh the opinion of the majority among -themselves. The question of _vote par ordre_, which would give each -order equal authority, or _vote par tête_, which would allow the -numerical preponderance of the Tiers État to take effect, had been -long recognised as crucial. It had been assumed from the grant of -double representation to the Tiers État that the Government intended -to sanction the _vote par tête_, and the tacit acknowledgment of the -separation of the orders and consequent recognition of the _vote par -ordre_ on 5th May disconcerted for the moment the popular leaders. - -[Sidenote: Struggle between the Orders.] - -[Sidenote: The Tiers État declare themselves the National Assembly.] - -But the deputies of the Tiers État, under the guidance of Le Chapelier, -a Breton lawyer from Rennes, and of Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, a -Protestant pastor from Nîmes, proceeded to take up a most skilful -attitude. They resolved on a policy of masterly inactivity. They -refused to form themselves into the assembly of the Order of the Tiers -État; they refused to open letters addressed to them under that title; -they refused to elect a president or secretaries; and stated that -they were a body of citizens, representatives of the French nation, -waiting in that hall to be joined by the other deputies. This attitude -received the unanimous approval of the people of Paris, and threw upon -the Government the onus of declaring that the double representation -of the Tiers État was merely a sterile gift. The representatives of -the two privileged orders treated the situation very differently. The -nobility accepted the separation of the orders to distinct chambers, -and resolved to constitute their chamber by 188 votes to 47, while the -clergy only decided in the same sense by 133 votes to 114. Even this -majority was not really significant. For, owing to a tendency which had -developed during the course of the elections, the greater part of the -deputies of the clergy were poor country curés, who sympathised with -the Tiers État, from which they sprung, and not with the prelates and -dignitaries of the Church, who belonged to the nobility. This tendency -of the true majority of the clergy was well known to the leaders of -the Tiers État and encouraged them in their passive attitude. In -vain the King and Necker attempted to terminate the deadlock; the -deputies of the Tiers État persisted that they did not form an order, -and they were reinforced by the representatives of Paris, where the -elections were not concluded until the end of May. At last, on 10th -June, on the proposition of the Abbé Sieyès, deputy for Paris, a final -invitation was sent to the deputies of the nobility and the clergy to -join the deputies of the Tiers État, and it was resolved that whether -the request was granted or refused the Tiers État would constitute -itself into a regular deliberative body. The invitation was rejected -by the nobility, and only a few curés, including the Abbé Grégoire, -belonging to the Order of the Clergy, complied with it. The deputies -then verified their powers, and elected Bailly, a famous astronomer -and deputy for Paris, to be their president. But what sort of assembly -were they? They denied that they were representatives of an Order, and -they were certainly not the States-General of France. The question was -hotly debated, and on 16th June they declared themselves the National -Assembly. They then declared all the taxes, hitherto levied, to be -illegal, and ordered that they should only be paid provisionally. This -defiant conduct disconcerted the King and his ministers, and it was -announced that a Séance Royale, or Royal Session, would be held by the -King in person to settle all disputed questions. - -[Sidenote: The Oath of the Tennis Court. 20th June.] - -[Sidenote: The Séance Royale. 23d June.] - -On 20th June the deputies of the Tiers État, or of the National -Assembly, as they now termed themselves, were excluded from their usual -meeting-place. They therefore met in the Jeu de Paume or Tennis Court -at Versailles, and, amidst a scene of wild excitement, swore that they -would not separate until they had drawn up a new Constitution for -France. By this act they practically became rebels, and the French -Revolution really commenced. On 22d June they met in the Church of -Saint Louis at Versailles, where they were joined by 149 deputies of -the clergy, who thus recognised the act of rebellion. On 23d June the -Séance Royale was held. In the speech from the throne it was announced -that the King, ‘of his own goodness and generosity,’ would levy no -taxes in future without the assent of the representatives of the -people, but it was also declared that the financial privileges of the -nobility and clergy were unassailable, and that the States-General -was to vote _par ordre_. This was the most critical moment in the -first stage of the Revolution. If the deputies of the Tiers État had -given way, the oath of the Tennis Court would have seemed only an -idle threat. But they found a leader in the Comte de Mirabeau, deputy -for the Tiers État of Aix, a man of extraordinary ability, who in -the course of a tempestuous career had travelled much and learned -much. He courageously faced the situation, and after making a reply -to the Grand Master of the Ceremonies that the deputies of France -would only be expelled by force, he induced the National Assembly to -declare the persons of its members inviolable. Sieyès summed up the -situation by telling the deputies: ‘Gentlemen, you are to-day what -you were yesterday.’ Before this daring opposition the King gave way: -on 25th June the minority of the Order of the Nobility, consisting of -forty-seven deputies, headed by the Marquis de Lafayette, the friend -of Washington, joined the National Assembly, and two days later the -majority of that Order reluctantly followed their example at the -command of the King. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau’s Address to the King. 9th July.] - -[Sidenote: Dismissal of Necker. 12th July.] - -The rapid transformation of the deputies of the Tiers État into a -National Assembly, which defied the royal authority and spoke of -drawing up a new Constitution for France, exasperated the courtiers, -who looked with disgust at all attempts to modify the _ancien régime_. -The King did not share their feelings; he was honestly desirous of -doing his duty by his people, and preferred the diminution of his -royal prerogative to coming into open conflict with his subjects and -to initiating a civil war. He had hitherto trusted to Necker and -followed Necker’s advice. But the result had not been encouraging. His -minister had repeatedly put him in a false position. He had been made -to speak in a haughty tone to the deputies of the Tiers État at the -Séance Royale on 23d June, and then to eat his words by directing the -deputies of the Nobility to join the self-created National Assembly. -This great concession seemed to have been wrung from him; the deputies -of the Tiers État appeared to have won a great victory in the face of -the royal opposition, when in reality the King had yielded from the -goodness of his heart. Since he found that following the advice of -Necker had only resulted in a loss of authority, combined with profound -unpopularity, without improving the financial prospect, Louis XVI. -not unnaturally turned his attention to the enemies of the minister. -These enemies were headed by the Queen, Marie Antoinette, who resented -Necker’s endeavours to restrain the extravagance of the Court and his -admission of the need to make concessions to the will of the people, -and by the King’s younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, a staunch -supporter of the absolute prerogative of the Crown and of the system -of the _ancien régime_. Yielding unwillingly to the arguments of the -enemies of Necker and of the National Assembly, the King determined -to use force, and he began to concentrate troops in the neighbourhood -of Paris and Versailles. The National Assembly did not know what to -do; Mounier and other leaders had formed a committee to draw up the -bases of a new constitution; but they had no force on which they could -depend to resist the royal troops, and felt that they would probably be -arrested and the Assembly dissolved long before the foundation of the -Constitution was laid. At this crisis Mirabeau again came to the front. -With the most daring audacity he attacked and revealed the policy of -the Court on 8th July, and on 9th July carried an address to the King -on the part of the Assembly, requesting the immediate removal of the -troops collected in the neighbourhood, but protesting the loyalty of -the Assembly to the person of the King. But the King was now under the -influence of the opponents of the Assembly. His answer to Mirabeau’s -address was the dismissal of Necker and his colleagues on 12th July, -the banishment of Necker, and the appointment of the Maréchal de -Broglie, an experienced general, who detested the idea of change, to be -Minister for War and Marshal-General of the troops in the neighbourhood -of Paris. - -[Sidenote: Formation of National Guards.] - -Hitherto the struggle had been between the Court and the deputies of -the Tiers État; the popular element was now to intervene; and the -people of Paris was for the first time to make its influence felt. The -news of Necker’s dismissal was received in Paris with wrath and dismay. -A young lawyer without practice, named Camille Desmoulins, announced -the event to the crowd collected in the Palais Royal and incited his -hearers to resistance. His words were eagerly applauded. The population -of Paris, both bourgeois and proletariat, had watched the course of -events at Versailles with unflagging interest, and the formation of a -camp of soldiers in the neighbourhood with terror. The working classes, -who lived near the margin of starvation, expected that the National -Assembly would cause in some way a rise in wages and a decrease in -the price of necessaries, and were exasperated at the prospect of the -non-fulfilment of their hopes. They had already sacked the house of a -manufacturer, named Réveillon, who was reported to have spoken scornful -words of their poverty, on 28th April, and were ready for any mischief. -From the Palais Royal, excited by the news and the words of Camille -Desmoulins, started a tumultuous procession bearing busts of Necker -and of the Duke of Orleans, a prince of the royal house, who had been -exiled by the King for previous opposition to him, and who was regarded -as a supporter of the popular claims. The procession was charged by a -German cavalry regiment in the French service, commanded by the Prince -de Lambesc, a near relative of the Queen, and the mob dispersed to riot -and to pillage. The more patriotic rioters broke into the gunsmiths’ -shops to seize weapons, the rest pillaged the butchers’ and bakers’ -shops, and burned the barriers where octroi duties were collected. This -scene of riot brought about its own remedy. The bourgeois, terrified -for the safety of their shops, took up arms, and on the following -day formed themselves into companies of national guards for the -preservation of the peace. The guidance of this movement was taken by -the electors of Paris, who, after completing their work of electing -deputies for Paris, continued to meet at the Hôtel-de-Ville. - -[Sidenote: Capture of the Bastille. 14th July.] - -The 14th of July found the capital of France organised for resistance. -The Gardes Françaises, the force maintained for the security of Paris, -were devoted to the cause of the National Assembly, and were resolved -to fight with the people, not against them. And it was ascertained -that the soldiers in the camp were very lukewarm in their attachment -to their officers, and were likely to refuse to attack the citizens. -Under these circumstances an idea arose that an armed demonstration of -the Parisians at Versailles would strengthen the King, whose sentiments -were well known, to resist the Court party and to recall Necker. With -this notion, large crowds approached the Hôtel des Invalides and the -Bastille, the two principal store-houses of arms in Paris. The crowd, -which went to the Hôtel des Invalides, had no difficulty in seizing -the arms there, in spite of the opposition of the Governor. But it was -otherwise at the Bastille. The mob, which collected in the Governor’s -Court in that fortress and shouted for arms, was isolated by the -raising of the outer drawbridge and fired upon by the weak garrison -in the Bastille itself. The sound of this firing brought a number of -armed men from other parts of the city; the outer drawbridge was cut -down, and preparations were being made to force a way into the fortress -itself, when the garrison surrendered. The result of the firing upon -the mob in the Governor’s Court had been to kill eighty-three persons -and wound many others. The sight of the corpses and the cries of the -wounded excited the anger of the successful conquerors of the fortress. -A panic arose, and three officers and four soldiers of the garrison -were murdered. Then the more disciplined of the conquerors started to -take the rest of the defenders of the Bastille to the Hôtel-de-Ville. -On the way the Governor and the Major of the fortress were murdered by -the mob, and M. de Flesselles, the Provost of the merchants of Paris, -who was accused of encouraging the Governor to resist, was also slain. -By these events the people of Paris felt that they had commenced a -war against the Crown; entrenchments were thrown up and barricades -were erected in the streets; all shops were shut up; the barriers were -closed; no one was allowed to leave the city, and preparations were -made to stand a siege. - -[Sidenote: Recall of Necker. 15th July.] - -[Sidenote: The King’s visit to Paris. 17th July.] - -But if the people of Paris were ready to fight, the King was not. As -has been said, he loathed the idea of civil war, and when he heard of -the capture of the Bastille and of the martial attitude of Paris, he -at once gave up the idea of opposing the revolutionary movement by -force. He dismissed his reactionary ministers and recalled Necker, and -he declared himself ready to co-operate with the National Assembly -in restoring order. The first victories of the Assembly had been won -by its statesmanlike inaction in the month of May and its courage on -23d June; the victory over the party of force had been won by Paris -on 14th July. The Assembly prepared to take advantage of this fresh -success. On 16th July it legalised the establishment of National Guards -and elective municipalities all over France, and recognising that the -only way to convince the Parisians that the King had accepted the new -situation and had abandoned the idea of employing force, was to induce -the King to visit Paris in person, it proposed that he should do so at -once. Louis XVI. was not devoid of personal courage, and consented. On -17th July, accordingly, he entered Paris accompanied by 100 deputies, -and amidst wild acclamation put on the tricolour cockade, which the -Parisians had assumed as their badge, and consented to the nomination -of Bailly, the President of the National Assembly, to be Mayor of -Paris, and of Lafayette to be Commander-in-chief of the Paris National -Guard. These concessions, and the victory of the National Assembly -and of Paris threw consternation among the court party of reaction: -the Comte d’Artois and those of his adherents, who were most hated as -conspicuous reactionaries or who had advocated the employment of force, -fled from the country. - -[Sidenote: Murder of Foullon. 21st July.] - -The immediate results of the capture of the Bastille were no less -important in the provinces of France. In every city, even in small -country towns, mayors and municipalities were elected and National -Guards formed; in many the local citadels were seized by the people; -in all the troops fraternised with the people; and in some there was -bloodshed. This movement was essentially bourgeois; where blood was -shed and pillage took place at the hands of the working classes, the -new National Guards soon restored order. The general excitement was so -great that it is surprising that there was not more bloodshed and that -peace was so quickly and efficiently established. Among these outbreaks -the most noteworthy took place in Paris itself, where on 21st July -Foullon de Doué, who had been nominated to succeed Necker on 12th July, -and his son-in-law Berthier de Sauvigny were murdered almost before the -eyes of Bailly, the new Mayor of Paris. But these occasional town riots -were speedily quelled by the armed bourgeois. Far more widespread and -important was the upheaval in the rural districts of France. - -The peasants believed that the time had come, when they were to -own their land free from copyhold rights or the relics of feudal -servitudes. Even the better-educated farmers for their own interests -favoured this idea. The result was a regular jacquerie in many -parts of France. The châteaux of the lords were burnt, or in some -instances only the charters stored in them, and the lords’ dovecotes -and rabbit-warrens were generally destroyed. In certain provinces -the National Guards of the neighbouring towns put down these rural -outbreaks, occasionally with great severity, but as a rule they ran -their course unchecked. - -[Sidenote: The Session of 4th August.] - -On 4th August a deputy named Salomon read a report on these occurrences -to the National Assembly, or as it is generally called from the -Constitution it framed, the Constituent Assembly. His report was -followed by a curious scene, which marked the transition from feudal -to modern France. The scene was opened by the sacrifice by some of the -young liberal noblemen of their feudal rights. Privileges of all sorts, -privileges of class, of town and of province were solemnly abandoned. -Feudal customs and all relics of feudalism were condemned and declared -to be abolished. Even tithes were swept away, in spite of a protest -from Sieyès, and the ‘orgie,’ as Mirabeau termed it, closed with a -decree that a monument should be erected to Louis XVI., ‘the restorer -of French liberty.’ - -[Sidenote: The Declaration of the Rights of Man.] - -[Sidenote: The Suspensive Veto.] - -But it was not possible to restore peace and prosperity to France -by the abolition of the relics of feudalism. Destruction of former -anomalies and of a crumbling system of government would inevitably lead -to anarchy, unless accompanied by the construction of a new scheme of -central and local administration. It was here that the Constituent -Assembly failed. The deputies were quick to destroy but slow to -construct. For two months they wasted time instead of hastening to draw -up a new constitution for France. They first wrangled over the wording -of a Declaration of the Rights of Man, which they resolved to compile -in imitation of the founders of the American Republic. They then -debated lengthily whether the future representative assembly of France -should consist of one or two chambers, and whether the King should have -power to veto its acts. The first question was decided in favour of a -single chamber, more because the English Constitution sanctioned two -chambers, and the deputies feared to be thought imitators, than for -any logical reason. And the debate on the second question terminated -in the grant to the King of a suspensive veto for six months, in spite -of the eloquence of Mirabeau, who saw that a monarchical constitution, -which gave the King no more power than the President of the United -States of America, would prove unworkable, because it would divorce -responsibility from real authority, leaving the former to the King and -the latter to the Legislature. - -[Sidenote: The march of the Women to Versailles. 5th October.] - -[Sidenote: The King brought to Paris. 6th October.] - -During the two months occupied by these debates the situation had -again become critical. Necker’s only idea to relieve the financial -situation was to propose loans, which the Assembly granted, but which -he could not succeed in raising. The King was again being acted -upon by the Court party, which advocated the use of force and the -dissolution of the Assembly, and this party was encouraged by the -Queen and by the King’s sister, Madame Elizabeth. He was also urged -to leave the neighbourhood of Paris and to establish himself in some -provincial town, where the populace could be more easily restrained -by the regular troops. He would not heartily agree to either of these -courses, but weakly consented once more to concentrate troops round his -person. Everything advised at Versailles was soon known in Paris. The -journalists, who had since the capture of the Bastille sprung up in the -capital to advocate the views of the popular party, and of whom the -ablest were Loustalot, editor of the _Révolutions de Paris_, and Marat, -editor of the _Ami du Peuple_, kept warning the people of Paris against -treason on the part of the King, and prophesying dire consequences if -he were allowed to leave the neighbourhood or to concentrate troops. -Their words did not fall on unheeding ears. The working classes feared -a siege of Paris again as they had done in July, and looked on the -King’s presence in Paris as the only means to keep down the price -of necessaries. The thinking bourgeois, whether liberal deputies in -the Assembly or national guards in Paris, feared a sudden forced -dissolution of the Assembly, and not only the loss of the advantages -they had gained but punishment for the part they had played. Both -these elements were perceptible in the movement which followed. The -description given in the popular journals of a banquet at Versailles, -honoured by the presence of the royal family, at which the national -cockade had been trampled underfoot, on 1st October, roused the people -of Paris to a frenzy of wrath and fear. On 5th October a crowd of women -collected in Paris, declaring that they were starving, and were led to -Versailles by Maillard, one of the conquerors of the Bastille, followed -by a mob. The representatives of the women interviewed the King, and -the mob prepared to spend the night outside the palace walls. Late at -night they were followed by a powerful detachment of the National Guard -of Paris, under the command of Lafayette, who protested that he came to -save the King. Nevertheless, owing to bad management, some of the mob -broke into the palace before daybreak on the morning of 6th October and -murdered two of the royal bodyguards. Lafayette came to the rescue and -demanded that the King and royal family should come to Paris and take -up their residence at the Tuileries. The King, horrified by the events -of the morning, and obliged to obey Lafayette, consented, and the royal -family, accompanied by the mob, and escorted by the National Guard, at -once proceeded to the capital. This second victory of the Parisians was -not less important than the first: on 14th July the people of Paris had -terrified the King into abandoning the idea of dissolving the National -Assembly by force; on 6th October they brought him amongst them, so -that if he again conceived the idea, he would be unable to execute it. - -[Sidenote: Effect in Europe.] - -The capture of the Bastille caused the most profound astonishment in -Europe. Where the people possessed some amount of political liberty, -as in the United States of America and in England, it appealed to the -imagination, and the French were regarded as the conquerors of their -freedom. In the neighbourhood of France, in the Rhenish principalities, -in Belgium, and above all in Liège, it caused a general sense of -discontent and even riots. The despotic monarchs of Europe and their -principal ministers did not pay so much attention to the capture of -the Bastille as did the inhabitants of free countries; they did not -for one moment believe that the National Assembly would be allowed to -alter the old constitution of France, and looked upon the whole of the -popular movement with a favourable eye as likely to weaken France and -prevent her from interfering in the affairs of the Continent. They took -care, however, to suppress all similar risings in their own states. The -King of Sardinia and the Elector of Mayence were especially severe; -the Emperor’s General d’Alton was more than severe in Belgium; and the -King of Prussia sent General Schlieffen with a strong force to restore -the authority of the Bishop of Liège. This attitude of the continental -monarchs was encouraged by the first French _émigrés_, who loudly -declared that the success of the Assembly was due to the culpable -weakness of Louis XVI. - -[Sidenote: The Belgian Revolution. Oct. 1789-Jan. 1790.] - -The tidings of the events of 5th and 6th October showed both the French -_émigrés_ and the continental monarchs that they were wrong in their -estimate of the Revolution. That the French royal family should be -triumphantly brought to Paris and be practically imprisoned in the -Tuileries under the eyes of the Parisian populace was a startling -proof of the power of the people. It proportionately encouraged the -supporters of all the popular movements on the French borders. Of -these, the most important was that which had already made so much -progress two years before in Belgium. The first result of the removal -of the King of France to Paris was the Belgian Revolution of 1789, -which filled almost as large a place in the eyes of contemporaries -as the French Revolution itself. Encouraged by the Triple Alliance, -and more especially by Frederick William II. of Prussia, the Belgian -exiles of both wings, the supporters of Van der Noot, the advocate -of the ancient Constitution, and of Vonck, the radical, had formed a -patriotic army at Breda. The news of the events of 5th and 6th October -determined them to act. On 23d October the army under Van der Mersch -crossed the border, and on 24th October Van der Noot issued a manifesto -declaring the Emperor Joseph deprived of his sovereignty over the Duchy -of Brabant for having violated its fundamental charter. - -[Sidenote: Formation of the Belgian Republic, 10th Jan. 1790.] - -The march of the patriotic army was both rapid and successful. Bruges -and Ostend opened their gates to the exiles; the fort of St. Pierre -at Ghent was stormed; and the Estates of Flanders at once assembled, -published a declaration of independence, and called on the other -provinces to join in the movement. In Brabant the excitement was at -its height. Trautmannsdorf in vain promised to restore the ‘Joyeuse -Entrée,’ to abolish the Imperial Seminary at Brussels, and to declare a -general amnesty. The patriots would not trust him, and Van der Mersch -advanced into the Duchy and occupied Tirlemont. The people of Brussels -then rose in insurrection. From 7th to 12th December was a period of -long-continued riot and street fighting. Many of the Austrian soldiers -deserted to the popular side, and those who remained true to their -colours were shot at from windows and refused to charge. The advance -of Van der Mersch set the seal upon d’Alton’s discomfiture. He made a -capitulation on 12th December, and marched out of Brussels, leaving -his guns, military stores, and military chest containing 3,000,000 -florins behind. He retreated to Luxembourg, the only province which -remained faithful to the House of Austria, and his example was followed -by the imperial garrisons of Malines, Antwerp, and Louvain, which -were abandoned to the patriots. D’Alton himself died at Trèves, it is -said by taking poison, on being summoned to Vienna to be tried by a -court-martial, and was succeeded in command of the Austrian troops in -Luxembourg by General Bender. On 18th December the patriot committee -entered Brussels, headed by Van der Noot, who was hailed by the people -as the Belgian Franklin. On 7th January 1790 representatives from all -the provinces of the former Austrian Netherlands met at Brussels under -the presidency of Cardinal Frankenberg, Archbishop of Malines, and -on 10th January they passed a federal constitution for the ‘United -Belgian States,’ resembling that of Holland, under which each province -was to preserve its internal independence, and only foreign affairs -and national defence were left to the central government. Van der Noot -was chosen Minister of State, and he at once asked for the official -recognition of the new Belgian Constitution by the Triple Alliance, -whose ministers at the Hague, Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and Van -der Spiegel had, he asserted, promised to guarantee the independence -of the new United States of Belgium. Frederick William II. of Prussia -endeavoured to carry out this promise. He authorised one of his -officers, General Schönfeld, to organise the Belgian army, and ordered -General Schlieffen at Liége to enter into communication with the new -government. But England and Holland, though approving the insurrection -of Belgium as affording a powerful counterpoise to the Emperor’s policy -in the East, were in no hurry to guarantee the new Republic, and Van -der Noot then determined, under the influence of the radicals or -Vonckists, to solicit the help of France, and announced the new Belgian -Constitution in a significant manner both to Louis XVI. and to the -President of the National Assembly. - -[Sidenote: Death of the Emperor Joseph. 20th Feb. 1790.] - -The news of the declaration of the independence of the Belgian -provinces, and of the revolution which had led to it, proved to be the -death-blow of the Emperor Joseph. To the Prince de Ligne, a native -of Belgium, he said, just before his death, ‘Your country has killed -me; the taking of Ghent is my agony; the evacuation of Brussels is -my death. What a disgrace this is for me! I die; I must be made of -wood, if I did not. Go to the Netherlands; make them return to their -allegiance. If you do not succeed in the attempt, remain there. Do -not sacrifice your fortune for me; you have children.’ The dying -Emperor in his despair made concessions in every direction. He humbled -his pride to entreat the Pope to use his influence with the Belgian -clergy. He gave in to the Hungarian magnates, who demanded the repeal -of his great reforms with threats of insurrection; and on 28th January -1790 he issued his ‘Revocatio Ordinationum quæ sensu communi legibus -adversari videbantur,’ by which he revoked all his reforms in Hungary, -except the edict of toleration and the decrees against serfdom; and -on 18th February he ordered the Crown of St. Stephen to be sent back -to Pesth. He assented to the suspension of his reforming edicts in -Bohemia, and even in the Tyrol, where an insurrection was on the point -of breaking out. Then, feeling his life a failure, he prepared for -death. He confessed and received the ordinances of the Church; the -last words he was heard to say were: ‘I believe I have done my duty -as a man and a prince,’ and on the morning of 20th February he died. -The words he wished to be written on his grave were: ‘Here rests a -prince, whose intentions were pure; but who had the misfortune to -see all his plans miscarry;’ but the people of Vienna, with a deeper -sense of the merits of the great ruler who had lived in their midst, -placed on his statue the inscription, ‘Josepho secundo, arduis nato, -magnis perfuncto, majoribus præcepto, qui saluti publicæ vixit non -diu, sed totus.’ The failure of the career of Joseph, the noblest -sovereign of the eighteenth century,—one of the noblest sovereigns -of any century,—was a proof of the fallacy of the eighteenth century -conception of benevolent despotism. He had tried to accomplish in his -dominions the very measures of reform which the Constituent Assembly -had undertaken in France. The abolition of the relics of feudalism, -the creation of a spirit of nationality, based upon the existence of -uniform laws, the nationalisation of the Church and of education, the -removal of all caste privileges, whether in the payment of taxes or in -eligibility for public employment, and the maintenance of good internal -administration, the primary aims and the great achievements of the -Revolution in France, were also the objects of Joseph’s reforms. But -everything was to be done for the people, nothing by the people, and -it is doubtful whether, if Joseph had been in the place of Louis XVI., -the French people would have relished the advantages he might have -conferred. The spirit of locality was perhaps not so strong in France -as in the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria. Dauphiné and -Burgundy did not differ from Brittany and Normandy as much as Bohemia -and Hungary, Belgium and the Milanese differed from each other. Yet the -abolition of local distinctions might have been resented in France, -as it was in the dominions of Joseph, if it had been accomplished by -the monarch, instead of being the work of elected representatives. -It is indeed remarkable that, allowing for the want of exactness in -the parallel, owing to the difference of local conditions, the very -reforms, which rallied all France to the side of the Revolution, -should have led to the disastrous termination of the Emperor Joseph’s -reign, and it is difficult to avoid coming to the conclusion that the -whole subject illustrates the grand distinction between the eighteenth -and the nineteenth centuries, the distinction between alterations in -the political, social, or economical conditions of a state made by a -monarch for his people, and by a people for itself. - -Louis XVI., indeed, showed himself a very different type of monarch -from Joseph. He wished for the good of his people as ardently as his -brother-in-law, but he had during the early years of his reign been -satisfied with wishing for reforms, instead of energetically initiating -them. When the success of the Revolution was assured by the policy of -the deputies of the Tiers État, by the capture of the Bastille and by -his own establishment at Paris, he never thought of setting himself at -the head of the party of reform. He did not openly ally himself with -the Tiers État, to vanquish the opposition of the nobles, as Gustavus -III. of Sweden had done; he did not dream of outbidding the National -Assembly for popularity by lavish promises, as other monarchs before -and since have done; and he did not even try to share the credit of the -representatives of the people by exhibiting an ardent zeal for reform. -The horror he felt for civil war was not recognised; his partial -yielding to the Court party of reaction in July and October, though at -so late a date and so half-heartedly as to nullify any chance of its -success, was imputed to him as a crime; and the difficulty presented -by the fact that his dearest relatives, his Queen, Marie Antoinette, -and his sister, Madame Elizabeth, were against all reform, was never -fully appreciated. In consequence, the King’s real wishes to please -his people and avoid bloodshed were looked on as simulated by the -members of the National Assembly, and not only Louis himself, but the -very principle of the French monarchy, were regarded as hostile to -representative institutions. Louis XVI. was as weak as Joseph II. was -energetic, but he was equally well-intentioned; and it was a distinct -misfortune, both for himself and for France, that the value of the -passive inertness, which he generally opposed to the reactionary -schemes of his family and of the partisans of the _ancien régime_, was -not adequately recognised. - -[Sidenote: The New French Constitution. 1789–1791.] - -This attitude towards the King had an important effect upon the -constitution which the Constituent Assembly was engaged in framing -during the year 1790. Only the main points in the growth of this -Constitution, which occupied the greater part of the time of the -Assembly from 1789 to 1791, can here be touched upon. But one striking -feature must first be observed, that it was drawn up and applied -piecemeal, not as an organic whole, like the later French constitutions -of the revolutionary period. The first important principle was decreed -upon 12th November 1789, when it was resolved that all the old local -divisions of France, which perpetuated the memory of the gradual -growth of the French provinces into France, should be abolished, and -that the country should be divided into eighty departments of nearly -equal size. It was naturally some months before the new division -was effected, and still longer before the further division of each -department into districts, and each district into cantons was finished. -No wiser step for converting France from a congeries of provinces into -a nation could have been devised. On the basis of the new divisions -a new local government was established. Each department and district -was to be administered by elected authorities, elaborately chosen by a -system of double election. Next to the local government, the judicial -system was reorganised. The Parlements were all abolished, and local -courts, consisting of elected judges of departmental and district -tribunals, and elected justices of the peace, were substituted. A -uniform system of law was projected, and juries were sanctioned in -criminal but not in civil cases. In these sweeping reforms one natural -blemish is perceptible: from having no elected officials the other -extreme was adopted of having all officials elected. - -[Sidenote: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy.] - -The mania for election affected the reform of the ecclesiastical -arrangements of France, and directly brought about the schism, which -so largely contributed to the misfortunes of France during the -revolutionary period. On 2d November 1789 it had been resolved, in -the face of the financial distress, that the property of the Church -in France should be confiscated or resumed, as it was represented by -opposite parties, while acknowledging the duty of providing and paying -curés and bishops. This implied the formation of a State Church, a -measure which needed the most delicate handling. On 13th February 1790 -all monasteries and religious houses were suppressed; but as there had -already been a partial suppression a few years previously, this would -not by itself have caused a schism. It was otherwise with regard to the -Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It was resolved to reduce the number -of bishoprics to one for each department, and that all the beneficed -clergy, from curés to bishops, should be elected. This violation of -a fundamental principle of the Catholic Church could not be allowed -to pass unchallenged, and when the Constituent Assembly found that -opposition was raised, it drove matters to a crisis by ordering that -every beneficed ecclesiastic should take an oath to observe the new -Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This oath was generally refused by -the bishops and dignitaries, and largely by the parochial clergy, and -it was resolved by the Assembly, on 27th November 1790, that all who -refused the oath within one week should be held to be dismissed from -their offices. The King sanctioned this decree on 26th December 1790, -and the great schism in France began. It was doubtful at first whether -apostolical succession could be preserved in the new Church of France. -Only four beneficed bishops, including Loménie de Brienne, Cardinal -Archbishop of Sens, and Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, out of one hundred -and thirty-five, and three coadjutor bishops, or bishops _in partibus_, -including Gobel, Bishop of Lydda, consented to take the oath, but -by them the first of the elected bishops of departmental sees were -consecrated. - -The measures of the Constituent Assembly in abolishing the old -provincial divisions and law courts, and substituting new and more -modern arrangements for administration, were in the nature of great -reforms, though marred by the mania for election; the attempt to -establish a Gallican Church, though obviously opposed to the discipline -of the Catholic Church, and seriously discounted by the same mania, -was patriotic, if not very wise; but the arrangements for the central -administration were utterly absurd. In their dislike of the system -of the _ancien régime_, and their fear of a strong executive, the -Constituent Assembly thought it could not do enough to hamper the -authority of the throne and of the central administration. The King, -under the new Constitution, was left powerless. He was to be the first -functionary of the State, nothing more. His veto on the measures of the -Legislature was to have effect for only six months; his guards were -suppressed, and his position made untenable for a strong monarch, and -unbearable for a weak one. The ministers were invested with supreme -executive authority, but more regulations were made to ensure their -responsibility and limit their actual power, than to define their -functions. They were to be answerable to the Legislature, in which they -were not allowed to sit; and their measures were to be criticised by -an irresponsible representative assembly. Under such regulations the -King and his ministers, that is, the executive, were put in a position -of inferiority, which no vigorous man could be expected to accept, to -the inevitable derangement of the whole administrative machine. In -addition to the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly carried several -measures of the greatest importance to a free state. All citizens, -of whatever religion or class, were declared eligible for employment -by the State; and on 13th April 1790 a noble decree, declaring the -most absolute and entire toleration of every form of religion, was -carried. The Constitution of 1791 was, on the whole, a praiseworthy -effort of untried legislators to give their country a representative -constitution. It was marred only by the fatal jealousy of giving due -authority to the executive, and the mania for election. But it was -in no way democratic. For the election to all offices was to be by -at least two degrees, and no man was to have a vote unless he was an -‘active citizen.’ To be an active citizen, a man had to contribute to -the direct taxation of the country an amount equivalent in value to -three days’ wages in his locality. Further, to be eligible for office, -a candidate had to pay taxes of the value of a ‘silver mark,’ which -inevitably restricted all offices to the bourgeois, or very prosperous -working men. - -[Sidenote: Other acts of the Constituent Assembly.] - -Though the main occupation of the Constituent Assembly was the -building up of the Constitution of 1791, it interfered only too much -in matters of current administration. It was soon obvious that its -power exceeded that of the King, and it has been observed that Van der -Noot announced the new Belgian Constitution alike to the King and the -President of the Assembly, as to authorities of equal importance. The -mischief produced by this constant interference was perceptible in -every department of government. Mirabeau, who was a profound master of -statecraft, saw through the fallacies of endeavouring to separate the -legislative and executive powers in the State, and, what was implied -in the preponderance of a legislature in which the ministers had no -seat, to divorce authority from responsibility. He understood and -approved of the English system, and as soon as the Constituent Assembly -had removed to Paris in October 1789, after the establishment of the -King at the Tuileries, and he had got the ear of the Court through his -friend, La Marck, Mirabeau proposed the formation of a constitutional -ministry, after the English fashion, from among the leading members of -the Assembly. His scheme got noised abroad: the Assembly in its fear -of the executive, which was afterwards consecrated in the Constitution -of 1791, and stimulated by Lafayette, who dreaded the influence of a -strong ministry, passed a motion on 7th November, that no member of the -Assembly could take office as a minister while he remained a deputy, or -for three years after his resignation. - -The spirit, which lay at the root of this decree, showed itself in -other ways. The fear of the influence of the Crown extended itself -to the army and navy, as the natural instruments of the Crown for -re-establishing its former authority. The army, already disorganised by -the emigration of many of its officers, was practically destroyed in -its efficiency as a fighting machine by the relaxation of discipline -among the soldiers, caused not only by the actual decrees of the -Assembly, but by the impunity allowed to desertion and mutiny. The -Marquis de Bouillé, the general commanding at Metz, did indeed put -down a military mutiny at Nancy on 31st August 1790, but his action, -though applauded by the Assembly, which could not openly encourage -mutiny, was isolated and not imitated. In the navy matters were even -more desperate, for a larger proportion of officers deserted, resigned, -or emigrated than in the army, and loss of discipline is even more -disastrous in a naval than in a military force. The weakness of the -army was intended to be compensated by the enrolment of national -guards. But these citizen soldiers could not be treated with the -strictness of regular troops. They were chiefly of the bourgeois class, -and had the prejudices of that class, caring more for the protection of -their property than for military efficiency. In Paris they were of the -most importance, owing to their numbers, and their commander-in-chief, -Lafayette, probably the most powerful man in France in 1790. The -framing of the Constitution, and the disorganisation of the central -authority and its instruments were the chief results of the labours of -the Constituent Assembly in 1790; but among its minor acts should be -noted the abolition of titles of nobility, liveries and other relics of -social pre-eminence on 13th July 1790, as an evidence of its desire to -extirpate even the outward signs of the _ancien régime_. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau.] - -Only one man seems to have understood the dangers to which France -was drifting owing to the policy of the Constituent Assembly, and -that man was Mirabeau. He had done more than any man to assure the -victory of the Tiers État in June 1789; he was the greatest orator and -greatest statesman the revolutionary crisis had produced. Mirabeau, -however, hated anarchy as much as he did despotism. He saw the absolute -necessity of establishing a strong executive, if the crisis of 1789, -the dissolution of the old authorities, the unpunished riots in towns, -and the jacquerie in the rural districts were not to lead to anarchy. -Foiled in his prudent scheme of selecting a strong ministry from the -Constituent Assembly[6] by the vote of 7th November 1789, Mirabeau -saw that it was impossible to overcome the distrust of the Assembly -for the executive. He therefore turned to the Court, and in May 1790 -he became the secret adviser of the King through the mediation of -his friend La Marck. In a series of memoirs or notes for the Court -of surpassing political wisdom, Mirabeau analysed the situation of -affairs and proposed remedies. The two main dangers were the state of -the finances and the fear of foreign intervention. Mirabeau’s horror -of national bankruptcy was as great as his personal extravagance in -expenditure. In September 1789 he advocated Necker’s scheme of a -general contribution, though it was accompanied by stipulations which -were certain to make it almost entirely unproductive, and he personally -disapproved of it; in December 1789 he grudgingly acquiesced in the -first issue of ‘assignats’ or promises to pay, based on the value of -the property of the Church, resumed or confiscated by the Assembly, -and to be extinguished as this property was sold. In August 1790 -he went yet further. Comprehending that men are mainly influenced -by their pecuniary interests, he advocated a wide extension of the -system of assignats, down to small sums, on the grounds that they -would then be able to reach the hands of the poorer classes and give -them an interest in their maintaining their value, and would also -frustrate the machinations of speculators, who began to make money by -depreciating the exchange of specie against the new paper currency. But -he also wisely proposed and successfully carried severe regulations -for the extinction of assignats as the national property was realised, -regulations which, unfortunately, were not strictly observed. His -decree was followed in September 1790 by the retirement of Necker from -office, and it is a significant proof of the change in popular opinion -that the final retirement of the minister, whose dismissal in July 1789 -had brought about the capture of the Bastille, was received without -excitement. - -The other great danger which France incurred, by the disorganising -policy of the Constituent Assembly, was the possibility of the armed -intervention of foreign powers. Mirabeau thought that if national -bankruptcy and the interference of foreigners could be avoided, the -anarchy, which was making itself felt, might soon be quelled. He did -not fear civil war; indeed, he argued that it might be a positive -advantage, and that as long as the King did not retract his concession -of a representative constitution, a large portion of his subjects would -support him in winning back the legitimate authority of the executive. -But foreign war was to him an evil to be feared as much as national -bankruptcy. He knew the spirit of his countrymen well, and that they -would in case of national disaster submit to any despotism rather than -submit to the dictation or the interference of a foreign power in their -internal affairs. Success in a foreign war owing to the state of the -army was not to be expected, but if it did come, it would with almost -equal certainty lead to the despotism of the conquering government, -whether it were the reigning monarch, his successor, or a victorious -general. To avoid a foreign war it was necessary as far as possible to -leave the conduct of foreign affairs in the hands of the King. This -was Mirabeau’s intention in the great debate on the right of declaring -peace and war in May 1790, and he succeeded in getting the Assembly -to sanction the initiation of peace or war as part of the duties of -the King. But at this period Louis XVI. was too weak or too unwilling -to understand the paramount necessity of maintaining peace. Mirabeau, -therefore, got himself elected to a special Diplomatic Committee of the -Constituent Assembly, and as its reporter endeavoured throughout the -year 1790 to keep France clear of international complications. - -[Sidenote: Mirabeau and the Court.] - -Unfortunately neither Louis XVI. nor his ministers, and still less -Marie Antoinette, grasped the truth of Mirabeau’s memoirs for the -Court. On the contrary, the one idea of the Queen was to get her -brother, the Emperor Leopold, to interfere, and, if necessary, by force -of arms to restore the power of the French monarch. The King, too, was -startled at Mirabeau’s ideas; he felt no horror at the notion of a -foreign war, but would suffer anything rather than engage in a civil -war. The wise advice of the great statesman went unheeded; both King -and Queen regarded their connection with him as the clever muzzling of -a dangerous revolutionary leader. They could not comprehend his desire -to establish a strong executive for the sake of France, and looked -on it as a bit of personal ambition. The King was not sufficiently -far-seeing, nor the Queen sufficiently patriotic to understand his -views. If the Constituent Assembly distrusted the Court, the King and -Queen no less strongly distrusted Mirabeau. - -As reporter of the Diplomatic Committee, Mirabeau had three different -problems to solve, in which the policy of the Assembly came in contact -with foreign powers, the affairs of Avignon, the maintenance of the -Pacte de Famille with Spain, and the interference caused by the -legislation of the Assembly with the Princes of the Empire who owned -fiefs of the Empire in Alsace. - -[Sidenote: Avignon and the Venaissin.] - -The city of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, though inhabited -by Frenchmen and surrounded by French territory, were under the -sovereignty of the Pope. As early as the ‘orgie’ of 4th August 1789 -the Constituent Assembly had pronounced on the expediency of uniting -both the city and the county with France. A French party was formed in -Avignon; and a free municipal constitution after the model of those -just established in France was framed and assented to by the Cardinal -Vice-Legate in April 1790. The Pope, however, annulled his deputy’s -assent, with the result that fierce street fighting took place in the -city, which was only stopped by the intervention of the National Guard -of the neighbouring French city of Orange. The result of these events -was that the city of Avignon, or at least the French party there, -declared Avignon united to France on 12th June 1790. The inhabitants -of the Venaissin, on the other hand, declared their attachment for the -Pope, and their wish to remain subject to him. When these circumstances -became known in Paris a strong party showed itself in the Assembly in -favour of accepting the union of Avignon with or without the Pope’s -assent. Mirabeau skilfully averted the danger of a flagrant breach of -international law by securing the appointment of an Avignon Committee, -and when it became necessary to send regular troops to maintain order -in the city, he secured their despatch thither without the assumption -of any rights of sovereignty. - -[Sidenote: The Affair of Nootka Sound. May 1790.] - -Far more serious was the question which arose in May 1790, and which -gave rise to the debate in the Constituent Assembly on the right -of declaring peace and war, for it brought into prominence a doubt -whether the Assembly should recognise the treaties made by the French -monarchy. Of these treaties, the most popular in France, and the first -to be brought into evidence, was the Pacte de Famille, which had been -concluded in 1761 by Choiseul between France and Spain. Charles IV. -had succeeded his able and accomplished father, Charles III., on 12th -December 1788. The new monarch was completely under the influence -of his wife, Marie Louise, a princess of Parma, who in her turn was -governed by a young guardsman, her lover, Godoy. Charles IV. made a -friend of Godoy, a fact which of itself shows the essential weakness -of his character. He, as well as his Queen, was, outwardly at least, -deeply religious, and it was pretty certain that before long a reaction -would take place at the Spanish Court against the liberal _régime_, -which, in the previous reign, under the administration of Aranda and -Florida Blanca, Campomanes and Jovellanos, had done so much for Spain. -But for the first three years of his reign, Charles IV. maintained -his father’s experienced ministers, with the assent of the Queen, who -did not dare at once to introduce her lover into the ministry, or -invest him openly with power. Florida Blanca, the Spanish minister, -with Spanish pride, refused to recognise the actual weakness of Spain, -and was particularly active in maintaining her supremacy in America. -When, therefore, Vancouver Island was demonstrated to be an island -and not a peninsula, he claimed its possession for Spain, and also -alleged pre-colonisation. But he went further. Spanish officers had -seized an English ship in Nootka Sound, now St. George’s Sound, in -Vancouver Island, had destroyed an English settlement there, and had -even insulted an English naval captain. When Pitt demanded reparation, -Florida Blanca replied haughtily, and claimed the possession of the -island on the grounds stated. Pitt at once sent one of the ablest -English diplomatists, Alleyne Fitzherbert, afterwards Lord St. Helens, -to threaten to declare war, and prepared a great fleet, known in -English naval history as the Spanish Armament. - -Both Pitt and Florida Blanca knew that a war between England and Spain -would only be seriously undertaken if France decided to intervene. -Florida Blanca claimed the assistance of France under the terms of the -Pacte de Famille, and Pitt, who understood that power had passed from -Louis XVI. to the Constituent Assembly, sent two secret emissaries to -Paris to see if the Assembly was inclined to maintain the policy of -the _ancien régime_. One of these emissaries was Hugh Elliot, brother -of Sir Gilbert Elliot, afterwards Lord Minto, an old schoolfellow of -Mirabeau, who was expected to influence the orator, and the other, -William Augustus Miles, who was to ally himself with the leading -democratic deputies. The question came before the Constituent Assembly -on a letter from the Comte de Montmorin, Minister for Foreign Affairs. -The enthusiasm in the Assembly for the maintenance of the Spanish -Alliance was extreme, defiance was hurled at England, Spain’s faithful -adherence to the Pacte de Famille in the Seven Years’ War and the War -of American Independence was remembered, and a fleet for active service -was ordered to be got ready at Brest, and sixteen new ships of war -built. But the first burst of enthusiasm soon cooled. Some deputies -feared war would strengthen the monarchy, others did not like to be -bound by the treaties, especially the dynastic treaties of the _ancien -régime_, and others again, headed by Robespierre and Pétion, inveighed -against the idea of any offensive war. The whole question was referred -to the Diplomatic Committee. Mirabeau, who knew perfectly well that -Spain would not fight without the aid of France, read an able report, -recommending that the Pacte de Famille should be changed to a simple -defensive treaty, which was adopted. The Court of Spain, seeing that no -help was to be got from France under these circumstances, resigned its -pretensions to Vancouver Island, and consented to pay the compensation -demanded by England. This diplomatic victory of England exasperated the -Spaniards; Charles IV. was surprised and disgusted at the concessions -made by Louis XVI., and declared them a breach of the Pacte de Famille; -and by her conduct France lost the friendship of her closest ally of -the eighteenth century. - -[Sidenote: The Rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace.] - -The third question in which the new state of things in France -touched the diplomatic system of old Europe and threatened to cause -international complications, which might lead to a foreign war, was -concerned with the fiefs of the Empire in Alsace. By the Treaty of -Westphalia that province had been ceded to France in full and entire -sovereignty, but reserving the rights of the Empire. The complications -caused by this ambiguous arrangement had raised perpetual difficulties -throughout the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., and many separate -treaties had been concluded with individual princes, by which they -recognised the sovereignty of France in Alsace, in return for the -acknowledgment of all their ancient rights. A further problem was -added by the fact that the more important princely landowners in -Alsace were also ruling and independent sovereigns across the French -border. They were thus supreme, save for the loose over-lordship of -the Emperor in Germany, and subject to the French monarchy for their -domains in Alsace. Among the principal of these rulers were the -three ecclesiastical electors, the Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, -and Cologne, the Bishops of Strasbourg, Spires, Worms, and Basle, -the Abbot of Murbach, the Dukes of Würtemburg and of Deux-Ponts or -Zweibrücken, the Elector Palatine, the Margrave of Baden, the Landgrave -of Hesse-Darmstadt, and the Princes of Nassau, Leiningen, Salm-Salm, -and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein. These princes were naturally profoundly -affected by the abolition of feudalism decreed by the Constituent -Assembly, which further complicated their position. They felt as German -princes, and appealed against the measures of the Assembly as contrary -to international law, and violating the Treaty of Westphalia and the -many separate treaties. The protests of certain of these princes were -laid before the Assembly on 11th February 1790, and referred by it to -the Feudal Committee on 28th April. The reporter of the Committee on -this matter was Merlin of Douai, one of the greatest French jurists -and statesmen of the whole revolutionary period. On 28th October he -read his report, in which he insisted on the new principle of the -sovereignty of the people. He asserted that the unity of Alsace with -France rested not on ancient treaties, but on the unanimous resolution -of the Alsatian people to be Frenchmen. But at the same time he argued -that in practice old rights ought to be maintained. Mirabeau, with his -usual sagacity, saw that international complications might, on this -ground, be adjourned, if not altogether avoided; and it was on his -motion that the Constituent Assembly resolved to uphold the sovereignty -of France in Alsace, and the application of all its decrees to that -province, but at the same time requested the King to arrange the amount -of indemnity to be paid to the Princes of the Empire as compensation -for the rights of which they were thus deprived. These princes, -however, with but very few exceptions, refused absolutely to accept any -monetary compensation, and appealed to the Diet of the Empire. It was -on this question, therefore, that foreign intervention most seriously -threatened France at the end of 1790, in spite of the diplomatic -knowledge and skill of two of her leading statesmen, Mirabeau and -Merlin of Douai. - -While Mirabeau was doing his best to keep France from the disturbance, -and even disasters, which a foreign war would cause in the midst of -her new development, the Queen cast all her hopes for the restoration -of the power of the French monarchy on the armed help of foreign -states. Louis XVI. in a half-hearted fashion was opposed to foreign -interference, but his younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, and the -French _émigrés_, who had established themselves on the borders of -France, declared that the King was not in his right senses, and that -he was forced to yield to the measures of the Constituent Assembly -against his will. They felt no patriotic misgivings, and loudly invoked -the assistance of all monarchs in the cause of monarchy and the feudal -system. The ruler on whom the Queen chiefly relied, and to whom she -appealed most fervently, the monarch to whom the _émigrés_ looked with -most confidence, was Leopold, the brother and successor of Joseph -II. He held the key of the position; he was the sovereign especially -feared by the leaders of the Constituent Assembly, and as Emperor and -as brother of Marie Antoinette he was expected by the royalists to -intervene in the affairs of France. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - 1790–1792 - - The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly - in France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France - and Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death - of the Emperor Leopold—Murder of Gustavus III. of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - II. crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia and - Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of Louis - XVI.—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres of September - in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the National - Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest of - Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest - of Belgium—Execution of Louis XVI.—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and - Poland. - - -[Sidenote: The Emperor Leopold.] - -The successor of Joseph II., the Emperor Leopold, was, except perhaps -Catherine of Russia, the ablest monarch of his time. He had had a -long experience in the art of government, for he had succeeded to the -sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1765, on the death of his -father, the Emperor Francis of Lorraine. While his brother Joseph -was kept until 1780 by Maria Theresa in leading-strings as far as the -actual administration of the Hapsburg dominions was concerned, and -was only able to exert his authority as Emperor, Leopold had from his -boyhood been an absolute and irresponsible sovereign, and had imbibed -from his education an Italian knowledge of statecraft. During his -long reign in Tuscany he showed the finest qualities of a benevolent -despot in his measures for increasing the material comforts of his -people, combined with tact and diplomatic subtlety. His reforms were -as sweeping as those of Joseph, but were so managed as not to set -his dominions in a flame. With the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop -of Pistoia, he freed the people of Tuscany from the heavy burden of -an excessive number of ecclesiastics; he reorganised the internal -administration, and especially the judicial system; and he showed such -intelligence in grasping and partially applying the new principles of -political economy as to be called ‘the physiocratic prince.’ He had -been Grand Duke of Tuscany for twenty-five years, and when he succeeded -his elder brother Joseph as King of Hungary and Bohemia in February -1790, he had earned the reputation of a singularly wise and prudent -statesman, and of one who, if it could be done, might be expected to -restore the power of the House of Austria. He abandoned the Grand Duchy -of Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand, and at once applied himself to -the difficult task bequeathed to him by Joseph II. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Leopold.] - -Leopold found the power of Austria seriously affected by dangers from -within and dangers from without. He at once undid much of Joseph’s -work. He recognised the difference between consolidating and unifying a -nation, which was essentially one, and a congeries of nations speaking -different languages, belonging to different races, and geographically -widely separated. In Tuscany he had accomplished a great work in -abolishing the local franchises of the cities and building up a Tuscan -state, but he understood that such a work was impossible in the divided -hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg, and that the Emperor -Joseph had been attempting a hopeless task. Leopold’s first step was, -therefore, to restore the former state of things in such parts of his -dominions as were not in open insurrection. In Austria proper, in -Bohemia, in the Milanese, and in the Tyrol, the concessions of Leopold -were received with demonstrations of popular gratitude. He abolished -the new system of taxation and the unpopular seminaries; he recognised -the separate administrations of provinces which were essentially -diverse; he gave up futile attempts at unification. But, at the same -time, he maintained the edict of religious toleration, the most noble -of Joseph’s reforms, and introduced many slight but appreciable -improvements in the local institutions which he restored. Having thus -assured the fidelity of an important body of his subjects, he prepared -to deal with the declared rebels in Belgium and the unconcealed -opposition in Hungary. It was here that Leopold suffered most from the -foreign policy of Maria Theresa and Joseph, for it was indisputable -that the prevalent discontent and insurrection in Belgium and Hungary -was fostered by the Triple Alliance, and especially by Prussia. He -had a serious war with the Turks on his hands; his ally, Catherine of -Russia, was too much occupied with her wars with the Swedes and Turks -and with the affairs of Poland, to come to his help; France, excited -by her internal dissensions, and with the Assembly indisposed to the -maintenance of the Treaty of 1756, might almost be reckoned an enemy; -the Empire had been roused to distrust by the policy of Joseph, and the -Triple Alliance was openly hostile. Under these circumstances Prussia -appeared at once the chief power on the Continent and the principal -enemy of Austria, and it was with Prussia that Leopold first resolved -to deal. - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Prussia.] - -The events of the year 1789 had greatly improved the position of -Prussia on the Continent. The pretensions of Joseph to Bavaria had made -Frederick William II., as it had made Frederick the Great, the real -leader of the Princes of the Empire, and the Triple Alliance had done -more to improve and strengthen his position in Europe. The classic -policy of Prussia was consistent opposition to Austria, and Hertzberg, -the Prussian minister, in pursuance of this policy, had made use of all -Joseph’s mistakes to lower the power of the House of Hapsburg. He felt -it necessary, indeed, to disavow a treaty with the Turks, which the too -zealous Prussian envoy had signed in January 1790, but he was eager -to make use of the difficulties of Russia and Austria caused by the -Turkish war to forward Prussia’s designs on Poland. His main aim was to -obtain the cession of the important Polish cities of Thorn and Dantzic, -which would give Prussia complete control of the great river Vistula. -The ablest Prussian diplomatist, Lucchesini, was sent to Warsaw, and -on 29th March 1790 he signed a treaty of friendship and union with -the Poles, by which Poland was to cede Thorn and Dantzic to Prussia -in return for the retrocession of part of Austrian Galicia, which had -fallen to Austria at the first partition, while Prussia promised to -guarantee the territory and constitution of Poland, and to send an army -of 18,000 men to the help of the Poles if they were attacked. - -This treaty, shameless even in its epoch for its desertion of allies, -breach of former engagements and absence of good faith, was highly -approved by Frederick William II. and Hertzberg. They would not have -dared to conclude it but for the seeming weakness of Russia and -Austria, the partners in the former partition. Russia was hampered by -the Swedish and Turkish wars, and the discontent of the ceded provinces -of Poland. Austria was in a still more desperate condition. With the -Turkish war still unconcluded, with open insurrection in Belgium, and -disaffection in Hungary, unpopular in the Empire, and deprived of the -alliance of France by the unconcealed dislike of the Assembly to the -Treaty of 1756, it seemed as if the House of Hapsburg must now give -way entirely to the House of Hohenzollern. Of the active encouragement -given to the Turks, the Belgians, the Hungarians, and the Princes of -the Empire against Austria by Prussia, mention has been made. Not less -skilful was the conduct of the Prussian ambassador at Paris, Goltz, who -intrigued with the more extreme leaders in the Assembly, and especially -Pétion,[7] against Austria, and in particular did all in his power to -increase the growing unpopularity of Marie Antoinette and to insist -that she was a traitor to France. - -[Sidenote: The Policy of Leopold.] - -Had a less able statesman than Leopold been the successor of Joseph, -the schemes of Prussia might have been crowned with success. But he -had not ruled in the native city of Machiavelli for a quarter of a -century for nothing; and he set to work to checkmate the designs of -Hertzberg and Frederick William II. His wise measures of conciliation -speedily rallied the heart of the hereditary dominions to him; and he -determined to use diplomacy to establish his position in Europe before -he dealt with Belgium and Hungary. He quickly perceived that Prussia’s -real strength lay in the support of the Triple Alliance; her financial -situation was such that she dared not undertake a serious war without -the active countenance of England and Holland. He knew that it was -worse than hopeless to rely upon France, and therefore at once applied -to England. He protested that he did not share his brother’s attachment -for Russia, or his schemes for the division of the Ottoman provinces; -and he further hinted that he would abandon all attempt to reconquer -Belgium and surrender it to France unless he received some assistance. -Pitt felt the weight of these considerations; he did not care much -about what happened to Poland, but he cared a great deal that the -French should not occupy Belgium. When, therefore, the King of Prussia -mobilised a powerful army in Silesia, and demanded through Hertzberg -that Austria should on the one hand make an armistice with the Turks, -and on the other restore Galicia to Poland, Leopold, trusting that -he had broken the harmony of the Triple Alliance, made no elaborate -warlike preparations, but demanded a conference. - -[Sidenote: The Conference of Reichenbach. June 1790.] - -The King of Hungary and Bohemia thoroughly understood the character of -the Prussian king and the intrigues of his courtiers and ministers; he -knew that Hertzberg was the real enemy of Austria, and that Frederick -William was unstable and easily persuaded. He felt that his own -strength lay in diplomacy, not war. On 26th June the two Austrian -envoys, Reuss and Spielmann, arrived at the headquarters of the -Prussian army in Silesia at Reichenbach, and demanded a conference. -Rather to the disgust of the Prussians, their allies of the Triple -Alliance insisted on being present, and a regular congress was held, -at which Hertzberg and Lucchesini represented Prussia, Reuss and -Spielmann, Austria, Ewart, England, Reden, Holland, and Jablonowski, -the Poles. Even the Hungarian malcontents and the Belgian rebels, -relying on the promises of Frederick William, ventured to send envoys. -The conclusions of the congress justified Leopold’s diplomatic skill. -When Hertzberg laid the Prussian demands in full before the assembled -envoys, to his surprise Jablonowski declared that the Poles would -never cede Thorn and Dantzic, while the representatives of England and -Holland not only advocated the maintenance of the _status quo_, but -refused the co-operation of their governments in Prussia’s schemes for -aggrandisement. The policy of Hertzberg and Kaunitz, of perpetuating -the rivalry of Prussia and Austria, had failed. Leopold was far too -acute to leave these matters to ministers. He placed himself in direct -communication with the King of Prussia and his personal favourites, -Lucchesini and Bischofswerder; he argued that the interests of the -two great German states both with regard to Poland and France were -identical, and on 27th July 1790 the Convention of Reichenbach was -signed, by which Austria promised at once to make an armistice with the -Turks, and eventually to conclude peace with them under the mediation -of the Triple Alliance, while, on the other hand, the powers of the -Triple Alliance guaranteed the restoration of the Austrian authority -in Belgium. It was more privately arranged that Prussia should withdraw -from encouraging discontent in Hungary and Belgium, and support -Leopold’s candidature for the Imperial throne. This great diplomatic -victory did more than merely check the active enmity of Prussia; it -established the ascendency of Leopold over the weak mind of Frederick -William; and it eventually, in May 1791, brought about, not indeed his -actual dismissal from office, but the removal of Hertzberg, the sworn -foe of Austria, from the charge of the foreign policy of Prussia. - -[Sidenote: Leopold and the Turks.] - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of Sistova. 4th Aug. 1791.] - -The first actual consequence of the Convention of Reichenbach was the -conclusion of an armistice between Austria and the Turks. The war had -never been looked on with favour by Leopold, who regarded Joseph’s -infatuation for the grandiose schemes of Catherine of Russia as absurd, -and the dismemberment of Turkey as impracticable, and at the present -time undesirable. He had not attempted to press matters against the -Turks, and had withdrawn many of his best troops under Loudon from the -seat of war to Bohemia to strengthen his position at Reichenbach. The -Prince of Coburg, who succeeded Loudon, aided by an earthquake, took -Orsova, and laid siege to Giurgevo, but he was defeated in his camp -after a severe battle on 8th July 1790. This defeat was only partially -compensated by a victory won by Clerfayt, and by the capture of Zettin -by General de Vins on 20th July. Under these circumstances Leopold was -not sorry to conclude an armistice for nine months at Giurgevo on 19th -September. Shortly afterwards a congress of plenipotentiaries from -Austria, Turkey, and the mediating powers met, as had been arranged -at Reichenbach, at Sistova. The negotiations lasted for many months; -Leopold insisted on the cession by Turkey of Old Orsova and a district -in Croatia, which would make the Danube and the Unna the boundary -between Austria and Turkey; Prussia at first strongly protested against -any cession to Austria; the congress even for a time broke up; and it -was not until Leopold adroitly got Lucchesini, the Prussian envoy, on -his side, that the important Treaty of Sistova upon the terms desired -by Leopold was concluded on 4th August 1791. - -[Sidenote: Leopold crowned Emperor. 9th Oct. 1790.] - -By this treaty the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg were -relieved from the danger of foreign war; the next result which Leopold -drew from the Convention of Reichenbach was the re-establishment -of the Austrian ascendency in Germany. Assured of the support of -Prussia, Leopold travelled to the Rhine. On 30th September 1790 he was -unanimously elected King of the Romans; on 4th October he solemnly -entered Frankfort, and on 9th October he was crowned Emperor. But it -was not enough for him to be crowned Emperor; he had to destroy the bad -effect of his brother Joseph’s attitude towards the Empire; he had to -become the real as well as the nominal head and leader of the German -princes, and to win back the advantages which Prussia had secured by -forming the League of Princes. The opportunity was afforded to him by -the disinclination of the German princes, who owned territories in -Alsace, Lorraine, and Franche Comté, to accept the compensation offered -to them by the French Constituent Assembly. Their protests took the -shape of a clause in the ‘capitulation’ laid before him and accepted -by him on his election as Emperor by which he promised to intervene on -behalf of the Empire for the preservation of the rights, sanctioned -by the Treaty of Westphalia, of the princes, whose interests were -affected. Leopold thus seized this opportunity to pose as the head of -the German Empire, and on 14th December 1790 he wrote a very strong -letter to Louis XVI., in which he said: ‘The territories in question -have not been transferred to the kingdom of France; they are subject to -the supremacy of the Emperor and the Empire: no member of the Empire -has the right to transfer that supremacy to a foreign nation. It -follows, therefore, that the decrees of the Assembly are null and void -so far as concerns the Empire and its members, and that everything -ought to be replaced on the ancient footing.’[8] - -[Sidenote: Leopold and Hungary.] - -[Sidenote: Leopold crowned King of Hungary. 15th Nov. 1790.] - -After being crowned Emperor at Frankfort, Leopold returned to Vienna -and proceeded to establish his power firmly in Hungary. The discontent -aroused in the most backward part of his dominions by the Emperor -Joseph’s measures had not been appeased by that monarch’s wholesale -retractation, nor even by the return of the Crown of St. Stephen. The -Hungarian nobles regarded Joseph’s retractation as a sign of weakness, -and, encouraged by the intrigues of Prussia and the difficulties -in which Leopold was involved by the war with the Turks, resolved -to obtain more sweeping concessions. The example of France exerted -an influence even in Hungary, and the following sentences from a -memorial,[9] presented to Leopold by the people of Pesth, might have -been written by a Parisian popular society: ‘From the rights of nations -and of man, and from that social compact whence States arose, it is -incontestable that sovereignty originates from the people. This axiom -our parent Nature has impressed on the hearts of all; it is one of -those which a just prince (and such we trust Your Majesty will ever be) -cannot dispute; it is one of those inalienable, imprescriptible rights -which the people cannot forfeit by neglect or disuse. Our constitution -places the sovereignty jointly in the king and people, in such a manner -that the remedies necessary to be applied according to the ends of -social life for the security of persons and property, are in the power -of the people. We are sure, therefore, that at the meeting of the -ensuing Diet, Your Majesty will not confine yourself to the objects -mentioned in your rescript; but will also restore our freedom to us, -in like manner as to the Belgians, who have conquered theirs with the -sword. It would be an example big with danger to teach the world that a -people can only protect or regain their liberties by the sword, and not -by obedience.’ The Hungarian Diet, which Leopold had summoned for the -ceremony of his coronation, and to which the people of Pesth alluded in -this remarkable address, was largely attended. The Hungarian nobility -regarded its convocation as a further sign of weakness, for none -had been held since the accession of Maria Theresa, and prepared an -inaugural act or compact, which would have reduced the kings of Hungary -to a similar position to that occupied by the kings of Poland. Full of -confidence in themselves they even went so far as to send envoys, as -has been mentioned, to the Congress of Reichenbach. Leopold, however, -had no intention of yielding to these demands; his only desire was to -gain time until he had secured his position by diplomacy. Meanwhile -he tried to stir up opposition in Hungary itself, by encouraging -the other nationalities in the kingdom, such as the inhabitants of -Croatia and the Banat. But when the Congress of Reichenbach was over, -the armistice of Giurgevo concluded, and his coronation as Emperor -performed, Leopold proceeded to deal with the Hungarians. He first -ordered the army of 60,000 men, which he had concentrated in Bohemia -to support his attitude against the Prussians, to Pesth, and then -directed the Diet to remove to Presburg for his coronation as King of -Hungary. He then declared that nothing would induce him to accept the -proposed new constitution, or to consent to an infringement of the -Edict of Toleration, and that he would only consent to the terms of -the inaugural acts of his grandfather, Charles VI., and his mother, -Maria Theresa. The Hungarian nobles, overcome by his firmness and the -presence of his troops, yielded; the Emperor appointed his fourth son, -the Archduke Leopold, to be Palatine of Hungary in the place of the -late Prince Esterhazy; and it was from him that he received the Crown -of St. Stephen on 15th November, on the terms he had stipulated. - -[Sidenote: Parties in Belgium.] - -Having gained this victory by his firmness, Leopold proceeded to win -popularity by a timely concession, and proposed a law, obliging every -future king to be crowned within six months of his accession. This -concession was received with the wildest enthusiasm, as it obviated -the possibility of conduct resembling that of Joseph II.; the Diet -granted the Emperor a gift of 225,000 florins instead of the usual -100,000 florins; and the disaffected attitude of the nobility was -changed for one of hearty admiration and gratitude. The bourgeois of -Pesth and their declarations were disavowed; the echo of the French -Revolution, which had been heard there, was quickly stifled; and -the Hungarian nobility, well contented with Leopold, declined to -encourage the popular aspirations. The difficulties which the Emperor -Leopold encountered in Hungary were trifling to those which faced -him in Belgium. But in this quarter time had worked for the House of -Hapsburg, and when the Congress of Plenipotentiaries, arranged at -the Congress of Reichenbach, met at the Hague in October 1790, the -situation had entirely changed. The victory of the Belgian rebels -in 1789 had been followed by internal dissensions, which appeared -directly the new Constitution was proclaimed. The first difference was -between the Van der Nootists, or Statists, as they termed themselves, -and the Vonckists. The latter, inspired by the success of the French -Revolution, advocated a thoroughly democratic constitution, and the -organisation of a new elective system of local administration, to the -great disgust of the Statists, who desired simply the restoration of -the old order of things, but with the central government controlled -by elected assembly instead of being in the hands of the House of -Hapsburg. Curiously enough popular feeling ran in a direction very -different from that followed in France. Influenced by the priests, -the Belgian people, and more especially the mob of Brussels, were -convinced that the Vonckists were atheists; the democrats were attacked -in the streets, maltreated and imprisoned; the bourgeois National -Guards refused to protect them; they were proscribed by Van der Noot -and the party in power; and after many riots and disturbances Vonck -fled to France in April 1790. These events greatly weakened the -Belgian Republic, for the democratic party, which had been energetic -in the revolution, numbered in its ranks many of the ablest and -most enlightened men in the country. But even more serious was the -result abroad, for the National Assembly of France and Lafayette were -surprised and disgusted at the persecution of the democrats, and the -sympathy of the French people was entirely alienated from the Belgian -leaders. Still more striking in its effect was the conduct of the Van -der Nootists towards the gallant officer, Van der Mersch, who had -commanded the patriot troops in the invasion of October 1789. Not -satisfied with superseding him by the Prussian general, Schönfeld, -the Van der Nootists had him arrested on a charge of disorganising -the Belgian army and imprisoned at Antwerp, to the great wrath of the -people of Flanders, of which province Van der Mersch was a native. The -conquering party was further divided. The nobility and clergy, headed -by the Duc d’Aremberg, were jealous of the ascendency assumed by Van -der Noot, and of the continued omnipotence of the Assembly at Brussels. -Under these circumstances it was a significant fact that the Austrian -troops in Luxembourg under the command of Marshal Bender were able with -the help of the people themselves to occupy the province of Limburg. - -[Sidenote: Congress at the Hague. Oct. 1790.] - -[Sidenote: Leopold reconquers Belgium.] - -[Sidenote: The Austrians at Liége.] - -In October 1790 the Congress, which had been resolved on at -Reichenbach, met at the Hague. The Austrian plenipotentiary was the -Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, the most accomplished Austrian diplomatist -and ambassador at Paris, and the representatives of England, Prussia, -and Holland were Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and the Grand Pensionary -Van der Spiegel. Leopold now reaped the advantages of his skilful -diplomacy at Reichenbach. England and Holland understood that the new -Emperor was a very different man from his predecessor, and Prussia -dared not act without them. As he had promised, Leopold solemnly -announced his intention to restore all the charters, laws, and -arrangements, which had existed in Belgium in the time of his mother, -Maria Theresa, under the guarantee of the three powers, and further -promised a general amnesty if his authority was recognised by 21st -November. The Belgian States-General made no reply to Leopold, and the -Emperor proceeded to concentrate 45,000 men under Bender in Luxembourg. -Then the Belgian leaders applied to the Congress at the Hague for a -prolongation of the armistice and the restoration of the state of -government existing in the time of Charles VI. and not in that of -Maria Theresa. These demands were supported by the representatives -of the Triple Alliance, but rejected by the Austrian ambassador. On -21st November the Belgian States-General elected the Archduke Charles, -the third son of the Emperor, to be hereditary Grand Duke, but the -time had gone by for compromises, and on the following day Bender -entered Belgium. The experiences of a year of revolution made the -Belgian people not unwilling to return under the sway of Austria; the -cities surrendered without a blow, and on 2d December 1790 Brussels -capitulated. Van der Noot fled with his chief friends, and Belgium -was won back by Leopold as easily as it had been lost by Joseph. On -8th December the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau assented to the restoration -of the liberties recognised in the inaugural act of Charles VI., -but Leopold disavowed his ambassador and insisted on the authority -possessed by Maria Theresa at the close of her reign. Under these -circumstances the mediating powers refused their guarantee, a refusal -which rather gratified the Emperor than otherwise, as it freed him -from the fear of foreign interference. Not only in Belgium itself, -but in the neighbouring bishopric of Liége also, Leopold established -Austrian ascendency. The princes of the Circle of the Empire, which -adjoined, were dissatisfied with the conduct of Prussia and General -Schlieffen, and appealed to the Emperor. He was only too glad to assert -his authority; Schlieffen evacuated the territory; and on 13th January -1791 it was occupied by an Austrian force, which re-established the -Prince-bishop in all his former authority. - -[Sidenote: Russia and Sweden.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Verela. Aug. 14th 1790.] - -The entire reversal of Joseph’s policy by Leopold, the arrangements -made at Reichenbach, and the friendly attitude of the new Emperor -towards the powers forming the Triple Alliance, deprived Russia of her -only ally at a time when the Empress had on her hands two exhausting -wars with Sweden and Turkey. The former was the most serious. Gustavus -III., freed from the dangers of a Danish invasion, and by his _coup -d’état_ from the formidable plots of his nobility, rejoined his army in -Finland and prepared to carry on the war vigorously by land and sea. -His army was too small to effect much in spite of his near approach to -St. Petersburg, and his chief confidence was in his fleet. This fleet -was soon blockaded in the Gulf of Vyborg by the Russian admiral, the -Prince of Nassau-Siegen, one of the most famous soldiers of fortune -of the century; an attempt it made to break out on 24th June 1790 was -repulsed, and the Russians even hoped to force it to capitulate. But, -to their surprise, the Swedes broke the blockade on the 3d July, though -with a loss of 5000 men, and on 9th July won a great naval victory -in Svenska Sound, in which the Russians lost 30 ships, 600 guns and -6000 men. But this victory led to no corresponding diplomatic result. -Catherine, defeated though she was, made overtures in no humiliated -spirit to the King of Sweden, and proposed to him that, instead of -quarrelling with his neighbours, he should turn his attention to the -state of affairs in France. The chivalrous and romantic king was not -unwilling to listen to her suggestions; he had, during a visit to -Paris, been much impressed by Marie Antoinette, and was full of pity -at the situation of the royal family of France and of disgust at the -progress of the Revolution. He felt, too, that the war with Russia -was not popular among his people, and on 14th August 1790 he signed -a treaty of peace at Verela, by which the _status quo ante bellum_ -between Russia and Sweden was restored without any compensation in -money or territory being obtained by the victorious Swedes. - -[Sidenote: Capture of Ismail. 20th Dec. 1790.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Jassy. 9th Jan. 1792.] - -While resisting the Swedes, Catherine made her chief effort against -the Turks. In this quarter the defection of Leopold and the Armistice -of Giurgevo seriously compromised her position. The war had resolved -itself into the siege of the strong city of Ismail, where the Turks -defended themselves with the utmost tenacity. The Russian attacks -were foiled again and again, and Potemkin resigned the conduct of the -siege in despair. His place was taken by Suvórov, whose brilliant -victory on the Rymnik in 1789 had marked him as the greatest Russian -general of his time. His valour and constancy equalled those qualities -in the Turks; and Ismail was stormed on 20th December 1790, after a -scene of carnage which cost the lives of 10,000 Russians and 30,000 -Turks. In the following year the Russians pressed onwards towards -Constantinople, and on 9th July 1791 the Russian General Repnin, under -whom served Suvórov and Kutuzov, defeated the Grand Vizier at Matchin. -But the Empress Catherine was not inclined to follow up these military -advantages. The policy of Leopold had isolated her; the Treaty of -Sistova had deprived her of an auxiliary army against the Turks; the -state of affairs in Poland demanded her most serious attention; and she -had to observe the action of Europe on the French Revolution and of the -French Revolution on Europe, in the hope of deriving some advantage for -Russia from the complications. She, therefore, signed a treaty of peace -with the Turks at Jassy on 9th January 1792, by which Russia retained -only Oczakoff and the coast-line between the mouths of the Bug and the -Dniester. By making this peace, Catherine only deferred the prosecution -of the schemes of Russia against the Ottoman Empire, and certain -clauses with regard to the Danubian Principalities, affording a pretext -for future wars, were skilfully included in the Treaty of Jassy. - -[Sidenote: Position of Leopold.] - -The success of the policy of the Emperor Leopold entirely altered -the situation of the European states and their attitude towards each -other. He was in 1791 not only master in his own dominions, but the -recognised representative of the Empire, in fact as well as in name. He -had broken down the combination against Austria and the solidarity of -the Triple Alliance. England was far more favourably inclined to him -than she had ever been to Joseph II.; Frederick William II. of Prussia -was his ally not his enemy. He was, therefore, able in 1791 to turn -his thoughts to the situation of France, and to see what advantages -could be drawn from the position of affairs there for the benefit of -Austria. The political effacement of France in foreign affairs was due -to the assumption of all real authority by the Constituent Assembly, -while leaving the responsibility to the King’s ministers, and Leopold -did not doubt that the result of an entire victory of the popular -party would be a recurrence to the classical policy of opposition to -Austria and the rupture of the Treaty of 1756. It was to his interest -to prevent this, and he had therefore political, as well as personal, -ends to secure in endeavouring to restore the authority of the King -of France. The capture of the Bastille and the transference of the -royal family to Paris were great events in the history of France, but -they only affected Leopold as weakening the authority of Louis XVI. -and Marie Antoinette, the faithful allies of Austria. The behaviour of -the Constituent Assembly gave him pretexts for interfering in France, -in spite of the diplomatic ability of Mirabeau, and he was earnestly -besought by the French _émigrés_, or opponents of the new state of -things in France, who had gone into voluntary exile with the King’s -younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, at their head, to intervene on -behalf of the French monarchy. - -[Sidenote: The state of France, 1791.] - -The conduct of the Constituent Assembly in disorganising every branch -of the executive in France had its natural effect by the commencement -of 1791. The army, in spite of the effort of General Bouillé to restore -discipline by making an example of some Swiss mutineers at Nancy in -1790, was rendered inefficient by the disaffection of the soldiers and -the exaggerated royalism of most of the officers; the navy was in a -still worse condition; the Civil Constitution of the Clergy had caused -a schism, which disturbed the minds of men in all parts of France, -and created an army of opponents to the work of the Assembly, who had -peculiar influence over the rural communities; the issue of assignats -on the security of the confiscated domains of the Church had inflated -the currency, and, while giving an appearance of fictitious prosperity, -had really given a feeling of insecurity to all trade and commerce; -the old internal administrations of the provinces had been replaced -by the new administrations of the departments, which were filled by -inexperienced men, utterly unable to cope with the difficulties of -a time of unrest and revolution. The practical disorganisation of -the executive was meanwhile being consecrated by the measures of the -Constituent Assembly, which, in the Constitution it was drawing up, in -its fear of the power of the monarchy, so hampered the authority of the -executive as to destroy the necessary foundations of good government. - -[Sidenote: Death of Mirabeau.] - -In its ardour for the Rights of Man and the principle of election, -the Constituent Assembly forgot the need for enforcing the authority -of the law, and the necessity for providing a strong arm to carry it -into effect. Mirabeau had clearly perceived that France was drifting -into a state of anarchy. In his secret notes for the Court he insisted -on the importance of restoring its proper power to the executive, and -he advised the King to leave Paris and call the partisans of order to -his side. Civil war, he contended, was preferable to anarchy, cloaked -by fine words; it would openly divide France into the adherents of -order and of disorder, and result in the maintenance of the popular -rights sanctioned by the royal power. The King was to acknowledge the -right of the people to legislate, and tax themselves through their -representatives, but was to point out the importance of maintaining a -strong government to secure the happiness of the governed. Against -foreign war, however, Mirabeau strongly protested; foreign interference -would rouse the spirit of national patriotism, and if the King was -suspected of favouring the foreigners, it would result in the overthrow -of the monarchy, and in a long struggle before the country could agree -on a new form of government. However, on 2d April 1791, Mirabeau -died, and France was deprived of its most sagacious, if not its only, -statesman. In truth, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette had no wish to -take Mirabeau’s advice; the King regarded civil war as a horrible -calamity, and to be shunned in every way and at any sacrifice; the -Queen longed for the interference of her brother, the Emperor, and -begged him to intervene to restore the royal authority. The King’s -religious convictions were wounded by the Civil Constitution of the -Clergy; the Queen was roused to wrath by the feeling that she was a -prisoner, by daily insults in the press, and by the degradation of the -power of the monarchy. On 18th April 1791 the royal prisoners were -prevented by the Parisians from going to Saint-Cloud for Easter, and -on 18th May the Emperor Leopold issued a circular to all crowned heads -calling attention to the position of the King of France in his capital. -On 20th May he had an interview with the Comte de Durfort, a secret -emissary from the Tuileries, at Mantua, and charged him to tell the -King and Queen of France that ‘he was going to concern himself with -their affairs, not in words, but in acts.’ - -[Sidenote: The Flight to Varennes. 21st June 1791.] - -The action of the Parisian mob on 18th April caused Louis XVI. and -Marie Antoinette to resolve to escape secretly from Paris, since they -were obviously prisoners and could not leave openly. They determined, -contrary to the advice so often given by Mirabeau, and contrary also to -the wishes of the Emperor and of his able representative at the Hague, -the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, who knew France better than any living -diplomatist, to fly towards the frontier. Leopold, under the pretext -of supporting his authority in Belgium and Luxembourg, and that of -his allies, the Elector-Archbishop of Trèves and the Bishop of Liége, -massed his troops upon the frontier in readiness to succour or assist, -and Bouillé, who commanded at Metz, made preparations to have the part -of his forces on which he could rely ready to receive the fugitive -monarch. On 20th June 1791 the royal family left Paris by night, after -the King had drawn up a declaration protesting against the whole of the -measures of the Constituent Assembly, and disavowing them. The flight, -from a combination of circumstances, ended in the royal family being -stopped at Varennes, and being brought back to Paris in custody. It had -the most momentous results upon the history of the French Revolution, -which are sometimes disregarded in the recollection of the romantic -circumstances attending it. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Flight to Varennes.] - -[Sidenote: The Massacre of 17th July in Paris.] - -The primary result of the flight to Varennes was the sudden -comprehension by France that Louis XVI. was an unwilling collaborator -in the work of reconstituting the French government on a new basis. -Hitherto the people, and even the leaders of the Constituent Assembly, -had believed in his acquiescence, if not in his hearty assistance. But -the declaration, left behind on the occasion of his flight, proved the -contrary. The statesmen of the Constituent Assembly, including the -makers of the new Constitution, such as Le Chapelier and Thouret, and -the triumvirate of Duport, Barnave, and Lameth, who, after Mirabeau’s -death, were the undisputed leaders of the majority, saw they had gone -too far, and that in their desire to weaken the royal authority, they -had seriously weakened the executive, and had made the King’s position -intolerable. They therefore threw the blame of the flight to Varennes -on the subordinates in the scheme, ignored the King’s declaration, -and acted on the supposition that he was misled by bad advisers. This -attitude not being wholly approved by the Jacobin Club, which, through -its affiliated clubs in the provinces, exercised the most powerful -sway in the formation of public opinion, the believers in the royal -authority seceded and formed the Constitutional Club, or Club of -1789, which temporarily weakened the power of the Jacobins in Paris. -But this secession was entirely sanctioned by the bourgeois classes -both in Paris and throughout France, who had the strongest interest -in the maintenance of order, and who sent in numerous declarations -of their adhesion to the cause of monarchy. Moreover, their chief -representatives in arms, the National Guard of Paris, under the command -of Lafayette, had soon an opportunity of giving practical proof -of this loyal disposition. The Cordeliers Club, which was chiefly -influenced by Danton, a lawyer of Paris, who had Mirabeau’s gift of -seeing things as they really were, felt it impossible to hush things -up. They understood the King’s declaration to mean a declaration of -war against the new Constitution; his flight to Varennes they rightly -interpreted to show that he was trusting to the intervention of foreign -powers to re-establish him in his former position; and they resolved -to draw up a petition for his dethronement. This petition was largely -the work of Danton and of Brissot, a pamphleteer and journalist, who -had been imprisoned in the Bastille, and had imbibed republican notions -in America, and a large crowd assembled to sign it on the Champ de -Mars. Lafayette determined to disperse this crowd, and the National -Guard, under his command, fired on the people, killing several persons. -This vigorous measure, which was intended to show the power of the -party of order, was followed by vigorous steps against the party for -dethronement. - -[Sidenote: Revision of the Constitution.] - -The leaders of the Cordeliers were proscribed. Danton and Marat fled -to England, and the party of order seemed triumphant. A revision of -the Constitution was undertaken, and various reactionary clauses, -specially directed against the press, the popular clubs or societies, -and the rights of assembly and of petition, were inserted. But this -new attitude of the Constituent Assembly had but a slight effect -upon France, for the king’s flight had caused the people in general -to believe that he was the enemy of their new-born liberties, and a -traitor in league with foreign powers to overthrow them. - -[Sidenote: Effects of the Flight to Varennes.] - -[Sidenote: Manifesto of Padua. 6th July 1791.] - -The flight to Varennes proved to the people of France, as well as to -the monarchs and statesmen of Europe, that Louis XVI. was a prisoner in -Paris, and an enemy to the new settlement of the government, as laid -down by the Constitution in course of preparation. The Emperor Leopold, -as brother of Marie Antoinette, as Holy Roman Emperor and supporter -of dynastic legitimacy, as the leading monarch of Europe, decided to -intervene. On 6th July 1791 he issued the Manifesto of Padua, in which -he invited the sovereigns of Europe to join him in declaring the cause -of the King of France to be their own, in exacting that he should be -freed from all popular restraint, and in refusing to recognise any -constitutional laws as legitimately established in France, except such -as might be sanctioned by the King acting in perfect freedom. The -English Government paid little or no attention to these requests of -Leopold, but the Empress Catherine, and the Kings of Prussia, Spain, -and Sweden, for different reasons and in different degrees, heartily -accepted Leopold’s views, and armed intervention to carry them into -effect was suggested. But Leopold had no desire for war. His policy -since his accession had been distinctly in favour of peace. He was -a diplomatist, not a soldier, and he desired to frighten France by -threats, rather than to fight France for the liberty of Louis XVI. and -his family. - -[Sidenote: Declaration of Pilnitz, 27th Aug. 1791.] - -[Sidenote: Completion of the Constitution.] - -The sequel to the Manifesto of Padua was a conference at Pilnitz -between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick William II. of Prussia, -accompanied by their ministers, in August 1791. At this conference -the King’s brothers, Monsieur, the Comte de Provence, afterwards -Louis XVIII., who had escaped from France at the time of the flight -to Varennes, and the Comte d’Artois, afterwards Charles X., who had -fled in July 1789, at the epoch of the capture of the Bastille, were -present. They had their own aims to serve. They were disgusted at the -weak conduct, as they termed it, of Louis XVI. in yielding so far as he -had done to the popular wishes; they desired to undo the whole effect -of the Revolution and to restore the Bourbon monarchy in its ancient -authority by the arms of the monarchs of Europe. But Leopold did not -care about the French princes or the Bourbon monarchy. He cared rather -for the safety of his sister, Marie Antoinette, and the maintenance -through her of the Franco-Austrian alliance. In the Declaration of -Pilnitz, which was signed by the Emperor and the King of Prussia on -27th August 1791, the two sovereigns declared that the situation of -the King of France was an object of interest common to all European -monarchs, and that they hoped other monarchs would use with them the -most efficacious means to put the King of France in a position to lay -in perfect liberty the bases of a monarchical government, suited alike -to the rights of sovereigns and the happiness of the French nation. -Provided that other powers would co-operate with them they were willing -to act promptly, and had therefore placed their armies on foot. These -threats exasperated but did not terrify the French people. Leopold had -no intention of entering upon hostilities, and found a loophole by -which to escape from declaring war in the acceptance by Louis XVI. of -the completed Constitution on 21st September 1791. He then solemnly -withdrew his pretensions to interfere in the internal affairs of France. - -[Sidenote: The Polish Constitution. 3d May 1791.] - -While the first Constitution of France, sanctioning the representative -principle and the rights of the people, was being slowly built up in -the midst of troubles and intrigues in Paris, a not less remarkable -constitution was promulgated in Poland, manifesting the same ideas. -The partition of Poland in 1773 had proved to all patriotic Poles that -their independence as a nation was in the utmost peril. A serious -effort was therefore made to organise the country, and to place the -government on a settled and logical basis. The army was made national -instead of feudal; an attempt was made to establish a national system -of finance, and a scheme of national education was propounded and -partly carried into effect. But these measures were but steps in the -work of making Poland a nation, instead of a loose confederation of -nobles; the final decision was taken in 1788, when the Polish Diet -elected a Committee to draw up a new Constitution, raised the national -army to 60,000 men, and decreed regular taxes in order to replenish -the national treasury. This consciousness of nationality enabled -Stanislas Poniatowski, King of Poland, to negotiate as an independent -and powerful sovereign with Prussia in 1789, and to send his envoys to -Reichenbach in 1790 to act with the envoys of the other powers. The -leading member of the Polish Constitutional Committee was Kollontai, a -most remarkable man, and a Catholic priest, who had done good service -as Rector of the University of Cracow, which he reorganised, and -who had been made Vice-Grand-Chancellor of the kingdom. He was the -principal author of the Polish Constitution, which was accepted by the -Diet of Warsaw on 3d May 1791. This Constitution was noteworthy in what -it abolished and what it created. It abolished the elective monarchy, -the source of so many evils and intrigues, and declared the throne of -Poland hereditary in the House of Saxony in succession to Stanislas -Poniatowski, and it also abolished the _liberum veto_, which had -enabled one member of the Diet to thwart the wishes of the majority. It -created a regular government, conferring the legislative power on the -King, the Senate, and an elected Chamber, and the executive power on -the King, aided by six ministers responsible to the Legislature. The -cities were permitted to elect their judges and deputies to the Diet; -but the plague-spot of serfdom was too delicate to touch, and the Diet -only declared its willingness to sanction all arrangements made between -a lord and his serfs for the benefit of the latter. In some respects -this Constitution compares favourably with that of France drawn up at -the same time; if it does not proclaim so firmly the liberty of man, -it at any rate is free from the lamentable fear of the power of the -executive, which vitiated the work of the French reformers. France -feared its executive after a long course of despotic monarchy; Poland -felt the need of a strong executive after a long history of anarchy. -Both countries, trying to be free, were affected in different ways, and -with very different results, by the intervention of foreign powers. - -[Sidenote: The Legislative Assembly.] - -The acceptance of the completed French Constitution was the signal -for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. It was at once -succeeded by the Legislative Assembly, elected under the provisions -of the new Constitution. The new Assembly consisted, owing to a -self-denying ordinance passed in May 1791, on the proposition of -Robespierre, forbidding the election of deputies sitting in the -Constituent Assembly to its successor, of none but untried men, who -had no experience of politics. They were mostly young men who had -learned to talk in their local popular societies, and who at once -joined the mother of such societies, the Jacobin Club at Paris. They -were forbidden by a clause in the Constitution of 1791 to interfere -with constitutional questions, which could only be touched by a -Convention summoned for the purpose, and so could only interfere in -current politics and matters of administration. In such interference -they were justified by the position of powerlessness into which the -executive authority, the King and his ministers, were reduced by -the Constitution. The two burning questions which first came before -them were, the treatment of the clergy who had not taken the oath to -observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and of the _émigrés_. -Both questions gave plenty of opportunity for the display of fervid -revolutionary and patriotic eloquence, for the priests, who had not -taken the oath, were undisguisedly stirring up opposition to the -Revolution in the provinces, and the _émigrés_ were forming an army -on the French frontier. And the Legislative Assembly was in a greater -degree than either its predecessor, the Constituent, or its successor, -the Convention, liable to be swayed by oratory. The deputies liked -to listen to glowing words and patriotic sentiments, and were largely -influenced by the speeches of three great orators, Vergniaud, Gensonné, -and Guadet, who all came from Bordeaux, the capital of the department -of the Gironde, and to whose supporters posterity has given the name of -Girondins. But these orators were in their turn influenced by a Norman -deputy, Brissot. This veteran pamphleteer was a sincere republican; -he also, having long been a journalist, believed himself a master -of foreign politics. He desired to bring about a war between France -and Austria. He believed that such a war would either cause the King -to throw in his lot heartily with the Revolution, or, what was more -likely, would make him declare himself openly against it, and would -thus enable the advanced democratic party to call him a traitor, and -by rousing all France against him, pave the way for his overthrow and -the establishment of a republic. The first step was taken to make Louis -XVI. appear the opponent of the Revolution by passing a decree against -the priests, who had not taken the oath, which his conscience would -not permit him to sign; the second by passing a decree against the -_émigrés_, who were led by his own brothers, and an instruction that he -should ask the Emperor and the German princes on the Rhine to prevent -the _émigrés_ from forming an army, and to expel them if they did so. - -[Sidenote: Approach of War between France and the Emperor.] - -The question of the expediency of war with Austria was soon taken -up in France, and not only the Legislative Assembly but the popular -clubs busied themselves in discussing it. The Declaration of Pilnitz -exasperated the whole nation, which resented dictation or interference -in the internal affairs of France, and the warlike and menacing -attitude of the army of _émigrés_, which had been formed by the Prince -de Condé on the French frontier at Worms, increased the universal -wrath. Louis XVI., whose ministers had been but feeble figure-heads -during the Constituent Assembly, at this juncture appointed the Comte -de Narbonne, a young man of distinguished ability, to be Minister -for War. Narbonne grasped the situation. He saw the people wished -for war, and he therefore declared that the King was as patriotic as -his subjects, and was also ready for war if satisfaction were not -given to France. Three large armies were formed and placed upon the -frontiers under the command of Generals Rochambeau, Lückner, and -Lafayette, of whom the two former were created Marshals of France. By -this policy Narbonne took the wind out of the sails of Brissot and -the Girondins; he hoped that if the Austrian war was successful the -King would be sufficiently strengthened in popularity to regain his -authority as head of the executive; while, if it failed, the nation -in its extremity would turn to its legitimate sovereign and invest -him with dictatorial power. The leaders of the democratic party in -Paris, which had been scattered by Lafayette in July 1791, saw this -equally clearly with Narbonne, and therefore opposed the war with all -their might. The Jacobin Club had become their headquarters; most of -the deputies who came up from the provinces joined the mother society -in Paris, and it soon became more powerful than ever in creating -public opinion. The effect of the secession and consequent formation -of the Club of 1789 only made the Jacobins more frankly democratic, -while the presence of many of its members in the Legislative Assembly -strengthened the influence of the Jacobin Club. It was in the Jacobin -Club during the debates on the war that the difference between what -were to be the Girondin and the Mountain parties in the Convention -first appeared. Brissot and the Girondin orators argued in favour of -war; while Marat, Danton, and still more Robespierre, whose career in -the Constituent Assembly had made him exceedingly popular, opposed it. -The last-mentioned orator was indeed the chief opponent of the war; he -saw through Narbonne’s schemes, and hinted that the projected war was -merely a court intrigue to promote the power of the King. The political -strife became personal, and Robespierre, Marat, and Danton became the -sworn foes of Brissot and the Girondins. - -[Sidenote: Causes of war between France and the Emperor.] - -The main causes of the war were the questions of the rights of the -Princes of the Empire in Alsace and of the _émigrés_. The defence of -the former rights as rights of the Empire had been pressed upon Leopold -at the time of his election as Emperor, and on 26th April 1791 the -Prince of Thurn and Taxis, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet -to meet. It assembled, and after a long discussion a _conclusum_ was -arrived at, that the Empire maintained the Treaties of Westphalia and -of the eighteenth century now violated by France, and requested the -Emperor to take severe measures against the revolutionary propaganda. -The Emperor Leopold, as sovereign of Austria, had withdrawn from the -position he had taken up at Pilnitz, but as Emperor he was obliged -to submit this _conclusum_ of the Diet to the King of France, which -he did in a strongly-worded despatch drawn up by the Chancellor -Kaunitz, which was laid before the Legislative Assembly on 3d December -1791. It was as Emperor also that Leopold defended the conduct of -the border princes of the Empire, notably the Elector-Archbishops of -Trèves, Cologne, and Mayence, and the Bishops of Spires and Worms, in -sheltering French _émigrés_. On 29th November 1791 the Assembly had -desired the King to write to the Emperor and to these border princes -protesting against the enlistment of troops by the _émigrés_, and the -Emperor’s answer defending the conduct of the princes concerned was -read to the Assembly on 14th December. The replies of Leopold were -referred to the Diplomatic Committee, and on its report, the Assembly -resolved on 25th January 1792 that the Emperor should be requested to -explain his attitude towards France and to promise to undertake nothing -against her independence in forming her own constitution and settling -her own mode of government before 1st March 1792, and that an evasive -or unsatisfactory reply should be considered as annulling the Treaty of -1756 and as an act of hostility. The answer to this demand, which was -drafted by Kaunitz, was read to the Assembly on 1st March; it censured -the course which was being taken by France, stigmatised the Revolution -and accused the Jacobins of fomenting anarchy, and its first results -were the dismissal of Narbonne, the impeachment of De Lessart, the -Foreign Minister, and the formation of a Girondin ministry. - -[Sidenote: Death of Leopold, 1st March 1792.] - -In the position he had taken up the Emperor Leopold was generally -supported. The Princes of the Empire, as was represented in their -_conclusum_ passed at the Diet, not only resented the interference -of France with historic rights in Alsace and her dictation as to -whom they should shelter, but were beginning to fear the contagion -of the revolutionary conceptions of the rights of man and political -liberty. Throughout the Rhine provinces the peasants had risen in -partial rebellion against their lords; in all the great cities of -western Germany the more enlightened bourgeois protested against their -exclusion from political influence. This contagion, however, did not -spread far in these early days. The Empress Catherine, the King of -Prussia, and the King of Sweden, who chiefly urged Leopold to make -a brave stand against the Legislative Assembly, were urged by other -motives. Catherine wished to see Austria and Prussia embroiled with -France so as to have her hands free to deal with the Poles, who seemed -likely with their new Constitution to ward off destruction. Frederick -William II. was disgusted by the disrespect shown to the principle -of monarchy by the Parisians’ treatment of Louis XVI. Gustavus III. -had imbibed a knightly admiration for Marie Antoinette, and felt a -personal desire to relieve her from her position of humiliation. Each -monarch showed his inclination characteristically. Catherine received -some French _émigrés_, who found their way to her distant court, with -kindness, and dismissed the French ambassador; Gustavus hurried to -Spa to consult with the French _émigrés_, and proposed an immediate -expedition to carry off the French court; Frederick William signed -an offensive and defensive alliance with the Emperor on 2d February -1792, which saved him the trouble of personal decision, and left to -the Emperor the harassing business of arranging the details of the -war and of so carrying out the necessary diplomatic negotiations -which preceded an open rupture, that the interference of the powers -should seem justified. In the midst of his preparations the Emperor -Leopold died suddenly on 1st March 1792, the very day on which his -last manifesto was read to the Legislative Assembly. His death was -an irreparable blow for Austria, for Germany, for France, and for -Europe. In his short reign he had shown himself to be a monarch of -extraordinary ability, possessing alike singular tact and great force -of character. He was succeeded in the hereditary dominions of the House -of Hapsburg by his eldest son Francis II., an inexperienced youth, -quite unfitted to continue Leopold’s policy in the troublous times -approaching. - -[Sidenote: Murder of Gustavus III. 29th March 1792.] - -Europe had hardly recovered from the shock of the Emperor’s sudden -death, when it was startled by the news of the murder of Gustavus III. -of Sweden, who was shot on his way from a masked ball at Stockholm -by an officer named Ankarström, on 16th March 1792. He lingered till -29th March, when he died, and was succeeded on the throne of Sweden by -his infant son, Gustavus IV. Duke Charles of Sudermania was appointed -Regent. He at once reversed the policy of the late king; he felt -none of the sympathy so warmly expressed by Gustavus III. for Marie -Antoinette, and he distrusted the close alliance which had been entered -into with Russia after the Treaty of Verela. His first measure was to -place Sweden in a position of absolute neutrality, from which she never -swerved during his tenure of power. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Dumouriez.] - -[Sidenote: War declared by France against Austria. 20th April 1792.] - -Of the ministers who came into office in France in March 1792 through -the influence of the Girondins in the Legislative Assembly, the most -notable were Roland and Dumouriez. The former was a sincere republican, -who was induced by his wife to take up an offensive attitude to the -King, the latter an experienced soldier and diplomatist, who was well -fitted for the ministry of foreign affairs. Dumouriez at once accepted -war with Austria as inevitable, and directed all his efforts to -isolate her. He was a sworn enemy of the Austrian alliance, entered -into by the Treaty of 1756, and cemented by the marriage of Marie -Antoinette, and his first step was to endeavour to detach Prussia. He -was sanguine enough to believe in the possibility of doing this, but -he did not understand the character of Frederick William II. It was -difficult to induce that monarch to make up his mind, but when he did -make it up he was obstinate. The French party at his Court, headed by -his uncle Prince Henry, and in his ministry, represented by Haugwitz, -was very strong; but, on the other hand, he had been convinced by -Leopold that the cause of Louis XVI. was the cause of monarchy, and -the German party at Berlin hinted that if he allowed Austria to pose -as the defender of the rights of the Empire by herself, the policy -of Frederick the Great to make Prussia the leader of Germany would -be undone. Frederick William II., therefore, listened coldly to the -overtures of Dumouriez, and made preparations to support his ally in -the field. On 20th April 1792 the Legislative Assembly assented almost -unanimously to the King’s proposition, as read by Dumouriez, to declare -war against the King of Hungary and Bohemia, as Francis II. was at -this time styled, and the great war, which was to rage with but slight -intermissions for twenty-three years, began. - -[Sidenote: Invasion of the Tuileries. 20th June 1792.] - -The commencement of the first campaign of 1792 proved how thoroughly -the French army had been disorganised and demoralised by the policy of -the Constituent Assembly and the general course of the Revolution. An -attempt was made to invade the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium on four -lines; but one column was seized with panic and rushed back to Lille, -murdering its general, Theobald Dillon. The other commanders found -their soldiers filled with a spirit of distrust for their officers and -hardly amenable to discipline, and it soon became obvious that France -would have to stand on the defensive. This news profoundly moved the -people of France and especially of Paris. The word treachery was freely -used in connection with the Court, and it was asserted that the plan -of campaign had been revealed to the Austrians by the Queen. This was -true; Marie Antoinette had always looked to Austrian help to rescue -her from her position, and Louis XVI. had now entirely come round to -her view. At this juncture he dismissed his Girondin ministers on -their insisting upon his signing a decree, which had been passed by -the Assembly ordering the deportation of priests who had not taken -the oath, and even accepted the resignation of the ablest of them, -Dumouriez, who had offered to form a new ministry. The populace of -Paris was intensely excited by the failure of the attack on Belgium, -the concentration of the Prussian army on the frontier, and the -dismissal of the popular ministers, and a body of petitioners, after -filing through the hall of the Assembly, burst into the Tuileries and -for some hours filled the palace, insulting the King and Queen and -forcing the former to put on a red cap of liberty. The invasion of the -Tuileries marked the final breach between the King and the people. -Louis XVI. longed more ardently than ever for the arrival of the allied -monarchs; and the Jacobin leaders, who perceived the impossibility that -France should be successful in war with an unwilling king at her head, -began to plot for his overthrow. His last chance was lost, when he -rejected the proffered assistance of Lafayette, who returned from his -army without leave and offered to bring the National Guard of Paris to -his help. - -[Sidenote: Francis II. Emperor. 14th July 1792.] - -The news of the invasion of the Tuileries by the mob on the 20th June -further decided the allied monarchs to take immediate action. Francis -II., who was crowned Emperor at Frankfort on 14th July 1792, was -eager to come to his aunt’s help. The position of the allies was now -reversed. Instead of Austria in the person of the experienced Emperor -Leopold guiding Prussia, it was now Frederick William II. of Prussia -who directed the policy of the young Emperor Francis. It was arranged -that the Prussians should invade Champagne, supported by a _corps_ of -Austrians and _émigrés_ on their left, and joined midway by a _corps_ -of Austrians from their right, while an Austrian army under Duke Albert -of Saxe-Teschen was to march from the Netherlands and invest Lille. -The central Prussian army was placed under the command of the Duke of -Brunswick, who issued a proclamation, drafted by an _émigré_, M. de -Limon, and filled with violent language by Count Fersen, threatening to -hold Paris liable for the safety of the King, and vowing vengeance on -the French people as rebels. - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 10th Aug. 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Suspension of Louis XVI. 10th Aug. 1792.] - -Brunswick’s proclamation was the very thing to complete the -exasperation of the French people. National patriotism rose to its -height; the country had been declared in danger, and thousands of -volunteers were arming and preparing to go to the front; the threats -of the Prussians only increased the national spirit of resistance; and -the universal feeling was one of defiance. But there was obviously no -chance of success while the executive remained in its present hands. -The King’s power of interfering with the preparations for resistance -had to be stopped. This was clearly understood by the democratic -leaders, who, ever since 20th June 1792, had been organising an armed -rising. They waited till some volunteers from Marseilles entered the -capital, singing the song that bears their name, and then they struck. -The royal plans for the defence of the Tuileries were thwarted; a -number of the most energetic democrats ousted the Council-General of -the Commune of Paris, and formed an Insurrectionary Commune; and the -men of the poorer districts of Paris, the Faubourgs Saint-Antoine and -Saint-Marceau, headed by the Marseillais, advanced to attack the royal -palace. Before the assault commenced, Louis XVI., accompanied by his -family and his ministers, took refuge in the hall of the Legislative -Assembly. The attack was gallantly resisted by the Swiss Guards, who -garrisoned the palace, but the people were eventually successful and -the Tuileries was taken. The Legislative Assembly at once declared the -King suspended from his office, and ordered him to be confined with -his family in the Temple. It then elected a new ministry, consisting of -three of the former Girondin ministers, Roland, Clavière, and Servan -for the Interior, Finance, and War, and three new men, Danton, Monge, -and Lebrun for Justice, the Marine, and Foreign Affairs. This ministry, -with the help of an extraordinary Commission of Twenty-one, elected by -the Legislative, and of the Commune of Paris, displayed the greatest -energy. By means of domiciliary visits, those suspected of opposition -to the insurrection of 10th August were seized and imprisoned; a -camp was formed for the defence of Paris; men were everywhere raised -and equipped and sent to the front; and commissioners were sent -throughout France, and especially to the armies, to tell the tale of -the insurrection and to secure the adhesion of the people. Danton -was the heart and soul of the defence movement and of the ministry, -and inspired confidence and patriotism into those who hesitated; -the Commission of Twenty-one, whose mouthpiece was the great orator -Vergniaud, aided him to the best of their power; the Legislative -directed the convocation of the primary assemblies, without distinction -of active and passive citizens, for the election of a National -Convention; and the Commune of Paris took measures to prevent any -attempt at a counter-revolution. - -[Sidenote: Desertion of Lafayette.] - -[Sidenote: The Massacres of September 1792.] - -But no amount of energy and patriotism could in a moment make trained -armies and enable France to repulse the most famous troops in Europe. -Fortunately for France, in this crisis, her untrained soldiers behaved -admirably. Lafayette, on the news of the insurrection of 10th August, -arrested the commissioners sent to him by the Legislative Assembly, -and endeavoured to induce his army to march to the aid of the King. -But his men refused; the former commander of the National Guard of -Paris deserted, and Dumouriez took command of his army. Lille made a -gallant resistance to the Austrians, who had formed the siege, but the -Prussians met with no such obstinate opposition. Longwy surrendered -to them on 27th August, and Verdun on 2nd September, and they -continued their march directly on Paris. Dumouriez fell back with -his main army to defend the uplands,—they can hardly be called the -mountains,—of the Argonne. He summoned to him the _corps d’armée_ on -the Belgian frontier under Arther Dillon, and a detachment from the -Army of the Rhine under Kellermann, while he was also reinforced by -some thousands of undisciplined, and therefore useless, volunteers, -and by a fine division of old soldiers collected from the garrisons -in the interior. In Paris the news of the Prussian advance caused a -panic; it seemed impossible that Dumouriez’ hastily concentrated army -could oppose an effective resistance; and even Danton and Vergniaud -could hardly keep up the enthusiasm they had at first aroused. At this -juncture the Parisian volunteers were half afraid to go to the front -for fear that the numerous prisoners, arrested during the domiciliary -visits, would break out and revenge themselves on the families of the -volunteers. This feeling induced the horrible series of murders, known -as the Massacres of September, in the prisons. The massacres began -fortuitously, and there were not more than 200 murderers at work; but -the crowd, including national guards, stood by and saw them committed -without raising a hand to help the victims. All Paris was responsible -for the murders; they could have been easily stopped; but no one -wanted to check them: the feeling which allowed them was the popular -feeling; neither Danton, nor Roland, nor the Commune of Paris, nor the -Legislative Assembly cared to interfere; the massacres were the answer -to the Prussian advance and the capture of Longwy, as the insurrection -of 10th August was the reply to Brunswick’s manifesto. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Valmy. 20th Sept. 1792.] - -On 20th September 1792 the main Prussian army, which had reached the -Argonne, attacked the position occupied by Kellermann at Valmy, and -was repulsed. The victory was not a great one; the battle was not very -hotly contested; the losses on both sides were insignificant; but its -results both military and political were immense. The King of Prussia, -who complained that the Austrians had not fulfilled their engagements, -and that the whole burden was thrown on him, was easily persuaded by -the Duke of Brunswick to order a retreat. The Duke of Brunswick was -induced to give that advice from military considerations, in that his -army was wasted by disease and harassed by the inclement weather, -and from policy, because, like many Prussian officers, he considered -it unnatural for Prussians and Austrians to fight side by side. The -retiring army was not hotly pressed; Dumouriez still hoped to induce -Prussia to quit the coalition against France, and pursued with more -courtesy than vigour until the army of Brunswick was beyond the limits -of French territory. - -[Sidenote: Meeting of the Convention. 20th Sep. 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Parties in the Convention.] - -On the day of the battle, or as it is with more correctness termed the -cannonade, of Valmy, the National Convention met in Paris and assumed -the direction of affairs. It contained all the most distinguished men -who had sat in the two former assemblies on the Left, or democratic -side, and its first act was to declare France a Republic. After -this had been unanimously carried, dissensions at once arose, and a -fundamental difference between two groups of deputies appeared, which -threatened to end in the proscription of the one or the other. On -the one side were the distinguished orators of the Gironde, who have -given their name to the whole party, reinforced by the presence of -several old members of the Constituent Assembly and of a few young and -inexperienced men. This group was roughly divided into Buzotins and -Brissotins, or followers of Buzot, a leading ex-Constituant, and of -Brissot, the author of the war; but some of the greatest of them, like -Vergniaud, refused to ally themselves with either leader. The chief -meeting-place of the Buzotins, who included most of the younger men, -was Madame Roland’s salon. On the other side, taking their name from -the high benches on which they sat, were the deputies of the Mountain, -including almost the whole of the representatives of Paris, and all -the energetic republicans, who had brought about the insurrection -of 10th August. This group comprised Robespierre, Danton and Marat, -Collot-d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, all deputies for Paris, and none -of whom, except Robespierre, had ever sat in either of the former -assemblies, with some leaders of the extreme party in the Legislative, -Merlin of Thionville, Chabot and Basire. It was not long before open -quarrels arose between the two groups. The Girondins accused the -leaders of the Mountain of having in the Insurrectionary Commune -fomented the massacres of September in the prisons, and abused them -as sanguinary and ambitious anarchists. This accusation was formally -indeed brought against Robespierre by Louvet, a Rolandist Girondin, -in an elaborate attack delivered on 29th October; while at the same -time the Mountain accused the Girondins of being federalists and -desiring to destroy the essential unity of the Republic, an accusation -which was used with deadly effect at a later date. Both groups,—they -cannot be called parties, for they had no party ties and recognised no -party obligations,—appealed to the great majority of the Convention, -the deputies of the Centre, who sat in the Plain or Marsh. The -representative of this vast majority was Barère, an ex-Constituant, who -trimmed judiciously between the two opposing groups. - -[Sidenote: Conquest of Savoy and Nice.] - -[Sidenote: Capture of Mayence. 21st October 1792.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Jemmappes. 6th Nov. 1792.] - -The Convention, which had been elected in days of deepest dejection, if -not despair, when the Prussians were moving on Paris and the Austrians -were besieging Lille, was soon raised by a succession of conquests to a -state of patriotic exaltation, bordering on delirium. In the month of -September, just after the battle of Valmy, General Montesquiou occupied -Savoy, and General Anselme the county and city of Nice, territories -belonging to the King of Sardinia, without striking a blow. This was -followed by a more important series of successes. Though not as a -body engaged in war with France, many princes of the Empire had sent -contingents to the aid of the Prussians and Austrians. In reply, still -without declaring war on the Empire, the French attacked the Rhenish -princes. On 1st October General Custine, commanding a corps of the -Army of the Rhine, took Spires, on October 4 Worms, and on October -21 Mayence, one of the bulwarks of the Empire and the capital of the -Elector-Archbishop. From Mayence Custine detached divisions in other -directions, and held the wealthy city of Frankfort-on-the-Main to -ransom. Not less startlingly rapid were the conquests of Dumouriez on -the north-east frontier. After the retreat of the Prussians he turned -north against the Austrians; he raised the siege of Lille, which had -been heroically defended, and on 6th November he defeated the Austrians -in a pitched battle at Jemmappes, near Mons. This victory laid Belgium -open to him. He occupied the whole country, entered Brussels as a -conqueror, and established his headquarters at Liége. The conquest of -Belgium intoxicated the Convention; they believed their armies to be -invincible; they regarded themselves as having a mission to carry the -doctrines of the French Revolution as embodied in the Rights of Man -and the Sovereignty of the People into all countries; they declared -themselves on 19th November ready to wage war for all peoples upon all -kings; and in disregard of all international obligations, they declared -the Scheldt, which by treaty had been closed to commerce for years, a -free river, because it had its source in a free country. - -The intoxication which followed this series of unparalleled successes -blinded the Convention to the need of improving and disciplining their -troops. The French republicans did not comprehend that the chief cause -of the facile conquests of their armies was that they met with the -sympathy of the conquered. Belgium, the Rhine provinces, Savoy, and -Nice were all filled with revolutionary enthusiasm, and welcomed the -French as liberators; they requested to be united to France, when -primary assemblies were summoned by the French commissioners, and -on 9th November Savoy and Nice, and on 13th December the Austrian -Netherlands or Belgium, were declared a part of France. In spite of -these military successes, the republican army could not be organised -in a day; the seeds of anarchy sown by the Constituent had gone too -deep to enable discipline to be restored except by sharp measures; the -administration of the army, that is, the commissariat, the war office, -etc., was in a state of chaos; the soldiers, both officers and men, -of all the armies, kept their eyes too closely fixed on the course of -politics in Paris to do their duty efficiently at the front. - -[Sidenote: Execution of Louis XVI. 21st Jan. 1793.] - -The burning question which divided the Convention at the end of 1792 -was the treatment to be meted out to Louis XVI. Robespierre urged -that, as a political measure, he should be put to death; but the -Girondins, filled with an idea of imitating the English republicans -of the seventeenth century, decided on a royal trial. When the trial, -which was but a defence of Louis XVI. by his counsel, was over, the -Girondins, in their desire to avoid responsibility, or perhaps from a -genuine belief that it might save the King’s life, proposed that the -sentence on him should be submitted to the primary assemblies of the -people. The deputies of the Mountain feared no responsibility, and -taunted the Girondins with being concealed royalists. The motion for an -appeal to the people was rejected; the King was sentenced to death by a -small majority; and on 21st January 1793 Louis XVI. was guillotined at -Paris. - -[Sidenote: War with Spain, Holland, England, and the Empire.] - -The result of the execution of Louis XVI. was to give a pretext to -the countries of Europe which had not yet declared war against the -French Republic to do so. Charles IV. of Spain, in the hope of saving -the chief of the Bourbon family, maintained his minister at Paris -until the last possible moment, and it was with reluctance that he -placed his army in the field on the news of the King’s execution. The -French Republic accepted the challenge, and early in March declared -war against Spain. The war with Holland stood on a different basis. -Dumouriez, after his conquest of Belgium, looked on Holland as an -easy and particularly wealthy prey. He believed that by conquering -Holland, France would have in her hands a means of forcing England to -keep the peace. His views were supported by Danton, who was sent on -mission to Dumouriez’ headquarters. The contrary was the result. Pitt -sincerely wished for peace, and was essentially a peace minister, but -he had no idea of allowing the faithful ally of England, Holland, to be -overrun and held to ransom by the French. The opening of the Scheldt -had crowned the long series of French breaches of international law, -and Pitt resented the assumption of the Convention that the law of -nature, as interpreted by themselves, was to take the place of the -law of nations. Pitt’s hand was also forced in two directions; the -philippics of Burke had roused the fears of English property-holders -against the spread of French principles; and George III. was as anxious -as any Continental monarch to preserve the dignity of kings. Pitt -and his foreign minister, Grenville, gradually became convinced that -the French meant to fight England, and that war was inevitable, and -Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was ordered to leave London. The -French leaders were under a misconception with regard to the spread -of their ideas in England; they knew that a large body of educated -men sympathised with them, and expected a national democratic rising -which should overthrow not only Pitt, but the English monarchy. They -did not understand that an English parliamentary opposition, in spite -of its words, is as staunchly loyal as the ministry, and that it would -never foment or encourage insurrection. Under these circumstances and -deluded by these misconceptions France declared war against England and -Holland on 1st February 1793. Many smaller nations entered on the fray. -Sweden under the prudent government of the Regent Duke of Sudermania, -Denmark under Christian VII. and Bernstorff, and Switzerland declared -their neutrality. But Portugal, where the heir-apparent, afterwards -King John VI., had become regent for his mother, Maria Francisca, who -was insane; Tuscany, whose Grand Duke, Ferdinand, was a brother of the -Emperor; Naples, or rather the Two Sicilies, whose king was a Bourbon, -and whose queen was a sister of Marie Antoinette, all declared war -on the French Republic. Catherine of Russia wore mourning for Louis -XVI. inveighed against the wickedness of the French republicans, and -proceeded to take advantage of the occupation of the rest of Europe -in the affairs of France to prosecute her schemes on Poland. Last of -all, the Holy Roman Empire, which had decreed the armament of the -contingents of the circles, on 23d November 1792, after the news of -the capture of Mayence, solemnly, and with all the circumlocution -inseparable from the movement of the unwieldy machine, declared war -against France on 22d March 1793. - -[Sidenote: Catherine invades Poland.] - -[Sidenote: Second partition of Poland. 24th Sept. 1793.] - -While regenerated France was at bay with nearly the whole of Europe, -regenerated Poland was being conquered by a single power. While Europe -pretended to fight France on behalf of the principle of monarchy, -Catherine invaded Poland, because by the Constitution of 3d May 1791 -it had strengthened its monarchy. France was attacked because it was -asserted to be in a state of anarchy, Poland because it had by wise -reforms tried to put an end to an historic system of constitutional -anarchy. As soon as Catherine had made peace with the Turks at Jassy, -and Austria and Prussia were engaged in war with France, she intervened -to overthrow the new Polish Constitution. It was not difficult to find -Polish nobles who resented the abrogation of the old system, and, -under Catherine’s encouragement, Branicki, Felix Potocki, and some -others formed the Confederation of Targovitsa, and protested against -the abolition of the _liberum veto_ and the reforms of 3d May 1791. -They then asked Catherine to send a Russian army to their assistance. -She willingly complied, and on 18th May 1792 published a manifesto, -stating that she was the guarantor of the ancient Polish Constitution, -and stigmatising the reformers of 1791 as Jacobins. Suvórov at once -entered Poland at the head of 80,000 Russians and 20,000 Cossacks, and -by force of numbers defeated the Polish army under Joseph Poniatowski -at Zielencé on 18th June 1792, and under Kosciuszko at Dubienka on 17th -July. These defeats caused the reformers of 1791, including Kollontai -and Kosciuszko, to go into exile; their place at the Diet was taken by -the leaders of the Confederation of Targovitsa, and the Constitution -of 3d May 1791 was abrogated. The conquest of the Polish patriots by -Russia greatly excited the King of Prussia and the Emperor, and was one -of the causes which induced Frederick William to order Brunswick to -retreat after his trifling check at Valmy. The Polish patriots appealed -to Prussia for help under the terms of the alliance of 1790, but the -King only answered that he had not recognised the Constitution of 3d -May 1791, and that the Polish leaders were Jacobins and imitators and -allies of the French revolutionary leaders. A Prussian army, therefore, -entered Poland to co-operate with the Russians and to share the spoil. -A treaty of partition was signed by Catherine and Frederick William -on 4th January 1793, by which Russia was to annex eastern Poland, -including the whole of Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia, and Little Russia, and -Prussia was to have Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch, and the cities of Dantzic -and Thorn. Austria was too hotly engaged in the war with France to -be able to claim a share, but the conduct of Prussia at this time in -excluding her from the partition of Poland was never forgotten nor -forgiven, and increased the hereditary feeling of distrust between -the two powers. The Emperor Francis regarded himself as duped, and -Prussia by acting alone broke the solemn engagements entered into with -Leopold, and commenced the policy which was to end in the conclusion -of the Treaty of Basle with the French Republic. Though the second -partition of Poland was agreed upon in 1792, it was not consummated -until the following year. A Diet was called at Grodno, and there, in -the presence of the Russian soldiers, Stanislas Poniatowski and the -Diet consented in silence, on 24th September 1793, to the arrangements -made between Russia and Prussia. On 16th October Catherine signed a -treaty, guaranteeing the liberty of Poland, that is, the abuses of the -old Constitution, which were certain to give Russia the opportunity -of finishing the work of blotting out the Poles as an independent -nationality from the map of Europe. - -The close of the year 1792 thus witnessed at the same time the -overthrow of Poland and France in arms against foreign aggression. -Each country was to make a violent effort for independence. The French -were to be successful, because under the influence of personal and -political freedom every Frenchman felt it his duty to resist foreign -interference; Poland was to fail, because it was not the Polish people, -but only the enlightened Polish nobles and bourgeois, who appreciated -the situation. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - 1793–1795 - - France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year III. - (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again enters the Comity - of Nations. - - -[Sidenote: France at War with Europe.] - -The first months of 1793 found France at war with Europe. Though -such minor states as Denmark and Sweden and Venice declared their -neutrality, they manifested no desire to assist the French Republic, -and their neutrality was but of slight service. It was otherwise with -the neutrality of Switzerland. The Swiss cantons had nearly been drawn -into the general war by the support given to the revolutionary party -in the Republic of Geneva by the French ministry, which included among -its members Clavière, a Genevese exile. The canton of Berne went so -far as to occupy the city of Geneva, and it was only by the exercise -of much diplomatic skill that open war was avoided. The neutrality of -Switzerland made the land blockade of the French Republic of no avail. -Through secret agents in Switzerland, arms, provisions, and necessaries -were obtained from Southern Germany, and diplomatic relations were -maintained with the democrats residing in the states of the belligerent -powers. The declaration of war by the Holy Roman Empire completed the -armed opposition of the greater countries of Europe against France. -Of these countries Russia alone sent no army or fleet against the -Republic, and Catherine satisfied herself with stating that she was -engaged in conquering Jacobins in Poland. - -[Sidenote: Altered character of the War.] - -The character of the war in 1793 differed from that waged in 1792. -In 1792 France was invaded on behalf of Louis XVI., and the fighting -was carried on according to the principles which had existed in the -eighteenth century. But in 1793 the powers were at war with France for -a different and more far-reaching reason. The revolutionary propaganda, -that is, the idea consecrated in the decree of the Convention on the -19th of November 1792, that France was to spread among all countries -the new doctrines of liberty, equality, and fraternity, vitally -affected every government in Europe. England in particular, which -had studiously kept aloof while the Revolution was pursuing its -course at home, only felt obliged to interfere when the new rulers of -France announced their intention of disregarding all principles of -international law, and of converting other nations to their doctrines. -It was this common opposition to the revolutionary propaganda which -united the powers of Europe against France in 1793. England made -herself the paymaster of the coalition. She lavished money freely, -not only in subsidies to Prussia and Austria, but to less important -countries, such as Spain and Sardinia. With this community of aim -necessarily came a community of action. The war against France became a -matter of principle and not of intrigue. This new attitude was marked -by changes of ministry both in Prussia and in Austria. The failure of -the invasion of 1792 disgusted Frederick William II. with his advisers. -The Duke of Brunswick fell into open disgrace, and Schulemburg, the -foreign minister, made way for Haugwitz. At Vienna, Count Philip -Cobenzl, the Vice-Chancellor of State, who had managed foreign affairs -owing to the old age of Kaunitz, was dismissed, and his place was taken -by Thugut, a man of low origin, whose sole political object was the -humiliation of France, and his guiding principle a horror of French -principles. Even in the secondary states similar ministerial changes -took place, of which the most remarkable was the dismissal of Aranda in -Spain, who was succeeded in power by Godoy, the Queen’s lover. - -[Sidenote: First Campaign of 1793.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Neerwinden. 21st March 1793.] - -The first result of the formation of the coalition was a determined -attack upon Dumouriez’ position in Belgium. That general had hitherto -not despaired of detaching Prussia from Austria, but the execution of -Louis XVI. destroyed his last hope. Both Prussia and England declined -to listen to his lavish promises; his army had wasted away while in -winter quarters; the first volunteers returned to their homes in -thousands when France was freed from the invaders; the troops he -retained were deprived of all necessaries by the disorganisation -of the French War Office; and the people of Belgium, finding that -their country was annexed to the French Republic, in spite of their -patriotic desire for independence, showed their hostility in every -way, and harassed instead of aiding the French troops. Under these -circumstances, Dumouriez’ invasion of Holland failed, as it was certain -to fail. His right wing, which was besieging Maestricht under the -command of General Miranda, was defeated by the Austrians under the -command of the Prince of Coburg, and he had to withdraw his advanced -divisions, for fear of being cut off from France. He was rapidly -pursued. An English army, under the Duke of York, joined the Austrians, -under the Prince of Coburg, and Dumouriez was utterly defeated by -the allies at Neerwinden on the 21st March 1793. The defeat became a -rout, and the French were driven from Belgium as speedily as they had -conquered it. Dumouriez then made a fruitless effort to lead his army -against the Convention. He arrested four deputies and the Minister for -War who had been sent to suspend him from his command, but, finding -that his army would not follow him, he deserted to the Austrians on the -5th April. - -[Sidenote: Effect on the Convention.] - -[Sidenote: The Committee of Public Safety.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection in La Vendée. 1793.] - -The effect of Dumouriez’ reverses, and, finally, of his desertion, -on the temper of the Convention was most striking. The enthusiasts -who believed in the inauguration of a new era, who boasted that free -Frenchmen, even without arms and discipline, would be able to defeat -all foreign armies, and who considered that the career of the Republic -was certain to be one of victory, were rudely awakened. The need of -the creation of a strong government was forced upon the attention of -the Convention. Danton, recurring to the views of Mirabeau, proposed -that a new ministry should be chosen from among the members of the -Legislature. But the republicans had the same horror of the power -of the executive as the constitutionalists, and Danton’s motion was -rejected. Nevertheless, it was quite impossible that an unwieldy -assembly and a discredited ministry could defend France with any -degree of success. As early as January 1793, a Committee of General -Defence had been elected by the principal committees of the Convention; -this was replaced, on the news of the defeat at Neerwinden, by a -Committee of General Defence of twenty-five members chosen directly -by the Convention; this was still too unwieldy, and on the news of -the desertion of Dumouriez, the first Committee of Public Safety of -nine members, exercising supreme executive authority, was appointed. -But the question was, how was the Committee to be enabled to rule. -Its first duty was to raise soldiers to meet the enemies upon every -frontier. For this purpose eighty-two deputies of the Convention were -sent through France, two and two, to raise by volunteering where -possible, but by conscription if other measures failed, 300,000 men. -This call for recruits caused disturbances in many parts of France; -in La Vendée it started civil war. It was to protest against the -conscription, and not to defend the Church or the nobility, that -the people of La Vendée rose in insurrection. But the leadership -of the movement, which had at first been taken by gamekeepers and -postillions, was speedily assumed by members of the ancient French -clergy and nobility. Cohesion was thus given to the insurgents, and a -large and important district in the west of France maintained for a -time a successful opposition to the decrees of the Convention. But the -reverses and desertion of Dumouriez not only caused, for the first time -in the history of the Revolution, the creation of a real executive, -it caused also the forging of the weapons by which that executive -was in the future to establish the Reign of Terror. On 9th March the -Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established. Its special object was -the summary punishment of all enemies of the Revolution. On the 4th of -April the Convention decreed that a maximum price of food should be -fixed. Extended powers were granted to deputies sent on mission to the -armies or to the departments; and an army, consisting of the very poor, -or _sans culottes_, was proposed. - -[Sidenote: Overthrow of the Girondins. 2d June 1793.] - -While these measures, which did not take full effect for some months, -were being debated, the Convention was torn by the opposition between -the Girondins and the deputies of the Mountain. The details of the -struggle are not important. The arguments used by the Girondins were -that their enemies were responsible for the massacres of September -in the prisons, that they were under the influence of the Commune -of Paris, and that they encouraged anarchy. The Mountain, on their -side, alleged that the Girondins were concealed royalists, because -they had voted against the execution of Louis XVI., that they were -federalists, who desired to destroy the unity of the Republic, and that -they preferred a weak to a strong government. The struggle was mainly -carried on in the tribune of the Convention; Robespierre attacked -Brissot, Vergniaud, and Guadet, and these orators replied by attacking -Robespierre and Danton. The latter for a time endeavoured to avoid -breaking with the Girondins, but he was so violently impeached for his -conduct while on mission in Belgium, and accused of being an accomplice -of Dumouriez, that in self-defence he was forced to take up the -gauntlet. He had been elected to the first Committee of Public Safety, -and though his constitutional indolence prevented him from becoming its -most important member, he shared with Cambon, the financier, the chief -responsibility of the new method of government. Meanwhile, worse news -kept coming from every frontier. It was felt to be both injudicious and -unpatriotic for the Convention to be occupied in personal squabbles -when the fate of France was in the balance. The Commune of Paris -decided to intervene. The deputies who sat in the Plain, or Centre of -the Convention, were more influenced by the eloquence of the Girondins -than by the energy of the Mountain, and it was with regret that they -felt obliged to yield to the Commune of Paris. On the 31st May 1793, -regular troops and national guards, under the direction of Hanriot, the -commander of the National Guard of Paris, surrounded the Tuileries, -to which the Convention had removed on the 10th May, and the Commune -demanded that the leading Girondins should be expelled from the -Convention, and sent for trial before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The -_coup d’état_ was completed on the 2d June, when these demands were -complied with, and from that date the Girondins as a political party in -the Convention ceased to exist. - -[Sidenote: Second Campaign of 1793.] - -The desertion of Dumouriez left the way clear for the Austrians and -English to invade France. They advanced slowly and did not attempt, -like the Duke of Brunswick in the previous year, to mask the frontier -fortresses and move straight upon Paris. On 24th May the French camp at -Famars was stormed; on 12th July Condé, on 28th July Valenciennes, were -taken after making an obstinate resistance, and the allies were thus -firmly established in France. Then, fortunately for the Convention, -the allied commanders-in-chief quarrelled. The Duke of York, acting -under the orders of the English ministry, besieged Dunkirk, which port -he desired to hold for the disembarkation of supplies. The Prince of -Coburg, with the Austrians, refused to assist in the siege of Dunkirk, -and invested Le Quesnoy. Further south the Prussians captured Mayence -on the 22d of July, and a mixed army of Austrians and troops of the -Empire under Würmser forced their way into Alsace. At both ends of -the Pyrenees Spanish armies invaded the French Republic. In the -eastern Pyrenees nearly the whole of Roussillon was conquered, and in -the western Pyrenees the passage of the Bidassoa was forced. These -repeated reverses in so many quarters did not destroy the courage of -the Convention or of the French people, but they proved that hastily -raised undisciplined masses can never be a match for trained soldiers. -The successes of Dumouriez and Custine had been as much the result of -accident and of the hearty reception given to them by the natives of -the districts they invaded as of talent and bravery, but the first -defeats showed how thoroughly the policy of the Constituent Assembly -had sapped the discipline of the French army. - -[Sidenote: Civil war in France.] - -To add to the dangers which threatened France during the summer of -1793, civil war in many quarters redoubled the perils caused by the -foreign invasion. The war in La Vendée increased in magnitude almost -daily, and the soldiers of the Republic were frequently defeated by -the hardy peasants who fought in guerilla fashion among their woods -and marshes. Throughout Brittany and in the mountains of Auvergne -similar movements took place, generally guided by priests and country -gentlemen; but except in La Vendée there was no serious royalist -manifestation. But the expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention -had given rise to another movement of even greater importance. The -insurrections in La Vendée and similar risings in country or mountain -districts were the work of ignorant peasants; the movement in favour of -the Girondins was headed by wealthy and intelligent cities. The news of -the _coup d’état_ of the 2d of June was received with consternation in -most of the chief cities of France. Girondin journals had long preached -the wickedness of the Commune of Paris, and that the leaders of the -Mountain were either anarchists or ambitious men aiming at power. -These words now had their effect. Several of the deputies proscribed -on the 2d of June escaped into the provinces, and a group of them, -collected at Caen in Normandy, endeavoured to organise an army against -the Convention. Other cities followed the example. Marseilles arrested -the representatives on mission; Bordeaux refused to receive the -deputies sent to it; Lyons started a counter-revolution and executed -Chalier, the leader of the local democratic party; and several cities -agreed to send detachments of local troops to form a central army -against the Convention at Bourges. For a few days matters looked most -threatening for the victorious members of the Mountain, but they were -well served by the deputies on mission. The Norman army was easily -defeated at Pacy on the 13th of July; Bordeaux and Marseilles quickly -submitted, and Lyons was invested. But the success of the Mountain was -due to something more than the vigour of its representatives in the -provinces. The general sentiment in France was that the conduct of -the Girondins in causing civil war showed the very excess of want of -patriotism; even if the Commune of Paris had done wrong in interfering -with the Convention, the Girondins had behaved worse in attempting -to rouse the provinces, and owing to this sentiment many departments -and many cities speedily repented of the encouragement they had given -to the Girondin designs, and withdrew their support to the proposed -concentration of local troops at Bourges. - -[Sidenote: The Constitution of 1793.] - -[Sidenote: The work of the first Committee of Public Safety.] - -The deputies of the Mountain met the unparalleled dangers of foreign -and civil war with undaunted courage. Their first measure was to -draw up with extreme rapidity a republican constitution, which is -known as the Constitution of 1793. As it never came into effect, the -details of this proposed system of government need not be described. -But the fact that it was drawn up, promulgated, and sent before the -primary assemblies of the people, deprived the Girondin insurgents -of one of their chief weapons. They had asserted that the Mountain -admired anarchy and wished to retain power for the Convention and -themselves. To these allegations the issue of the Constitution of -1793 was an adequate reply. But it was quite impossible, according to -the leaders of the Mountain, for the Convention to abandon the reins -of power. A general election at such a time would but increase the -difficulty of the situation. So, while declaring the existence of the -new Constitution, it deferred putting it into effect, and strengthened -the authority of its new executive, the Committee of Public Safety. -The advantages to be derived from the concentration of authority in -a few hands became quite clear to the Convention after the expulsion -of the Girondins. It may be doubted whether the distinguished orators -who directed Girondin opinion, from their constant apprehension of -the dangers of a strong executive to individual liberty, would ever -have perceived them. The existence of the Committee made it possible -for representatives on mission and other agents of government to -have a central authority on which to rely. It was the Committee -which directed the short campaign in Normandy which overthrew the -most promising movement of the escaped Girondin deputies; it was the -prudence of a member of the Committee, Robert Lindet, which pacified -Normandy, after the victory had been won, by ruthlessly tracking down -the ringleaders and generously sparing those who had been led away; -it was the Committee which first attempted to re-establish discipline -in the armies and to supply them with provisions and munitions of war; -and it was on the motion of the most important member of the first -Committee, Danton, that the fatal decree of the 19th of November, which -consecrated the revolutionary propaganda, and gave good reason for the -continued opposition of foreign powers, was repealed. This good work -in all directions showed the members of the Convention that they were -acting in the right direction. - -[Sidenote: The Great Committee of Public Safety.] - -On 10th July 1793 the first Committee was dissolved on the motion of -Camille Desmoulins, but a new Committee with similar powers was at -once elected. This Committee, which may be called the Great Committee -of Public Safety, remained in power for more than a year. Danton was -not a member of it, partly because he believed he could do better work -outside, partly because of his dislike of continued labour; Cambon also -was not re-elected, preferring to confine himself to the charge of -the finances of the Republic as the principal member of the Financial -Committee. The nine members originally elected in July were Barère, who -acted as reporter throughout its tenure of office, and was therefore in -some respects the most important of them all; Jean Bon Saint-André, who -took charge of naval matters; Prieur of the Marne and Robert Lindet, -whose main duties were to provide for the feeding of the armies; -Hérault de Séchelles, the chief author of the Constitution of 1793, who -busied himself with foreign affairs; Couthon, Saint-Just, Gasparin, and -Thuriot. Robespierre entered the Committee in the place of Gasparin on -the 27th of July; Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or were added on the -14th of August to superintend the military operations on the frontiers; -Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois were added on September the 6th -to establish the Reign of Terror; and on the 20th of September Thuriot -retired. The steps in the growth of the supremacy of this second -Committee of Public Safety are significant. On the 1st of August 1793 -Barère read his first report to the Convention. In it he proposed the -most energetic, not to say sanguinary, measures. The war was to be -carried on with the utmost energy; La Vendée was to be destroyed; and -Marie Antoinette was to be sent for trial before the Revolutionary -Tribunal. On the same day Danton proposed that the Committee should be -formally recognised as a provisional government, and that the ministers -should be directed to act as its subordinates. This motion was not -carried, but the entire control over the resources of France, and the -lives of Frenchmen, which Danton contemplated, was secured without the -passing of a formal decree. The Convention seems to have been very -glad to rid itself of the work of government. It accepted without a -murmur every measure proposed by the Committee of Public Safety; it -re-elected the members month after month; it threw all responsibility -upon them and registered all the decrees they proposed. As has been -said, it definitely gave them the charge of the military operations by -the election of Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or, and it established -the unity of their internal administration by the election of -Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois. - -[Sidenote: The Position of Robespierre.] - -The rule of the second or Great Committee of Public Safety is generally -known as the Reign of Terror. The Committee itself divided the chief -functions of government among its members. The special functions of -all, except those of Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just, have been -already noticed. Robespierre was the only one amongst them who had any -reputation outside, or indeed within, the walls of the Convention. -His conduct during the session of the Constituent Assembly, his -clear-sighted opposition to the war with Austria, his sagacious -views on the subject of the treatment of the King, his war against -the Girondin federalists, his oratorical talent, and above all his -reputation for being absolutely incorruptible and sincerely patriotic, -made him the man of mark among the Committee. He was well aware of the -importance of his position. His colleagues on the Committee used him -as their figure-head to represent them on great occasions, and he made -it his business to lay down the general principles which underlay the -system of revolutionary government—that is, of the Reign of Terror. But -though to the Convention and to France at large Robespierre was the -most conspicuous member of the Committee of Public Safety, he really -exercised but very slight influence on the actual work of government. -He had no department of the State given into his charge; he had not -the necessary fluency or facility to take Barère’s place as ordinary -reporter; he was not on terms of friendship with the majority of his -fellow-workers; he was made use of, but was neither trusted nor liked -by the real governors of France. It was to their benefit that the -system of the solidarity of the Committee was established, which gave -to all their measures the sanction of Robespierre’s great reputation -for incorruptibility and patriotism. The majority of the Committee -had no positive views on government; they tried to do the work which -lay to their hands in the best way they could; Robespierre alone -hoped to evolve out of the Reign of Terror a new system of republican -government. His only real friends in the Committee were the two men -least suited to give him effectual help, for Couthon was a cripple, -and unable to attend with the necessary assiduity, and Saint-Just was -but five-and-twenty, the youngest of the Committee, and was generally -absent from Paris on special missions. - -[Sidenote: The Reign of Terror.] - -[Sidenote: Committee of General Security.] - -The system by which the Great Committee of Public Safety regulated the -Reign of Terror was based upon two important institutions. The first of -these was the Committee of General Security which sat in Paris, and was -elected from the members of the Convention, and which exercised general -police control over all France. On great occasions its members sat with -the Committee of Public Safety as a Committee of Government, but its -special functions were to deal with men, while the Committee of Public -Safety dealt with measures. Danton, who was the principal creator of -the supremacy of the Great Committee of Public Safety—though he himself -refused to join it—saw the importance of subordinating in fact, if not -in name, the Committee of General Security to the Committee of Public -Safety. On 11th September 1793 a Committee of General Security had been -elected, containing certain deputies of independent character, and -Danton, fearing a rivalry would arise between the two Committees, at -once obtained its dissolution, and secured, on September the 14th, the -election of a Committee of General Security which would act in harmony -with the great Committee. The members elected at this time were with -but few exceptions re-elected every month. - -[Sidenote: Deputies on Mission.] - -The second instrument by which the Great Committee ruled were the -deputies on mission. The practice of sending deputies on special -missions originated in August 1792. It had grown in importance, and -the deputies proved their value in their vigorous suppression of the -Girondin movement in the provinces in the summer of 1793. The power -of deputies on mission was more than once specifically declared to be -unlimited. On grounds of public safety they were not only permitted, -but were ordered, to alter the composition of local authorities, -whether municipal or departmental. They had full powers to arrest -and to make requisitions. They were consistently supported by the -Committee of Public Safety sitting in Paris, and the greatest latitude -was given to them in administering the local government. As long as -they preserved the peace and sent up plenty of supplies of money, and, -when demanded, of recruits to Paris, their methods of government were -not minutely inquired into. Besides the deputies on mission employed -in the internal administration, another important body of similar -representatives were kept at the headquarters of the different armies. -These deputies likewise had unlimited authority. They could arrest even -generals-in-chief at their absolute will; they could degrade officers -of any rank; they could interfere with military operations; and could -overrule the orders of a general in the field. The Committee of General -Security and the deputies on mission ruled by means of inspiring -terror. This terror was based on the existence of the Revolutionary -Tribunal in Paris, and of its imitations termed revolutionary or -military commissions in the provinces, and the armies. - -[Sidenote: Law of the Suspects.] - -[Sidenote: Law of the Maximum.] - -The Revolutionary Tribunal took cognisance of all political offences, -and its sentence was almost invariably death. Nearly every Frenchman -or Frenchwoman could be brought within the net of the Revolutionary -Tribunal by the Law of the Suspects. By this law, which was most -carefully drafted by Merlin of Douai, any one who for any reason could -be suspected of disliking the new state of affairs could be arrested. -All relatives of _émigrés_ or of noblemen came into this category as -well as all former functionaries and officials of whatever sort. But -since the Law of the Suspects was not sufficiently wide to impress the -ordinary bourgeois, more especially the petty bourgeois, with terror, a -new weapon was forged in the Law of the Maximum. This law was put into -operation in September 1793. The laws of political economy could not be -seriously affected by such a measure as the Law of the Maximum, which -fixed maximum prices at which all articles of prime necessity were -to be sold. Such a law was certain to be evaded; but its existence, -and the fact that evasions of the Law of the Maximum brought the -offender under the Revolutionary Tribunal, was enough to establish the -Reign of Terror over the petty bourgeois. There were other means for -extending the system which need not here be particularised, such as -the necessity of every person carrying a card with him giving a full -history of his conduct during the Revolution, the encouragement of -denunciations by the bestowal of rewards, and similar precautions. The -Revolutionary Tribunal was provided with victims under these measures -by the Committee of General Security, and by the numerous little -Revolutionary Committees sitting in every section of Paris, and in -every city, district, and village throughout France. The Revolutionary -Committees consisted of tried Jacobins, and were in the provinces -appointed by the deputies on mission. They were frequently purified by -the expulsion of any member who gave evidence of moderate opinions. The -Revolutionary Committees filled the prisons—it was the business of the -Revolutionary Tribunal to empty them. This it did with much expedition. -The death sentences of the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris, which only -averaged three a week from April to September 1793, averaged thirty-two -a week from September 1793 to June 1794, and 196 a week in June and -July 1794. This increase was very gradual; it became an established -system to send batches of victims to the guillotine every day; and the -numbers in these batches increased steadily. The Committee of Public -Safety, through its agent, the Committee of General Security, did not -much care who were executed as long as a considerable number went to -the scaffold every day. Exceptions to this rule are, however, to be -noted in the executions of Marie Antoinette on 16th October 1793, of -twenty-one Girondins on 31st October, of certain generals, such as -Custine, Houchard, and Biron, and of the Duke of Orleans and Bailly, -which intimidated courtiers, deputies, generals, and ex-Constituants. - -This system of terror was not suddenly evolved—it was the result of -gradual growth. The two men mainly responsible for systematising it and -carrying it into effect were Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois, who -were specially added to the Committee of Public Safety to superintend -the internal administration of France. On 10th October 1793, on the -motion of Saint-Just, the Constitution of 1793 was declared suspended, -and revolutionary government, that is, the Reign of Terror, was ordered -to continue until a general peace. On 10th December Billaud-Varenne -read a report which defined the system, of which the most important -clause was the substitution of national agents nominated by the -government,—that is, by the deputies on mission,—to take the place of -the elected procureurs-syndics of the districts. The Reign of Terror -in the provinces varied greatly. Some proconsuls, such as Carrier at -Nantes and Le Bon at Arras, carried out their government in the most -bloodthirsty fashion, but the ‘Noyades,’ or drowning of prisoners -wholesale at Nantes, must not be regarded as typical of the terror -in the provinces. Many proconsuls, such as André Dumont, contented -themselves with threats, and while filling their prisons with suspects -declined to empty them by means of the guillotine. Other proconsuls, -such as Bernard of Saintes, preferred to send an occasional batch of -prisoners to Paris to having a revolutionary tribunal of their own; -but in every case except those of Carrier and Javogues, which were -too atrocious to be passed over, the Committee of Public Safety gave -its agents in the provinces a free hand to rule as they would so long -as they maintained internal tranquillity and passive obedience to the -decrees of the revolutionary government. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Terror.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Hondschoten and Wattignies. 1793.] - -While the government of the Committee of Public Safety was being -organised in Paris and in the provinces, disasters succeeded each other -with rapidity both on the frontiers and in the interior of France. The -Prussians, after the capture of Mayence, only advanced a short distance -into France; but the Austrians made steady progress in the north-east -in conjunction with the English, and, under Würmser, penetrated Alsace -and stormed the lines of Wissembourg. The Comte d’Artois declared his -intention to place himself at the head of the insurgents in La Vendée, -at Lyons, and in the mountains of Auvergne. The English also promised -to send armed assistance in every direction. But the younger brother of -Louis XVI. thought it enough to make promises—he did absolutely nothing -to fulfil them. The English on their part confined themselves to one -important operation. They had on the outbreak of war despatched a fleet -to the Mediterranean under the command of Lord Hood, and on the 4th of -August 1793 the insurgents at Toulon, in the course of their opposition -to the Convention, surrendered their city to the allied English and -Spanish fleets. In Lyons the same progress of opposition was to be -observed. The original insurgents had professed federalist opinions, -but when the Convention sent an army against them open royalists took -the place of the federalists. The vigorous action of the new government -soon freed the French Republic from its foreign and internal foes. -Carnot, on taking charge of military measures, saw that the only means -of defeating the invaders was to take advantage of the numbers of his -soldiers and to act in masses. Acting on this policy General Houchard -raised the siege of Dunkirk and defeated the English and Hanoverians -in the battle of Hondschoten (8th September). In spite of his victory -Houchard was disgraced for not following it up with vigour. Jourdan, -his successor, carrying out the same policy, concentrated his army -against the Austrians, raised the siege of Maubeuge, and defeated the -Austrians at Wattignies (16th October). These victories did not drive -the Anglo-Austrian army out of France, but they stopped the progress -of the allies and caused them to stand upon the defensive. Farther -south the same vigour was displayed. Saint-Just restored discipline -in the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle. Hoche, at the head of the -latter, won the victory of the Geisberg (25th September) over the -Austrians and Prussians, while Pichegru, at the head of the Army of -the Rhine, relieved Landau and drove Würmser across the Rhine. Almost -at the same time a powerful army, of which the best regiments were -the former garrison of Valenciennes, captured Lyons on the 9th of -October, and on the 18th of December Toulon was retaken by an army -under the command of General Dugommier. It was at the siege of Toulon -that Napoleon Bonaparte first made himself conspicuous and won the rank -of general of brigade. The republican armies were equally successful -against the Spaniards. The Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, under D’Aoust, -recovered Roussillon, while that of the Western Pyrenees, under Müller, -drove the Spaniards across the Bidassoa. In La Vendée equal success -was achieved. The former garrison of Mayence, which was composed of -excellent soldiers who had gained experience and discipline from their -long resistance to the Prussians, destroyed the Vendéan armies, and -the insurrection of the province was severely punished by Carrier at -Nantes and by the infernal columns which, under General Turreau, were -directed to devastate the country. These repeated successes in every -quarter reconciled the French people to the hideous _régime_ of the -Reign of Terror. Its despotism was excused because of its success, and -its absolute authority reluctantly submitted to as a necessary evil. - -[Sidenote: Fall of the Hébertists and Dantonists.] - -In Paris the supremacy of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign -of Terror met with opposition in two distinct quarters. On the one -hand the Commune of Paris, which was principally influenced by the -Procureur-Syndic, Chaumette, and his substitute, Hébert, soon began -to resent the loss of its former authority. The Commune had actually -carried out the _coup d’état_ which overthrew the Girondins, and had -expected to reap the chief advantage for itself. In order to form a -party it demanded that the revolutionary government should cease and -that the Constitution of 1793 should be put into force. But this cry -did not raise a sufficiently powerful support. The leaders of the -Commune, therefore, allied themselves with the most extreme democratic -party, which met generally at the Cordeliers Club. This extreme party -professed absolutely atheistic principles. It proclaimed the Worship -of Reason; it celebrated that worship with orgies in the cathedral of -Notre Dame; it induced Gobel, Bishop of Paris, to resign his see; it -carried its opposition to Christianity to an extreme; and started a -system of persecution against the Christian religion. In home politics -it did not defend the socialistic notions which had found some currency -in Paris, but it nevertheless declared itself the party of the _sans -culottes_, and denounced all rich men and bourgeois as selfish egotists -and enemies of the people. In foreign policy it adopted the doctrines -of the revolutionary propaganda and declared it the destiny of France -to destroy all tyrants. The Committee of Public Safety, as soon as -its power was firmly organised, resolved to overthrow this party of -opposition by striking at its leaders. Robespierre attacked them in the -Jacobin Club, and caused them to be excluded as atheists and enemies of -all government; Danton denounced the Worship of Reason as a disgraceful -masquerade; Camille Desmoulins exhausted his resources of eloquence -and sarcasm to hold them and their doctrines up to reprobation in the -_Vieux Cordelier_. As soon as the extreme party, which is commonly -called the Hébertist party, after its most conspicuous leader Hébert, -the editor of the _Père Duchesne_, was thoroughly discredited, the -Committee of Public Safety struck. On 24th Ventôse (14th March 1794) -Hébert and his principal supporters were arrested on the report of -Saint-Just. They were at once sent for trial before the Revolutionary -Tribunal, and on 4th Germinal (24th March) they were guillotined. - -The Hébertists fell because they opposed the despotism of the new -government. The Dantonists, who followed them to the guillotine, fell -because they believed the Reign of Terror to be carried too far. Danton -had done more than any man to bring about the supremacy of the Great -Committee of Public Safety. Convinced as he was that only a strong -executive could possibly disentangle France from the dangers which -beset her on every side, he had consistently advocated the creation -of a strong government. Though not himself a member of the Great -Committee, he had believed it to be his duty to support its power on -every possible occasion. He had not only been the chief author of its -supremacy, but the principal creator of the system by which it ruled. -But he began to believe, in the beginning of the year 1794, that the -Reign of Terror was being too stringently exercised. He was quite in -accord with Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois in considering it -necessary to frighten the people of France into acquiescence with the -new order of things, but he did not consider that it was necessary -to shed so much blood to accomplish the work of fright. His friend -Camille Desmoulins had in the _Vieux Cordelier_ not only exposed the -Hébertists, but had hinted at the need for mercy and the advantages of -appointing a Committee of Mercy. The Great Committee of Public Safety -was not only determined to maintain its autocratic power, but to defend -its system of government. Danton’s influence in the Convention was -still sufficiently great to give the members of the Committee a cause -for uneasiness. It therefore resolved, in order to stop all murmuring -against the Reign of Terror, and to establish a reign of terror -over the Convention itself, to make an example of the most vigorous -patriot in France. On 10th Germinal (30th March 1794) Danton, Camille -Desmoulins, and their chief adherents were arrested, and on 16th -Germinal (5th April 1794) the Dantonists followed the Hébertists to the -guillotine. These two blows ensured the supremacy of the Committee of -Public Safety and the continuance of the Reign of Terror. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1794.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Fleurus. June 26, 1794.] - -The Great Committee of Public Safety knew that its tenure of power -rested on its successful conduct of the foreign war. Throughout -the interior tranquillity prevailed except in La Vendée, where the -sanguinary measures adopted perpetuated a guerilla warfare. The French -troops were, in 1794, in a very different condition from that in which -they had been left at the commencement of 1793. The measures of terror -which pacified France had been in the army the cause of the restoration -of discipline. Constant fighting had converted the men into efficient -soldiers. Excellent officers had come to the front during the campaign, -and, owing to the rapidity of promotion, most of the generals were -young and energetic men. All that was best in France had gone to the -front. There, and there alone, men who might have fallen under the -terrible Law of the Suspects at home, were not only safe themselves, -but by their presence in the ranks of the Republic protected their -relatives. All the resources of France were laid at the disposal of her -armies. The country became one vast arsenal. The soldiers were well -fed, clothed, and armed, and the ablest administrators were employed in -rendering them efficient. The result of this concentration of France -upon the foreign war was success in every quarter. In the spring of -1794 the various armies took the offensive, the Army of the North, -under Pichegru, marched by the northern line into Belgium, while a new -army, afterwards called the Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse, which was -formed out of the Army of the Ardennes, and a wing of the Army of the -Moselle penetrated Belgium from the south. Before these two armies the -English and Austrians fell back. They were rapidly pursued, and on the -26th of June 1794 Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus. This victory, like -the victory of Jemmappes the year before, laid Belgium open to the -French armies. Brussels was reoccupied; the English and Dutch retired -into Holland; the Austrians fell back behind the Meuse. Meanwhile, the -Army of the Moselle, under René Moreaux, stormed the Prussian position -at Kaiserslautern, and with the Army of the Rhine drove the Austrians -across that river. The Army of Italy, which had taken Toulon, also took -the offensive, and defeated the Piedmontese at Saorgio. Dugommier, with -the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, turned the tables on the Spaniards, -and crossing the mountains penetrated into Catalonia, while the Army of -the Western Pyrenees invaded Spain in that quarter, and threatened San -Sebastian. - -[Sidenote: Battle of the 1st of June.] - -The only checks which the Great Committee received were at sea. Whether -it was because it is more difficult to improvise a navy than an army, -or because sufficient attention was not paid to the republican navy, it -is impossible to decide, but it is quite certain that the sailors of -the Republic did not rival the soldiers in success, though they did in -valour. One reason for this was that all the best sailors preferred the -lucrative work of preying upon the commerce of the world in frigates -and privateers to serving in the regular fleets, where no prizes were -to be made. The two principal French fleets were those stationed at -Toulon and at Brest. An ineffectual effort had been made by Sir Sidney -Smith to burn the Toulon fleet when the English and Spaniards evacuated -that port. Nevertheless, a new fleet was soon prepared, but its action -against the English and the Spaniards who blockaded the coast were -ineffectual. The English on leaving Toulon had proceeded to Corsica. -That island had been raised against the Convention by the native -patriot, Paoli, who invited the English to come and take possession in -the name of George III. In Corsica, owing to the weakness of the French -Mediterranean fleet, the English remained unmolested for nearly a -year. The Brest fleet, however, came to blows with the English Channel -fleet, under the command of Lord Howe. The United States of America -had agreed to pay part of the debt which they owed France for money -lent during the War of American Independence in grain, and a convoy was -sent to protect the grain-ships. Lord Howe was directed to cut off this -convoy, and the French fleet left Brest to ensure its safe arrival. -From one point of view, the action of the French fleet was crowned -with success, for the convoy arrived safely, but the fleet itself was -utterly defeated by Lord Howe on the 1st of June 1794. Since the object -had been attained, the Committee of Public Safety claimed credit for -the action in which the fleet had been engaged, and the reports which -Barère read daily from the tribune of the Convention were invariably of -battles won and of feats of valour. - -[Sidenote: Fall of Robespierre, 9th Thermidor (27th July) 1794.] - -The brilliant successes which followed the establishment of the power -of the Great Committee of Public Safety justified its despotism in the -eyes of France, but as soon as those successes had freed France from -the invaders, it was generally felt that the weight of the Reign of -Terror was intolerable, and that it had become unnecessary. It was at -this period of most brilliant military triumphs that the Terror grew -to its greatest height in Paris. On 22d Prairial (10th of June 1794) -a law was passed to accelerate the procedure of the Revolutionary -Tribunal, and the number of deaths upon the guillotine increased to -an average of 196 a week. Robespierre, who, as has been said, was -more of a statesman than his colleagues upon the Committee of Public -Safety, who were simply administrators, understood the tenor of feeling -in France. He believed that the time was coming when the Reign of -Terror should cease, and a new Reign of Virtue, carrying into effect -the maxims of Rousseau, could be established. The working members of -the Committee allowed Robespierre to theorise to his heart’s content; -as long as he did not interfere with them, he might advocate what -principles he pleased. The first evidence of Robespierre’s new tendency -appeared in his establishment of the Worship of the Supreme Being. He -was a profoundly religious and virtuous man, and the chief cause of -his hatred of Hébert and Danton was his belief that they were immoral -atheists. On 18th Floréal (7th May 1794) Robespierre made his most -famous speech in the Convention, by which he induced the Convention -to officially acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being and the -immortality of the soul. The speech was followed on 20th Prairial by -a great festival in honour of the Supreme Being, at which Robespierre -presided. This was the day when his power seemed greatest, but many of -his colleagues laughed at his assumption of virtue and at his posing -as a high priest. He perceived clearly that he could not establish his -chimerical Reign of Virtue without destroying the scoffers who refused -to believe in him and his doctrines. He absented himself for six weeks -from the meetings of the Committee, and prepared a speech by which he -hoped to induce the Convention to proscribe his opponents. - -On 8th Thermidor (26th July 1794) he read this speech to the -Convention, and attacked covertly, and without mentioning many names, -not only certain of his colleagues in the Committee of Public Safety, -but also the majority of the Committee of General Security and of the -Financial Committee. These men, who had been governing France while -Robespierre was theorising, would not tamely submit to be ejected from -power and guillotined. On the evening of the same day Robespierre -read his speech to the Jacobin Club, which was the headquarters of -the puritans who believed in the possibility of a Reign of Virtue. -But on 9th Thermidor the accused deputies determined to act. It was -not only the working members of the Committees, but also the friends -of Danton, the independent deputies of the Mountain, and the members -of the Centre, who felt threatened, and their attitude was speedily -declared. Saint-Just began to read a report accusing Billaud-Varenne -and Collot-d’Herbois by name, but he was interrupted, and Robespierre -himself, with Couthon, Saint-Just, and two other deputies were, after -a stormy scene, ordered under arrest. But the puritan party were not -only strong in the Jacobin Club; they dominated the Commune of Paris -ever since the overthrow of the Hébertists. Hanriot, the commandant -of the National Guard of Paris, rescued Robespierre and the other -imprisoned deputies, and took them to the Hôtel-de-Ville, where a -scheme of government was discussed. The Convention did not wait to be -attacked. It declared Robespierre and all his adherents to be outlaws, -and Barras, Fréron, and Léonard Bourdon collected columns of regular -troops and national guards to attack the Hôtel-de-Ville. The Convention -was completely successful. The people of Paris, like the people of all -France, persisted in considering Robespierre as the author of the Reign -of Terror, while not only his enemies but his colleagues threw upon -him the responsibility for all the atrocities included under the name -of the Terror. Though personally he had very little influence in the -Committee, he was represented and regarded as its master. Consequently -no hand was raised to protect Robespierre and the puritans; the -Hôtel-de-Ville was easily occupied by Barras; Robespierre was wounded -in the mouth by a gendarme, and on 10th Thermidor (28th July) he was -guillotined, and was accompanied or followed to the scaffold by the -small group of colleagues who had been impeached with him, and by the -majority of the Commune of Paris. - -[Sidenote: The Rule of the Thermidorians. First Phase.] - -The death of Robespierre did not lead to a change of government, but -it led to an alteration in the system by which the government was -administered. The deputies who had been most instrumental in the -revolution of Thermidor belonged to the Mountain, and expected to -retain power in their hands; but they saw the necessity of preventing -such a permanence of power as had existed during the previous year. It -was, therefore, resolved that the Committees of Government—that is, the -Committees of Public Safety and of General Security—should be renewed -by a quarter every month, and that the retiring members should not -be eligible for re-election until a month had passed. The survivors -of the Great Committee still believed in the system of government by -terror, but their new colleagues understood that now that France was -victorious the country would no longer submit to such rigorous measures -of repression. The victory of Fleurus had done away with the necessity -of continually employing the guillotine. The system of terror was -therefore tacitly abandoned; the supremacy of the Committees continued; -the Law of the Suspects was unrepealed; the Revolutionary Tribunal -continued to exist; representatives were still sent on mission with -unlimited powers; but the succession of executions ceased, and the -method of government, though arbitrary, was no longer sanguinary. The -men who ruled France from Thermidor (July) 1794 to Ventôse (March) 1795 -were deputies of the Mountain, men of the type of Carnot and Robert -Lindet, the most sagacious of the members of the Great Committee of -Public Safety. The most conspicuous of the new men of this period were -Merlin of Douai and Treilhard, who took charge of the foreign policy. -These statesmen, while Carnot superintended the carrying on of the -war with his accustomed vigour and success, finally broke with the -propagandist doctrines which had made the war of unparalleled magnitude -and bitterness, and Merlin of Douai, on 14th Frimaire (4th December) -1794 read a report in the name of the Committee of Public Safety, -declaring that the Republic did not wish to be at war with Europe for -ever, and laying down the bases on which treaties of peace honourable -to France could be made. While the Thermidorians were administering -the government strongly and honourably, they were beset with cries -of vengeance against the Terrorists of the previous year. They felt -it necessary to yield to the general outcry, and on 21st Brumaire, -Year III. (11th November 1794), Carrier, the most ferocious of the -proconsuls of the Terror, was sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. -He was tried and eventually executed for his crimes. The agitation -was stronger against the organisers of the Terror, Billaud-Varenne, -and Collot-d’Herbois, with whom were associated in the popular hatred -Barère, the reporter, and Vadier, who had been the most conspicuous -member of the Committee of General Security. Both the doctrines and -the men of the Terror had still plenty of supporters in Paris, who -now dominated the Jacobin Club, which was therefore closed by the -Thermidorians in December 1794. Almost at the same date the Law of -the Maximum was repealed. In the same month the survivors of the -seventy-three deputies who had protested against the proscription of -the Girondins, and consequently been imprisoned, were recalled to their -seats in the Convention. - -[Sidenote: Conquest of Holland. 1794–5.] - -[Sidenote: The Batavian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Successes in other quarters.] - -Meanwhile the series of victories which had commenced during the rule -of the Great Committee of Public Safety continued. Pichegru at the -head of the Army of the North pursued the English and their Dutch and -Hanoverian allies. On the 9th of October he took Nimeguen, and forcing -his way across the frozen rivers drove the English through Holland. He -occupied Amsterdam, and then with his hussars took the Dutch fleet, -which was unable to leave its moorings in the Texel owing to the ice. -By the end of January 1795 the whole of Holland was in the possession -of the French. The Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange, fled to England, -and the English troops were soon after withdrawn. The conquest of -Holland was of the greatest service to the Thermidorians, for it -enabled them, by drawing upon the wealth of that country, to relieve -the financial distress of the French Republic. With regard to Belgium -there was no difficulty in coming to a decision as to its future, for -the Decree of Reunion passed in the days of Dumouriez’ success remained -unrepealed, and the Austrian Netherlands were therefore organised as -part of the French Republic. It was otherwise with regard to Holland. -The Thermidorians did not desire to further aggravate the fears of -Europe by annexing that country, but at the same time they were quite -resolved that it should not again fall under the power of the English. -Reubell and Sieyès, two ex-Constituants who had remained in obscurity -during the Reign of Terror, were despatched to Holland to see what -could be done. They found many Dutch admirers of the doctrines of -the French Revolution, and speedily conciliated the burghers of the -Dutch cities, who had always resented the power of the Stadtholder. -With the help of these parties and of the Dutch patriots who had been -exiled in 1787, and who now returned from France full of enthusiasm -for democracy, they organised a Batavian Republic on the model of the -French Republic, and in March 1795 a Treaty of Peace and Alliance was -signed between the French and Batavian Republics. In other quarters -the French Republic was likewise triumphant. Maestricht was taken -by Kléber on the 4th of November 1794. Jourdan with the Army of the -Sambre-and-Meuse, defeated the Austrians under Clerfayt at Aldenhoven -on the 2d of October, and marching south occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, -Bonn, Cologne, and Coblentz. Meanwhile the Army of the Moselle, -under René Moreaux, finally drove the Prussians out of France and -occupied the Palatinate and the whole of the Electorate of Trèves. On -the southern frontier there were similar successes. The Army of the -Eastern Pyrenees, which had invaded Catalonia, stormed the Spanish -camp at Figueras on the 20th of November 1794, and took Rosas on -the 3rd of February 1795. In the first of these actions the French -General Dugommier was killed in action. Moncey, with the Army of the -Western Pyrenees, took Bilbao, Vittoria, and San Sebastian. The Army -of Italy won the victory of Loano on the 24th of November, which -opened communication with Genoa. The Army of the Alps finally reached -the summits of Mont Cenis and the Little St. Bernard, and drove the -Piedmontese before it. - -[Sidenote: Poland. 1794–5.] - -While the French nation had thus after much suffering and long -submission to the Reign of Terror secured its independence and made -itself feared by Europe, a Polish insurrection had taken place which -was not crowned with the same success. The second partition of -Poland, which was consummated in 1793, has been described. But the -Polish nation was not inclined to acknowledge its extinction without -another blow. Many Polish exiles came to France, and the leader of -the Polish patriots, Kosciuszko, received a flattering reception, -though no promise of active help. On the 23d of March 1794 Kosciuszko -entered Cracow and raised the standard of national independence. -This news caused a general rising in Prussian Poland, where the new -administrators of Prussia had behaved with extreme cruelty. Stanislas -Poniatowski, King of Poland, acting under the influence of the Russian -general commanding at Warsaw, Igelstrom, disavowed Kosciuszko and -declared him a rebel. But the Polish people welcomed Kosciuszko -as a liberator. He defeated the Russians at Raclawice on the 4th -of April 1794, and after a further victory occupied Warsaw on the -19th. Both Russians and Prussians prepared to defend the provinces -they had annexed in 1793, and laid siege to Warsaw in July 1794. By -the beginning of September all Prussian Poland was in a flame of -insurrection; Frederick William II., who was conducting the siege -in person, rapidly retreated and summoned to his assistance a large -proportion of the troops hitherto employed against France. But though -the Prussians had temporarily retired, Catherine of Russia determined, -at all hazards, to conquer the Poles. She gathered a great army from -all parts of her empire, and placed it under the command of the most -famous of the Russian generals, Suvórov. Caught between the army of -Suvórov and the army of Fersen, who had succeeded Igelstrom in command -of the Russians already in Poland, the Polish patriots were utterly -defeated at Maciejowice on the 12th of October 1794, when Kosciuszko -was wounded and taken prisoner. On the 4th of November, Praga, the -suburb of Warsaw on the right bank of the Vistula, was stormed by -Suvórov, and on the 9th of November the capital surrendered. Catherine -determined to complete the work of the destruction of Poland. Stanislas -Poniatowski was removed from Poland on the 7th of January 1795, and on -the 25th of November 1795 he abdicated the throne. - -[Sidenote: Extinction of Poland. 1795.] - -The division of the spoils caused much trouble to the allies. The -Austrians, who had been left in the lurch at the second partition, -claimed a share, and, like the Prussians, weakened their armies on -the frontier of France in order to defend their claims on Poland. By -the final partition, which was arranged between the powers in 1795, -Prussia received Warsaw and the surrounding palatinates; Austria -received Cracow and the rest of Galicia, and the Russians were content -with rectifying their frontier from Grodno to Minsk. It is interesting -to contrast the simultaneous failure of the Poles and success of the -French. The cause lay in the fact that the great bulk of the Polish -people were serfs, to whom it mattered little what master they served, -whereas the French people had long thrown off the bonds of personal -serfdom, and had just succeeded in getting rid of the last shackles of -the privileged classes. The Polish Constitution of 1791 was the work of -a few enlightened noblemen and priests, and was gladly accepted by the -educated bourgeois of the cities, but the peasants were in too degraded -a condition to understand what personal liberty meant. In France every -peasant, every farmer had profited by the Revolution, and was wedded to -its cause not only for political reasons, but because of the purchases -of ecclesiastical property which he had made. The national feeling in -France embraced the whole people, and made France successful against -her foreign foes; the national feeling in Poland only existed among -a minority of the population, and the result was that Kosciuszko was -unable to attain the triumph which he so well merited. - -[Sidenote: Change in the attitude of Continental Powers.] - -The successes of the French Republic and the failure of the Polish -national movement affected the attitude of the coalition both towards -France and towards its own members. The Prussians, ever since the -defeat of Brunswick in 1792, had openly expressed their belief -that the Austrians were betraying them and using them as catspaws. -Frederick William II. for a long time battled against these views, -which were held by the chief Prussian statesmen, such as Haugwitz and -Alvensleben, by the most respected Prussian generals such as Kalkreuth -and Möllendorf, and by his own personal clique of favourites, headed -by Lucchesini. In the year 1793 he had confined his operations against -France to the siege of Mayence, while his best troops were directed -on Poland, and in 1794 he had still further reduced the number of his -soldiers upon the Rhine. England, which had paid large subsidies to the -Prussian government, resented this conduct, and declared its intention -of withdrawing all subsidies unless Prussia would do as she was -directed. Frederick William II. declared that he would not receive the -English subsidies on these terms; but the truth was, that his attention -was far more occupied by the gains he hoped to get in Poland than with -the prosecution of the war against France. Austria, also, where Thugut -had in 1794 become the nominal as well as the real director of the -foreign policy of the Emperor Francis, was getting tired of the war -with France. Prussia’s conduct in making the second partition of Poland -in 1793, and leaving the Emperor out, had sown the seeds of discontent. -Thugut was determined that the same thing should not occur again, and, -therefore, when the Polish insurrection broke out in 1794, Austria -also denuded her armies upon the French frontier. This attitude of -Prussia and Austria does not entirely account for the victories of the -French republican armies, but it explains to some extent the ease with -which those victories were obtained. Spain also was weary of the war. -Godoy felt that his tenure of office was imperilled by the existence of -two French armies in Spain which might easily march upon Madrid, and -the Queen, and therefore the King, was entirely under the influence of -Godoy. Many of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire likewise wished to -see the war at an end, for it was their states upon the left bank of -the Rhine which were occupied by the French armies; it was their states -upon the right bank of the Rhine which would be invaded by the passage -of that river, whereas the home dominions of Austria and Prussia were -far to the east, and not likely to be reached by an invading army. -England was the only power which seriously desired to prosecute the -war, for in England a national feeling of repulsion against the French -had arisen. The English government, however, was unable to strike any -effective blow; Hoche destroyed a body of _émigrés_ landed from English -ships at Quiberon Bay in July 1794; the continental powers who received -subsidies were not very earnest in doing the work for which they were -paid; the French occupation of Holland had deprived England of the only -base from which an army could act in Europe; and the English government -had therefore to be contented with blockading the French ports and -occupying the French West Indian Colonies. - -[Sidenote: The Rule of the Thermidorians. Second Phase.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 12th Germinal. 1st April 1795.] - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of 1st Prairial. 20th May 1795.] - -The recall of those sympathisers with the Girondin party, who had been -imprisoned, in December 1794 was followed in March 1795 by the recall -to their seats in the Convention of the outlawed Girondin leaders, of -whom the most conspicuous were Lanjuinais and Louvet. The return of -these victims increased the clamour against the surviving Terrorist -leaders and proconsuls who had ruled France in 1793–94 in Paris, or -on mission in the provinces. Hot debates took place on the necessity -of punishing what was now termed ‘Robespierre’s tail.’ In Paris a -powerful section of the populace—namely, the young bourgeois, who -were commonly called the Jeunesse Dorée, or after their leader Fréron -the Jeunesse Fréronienne—never ceased to demand the punishment of the -Terrorists. Popular sympathy was generally with the Jeunesse Dorée; -conspicuous Jacobins of the Terror were beaten in the streets; the -heart of Marat was taken from the Pantheon and thrown down a sewer; and -the busts of Marat, who was regarded as the apostle of Terrorism, were -everywhere broken. The former rulers of Paris, the old members of the -Jacobin Club and the Revolutionary Committees, were not inclined to -submit to popular vengeance without striking a blow. On 12th Germinal, -Year III. (1st April 1795) they raised an insurrection in the turbulent -Faubourg Saint-Antoine, and the insurgents broke into the Convention -shouting ‘Bread and the Constitution of 1793.’ The only result of -this riot was that Billaud-Varenne, Collot-d’Herbois, Barère, and -Vadier were ordered to be deported to French Guiana without trial. The -persecution of the Terrorists continued. A commission was appointed -to inquire into the acts of the former proconsuls; power passed into -the hands of the returned Girondins and the members of the Plain or -Centre. Certain of the remaining deputies of the Mountain, supported by -the Jacobins of Paris, then resolved on a second insurrection. On 1st -Prairial, Year III. (20th May 1795) the Convention was again invaded -by a Saint-Antoine mob, headed by women who had gained the unenviable -name of the ‘Furies of the Guillotine.’ A deputy named Féraud was taken -for Fréron and murdered on the spot, and throughout the day the hall of -the Convention was occupied by a howling mob, which vainly endeavoured -to compel the President, Boissy-d’Anglas, to pass the decrees they -desired. Meanwhile the Committees of Government prepared to act with -vigour. With the help of some regular troops quartered in Paris, of the -national guards of the bourgeois sections, and of the Jeunesse Dorée, -they expelled the mob, and on the following days a force composed of -these elements under the command of General Menou, an ex-Constituant, -disarmed the revolutionary sections. The victory of the Committees was -the victory of the enemies of the Reign of Terror. Some of the former -Terrorist deputies were condemned to death and committed suicide, -others were impeached and placed under arrest, and the Mountain as a -party ceased to exist. The expulsion of the deputies of the Mountain -caused the Committees of Government to be filled by the members of the -Centre, the men who during the Reign of Terror had been peacefully -occupied in the legislative and educational reforms, which were the -most lasting works of the Convention. Of these new members the most -typical is Cambacérès, the great jurist and principal law reformer of -the period, on whose labours Napoleon compiled the Code Civil. While -the Committees were engaged in the work of government, a commission -of eleven deputies was appointed to draw up a new Constitution which -should avoid the errors of its predecessors. The chief authors of this -Constitution, which is known as the Constitution of the Year III., were -Boissy-d’Anglas and Daunou. - -[Sidenote: Treaties of Basle. 1795.] - -The direction of foreign policy was still mainly conducted by Merlin -of Douai, who was now aided in this department by Cambacérès, -Sieyès, and Reubell. Their great work—indeed the great work of the -Thermidorians—was the conclusion of the Treaties of Basle. The causes -of these treaties have been shown in the examination just made of the -changed attitude of the powers of Europe towards the French Republic. -The agent of the French Republic in Switzerland, Barthélemy, was the -diplomatist who negotiated the series of treaties. Switzerland had -throughout the Reign of Terror been the centre of diplomatic action, -for in Switzerland alone France could meet the representatives of -foreign powers. The first and the most important of the Treaties of -Basle was that between France and Prussia, which was signed upon the -5th of April 1795. By it not only was peace concluded between the -contracting powers, but a line of demarcation was agreed to be drawn -by which Prussia might secure safety from French invasion for the -states of Northern Germany. One point only was left in abeyance by -Barthélemy and Hardenberg, the negotiators of this treaty. The French -Government insisted that France, in reward for her exertions, and in -compensation for the long war, should receive her natural limits of the -Rhine. Prussia’s territory upon the left bank of the Rhine was very -small in amount, and it was agreed that the amount of compensation -she should receive for ceding it to France should be left unsettled -for the present. Frederick William II., who posed as a guardian of -the Holy Roman Empire, refused openly to assent to the doctrine that -France should reach the Rhine and thus consecrate the infringement of -the limits of the Empire. He had no desire to appear ready to consent -to any such arrangement, for he felt that such a policy would leave to -Austria the position of protector of the Empire. The Treaty of Basle -with Prussia was succeeded at the same place by a treaty with Spain -on the 22d of July, and finally by a treaty with the most energetic -of the petty princes of the Empire, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, -on the 29th of August. Peace had already on February 9th been made -with Tuscany, which had most unwillingly declared war on France under -pressure from England. Of these treaties, the most important was that -with Spain, which was excessively popular at Madrid, and won for Godoy -the high-sounding title of ‘Prince of the Peace.’ Thus, after three -years of war, France re-entered the comity of nations and broke up the -coalition formed against her independence. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - 1795–1797 - - Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy of - France—Constitution of the Year III—The Directory—The - Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five Hundred—Local - Administration of France—The Insurrection of Vendémiaire—The - Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The First French - Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution of - the Convention—England and the _Emigrés_—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and - Austria. - - -[Sidenote: Result of the Treaties of Basle.] - -The conclusion of the Treaties of Basle in the spring and summer of -1795 brought France once more into a recognised position among the -nations of Europe. The idea of a revolutionary propaganda had been -entirely abandoned by the leading Thermidorians, who looked upon it as -the first duty of the French Government to secure peace for France. -All the great statesmen of the revolutionary period, from Mirabeau to -Danton and Robespierre, had protested against the absurd notion that -it was the mission of France to secure the pre-eminence of democratic -ideas throughout the whole of Europe. Events had shown that it was a -task of quite sufficient difficulty to secure the prevalence of such -ideas in France. The abandonment of the revolutionary propaganda broke -up the league of old Europe against new France. When the Prussian -state, and still more the ancient monarchy of Spain, had consented to -make peace with France, the rest of the powers of the Continent felt -that they could no longer affect to treat the French republicans as -beyond the pale of humanity, or the French Republic as having destroyed -the title of France to be reckoned as a nation. - -[Sidenote: Constitution of the Year III.] - -The Thermidorians, not satisfied with their diplomatic success, -constructed a new government for France. The authors of the policy, -which resulted in the Treaties of Basle, were also the sponsors of -the ‘Constitution of the Year III.’ The task of drawing up the bases -of a new Constitution was referred upon 14th Germinal, Year III. (3d -April 1795) to a committee of seven deputies, but the details were -worked out by a subsequent commission of eleven. Among the seven the -most important were Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Merlin of Douai, who were -also at this period the three principal members of the Committee of -Public Safety. Just as in making the Treaties of Basle, they and -their colleagues had recurred to the fundamental ideas and policy of -the old French Monarchy, so in the new Constitution they exhibited -the influence of bygone ideas. The experience of the Constituent and -Legislative Assemblies, and of the Convention until the formation -of the Committee of Public Safety, had shown the utter inadequacy -of intrusting supreme executive and administrative authority to an -unwieldy deliberative assembly. The power of the monarchy in all -modern states has rested upon the conviction of the importance of -consolidating, as far as possible, the executive authority; the -founders of the United States of America understood this truth, and -invested their President with power resembling that exercised by -kings; and the Convention, when it yielded to the voice of Danton, and -conferred supreme authority upon the Committee of Public Safety, had -reaped the advantage in its victories upon all the frontiers. Even the -most obtuse of the deputies who sat in the Convention had learnt this -lesson. And the founders of the Constitution of the Year III. had no -difficulty in carrying the most important point in their programme. -This was the entire separation of the executive and legislative -powers. The Constitution of 1791, in its jealousy of the monarchy, had -practically deprived the king and his ministers of all real authority, -while leaving him the entire responsibility. The Constitution of 1793 -had placed all executive authority in the hands of the Legislature. The -Constitution of the Year III. endeavoured to separate the executive and -legislative authorities. - -[Sidenote: The Directory.] - -Under the new arrangement the executive was placed in the hands of -five Directors. One was to retire every year and was not eligible -for re-election; his successor was to be chosen by the Legislature. -In order to secure an entire separation between the members of the -Directory and of the Legislature, no member of the latter could -be elected a Director until twelve months had elapsed after the -resignation of his seat. The Directors were to appoint the Ministers, -who were to have no connection whatever with the Legislature, and who -were to act as the agents of the Directors. The individual Directors -were to exercise no authority in their own names. They were to live -under the same roof in the Palace of the Luxembourg at Paris. They were -to meet daily, and the will of the majority was to be taken as the will -of the whole. They were to elect a President every month, who was to -act as their mouthpiece at the reception of foreign ambassadors and on -all occasions of ceremony. The control of the internal administration, -the management of the armies and fleets, and all questions of foreign -policy were entirely left to the Directors. But treaties, declarations -of war and similar acts had to be ratified by the Legislature. The -Directors had nothing whatever to do with the work of legislation, and -their assent was not needed to new laws. With regard to the revenue, -the administration of the finances and of the treasury rested with the -Directors, but they could not impose fresh taxes without the assent of -the Legislature. - -[Sidenote: The Legislature.] - -The Legislature, under the Constitution of the Year III. consisted of -two chambers—the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred. -It is a curious commentary upon the debates which took place in the -Constituent Assembly in August 1789, when the establishment of two -chambers was rejected with scorn as being an obvious imitation of -the English Parliament, that in 1795 this very principle was almost -unanimously adopted. The experience of the three great revolutionary -assemblies had convinced Sieyès and his colleagues of the inexpediency -of leaving important measures to be decided in a single chamber. The -delay necessitated by a law being obliged to pass before two distinct -deliberative bodies now appeared most advantageous, when compared with -the headlong precipitation which had marked all the earlier stages -of the Revolution. The Council of Ancients was to consist of men -forty-five years old and upwards, and, therefore, presumably not liable -to be carried away by sudden bursts of enthusiasm. For the Council -of Five Hundred there was no limitation of age, and elderly men were -not precluded from being returned to it. The Council of Five Hundred -consisted, as its name implies, of five hundred deputies; the Council -of Ancients of two hundred and fifty. Dictated by experience, also, -were the measures taken for the election of deputies. In order to avoid -the inconvenience which had resulted from the election of an entirely -new body of representatives at one and the same moment, as had happened -in 1791, it was resolved that one-third of the two Councils should -retire yearly. Deputies were to be chosen by an elaborate system of -primary and secondary assemblies held in each department of France, -and a property qualification was demanded both for the electors and the -deputies. With these safeguards Sieyès and his colleagues believed they -had secured a practical means of obviating all the errors of the past. -The Council of Five Hundred had allotted to it as its special function -the initiation of all fresh taxation and the revision of all money -bills. The Council of Ancients was the court of appeal in diplomatic -questions, such as the declaration of war. In actual legislation the -consent of the majority of both chambers was needed for a new law. For -their most important function—the yearly election of a new Director—the -two chambers were to form one united assembly. - -[Sidenote: Local Administration of France.] - -By this Constitution, the conspicuous drawbacks of the two former -Constitutions, namely, the enforced weakness of the executive and -the undefined powers of the Legislature were avoided. But the local -administration established by the Constitution of 1791 had proved so -excellent that it was only slightly modified and not radically altered. -The great achievement of the Constituent Assembly—the abolition of old -provincial jealousies by the division of France into departments—was -maintained. The wise step which had been taken by the Great Committee -of Public Safety in abolishing the directories of the departments -and of the districts was sanctioned, and the council-generals were -left to act alone. The main distinction between the administrative -systems of 1791 and 1795 was that the elected _procureurs-syndics_ -and _procureurs-généraux-syndics_, established by the former, were -replaced by officials nominated by the supreme executive at Paris. -These officials went under the name of agents during the Directory, -but possessed the same authority and carried out the same functions as -the _sous-préfets_ and _préfets_ afterwards appointed by Napoleon. The -courts of justice, whether local, appellant, or supreme, established by -the Constitution of 1791, were left untouched by the Constitution of -the Year III. - -[Sidenote: The Insurrection of Vendémiaire.] - -In spite of the glories of the conquest of Holland, the passage of -the Rhine, the victory of Quiberon, and the invasion of Spain,—in -spite of the even greater credit justly earned by the Treaties of -Basle,—in spite of the new Constitution, which, if faulty in places, -was superior to those which had preceded it—the Thermidorians were -intensely unpopular in France. The recollection of the Reign of -Terror weighed upon the imaginations of the people even after the -death of Robespierre, the deportation of Billaud-Varenne, and the -closing of the Jacobin Club. The Convention was still in the minds of -men shrouded by the remembrance of the innocent blood that had been -shed. The inauguration of the new constitutional system was looked -upon as an opportunity for driving the members of the Convention from -power, and threats of vengeance were everywhere heard against them. -Intriguers, some of them possibly royalists, who desired the return -of the Bourbons, but most of them bourgeois or aristocrats who had -personal reasons for desiring revenge, hoped to take advantage of this -general feeling to overthrow the Republic. But the mass of Frenchmen -were sincerely republican, and were clear-sighted enough to perceive -that the return of the Bourbons would be followed by the loss of the -material advantages that had been gained by the sale of the lands of -the Church and the nobility. The members of the Convention understood -the intentions of the intriguers, and understood also that the French -people sincerely loved the Republic. They proceeded to frustrate the -designs of their enemies by decreeing that two-thirds of the new -Legislature must be elected from among the deputies of the Convention. -The intriguers in Paris, thus foiled in their expectations of a certain -majority in the new Legislature, tried to rouse the people of Paris -into active insurrection. There can be no doubt that not only in Paris, -but throughout France, the action of the Convention in ordering the -election of so large a proportion of the old deputies was profoundly -unpopular, but it was one thing to dislike a measure and another thing -to involve France in a fresh revolution. In the provincial towns there -was universal grumbling but no active opposition. In Paris, however, -where the intriguers abounded, it was hoped that the _jeunesse dorée_, -who had played so great a part in the previous winter, assisted by the -bourgeois Sections, would be able by making an imposing display of -force to compel the Convention to revoke the obnoxious decree. - -[Sidenote: Fighting in Paris, 13th Vendémiaire (5th October 1795).] - -This project of the agitators in Paris was soon known in the -Convention, and had the result of causing the divided forces of the -Thermidorians to close up their ranks. The three chief groups in this -party were the returned Girondins, the leaders of the Plain, and -the former adherents of the Terror. The leaders of all these groups -united in the presence of a common danger, for they felt that the -dissolution of the Convention without some such measure of security -as the re-election of the two-thirds to the forthcoming Legislature -would lead to their own proscription. They therefore appointed Barras, -who had commanded in the attack upon the Hôtel-de-Ville upon the -9th Thermidor of the previous year, and overthrown the supporters -of Robespierre assembled there, to watch over their safety. Barras -summoned to his assistance Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then in Paris -engaged in protesting against his recall from the Army of Italy. The -antecedents of this young general, his well-known Jacobin principles -and his former friendship for Augustin Robespierre, had led to his -recall and to his being placed upon the unemployed list. Barras had -under his command the garrison of regular troops quartered in Paris and -the armed guards of the Convention. The Royalist agitators counted on -the _jeunesse dorée_ and the bourgeois Sections. Bonaparte perceived -that in numbers each party was evenly matched, and he at once sent for -the artillery quartered at Meudon. The Convention declared itself _en -permanence_, the troops were stationed round the Tuileries, Bonaparte’s -guns were mounted in the gardens and the Place du Carrousel. The attack -on the Convention was made on the 13th Vendémiaire (5th October) in a -very slovenly manner. No effort had been made to concentrate the force -of the assailants at a given moment, and as the first column marched -carelessly down without recognised leaders, it was fired upon and -almost entirely cut to pieces by Bonaparte’s artillery. Nevertheless -column after column of devoted national guards approached the Tuileries -with the utmost gallantry to meet the same fate. The insurrection of -13th Vendémiaire cannot be compared with the other famous insurrections -of the 14th July 1789 and 10th August 1792, for not one of the -defenders of the Convention was wounded. It was a butchery, not a -battle. - -[Sidenote: The First Directors.] - -The Convention, conscious of its unpopularity, and not desiring to -increase it, made but slight efforts to discover and punish the -leaders of the insurrection of 13th Vendémiaire. Only a few military -executions, after trial by court-martial, of a few prisoners taken with -arms in their hands were permitted, and no vigour was shown in hunting -down even the most conspicuous agitators. It was resolved at once to -proceed to the election of the first Directors under the new system. -Sieyès refused to be one of them. It was generally agreed, though not -formally declared, that the first Directors should all be deputies of -the Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., and who might -therefore be presumed to be faithful to republican institutions, if not -from inclination at least from fear. The five deputies actually elected -were—Barras, whose conduct on the 9th Thermidor, and on the 13th -Vendémiaire, had obtained for him the gratitude of the majority of the -deputies; Reubell, an ex-Constituant and an Alsatian, who was believed -to have a special knowledge of foreign affairs; Revellière-Lépeaux, -another ex-Constituant, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, a -good lawyer, and the future inventor of a new religion; Carnot, the -famous military member of the Great Committee of Public Safety, who -was selected for his strategic ability; and Letourneur, an ex-officer -of Engineers, like Carnot, who was expected to act as Carnot’s -assistant. To the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred -were elected among the two-thirds chosen from the Convention the more -conspicuous Thermidorians, including Sieyès, Cambacérès, Tallien, and -Treilhard. The six first ministers were appointed by the Directors on -14th Brumaire (5th November). They were Merlin of Douai and Charles -Delacroix, two ex-deputies of the Convention who had not been elected -to the new Legislature, appointed to the Ministries of Justice and -of Foreign Affairs, Aubert-Dubayet, a distinguished general, to the -Ministry of War, and Faypoult, Benezech and Admiral Truguet to the -Ministries of Finance, the Interior, and the Marine. - -[Sidenote: Dissolution of the Convention.] - -The first Directors elected and the new Legislature constituted, the -Convention had to decree its own dissolution. The three years during -which it had sat are perhaps the most important and most critical in -the whole history of France. The Convention had not merely witnessed -the rise and fall of many cliques and many parties; it had allowed the -Reign of Terror to be established, and had punished its inventors with -death or deportation. It had passed through nearly every variety of -government, and had seen France in her greatest degradation and at the -height of her success. Its last act, passed on the very day on which it -dissolved itself, 4th Brumaire (26th October), was worthy of its best -and greatest days, for it was an act declaring a complete amnesty for -all political offences, or supposed offences, since the declaration of -the Republic. - -[Sidenote: England and the Emigrés.] - -[Sidenote: Treason of Pichegru.] - -The successful establishment of the Directory and the victory won -over the royalist agitators on 13th Vendémiaire had a profound effect -upon the policy of England. Hitherto Pitt and Grenville, inspired -by their agent in Switzerland, William Wickham, had believed in the -vain promises of the royalist _émigrés_, and had hoped by their means -to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France. The headquarters of the -royalist agitators were, as they had always been, in Switzerland. -Neither the Comte de Provence, who, since his nephew’s death, called -himself Louis _XVIII._, nor the Comte d’Artois were really deceived -by the hopes held out by their royalist friends. But the English -ministers, deluded by the extravagant promises of the _émigrés_ and by -the reports of Wickham, considered the prospects of an overthrow of -the Republic to be excellent. They had shown their confidence in the -_émigrés_ by the active assistance they had given to the expedition to -Quiberon Bay, and still more by the large sums of secret-service money -which had been expended in Switzerland. The efforts of the royalist -_émigrés_ took two directions; on the one hand, they had fomented the -feeling of discontent in Paris which had culminated in the insurrection -of 13th Vendémiaire, and, on the other, they had attempted to affect -the loyalty of the generals of the Republic. The general on whom they -counted most was Pichegru, the conqueror of Holland. This general, like -Dumouriez in 1793, was more ambitious to attain wealth and power for -himself than success for the Republic. During his sojourn in Paris in -the spring of 1795 he had formed a close alliance with the royalist -agitators in the capital, and on proceeding to take up the command of -the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle he entered into direct communications -with the Prince de Condé, the general commanding the _émigré_ army -in Germany. Condé promised Pichegru the government of Alsace, the -Château of Chambord, a million livres in cash, an income of two hundred -thousand livres a year, and the rank of Marshal of France, if he would -undertake to restore the Bourbons. Great hopes were built upon these -negotiations, and the Comte de Provence left Verona to take part in -them. But the success of these intrigues was nullified by the victory -of 13th Vendémiaire; the Margrave of Baden-Baden refused to allow the -Pretender to enter his territory; Wickham was unwillingly convinced -that the purchase of the general did not include the purchase of his -army; and the Directory, as soon as it had firmly seized the reins of -power, recalled Pichegru, whose transactions with Condé had been more -than suspected, and replaced him by a thorough republican, Moreau. -These failures convinced Pitt and Grenville that there was no advantage -to be gained in trusting to the promises of the _émigrés_. - -[Sidenote: Exchange of Madame Royale.] - -The Directory, on assuming power, resolved to continue the policy -of the Thermidorians, and not to recur to the notions of the -revolutionary propaganda. It desired to show Europe that France was -ready to enter into the comity of nations, and did not presume for -the future to interfere with the internal arrangements of other -countries. It, therefore, on grounds of humanity, took up again the -negotiations which had been commenced in July 1793 for the release -of the children of Louis XVI., and, using Spain as an intermediary, -entered into communications on this subject with the bitterest enemy of -France—Austria. The death of the Dauphin, commonly called Louis XVII., -had left only one of the children of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette in -the hands of the Republic. The Thermidorians had, at the instigation -of one of their leaders, Boissy-d’Anglas, seen the expediency of -proving to Europe that the French republicans were not barbarians, -by offering to surrender the person of Madame Royale to her Austrian -relatives. This project was carried out by the Directory. On 20th -December 1795 Madame Royale was exchanged in Switzerland for the four -deputies and the Minister of War whom Dumouriez had handed over to the -Austrians, and for another deputy, Drouet, the former postmaster at -Sainte-Menehould, who had been taken prisoner by the Austrians in 1793. - -[Sidenote: Desire for Peace in France.] - -The exchange of Madame Royale was a manifest evidence of the desire -of the Directors to conclude peace. The Prussian ambassador at Paris -reported to his government on 28th December 1795, ‘The general cry in -Paris is, “Make peace and you will have money and bread.”’[10] Peace, -indeed, was the desire not only of the people of Paris, but of the -people of all France, of the majority in the new Legislature, and -of the Directory. It was hoped that the Treaties of Basle were but -the preliminaries of a general peace throughout Europe. But the two -remaining enemies of the French Republic, England and Austria, did not -see their way to meeting the Directory halfway. Pitt and Grenville -argued that a peace made with the Directory would be only of the nature -of a truce. They were ready enough to make peace, but considered it -inadvisable to negotiate with a government which seemed to them in -its essence unstable. Owing either to the intrigues of the _émigrés_, -or to their own knowledge of politics, they grasped the fact that the -new government of France was constructed on a faulty basis, and that a -peace concluded with it would not be lasting. The attitude of Austria -was somewhat different. Thugut, the Austrian minister, believed that -France was exhausted, and that by a continuance of war substantial -concessions could be wrung from her. Reubell, the Director who took -charge of the conduct of Foreign Affairs, expressed himself as follows -to the Prussian ambassador at Paris: ‘The war with Austria troubles us -less than the war with England. Our means for supporting the former -are ready, but not without having exhausted all the resources of the -Republic. It will be probably the last effort of the two belligerent -powers.... Our plan of campaign is almost settled; the war will be -defensive in Germany and offensive in Italy. It is important to us to -detach Austria from England and Sardinia from Austria.’[11] Contrary -to their wish, therefore, the Directors found themselves obliged to -continue the war with England and Austria. - -[Sidenote: France and Prussia.] - -While continuing the war with these two powers, the French Directory, -like the Thermidorians, hoped to obtain not only the neutrality of -Prussia and Spain, which had been secured by the Treaties of Basle, -but their active co-operation. One of its first diplomatic endeavours -was to enter into close relations with Prussia. Some of the ministers -of Frederick William II., notably Alvensleben, were in favour of an -alliance with France; but the King himself, though he had been forced -by the emptiness of his treasury, and his projects on Poland to make -peace with the French republicans, looked on the idea of making an -alliance with them with horror. In this attitude he was supported by -his two ablest ministers, Haugwitz and Hardenberg. By the terms of the -Treaty of Basle Hardenberg had secured the preponderance of Prussia in -northern Germany. A line of demarcation or neutrality was drawn across -Germany, and the northern states, which were thus freed from the fear -of a French invasion, looked to Prussia as their leader and saviour. -An excuse for not forming an offensive and defensive alliance with -France was found in the occupation by the French troops of the Prussian -territories on the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia would only negotiate -on the basis of the restoration of the _status quo ante bellum_, and -the French Directory, like its predecessors, the Thermidorian Committee -of Public Safety and the Great Committee of Public Safety, insisted on -the cession to France of all territory up to the Rhine. The Directors, -had they wished, could not have opposed the universal feeling in France -in favour of making the Rhine the frontier, and proposed that Prussia -should take compensation for its cessions on the left bank of the -Rhine, by secularising the bishoprics and abbeys of northern Germany -and annexing their territories. This proposal, which would bring in -its train the overthrow of the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, -could not be sponsored by Prussia. The policy of Frederick the Great -had been to assume that Prussia, not Austria, was the true defender of -the rights of the Empire, and his nephew, in spite of Alvensleben’s -representations, feared to break with the hereditary policy. The -arrangement with regard to the line of demarcation had placed Prussia -in the position of the guardian of the Empire; the acceptance of -the French propositions would have made her seem its destroyer. The -attempts of the Directory, and afterwards of the Consulate, to secure -an alliance with Prussia, were therefore foredoomed to failure. - -[Sidenote: France and the Smaller States.] - -The victories of the French Republic were received with more than -toleration in the smaller states of Europe, which feared the -aggressions of Austria, Prussia, and Russia far more than any invasion -by the French. Switzerland had profited greatly by the strict -neutrality it had maintained. The wealth of France had poured freely -into the cantons for the purchase of provisions and other necessaries; -the residence of the diplomatists of Europe at Berne, the headquarters -of Wickham, and at Basle, the headquarters of the French minister -Barthélemy, had also been profitable to the country, while the Swiss, -ready as ever to accept money from all sides, were enabled to make very -considerable gains. Of the Princes of Italy, Ferdinand, Grand Duke of -Tuscany, and brother of the Emperor, had, to the disgust of the Court -of Vienna, made a separate peace with the French Republic in February -1795; Ferdinand of Naples had followed his example, and the King of -Sardinia alone remained in armed opposition to France. With Portugal -the Directory and the Committee of Public Safety, refused to treat, -for, like the French statesmen throughout the eighteenth century, -the Directors regarded Portugal as merely a province of England. -With the smaller northern powers the Directory established the most -friendly relations. Christian VII. of Denmark had always maintained his -neutrality, and through the French minister, resident at his Court, -many important secret negotiations had passed with Prussia. In Sweden, -Charles, Duke of Sudermania, the guardian of the young King Gustavus -IV., abandoned the policy of Gustavus III., and now made a treaty of -friendship and a commercial treaty with the French Republic. The only -other state to be mentioned is Turkey. The Turks looked upon the events -which were passing in the West of Europe with unconcern; still they -were inclined to be friendly with the French Republic, because it was -engaged in fighting with Austria, and thus distracted the attention of -one of the hereditary enemies of the Sublime Porte. - -[Sidenote: Russia.] - -Catherine of Russia, now at the close of her long reign, still regarded -the French Revolution as affording a happy opportunity for her to -pursue her schemes on Poland without active interference from Prussia -or Austria. Her one desire was that France should continue the war, -and for this reason she cordially received at her court the Comte -d’Artois, and encouraged the presence of French _émigrés_. The Treaties -of Basle had greatly offended her, for Prussia was thus left free to -interfere in Poland, but Catherine was too wise to attempt to do more -than intrigue with the affairs of Western Europe. She had no idea of -intervening actively. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1795.] - -The campaign of 1795 on the Rhine frontier is chiefly important in -regard to the treason of Pichegru. The Elector of Bavaria, who was at -the same time the Elector Palatine, had, as has already been said, -been uniformly friendly to the French. It was by his connivance that -two of the most important fortresses upon the Rhine, Mannheim and -Düsseldorf, were surrendered to Pichegru and Jourdan respectively. -Meanwhile Marceau besieged the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, and Kléber -the city of Mayence. There can be little doubt, though it is not -absolutely proved by documents, that it was because of the negotiations -he had commenced with the Prince de Condé that Pichegru did not -advance into Germany. Jourdan, who did advance with the Army of the -Sambre-and-Meuse, therefore found himself unprotected on his right, -and was forced to retire with considerable loss. Marceau succeeded in -taking Ehrenbreitstein, but the same treacherous inaction of Pichegru -allowed the Austrian General Clerfayt to force Kléber to raise the -siege of Mayence. It was on 20th October 1795 that Jourdan recrossed -the Rhine; on the 29th Kléber was driven from before Mayence; and on -the 30th Pichegru was defeated and driven behind the Queich. The first -operations of the French armies under the Directory were, thus, owing -to Pichegru’s treachery, unsuccessful, and on the 21st December an -armistice was made between the French and the Austrians on the Rhine. -In the north, owing to the Treaties of Basle, there were no military -operations of importance during the autumn of 1795, and the French -army maintained its position on the frontier of Holland. In the south -considerable alterations were made. The treaty of peace with Spain -enabled the experienced and warlike soldiers of the two armies of -the Pyrenees to be despatched to reinforce the Army of Italy, which -was also joined by the bulk of the troops of the Army of the Alps. -General Schérer, who commanded the Army of Italy, pushed forward, and -by a victory at Loano on the 24th November 1795, opened up a direct -communication with Genoa and cut off the Sardinians from the sea. In -the four armies of the Directory which had thus taken the place of the -thirteen armies of the Republic, there were under arms at the close of -1795 about 300,000 men under experienced generals, excluding what was -known as the Army of the Interior, which guarded Paris and garrisoned -the chief cities of France. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Italy, 1796. First Stage.] - -[Sidenote: Armistice of Cherasco. April 28, 1796.] - -Reubell, in his conversation with the Prussian ambassador at Paris, -openly declared that the chief military effort of France in 1796 was -to be made in Italy. Hitherto the Army of Italy had been overshadowed -by the operations of the armies engaged upon the Rhine; but the -Directory now desired to attack Austria in a vital place. Upon the -Rhine they were in reality waging war with the Empire and not with -Austria. Mayence, for instance, was the capital of an Elector, not an -Austrian city, and blows struck in that quarter affected the Empire -and the petty princes of the Empire far more than they did Austria. -But in Italy the House of Austria owned an important possession in -the Milanese. Between the Milanese and the French Army of Italy was -Piedmont, the principal state of the King of Sardinia. Victor Amadeus -III. of Sardinia was the only petty monarch in Europe who had not -attempted to make peace with the French Republic. In his resentment -at the loss of Savoy and Nice he had thrown himself into the arms of -Austria, and had borrowed an Austrian general, Colli, to command his -small but well equipped army. This was the situation when Napoleon -Bonaparte, who had been nominated to the command of the Army of -Italy by the Directory, on the proposition of Barras, to whom he had -rendered such signal service on 13th Vendémiaire, arrived to take up -his new command on the 27th of March 1796. He understood the policy -of the Directory, and determined to crush the King of Sardinia first, -in order to be free to attack the Austrians in the Milanese. He -therefore turned the Maritime Alps and separated the Austrian from the -Sardinian army. The rapidity of his success was such as to surprise the -Directors. After turning the Alps Bonaparte struck north and defeated -the Sardinians at Montenotte, Millesimo, and Dego on the 12th, 13th, -and 15th April, stormed their camp at Ceva on 16th April, and finally -defeated them at Mondovi on 22d April. He then threatened Turin, and -the King of Sardinia signed an armistice with him at Cherasco on 28th -April, abandoning to the French army his most important frontier -fortresses. As the first result of these military operations the King -of Sardinia sued for peace, which he was only granted on recognising -the cession to France of Savoy and Nice, and as a second result General -Bonaparte was enabled to attack the Austrians in Lombardy without -leaving a hostile power behind him. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Second Stage.] - -The operations of the second stage of the famous campaign of 1796 -were as rapid and as completely successful. On the 8th May Bonaparte -crossed the river Po by skilfully misleading the Austrians as to his -intentions, and on 10th May he forced the passage of the Adda at Lodi, -where he won one of his most famous victories. The Austrian General -Beaulieu felt himself incapable of holding the lines of the other -rivers, and fled into the Tyrol. Bonaparte first occupied Milan, and -then forced the Dukes of Parma and of Modena to submit to his demands, -and to send ambassadors to treat for peace at Paris. To these petty -princelets Bonaparte behaved with the utmost arrogance; not satisfied -with making large requisitions of money and provisions, he selected -their finest pictures and works of art, and directed them to be sent -to Paris. Far more important, from his spiritual position, though not -of greater military strength, was the Pope. The French armies occupied -the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna, and Bonaparte then threatened -to march on Rome. In terror Pope Pius VI. concluded, on the 24th June -1796, an armistice at Foligno, by which he abandoned Ancona, and -promised to send to Paris the large sum of 20,000,000 livres, with -many manuscripts and works of art. The conquest of Italy revealed to -Europe the French Republic in a new light. It showed the monarchs, -and especially the rulers of little states, that the revolutionary -propaganda which they had hated and dreaded so much had given way to -an even more dangerous military policy, directed by a victorious and -ambitious general. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Third Stage.] - -But Austria was not going to be driven out of Italy by a single -campaign. The beaten army of Beaulieu was reorganised by General -Melas, and reinforced by 30,000 picked men from the Rhine. This army, -amounting in all to 70,000 men, was placed under the command of Marshal -Würmser, who, at the end of July, debouched from the Tyrol and invaded -Italy by the two sides of Lake Garda. Bonaparte, whose army did not -exceed 40,000 men, broke up the siege of Mantua which he had formed, -and utterly defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Castiglione -on 5th August 1796. Würmser fell back, but in September, the following -month, he invaded Italy by the valley of the Brenta, and threw himself -into Mantua. Bonaparte, now considering himself for a time freed from -the danger of another Austrian attack, made an effort to reconstitute -Northern Italy. Several of the cities, notably Modena, Bologna, and -Ferrara, had declared themselves republics, but Bonaparte could see -no advantage in little republics, and summoned a general assembly of -deputies from the whole of Lombardy to meet at Milan. This assembly was -disposed to form a Lombard Republic, but before it could complete its -deliberations Bonaparte had to fight another Austrian army. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Fourth Stage.] - -The Austrians, disgusted and surprised by these successive defeats, -prepared to make a great effort. For the first time, the Emperor -appealed directly to the patriotism of the people, and more especially -of the nobility. A new army was equipped, which, if not so numerous, -was more enthusiastic than the former armies, and was placed under -the command of General Alvinzi. Bonaparte had received few or no -reinforcements, and felt himself unable to face an army of 60,000 men. -He waited, therefore, patiently in his headquarters at Verona while -Alvinzi advanced slowly down the Brenta. Having learnt experience -from their former defeats, the Austrians were in no hurry to come -to blows, even with the small French army in front of them. Alvinzi -entrenched himself in a formidable position on the heights of Caldiero, -and repulsed a French attack upon the 12th of November. Another such -check meant the ruin of the French army. Bonaparte decided to turn -the position. Advancing along the causeway through the marshes upon -Alvinzi’s left, he fought the celebrated battle of Arcola on the 16th -of November, and Alvinzi, finding his position untenable, retreated -into the Tyrol. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. Fifth Stage.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Tolentino. Feb. 19, 1797.] - -Even yet the Austrians were not finally discouraged. Würmser held out -in Mantua; the Pope, incited by the Court of Vienna, did not observe -the Armistice of Foligno, and determined to raise the Italian populace -against the French; and it was resolved to make a final effort. In -the depth of winter Alvinzi advanced down the eastern shore of Lake -Garda, but was stopped and utterly defeated at Rivoli on the 14th -January 1797. Provera, who had endeavoured to relieve Würmser by the -Brenta, while Alvinzi occupied the main French army at Rivoli, was also -defeated, and on 2d February 1797 Mantua surrendered. These successive -blows destroyed the military power of Austria in Italy, and Bonaparte -began to make plans for invading Austria itself. But before he started -it was necessary to establish peace behind him. The behaviour of the -Pope showed the general that His Holiness could not be trusted, and it -was only under the pressure of a French advance upon Rome that Pius VI. -signed a treaty of peace with the French at Tolentino on 19th February -1797. By this treaty Bonaparte’s lines of communication were secured; -the people of Lombardy were his enthusiastic admirers, and everything -promised a speedy and successful advance upon Vienna. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Germany, 1796.] - -As Reubell had stated to the Prussian ambassador, the chief effort of -the French armies was directed in the year 1796 against the Austrians -in Italy. But the operations in Germany were nevertheless of extreme -importance; not on account of what was achieved, but because of -their effect on the policy of the Princes of the Empire. Carnot, -who was left in entire charge of military affairs by the Directory, -combined a skilful plan of campaign. He directed the Army of the -Rhine-and-Moselle, now under the command of Moreau, and the Army of -the Sambre-and-Meuse, still under the command of Jourdan, to make a -simultaneous advance into the heart of Germany, and to unite their -forces upon the Danube. The generals were sufficiently able, and the -troops sufficiently experienced in war, to carry out this movement; but -at the head of the Austrians, for the first time since the outbreak of -the war, there appeared a general of real military genius. The Archduke -Charles, the third son of the Emperor Leopold, and the brother of the -reigning Emperor, Francis II., was only a young man, but he proved -himself to be a profound strategist. On the 1st June 1796 he announced -to the French generals that the armistice, which had lasted six months, -was at an end. Jourdan at once advanced from Düsseldorf, and after -taking Frankfort and Würtzburg invaded Franconia. The Archduke Charles -immediately opposed him with his whole army, and Jourdan had to fall -back after a three weeks’ campaign. Moreau was not able to cross -the Rhine until 24–25 June 1796. The operation was one of extreme -difficulty, which was chiefly overcome by the skill and gallantry of -Desaix. Moreau then proceeded to carry out Carnot’s orders; he advanced -with great rapidity; he defeated the Prince de Condé and his army of -_émigrés_ at Ettlingen; he occupied Stuttgart, and forced his way into -Bavaria, reaching the Danube in the month of August. To oppose him -the Archduke Charles marched rapidly to the south, and Jourdan once -more left Düsseldorf and invaded Franconia. The Archduke Charles soon -understood the intentions of Carnot, and took up a central position -between the two French armies at Ingolstadt. He waited until the French -generals had penetrated far from their base of operations, and then, -leaving but a weak division in front of Moreau, he attacked Jourdan -in force. The French Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse was overcome by the -weight of numbers; on the 3d of September it was driven from Würtzburg, -and on the 20th of September defeated at Altenkirchen, where Marceau, -one of the most renowned of the young generals of the republican -period, was killed. Having driven back Jourdan, the Archduke Charles -turned upon Moreau. That general had imprudently continued to advance -into Bavaria, and did not perceive until late in September the critical -position in which he had been left by the retreat of Jourdan. When -he did perceive it, he extricated himself by one of the most famous -retreats known in military history. For forty days he fell back through -a hostile country, with bad roads, and offering almost innumerable -difficulties from its lofty mountains and dense forests, and harassed -by the presence of a victorious Austrian army attempting to cut off his -retreat, and eventually he recrossed the Rhine on the 24th of October. - -[Sidenote: Effects of the Campaign in Germany.] - -From a military point of view, apart from the intrinsic interest -presented by the operations of the armies, the chief importance of -the campaign of 1796 in Germany lay in the fact that it occupied a -considerable force of Austrian troops, which were thus prevented from -being sent as reinforcements to the Austrian army in Italy. From the -diplomatic point of view, the campaign had results almost rivalling -those achieved by Bonaparte in Italy. The advance of the French threw -the states of Southern Germany into the hands of Prussia. They felt -a natural sentiment of jealousy at perceiving the states of Northern -Germany escaping the horrors of war, owing to the line of demarcation -established by the Treaty of Basle. Many of the smaller states, and -at least one of the larger states, Saxony, implored the intervention -of Prussia. Frederick William II., only too glad to pose as the -guardian of the Empire, made use of all his influence to induce the -French Directory to consent to the further extension of the line of -demarcation. Reubell, the Director who took charge of foreign policy, -was possessed by the idea that Prussia and France were natural allies, -and induced the Directory to meet the views of Frederick William -II.; but in return he demanded that Prussia should enter into an -offensive and defensive alliance with the French Republic. The King of -Prussia, in his hatred of Jacobin principles, was inclined to reject -this proposal, but his ministers, notably Haugwitz and Alvensleben, -persuaded him that it was impossible to refuse entirely. A compromise -was arranged, and on 5th August 1796 a secret supplement to the -Treaty of Basle was signed between France and Prussia. By this secret -convention Prussia definitely promised to recognise the limits of -the Rhine for the French Republic, and in return France guaranteed -that at a general peace not only the King of Prussia should receive -compensation for the territories he surrendered, by the cession of some -ecclesiastical states, but also that his brother-in-law, the Prince of -Orange, should receive a sovereignty in Germany, to make up for the -loss of the Stadtholderate in Holland. It proved impossible to extend -the line of demarcation to the southern states of Germany as long as -the Austrian army of the Archduke Charles remained there. And therefore -the petty rulers endeavoured to make peace with France on their own -account. The Duke of Würtemburg and the Margrave of Baden both opened -negotiations, and since the Elector of Bavaria had fled into Saxony on -the advance of Moreau, the Estates of Bavaria signed a treaty of peace -with the French general at Pfaffenhofen on the 7th September 1796. But -the successes of the Archduke Charles and the retreat of Moreau put -an end to these peaceful dispositions. The Elector of Bavaria refused -to ratify the treaty his Estates had made; the Duke of Würtemburg -dismissed the minister who had conducted his negotiations; and in spite -of all the efforts of Prussia, the predominance of Austria continued in -Southern Germany. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Directory, 1796.] - -The successes of Bonaparte in Italy, and the operations of the French -armies in Germany which, though they had ended in retreat, had not been -discreditable to the generals or soldiers, reacted very favourably upon -the position of the Directory. The French, as a nation, have always -been dazzled by military glory, and since the armies of the Directory -were victorious, they were inclined to look upon the government of -the Directory as excellent. But military successes did not merely add -to the reputation of the Directors; by means of them their financial -difficulties were relieved. The doctrine that invading armies should -live upon the resources of the invaded countries was a most convenient -one. Not only did the armies in Italy and Germany maintain themselves -free of cost to the Directory, but the generals sent large sums of -money to Paris. It was therefore unnecessary to impose fresh taxes -or issue more paper money. But the relief of financial distress was -not the only result of the government of the Directory in 1796; it -restored internal peace. Hoche, after his defeat of the _émigrés_ at -Quiberon Bay in 1795, devoted himself to the pacification of Brittany -and La Vendée. The chief credit due to the Directors is that they gave -the young general a free hand. While putting down armed insurrection, -and defeating the Vendéan chiefs whenever they appeared, Hoche used -the most conciliatory measures towards individuals. His policy, as he -himself declared in one of his proclamations, was to make the Republic -loved. While punishing brigandage severely, he conveniently forgot all -past offences as long as the offenders occupied themselves peacefully; -and on the 15th of July 1796 the Directory was able to announce to -the Legislature that the whole of France was at peace. In truth, all -political disturbances were at an end. The majority of the French -people frankly accepted the Republic, and seemed to care very little -what was the actual form of the republican government. But though -political disturbances were over, the troubled times through which -France had passed had left only too much scope for private animosity. -In the south armed bands, resembling the Companies of Jehu of 1795, -pretended to be acting for the defence of religion, when they were -really moved by desire of plunder and booty. In the centre the pretext -of religion was not alleged, but armed bands of brigands collected -in the forests and the mountains, and, like the banditti in Italy, -pillaged travellers on the high roads, and held whole villages to -ransom. These evils steadily diminished with the consistent enforcement -of the law, but it was some years before France became absolutely safe -for travellers. Of less importance were the insurrections fomented -by the extreme democratic party. Democracy was discredited by the -recollection of the Reign of Terror, and the plot of Babeuf in May, -and an attack on the camp at Grenelle in November 1796, were easily -suppressed. - -[Sidenote: First changes in the Directory and the Legislature, 1797.] - -[Sidenote: Changes in the Ministry.] - -By the terms of the Constitution of the Year III. no change in the -Directory or the Legislature was to be made until February 1797. By -this arrangement a period of consistent government was secured. The -Directors, on the whole, acted harmoniously together. The pre-eminence -of Reubell and Carnot was generally recognised; Barras occupied -himself chiefly with his pleasures; Revellière-Lépeaux was engaged in -establishing his new religion of Theo-philanthropy, which made some -converts in the towns, but found no followers in the villages; and -Letourneur simply acted as Carnot’s lieutenant. In the Legislature -the chief leaders, such as Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Boissy-d’Anglas, -showed occasionally their jealousy of their former colleagues in the -Convention; but, on the whole, they did not try to interfere with their -measures. The only heated debates which took place in the Council of -Five Hundred were on the nature of the disturbances in the south of -France. These were roundly asserted by the opposing parties to be -caused by intrigues of priests, or by intrigues of Jacobins. Fréron, -who had been sent by the Directory to settle these troubles, was very -violently attacked, and with difficulty exculpated himself from the -charge of political partisanship. But, on the whole, the debates in -both branches of the Legislature were very tame. Nevertheless there -appeared, during 1796, the germ of what in 1797 was known as the -Clichian party, so called from its meeting at the Club de Clichy. This -party was not openly royalist, but the chiefs of the French _émigrés_, -supported by the funds supplied by Wickham, believed they could use -it to serve their own purposes, as they had made use of the agitators -in the Paris Sections in 1795. In the ministry no changes of great -importance were made in 1796; Ramel, the former colleague of Cambon -in the Financial Committee of the Convention, replaced Faypoult as -Minister of the Finances; and Pétiet, a former commissary-general, was -appointed Minister of War in succession to Aubert-Dubayet. Of more -importance was the creation of a seventh ministry, of General Police, -in January 1796, for it was an evidence of a new spirit, and the first -symptom of the elaborate scheme for muzzling public opinion, which was -developed to its height by Fouché at a later date. Merlin of Douai -left the Ministry of the Interior for three months to organise the new -department, and was succeeded in April 1796 by Cochon de Lapparent, a -former member of the Convention. - -[Sidenote: France and Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of San Ildefonso. 19th Aug. 1796.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of St. Vincent.] - -It has been said that the Directors endeavoured in vain to form -an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. They were more -successful with regard to Spain. The power of Godoy, who for the -negotiations at Basle had been created Prince of the Peace, rose to its -height. General Pérignon, who had been sent as ambassador to Madrid by -the Directory, skilfully flattered the vanity of the new prince, and, -to the astonishment of all Europe, an offensive and defensive alliance -was signed between the French Republic and the ancient Bourbon monarchy -of Spain at San Ildefonso, on the 19th of August 1796, by which Spain -agreed to declare war against England, and the French promised to -assist in the conquest of Portugal, which was to be divided between -the two allies. From a military point of view the alliance with Spain -did not yield any advantage to France, but from a naval standpoint -it proved of incalculable value. The English were obliged to abandon -Corsica, their only foothold in the Mediterranean, and to concentrate -their fleet at Gibraltar. The Spanish navy, to which much attention had -been paid throughout the eighteenth century, had certainly improved, -and, united with a few French men-of-war, far outnumbered the English -Mediterranean Fleet. This was the year of the great English naval -mutiny at the Nore, and the profound discontent which possessed the -English sailors was equally perceptible at Gibraltar. But fortunately -the English admiral, Sir John Jervis, was a man of singular ability, -who understood the English sailor perfectly. He showed no mercy to -ringleaders, but maintained discipline, and even made it popular -by looking after the men’s food, and appealing to their patriotic -feelings. He understood that, on the eve of a battle, the sailors would -cease their disaffection. Accordingly he kept at sea for several months -after the junction of the French and Spanish fleets, announcing his -intention to offer battle; and when discipline was restored he utterly -defeated the French and Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent, on the 14th of -February 1797. By this victory, in which Nelson greatly distinguished -himself, the Spanish fleet was practically destroyed for offensive -purposes, and the high hopes that the Directory had built on the naval -assistance of Spain were frustrated. England had promptly, as in former -days, come to the help of Portugal, and sent an army under the Hon. -Sir Charles Stuart to defend the country, and a general, the Prince of -Waldeck, to reorganise the Portuguese army. - -[Sidenote: The Directory and England.] - -While the Directory made an alliance with Spain, and hoped to make one -with Prussia, its sentiments of hostility towards England remained -undiminished. It had been expected in France that the conquest of -Holland and the formation of the Batavian Republic, in close alliance -with the French Republic, would have struck a more serious blow at -the prosperity of England than it had really done. As a matter of -fact, the loss of Holland proved but a slight commercial disaster; the -commerce of the North of Europe, which passed through English hands, -merely moved from Amsterdam to Hamburg, and the English merchants -suffered little. From a naval point of view, the French possession -of Holland made it necessary for England to set on foot a powerful -fleet to watch the Dutch navy in the Texel, while she also had to -maintain a fleet blockading the French port of Brest in addition to -her Mediterranean fleet. The English government was more profoundly -affected by Bonaparte’s victories in Italy than by the loss of Holland. -In November 1796 Lord Malmesbury was sent to Paris to discuss the bases -of a peace. He began to negotiate for the restoration of the _status -quo ante bellum_, and demanded the surrender of Belgium to the Emperor. -Such terms were ridiculous; the French Directors, even had they wished, -would not have dared to withdraw from their policy of making the Rhine -the frontier of France. The diplomatic habitudes of Lord Malmesbury -were regarded by the Directors as proofs of his double-dealing, and -he was abruptly ordered to leave Paris on the 20th December 1796. -There was little real expectation of peace on either side. At the -very time Lord Malmesbury was in Paris the Directory was preparing -a naval expedition in Brest harbour. It was announced that the -expedition was intended for the West Indies, and it was placed under -the command of Hoche. On the 16th of December it set sail for Bantry -Bay, for the Directory had really recurred to the old French idea of -attacking England through Ireland. But a terrible storm scattered the -French Fleet, and only two or three ships reached Bantry Bay, and they -returned to France without effecting a landing. - -[Sidenote: Death of Catherine of Russia. Nov. 17, 1796.] - -Though the history of Europe during the year 1796 is chiefly bound up -in the policy and military achievements of France, the close of the -year witnessed the disappearance of the greatest monarch of Eastern -Europe. On the 17th November 1796, Catherine of Russia died. The -importance of her reign belongs to the period prior to the French -Revolution, and her attitude towards the series of events grouped under -that title, was chiefly dictated by the course of events in Poland. She -was succeeded on the throne of Russia by her son, the Emperor Paul. The -new monarch soon gave evidence of the aberration of intellect which led -him into the strange excesses that brought about his assassination. -His first step in foreign politics was to decline to assist Austria -with his armies, and he even withdrew a Russian fleet which his mother -had recently sent to the assistance of England. In conversation he -expressed his detestation of the French as Jacobins, but none the less -he opened negotiations with the Directory by means of his ambassador at -Berlin, Kolichev, who communicated freely with the French ambassador -Caillard. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797.] - -In the commencement of the year 1797 the interest of Europe was -concentrated upon Bonaparte and his army. Being master of Italy he -now determined to invade the home domains of the House of Austria. -He begged the Directory to act with energy in Germany in order to -prevent reinforcements being sent against him. The Emperor recalled -his brother, the Archduke Charles, from the Rhine, and placed in him -command of the Austrian army in the Tyrol. On the 16th of March 1797 -Bonaparte forced the passage of Tagliamento. Joubert, who was acting -independently in the district of Friuli, made his way by that route -into the Tyrol, and joined his general-in-chief at Klagenfurt on the -13th of March. With the combined army Bonaparte pursued the Austrians. -He defeated the Archduke Charles at Neumarkt and Unzmarkt, and on 7th -April he entered Leoben. The Archduke Charles felt it impossible to -oppose the French longer, and on the 17th of April 1797 preliminaries -of peace were signed at Leoben. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1797 in Germany.] - -Simultaneously with Bonaparte’s advance the Armies of the -Rhine-and-Moselle under Moreau, and of the Sambre-and-Meuse under -Hoche, were set in motion. The latter advanced from Düsseldorf, -defeated the Austrians in five engagements, took Wetzlar, and was -already marching on Giessen in Hanover when his progress was stopped by -the news of the signature of the Preliminaries of Leoben. Moreau, on -his side, had not been able to cross the Rhine until 20th April, and -had made no further offensive movement, when he was ordered to cease -operations. - -[Sidenote: Preliminaries of Leoben. April 17, 1797.] - -By the Preliminaries of Leoben the war between France and Austria, -which had lasted without intermission for five years, came to a -termination. By the Convention signed at that place, Austria agreed -that the Rhine should be recognised as the frontier of France, which -involved the cession of Belgium. In Italy the Emperor promised to give -up the Milanese, and to receive Venice in compensation. These were the -territorial bases agreed to, and General Bonaparte was intrusted by the -Directory with the task of concluding a definitive peace with Austria. -But this Convention only bound Francis II. as head of the House of -Hapsburg, not as Emperor. It was therefore agreed that a congress -should be held at Rastadt, at which terms of peace should be arranged -between the French Republic and the Empire. The Preliminaries of Leoben -crowned Bonaparte’s great victories, and the monarchs of Europe quickly -recognised that they had no longer to deal with the French Republic, -but with the young Corsican general. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - 1797–1799 - - Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest - of Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France. - - -[Sidenote: The Elections of 1797 in France.] - -In the month of May 1797 a new Director and a new third of the -Legislature were, in accordance with the Constitution of the Year -III., elected in France. These elections were entirely favourable to -the Clichian party. This party, which had gradually grown up since -the dissolution of the Convention, and took its name from the Club de -Clichy, was led by men of very considerable ability. The sentiment -which united them was a loathing of the memory of the Reign of Terror -and a desire to expel from power those who had taken part in it. -This sentiment was very general in France, and the new legislators -returned to the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred -were, with but few exceptions, men who had not sat in the Convention. -Many of them were former members of the Constituent and Legislative -Assemblies, and had a considerable knowledge of parliamentary tactics. -Foremost among this group was Barbé-Marbois, who had, under the Bourbon -monarchy, been intendant of San Domingo, but the deputy belonging to it -who attracted most attention was General Pichegru. The first success -of the Clichian party was won in the election of the new Director. -The retiring Director on whom the lot had fallen was Letourneur, and -to fill his place was chosen Barthélemy, a former marquis, and the -diplomatist who had negotiated the Treaties of Basle. This election was -very significant. It seemed to presage a consistent peace policy. It -afforded a guarantee that the proscription of the nobles of the _ancien -régime_ was to be ended. - -[Sidenote: Policy of the Clichians.] - -In foreign policy it was indeed the aim of the Clichians to bring about -a universal peace. Their home policy was neither so definite nor so -logical. In their hatred of the Terrorists there can be no doubt that -the wiser heads among the Clichians desired a return to a monarchical -government. Pichegru and the more self-seeking among them thought that -they could obtain money and power by a new revolution. Never were -the prospects of a counter-revolution more promising. The Clichians, -recognising the impossibility of restoring the Bourbon Monarchy in its -former authority, were in favour of a constitutional, limited monarchy -after the English pattern. But Louis XVIII., and the Comte d’Artois, -buoyed up by the hopes of the _émigrés_ refused to make the slightest -concession; they would not acknowledge the Constitution of 1791; they -would not even promise to consent to the slightest limitation of -the old monarchical power. Under these circumstances the Clichians -had to look for a king elsewhere. A few, among whom may possibly be -counted Pichegru, were ready to accept Louis XVIII. on his own terms. -A larger party were in favour of the Duke of Orleans, son of Philippe -Égalité, and, in the future, King of the French as Louis Philippe. -Others favoured the accession of a Prussian prince, and negotiations -were opened at Berlin to see whether Prince Francis, the nephew of -Frederick William II., would accept the throne. With such divisions of -opinion, there was no doubt that the internal policy of the Clichians, -even though backed by large subsidies from England, which passed to -them through Switzerland, was certain to bring about no result. Nor -was their peace policy more likely to succeed. The wars of the French -Republic had organised a body of valiant and experienced soldiers -whose trade was war, and to whom the idea of peace was repugnant. -Both Bonaparte and Hoche, the two greatest generals of the Directory, -naturally looked with suspicion and dislike upon the policy of the -Clichians. - -[Sidenote: Struggle between the Directory and the Clichians.] - -[Sidenote: Negotiations for Peace between England and the Directory.] - -It need hardly be said that the attitude of the Clichians was one of -open hostility to the four original Directors. Their one adherent -in the Directory, Barthélemy, proved to be a very weak support, and -his brother Directors soon saw that it was unnecessary to trouble -themselves about him. The four remaining original Directors were -united in their dislike of the new theories, and also as regicides -had reason to fear their success. A severe struggle was therefore -imminent between the majority of the Legislature and of the Executive. -A crisis had arisen which tested the political theories which had found -their expression in the Constitution of the Year III. The Legislature -endeavoured to encroach upon the authority of the Directory; the -Directors refused to yield one jot of their power. The first active -measure of hostility in the Councils was an attack upon the Foreign -Minister, Charles Delacroix. Pitt had decided to make a second attempt -to bring about peace between England and France, though without much -expectation of its success, and a conference was opened at Lille -on the 4th July 1797, at which Lord Malmesbury was present as the -English plenipotentiary. He presented, on behalf of England, almost -the same demands as had been rejected in the previous December, and -the negotiations were speedily broken off. Using this as a pretext, -the hostile majority in the Council of Ancients and Council of Five -Hundred accused the Directors of not sincerely wishing for peace, -and threw the chief blame for the rupture of the conference on their -minister, Delacroix. The Directory yielded. Charles Delacroix was -sent as ambassador to Holland, and was succeeded as Foreign Minister -by Talleyrand. This skilful and subtle diplomatist saw that the -rivalry between the two powers in the State must lead to an open -rupture. He sided strongly with the Directors; he communicated with -Hoche and Bonaparte, and there can be little doubt that he was one of -the principal, if not the principal, author of the _coup- ’état_ or -revolution which followed. The dismissal of Delacroix was perhaps the -most important episode; but the other ministers were likewise violently -attacked by the Councils, and in addition to the Foreign Office every -department of State, except the ministries of Finance and Justice, -changed hands in July 1797. François de Neufchâteau became Minister -of the Interior, General Schérer Minister for War, Pleville de Peley -Minister of the Marine, and Lenoir-Laroche, who was succeeded in a few -days by Sotin de la Coindière, Minister of Police. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution of 18th Fructidor. (4th September 1797.)] - -The revolution of the 18th Fructidor was one which created but little -interest among the people of France. It was the result of an intrinsic -weakness in the Constitution, not of a popular movement. Two co-equal -powers can never exist in the government of a State: when a collision -takes place one must be overthrown. In their measures for overthrowing -or muzzling the leaders of the opposition in the Legislature, the four -senior Directors could not agree. Carnot, the greatest of them all, -disliked any interference with the Constitution, and looked upon -the employment of force as likely to lead to great disasters. The -other original Directors, Barras, Reubell, and Revellière-Lépeaux, -were, however, perfectly agreed. They were determined to use the -regular troops that formed the garrison of Paris; Hoche, from Holland, -sent them a sum of money; and Bonaparte instructed one of his best -generals, Augereau, to act according to their orders. Accordingly, on -the morning of the 18th Fructidor (4th September 1797) fifty-five of -the leaders of the Clichian party in the Legislature, including both -Barbé-Marbois and Pichegru, were arrested, and were at once deported, -with the ex-minister of Police, Cochon de Lapparent, and several other -individuals, without trial, to Cayenne and Sinnamari. The same harsh -measures were not taken with regard to the two dissentient Directors, -Carnot and Barthélemy, who were given every facility for escaping from -France. This revolution was carried out without the shedding of a -single drop of blood, and the success of the Directors was acquiesced -in by the people of France. - -Merlin of Douai, the great jurist and statesman, and François de -Neufchâteau, a dramatist and former member of the Legislative -Assembly, were elected as the new Directors in the place of Carnot and -Barthélemy, and were succeeded in the ministries of Justice and the -Interior by Lambrechts and Letourneur. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte in Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Occupation of Venice.] - -[Sidenote: The Ligurian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: The Cisalpine Republic.] - -After the conclusion of the Preliminaries of Leoben Bonaparte returned -to Italy and established himself at Montebello, near Milan. He was -appointed plenipotentiary of the French Republic to conclude a final -treaty with Austria, but the negotiations lasted for many months. -During this time the young general was chiefly engaged in settling -Italy. He first made a terrible example of the city of Verona, where -the people had risen in revolt during his campaign in the Tyrol, and -had murdered the wounded French soldiers left in their city. He next -occupied Venice, and exacted from it a heavy contribution in money. -Having thus established his power throughout northern Italy, Bonaparte -began to set up new governments. On the 15th of June 1797 be insisted -on the dissolution of the ancient government of Genoa, and formed -that city and the surrounding districts into a new Ligurian Republic. -Piedmont, by the terms of the Treaty of Cherasco, was left to the King -of Sardinia, but Bonaparte at once formed Lombardy, Modena, Reggio, -Bologna, Ferrara, the Romagna, Brescia, and Mantua into one State, -which he named the Cisalpine Republic. The Constitution of this new -Republic, which was modelled on the Constitution of the Year III., was -promulgated on the 9th of July 1797. In these measures Bonaparte had -carefully avoided any annexations by France. It was otherwise with -regard to the Ionian Islands, which were ceded to the French Republic -by Venice. Corfu was occupied on the 28th of June 1797, and Bonaparte -believed that by this cession the French fleet in the Mediterranean -would be able to close the Adriatic Sea. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Campo-Formio. 17th October 1797.] - -[Sidenote: Capture of Mayence. 29th December 1797.] - -During the months in which Italy was being thus reconstructed, the -Austrian plenipotentiary, Cobenzl, was skilfully delaying the signature -of a definitive treaty between France and Austria. In truth, the -Austrians, like the English, Thugut, like Pitt, hoped that the Clichian -party would win the day. The successful _coup d’état_ of 18th of -Fructidor destroyed his hopes, and on 17th of October 1797 the Treaty -of Campo-Formio was signed. The bases laid down by the Preliminaries of -Leoben were generally followed. The frontier of the Rhine for France -was solemnly recognised. The new arrangements in Italy were also agreed -to, and to Austria was ceded Venice and all the territories of Venice -in Istria and Dalmatia and up to the Adige, in compensation for the -loss of the Milanese. The Emperor also engaged to use his influence -at the Congress of Rastadt to secure peace between France and the -Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of Campo-Formio really struck a more -severe blow at the Empire than at the House of Austria. The cession -of the Rhine frontier to France implied the loss to the Empire of the -electorates of Trèves, Mayence, and the Palatinate, while it only -deprived Austria of her mutinous and rebellious subjects in Belgium. -A secret clause was also added to the Treaty, by which the French -Republic promised to guarantee the whole of Bavaria to the House of -Austria, in return for the immediate evacuation of all the fortresses -which the Austrians occupied upon the Rhine. Immediately upon receiving -the news of the Treaty of Campo-Formio the Directory equipped a special -army under the command of General Hatry for the capture of Mayence, -the only place on the left bank of the Rhine not in the possession of -France. Deprived of the assistance of Austria, the troops of the Empire -and of the Elector of Mayence could make but little resistance, and on -29th of December 1797 Mayence was once more surrendered to the French -Republic. - -[Sidenote: Holland. The Batavian Republic.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Camperdown. 11th October 1797.] - -The Batavian Republic, which had been established in 1795 in Holland, -was also considerably affected by the revolution of 18th Fructidor. -The Dutch Legislature had been influenced by every current of feeling -in France, and during the predominance of the Clichians had made no -real effort to support their French allies. After the conclusion of -the Convention of Leoben, and the consequent cessation of hostilities -in Germany, the Directory despatched Hoche to Holland. He there busied -himself with another effort for his favourite scheme for the invasion -of England. For this purpose he relied upon the powerful Dutch fleet, -which was being blockaded by an English squadron under Admiral Duncan -in the Texel. During the mutiny at the Nore in the summer of 1797 -the position of the blockading English fleet had been very critical, -and on one occasion it is stated that two English ships were left to -watch fifteen Dutch. Directly after the revolution of Fructidor, the -Directors, who did not feel certain of the support of Moreau, removed -Hoche from Holland and placed him in command of the united Armies -of the Rhine-and-Moselle and the Sambre-and-Meuse under the title of -the Army of Germany. Hardly had he taken up his command when the most -distinguished rival of Bonaparte died on the 18th of September 1797. -Though deprived of the active superintendence of Hoche, the government -of the Batavian Republic, under the influence of the vigorous war -policy of the new Directory, ordered the Dutch fleet to leave the -Texel. It was met at sea by Admiral Duncan off the dunes or downs -of Kampe (Camperdown), and entirely defeated after the most hotly -contested naval battle of the war. The naval policy of the Directory -had thus resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the battle -of Cape St. Vincent and of the Dutch fleet in the battle of Camperdown. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte in Paris.] - -On the 5th of December 1797 General Bonaparte arrived in Paris. The -death of Hoche had left him without a rival, and the revolution of the -18th of Fructidor had been so entirely the result of the assistance -of the army that its greatest general was practically the master of -the political situation. The Directors received him with transports -of enthusiasm and gave him a public reception, but, nevertheless, -they were overawed by the extent of his reputation and afraid that he -might attempt to take an active part in politics. He was appointed to -the command of the Army of the Interior, which was intended for the -invasion of England. Bonaparte, like Hoche, sincerely wished that such -an invasion should be effected, but he understood the extraordinary -difficulty inherent in any attempt to transport an army across the -Channel in the presence of a powerful fleet. He therefore advised the -Directory that it would be wiser not to attack England directly, but to -make an effort to overthrow her power in Asia. It seemed to him more -practicable to invade India than to invade England. His imagination -was stirred by the conception of an expedition to the East, and the -Directory was only too glad to remove from France for a time its most -able and ambitious general. - -[Sidenote: Expedition to Egypt. 1798.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of the Nile. 1st August.] - -On the 9th of May 1798 Bonaparte left Toulon at the head of a picked -force of his veterans of Italy, and accompanied not only by his -favourite generals, but also by some of the leading savants and men -of letters of France. On the 9th of June the fleet reached Malta, and -on the 12th the Knights of St. John of the Hospital, who had held -the island ever since the Middle Ages, surrendered it to the French -general. Leaving a garrison in Malta, Bonaparte then proceeded to -Egypt. He disembarked in front of Alexandria on the 1st of July, and -upon the 4th he occupied that city. He then advanced on Cairo, and -on the 21st of July he defeated the Mamelukes at the Battle of the -Pyramids, and on the 24th he occupied Cairo. The English fleet in the -Mediterranean, under the command of Nelson, had been intended to stop -the expedition to Egypt, but it had been misdirected, and was unable -to prevent the disembarkation of the French forces. On the 1st of -August, however, Nelson appeared before Alexandria, and in the battle -of Aboukir Bay, generally known as the Battle of the Nile, he destroyed -the French fleet. This victory entirely cut off Bonaparte and his army -from France. The English held the Mediterranean, and for many months -prevented the despatch of either news or reinforcements. In November -they strengthened their position in the great south European sea by the -occupation of Minorca by an army under the Hon. Sir Charles Stuart, and -in 1800 the French garrison in Malta surrendered to General Pigot and -Captain Sir Alexander Ball. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Directory.] - -Before Bonaparte left Paris the time had come round for the election -of a new Director. The lot fell upon François de Neufchâteau to -retire, and his place was filled by Treilhard, a former member of the -Constituent Assembly and of the Convention. Treilhard had been himself -one of the leading Thermidorians, and since the close of the Convention -he had been employed first as Minister in Holland and then as one of -the French plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Rastadt. There is -little doubt that Sieyès might have entered the Directory had he so -wished, but he preferred to act in a different capacity. François -de Neufchâteau at once returned to his former office of Minister of -the Interior, and the only other alteration in the ministry was the -appointment of Admiral Bruix to be Minister of Marine. The Directory, -inspired by its victory on the 18th of Fructidor, did not hesitate to -infringe the terms of the Constitution of the Year III. The Royalists -or Clichians had not dared to appear at the elections to the Councils -in 1798, and the democrats had been able to elect whom they wished. But -the Directors did not intend to be subject to the democrats any more -than to the Clichians, and without the slightest show of legality they -quashed many of the elections to the Councils and gave the vacant seats -to their own nominees. This disregard of the law was also shown in -other branches of the internal policy of the Directory. The Directors, -in spite of the Constitution, interfered with the finances, and, by -the advice of Ramel, followed Cambon’s example of declaring a partial -bankruptcy. This, however, had but little effect in France, for, owing -to the depreciation in the value of the government paper money, very -little interest was expected by the creditors of the State. In purely -internal administration the weariness of the French people of political -disturbances enabled the agents of the Directory to maintain the public -peace without difficulty. The lack of capital in the country was -compensated by the fact that the government was the only great employer -of labour, and the spoils of the conquered countries enabled it to -pay the workmen sufficiently. It seems surprising that this bankrupt -government should have been acknowledged without opposition throughout -France, but the cause is to be found in the universal attention paid to -the course of foreign affairs. - -[Sidenote: The Foreign Policy of the Directory.] - -The Peace of Campo-Formio had, as has been shown, left France face to -face with England, and it was to strike a blow at the power of England -that Bonaparte proceeded to Egypt. For the same reason the Directory -carried out the favourite scheme of Hoche, and despatched a force -to Ireland under General Humbert in August 1798, which was forced to -surrender to Lord Cornwallis in September. But though the powers of the -Continent had been compelled to acknowledge the military superiority of -France, they were only seeking a loophole by which to enter once more -upon a general war. The departure of Bonaparte seemed to offer them a -good opportunity, and pretexts were not wanting for the formation of -a new coalition against France. The English ministry understood this -attitude of the Continental powers, and their emissaries were busy -in all the Courts of Europe. The Directors knew of these efforts of -Pitt and did their best to counteract them. The keynote of the French -policy was, as it had always been, to make an ally of Prussia. For -this purpose Sieyès, who, though not in office, was probably the most -influential man in France, obtained his nomination to a special embassy -to Berlin. He hoped by mixed measures of conciliation and of menace to -induce Frederick William III. of Prussia, who had succeeded his father -in November 1797, to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance. -But that monarch, in spite of the weakness of his personal character, -had absolutely determined to maintain his father’s policy of strict -neutrality, and neither the arguments of Sieyès nor those of Mr. Thomas -Grenville, the brother of the English Foreign Minister, could induce -him to swerve from it in either direction. The efforts of England -were crowned with more success at Vienna and St. Petersburg. The -Emperor Francis, and still more the Austrian people, were profoundly -disgusted by the triumphs of the French, and flattered themselves -that their defeats had been due to the genius of Bonaparte more than -to the valour of the French soldiers. On the conclusion of the Treaty -of Campo-Formio, Bonaparte had, without consulting the Directory, -nominated General Bernadotte to be the French Ambassador at Vienna. -The Austrian people took this appointment as an insult; Bernadotte, -though well received by the Emperor and his ministers, soon found -that he was most unpopular in Vienna, and on the 13th of April 1798 -the Viennese mob collected in front of the French Embassy, insulted -the ambassador, and tore down the insignia of the French Republic. In -spite of this insult the Directors did not at once declare war against -Austria, but it afforded a pretext for dwelling on the inborn hatred -of the Austrians for the French in their proclamations to the French -people. Since such was the disposition of the Austrian people, it need -hardly be said that the English envoy was heartily welcomed at Vienna. -At St. Petersburg the application of Pitt for armed help was favourably -received. The Emperor Paul, though already showing signs of the brutal -insanity which was to lead to his assassination, still preserved the -prestige of being the heir of the great Catherine. His ministers were -those of Catherine; his policy was based on hers. But whereas Catherine -had steadfastly refused to go to war with France, Paul showed a decided -inclination, which was fostered by his generals, to see whether the -Russian army would not be more successful than the Prussian or the -Austrian against the seemingly invincible French republicans. - -[Sidenote: The Helvetian Republic. April 1798.] - -The French Directory, though recognising that it might have soon to -contend again with the power of Austria, and for the first time with -that of Russia, nevertheless roused without any reason fresh enemies -upon the French frontiers. Its greatest mistake at this period was its -interference with the affairs of Switzerland. For this interference -there was no real cause, but the Directors could not resist the -temptation of inflicting their special form of republic upon the Swiss. -The organisation of most of the cantons of Switzerland was essentially -feudal and oligarchical. The government of each canton and of each -city was in the hands of a very few families, and the people were in -much the same condition politically, socially, and economically as -the people of France before the Revolution. The Swiss peasants had -caught the contagion of revolution from France, and in the beginning -of 1798 the people of the Pays de Vaud rose in insurrection against -the authority of the Canton of Berne. This rising was followed by -popular tumults in other cantons, and the peasants everywhere destroyed -the signs of the feudal system and declared themselves in favour -of ‘Liberty—Equality—Fraternity.’ The popular leaders appealed to -France for help, and a powerful army under the command of General -Brune invaded Switzerland. The militia of the cantons was speedily -routed; Brune occupied Berne and sent the national treasury to -Paris, and a freely-elected Constituent Assembly was summoned. This -assembly proclaimed an Helvetian Republic, one and indivisible, with -a Directory, two Councils, and Ministers, in imitation of the French, -the Cisalpine, and the Batavian Republics, to take the place of the old -Swiss federal constitution. Great reforms were speedily accomplished; -on the 8th of May 1798 internal customs-houses were abolished, and on -the 13th of May torture was forbidden in judicial processes; on the -3d of August marriages between persons of different religions were -declared legal; and eventually all feudal rights were suppressed. -Great as were these reforms, they were not entirely acceptable to the -Swiss people. The mountaineers of Uri, Schweitz and Unterwalden, the -descendants of the founders of the ancient Swiss liberties, objected -to be freed under the influence of French bayonets, and the cry of -national patriotism soon raised an army against the French liberators -of the peasants. The French troops had to remain perpetually under -arms, and the Helvetian Republic, in spite of the popular freedom which -it secured, was hated even by the peasants whom it had relieved. The -hatred for the French name was increased by the arbitrary conduct, -and it was asserted by the corrupt behaviour, of Rapinat, the French -commissioner, who was a near relative of Reubell, the Director. The -intervention of the Directory had, therefore, in Switzerland, roused -a people in arms, even though it had been dictated by the best of -motives. - -[Sidenote: Italian affairs.] - -[Sidenote: The Roman Republic. February 1798.] - -[Sidenote: The Parthenopean Republic. January 1799.] - -When Bonaparte left Italy he had been succeeded in the command of the -French troops which occupied the frontiers of the Cisalpine Republic -by General Berthier. This general, desirous of emulating the successes -of Bonaparte, took the opportunity of the murder of the French -ambassador at Rome, General Duphot, to occupy the Eternal City. The -Pope, Pius VI., fled from Rome to the Carthusian monastery at Pisa, -and the Roman people declared themselves to be once more the Roman -Republic. Consuls and Tribunes, as in ancient days, were elected; -the Directory, full of classical recollections, recognised the Roman -Republic with transports of enthusiasm; and General Berthier took the -opportunity to send large sums of money to Paris. The King of Naples, -or to speak more accurately, the King of the Two Sicilies, regarded -the new republic with anything but favour. Encouraged by English and -Austrian envoys, and still more by the news of Nelson’s victory at -the Battle of the Nile, he determined to attack Rome. He placed one -of the most distinguished of the Austrian generals, Mack, at the head -of his army, and, without declaring war, occupied Rome on the 29th of -November 1798. The French troops for the moment had to retire. But -Championnet, who had succeeded Berthier, quickly concentrated his army, -and on the 15th of December he reoccupied Rome in force. Championnet -then took the offensive; he invaded the Neapolitan territory, and he -quickly conquered all Ferdinand’s dominions in Italy. The King fled -to Sicily, and in January 1799 the Parthenopean Republic was solemnly -installed at Naples. The two remaining independent states of Italy -were also occupied by the French armies. The one of these, Piedmont, -was conquered without any declaration of war or any pretext by General -Joubert in November 1798, and King Charles Emmanuel IV. fled to -Sardinia. The other, Tuscany, in spite of the desire of the Grand Duke -to remain at peace with France, was the next victim, and on the 25th of -March 1799 the French troops occupied Florence. - -[Sidenote: The Law of Conscription. 5th Sept. 1798.] - -The occupation of the whole of Italy and of Switzerland did not -increase the military strength of France; on the contrary, the -proceedings of the Directory only aroused the most profound disgust -and fear in Austria, Russia, and England. The Directors felt that a -far more terrible war than they had yet been engaged in was about to -break forth, and it may be assumed that, on the eve of hostilities, -they even regretted the absence of Bonaparte. Enormous numbers of -soldiers would be necessary in a new war. Trained and experienced -officers and non-commissioned officers existed, but the difficulty was -how to fill the ranks. It was no longer possible to have recourse to -the measures of the Convention, to the _levée en masse_, and to the -appeal for volunteers with the cry that the country was in danger. The -Republic had now become a military power, and the question was how -to recruit its armies, not how to rouse the whole population. On the -19th of Fructidor, Year VI. (5th September 1798), the Councils of the -Ancients and of Five Hundred, on the application of the Directory, -passed the first Law of Conscription. By this law all Frenchmen between -the ages of twenty and twenty-five with certain exceptions were -declared to be subject to military service. They were divided into five -classes, and one or more classes could be called out by the executive -authority after receiving the consent of the Legislature. This law is -the starting-point of the military levies which formed the army of -Napoleon, and the principle of conscription was thus laid down many -months before Bonaparte became First Consul. - -[Sidenote: The Outbreak of War. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Stockach and Magnano. 25th March and 5th April.] - -Mention has been made of the riot at Vienna which caused the departure -of the French ambassador, Bernadotte. He was not replaced by the -Directory, and long negotiations took place on the subject of the -compensation due to the Republic for this insult. But neither party -was in earnest. Both the French Directory and the Emperor Francis were -preparing for the contest. The first overt act of war took place at -the commencement of 1799, when the Austrian troops, under the command -of the Archduke Charles, occupied the passes of the Grisons, and it -was in this quarter that before war was actually declared the first -engagements were fought. In Italy General Schérer was attacked at -Verona by the Austrian General Kray, and in Germany General Jourdan -fell back into the Black Forest. In both of these quarters many -skirmishes took place, and eventually on the 25th of March 1799 the -Archduke Charles defeated Jourdan in a pitched battle at Stockach. A -few days later, on the 5th of April, Schérer was defeated at Magnano. -Meanwhile the Congress of Rastadt was still sitting, and Austria was -nominally at peace with France. The conclusion of a treaty between -France and the Empire, which was the subject of the deliberations -at Rastadt, was necessarily a difficult matter to negotiate, for it -involved nothing less than the entire reconstitution of the Holy -Roman Empire, a reconstitution which could only be carried out by -the secularisation of the bishoprics. Eventually, in the month of -April 1799, after the engagements of Stockach and Magnano, the French -plenipotentiaries at Rastadt understood that it was hopeless to expect -to conclude a treaty with the Empire. They therefore asked for their -passports to France. These passports were refused. As they left Rastadt -the French plenipotentiaries were attacked by some Austrian hussars; -two of them, Roberjot and Bonnier-d’Alco, were killed, and the other, -Jean Debry, left for dead. This odious violation of international law -and the rights of ambassadors took the place of a formal declaration -of war, and roused not only the Directory but the French people to the -most strenuous exertions. Meanwhile the Emperor Paul of Russia declared -war against France, and ordered three armies to be despatched to the -scenes of action. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Italy. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of the Trebbia. 17th-19th June.] - -The campaign of 1799 was fought out in three localities, in all of -which the Russians played a most prominent part. In Italy a Russian -army, under the command of one of the most famous generals in Europe, -Suvórov, reinforced the Austrians after the battle of Magnano. -Suvórov forced the passage of the Adda at Cassano on the 27th of -April, and rapidly drove Moreau, who had succeeded Schérer in command, -across northern Italy. On the 28th of April Suvórov entered Milan, -and the Cisalpine Republic at once expired. On the 27th of May he -entered Turin, and after leaving besieging armies before Mantua and -Alessandria, shut up the remnants of Moreau’s army in Genoa. But the -army of Moreau was not the only French army in the Italian Peninsula. -Several powerful divisions, under the name of the Army of Naples, were -concentrated in Rome and Naples to support the newly-formed Roman and -Parthenopean Republics. Macdonald, who had succeeded Championnet in the -command of this army, rapidly concentrated and threatened to take the -Austro-Russian army in flank. Suvórov withdrew from Turin and turned -to his left to meet his new assailant. On the banks of the Trebbia a -three days’ battle was fought from the 17th to the 19th of June. The -issue of the battle itself was doubtful, but Macdonald, finding himself -unsupported by Moreau from Genoa, was obliged to retreat into Tuscany. -Fearing to be cut off, he then forced his way along the difficult -passage between the mountains and the sea, and joined Moreau, after -collecting every French soldier from the garrisons in the south of -Italy. The retreat of the French was followed by an outburst against -the Italian republicans. - -[Sidenote: Death of Pope Pius VI. 29th Aug. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Novi. 15th August.] - -The Parthenopean Republic was at once overthrown, and King Ferdinand -of the Two Sicilies wreaked cruel vengeance on his subjects. Pope Pius -VI. had been removed from his retreat near Florence to Valence, and the -French Directors had some idea of keeping him prisoner as a hostage in -the same way as Napoleon afterwards imprisoned his successor. But the -old Pope could not bear the sufferings of his imprisonment, and died -at Valence on the 29th of August 1799. Rome, deprived of the presence -of the Pope and the Cardinals, fell under the dominion of the Roman -nobles, who followed the example of the King of the Two Sicilies in -persecuting the republicans. Meanwhile the French Directory appointed -General Joubert, who was believed to be the best of the former -subordinates of Bonaparte, to take command at Genoa of the relics of -the armies of Moreau and Macdonald. With these soldiers he burst out -of Genoa to raise the siege of Alessandria, but on the 15th of August -he was utterly defeated by Suvórov at Novi in a great battle, in which -Joubert himself was killed. In spite of these defeats the Directory -refused to believe that Italy was lost. A new army was formed, and -placed under the command of Championnet, who, however, was defeated at -Genola on the 4th of November by the Austrians, under Melas, and driven -back into France. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Switzerland. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Zurich. 26th Sept.] - -While Suvórov was conquering Italy and destroying the recollection -of the victories of Bonaparte in that country, Masséna, who was in -command of the French army in Switzerland, was engaged in a most -difficult task. The Archduke Charles, who also had under his command a -Russian army under Korsakov, forced his way slowly into Switzerland, -driving the French before him, and in August 1799 left Korsakov in -command at Zurich. The Archduke was then ordered to take the bulk of -his army to the Rhine in order to invade France. Korsakov, abandoned -to his own resources, showed himself far inferior in military ability -to Suvórov. Masséna, with singular boldness, refused to remain on the -defensive, and on the 26th of September drove the Russians out of -Zurich. His victory was won just in time, for Suvórov, after defeating -Joubert at Novi, had determined, in spite of the terrible weather, -to cross the Alps. It was on the 24th of September, two days before -Masséna’s victory at Zurich, that the main Russian army arrived at the -summit of the St. Gothard Pass. General Lecourbe, one of the finest -mountain generals of his day, occupied the St. Gothard, and with a few -battalions kept the whole Russian army at bay. Suvórov nevertheless -persevered and hoped to turn Masséna’s flank. But it was several weeks -before he could reach the village of Altdorf. Being unable to find -boats to cross the lake, he had now to retreat, and when he reached -the Grisons his army was practically destroyed by starvation and the -stress of the weather. Masséna, thus relieved of his most formidable -enemies, took possession of Constance, and by threatening the flank of -the Archduke Charles forced the main Austrian army to fall back to the -Danube. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign in Holland. 1799.] - -[Sidenote: Battles of Bergen.] - -The third campaign of 1799 was fought in Holland. In this quarter it -had been arranged that the English and Russians were to act in concert. -On the 27th of August the English fleet had successfully reached the -Dutch coast, and had captured the relics of the Dutch fleet, defeated -at Camperdown, in the Texel. After this operation an English army, -under the Duke of York, and a Russian army, under General Hermann, -disembarked at the Helder. General Brune was hurriedly despatched to -take command of the few French troops in Holland, and co-operated -with the army of the Batavian Republic under General Janssens. The -campaign consisted of a succession of fierce but indecisive battles -in the neighbourhood of Bergen. The English and Russians did not act -harmoniously together; the country was unsuited for field operations; -and supplies were not adequately provided. As a result of the -operations, though he had not been really defeated, the Duke of York -signed the Convention of Alkmaar on the 18th October, by which he -agreed to surrender all prisoners on being allowed to evacuate Holland. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Campaigns.] - -The results of the campaigns of 1799 were decidedly favourable to -France. Though Italy was lost, and more than one French army had been -defeated, the victories of Masséna and of Brune more than compensated -for these disasters. Not only had France not been invaded, but she had -been able to retain her position in Switzerland and in Holland, and -to hold the whole of the right bank of the Rhine. England, in spite -of the Convention of Alkmaar, could point to the victory of the Nile -and the capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel as real successes, -and Pitt and Grenville did not despair of ultimate victory. The King -of Prussia, who, when the affairs of France seemed to be desperate, -had begun to assume an attitude of opposition, and demanded the -evacuation of the Prussian provinces on the Rhine, speedily repented -of his indiscretion, and made excuses for his behaviour. The Austrian -ministers evinced no desire to continue the war; they resented the -high-handed conduct of Suvórov, and showed themselves more afraid of -their powerful ally, Russia, than of their declared enemy, France. They -implored the English government to bring about the withdrawal of the -Russian troops, and the Emperor Paul was only too glad to comply. The -retreat of the Russians left Italy practically in the hands of Austria. -The Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany was restored to his dominions, but -the King of Sardinia was not recalled, and Piedmont remained in the -occupation of the Austrian troops. Genoa alone was held by a French -garrison, which was closely besieged by the Austrians on the land side, -and blockaded by the English Mediterranean fleet. It was under the -influence of Austria and under the protection of Austrian troops that -the Conclave met at Venice in November 1799 to elect a new Pope. - -[Sidenote: Russia.] - -The significant feature of the campaigns of 1799 was the intervention -of Russia. Mention has been made of the abandonment of the policy of -the great Catherine by her successor. This change in the attitude -of Russia was due mainly to the influence of England, but partly -to the encouragement given by the French Directory to the Poles. -The restoration of Poland to its place among the nations had long -been a favourite idea among French republicans. Kosciuszko had been -enthusiastically welcomed at Paris, and the first of the Polish legions -which were to do good service under Napoleon was raised by Dombrowski -in 1797. The Emperor Paul had met this attitude by welcoming the -pretender Louis XVIII. to Russia, where he lent him the palace of -Mittau and gave him a considerable pension. He also took into Russian -pay the armed corps of _émigrés_ under the command of the Prince de -Condé. But fear of French assistance to Poland would not alone have -induced the Emperor Paul to declare war. He was particularly offended -by the French occupation of the Ionian Islands and of Malta. By the -Treaty of Campo-Formio the Ionian Islands had been ceded to France, and -the Russians regarded this cession as an indication that the Directory -was going to interfere actively in the affairs of the East. The bad -impression created by the occupation of the Ionian Islands had been -increased by the conquest of Malta and the expedition to Egypt. Though -Russia quite intended to destroy the power of Turkey, she had no idea -of allowing any western nation to share the spoils. It was for this -reason that the Emperor Paul accepted the title of Grand Master of the -Knights of St. John, which the expelled Knights of Malta offered to -him, and that he occupied the Ionian Islands with a Russian force in -1798. The foreign policy of the Emperor was so far popular in Russia in -that it maintained the sole right of Russia to interfere in the East, -but it was unpopular in that it seemed by the despatch of the armies -under Suvórov and Korsakov to bolster up the power of Austria. Suvórov -and his officers returned to Russia with a feeling of respect for their -enemies, but with a feeling of intense disgust at the behaviour of -their allies. Suvórov, indeed, went so far as to accuse the Austrians -of playing the part of traitors, and the anger of Paul was raised to -its height by the capture of Ancona, which was delivered by a secret -compact to the Austrian general in spite of the assistance of Russian -troops. He was equally angry with England on account of the failure of -the expedition to Holland. Every thing at the close of 1799 conduced -to make the Emperor Paul seek for a pretext to make peace, if not an -actual alliance, with the French Republic. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Syria. 1799.] - -While these important campaigns were being fought out in Europe, -Bonaparte had not been idle in the East. The Battle of the Pyramids -had made him master of Egypt, and though cut off by the English fleet -from communication with France, he remained master of the country. -His internal administration made him excessively popular among the -Egyptians. He removed the Turks and Mamelukes from office, and called -on the Egyptians to govern themselves. But the Turks did not intend -to lose Egypt without striking another blow, and a powerful army was -sent for its reconquest. Bonaparte determined to meet this army half -way, and in February 1799 he advanced into Syria. He speedily reduced -Palestine and took Jaffa, and then laid siege to the strong fortress of -Acre. Assisted by the English sailors of Sir Sidney Smith, the garrison -of Acre made a gallant defence. The Turkish army advancing to its -relief was defeated by Bonaparte at Mount Tabor on the 16th of April. -In spite of his victory, he had, nevertheless, to abandon the siege -of Acre, and on the 20th of May he commenced his retreat to Egypt. He -there found the position to be extremely critical. The Mamelukes had -reorganised their army and reoccupied Cairo, and a Turkish army had -been disembarked by the English fleet at Aboukir. Meanwhile Desaix, -whom he had left in command in Egypt, had gone up the Nile for the -conquest of the interior. Bonaparte soon re-established his power; he -defeated the Mamelukes at Cairo, and drove the Turkish army into the -sea. At this juncture he heard the news of the events of the campaigns -in Europe, and, what affected him more, of the course of politics at -Paris. He determined, therefore, to return to France, and leaving -Kléber in command in Egypt, he set sail with a few personal friends. -The ship on which he embarked escaped the English cruisers, and he -landed at Fréjus on the 9th of October 1799 after a perilous voyage of -forty-seven days. - -[Sidenote: Quarrel between the Councils and the Directory.] - -The varying issues of the campaigns of 1799 had profoundly affected -the situation of the Directors, and the disasters in Italy had turned -the hopes both of the army and of the French people towards Bonaparte. -At the annual change in the composition of the Directory and the -Councils which took place in 1799 a considerable alteration had been -made. The new third of the Councils consisted almost entirely of men -who, without being either Jacobins or Clichians, longed to see the -establishment of a strong government in order to secure peace. The -Directory, which had seemed so strong after the revolution of the -18th of Fructidor, had been considerably weakened by the behaviour -of the Directors themselves. The election of none but civilians to -the highest offices in the State was disliked by the army, and the -characters of the Directors themselves had suffered. Reubell was the -Director designed by lot to retire in May 1799; he was perhaps the -ablest and most experienced of them all, but had been discredited by -the bad conduct of his relative, Rapinat, in Switzerland. Sieyès was -elected to succeed Reubell. This choice, and the acceptance of Sieyès, -testified to a new condition of affairs. The former abbé might have -been a Director on at least two former occasions, in 1795 and 1798, and -his acceptance at this juncture was very significant. He had failed -in his embassy to Berlin to induce the new King of Prussia to become -the active ally of France, and had been convinced by his diplomatic -experiences that the government of France must become frankly -military, since the monarchical powers of Europe would not accept the -possibility of a peaceable French Republic. From an internal point of -view the acceptance of Sieyès indicated an increase of power for the -Legislature, of which he was the idol. - -[Sidenote: Coup d’état of 30th Prairial (18th June 1799).] - -The election of Sieyès was followed by a bloodless revolution. He -maintained that the failure of the Constitution of the Year III. was -due to the usurpation of the functions of the Legislature by the -Directory, and, therefore, when the Councils declared Treilhard and -Merlin of Douai to have been illegally chosen Directors, and called -for the resignation of Revellière-Lépeaux, they found a powerful ally -in Sieyès. The attacked Directors yielded without a struggle, and on -30th Prairial, Year VII. (18th June 1799), they were replaced by three -personal friends of Sieyès, Gohier, Roger Ducos, and General Moulin. -Barras was thus the only member left of the original Directory. The -Councils, not satisfied with this victory, began to usurp the executive -functions of the Directory, and a general change of ministry took -place. The new ministers were Reinhard, Robert Lindet, Cambacérès, -Quinette, Bernadotte, replaced on 14th September by Dubois-Crancé, -Fouché, and Bourdon de Vatry, who succeeded Talleyrand and his -colleagues as Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Finances, Justice, -the Interior, War, Police, and the Marine respectively. It is worthy -of note that four of the new ministers were formerly leading members -of the Convention. But the administration of the Councils was not -more effective than that of the Directory, and the news of the -disembarkation of Bonaparte at Fréjus was received with a feeling of -general satisfaction throughout France. - -[Sidenote: Revolution of 18th Brumaire. (9th November 1799.)] - -Bonaparte reached Paris on the 16th of October, and his assistance was -sought by men of all parties. He allied himself with none, but there -can be little doubt that he took the advice mainly of Talleyrand, -Fouché, and Sieyès. Nevertheless he did not repulse the leaders of -the Councils, and to show their attachment for him the Council of -Five Hundred, on the 22d of October 1799, elected his brother Lucien -Bonaparte to be their president, and the whole Legislature gave him -a grand banquet on 6th November. The first stage of the revolution -of Brumaire was a decree by which the Council of Ancients, or rather -certain of its members, who had been initiated into the project of -a _coup d’état_, taking advantage of a clause in the Constitution -applicable to circumstances of popular agitation, resolved in the -early morning of the 18th Brumaire, Year VIII. (9th November 1799), -that the two Councils should leave Paris and meet at Saint-Cloud; and -the execution of this decree was intrusted to General Bonaparte. In -the palace of Saint-Cloud it was easy to surround the legislators by a -body of troops faithful to Bonaparte, since the command of the troops -in Paris was in the hands of one of his friends, General Lefebvre, who -was discontented at not having been elected a Director instead of -Moulin. Sieyès and Roger Ducos, who were in the plot, at once declared -their resignations; Barras was induced to acquiesce; and the other two -Directors were guarded as prisoners in the palace of the Luxembourg -by General Moreau. On the following morning, the 19th of Brumaire, -Bonaparte entered the Councils, escorted by soldiers; the Ancients -listened to him quietly; but the Five Hundred were in a tumult; a -proposal was made to declare the general and his supporters _hors la -loi_ or outlaws; and after a stormy scene the deputies were driven from -the hall by the grenadiers. In the evening a few deputies, who were in -the secret of the general’s plans, met and decreed the suppression of -the Directory and the creation of a provisional government, consisting -of three Consuls. The three men chosen for this office were Bonaparte, -Sieyès, and Roger Ducos. Commissions were appointed to revise the -Constitution and to draw up with the Consuls new fundamental laws for -the Republic. By this revolution Bonaparte practically became ruler of -France, for Sieyès had no influence with the army, and Roger Ducos no -influence with anybody. It was a military revolution like that of the -18th Fructidor; it was a bloodless revolution like that of the 18th -Fructidor; but it differed in that, instead of establishing the power -of five men, it established the power of one. And that one man was the -idol of the army, and generally acknowledged to be the greatest general -of France. The preponderance of Bonaparte was quickly recognised by -his colleagues. ‘Who shall preside?’ said Sieyès at the first meeting -of the provisional Consuls on 20th Brumaire. ‘Do you not see that the -general is in the chair?’ replied Roger Ducos. And Sieyès, who was -the chief epigram maker as well as the constitution-monger of the -Revolution, is said to have summed up the situation with the remark to -his friends on the same evening: ‘Messieurs, nous avons un maître; il -sait tout, il peut tout, il veut tout.’ - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - 1799–1804 - - Constitution of the Year VIII.—The Consulate—The Council of - State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The Senate—Internal - Policy of the Consulate—General Reconciliation—The - Code Civil—Ministers of the Consulate—Foreign Policy - of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The Pope—Campaign of - Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter Campaign of Moreau - and Macdonald—The Treaty of Lunéville—Arrangements in - Italy—Policy and Murder of the Emperor Paul of Russia—The - Neutral League of the North—Battle of Copenhagen—War - between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of Badajoz—Campaign - of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between England and - France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation of - the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis II. - resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that of Emperor - of Austria. - - -[Sidenote: The Constitution of the Year VIII.] - -The revolution of the 18th of Brumaire had placed supreme power in the -hands of Bonaparte; that power was speedily legalised and defined in -the Constitution of the Year VIII. The chief political problem was once -more how to regulate the relation between the legislative and executive -authorities. The Constitution of 1791, and still more that of 1793, had -entirely subordinated the executive to the legislative authority; the -Constitution of the Year III. (1795) had endeavoured to co-ordinate -them; the Constitution of the Year VIII. (1799) entirely subordinated -the legislative to the executive. It fell once more to Sieyès, one -of the principal authors of the Constitutions of 1791 and 1795, as -Second Provisional Consul, to define the new arrangements. His attempt -at co-ordinating the two powers in the State in 1795 had failed in its -operation: as was inevitable, the two authorities declined to preserve -their legal relations to each other. On the 18th of Fructidor, Year V. -(4th September 1797), the executive in the form of the Directory had -usurped and partially destroyed the power of the Legislature, and on -the 30th of Prairial, Year VII. (18th of June 1799) the Legislature had -acted in the same way towards the executive. By the Constitution of the -Year VIII., therefore, the executive power was frankly acknowledged to -be supreme. In its details it was entirely the work of Sieyès, though -his main idea—the appointment of a Grand Elector who should nominate -to fill all offices, but should exercise no power—was rejected by -Bonaparte. The new Constitution was soon ready; it was submitted to the -primary assemblies of the people on the 14th December 1799, and was -accepted by them by 3,011,107 votes against 1567, and was officially -proclaimed on the 24th of December. - -[Sidenote: The Consulate.] - -The key-stone of the new Constitution was the Consulate. There were -to be three Consuls nominated for ten years, but these officials -were not to be equal in authority, as had been the case with the -Directors. On the contrary, the First Consul was to be perpetual -president and perpetual representative of the governing triumvirate. -All administrative power was placed in his hands, and the Second and -Third Consuls were little more than his chief assistants. The Consuls -acting together nominated the Ministers, and also the Council of State, -which was intended to be at the same time an administrative tribunal of -appeal, and the originating source in matters of legislation. - -[Sidenote: The Legislature.] - -In the work of legislation the Council of State was supplemented by the -Tribunate and the Legislative Body. All laws prepared by the Council -of State were first submitted to the Tribunate, which was composed -of one hundred members. The Tribunate could neither reject nor amend -a law, but decided whether to support or oppose the project before -the Legislative Body. The Legislative Body consisted of three hundred -deputies chosen by certain electoral assemblies formed by a complicated -scheme out of the taxpayers of the departments. By this scheme, after -three series of elections, what was termed a ‘National List’ was drawn -up. From this national list the Senate chose the members both of the -Legislative Body and the Tribunate. The Legislative Body alone voted -the taxes. In legislative matters it played the part of a national -jury, listening to the arguments for or against brought forward by -the Tribunate on every project prepared by the Council of State, and -deciding in every case without discussion. The Legislative Body alone -could give a project of the Council of State the character of a law. -The Senate was composed of eighty members nominated for life by the -Consuls. Its duties were to choose the members of the Tribunate and -Legislative Body from the National List, and to decide whether any -law or measure of the government was contrary to the Constitution. If -it decided that such law or measure was unconstitutional it had the -authority to annul it. - -[Sidenote: Internal Policy of the Consulate.] - -[Sidenote: The Code Napoléon.] - -The Consulate was composed of Bonaparte as First Consul, with -Cambacérès and Le Brun, both famous jurists, as his associates. Their -policy was one of general reconciliation. The individuals deported -after the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor were allowed to return -to France if they had not, like Pichegru, become declared royalists. -They were even taken into favour; while Carnot was appointed Minister -of War, Portalis and Barbé-Marbois were nominated to the Council of -State. The lists of emigration were closed; no longer could persons be -declared to have emigrated on mere suspicion, and the First Consul, as -an administrative measure, annulled the decrees excluding relations of -_émigrés_ and former nobles from filling executive offices. More than -150,000 _émigrés_ were also allowed to return, mostly priests, who were -no longer regarded as rebels, and who, whether they had taken the oath -to observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy or not, were allowed -to resume their sacred functions on simply promising to obey the new -Constitution of the State. The Consulate did even more than this for -the cause of religion; many churches which had been appropriated -for civil purposes were restored to their original uses. Brigandage -was sternly put down, and Bonaparte, at last, pacified La Vendée by -negotiating a treaty of amnesty with the remaining Vendéan leaders at -Montluçon, on the 17th of January 1800. A special effort was made to -put the finances in order, and Gaudin, who held office as Minister of -the Finances throughout the Consulate and the Empire, first proved -his extraordinary powers. His financial reforms may be roughly summed -up by the mention of his two most important measures. The decrees of -the Directory in favour of forced loans from the rich, which had been -arbitrarily and unfairly carried out, were abrogated and replaced by -a general income tax of twenty-five per cent. This established some -justice in the collection, which partly compensated for the heaviness -of the tax. The second measure was the appointment of receivers-general -of taxes in every department. These men had to give heavy security, and -were allowed a fair measure of profit in the form of a percentage on -what they collected. They were strictly supervised, and the scandalous -dilapidations which had signalised the period of the Directory were -made impossible for the future. Further, in order to secure the support -of the capitalists, the Bank of France was founded under the guarantee -of the State. Finally, the First Consul decided to carry into effect -the projects of the legal reformers of the Constituent Assembly and the -Convention. Their labours had made possible the formation of a uniform -code of law for France. Bonaparte appointed a Commission, consisting of -Tronchet, Portalis, and Bigot de Préameneu, to examine the labours of -their predecessors, and with their help to draw up the admirable civil -code, which was afterwards known as the Code Napoléon. - -[Sidenote: The Ministry.] - -In no respect was the administrative ability of the Consuls better -manifested than in the selection they made of their ministers. It has -already been noticed that Gaudin, the greatest financier of France, was -appointed Minister of the Finances. Talleyrand and Fouché once more -took possession of the portfolios of Foreign Affairs and of Police, -which they held for many years. Their first Minister of the Marine, -Forfait, did not remain long in office, but his successor, Decrès, -held that post from 1801 till 1814. The same may be said with regard -to the Ministry of Justice. Abrial, the first occupant of this post, -gave way to Regnier in 1802, but he likewise remained in office till -1814. The Ministries of War and of the Interior were more difficult to -fill; Carnot soon resented the tone of Bonaparte, and was succeeded -by Berthier, afterwards Prince of Neufchâtel, who had been Chief of -the Staff to Bonaparte in Italy. La Place, the great astronomer, had -been appointed Minister of the Interior by the Provisional Government -in November 1799. He did not show himself very efficient, and was -succeeded by Lucien Bonaparte, the First Consul’s ablest brother, in -the following month. He too failed to carry out the wishes of the -Consuls, and was succeeded in 1800 by one of the most distinguished -administrators of the period, Chaptal. - -[Sidenote: The External Policy of the Consulate.] - -Of foreign affairs Bonaparte, as First Consul, assumed the entire -management; in internal matters he laid down the main principles -indeed, but he allowed his colleagues some share in the government. -He found France once more at war, as she had been before the Treaty -of Campo-Formio, with Austria and England. But another redoubtable -enemy had been added in Russia. Fortunately for France, for reasons -which have already been indicated, the Emperor Paul was profoundly -dissatisfied with his allies. From an unreasoning hatred for France, -the Russian Emperor had now altered his sentiments to one of profound -admiration for the person of the First Consul. Bonaparte was soon -notified of this disposition at the Court of St. Petersburg. He sent -his most intimate friend, Duroc, on a special mission to Russia, and -the idea was already suggested that Russia and France ought to be the -arbiters of Europe. He offered to recognise Paul not only as Grand -Master of the Knights of Malta, but as the sovereign of that island, -and promised in every way to forward Russian interests. In return, -Paul, with his usual exaggeration, declared Bonaparte to be his -dearest friend, surrounded himself with his portraits, drank publicly -to his health, and ordered Louis XVIII. to leave Mittau. The Russian -ambassador in Paris, Kolichev, on behalf of his master, proposed that -Bonaparte should take the title of King of France, and make the crown -hereditary in his family. Next in importance to the commencement of -good relations with Russia, was the First Consul’s effort to make the -King of Prussia his declared ally. For this purpose he sent Duroc also -to Berlin. But Frederick William III. was a different type of monarch -from the Emperor Paul; he could not so readily alter his policy. -Personally, he too admired the First Consul, and regarded him as the -restorer of order and as a monarch in embryo; but, in spite of his -admiration, he refused to comply with the wishes of Bonaparte, as he -had rejected the propositions of the Directory, and insisted on the -maintenance of his consistent attitude of strict neutrality. The last -point to be noticed in the foreign policy of Bonaparte was his attitude -towards the Pope. He not only allowed the body of Pope Pius VI. to be -removed from Valence to be buried at Rome, but he recognised the new -Pope, Pius VII., although he had been elected at Venice under Austrian -influence: he even offered to restore him to his temporal dominion at -Rome, and promised to enter into negotiations with him with regard to -the re-establishment of the Catholic Church in France. - -[Sidenote: The Campaign of Marengo. 1800.] - -With the two great enemies of France, Austria and England, the First -Consul had no desire to treat. Though unable to strike at England, -owing to the weakness of the French navy, he could yet attack the -Austrians in two quarters. Two powerful armies were prepared, the -one the Army of the Danube, which was placed under the command of -Moreau, and the other the Army of the Interior, soon to become famous -as the Second Army of Italy. Of all the conquests in Italy made by -the French in 1796 and 1797, only Genoa remained in their possession. -Masséna, fresh from his victories in Switzerland, had taken command of -the besieged army. His defence is one of the most famous in history, -and does no less honour to the general than his victory at Zurich. -Bonaparte desired to relieve Genoa; and he resolved not to advance -along the coast, as he had done in 1796, but by crossing the Alps, and -descending upon Piedmont, to cut off the Austrian army occupying that -province. - -In the month of May Bonaparte crossed the Great Saint Bernard Pass at -the head of 40,000 men, and fell at once on the Austrian flank. He was -too late to relieve Genoa, which surrendered on the 4th of June, when -but few of the soldiers were still able to stand, but he was in time to -close the retreat of the Austrians upon Lombardy. On the 9th June 1800 -General Lannes defeated the Austrian advanced guard at Montebello, and -Bonaparte then barred the road from Alessandria to Piacenza. General -Melas, though not yet joined by the troops which had taken Genoa, -had a larger army than Bonaparte; on June 14 he forced his way out -of Alessandria, and drove back the French columns which occupied the -village of Marengo. The battle was practically lost by the French, when -Desaix, who had been detached to the left with 6000 men, fell upon -the Austrian flank. Desaix was killed, but the vigour of his attack -practically cut the Austrian army in two. The dragoons of Kellermann -completed the victory, and General Melas signed the Convention of -Alessandria, by which he surrendered Genoa, Piedmont, and the Milanese -to the French, and promised to withdraw the Austrian garrisons from all -cities to the west of the Mincio. Bonaparte then attended a _Te Deum_ -sung in honour of his victory in the cathedral of Milan, and returned -to Paris, leaving the Army of Grisons, under the command of General -Macdonald, to follow up the Austrians. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Hohenlinden.] - -While Bonaparte was winning the battle of Marengo, and reconquering -Italy by a single blow, Moreau was again face to face with his old -opponent, the Archduke Charles. The French advance was very slow. -Fierce battles were fought at Engen, Mœskirchen, and Biberach in May -1800, and by the close of the summer Moreau had his headquarters at -Augsburg, and his advanced guard at Munich. The slowness of Moreau’s -progress dissatisfied the First Consul, as did the want of success -of the Archduke Charles dissatisfy the court of Vienna. Augereau was -sent with 20,000 men to the assistance of Moreau, who was ordered, in -spite of the severity of the winter, to continue his advance; and the -Archduke John was appointed to succeed his brother, and ordered to take -the offensive. The crowning event of this winter campaign was the great -victory of Hohenlinden, which was won by Moreau on the 3d of December -1800. The Austrians lost the whole of their baggage and artillery and -12,000 prisoners. - -[Sidenote: The Winter Campaign of 1800.] - -The First Consul from Paris ordered Moreau and Macdonald to advance -into the home districts of the House of Austria. Moreau accordingly -pushed along the Inn, the Salz, the Traun, and the Ens, driving the -disorganised and discouraged Austrians before him until he was within -twenty leagues of Vienna. Macdonald, at the same time, crossed the -Splügen Pass in spite of the avalanches, and penetrated into the -Tyrol, thus turning the Austrian forces on the Mincio and the Adige. -On arriving at Trent, Macdonald turned to the right and was joined by -Brune, who had occupied the territory of Venice, and the united French -army marched upon Vienna. Under these circumstances, with Italy lost, -and Vienna threatened from two quarters, the Emperor Francis sued for -peace, which was concluded at Lunéville on the 9th of February 1801. - -[Sidenote: The Treaty of Lunéville. Feb. 9, 1801.] - -The Treaty of Lunéville was more important from its destruction of the -old Holy Roman Empire than as the treaty of peace between France and -Austria. From the latter point of view the Emperor Francis once more, -as in the Treaty of Campo-Formio, recognised the Rhine as the limit -of France. In Italy the Cisalpine Republic was once more constituted -with the Adige as its frontier, Modena was to be compensated with the -Breisgau, and Venice was again left to the House of Austria. Tuscany -was taken from its Austrian Grand Duke, and erected into a kingdom of -Etruria in favour of the Prince of Parma, a relative of the King of -Spain, and Piedmont was annexed to France; but the King of the Two -Sicilies was allowed to retain his dominions, and the Pope was restored -to all his possessions except the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara. -The Cisalpine Republic was reorganised, and granted a Constitution on -the model of that of the Year VIII., in which Bonaparte was appointed -First Consul. The Ligurian Republic was maintained, with the alteration -that its Doge was nominated by France instead of being elected. The -result of the new arrangements in Northern Italy was that both France -and Austria had a foothold by their occupation of Piedmont and Venice, -with the Cisalpine Republic as a buffer between them. The principle -of secularising the German bishoprics was also again recognised in -the Treaty of Lunéville, and the actual manner in which it should be -carried out was referred to a special commission, whose conclusions -were not adopted till 1803. The principal result of the treaty in -Austria was the retirement of the minister Thugut, who was succeeded -as State Chancellor by Count Louis Cobenzl, the diplomatist, who had -negotiated the treaties both of Campo-Formio and of Lunéville. - -[Sidenote: Murder of the Emperor Paul. 23d March 1801.] - -The admiration of the Emperor Paul for Bonaparte increased daily, and -it was the Russian Czar, not the French First Consul, who proposed an -invasion of India across Asia, in order to strike a blow at the English -power in the East. Indeed, the English had taken the place of the -French in the mind of Paul, who, not satisfied with forming once again -the Neutral League of the North, determined to send his best troops -against them. The Emperor’s proposition was that one expedition should -consist of 35,000 Frenchmen and 35,000 Russians, under the command of -Masséna. This column was to go down the Danube, and then up the Don to -a point whence it would be but a short march to the Volga. It was then -to proceed down the Volga to Astrakhan, thence across the Caspian Sea -to Astrabad, and then to march by Herat and Kandahar to the Punjab. -Another column was to move by Khiva and Bokhara, and to invade India -by the north of Afghanistan. These grandiose plans were not entirely -accepted by Bonaparte, and the death of the Emperor prevented an -attempt being made to see if they were practicable. The madness of Paul -had steadily increased during his short reign. His nobility disapproved -heartily of his war policy, both against France and later against -England; his adoption of the Neutral League and its policy had done -much to ruin the wealthy nobles of Northern Russia by forbidding the -exportation of Russian commodities on English ships. To the discontent -of the nobility, of the politicians, and of the capitalists must be -added the fears of the courtiers. Even the heir to the throne, his -eldest son Alexander, perceived that the rule of the maniac could not -be borne much longer. It is hardly necessary to particularise all the -causes of his unpopularity; it is enough to say that his behaviour -was that of a madman. Certain courtiers, of whom the leaders were -Count Pahlen, a Livonian nobleman; Benningsen, a Hanoverian general; -Plato Zubov, the last favourite of the Empress Catherine, and his -brother Nicholas, and the Prince Jachvill, determined to put an end -to the tyranny of the Czar. In the night of the 23d of March 1801 -he was attacked by these conspirators and ordered to sign an act of -abdication; he refused; the lamp went out, and the Emperor was struck -down and strangled by an unknown hand among his assailants. - -[Sidenote: The Neutral League of the North. 1800–1.] - -When Bonaparte first entered office he recognised that England was -a more formidable, because a less approachable, enemy than Austria. -Knowing that the French navy was unable to meet the English, he hoped -to counterbalance the maritime preponderance of England by a league -against her commerce. Owing to the long period of war, nothing was to -be gained by solemn decrees forbidding the importation of goods into -France, it was necessary to strike through the neutral nations. The -three great commercial seats of English trade were the Levant, the -Baltic, and Portugal. The failure of the expedition to Egypt proved -that it was impossible to destroy the English trade in the Levant, and -Bonaparte therefore resolved to strike in the other two directions. -Acting mainly through the Emperor Paul, the Armed Neutrality of the -North, or the Neutral League of 1780, was re-established between -the Baltic powers of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The real -intention of Paul and of Bonaparte was to exclude English commerce -entirely from the Baltic; but for the second time the Baltic powers -nominally made themselves the guarantors of the rights of neutrals. -They protested against the right assumed by England to search neutral -ships, and to confiscate as contraband of war all the goods of -belligerent powers found in them, and also against the prohibition -against neutral ships trading between different enemies’ ports. The -Emperor Paul, like the Empress Catherine twenty years before, made -himself the patron of the Neutral League. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Copenhagen. 2d April 1801.] - -The English government naturally refused to accede to the demands of -the Neutral League, and when the Baltic was closed to them an English -fleet was ordered to force the blockade. This fleet was placed under -the command of Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as second in command. On -the 30th of March 1801 the fleet sailed down the Sound, in spite of the -Danish batteries at Elsinore, and on the 2d of April Copenhagen was -bombarded and a large part of the Danish fleet destroyed. This victory, -and still more the death of the Emperor Paul, caused the dissolution -of the Neutral League of the North, and Bonaparte had to adjourn for -some years his schemes for the annihilation of English commerce. - -[Sidenote: Spain and Portugal. 1800–1.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Badajoz.] - -In the Iberian peninsula the designs of Bonaparte against English trade -were more successful. Spain still remained the ally of France in spite -of the sufferings that alliance had brought upon her, but Portugal had -hitherto continued the faithful friend of England. Through Portugal -English goods entered Spain and the south of France, and Bonaparte -resolved to put an end to the neutrality of Portugal. For this purpose, -in the year 1800, he despatched his ablest brother, Lucien Bonaparte, -as ambassador to Madrid, with orders to negotiate with the Prince -Regent of Portugal. The terms offered were that the Portuguese ports -were to be closed to English trade, that special commercial advantages -were to be given to French merchants, that French Guiana was to -be extended to the river Amazon, and that a portion of Portuguese -territory was to be ceded to Spain until Trinidad and Minorca were -recovered by the latter power. The Prince Regent of Portugal rejected -these hard terms; Spain declared war in the beginning of 1801, and -22,000 veteran French soldiers, under the command of General Leclerc, -Bonaparte’s brother-in-law, were sent to the assistance of Spain. -The campaign was a very short one. The French troops never came into -action; but the Portuguese were twice defeated in pitched battles, and -lost some of their fortresses. The Prince Regent sued for peace, and a -treaty was signed between Spain and Portugal at Badajoz on the 6th of -June 1801. By this treaty the city and district of Olivenza were ceded -to Spain, and, by a subsequent arrangement, the limits of French Guiana -were extended to the river Amazon. Bonaparte was much disgusted with -these treaties, and especially with the continued refusal of Portugal -to close her ports to English commerce, and it was many months before -he consented to ratify them. England refused to recognise Portugal as -an enemy; but an English force occupied the island of Madeira, and the -East India Company’s troops garrisoned Goa. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in Egypt. 1800–1.] - -When Bonaparte left Egypt he was unable, owing to the stringency of -the blockade maintained by the English fleet, to take more than a few -companions with him. Kléber, who, as has been said, succeeded him -in the command of the French army, soon found himself confronted by -a powerful Turkish and Mameluke army. This army he defeated at the -battle of Heliopolis on the 20th of March 1800, after which success -Egypt again submitted to French rule. On the 14th of June 1800, the -very day on which his former comrade Desaix met a soldier’s death at -the battle of Marengo, Kléber was assassinated by a Muhammadan fanatic -in Cairo. Menou, the new French general in Egypt, was in every way -Kléber’s inferior, and concentrated the French troops in the two cities -of Cairo and Alexandria. Isolated entirely from the mother country, and -unable to receive reinforcements or ammunition, the English government -regarded the French in Egypt as an easy prey. On the 19th of March 1801 -a powerful English army disembarked at Aboukir, under the command of -Sir Ralph Abercromby, and defeated the French before Alexandria two -days later in a pitched battle, in which Abercromby was killed. Siege -was then laid to Alexandria and Cairo, and both cities surrendered to -the English general, Lord Hutchinson, before the arrival of a division -from India, which, under the command of Sir David Baird, had sailed up -the Red Sea, marched across the Soudan desert, and descended the Nile -to Cairo in boats. As a result of these operations, a convention was -signed between the French and English generals in Egypt on the 2d of -September 1801, by which the French garrisons evacuated all remaining -posts, and were conveyed to France in English ships. - -[Sidenote: The Peace of Amiens. 25th March 1802.] - -Though neither Bonaparte nor the leaders of English political opinion -believed it possible for a permanent peace to be agreed to in the -interests of their respective countries, the outcry of both the -English and the French people against the prolonged war made it -necessary for their rulers to conclude some kind of a truce. Pitt had -in 1801 gone out of office, and his successor Addington, afterwards -Lord Sidmouth, declared in favour of a peace policy. The treaty, which -is known as the Peace of Amiens, was really nothing more than a truce. -Only a very general agreement was come to, and many essential points -were left undecided. Both nations needed a rest, and neither government -looked upon the Peace of Amiens as affording a permanent solution of -their differences. Many loopholes were left, which were certain to -afford pretexts for renewing the war to both contracting powers, and of -these the most notable was the question of the possession of Malta. - -[Sidenote: The Reconstitution of Germany.] - -Far more important than the temporary Peace of Amiens was the -reconstitution of Germany, which was finally accepted by the Diet at -Ratisbon on the 25th of February 1803. The Holy Roman Empire which -had lasted so many centuries ceased to exist. The ancient division -of the Empire into circles was abolished, and the three colleges -which formed the Diet were profoundly affected. Instead of the eight -electors, three ecclesiastical and five lay, that formerly existed, -ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay, were created. The -Archbishops of Cologne and Trèves, whose states being on the left bank -of the Rhine were absorbed into France, lost their electoral dignity. -The Archbishop-Elector of Mayence was retained as Arch-Chancellor of -the Empire, and he received as his dominions the Bishopric of Ratisbon, -the Principality of Aschaffenburg, and the County of Wetzlar. The -nine lay electors were the five princes who had formerly enjoyed the -dignity, namely, the Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria, -and Hanover, and four new Electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke -of Würtemburg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Grand Duke -Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor, and former Grand Duke of Tuscany, -who was appointed Elector of Salzburg. By this new arrangement, and -by the abolition of two-thirds of the ecclesiastical electorate, the -majority in the College of Electors passed from the Catholics to the -Protestants. In the College of Princes there was the same result, for -by the secularisation of the Catholic bishoprics the majority passed to -the Protestant rulers. More sweeping still was the alteration in the -third College—that of the Free Cities. Instead of fifty-two constituent -members of this College only six were retained, and their maintenance -was due to the intervention of France. These six cities were Augsburg, -Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Nuremberg. By these -changes the constitution of the Empire was entirely altered; but still -more notable was the change in the position of the various princes in -Germany, for the tendency of the secularisation of the ecclesiastical -states was to diminish the number of ruling princes and to increase the -extent of their dominions. - -[Sidenote: The Secularisations in Germany.] - -The great war with France had shown the weakness of the Empire as an -organisation, and had also proved the advantages to the inhabitants -of the existence of large and powerful states. It was, therefore, -the already existing kingdoms which received the greatest addition -of territory under the new arrangements. Nominally, the secularised -bishoprics were intended to compensate those German princes whose -territories on the left bank of the Rhine had been ceded to France; -practically, the powerful states only were increased. Austria, whose -new possession of Venice in place of the Milanese had been reaffirmed -by the Treaty of Lunéville, only acquired in Germany the Bishoprics of -Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian princes received independent states, -namely, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand, who, as has been said, -was given the Archbishopric of Salzburg, with the title of Elector, -and the Duke of Modena, who received the Breisgau. Nevertheless, the -power of Austria was greatly weakened, for under the old arrangement -the ecclesiastical electors and the Catholic bishops had always been -partisans of Austria. Prussia was the country which profited the -most, though she had suffered the least in the war against France. In -exchange for part of the Duchy of Cleves, the Duchy of Guelders, and -the County of Moers, Prussia received the large and wealthy Bishoprics -of Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, and part of Münster, together with -a number of abbeys, of which the largest were Herford, Quedlinburg, -Elten, Essen, and Werden, and several free cities. Hanover received -the Bishopric of Osnabrück, to which the King of England, as Elector -of Hanover, had previously possessed the alternate nomination. Bavaria -was made into a powerful and concentrated state. In exchange for the -Palatinate, the Duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), the Principalities -of Juliers, Simmern and Lautern, she received the Bishoprics of -Würtzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg, Freisingen, and part of Passau, together -with a large number of abbeys and free cities. Baden received the -portion of the Bishoprics of Spires, Strasbourg, and Basle, situated -on the right bank of the Rhine, the Bishopric of Constance, the -cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim, and many abbeys and free cities. -Finally, the Duchy of Würtemburg, in exchange for the Principality -of Montbéliard, received abbeys and free towns, which increased its -population by a hundred thousand inhabitants. It is not necessary to -describe the various accessions granted to the Princes of Hesse-Cassel, -Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and the rest; but, it may be noted that the -Prince of Orange, the former Stadtholder of Holland, received the -Bishopric of Fulda. These changes remodelled Germany, and in the result -were most prejudicial to France; for instead of there existing a series -of buffers in the shape of small and weak states, France was brought -almost directly into contact with Prussia and Austria. - -[Sidenote: The Reconstitution of Switzerland.] - -At the same time that the ancient federal Holy Roman Empire was -reconstituted, the ancient federal Republic of Switzerland was likewise -reorganised. The reasons which had induced the Directory to intervene -in Swiss affairs still existed; the revolutionary party which opposed -the federal idea, and desired to form a united Switzerland, remained -in direct opposition to the supporters of the former government of the -cantons. It was essentially the question of government which divided -the two parties, and there was no suggestion of restoring the feudal -system, or the privileges of certain towns and certain cantons over -others. The breath of the French Revolution had swept away political -inequalities as completely in Switzerland as in France. Soon after the -Treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte withdrew the French troops from the new -Helvetic Republic. Civil war, as he expected, recommenced, and the -Helvetic Government was driven from Berne by the federalists. Bonaparte -therefore despatched an army to restore order, and summoned the -leading Swiss statesmen to Paris. To them he propounded a new scheme -of federal government, which was accepted, and the Act of Mediation, -which was promulgated on the 19th of February 1803, established the -new Constitution, and recognised the First Consul as Mediator. By -the Act of Mediation Switzerland was divided into nineteen cantons, -each of which had its own local government and special laws and -taxes. The thirteen old cantons were maintained; six of them were -democratic—Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug; -seven were oligarchical—Basle, Berne, Friburg, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, -Soleure, and Zürich. The six new cantons added by Bonaparte comprised -five territories which had formerly been subject; the Pays de Vaud -and Aargau were made independent of Berne; Thurgau was separated from -Schaffhausen, and Ticino from Uri and Unterwalden, and the canton of -Saint-Gall was formed out of certain districts formerly belonging to -Appenzell, Glarus, and Schwyz; finally, the Grisons, which had hitherto -been an independent mountain republic, was declared a canton of -Switzerland. Geneva had some years before been added to France as the -Department of the Leman, and the Valais was now declared independent—a -preliminary step to its ultimate annexation by France. The Federal -Diet was to consist of twenty-five deputies, two from the six largest -cantons, Aargau, Berne, the Grisons, Saint-Gall, the Pays de Vaud, -and Zurich, and one from each of the others. The Diet was to meet -every year in the capital of a different canton, and the Landamman -of that canton was for that year the President of the Confederation. -The Federal Act once more declared the entire abolition of feudalism, -and of all privileges of birth, etc., and forbade for the future all -internal customs duties. Bonaparte proclaimed that he would not allow -the interference of any other power in Switzerland, and took the title -of Mediator of the Confederation of Switzerland. - -[Sidenote: The Concordat. 1801–2.] - -It has already been stated that Bonaparte desired to stand well with -the Catholic Church, and had recognised the advantages of a state -religion. One of his most important measures during the Consulate was -to put an end to the schism which had lasted since the promulgation -of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, with the assistance -of the Pope, Pius VII. All the bishops elected under the Civil -Constitution of the Clergy, and most of those who had emigrated, sooner -than take the oath of allegiance to it, resigned, and the leaders of -both sections were nominated and instituted to different dioceses. -A new circumscription of sees was agreed to, and France was divided -into fifty bishoprics and ten archbishoprics. It was agreed by the -Concordat, which was signed between the Pope and the First Consul on -the 15th of July 1801, and solemnly proclaimed on the 18th of April -1802, after being sanctioned by the Legislative Body, that the First -Consul should nominate all bishops, and the Pope should institute. -The government of the Consulate recognised the Catholic, Apostolic -and Roman religion as that of the majority of the French people, and -ordained that its public worship should be carried on freely so long as -the police regulations were observed. All ecclesiastics were to swear -fidelity to the government, which promised to pay a suitable salary to -all bishops and curés. In return, the Pope promised that neither he -nor his successors would lay any claim to the ecclesiastical estates -which had been alienated, and that all such property should be held the -indisputable possession of its purchaser. - -[Sidenote: Internal Organisation.] - -[Sidenote: The Prefectures.] - -The recognition of the frontier of the Rhine by the Treaty of Lunéville -and the Diet of Ratisbon largely increased the territory of France. -The First Consul proceeded to organise the additions on the bases -laid down by the Constituent Assembly, Convention, and Directory. -Belgium was divided into nine departments. The Rhenish territories, -including the Palatinate, the Diocese of Trèves, etc., were divided -into four departments, of which the headquarters were Aix-la-Chapelle, -Coblentz, Mayence, and Trèves. Further south, the Department of the -Mont-Terrible, which had been formed by the Convention out of the -Republic of Mulhouse and the District of Porentruy, was merged into the -Department of the Haut-Rhin, and the Principality of Montbéliard was -united to the Department of the Doubs. The Republic of Geneva, as has -been said, formed the Department of the Leman. Savoy was constituted -as the Department of Mont-Blanc, and the County of Nice that of the -Alpes-Maritimes. These were the recognised limits of France in 1801, -and were defensible on geographical grounds; but, on the 11th of -September 1802, Bonaparte went further, and declared the union of -Piedmont with France. Instead of being amalgamated with the Cisalpine -Republic, Piedmont was divided into six departments, and the island -of Elba was detached from Tuscany and declared, like Corsica, to be a -French island. At the head of each department a Préfet was appointed, -to take the place of the national agents maintained by the Directory. -At the head of each subdivision, now called an arrondissement instead -of a district, was placed a Sous-Préfet, also nominated by the supreme -executive, and at the head of each commune was the Maire, who was also -nominated and not elected. Préfets, Sous-Préfets, and Maires were -assisted by nominated councils in administrative matters, and appeals -from their decisions lay to the Council of State. - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -Just as Bonaparte had built up the new Code of Law on the bases laid -by the Legislative Committee of the Convention, so, too, he made use -of the labours of its Committee of Public Instruction to establish -a scheme of national education. In every commune which could afford -the expense, he maintained the primary school established by the -Convention; but he feared to burden the National Treasury with the -expense of schools in the poorer communes, and preferred to leave their -establishment to local endeavour. In secondary education, he suppressed -the central schools of the Convention, and replaced them by twenty-nine -lycées, specially intended for the education of the middle classes. For -higher education, he founded ten schools of law and six of medicine; -he improved the Polytechnic School, and started a school of mechanics, -which became later the famous École des Arts et Métiers. The key-stone -of the whole educational system, the foundation of the University, was, -however, not laid till some years later. - -[Sidenote: Constitutional Changes.] - -The great administrative reforms of Bonaparte made him as popular among -all classes of the population as his victories had made him in the -army. Not only in France, but throughout Europe, he was looked upon as -the restorer of order and good government. This sentiment appeared most -vividly at the time when a plot against his life was discovered on the -24th of September 1800. This plot, which is known as the Conspiracy -of the Infernal Machine, is said to have been the work of the Jacobin -party; the explosion took place in the Rue Sainte-Nicaise, too late -to do him any harm, but it was used as a pretext to exile the most -vigorous republicans. So great was his popularity, that rumours were -already heard of making him monarch. The first step in this direction -was taken in 1802, when the Council of State proposed that the primary -assemblies should be summoned to decide whether Bonaparte should not be -made First Consul for life. In May 1802 this proposal was laid before -the people, and was carried by more than 3,500,000 votes to 8000. Some -slight changes were made at the same time, of which the most important -were that the First Consul was enabled to nominate his successor, that -the lists of candidates for public functions were replaced by electoral -colleges appointed for life, and that the Senate was given the right to -dissolve the Tribunate and the Legislative Body. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte’s Colonial Policy.] - -The First Consul clearly understood that the Peace of Amiens was not -likely to last, and that war would soon break out again with England. -He knew that England derived much of her influence from her navy and -her colonies; he therefore spared no efforts to restore the French -navy, and to make France once more a colonial power. His first essays -in this direction were to obtain Louisiana from Spain in exchange for -the kingdom of Etruria, formed in Italy for Prince Louis of Parma, and -the extension of the limits of French Guiana to the Amazon extorted -from Portugal. But his main project was to restore the French power -in the West Indies. Guadeloupe and Martinique and the French Antilles -had been restored to France by the Treaty of Amiens, and the First -Consul resolved to make them the starting-point for the reconquest of -San Domingo. This island had, as a result of the policy of Sonthonax -and Polverel, the proconsuls of the Convention, been entirely lost -to France; the planters and other whites had fled; and the revolted -slaves and mulattoes were masters of the island. Toussaint Louverture, -the leader of the negroes, refused to hold any communications with -Bonaparte, and the First Consul therefore, as soon as the Peace of -Amiens had opened the sea, sent an expedition of 20,000 men against -him, commanded by his brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The island -was reconquered by May 1802; but the victorious army was practically -destroyed by yellow fever. Toussaint Louverture was taken prisoner and -sent to France: but nevertheless, as soon as war with England again -broke out, and the arrival of reinforcements was prevented by English -cruisers, the negroes rose afresh under new leaders and destroyed the -remnant of the garrison. It may be added that the French Antilles were -recaptured by the English in 1809 and 1810. - -[Sidenote: Recommencement of the War between England and France. 18th -May 1803.] - -It has been said that the Treaty of Amiens was practically only a -truce, and that many points of interest to the two nations were left -undecided. Of these the most important regarded Malta. The English -ministry positively refused to surrender this island to the Knights -of Saint John, under the protectorate of the Emperor Alexander, -which would leave it at the mercy of France. Bonaparte demanded the -evacuation of Malta with much insistance as one of the conditions of -the Treaty of Amiens; but the English government in reply pointed to -the annexation of Elba, Parma and Piacenza, and Piedmont, and the -interference in Switzerland, as also being breaches of the treaty. The -First Consul was also very exasperated at the personal attacks made on -him in the irresponsible English press. He failed to understand that -by the English law the government could not prevent the publication -of libels against him, and regarded their refusal to punish the -libellers as personal insults to himself. The French ambassador in -London prosecuted Peltier, the chief libeller, before the Court of -King’s Bench. He was brilliantly defended by Sir J. Mackintosh, and -only ordered to pay a small fine. A public subscription was raised to -pay his fine and costs, and the First Consul regarded this as adding -a further insult to the injuries he had received. In truth, both -governments felt that war was inevitable, and in May 1803 the rupture -was complete. The English navy began to seize the French trading -vessels, and the First Consul, as a reprisal, arrested all the English -travellers he could find in France, and ordered Mortier to occupy -Hanover. - -[Sidenote: Position of Foreign Affairs.] - -The First Consul entered upon a fresh war with England with a light -heart, for he believed that she would be unable to obtain any allies. -Austria was exhausted by the terrible wars she had undergone, and the -State Chancellor, Cobenzl, held that she needed time to recuperate. -Prussia persisted in her attitude of strict neutrality; Haugwitz was -dismissed from the Secretaryship of State for Foreign Affairs as -being too French in his sympathies, after the occupation of Hanover, -and was succeeded by Hardenberg, the maker of the Treaty of Basle. -Spain was Bonaparte’s faithful and hopeful ally; and Russia, the -most formidable of the continental powers, inclined to his side. The -attitude of the Emperor Alexander at this period was of the greatest -importance. Educated by a Swiss publicist who sincerely loved France, -La Harpe, the Emperor of Russia was inclined to admire the results of -the French Revolution and the French people. His sentiments for the -person of Bonaparte were nearly as full of enthusiastic admiration as -those of his father, the Emperor Paul. He made the French ambassadors -at St. Petersburg, Duroc and Caulaincourt, his personal friends, and -wrote letters to Bonaparte expressing his feelings. But the Emperor’s -relatives, especially his mother, with his ministers and his courtiers, -were opposed to France and in favour of a close alliance with England, -or at the very least of the maintenance of strict neutrality. England -practically commanded the Russian trade, and war with England meant -the loss of the only market for Russian raw material, the consequent -impoverishment of the Russian people, and the ruin of the Russian -capitalists. Nevertheless the Emperor Alexander was an autocrat, and -Bonaparte counted upon his friendship even though he could not secure -his alliance. - -[Sidenote: The Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal.] - -On the outbreak of war the numerous French exiles in England offered -their services to the English Government. It is significant of the -change which had come over the state of affairs that, instead of -endeavouring to raise a counter-revolution, they proposed to attack the -person of the First Consul. The leaders of the new plot were Pichegru, -now a declared royalist and partisan of the Bourbons, and Georges -Cadoudal, the celebrated Chouan leader. Both had the audacity to go to -Paris and to enter into relations with General Moreau. Moreau, though -he resented the lofty position of Bonaparte and refused to serve him, -would be no party to an assassination, more especially an assassination -which would restore the Bourbons, and Cadoudal and Pichegru had to -act with the assistance of certain French noblemen and some former -Chouans. A plot was formed to murder the First Consul on the road -from Malmaison to Paris, but it was discovered by the French police, -and Bonaparte in terror ordered the gates of Paris to be closed as in -the most terrible days of the Revolution, and proclaimed the pain of -death against all who sheltered the conspirators. After some daring -adventures the leaders were seized; Georges Cadoudal was executed; -Pichegru was strangled in prison; and Moreau, who was condemned to two -years’ imprisonment, was allowed to go into exile in the United States. -The French noblemen implicated were treated with more leniency, and the -lives of their two chiefs, Armand de Polignac and Charles de Rivière, -were spared. - -[Sidenote: Execution of the Duc d’Enghien. 21st March 1804.] - -The discovery of this plot against his life, which was undoubtedly -fostered by the Bourbon princes, made the First Consul determined to -wreak his vengeance against that unfortunate family. Being unable to -seize the persons of the pretender, Louis XVIII., and his brother, the -Comte d’Artois, who resided in England, he carried off a young Bourbon -prince, the eldest son of the Prince de Condé, who was quite innocent -of the conspiracy of Pichegru. The Duc d’Enghien was at this time -living at Ettenheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was arrested there -by French soldiers, contrary to all international law, and taken to -Vincennes. He was at once tried by a military commission as an _émigré_ -who had borne arms against France, and was condemned to death. The -sentence was immediately carried out in spite of the demands of the -young prince for an interview with the First Consul. This execution was -a great political mistake. Bonaparte expected that it would terrify -the Bourbon princes, but it reacted to his own prejudice. The Court -of Saint-Petersburg went into mourning; the King of Prussia, who had -at last almost resolved to make an alliance with France, began to -negotiate with Russia; the royal family of Austria looked upon the -execution as a pendant to that of Marie Antoinette; and the English -Government made use of the horror caused by it to endeavour to form a -fresh coalition against France. - -[Sidenote: Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French. 18th May 1804.] - -[Sidenote: Francis II. becomes Emperor of Austria.] - -Directly after this tragedy, which proved that Bonaparte was -practically an absolute monarch, he decided to take upon himself the -rank of Emperor of the French. The Senate offered this title to the -First Consul at Saint-Cloud on the 18th of May 1804, and the people -ratified it by a majority of more than 3,500,000 votes. By the _senatus -consultum_ which made him Emperor the office was made hereditary to -his direct descendants. As he had no children he was given the power -to adopt, a power which it was undoubtedly expected would be used in -favour of his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais. A few months after the -Corsican soldier of fortune was declared Emperor of the French, the -last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II., resolved to rid himself of what -was now but an empty title. The new Constitution of the Holy Roman -Empire had destroyed the imperial authority by depriving it of the -votes of the ecclesiastical members in the Diet, and increasing or -consolidating the dominions of the principal German states. Francis -II. acknowledged the new order of things. On the 11th of August 1804, -he erected the Austrian dominions into an hereditary empire, and on -the 7th of December following, five days after the coronation of -Bonaparte as the Emperor Napoleon by the Pope at Paris, the last Holy -Roman Emperor proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria under the title of -Francis I. This then was the result of fifteen years of revolution, the -disappearance of the ancient figure-head of Europe, and the creation of -a new Empire founded on the power of the sword. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - 1804–1808 - - Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt. - - -[Sidenote: The Empire.] - -Napoleon’s elevation to the rank of Emperor of the French only -legalised in a more striking fashion the possession of power which he -had long held. It did not make his authority any greater, for he had -been practically the absolute monarch of France ever since 1799, but -it gave promise of permanency, and that was what the French people -most needed after the series of successive governments which had run -their course since 1789. It is a mistake to regard Napoleon as having -been made supreme ruler of France by the army alone; the legalisation -of his power was even more enthusiastically received by the peaceful -part of the population. The few ardent republicans who were left -had been terrified out of resistance by the wholesale deportation -of the principal Jacobins after the affair of the Infernal Machine. -The adherents of the Bourbons were equally discouraged by the severe -punishment dealt out to Pichegru and Georges Cadoudal. Every section -of both the military and civil communities was ready to hail Napoleon -as Emperor. But in the institution of the Empire he appealed to more -than men’s interests, he appealed to their imaginations. This he did -in two ways. He created a Court, with all the magnificent apparatus of -the great officers of the household, stately ceremonies and ancient -customs, which gave to the people of Paris the spectacle of royal pomp -which they had long regretted. On the other hand, he called to his -assistance the most powerful engine for influencing the imagination of -men, namely, religion. He determined to be consecrated with a ceremony -which should exceed in splendour all the coronation ceremonies of the -Bourbons. He summoned the Pope to France, and instead of being crowned -at Rheims by the Archbishop and Primate, he received his crown at -Paris from the hands of the Holy Father himself. At the very moment -of his coronation he showed a pride of bearing at least equal to that -of any of his predecessors upon the throne of France. After the Pope -had anointed him, girded the sword of empire about him, and given him -the sceptre, he prepared to place the crown upon the head of the new -Caesar. But Napoleon gently took the crown from the hands of Pius VII., -and after replacing it on the altar, raised it and crowned himself. The -presence of the Pope in Paris for this great ceremony following upon -the Concordat, caused Napoleon to be looked upon as the restorer of the -Catholic religion, and greatly strengthened his position. Not satisfied -with the crown of France, he accepted that of Italy also on the 20th -of May 1805, and proceeded to Milan, where he placed upon his head the -Iron Crown of the old Lombard Kings. He at once declared his intention -of not personally administering his Italian kingdom, and appointed his -step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, to be Viceroy of Italy. - -[Sidenote: The Imperial Court.] - -It has been said that Napoleon created a new Court, which was intended -to efface the recollection of the magnificence of the old Court of -Versailles. At the head of this Court he created a hierarchy of -Grand Dignitaries of the Empire, who were designed to form a Council -of Regency in case of necessity. The chief of them was the Grand -Elector, whose duty was to convoke the Senate, the Legislative Body, -and the Electoral Colleges,—this post was conferred on the Emperor’s -elder brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Next ranked the Arch-Chancellor of -the Empire, who was the chief of the judicial body,—this post was -conferred on Cambacérès, the former Second Consul. Third came the -Arch-Chancellor of State, whose business it was to receive foreign -ambassadors and ratify treaties—this post was conferred upon Eugène de -Beauharnais. Next came the Arch-Treasurer of the Empire, which post was -first filled by Le Brun, the former Third Consul, and the remaining -Grand Dignitaries were the Constable of the Empire, Louis Bonaparte, -the Grand Admiral, Marshal Murat, and the Grand Judge, Regnier. In -the same way as the Grand Dignitaries were at the head of the civil -administration of the Empire, Napoleon created Marshals of France to be -the representatives of the army. The first marshals were eighteen in -number, and included all the most famous generals of the revolutionary -period except Pichegru and Moreau, whose fate has been related. It was -indispensable for the rank of Marshal of France to have commanded an -army in the field, or at least a detached corps, and the office was -surrounded with so many privileges as to make it the object of ambition -to every colonel of a French regiment. The third hierarchy consisted of -the great officers of the Emperor’s household, who comprised a Grand -Marshal, Duroc; a Grand Almoner, his uncle, Joseph Fesch, whom he had -induced the Pope to make a cardinal; a Grand Chamberlain, Talleyrand; -a Grand Huntsman, Marshal Berthier; and a Grand Equerry, Caulaincourt; -and most of the first occupants of these offices were personal friends -and former comrades in arms of the Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Institutions of the Empire.] - -[Sidenote: Administrative System of the Empire.] - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Ministers.] - -The Senate remained under the Constitution of the Empire, as under -that of the Consulate, the most important and dignified political -body. It was extended by the addition of the Grand Dignitaries, of -the members of the Emperor’s family, and of those whom he specially -wished to reward; its seats were conferred for life; but it did little -but congratulate the Emperor on all his proceedings. The Tribunate -was reduced to fifty members, and the Legislative Body was allowed -to discuss laws, but only in closed committees. These institutions, -carefully devised though they were to maintain a semblance of free -discussion, were really reduced to impotence by the autocratic power -of the Emperor. The Council of State became more and more the real -key-stone of the administration of France. It was the one institution -of the Consulate which developed under the Empire. But it did not -develop collectively, but rather as a convenient administrative centre -and a court of appeal for administrators in every branch of the -government. Though the ministries were maintained, they were, as the -government became more bureaucratic in its form, and more concentrated -into the hand of Napoleon, infinitely subdivided, and the head of each -subdivision had a seat in the Council of State. By this arrangement -the Emperor was able to keep a check on his ministers, and to prevent -the administration from being thrown out of gear by the death or -retirement of a single man. Nevertheless, the ministries, as in all -highly organised states, were of vast importance, and Napoleon was -fortunate in the men he placed at their head. It is worthy of note that -three of the ministers who had served him during the Consulate remained -in office throughout the Empire, namely, Gaudin, afterwards created -Duke of Gaeta, Minister of Finance, who had several assistants in the -Council of State, of whom the most notable were Defermon, a former -deputy in the Constituent Assembly and the Convention, and Louis; -Decrès, also created a duke, Minister of the Marine; and Regnier, Duke -of Massa and Grand Judge, Minister of Justice. At the War Office, -the Emperor retained his chief of the staff, Marshal Berthier, until -1807, when he was succeeded by General Clarke, Duke of Feltre; and the -various sections were presided over by able administrators, of whom the -best were perhaps Lacuée de Cessac and Daru. At the Foreign Office, -Talleyrand remained supreme until after the Treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, -when he was replaced by Champagny, Duke of Cadore, who in his turn -gave way to Maret, Duke of Bassano. At the Ministry of the Interior a -change was made at the beginning of the Empire by the retirement of -Chaptal, who had held that post with singular distinction throughout -the Consulate, and the appointment of Champagny. But this department -was overshadowed by the existence of the Ministry of General Police. -Napoleon abolished this office in 1803, in the hope, doubtless, of -dispensing with the services of Fouché; but that astute minister was a -necessity, and in 1804 he was again appointed to his old office, which -he held until 1810. - -[Sidenote: The Camp at Boulogne.] - -In the midst of the _fêtes_ which accompanied his acceptance of the -Empire, Napoleon did not forget that he was engaged in war with -England. He declared that as he had crossed the Alps, so, too, he -could cross the Channel. For this purpose he collected a flotilla of -flat-bottomed boats at Boulogne, and encamped picked soldiers from -the Armies of the Rhine and of Italy upon the coast. But he felt that -it would be impossible for his flotilla to cross the Channel while -the English fleets were masters of the sea. He therefore determined -to unite the two French fleets, which were concentrated at Toulon and -Brest, and summoned his allies, the Dutch and the Spaniards, to prepare -fleets also. He kept 120,000 veterans continually at work practising -embarkation and disembarkation, and it was commonly believed, not -only in Europe, but in England itself, that the invasion would be -carried into effect. The army was equipped in a very thorough fashion, -and carefully organised as the Grand Army under the most experienced -generals in France, and it became one of the most efficient fighting -machines ever known in the history of the world, its discipline being -perfect and its enthusiasm unbounded. - -[Sidenote: Villeneuve’s Failure.] - -While making these preparations for the invasion of England, Napoleon -struck at other more accessible branches of the British power. In -1803 he occupied Hanover, the hereditary dominion of George III., in -spite of its being covered by the Prussian line of demarcation. In -1804 he sent a division into the kingdom of Naples, in order to close -the Neapolitan ports to English trade; and once more he threatened -Portugal. He also endeavoured to stir up a maritime foe to the English, -and sold to the United States the province of Louisiana, which he had -annexed from Spain, in the hope of obtaining their alliance. It was -only necessary for Napoleon to be master of the Channel for a few -hours, and to have a fine day, for his project of invading England to -succeed. According to his instructions, Admiral Villeneuve left Toulon -in March 1805, eluded Nelson, joined the Spanish fleet, and made his -way to the West Indies, where he expected to meet the fleet from Brest. -But the Brest fleet could not break through the blockade; Villeneuve -had to return, and, after an action with an English squadron under Sir -Robert Calder on 22nd July, he put into Ferrol. At Napoleon’s command, -the admiral set out for Brest on 11th August, but meeting with bad -weather, he lost heart and sailed away to Cadiz. Thus foiled in his -great scheme for bringing up an overpowering French fleet to cover his -invading army, Napoleon dared not leave the harbour of Boulogne. - -[Sidenote: Pitt’s New Coalition. 1805.] - -While threatened by the Boulogne flotilla, the English Government did -all in its power to raise enemies on the Continent against Napoleon. -Prussia, as usual, insisted on her neutrality; but Russia and Austria -were not unwilling to try their strength once more with France. The -Emperor Alexander of Russia was personally inclined to admire Napoleon, -but he was induced by his Court, his family, and his ministry, who -pointed out to him the importance of remaining on good terms with -England, to sign an alliance with Pitt; he was further profoundly -irritated by the violent scene which Napoleon, as First Consul, had had -with his ambassador, Count Morkov, and was horrified at the execution -of the Duc d’Enghien. The Emperor Francis of Austria was even more -willing to fight Napoleon. He had spent the period of peace since the -Treaty of Lunéville in reorganising his army, and believed that he -would be more successful now that he was freed from the incubus of his -position as Holy Roman Emperor. The State Chancellor, Cobenzl, was also -keenly in favour of war, for he was a sincere believer in the might of -Russia, and had imbibed a desire to please the Court of St. Petersburg, -at which he had long held the post of Austrian ambassador. To induce -these powerful allies to attack in force, Pitt, who was once more -Prime Minister, did not grudge the wealth of England. Large subsidies -were offered both to Russia and Austria, which supplied the means for -commencing the campaign; and strenuous efforts were made to win the -assistance of Prussia. - -[Sidenote: Outbreak of War.] - -In the second line, Pitt counted on the assistance of Sweden and -Naples. Napoleon’s promptitude in invading the latter country destroyed -any chance of its effecting a diversion in Italy, and Gustavus IV. -of Sweden, though, like his father, a violent enemy of France, was -unable to bring any active assistance, while Prussia remained neutral. -A pretext for war was found in the annexation of Lucca and Genoa -to the French Empire, and the Austrians and Russians resolved to -strike at once. General Mack, with a powerful Austrian force, invaded -Bavaria before the declaration of war, and, by the occupation of Ulm, -he believed he had secured the valley of the Danube. Meanwhile the -principal Austrian army of 120,000 men, under the Archduke Charles, -invaded Italy, and a powerful force of Russians kept close to the -Prussian frontier, in the hope of inducing Prussia to declare war -against France. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Surrender of Ulm. 20th Oct. 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Austerlitz. 2d Dec. 1805.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Trafalgar. 21st Oct. 1805.] - -Napoleon, despairing of success in his projected invasion of England, -resolved to turn promptly upon England’s principal ally, and directed -the Grand Army to break up from Boulogne and enter Germany. Mack -regarded it as certain that the French, as in the campaigns of Moreau, -would advance through the Black Forest. Napoleon encouraged his -illusion by showing him a few French troops in that quarter. Meanwhile, -the Grand Army advanced in two portions through Würtemburg and -Franconia, and, on reaching the Danube, after violating the Prussian -neutrality by marching through Anspach, cut off Mack’s retreat on -Vienna. The Austrian general made an effort to break through the French -army, but he was defeated by Ney at Elchingen, and surrendered on the -20th of October 1805 with 33,000 men. The capitulation of Ulm did more -than deprive Austria of a serviceable army,—it left open the road to -Vienna. Napoleon rapidly followed up his success. He marched past a -united Russian and Austrian army, which was quartered in Moravia, to -influence Prussia, occupied Vienna, crossed the Danube, and eventually -faced the army of the two emperors at Austerlitz. On the 2d of December -1805, the anniversary of his coronation, the Grand Army utterly -defeated the Austrians and Russians. The allies lost 15,000 men killed -and wounded, 20,000 prisoners, and 189 guns; and the Emperor Francis -found himself defenceless, for his only other army, that in Italy, -had been defeated at Caldiero by Eugène de Beauharnais and Masséna on -the 30th of October. While the rapid campaign of Austerlitz,—perhaps -the most glorious of Napoleon’s military career,—was taking place, he -lost the navy which he had prepared with so much care, and which had -been intended to cover his invasion of England. The French admiral, -Villeneuve, left Cadiz at the head of the united French and Spanish -fleet, consisting of thirty-three ships of the line and five frigates. -He had not gone far when he was met by Nelson at the head of the -English squadron of twenty-seven ships off Cape Trafalgar. The victory -of Trafalgar, which was won on the 21st of October, was as complete -as that of Austerlitz. The French and Spanish fleet was as entirely -destroyed as the Austrian and Russian army. The allies at Trafalgar -lost 7000 men in killed and wounded, and the English only 3000, among -whom, however, was Nelson himself. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Pressburg. 26th Dec. 1805.] - -The result of the battle of Austerlitz was the Treaty of Pressburg, -which was signed by Austria and France on the 26th of December 1805. -The Russians had only lost one army, and their territory had not been -invaded, so that they were still enabled to remain in arms. But Austria -was completely crushed. By the Treaty of Pressburg, Venice, Istria, and -Dalmatia were ceded to the Kingdom of Italy; but Napoleon kept the two -latter provinces under his direct rule, and gave the command of them to -General Marmont. The Tyrol and part of Swabia were ceded to Bavaria, -and the Elector of that State took the title of King. The same title -was conferred on the Duke of Würtemburg; the Duke of Baden became a -Grand Duke; many small German principalities were suppressed, and, on -12th of July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under the -protectorate of the French Emperor. England could not blame Austria -for making a separate treaty with France, for she herself had been -saved from invasion by the departure of the Grand Army from Boulogne, -not less than by the victory of Trafalgar. The news of Austerlitz was -followed on the 23d of January 1806 by the death of Pitt, and the new -English ministry of Fox and Grenville, now that the fear of invasion -was over, desired to enter into negotiations with Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Overthrow of Prussia.] - -The overthrow of Austria was followed by the overthrow of Prussia. -Frederick William III. had prided himself on the manner in which, in -spite of many temptations, he had maintained his attitude of strict -neutrality. Neither the offers of the Directory or of Napoleon, nor the -subsidies lavishly promised by England, had been able to disturb his -determination. The Prussian ministry proudly pointed to the fact that, -while the rest of Europe had been torn by disastrous wars, Prussia -had remained at peace ever since the Treaty of Basle in 1795. She had -profited by her peace policy as much as France and Austria by their war -policy. The rearrangement of Germany in 1803 had converted Prussia from -a collection of scattered states into a united kingdom. She had even, -up to the year 1803, maintained the freedom of the whole of the north -of Germany from the terrible French invaders by the observation of the -line of demarcation settled in 1795. The northern states of Germany -looked to Prussia as their leader, and since the destruction of the -Holy Roman Empire the Prussian policy had been completely victorious -over the Austrian. The maintenance of the line of demarcation was the -favourite scheme of the Prussian King, and as long as it was observed, -nothing short of invasion would have disturbed his neutrality. But the -occupation of Hanover in 1803, as one of the measures taken by Napoleon -against England, had infringed the line of demarcation, and from that -moment Frederick William III. inclined towards war. - -In this warlike attitude he was encouraged by Russia and England, -and still more by his own army. The Prussian army, the creation of -Frederick the Great, represented in more than an ordinary fashion the -Prussian nation. Relying on the recollections of the Seven Years’ -War, and confident in the proverbial discipline of their soldiers, -the Prussian generals believed that they would be able to defeat the -conquerors of the rest of Europe. With the utmost ardour the young -Prussian noblemen shouted for war; they resented the long peace, and -applauded the new attitude of the king. He was stimulated likewise by -the hatred for France, which was openly encouraged by his beautiful -Queen Louisa, and he met with opposition only from a few of his more -experienced ministers, and from the old Duke of Brunswick, who well -knew the excellence of the French troops. Undecided and hesitating, -Frederick William refused to join the coalition of Austria and -Russia in 1805, when his assistance would have been of the greatest -service. He signed, indeed, the Treaty of Potsdam on 3d November 1805, -undertaking to mediate, and to join the coalition with 180,000 men if -Napoleon refused the terms he offered. But the proposed intervention -came to nothing. Haugwitz, the Prussian minister, awaited at Napoleon’s -headquarters the result of the battle of Austerlitz, and on December -15 he signed the Treaty of Schönbrunn, by which Prussia ceded Cleves -to France and Anspach to Bavaria, and received provisional possession -of Hanover. Two months later, on February 15, Prussia was compelled by -a supplementary treaty to definitely accept Hanover from Napoleon, an -arrangement which was tantamount to declaring war with England. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Jena. Oct. 1806.] - -The long neutrality of Frederick William III. was thus broken, and, as -it soon appeared, in vain. For Napoleon almost immediately offered to -restore Hanover to England, with which country he was induced to enter -into negotiations for peace by the accession of Fox to office. At this -news Frederick William mobilised his troops and prepared for war with -France. In October 1806 he ordered the victor of Austerlitz to at once -retire behind the Rhine, and slowly concentrated his army in Thuringia -without waiting for the succour promised by the Russians. The Prussian -officers applauded their king’s conduct, for they desired to have the -glory of defeating the French entirely to themselves. On the 14th of -October 1806 the two corps of the Prussian army, which were advancing -along the river Saale, were defeated by Napoleon himself at Jena, and -by Marshal Davout at Auerstädt. The triumph was as complete as that of -Austerlitz; and on the 25th the French army entered Berlin. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Eylau.] - -It was now necessary for the Grand Army to attack the Russians. -Napoleon, after occupying nearly the whole of Prussia and laying siege -to Dantzic, entered Poland. He was received with an enthusiastic -welcome by the Poles, whose independence he hinted at restoring. Polish -troops had long served in his armies, and the sympathy of the French -people for the oppressed Poles was known throughout Poland. On the 15th -of December 1806 Napoleon occupied Warsaw and sent his army into winter -quarters upon the Russian frontier. The Russian general, Benningsen, -one of the murderers of the Emperor Paul, conceived the idea of -surprising part of the French army in its winter quarters. He drove -back the division of Bernadotte; but when he reached the neighbourhood -of Königsberg he found that Napoleon had received information of his -movement and had collected the bulk of his army. It was now Napoleon’s -turn to pursue the Russians. At the head of 60,000 men he found 80,000 -Russians entrenched in the village of Eylau, and attacked them during -a snowstorm on the 8th of February 1807. The battle was long disputed. -The Russians had to retire, but it was estimated that the loss of both -armies was about the same, namely, 35,000 men. This loss was far more -severe to the French than to the Russians, for the French soldiers -slain at Eylau were veterans of the Grand Army, and their place could -only be taken by raw conscripts. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Friedland. 14th June 1807.] - -The result of the battle of Eylau was to allow the French army to -remain undisturbed in its winter quarters. In the Russian camp, -meanwhile, important diplomatic negotiations had been going on. -Frederick William cemented his friendship with the Emperor Alexander, -and appointed the most able of his servants, Hardenberg, to be State -Chancellor in the place of Haugwitz. Prussia could indeed give but -little real help, for her army was destroyed, and her country almost -entirely in the hands of the French; but Alexander, nevertheless, -consented in April 1807 to sign the Treaty of Bartenstein with -Frederick William, by which they formed an offensive and defensive -alliance. But the hopes of the diplomatists, founded on the drawn -battle of Eylau, were soon to be frustrated by the military successes -of Napoleon. On the 24th of May 1807 Dantzic, which had withstood a -desperate siege, surrendered to General Lefebvre, and the besieging -troops were able to join the main army. The summer campaign of 1807 -was very short. Benningsen, accompanied by the Emperor Alexander in -person, advanced to attack the French army on the 14th of June. The -Russians foolishly crossed the Alle at Friedland, and with the river -at their back were completely defeated with a loss of 25,000 men. The -victory of Friedland was decisive; it did not destroy the Russian -Empire, as the victories of Austerlitz and Jena had destroyed the -Austrian Empire and the Prussian Kingdom; it did not extinguish the -fighting power of Russia; it did not diminish the _morale_ of the -Russian army, which proudly boasted that it had made a better stand -against the French than either the Austrians or the Prussians. It was -not positively necessary for the very existence of his monarchy that -the Emperor Alexander should treat with Napoleon, but his successive -defeats justified him before his Court and his ministers in demanding -peace. He could reply to their arguments in favour of an English -alliance for Russia that he had loyally tried to carry out the terms of -that alliance, but that under the circumstances he could maintain it no -longer. He had always wished for peace with France and the friendship -of Napoleon; he now considered himself free to follow his personal -inclinations. - -[Sidenote: Interview at Tilsit, 25th June 1807.] - -[Sidenote: Peace of Tilsit, 7th July 1807.] - -On the 25th of June 1807 the Emperor of the French and the Czar of -Russia had their famous interview at Tilsit on a raft moored in the -middle of the river Niemen. The personal magnetism of Napoleon and his -glory as a great conqueror powerfully impressed the vivid imagination -of Alexander, who had always felt the warmest admiration for him. -During this interview Napoleon spread before the eyes of the Emperor -of Russia his favourite conception of the re-establishment of the -old Empires of the East and of the West. They were to be faithful -allies. France was to be the supreme power over the Latin races and -in the centre of Europe; Russia was to represent the Greek Empire -and to expand into Asia. These grandiose views charmed the Emperor -Alexander, who believed that in adopting them he was following out -the policy of Peter the Great and of the Empress Catherine. The -one enemy to be feared and to be crushed according to Napoleon was -England. And Alexander, in spite of the loss which his subjects would -suffer, promised to enter into Napoleon’s policy for the exclusion of -England’s commerce from the Continent, and to accept the doctrine of -the Continental Blockade. But, at the same time, Alexander did not -dare to go so far as to promise to declare war against England, in -spite of the pressure put upon him by Napoleon. The first interview at -Tilsit was followed by others, and eventually by the Peace of Tilsit. -By this treaty Russia ceded the Ionian Islands and the mouths of the -river Cattaro in the south of Dalmatia, which had been occupied by the -Russians since 1799, to France. Napoleon, on his part, promised that he -would not restore the independence of Poland, and advised Alexander to -obtain compensation for the growth of the power of France from Sweden -and from Turkey. In pursuance of this policy a division of the French -army invaded Swedish Pomerania and took Stralsund, while the Russians -occupied Finland. Alexander was pressed by Napoleon to invade Turkey, -and was promised the assistance of France in obtaining the cession of -the Danubian principalities. The Emperor of Russia made loyal efforts -to obtain a favourable peace for his ally, the King of Prussia. But -Napoleon, though willing to humour Alexander, and desirous of making -Russia his firm ally, did not hesitate to show his contempt for -Frederick William III. He thought for a time of entirely extinguishing -Prussia, but on the representations of Alexander he contented himself -by taking possession of the Rhenish and Westphalian provinces of -Prussia, and forming them with the principality of Hesse-Cassel into -the kingdom of Westphalia. He also included Prussian Poland in his new -Grand Duchy of Warsaw. - -[Sidenote: The Continental Blockade.] - -The Peace of Tilsit left Napoleon face to face with only one enemy, and -that was England. The destruction of the French fleet at Trafalgar -and the diminution of the strength of the Grand Army from the losses -suffered at Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau, proved to the Emperor of the -French that he had better abandon his project of invading England. -But if he could not cross the Channel in force or meet the English -fleets at sea, he believed he could ruin England by excluding her -from the markets of the Continent. The English ministry, in pursuance -of its reading of international law, had closed all neutral seaborne -commerce from the mouth of the Elbe to the extremity of the French -coast. Napoleon answered this measure by his Berlin Decree, which was -issued in that city on the 21st of November 1806, and declared the -British Islands to be in a state of blockade. All English merchandise -was to be confiscated, as well as all ships which had touched either -at a British port or at a port in the British Colonies. He followed -up this measure by the Milan Decree of the 17th of December 1807, by -which he declared that any ship of any country which had touched at a -British port was liable to be seized and treated as prize. The entry -of Russia into the scheme of the Continental Blockade would, Napoleon -hoped, entirely ruin the English trade. But, in reality, it did nothing -of the sort. English commerce was as active and enterprising as ever, -and the risks it encountered in running the Continental Blockade only -increased the profits of the English merchants. The real sufferers were -the inhabitants of the Continent, who had to pay enhanced prices for -such articles of prime necessity as sugar. Napoleon’s expectation that -the carrying trade of the world would desert England and fall into the -hands of France and her allies was not fulfilled, because the English -war fleets remained complete masters of the sea, and effectually -prevented the rise of any other commercial power. The result of the -Continental Blockade was therefore the impoverishment of the allies -of France and their consequent hatred of Napoleon, while it increased -rather than diminished the commercial prosperity of England. - -[Sidenote: Bombardment of Copenhagen. Sept. 1807.] - -The English ministers were not afraid of Napoleon’s Continental -Blockade. But his occupation of Northern Germany made them fear that -his next step would be to seize the Danish fleet as the Directory had -in former days appropriated the Dutch fleet. Secret stipulations were -indeed made at Tilsit, by virtue of which the Danish fleet was to be -seized by France. Information of this scheme was given to the English -ministers, and a secret expedition was planned to prevent its being -carried into effect. Denmark was a neutral nation, and had given no -pretext for war to either France or England. But Denmark was a weak -nation and unable to defend itself. Under these circumstances the -English struck first. A powerful expedition anchored before Copenhagen -in September 1807; the city was bombarded; the small Danish army -was defeated at Kioge by a division under the command of Sir Arthur -Wellesley; and the whole Danish fleet was appropriated or destroyed by -England. By this rapid blow one of Napoleon’s most cherished schemes -came to nought, and his hope of getting another serviceable navy -effectually extinguished. - -[Sidenote: French Invasion of Portugal. 1807.] - -The two most faithful allies of England were the small kingdoms of -Portugal and Sweden. The Russians were left to deal with the latter; -Napoleon resolved to attack the former himself. The French Emperor, -like the Directory before him, insisted on regarding Portugal as an -outlying province of England, and, indeed, there was some ground for -this view, as owing to the Methuen Treaty the relations between the two -countries were very close. Yet the Prince Regent of Portugal in 1806 -had declined to declare himself the open ally of England, and insisted -on the maintenance of his position of neutrality. Nevertheless, -Napoleon resolved to ruin Portugal because the Prince Regent declined -to become a party to the Continental Blockade. He at first resolved to -act with Spain as he had done in 1801, and on the 29th of October 1807 -the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, by which it was agreed that -the combined armies of France and Spain should conquer Portugal. The -little kingdom was then to be divided into three parts; the northern -provinces were to be given to the King of Etruria in exchange for -his dominions in Italy which Napoleon desired to annex; the southern -districts were to be formed into an independent kingdom for Godoy, -the Prince of the Peace, the lover of the Queen of Spain, and the -most powerful man in that kingdom; and the central portion was to be -temporarily held by France. In pursuance of this secret treaty a French -army under General Junot marched rapidly across the Peninsula, and -on the news that it was close to Lisbon, the Prince Regent, with his -mother, the mad queen, Maria I., and his two sons sailed for Brazil -with an English squadron. Hardly had the Regent left the Tagus when -Junot entered Lisbon on the 20th of November 1807. The French were -favourably received in Portugal. The Portuguese resented the departure -of the Prince Regent; democratic principles had made considerable -progress; and no idea was entertained that there was a secret design to -dismember the kingdom. Junot had little difficulty in occupying almost -the whole of Portugal; he sent the picked troops of the Portuguese -army under the name of the Portuguese Legion to join the Grand Army -in Germany; and he promised a Constitution to the country. On the 1st -of February 1808 he issued a proclamation that the House of Braganza -had ceased to reign, and after the fortresses had been surrendered he -proceeded to administer Portugal as a conquered country. - -[Sidenote: Sweden.] - -Gustavus IV. of Sweden, who had taken the power into his own hands -from his uncle the Regent Duke of Sudermania and had married the -sister-in-law of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, in 1797, had -inherited the hatred for France, which had been, after 1789, one of -the guiding principles of his father, Gustavus III. He had been the -ready ally of England in all the coalitions against both the French -Directory and Napoleon, and after the rupture of the Peace of Amiens -in 1803, he became the key-stone of the Anglo-Russian alliance. In -1805 he promised to place himself at the head of an English, Russian, -and Swedish army which was to invade Hanover, and occupy Holland; but -he failed to set sail on the appointed day, and caused the expedition -to lead to no result. Nevertheless, he remained faithful to England, -and at the time of the Treaty of Tilsit refused to abandon the English -alliance. As has been already said, Swedish Pomerania was occupied by -a division of the Grand Army, under Marshal Brune, and Sweden never -recovered the ancient conquest of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1808, on the -obstinate refusal of the Swedish King to accede to the Continental -Blockade, the Emperor Alexander, as had been agreed at Tilsit, invaded -Finland. England was ready to assist Sweden, and a powerful army, under -Sir John Moore, was sent to Stockholm. At this crisis the King showed -signs of insanity. The English expedition retired, and at the beginning -of 1809 Gustavus IV. was dethroned. - -[Sidenote: The Rearrangement of Europe.] - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -After he had made himself Emperor, and still more after his victories -over Austria and Prussia and his alliance with Russia, Napoleon -began to assure his power on the Continent by establishing vassal -kings in the neighbourhood of France. Just as the French Directory -had surrounded the French Republic with smaller republics governed -after its own model, so Napoleon surrounded his frontiers with -subject kingdoms. The Batavian, the Cisalpine, and the Parthenopean -Republics were succeeded by the kingdoms of Holland and of Naples -and the vice-royalty of Italy. The form of the Batavian Republic -had altered with every change in the Constitution of France. From a -democratic Republic in the time of the Convention it had become a -Directory and a Consulate, and in 1805, after the French Empire had -been established, it received a new Constitution. By this arrangement -Count Schimmelpenninck, a distinguished Dutch statesman, was appointed -Grand Pensionary for life, but in June 1806 he was induced to resign, -and Louis Bonaparte, the favourite brother of the French Emperor, -was made King of Holland. The Dutch people had no objection to these -changes. The introduction of the French system of administration -consolidated the country from a group of federal states into a united -nation. Its trade prospered, though it lost its fleet at Camperdown -in 1797, and in the Texel in 1799, and it became more wealthy than -ever, in spite of the conquest of all its colonies by England, by the -close communication established with Paris and the abolition of the -vexatious transit-duties in Belgium. Louis Bonaparte, the first King of -Holland, showed himself a sagacious monarch. He caused the Civil Code -to be introduced into his dominions in the place of the old cumbrous -system of Dutch law. He encouraged literature and art, and he moved -the capital from the Hague to Amsterdam. But the introduction of the -Continental Blockade caused profound discontent. The Dutch merchants -were ruined by its rigorous application; riots took place in many -districts; and since Napoleon found the Continental Blockade was being -evaded he caused French troops to enter Holland and occupy the mouths -of the rivers. Louis Bonaparte protested against this conduct, and in -1810 he resigned the crown which his brother had given him. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Rome.] - -[Sidenote: Naples.] - -[Sidenote: Illyria.] - -It has been said that when Napoleon made himself Emperor he likewise -assumed the title of King of Italy, and that he did not undertake the -government, but conferred it upon his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, -as Viceroy. The original Kingdom of Italy only comprehended the -dominions of the Cisalpine Republic,—that is to say, Lombardy, the -Duchies of Modena and Parma, and the former Papal Legations of Bologna -and Ferrara. By the Treaty of Pressburg in 1806 the Kingdom of Italy -was increased by the addition of Venice and of the former Venetian -territories on the mainland. Genoa, Lucca, Piedmont, and Tuscany, -were, however, directly administered by France, and the city of Rome -and the Campagna was added to the French Empire in the year 1810. -In the south of the Italian peninsula Naples was erected into an -independent kingdom, which was intended to include the island of -Sicily. This kingdom was conferred upon the elder brother of Napoleon, -Joseph Bonaparte, on the 30th of March 1806. Joseph, like King Louis -of Holland, tried to act as a good king. He formed an able ministry, -consisting almost entirely of Neapolitans, and containing but two -Frenchmen,—Miot de Melito, Minister of War, and Saliceti, Minister -of Police. He introduced good laws, and made efforts to put down the -brigandage which ravaged the southern districts of his kingdom. The -island of Sicily meanwhile resisted all the attempts of the French. -It acknowledged the rule of Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, who -had retired to Palermo, and it was garrisoned by an English army. This -army kept Joseph in perpetual embarrassment. The English encouraged the -brigands of Calabria, and in the summer of 1806 they made a descent -upon the mainland, and on the 3d of July the English general, Sir John -Stuart, defeated the French general Reynier at Maida. This victory, -however, was followed by the capitulation of Gaeta on the 18th of -July, after which event the French army in Calabria was strengthened -to such an extent that the English were unable to do more than defend -Sicily. The internal administration of Joseph Bonaparte deserves every -praise; he abolished feudalism; he endeavoured to introduce honesty and -uprightness in the collection of the taxes; he declared the equality of -all citizens before the law; and by the suppression of many monasteries -he improved the finances of the country and largely increased the -number of peasant proprietors. Lastly, must be noticed the Illyrian -provinces of Dalmatia and Istria, which had been ceded by the Treaty -of Pressburg. They were directly administered by General Marmont, who -reported to Napoleon himself and not to the Viceroy of Italy. After -the Treaty of Tilsit they were augmented by the Ionian Islands, and -Napoleon kept a powerful army in this quarter to threaten the Turks. -It is probable, indeed, that he dreamt of restoring the independence of -Greece, and his Illyrian army was well placed for carrying out such a -project. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Reorganisation of Germany.] - -In his rearrangement of the states of Germany and of the balance -of power in Central Europe, Napoleon, like the Directory, followed -out the traditional policy of Richelieu and Mazarin. He held it to -be an advantage for France that there should be a number of small -German states between the Rhine and the hereditary dominions of -the House of Austria, but he considered that the very small size -of the states maintained by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 made -them inadequate buffers. He, therefore, enlarged the Western German -states and endeavoured to unite their interests with those of France. -The reconstitution of Germany after the Peace of Lunéville in 1803 -destroyed the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon worked on the same -lines, and his measures have had almost the same permanence as the -arrangements of 1803. The changes took place gradually in accordance -with the Treaties of Pressburg and of Tilsit, but their final results -may be considered as a whole. - -[Sidenote: Bavaria.] - -[Sidenote: Würtemberg.] - -[Sidenote: Baden.] - -[Sidenote: Westphalia.] - -[Sidenote: Grand Duchy of Berg.] - -[Sidenote: Saxony.] - -[Sidenote: Smaller States.] - -Maximilian Joseph, the Elector of Bavaria, had, by hereditary right, -united the Electorates of the Palatinate and of Bavaria with the Duchy -of Deux-Ponts. He had been educated at the Court of Versailles, but -nevertheless he approved of the doctrines of the French Revolution and -became one of the earliest allies of Napoleon. The arrangements after -the Treaty of Lunéville, which had deprived him of the Palatinate and -of the Duchy of Deux-Ponts, had given him a powerful and concentrated -state. By the Treaty of Pressburg he received in addition the Tyrol and -the cities of Nuremberg and Ratisbon with the title of King. In 1809 he -further received the Principality of Salzburg, which made his kingdom -one of the most powerful in Germany. Possessing the whole of the upper -valley of the Danube, and the valleys of its affluents, Bavaria formed -a strong frontier state against Austria, and to the north marched with -the kingdom of Saxony. King Maximilian Joseph felt that he owed his -power to the French Emperor, and to seal the friendship he gave his -daughter, the Princess Augusta, in marriage to Napoleon’s step-son, the -Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais. On the western frontier of Bavaria, in -order to check that state if it became too powerful, Napoleon erected -the smaller kingdom of Würtemberg. Frederick, Duke of Würtemberg, like -Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, had shown himself ready to recognise -the authority of the French Republic and of Napoleon. He had received -considerable additions to his territories with the title of Elector -in 1803, and after the Treaty of Pressburg he received the whole of -Austrian Suabia except the Breisgau and Ortenau with the title of -King. He, too, like the first King of Bavaria, entered into a personal -alliance with Napoleon, and gave his daughter, the Princess Catherine, -in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. The third south -German state which deserves notice is Baden, whose Duke, Charles -Frederick, was made an Elector in 1803, and in 1805 received the -title of Grand Duke with the greater part of Ortenau and the Breisgau -from Austrian Suabia. He, too, formed a family alliance with Napoleon -by the marriage of his heir to Stéphanie de Beauharnais, Napoleon’s -step-daughter. The kingdom of Westphalia, which was formed by Napoleon -for his brother Jerome after the Treaty of Tilsit, was an entirely new -creation, not an enlargement of a former German state like Bavaria -and Würtemberg. It consisted of the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the -Prussian territories on the left of the Elbe, including the bishoprics -of Paderborn and Hildesheim, the Old Mark of Brandenburg, etc., -the Duchy of Brunswick, a portion of Hanover, and other scattered -districts. It thus contained the greater part of the valleys of the -Ems, the Weser, and the Oder, but it did not reach the sea, and its -only important fortress was Magdeburg. Jerome, who was appointed its -first king, was not such a capable monarch as his brothers Joseph and -Louis, but he formed an able ministry, of which the most conspicuous -members were Siméon, the famous French jurist, as Minister of Justice, -and the historian, Johann Müller as Minister of Public Instruction. -The Westphalian people did not amalgamate so thoroughly as Napoleon -had expected; but this was not the fault of Jerome’s ministry, which -abolished feudalism, introduced the Civil Code, and regularised the -administration. The Grand Duchy of Berg, which he granted to his -brother-in-law Murat in 1806, was another creation of Napoleon. It -was formed out of the Duchy of Berg ceded by Bavaria, the County of -the Mark and the Bishopric of Münster, detached from Prussia, and of -the Duchy of Nassau. It formed a compact little state of a million -inhabitants, commanding part of the course of the Rhine, with its -capital at Düsseldorf. The key-stone of Napoleon’s policy in Eastern -Germany was Saxony. The Elector of that state had taken part with the -Prussians in the campaign of Jena, but Napoleon nevertheless calculated -that the ruler of Saxony, placed as he was between Prussia and Austria, -must naturally be an ally of France. He, therefore, in spite of his -behaviour in 1806, gave the Elector of Saxony the title of King and -the Circle of Lower Lusatia. After the Treaty of Tilsit Napoleon did -yet more for the King of Saxony, whom he created likewise Grand Duke -of Warsaw. Of the smaller states of Germany maintained by Napoleon, -the most important was Hesse-Darmstadt which separated the kingdom -of Westphalia from the Grand Duchy of Berg. As a faithful ally of -Napoleon, the Landgrave Louis X. received some accessions of territory -with the title of Grand Duke. The fourth Grand Duchy after Baden, -Berg, and Hesse-Darmstadt, was the Grand Duchy of Frankfort. This was -conferred upon the Archbishop, Charles de Dalberg. This prelate had -been coadjutor to the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in the time of the -Revolution. He had succeeded to the Archbishopric in 1802, and in -1803, on the reorganisation of Germany, was the only ecclesiastical -elector retained. He was then given the Bishopric of Ratisbon, and when -that was transferred to Bavaria, was granted instead the Principalities -of Fulda and Hanau and the territory of Aschaffenburg. The last Grand -Duchy was that of Würtzburg, which was conferred on the Archduke -Ferdinand, the former Grand Duke of Tuscany, in exchange for the -Principality of Salzburg given to Bavaria in 1809. These territorial -changes were supplemented by a wholesale destruction of the very small -states. The Knights of the Empire lost their sovereign rights; all the -petty dukes and princes whose territory was enclosed in the larger -states which have been mentioned, were also mediatised, that is to say, -while retaining their rights as lords and their titles, they lost their -immediate sovereignty and became a sort of privileged aristocracy. -This measure, which supplemented the arrangements of 1803, finally -destroyed the ancient system of Germany. The little courts with but few -exceptions disappeared, and Germany became a collection of powerful -states instead of a congeries of feudal principalities. - -[Sidenote: Confederation of the Rhine.] - -Napoleon endeavoured to concentrate the power of the German princes as -a whole by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, of which he -was officially recognised as Protector. The original Confederation of -the Rhine established in July 1805, consisted of only fifteen princes, -but after Tilsit it comprised thirty-two. The Arch-Chancellor of the -new confederation was Charles de Dalberg, the Grand Duke of Frankfort, -the only ecclesiastic who was acknowledged as a member. It comprised in -all the four kingdoms of Bavaria, Würtemberg, Westphalia, and Saxony, -the five grand duchies and twenty-three principalities. Its policy was -conducted by a Diet sitting at Frankfort composed of two colleges,—the -College of Kings and the College of Princes. The Confederation of -the Rhine, which was mainly situated between the Rhine and the Elbe, -contained a population of twenty million Germans, and was bound by -treaty to contribute a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers to the -armies of Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Poland.] - -[Sidenote: Grand Duchy of Warsaw.] - -In no respect did Napoleon prove how thoroughly his idea of -re-establishing the ancient Empires of the East and the West had taken -possession of his imagination than in his treatment of Poland. In order -to please the Emperor Alexander he did not insist upon re-establishing -Polish independence. Not only did he neither dare nor wish to deprive -Russia of her Polish provinces, but at Tilsit he even ceded to -Alexander the two Polish circles of Salkief and Tloczow. But though he -dared not establish a powerful independent Poland for fear of offending -Russia, he nevertheless formed, in 1807, a small Polish state under the -name of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. By this half measure he failed to -satisfy the Poles, who had looked to him to be the restorer of Polish -independence, and at the same time offended the Emperor Alexander, who -disliked the creation of a Polish state of any size or under any form. -The Grand Duchy of Warsaw eventually contained the whole of Prussian -and the greater part of Austrian Poland, and was placed under the rule -of the King of Saxony as Grand Duke of Warsaw, just as in former days -the Electors of Saxony had been Kings of Poland. In this half-and-half -policy with regard to Poland was to be found the greatest peril to the -newly-formed alliance between Alexander and Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Conference at Erfurt. Sept. 1808.] - -For more than a year the alliance between Russia and France, between -Alexander and Napoleon, remained the most important fact of European -polity; but causes of dissension soon arose. On the one hand, -Alexander resented the existence of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and -felt that his subjects had cause to grumble at the sufferings they -endured owing to the Continental Blockade; on the other, there were -not wanting signs that Napoleon’s power had reached its height, and -was now about to decline. The first symptoms of this decline were his -quarrel with the Pope and his intervention in the affairs of Spain. -The first blows struck at his military superiority were the defeat -of the French troops in Portugal by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimeiro -and the capitulation of General Dupont to the Spaniards. The Treaty -of Tilsit marked the true zenith of Napoleon’s power; but in spite of -the misfortunes he suffered in 1808, and his wanton intervention in -the affairs of Spain, he still seemed the greatest monarch in Europe. -Feeling his prestige somewhat affected, and fearing the effect upon the -mind of his imaginative ally, Napoleon, trusting in the magnetism of -his presence and his conversation, had recourse to a personal interview -with Alexander at Erfurt in September 1808. There the two masters of -Europe discussed the state of affairs; Napoleon soothed Alexander’s -discontent, and again promised him the Danubian provinces. But the -full confidence which had been established at Tilsit was not restored -at Erfurt. Alexander, in spite of his admiration for the person of -Napoleon, felt distrustful of his policy, and Napoleon deceived himself -when he thought he had regained his ascendency over the mind of the -Russian Emperor. The interviews between the two Emperors formed the -important political side of the Congress of Erfurt; but the features -which dazzled Europe were the grand _fêtes_, the pit full of kings -which listened to Talma, the great French actor, and the obsequiousness -of the high-born German princes to one who, a few years before but a -general of the French Republic, was now master of Europe. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - 1808–1812 - - Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of his Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812. - - -The Treaty of Tilsit marked the greatest height of Napoleon’s power in -Europe; at the Congress of Erfurt he seemed, indeed, to be as powerful -as at Tilsit; but during the interval he had experienced two serious -mishaps. The first of which was caused by the fact that England, which -had hitherto fought the French upon the sea, and had met with only -slight success in purely military expeditions, began in 1808 a serious -effort to break the tradition of the invincibility of the French army. - -The last important campaign upon the Continent in which an English -army had taken part, was in 1793–1795. Since that time many English -expeditions had been despatched to carry out isolated plans; some of -these expeditions had been crowned with success, such as Abercromby’s -and Hutchinson’s reconquest of Egypt in 1801, and Stuart’s brilliant -little campaign of Maida in 1806; others had been egregious failures, -notably the Duke of York’s campaign in Holland in 1799, and Lord -Cathcart’s landing in Hanover in 1805. Confident in their naval -superiority, the English Ministers, ever since 1795, had paid more -attention to the military occupation of islands than to the despatch -of armies to the mainland. Acting on this policy, the English had -conquered the French West Indies in 1793 and 1795, and again proceeded -in 1809 to reoccupy those which had been restored to France at the -Peace of Amiens. When Spain declared herself the ally of France, -England occupied her chief West Indian possession, the Island of -Trinidad; when the subjection of Holland to France became manifest, -England conquered the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, and again after the -Treaty of Amiens, in 1805. Nor did the English ministers neglect the -more distant possessions of her various enemies. Ceylon and Java were -taken from the Dutch in 1796 and 1807 respectively; the Mauritius was -conquered from France in 1809, and an unsuccessful attempt was made -to conquer Spanish South America, Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, in -1806. But England did not confine her policy of attacking islands to -distant seas; she also established herself firmly in the Mediterranean. -In 1797 Minorca was taken, in 1801 Malta, and eventually in 1805 an -English army, as has been said, garrisoned Sicily. The policy of -Fox was identical with that of Pitt, and favoured small, detached -expeditions; some of these were failures, like the expedition to South -America in 1806, and that to Egypt in 1808, but others attained their -end. Now, however, a new policy began to make way. Instead of isolated -expeditions and the occupation of islands which could be defended -by the English fleets, it was resolved once more, as in 1793, to -disembark a powerful English army on the Continent, and to try military -conclusions with the French. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Vimeiro, 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Convention of Cintra. 30th August 1803.] - -In order that England should act effectively on the Continent, it was -necessary that her army should have a friendly base of operations. -The failure of the expedition to Bergen in 1799, and of many similar -expeditions, proved that it was impossible to expect complete success -when the disembarking army had to fight from the moment of its landing, -and had to secure its communications with the sea. An opportunity was -afforded for obtaining such a base of operations as was necessary, by -an insurrection breaking out in Portugal against the French invaders. -It has been said that General Junot occupied the whole of Portugal -without much difficulty, except the northern and southern provinces, -which were held by Spanish armies. Junot partitioned out the country -into military governments under French generals, whose oppressive -behaviour exasperated the people. After the outbreak of the revolution -against the French in Spain, the Spanish forces in Portugal retired, -and Oporto at once declared itself independent of France, and elected a -Junta of Government, headed by the Bishop. Isolated risings took place -all over the country. Many French officers and soldiers were murdered, -and the insurgents were punished with the most rigorous cruelty. The -Junta of Oporto was, however, unable to make head against Junot, for -the best regular troops of the Portuguese army had been despatched -to join the Grand Army in Germany. The Junta had therefore to depend -upon undisciplined militia, and feeling the impossibility of combating -the French regular troops in the field, applied for help to England. -This gave the English ministers their opportunity. A force which had -been collected at Cork, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir -Arthur Wellesley, for an expedition to South America, was ordered -instead to proceed to Portugal. He was joined by some other troops, and -disembarked at the mouth of the Mondego river. He marched southwards -towards Lisbon, and defeated a French division at Roriça on the 17th of -August 1808. After receiving further reinforcements, he was attacked by -Junot at Vimeiro on the 21st of August, and won a decisive victory. -On the field of battle Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard, -and he in his turn by Sir Hew Dalrymple. Instead of following up the -victory, the latter general concluded the Convention of Cintra, by -which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal. From a military point of view -this was a poor sequel to the victory of Vimeiro; from a political -point of view it was a signal success. Portugal was freed from the -French as speedily as she had been conquered by them, and England -thus secured a friendly base of operations. The three generals were -all recalled, and Sir John Moore took command of the English army. A -Council of Regency was established, and an English officer, General -Beresford, was sent to organise a Portuguese army, partly under the -command of English officers, and wholly paid by the English Government. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution in Spain, 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain. 6th June 1808.] - -[Sidenote: Capitulation of Baylen. 20th July 1808.] - -The loss of Portugal was the first serious reverse which Napoleon had -met with from a trained and disciplined army. But at the same time -he was made to feel the difficulty of overcoming even an unorganised -national rising, with the very best of troops. It has been mentioned -that the King of Spain and the Queen’s favourite, Godoy, were partners -to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which arranged for the dismemberment -of Portugal. Spain had been the consistent ally of France ever since -the Treaty of Basle in 1795, and in the cause of France had lost not -only the islands of Minorca and Trinidad, but two gallant fleets in -the naval battles of Cape St. Vincent and Trafalgar. Nevertheless, -Napoleon deliberately determined to dethrone his faithful ally Charles -IV. It is said that after the expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples, -Godoy had made overtures for joining the coalition against France, but -after the victory of Jena the Court of Madrid, if it had ever thought -of opposing the will of Napoleon, became more obsequious than ever. -Court intrigues gave the French Emperor the opportunity he desired -for interfering with the affairs of Spain. The heir to the throne, -Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias, hated his mother’s lover, Godoy, -and for sharing in a plot against the favourite was thrown into prison. -He appealed for help to Napoleon, and Charles IV., his father, on his -side also appealed to the French emperor. Napoleon began to move his -troops across the Pyrenees, and a French army under the command of -Murat approached Madrid. The King of Spain was rumoured to be about to -follow the example of the Prince Regent of Portugal, and to leave the -country. The population of Madrid rose in insurrection and maltreated -Godoy, who fell into their hands. Charles IV. then abdicated in favour -of his son, who proceeded to France to obtain the support of Napoleon. -Charles IV. and his Queen followed Ferdinand, and when the Spanish -royal family was assembled at Bayonne, Charles IV. was induced to cede -the crown of Spain to Napoleon, who conferred it on his brother Joseph -Bonaparte, King of Naples, on the 6th of June 1808. But it was one -thing to proclaim Joseph King of Spain and the Indies; it was another -to place him in power. The patriotism of the Spanish people was stirred -to its depths, and the Spaniards declined to accept a new monarch -supported by French troops. In every quarter insurrections broke out -and juntos were formed. Appeals were made to England for help, and -money, arms, ammunition and English officers were disembarked at all -the chief ports of Spain. In the month of May the mob of Madrid drove -out the French soldiers of Murat, who had to retire behind the Ebro. -But mobs and undisciplined militia can never stand against regular -troops. Marshal Bessières defeated the best Spanish army under the -command of General Cuesta at Medina del Rio Seco on the 14th of July -1808, and on the 20th of July Joseph entered Madrid. Before his arrival -at his new capital, flying columns had been sent in every direction, -and one of these on its way to Cadiz met with a serious disaster. This -was the famous Capitulation of Baylen. The French division of General -Dupont was surrounded at that place and forced to capitulate. By the -terms of the Capitulation, Dupont engaged that not only the soldiers -under his immediate command, but also that two fresh divisions which -were coming up should surrender. The Capitulation of Baylen deprived -Napoleon of the services of 18,000 men, but the loss of prestige could -not be estimated by numbers. The Spanish insurgents were greatly -encouraged and rose in every quarter; a guerilla warfare was begun, -which was in the end more fatal to the French army than regular -defeats, and Napoleon had for the first time to fight a nation in arms. -This was an exact reversal of the situation of affairs in the wars of -the French Revolution; at that time it was the French nation in arms -which defeated the disciplined soldiers of the Continental monarchs; -now it was the Spanish nation in arms which counteracted the schemes of -Napoleon. It is almost impossible to estimate the losses experienced -by the French during the war in the Iberian Peninsula; the defeats -inflicted on them by the Anglo-Portuguese army accounted for but a -small portion of this loss; it was the harassing duty of maintaining -garrisons in every town and almost in every posting-house which -exhausted the French army. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon in Spain.] - -It need hardly be said that Napoleon was far from expecting such -disasters as the Capitulation of Baylen and the Convention of Cintra. -He had been so accustomed to victory that he could not understand -the change in his affairs. He looked upon these two events as having -only a temporary importance, and proceeded to the Congress at Erfurt -with a light heart. Though checked in Spain, he was none the less the -master in Germany, and the monarchs of Central Europe did not know -that he had reached his zenith and was about to decline. The Emperor -Alexander alone seems to have had some suspicion of the truth, for -he entered into fresh relations with England by means of the strong -English party at his Court, which was headed by the Empress-mother. As -soon as the Congress of Erfurt was over, Napoleon proceeded to Spain -in person, accompanied by his Guard and his most experienced troops, -and surrounded by his most famous generals. After the Capitulation -of Baylen, Joseph Bonaparte had left Madrid, and with the bulk of -the French army had retreated behind the Ebro. He was there joined -by Napoleon, who had under his command no less than 135,000 men. He -rapidly advanced upon Madrid; Marshal Soult defeated the Spanish Army -of the Centre at Burgos on the 10th of November; Marshal Victor the -Spanish Army of the Left at Espinosa on the 11th of November; and -Marshal Lannes the Army of the Right at Tudela on the 3d of November. -In spite of the snow, the Emperor in person forced the pass of the -Somo Sierra, and on the 13th of December received the capitulation -of Madrid. The victories of his lieutenants and his own rapid and -successful advance on the capital, convinced Napoleon that the -difficulties of the Spanish war had been exaggerated, and the result -of this impression was that he neglected in after years to strengthen -his armies in Spain sufficiently, and attributed all failures to the -incompetence of his generals, instead of to the obstinate tenacity of -his opponents. - -[Sidenote: Sir John Moore’s advance.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Corunna. Jan. 16, 1809.] - -After occupying Madrid, the Emperor next determined to turn his -strength against the English forces in the Peninsula. Sir John Moore, -who was in command of the English army in Portugal, could not believe -that the Spanish armies were too weak to face the French; but when he -heard that Napoleon was at Madrid, he resolved to make a diversion -in order to prevent him from conquering Andalusia, and to give time -for the Junta of Seville to organise the defence of that province. -Leaving a small division to protect Portugal under Sir John Cradock, -Moore, with the bulk of the English army, invaded north-west Spain and -advanced as far as Salamanca and Toro. Napoleon, as Moore had expected, -put off the invasion of Andalusia and turned against the English. Moore -having thus effected his purpose, then fell back into Galicia. In the -midst of most terrible weather he effected one of the most famous -retreats in history, turning occasionally to face his pursuers, and -fighting several brilliant rear-guard actions. Napoleon conducted the -pursuit in person for some time, but hearing that Austria was preparing -for war, he handed over the command to Soult and suddenly returned -to France. Soult did not come up with the English army until it had -reached Corunna, and was waiting there to embark. A battle was fought -to protect the embarkation of the English, in which Sir John Moore was -killed, and Soult, whose losses during the rapid pursuit had been very -great, turned southwards to occupy Oporto. - -[Sidenote: Austria. 1805–1809.] - -The Treaty of Pressburg had made a very painful impression, not only -upon the mind of Francis I. of Austria, but also on the Austrian -people. The indignation aroused by the cession of Dalmatia and the loss -of Venice, which had been given to the House of Austria as compensation -for the Milanese, had exasperated the Austrian people. But, on the -other hand, the Hungarians were inclined, like the Poles, to look to -Napoleon as the possible restorer of their national independence. The -policy of the Emperor Francis had been to treat the Hungarians, whom -he had placed under the rule of his brother, the Archduke Joseph, -as semi-independent, and to make as little change as possible in -the Hungarian Constitution. He regarded his German provinces as the -really important portion of his dominions, and gave them his undivided -attention. After the Treaty of Pressburg, the Emperor dismissed his -chancellor and prime minister Cobenzl, and replaced him by Count -Philip Stadion. The new Chancellor was a thorough German, though -descended from a Grisons family, and the main point of his policy was -to rouse the patriotism of the Germans as a nationality against the -French. In fact, from 1805 until the outbreak of war in 1809, Stadion -endeavoured to arouse the national spirit which afterwards made -Germany successful in the final war of liberation against Napoleon. -He circulated patriotic literature, and formulated the idea of German -unity, which he saw must take the place of the extinct notion of the -Holy Roman Empire. He was successful in rousing the German popular -feeling to the greatest height in the German provinces of Austria; but -the time was not yet ripe for the expression of a similar sentiment -throughout the whole of Germany. The weight of the Continental Blockade -was not experienced in its fullest form until after 1809. And the -patriotic feeling which was to have so full a development could not -be stirred up in a moment. But in the German territories of Austria -Stadion was completely successful. The Emperor Francis himself was a -thorough German, and during the progress which he made through his -states in 1808, with his beautiful second wife, the Empress Ludovica, -a princess of Modena, roused the utmost enthusiasm. Ever since the -Peace of Pressburg the Archduke Charles, as Commander-in-Chief, had -been organising the military power of Austria; regiments of volunteers -were formed in Vienna and all the large cities; and the militia for -the first time were disciplined and trained for offensive war, and -not maintained merely for the preservation of the peace. While the -smaller princes of Germany were obsequiously doing honour to Napoleon -at Erfurt, the Emperor of Austria was preparing for war. The successful -insurrection of the Spaniards, and the Capitulation of Baylen, -encouraged Stadion in his belief that if a national feeling could be -roused against the French domination, it would be as successful in -Germany as in Spain. The English Ministry encouraged the attitude of -the Austrian Emperor, and promised not only large subsidies if an -Austrian army would take the field, but also that a powerful diversion -should be made in the Netherlands by an English army. Napoleon heard of -this disposition of Austria in 1808, but at first paid very little heed -to it. During his winter campaign in the Peninsula, however, it became -obvious that the Austrians were in a hurry to come to conclusions with -him, and he therefore hastened back from Spain to make his preparations -for this new war, instead of pursuing the English to Corunna. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Wagram. 1809.] - -From both the political and the military point of view, Napoleon was -justified in believing in 1809 that he had little to fear from the -intervention of Austria. The South German princes, like the Kings of -Bavaria and Würtemberg, had been too much favoured by him to desire to -oppose him, and willingly sent their contingents to serve in his ranks. -From the population of his new creation, the kingdom of Westphalia, he -looked for assistance, not opposition, and what remained of Prussia was -occupied by French armies. The Emperor Alexander of Russia, still under -the glamour of the interview at Erfurt, and the grand promises for the -division of the world repeated to him there, showed no inclination to -assist Austria. Indeed, the feeling of opposition between Austria and -Russia, which had shown itself in 1799 and 1800, had been augmented -by the unfortunate campaign of Austerlitz. Each ally blamed the other -for that disaster; the Austrian officers openly declared that they -hated a Russian more than a Frenchman, and the Russians reciprocated -this feeling. Austria’s only ally, therefore, was England. From a -military point of view, the Austrian army had not yet been sufficiently -reorganised, in spite of the efforts of Stadion and the Archduke -Charles, to make a successful resistance to the French; but, as the -event of the campaign showed, it was able to make a better stand than -it had ever made before. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Aspern. 21st and 22nd May 1809.] - -In April 1809 the Archduke Charles, amid the greatest enthusiasm of -the Austrian people, issued a manifesto to the German race, and at the -head of 170,000 men advanced into Bavaria. At the same time another -army, under the Archduke John, invaded Italy. At that moment Napoleon -had only two _corps d’armée_ in Southern Germany, one under the command -of Marshal Davout at Ratisbon, and the other under Marshal Masséna -at Augsburg. The Archduke Charles intended to get between the two -marshals and defeat them separately. But Napoleon arrived in person, -with some of the finest troops he had been employing in Spain, before -the Archduke could complete his operations. On the 20th of April he -defeated the Austrian left at Abensberg, and on the 22d he routed -the Austrian right under the Archduke in person at Eckmühl. In the -five days’ fighting, which included these battles, the Austrians lost -7000 men in killed and wounded, and 23,000 prisoners. In the result it -was the Austrians, not the French, who were cut in two, and Napoleon -rapidly followed the Austrian left to Vienna. The capital surrendered -on the 12th of May, and Napoleon then resolved to cross the Danube and -attack the main body of the Austrian army under the Archduke Charles. -He attempted to pass the river at the point where is situated midway -the island of Lobau. When the greater part of his army had reached the -island he pushed across to the other bank, and on the 21st and 22nd of -May stormed the villages of Aspern and Essling. But on the evening of -the second fight he found it necessary to withdraw into the island of -Lobau, for his bridges of boats which connected the island with the -right bank of the river had been swept away, and his ammunition had -fallen short. The Tyrolese, too, had risen under Hofer, and Napoleon’s -position was most critical. Nevertheless he determined not to retreat; -the island of Lobau became an entrenched camp; stronger bridges were -thrown from it to the right bank of the Danube; and reinforcements were -summoned from different quarters. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Wagram. 6th July 1809.] - -The most important of these reinforcements were supplied by the French -Army of Italy, which reached Napoleon in the island of Lobau on the -2nd of July. This army was commanded by the Viceroy of Italy, Eugène -de Beauharnais, whose military adviser and principal subordinate was -General Macdonald. The Viceroy had, before Macdonald reached him, been -checked at Sacilio by the Archduke John, but after Macdonald’s arrival -he pushed on rapidly. A decisive victory, which prevented the Archduke -John from pursuing, was won over the Hungarians at Raab on the 14th of -June, after which Eugène de Beauharnais was enabled safely to join the -Emperor in the island of Lobau. With his army thus increased, Napoleon -crossed to the left bank of the Danube on the morning of the 5th of -July, at the head of 180,000 men, many of whom were Westphalians, -Bavarians, and Italians. On the following day he completely defeated -the Archduke Charles at the battle of Wagram, at which the Austrians -lost more than 30,000 men. Though defeated, the Austrian army was not -disgraced, and Napoleon himself said, when blamed for not following -up his victory, ‘If I had had my veterans of Austerlitz I should have -carried out a manœuvre which, with my present troops, I dare not -execute.’ Had the Archduke John come up in time and placed himself -under his brother’s command, the battle might have had a different -result, and as it was, the Austrian Emperor need not have considered -himself forced to conclude peace. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Vienna. 14th October 1809.] - -The Emperor Francis, however, did not dare to risk the further event -of war, and on the 14th of October 1809 he signed the Treaty of -Vienna. By this treaty Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, Istria, and -a large part of Croatia to Napoleon, who added them to Dalmatia, -which he had acquired at the Treaty of Pressburg, and made out of -them the Government of the Illyrian Provinces. Francis also abandoned -the Tyrolese, and ceded the greater part of Salzburg to the King of -Bavaria, whose army, along with the Saxon contingent under Bernadotte, -had played a great part in winning the victory of Wagram. He had to -give up the whole of Western Galicia; the greater part of this province -was added to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but certain districts were -ceded to the Emperor Alexander, who in reply to the demands of Napoleon -had despatched an army to act in that quarter against the Austrians. -This action had still further incensed the Emperor of Austria against -the Emperor of Russia, while it did not satisfy Napoleon, who -complained that the Russians had not acted with sufficient vigour, -and had been waiting to hear the result of the main campaign in -the neighbourhood of Vienna. In Austria itself the most important -result of the war was the retirement of Count Philip Stadion, who was -succeeded as Chancellor of State by Count Metternich. - -[Sidenote: The Peninsular War. 1809.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Talavera. 28th July 1809.] - -During the campaign of Wagram the French armies left in Spain had been -continuing their operations. Before the actual outbreak of war with -Austria, Saragossa had been captured on the 21st of February 1809, -after an obstinate siege, which proved to the French the mettle of -their new opponents. The most important operations had been carried -out in three quarters of the Peninsula. In Arragon and Catalonia, -General Gouvion-Saint-Cyr acted with considerable skill in a campaign -of which the main feature was the reduction of small fortresses, and -his successor, General Suchet, steadily pursued the same policy. Both -of these generals invariably defeated any Spanish army which met them -in the field. From Madrid King Joseph had acted in two different -directions. Marshal Moncey took Valencia; Marshal Victor defeated the -Spanish army of the South, which was under the command of Cuesta, at -Medellin; and General Sebastiani approached the frontiers of Andalusia. -But in Portugal the French had again to meet the English, who had in -the previous year defeated them at Vimeiro, and drawn them away to -Corunna. After the departure of Sir John Moore’s army, Marshal Soult -had invaded Portugal from the north and occupied Oporto. There is no -doubt that if he had acted boldly he might have captured Lisbon, which -was only guarded by a feeble division under Sir John Cradock. But Soult -wasted his time in intriguing, it is said, for the throne of Portugal, -until the English Ministry had time to reinforce Cradock, and to -send Sir Arthur Wellesley to command the army in Portugal. Wellesley -speedily dislodged Soult from Oporto, and drove his army in disorder -back into Galicia. He then, following the example of Moore, invaded -Spain, in the expectation of saving Andalusia. He met the French -army in Spain, under the command of Marshal Victor, at Talavera. He -repulsed the French attack on his position on the 28th of July, and -had he been efficiently assisted by the Spaniards under Cuesta he might -have won a great victory. As it was, his success prevented the French -from invading Portugal, but it was not sufficiently decisive to save -Andalusia. The French army was reorganised; the Spaniards were routed -at the battle of Ocana, on the 12th of November, and the whole of the -fertile province of Andalusia, with the exception of Gibraltar and -Cadiz, fell into the hands of the French. - -[Sidenote: Expedition to Walcheren. 1809.] - -Unfortunately the English Ministers failed to understand immediately -the greatness of the opportunity given to them by Napoleon’s behaviour -in the Peninsula, and instead of concentrating all their military -strength for the support of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who was made Viscount -Wellington for his victory of Talavera, they despatched one of the -finest armies that ever left England on the Walcheren Expedition. They -had promised to assist the Emperor of Austria by making a diversion in -the north of Europe. The object of this diversion was Antwerp, on which -city Napoleon was spending vast sums of money in the hope of making it -the commercial rival of London. This expedition, which was placed under -the command of the Earl of Chatham, the elder brother of the younger -Pitt, never reached Antwerp. It was landed in the island of Walcheren, -and took Flushing in August 1809. It met no French army worthy of -the name, but was destroyed as a fighting machine by the pestilences -and fevers of the unhealthy island in which it was quartered. The -expedition took place too late to be of any service to Austria, for the -English army did not disembark until a month after the battle of Wagram -had been fought, and in the want of energy with which it was conducted, -it may almost be classed with the disastrous expedition to Bergen in -1799. At sea, however, the English fleet maintained its pre-eminence. -In this year Guadeloupe, Martinique, and the Mauritius were conquered, -and an attempt was made to burn the French fleet in the Basque Roads by -Lord Cochrane, which might have been completely successful if he had -not been thwarted by the admiral in command, Lord Gambier. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon and the Pope.] - -It has been said that one of the measures by which Napoleon secured his -ascendency over the minds of the French people was the conclusion of -the Concordat by which the schism which had divided the French Church -was closed. He had at the commencement of his tenure of power treated -the new Pope, Pius VII., with much respect, and the Pope had in return -made the Emperor’s uncle, Fesch, a Cardinal, and had come to Paris to -crown him Emperor. But troubles soon arose between Napoleon and Pius -VII. The Emperor proclaimed himself the successor of Charlemagne, and -wished to restrict the Pope entirely to spiritual affairs. The terms -of the Concordat were not thoroughly carried out. The Pope would not -give Napoleon the supreme authority over the French bishops, which -he desired, and His Holiness looked on the transformation of the -priesthood in France from an independent body into salaried officials -with extreme disfavour. On the Pope’s return to Rome in 1805, he -requested that the French troops should evacuate the whole of the -former States of the Church. Napoleon did not comply with this request, -and not satisfied with ordaining the cession of the Legations of -Bologna and Ferrara to the Kingdom of Italy, he occupied Ancona, and -confiscated the principalities of Ponte Corvo and Benevento, which -he bestowed on Bernadotte and Talleyrand. The declaration of the -Continental Blockade increased the dissatisfaction of the Pope, who -declined to obey it, as he also did a further order in 1806 to expel -from Rome all English, Russian, Swedish, and Sardinian subjects. After -some months of perpetual bickering Napoleon directed General Miollis -to occupy Rome on the 2nd of February 1808. Pius VII., in the cause -of peace, dismissed Cardinal Consalvi, his Secretary of State, but he -could not satisfy the demands of the Emperor, and on the 17th of May -1809 the States of the Church in Italy were declared united to the -French Empire, and Rome was officially decreed to be the Second City of -that Empire. Exasperated by this open insult, Pius VII. excommunicated -the French Emperor. Napoleon, who was at that time in his camp in the -island of Lobau, ordered that the Pope should be removed from Rome. -He was arrested by General Radet on the 6th of July, the day of the -victory of Wagram, and forcibly removed to Savona, near Genoa, where -he was kept as a State prisoner. Pius VII. in his exile consistently -protested against the usurpations of Napoleon, and refused from this -time to give canonical institution to the bishops nominated by the -Emperor. In 1811 Napoleon attempted to put ecclesiastical affairs in -France on a new footing, and summoned a national council or synod of -bishops to meet at Paris. But the Pope refused to negotiate with the -synod, and he was accordingly removed to Fontainebleau in 1812. While -there Napoleon pretended that His Holiness agreed to a new and revised -Concordat which was promulgated as a law on the 13th of February -1813. Pius VII. always denied that he had given his consent to the -new arrangement, which would have deprived him of his most valued -prerogatives, and stated that he had always regarded himself as a -prisoner since his removal from Rome. By his conduct towards the Pope -Napoleon committed a great mistake. He lost the support of the faithful -body of Catholics in France whom he had conciliated in 1801, and he -gave a pretext for his enemies to declare him the enemy of religion. -The Caesarism which had infected his imagination after his great -victories in 1806 and 1807 appeared in his behaviour towards Pius VII. -as well as in his intervention with the affairs of Spain. - -[Sidenote: The Revolution in Sweden. 1809.] - -The year 1809, which witnessed the campaign of Wagram and the overthrow -of the Pope, was also signalised by a revolution in Sweden, which was -followed by very important results. It has been said that Gustavus -IV. remained faithful to the coalition against Napoleon even after -the Peace of Tilsit. By that peace it was arranged that the Emperor -of Russia should annex Finland. This was carried out in 1808, after a -very weak opposition on the part of the Swedes, and in the same year -Swedish Pomerania was occupied by the French. In spite of these losses -the King of Sweden declared war against Denmark, and then quarrelled -with the general of the English army sent to his assistance. For this -conduct, which seemed conclusive as to the loss of sanity by the King, -the Swedes resolved to dethrone him. At the commencement of 1809 the -Baron Adlersparre, the commander-in-chief of the army sent to invade -Norway, concluded a secret armistice with the Danes, and marched on -Stockholm. On the 13th of March 1809 the King was arrested, and on -the 29th he was forced to sign a deed of abdication. This act was -ratified by the States of Sweden on the 10th of May, and the King’s -uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was elected King as Charles XIII. A -new constitution of an aristocratic type, restoring the power of the -Swedish nobles which had been severely curtailed by Gustavus III., -was promulgated, and on the 18th of January 1810 the States elected -as heir to the throne, since the new King had no sons, the Prince -Christian of Holstein-Augustenberg. This young prince died in May -of the same year, and the question then arose as to his successor. -There was no possible prince of the reigning family, and the king was -old and in bad health. It happened that in 1806 the Swedish officers -employed in Hanover had made the acquaintance of Marshal Bernadotte, -who commanded in that quarter, and it was suggested that he should be -elected as Prince Royal. This choice was dictated by a hope that it -would please the French Emperor, for Bernadotte was not only one of -his most distinguished marshals, but was connected with his family, -for both he and Joseph Bonaparte had married daughters of Monsieur -Clary, a tradesman of Marseilles. Bernadotte received the consent of -Napoleon; on the 19th of October 1810 he abjured Catholicism; and on -the 5th of November he was elected Prince Royal by the Swedish Diet. He -was at once charged with the direction of foreign affairs and with the -reorganisation of the Swedish army, and he played an important part in -the overthrow of the French Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Turkey.] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Bucharest. 28th May 1812.] - -With Sweden and Poland, Turkey had for a long time been considered -as the third barrier against the advance of Russia. Bonaparte, like -earlier French statesmen, had held this view, but after the Peace -of Tilsit he expressed himself as ready and willing to abandon all -three countries to the encroachments of Russia. The loss of Finland -and Pomerania had reduced Sweden to a minor state; the Grand Duchy -of Warsaw was a poor substitute for the Kingdom of Poland, and it is -now necessary to observe the effects upon Turkey of her abandonment -by France. The Sultan, Selim III., had been thrown into a close -alliance with England by Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt when he was -but a general of the French Republic, and still more by his daring -march into Syria. When he became First Consul, Napoleon endeavoured to -destroy the unfavourable opinion entertained of him at Constantinople, -and sent thither as his ambassador one of the ablest of the French -diplomatists, General Sebastiani, who managed to ingratiate himself -with the Porte. The English monopoly of the commerce of the Levant -was displeasing to the Porte, and Pitt failed to induce the Sultan to -enter into the coalition against France in 1805. In 1807 an English -fleet under Sir John Duckworth was sent to compel the Sultan to give -up his friendship with the French. After forcing the passage of the -Dardanelles, it had to retire without achieving its object, and -suffered great loss while sailing down the Straits. This behaviour of -England threw the Turks entirely on the side of France. French officers -were employed to reorganise the Turkish army, and a regular militia was -established. Sultan Selim was a monarch in advance of his times, and -endeavoured to introduce certain reforms, but he roused against him -both the Muhammadan Ulemas and the Janissaries. The former disliked his -civil reforms, the latter his establishment of the militia. Selim was -dethroned, and replaced by Mustapha IV. on the 21st of July 1807. But -the reign of Mustapha was but of short duration. The Pasha of Rustchuk -marched to Constantinople, and when he found that the Sultan Selim -had been assassinated, he dethroned Mustapha and placed his nephew, -Mahmoud II., on the throne of Turkey. The first event of the new reign -was a violent battle between the Janissaries and the freshly organised -militia in the streets of Constantinople, after which Mahmoud executed -his own brother and most of his relations, and established himself -firmly on the throne. The new Sultan, who was a man of extraordinary -vigour, was at once attacked by the Russians, as had been arranged by -the Treaty of Tilsit. Napoleon had pointed out to Alexander that he -could easily annex the Danubian principalities, and he hoped that the -Turks would afford enough occupation to the Russian army to prevent -it from interfering with his projects in Europe. The Russian attack -on Turkey was followed by a treaty of peace between England and the -Porte, in spite of the efforts of the French diplomatists; but the -English, as usual, considered it enough to send subsidies in money -without supplying troops. In 1809 the Turks were defeated at Braila and -Silistria, and by the close of 1810 the Russian army under the command -of Prince Bagration occupied the whole of Wallachia, Moldavia, and -Bessarabia. In 1811 the Russian general Kutuzov crossed the Danube, -and occupied both Silistria and Shumla, and the way was opened to -Constantinople. But, fortunately for the existence of the Turkish -power, Napoleon in 1812 was preparing to invade Russia; the efforts of -the French diplomatists to induce the Sultan Mahmoud to continue the -war were fruitless; the Porte said that it had too often proved the -worthlessness of the French offers of help, and on the 28th of May 1812 -a treaty of peace was signed between Russia and Turkey at Bucharest. By -this treaty the Turks ceded part of Bessarabia and Moldavia to Russia, -and acknowledged the Principality of Servia, but its chief importance -in European history is that it relieved the Emperor Alexander from an -important enemy at a moment of crisis, and allowed him to turn all his -strength against the French invaders. - -[Sidenote: The Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s Empire. 1809–1812.] - -The period from 1809 to 1812, that is, from the Peace of Vienna to -the invasion of Russia, witnessed the greatest extension of the -dominions of Napoleon. But this enormous increase of territory did not -strengthen France; new difficulties appeared with each fresh advance; -and although in 1811 the boundaries of the French power were far more -distended than they were in 1808, the Empire was not so strong. By his -annexations Napoleon abandoned the principle which he had formerly -set before himself. He had declared that the natural boundaries of -France were the Rhine and the Alps, and every annexation beyond those -natural limits was a distinct act of defiance to Europe. From 1806 -to 1808 his policy was to surround France with a belt of subject -kingdoms; by his annexations from 1809 to 1812 his borders touched -those of the great Continental powers. In the north Napoleon accepted -the abdication of his brother Louis, who had protested against the -measures taken for maintaining the Continental Blockade, and on the -9th of July 1810 he declared Holland an integral part of the Empire. -Holland was divided into eight departments, and lost its existence as -an independent nation. Then in pursuance of the Continental Blockade, -Napoleon, on the 13th of December 1810, annexed the districts in North -Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser. By -this step he united the whole coast-line from Friesland to Denmark, -and hoped to close entirely the English trade with North Germany. -The districts annexed were the Duchy of Oldenburg, the sea-coast of -Hanover, the territories of the Princes of Salm and Aremberg, and -the free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. These districts were -divided into four departments, the Ems-Supérieur, the Lippe, the -Bouches-du-Weser, and the Bouches-de-l’Elbe, with their capitals at -Osnabrück, Münster, Bremen, and Hamburg. These annexations showed -what persistent opposition Napoleon met in Germany to the Continental -Blockade, when his own brother Louis could not maintain it in Holland, -and he was afraid to trust the coast-line of Westphalia to his -brother Jerome. Turning further south, Napoleon in 1810 annexed the -Valais, which he had declared independent of Switzerland, under the -name of the Department of the Simplon. In Italy the most flagrant -breach of the former French system was committed. When the kingdom -of Italy was formed in 1805, the Emperor had kept Piedmont under his -own control in order to command both sides of the Alps, and in 1810 -he preferred to amalgamate the Ligurian Republic, Parma, the Kingdom -of Etruria, and the States of the Church with his directly-governed -departments in Piedmont, rather than to unite them to the Kingdom of -Italy. These districts were divided into nine departments, and it is -curious to notice such cities as Rome, Genoa, Parma, Florence, Siena, -and Leghorn as capitals of French departments. In all, the French -Empire at its greatest consisted of one hundred and thirty departments -directly administered from Paris, excluding from consideration the -Illyrian provinces and the Ionian Islands, which were not treated as -departments. Mention has already been made of the subject kingdoms, -and it is only to be noted here that Murat, the famous cavalry general -and brother-in-law of Napoleon, was made King of Naples when Joseph -Bonaparte was promoted to the throne of Spain, and that the infant -son of Louis Bonaparte, the former King of Holland, received Murat’s -Grand Duchy of Berg. Napoleon also made his favourite sister, Elisa, -Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca and Piombino; his second -sister, Pauline, Duchess of Guastalla; and his Chief of the Staff and -most trusted subordinate, Marshal Berthier, independent Prince of -Neufchâtel. - -[Sidenote: Internal Organisation of the Empire.] - -The administration of this vast empire was purely bureaucratic. -Napoleon endeavoured to establish a hierarchy of civil officials, who -should be as completely under his direct control as the officers of -his army. He ruled the Empire like a general. Implicit obedience to -orders was the only means to promotion in his civil, as well as in his -military, organisation. He delighted in insisting on this comparison. -The Legion of Honour was not a military order, but was conferred with -equal freedom on civil officials, and in all matters the Emperor’s -will could be consulted and was supreme. No subjects were too minute -for his supervision. He reorganised the ancient theatrical company of -the Comédie Française with the same attention to detail as a matter -of State administration. The development of a bureaucracy dependent -on absolutism was in curious contrast to the Constitution of 1791, -and the theories which had prevailed at the beginning of the French -Revolution. Freedom of petition, freedom of the press, individual -liberty, representative institutions, and all the liberties won by the -French people were entirely abolished. The censorship of the press was -re-established, and carried out with more rigour than it had been even -under the Bourbon monarchy. All manuscripts had to be revised before -being sent to the printer, and perfectly innocent allusions, which -might be interpreted into applying condemnation of the existing order -of things, brought upon their authors immediate imprisonment, and the -destruction of their books. Individual liberty ceased to exist; for the -Emperor exiled and imprisoned at his will. The secret police, which -had been organised by Fouché, exercised a minute inquisition into the -most private affairs, and a crowd of spies kept the Emperor informed -of every current of opinion in Paris and throughout the Empire. The -arbitrariness of his government was greatly due to his sensitiveness to -public opinion, and it is narrated that during his enforced residence -in the island of Lobau he was far more exercised in mind by his spies’ -reports of the conversations on the subject in the Faubourg St. Germain -than by the movements of the Austrians. Representative institutions -had been practically superseded by the Constitution of the Year VIII., -but the last vestige of a power which could criticise the Emperor’s -will, the Tribunate, was suppressed in 1808. The Senate became merely a -dignified body to congratulate the Emperor on his victories, and the -Legislative Body registered, without murmuring, all his decrees. It -is a curious fact that, in 1811, Napoleon imitated the most arbitrary -measure of the Committee of Public Safety, and, when the price of corn -rose, he fixed a maximum price for its sale in Paris. - -[Sidenote: The Hereditary Principle.] - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Aristocracy.] - -Next to his own absolutism Napoleon believed in the principle of -heredity. He showed this primarily in the treatment of his own family. -He not only brought his mother to Paris, and under the title of Madame -Mère endowed her with a large income, but bestowed on his brothers -and sisters, in spite of the marked incapacity of many of them, the -most important posts. The kingdoms given to Joseph, Louis, and Jerome -Bonaparte were accompanied by the intimation that they were to rule -subject to his will, and he exercised an autocratic power over all the -members of his family. For instance, he insisted that Jerome should -divorce his wife, an American lady named Patterson, because his own -consent had not been obtained, and forced him to marry a Würtemberg -princess. His own lack of children greatly grieved him, and he made -various arrangements as to his successor. At one time it was thought -he would nominate his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais; at another he -selected an infant son of his brother Louis to be his heir, and had him -baptized by the Pope just after his own coronation in 1805; and when -the infant died, he issued a decree, arranging the succession among -his brothers and their children in order of seniority. He created his -brothers, sisters, and step-children Princes of the Empire, and gave -them honorary seats in the Senate and Council of State, and he insisted -upon his wife Josephine surrounding herself with all the pomp of a -monarchical Court. The desire of creating a Court which should outshine -that of the Bourbons caused Napoleon to bid high for the support of -the ancient noble families of France. By bestowing large incomes, -rapid promotion, and repeated favours he was able to get men and women -bearing the oldest names in France to accept office as chamberlains -and lords and ladies-in-waiting, while many scions of former sovereign -families in Germany and the Netherlands did not hesitate to request -admission to such Court offices. But he did not trust solely to the old -nobility to form the splendour of his Court; he always suspected that -they were sneering at him, and endeavoured to counterbalance them by -creating a new nobility. This new nobility was formed entirely from the -men who did him good service, whether in military or civil departments. -By the side of his marshals, most of whom he created dukes, he ranked -his chief diplomatists and ministers, and the example was followed into -inferior ranks. Good service as the _préfet_ of a department led to a -barony as certainly as gallant service in the field at the head of a -regiment, and former members of the Convention, who, as Deputies on -Mission, had exerted unlimited authority, were content to accept the -title of Chevalier of the Empire, the lowest in his new peerage. The -peerage of the Empire was strictly hereditary, though in many instances -the Emperor assumed the right exercised by former kings of granting -permission to adopt an heir. But the new peerage was purely ornamental; -it conferred no political power whatever. Napoleon never dreamt of -creating a House of Lords; he only conceived the notion of balancing -the influence of the old aristocracy by the creation of one dependent -entirely on himself. In his desire to maintain the dignity of his new -nobles, he granted many of them large incomes and vast estates; his -marshals were encouraged to live in the most extravagant fashion by -the repeated payment of their debts; and the grant of a peerage was in -many cases accompanied by what he called a _dotation_, which supplied -an income sufficient to maintain the dignity. Some of these ‘dotations’ -were of princely magnificence. They were largely situated in Italy -and Poland, and were intended to make the new possessors independent -barons, like the famous paladins of Charlemagne. Among the most -important of these grants, after the Principality of Neufchâtel, which -was a semi-independent sovereignty, may be noted the Principalities -of Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Parma, Piacenza, and Gaeta, which were -conferred upon Talleyrand, Bernadotte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, and Gaudin. -By these means Napoleon hoped to keep his subordinates faithful to him, -while their influence on opinion would rival that exercised by the old -nobility. - -[Sidenote: Internal Reforms. Law.] - -[Sidenote: Finance.] - -[Sidenote: Education.] - -But while wielding an undisputed absolutism, Napoleon looked on his -position in a spirit similar to that of the benevolent despots of the -eighteenth century. Though he would do nothing by the people, he was -ready to do much for them. In the path of legal reform he followed up -the measure taken by the formation of the Civil Code. He had plenty of -learned jurists to carry out his instructions, and the Civil Code was -succeeded, in 1806, by the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, in -1808 by the Commercial Code, and finally by the Penal Code. These great -codes form an epoch in the legal history of Europe, and have earned -for Napoleon the title of the modern Justinian, though they were only -carried out by his directions, and based on the principles laid down, -and the work done, by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention. -Their great advantage was their simplicity and universality, which -checked the tedious delays inherent in all systems of common or -uncodified law. In jurisdiction Napoleon also followed the example of -the statesmen of the Revolution. He encouraged rapidity in procedure -and in the execution of judgments, and he greatly extended the powers -of the commercial tribunals in which practical men of business had -a voice. In financial matters, as in his legal reforms, Napoleon’s -great aim was to attain simplicity, and he reduced the loss in the -passage of taxes from the taxpayer to the Treasury to a minimum. His -creation of the Bank of France has been mentioned, and by its side -he established the Caisse d’Amortissement, which consisted of the -pecuniary guarantees of all the collectors of the taxes merged into one -fund. These guarantees formed an important sum of money for immediate -use as well as a valuable security. Napoleon further managed to pay off -that portion of the debt left to him by the Republic, which represented -the sums due for the suppression of the old courts of judicature, -etc. With regard to the ordinary debt, he preserved Cambon’s great -creation of the Grand Livre, which enabled every creditor to become -a fund-holder, while the Emperor knew the exact extent of the public -debt. The Emperor’s first steps towards the formation of a national -system of education have been described, but it was not until after -the campaign of Wagram that the system was completed. In 1806 he had -organised the Imperial University, but it did not take its final form -until 1811. This university was not a university in the English sense. -It consisted of the chief professors and teachers, and was intended -to include all the professors and teachers throughout France. It was -placed under the superintendence of a Grand Master, a celebrated man -of letters, Fontanes, and its duty was to superintend the whole course -of higher education. In the Emperor’s own words, he wished to create -a teaching profession organised like the judicial or the military -profession, of which all the professors scattered throughout the -country might feel themselves an integral part. In 1808 he granted the -university an income of 400,000 livres, in addition to the fees, etc., -and declared in favour of the irremovability of its members. To recruit -this new teaching profession, Napoleon established the Normal School of -Paris for the instruction of those who desired to become professors or -teachers. - -[Sidenote: Extension of the system to Germany.] - -These great reforms in law, in finance, and in education outlasted -Napoleon’s reconstitution of Europe. Their effect spread far beyond the -actual limits of France. As a direct result of the French Revolution -serfdom disappeared in Switzerland, in Belgium, and in Northern Italy. -Napoleon carried on the work further to the east. In the Kingdom of -Westphalia, and in all the states of Germany which he created or -enlarged, serfdom was entirely abolished. The feudal system was -suppressed wherever the influence of the French extended. Maximilian -Joseph, King of Bavaria, and his minister, Montgelas, carried out the -principles of the French Revolution by abolishing the privileges of -the nobility and the clergy. In every direction the French codes were -either adopted or imitated; the course of justice was made simple and -cheap; education was organised; and the economical rules of the French -administration introduced. In more distant countries the same reforms -were carried out. By the constitution of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw -the Polish serfs, perhaps the most miserable of all serfs, were freed -from their bondage, and absolute equality before the law decreed. In -Naples Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, and in Spain Joseph Bonaparte by -himself, carried out the same great reforms; and though the reaction -after 1815 tended to replace matters on their former footing, it proved -to be impossible to restore the old evils in their entirety. Not -less admirable was Napoleon’s vindication of the great principle of -religious toleration. In Catholic states such as Bavaria Protestants -received the priceless boon of religious liberty; in Protestant states -like Saxony it was the Catholics who profited by the broad-mindedness -of the French Emperor; and in every country the Jews were relieved -from the degrading position in which they had been kept. In military -organisation the reforms which had made the French army master of the -world were introduced by Napoleon. With the disappearance of the petty -German states disappeared also the feudal armies. Conscription may, -indeed, appear a heavy burden on a state, but in Germany, at any rate, -it created for the first time national armies to take the place of the -ill-disciplined mercenaries who had hitherto been hired by the petty -princes. - -[Sidenote: The Organisation of Prussia.] - -The most curious feature in the creation of a new Germany, which was -the result of Napoleon’s reforms as much as of his victories, was -the formation of new Prussia. In Germany proper, that is, in Germany -between the Rhine and the Elbe, reforms were introduced under French -supervision, if not always by French agents. In Prussia the reforms -came on the initiative of a great minister. The speedy overthrow of -the famed Prussian army in the campaign of Jena convinced Prussian -statesmen of the necessity for sweeping changes. By the Treaty of -Tilsit Prussia was shorn of all the acquisitions in Central Germany -which she had received as the price of her consistent neutrality, and -was thrust behind the Elbe. On the other side she lost her Polish -provinces. Even the small Prussia thus left was occupied by French -troops, and was forced to pay a war contribution of a hundred and forty -millions as well as to maintain an army of 42,000 men for the service -of Napoleon. It would seem that Prussia was to be driven back into the -position of a second-rate state, but at this juncture Frederick William -III. summoned to his ministry two remarkable men—the Freiherr vom -Stein, a Knight of the Holy Roman Empire and a native of Nassau, and -Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian officer. Neither of these men were Prussians, -but they were both enthusiastic Germans. They believed that Prussia -would yet form the key-stone on which German emancipation from the -power of Napoleon could be reared. They understood that Prussia must -be entirely reconstituted, and that an old-fashioned Prussia could -neither combat Napoleon nor lead the new Germany which he had created. -Stein, therefore, as Minister of the Interior, adapted the reforms -of the French Revolution and of Napoleon to Prussia. He established -equality before the law by the abolition of serfdom, he suppressed the -territorial privileges of the nobility, and he gave permission to the -bourgeois and the peasants to purchase land. He encouraged municipal -life by introducing a system of election to municipal offices, and, -as far as he could, abolished the social privileges of the nobility. -Scharnhorst, as War Minister, reorganised the Prussian army on the -French model. He changed it from an entity independent of the people -into a national army. Since Prussia was only permitted to maintain an -army of 42,000 men, he arranged that as many as possible should obtain -a military training by passing through the ranks for a short period. He -went further than Napoleon. He did not adopt a system of conscription -by which a portion of the population designed by lot should enter -the ranks, but insisted that every citizen was bound to military -service. Between 1807 and 1810, and the system was continued after his -retirement until 1813, Scharnhorst passed a large proportion of the -youth of Prussia through the ranks of the army, and thus formed—what -Napoleon so greatly needed at the crisis of his career—an effective -reserve. It is interesting to observe that it was in the country most -maltreated by Napoleon that the French reforms were most successfully -initiated. Napoleon perceived the danger, and in 1808 he insisted on -the dismissal of Stein, and in 1810 on that of Scharnhorst. - -[Sidenote: The revival of German national feeling.] - -It is a curious sequel to the benefits conferred upon Germany by -Napoleon directly and by the influence of French principles that their -result was to rouse in Germany, for the first time for many centuries, -a truly national feeling. This was caused chiefly by the suppression of -the Holy Roman Empire, and its being replaced by states large enough -to arouse national patriotism; but it was partly due also to a sense -of national degradation inspired by the presence of French armies, and -to the fact that the benefits conferred were the gift of a foreign -sovereign and not the result of national progress. A universal feeling -of opposition to the French grew up in the hearts of the German people. -The individualist doctrines, which found favour in the eighteenth -century and reached their highest expression in philosophers and poets, -such as Herder and Goethe, gave way to a new national sentiment, -inspired by a new school of poets and political thinkers represented -by Körner and Arndt, by Jahn and Friedrich von Gentz. The new spirit -was mainly developed among the German youth. Secret societies and -clubs were formed to obtain by force the freedom of Germany from the -French, and the dissatisfied souls forgot the benefits they had -received individually in their resentment at their being granted by -France. Austria under the administration of Count Philip Stadion, who -was largely inspired by Gentz, endeavoured, in 1809, to take advantage -of the revival of German national feeling. But Austria was universally -considered as a foreign power whose military prowess was derived from -Hungary, and the Emperor Francis in taking the new title of Emperor of -Austria gave countenance to this idea. The House of Hapsburg was not -regarded as thoroughly German; it was looked on as a foreign dynasty, -whose dominions were mainly inhabited by non-German races; its loyalty -to the Roman Catholic religion caused it to be suspected by the -Protestants; it was blamed for the disorganisation of past centuries; -and contemned for its repeated defeats by the French and its selfish -policy at the time of the treaties of Campo-Formio and Lunéville. - -Prussia, on the other hand, though, like Austria, it was not a truly -German state, seemed fitted by history and tradition to embody the -idea of German nationality. Even after the defeat of Jena, Frederick -the Great and his victory over the French at Rossbach were recalled as -distinctively German glories, and the eyes of patriotic Germans were -turned to the diminished power of Prussia as the natural lever for -the creation of a free Germany. The administrative system of Prussia -and its strongly concentrated political theory of the essential unity -of the State, as opposed to the new French idea of the omnipotence -of the people, which was condemned in German eyes as having led to -the absolutism of an adventurer, had always exercised a peculiar -fascination over the best intellects of Germany. It was by means of -statesmen of foreign birth that Prussia was reorganised and prepared -to cope successfully with the power of Napoleon. Stein and Hardenberg, -Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, York and Lombard were none of them native -Prussians; yet they were all in turn attracted into the Prussian -service, and were instrumental in bringing about her resurrection as -a German power. The war of 1809 first showed Napoleon that he was -soon to have a national feeling to deal with in Germany as well as in -Spain. While Napoleon was in the neighbourhood of Vienna a Prussian -lieutenant of the name of Katt attempted to seize Magdeburg; a Prussian -major named Schill pillaged the arsenal and treasury of the Duke of -Anhalt, who had often expressed his outspoken admiration for the -French Emperor, and invaded Saxony; and the fourth son of the Duke of -Brunswick, the heir to the duchy which had been absorbed in the kingdom -of Westphalia, raised his Black Legion, which he termed the Army of -Vengeance, and carried on a partisan war. Even the person of Napoleon -was not safe in Germany. A lad named Staps was shot for imagining an -attack on his life at Schönbrunn in 1809, and many other conspiracies -were discovered by the French police. Napoleon despised this ebullition -of popular feeling in Germany, just as he did in Spain, and the -measures which he took against it, such as arbitrary arrests, and the -shooting of the bookseller Palm, only exasperated the new national -patriotism. - -[Sidenote: Marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 2nd April 1810.] - -The Emperor, as has been said, was a great believer in the hereditary -idea, and his not having children to succeed him was more than a -personal, it was a political subject of grief to him. The campaign -of Wagram had raised him to the height of his power, and he wished -to establish his dynasty on a firm foundation. It was therefore for -personal, for political, and for European motives, that he resolved -on his return from Vienna in 1809 to divorce his wife, the Empress -Josephine. It was from no dislike for his wife, but from a stern -conviction of political necessity that he took this step. He insisted, -that Josephine should preserve her title of Empress, he granted her -Malmaison as her palace, with a large income, and he continued his -favours to his step-children, Eugène de Beauharnais, and Hortense, the -wife of his brother Louis Bonaparte. On the 15th of December 1809 the -divorce was pronounced on the ground that the religious marriage, -which had taken place on the day before his coronation as Emperor, was -not valid because of the absence of witnesses. The Emperor’s first -intention was to wed a Russian grand duchess. He was still enamoured -of his idea of dividing the world with the Emperor Alexander, and -considered that a relationship with that monarch would best ensure -his power. But the Emperor Alexander was beginning to throw off his -infatuation for Napoleon. He now perceived, that in the alliance he had -made, he gave more than he got, and various causes of discontent were -sedulously fomented by his Court and his family. It was further the -custom of the Russian Court for the mothers to have the chief choice -in the disposing of their daughters’ hands. Now the Empress-mother -was a princess of the House of Würtemburg, and had imbibed a profound -hatred for the French Emperor. She persuaded her son to throw various -delays in the path of the Emperor’s desires without actually rejecting -his offer. Under these circumstances, Napoleon abruptly changed his -mind, and at the suggestion, it is said, of Prince Schwartzenberg, -the Austrian ambassador at Paris, demanded the hand of an Austrian -archduchess. The Emperor Francis thought it necessary to yield, and -on the 2nd of April 1810, the marriage took place between the French -Emperor and the young Archduchess Marie Louise. The ceremony was -of the utmost magnificence, and a new Court was formed for the new -Empress, which contained many French nobles who had refused to wait -on Josephine. On the 20th of March 1811, a son was born to the French -Emperor who was created in his cradle King of Rome, and this birth was -regarded by Napoleon as finally cementing his power, both in France and -in Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Peninsular War, 1810–1812.] - -During the period from the Treaty of Vienna in 1809 to the invasion -of Russia in 1812, Napoleon had but one declared enemy. The English -Ministers, despite the overthrow of Austria and Prussia, and the -alliance between France and Russia, persisted in opposing France. -Just as Pitt and Grenville could not believe in the stability of the -various French revolutionary governments, and therefore maintained -the impossibility of concluding permanent peace with France, so their -successors, Wellesley and Castlereagh, also declined to believe in -the stability of Napoleon’s Empire, and argued that no permanent -peace could be made with him. It is just possible, that while Fox -was in office in 1806, a peace might have been concluded, but the -succession of his victories had inspired Napoleon with a belief in his -own invincibility, and he had no idea of negotiating on any basis but -the complete recognition of his reconstitution of Europe. Finding it -impossible to break the naval power of England, he endeavoured to ruin -her commerce by the Continental Blockade, with the result of increasing -England’s prosperity, and turning the people of the Continent against -him. - -Two methods of carrying on the war were supported by Castlereagh and -Canning, who were Secretaries of State in the Portland administration -from 1807 to 1809. Canning believed in rousing the national feeling of -invaded states against the universal conqueror, and for this purpose -sent large sums of money to Spain; Castlereagh, on the other hand, -thought that as France could no longer meet England at sea, England -must meet France on the land. This was the theory which lay at the -bottom of the despatch of the first Portuguese and of the Walcheren -Expeditions, and in spite of the failure of the latter, it has since -been recognised as a correct theory. The victory of Wellington at -Talavera, though it had but little actual result on the course of the -war in Spain, kept Portugal free from French invasion during the year -1809. But it did more, it inspired the English governing class with -the belief that they had at last discovered the right way of fighting -Napoleon, and that they had also found a general. Lord Wellesley, -the elder brother of Wellington, who was Foreign Secretary from 1809 -to 1812, supported the new system with all his might, and under his -encouragement Wellington slowly formed the Anglo-Portuguese army by -a series of campaigns into a magnificent fighting machine, which, -though smaller in numbers than the Grand Army of France, equalled it in -discipline and military efficiency. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1810.] - -Napoleon, after his successes in 1808, despised the Spanish levies -and the English army. He therefore declined to go in person to the -Peninsula, and sent his greatest marshal, Masséna, to drive the English -out of Portugal. A plan of campaign was formed, by which Masséna was to -penetrate Portugal from the north-east, while Soult was to advance from -Andalusia in the south-east. The two marshals were to meet at Lisbon. -Fortunately for Wellington, not only did Soult not agree with Masséna, -but the latter marshal found it impossible to control his subordinates, -Ney, Junot, and Reynier. Masséna nevertheless marched in the summer of -1810, and Wellington had to fall back before him. On September 27th, -Masséna was repulsed in an attack upon the Anglo-Portuguese position at -Busaco, but the English general felt it necessary to retreat further, -to the lines which he had fortified in the neighbourhood of Lisbon, -which are known as the lines of Torres Vedras. As Wellington retired, -the Portuguese devastated their country, and when Masséna came to a -halt in front of the lines of Torres Vedras, he found it most difficult -to maintain himself on account of the scarcity of provisions. Soult -did not come to his help as he had expected, but only advanced as far -as the city of Badajoz, which he captured. Throughout the winter of -1810–11, Masséna remained in front of Wellington, but, in spite of -reinforcements, he was unable to attack the Anglo-Portuguese lines, and -in the spring of 1811, had to retreat into Spain. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of 1811.] - -Wellington then divided his army; with one portion he followed Masséna, -and laid siege to Almeida, the other he despatched under Marshal -Beresford to form the siege of Badajoz. In the south of Spain, the -only city which held for the Junta was Cadiz, which was defended by -an Anglo-Spanish army. Marshal Victor was in charge of the besieging -force, which was defeated at Barrosa on the 5th of March 1811. In -spite of this diversion, Wellington had to meet fresh advances by the -main armies of Soult and Masséna. On the 5th of May 1811, he repulsed -Masséna at Fuentes de Onor after a hard-fought battle, which Masséna -might have won had he been properly supported by Marshal Bessières. In -the south, Soult was repulsed by Beresford at the battle of Albuera -on May 16th. After having thus once more freed Portugal from French -invasions, Wellington laid siege successively to Ciudad Rodrigo and -Badajoz. Though these border fortresses remained in French hands, -the valour of the Anglo-Portuguese army surprised Napoleon, who -recalled Masséna in disgrace. But in the east of Spain his generals -met with some success. Suchet in 1810 and 1811 reduced Arragon and -Valencia, took many fortresses, and destroyed the Spanish army in -that quarter, under the command of General Blake, at the battle of -Albufera. Throughout central Spain, though no regular Spanish armies -took the field, the French were harassed by the Spanish guerillas. -These patriotic brigands destroyed the morale of the French troops in -Spain and sapped the strength of Napoleon. All the benefits conferred -by Joseph Bonaparte, the abolition of feudalism and of the Inquisition, -religious tolerance and good laws, counted for nothing. The Spaniards -would receive no benefits from a French monarch imposed on them by -Napoleon, and it was in Spain that Napoleon first felt the effect of a -national opposition, which was at a later date in Russia and in Germany -to destroy his power. - -[Sidenote: Conclusion.] - -The period from the Conference of Erfurt to the invasion of Russia -seemed to mark the height of Napoleon’s power, but during it are to -be perceived the symptoms of the changes which led to his fall. At -Erfurt, Alexander of Russia was still his firm ally. His power was -bounded by subject kingdoms, and divided by them from the great states -of Europe. In France he was still regarded as the restorer of order -and the supporter of religion. By 1812 the situation had changed. The -Emperor Alexander was no longer his admirer and faithful ally. The -vast extension of the Empire had weakened his power, and the French -people were beginning to discover how dearly they were paying in the -sacrifice of their individual liberty for the glory of one man. His -wanton interference in Spain had raised a new force against him in the -shape of the resistance of a nation, and had afforded the English an -opportunity to meet him on land. In Germany, too, a national spirit -was rising, and Prussia, which he had maltreated, was reorganised, and -ready to set itself at the head of Germany. But there was one cause yet -more significant which was developed during this period—the character -of his soldiers was altered. The Grand Army, which had consisted of -veterans trained in the wars of the Revolution, had wasted away at -Austerlitz and Jena, Eylau and Friedland, and in the Spanish campaigns. -At Wagram he felt how different were the men under his command, and was -forced to depend largely on foreign contingents, of whose fidelity he -could not be certain; and he was to find in 1812 that the conscripts of -the Empire, though full of military ardour and desirous of rivalling -the fame of their predecessors, had not the physical strength, the -solidity, and the experience of the veterans who had made him Emperor -of the French and Master of Europe. - - - - - CHAPTER X - - 1812–1814 - - Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis XVIII., and his - Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris. - - -[Sidenote: Gradual disagreement between Alexander and Napoleon.] - -The causes of the disagreement between Napoleon and the Emperor -Alexander dated back to the Treaty of Tilsit. At that time, though -personally full of enthusiasm for the French conqueror, Alexander -looked with suspicion on the formation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw -as a possible first step towards the restoration of Poland. Napoleon -pointed out to him that he could obtain compensation in the direction -of Sweden and of Turkey—a suggestion which led to the conquest of -Finland and eventually of Bessarabia. Though Alexander carried out -the projects proposed to him, he continued to resent the creation of -the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and still more the maintenance of French -troops in that quarter. At the Congress of Erfurt Napoleon to some -degree allayed the suspicions of his ally, but on his return to Russia -there can be no doubt that Alexander looked upon himself as duped and -badly treated. The war of 1809 widened the breach. Napoleon complained -that the Russian troops promised for his assistance had not acted with -vigour, and Alexander regarded with open discontent the cession of part -of Austrian Galicia to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. The dethronement of -the Duke of Oldenburg, who had married Alexander’s favourite sister, -the Grand Duchess Catherine, and the absorption of his Duchy into -the French Empire, in 1810, was another and more personal cause of -disagreement. The delay in granting a Russian grand duchess to him -in marriage was looked on by Napoleon as a personal slight, and his -interference in Spain appeared to the Russian Emperor a sign that -Napoleon could maltreat even his most faithful ally. The carrying -out of the Continental Blockade embittered the situation. Napoleon -complained that the Russians did not adhere loyally to the arrangement -for the exclusion of English commerce. Alexander on his side complained -that his country was being ruined by the blockade, while the French -Emperor granted many licences to Frenchmen to trade with England. - -To these political reasons must be added the personal characters of -the two emperors. Napoleon, though he had spoken at Tilsit of dividing -Europe between France and Russia, began, as his power increased, to -devise schemes for securing the Empire of Europe for himself and the -exclusion of Russia from any share. Instead of restoring the Empires -of the East and West, Napoleon arrogated to himself the position of -ruler of Europe, and spoke of thrusting Russia back into Asia. In these -views he was encouraged by many of those surrounding him. His marshals, -finding no profits to be got from Spain, looked forward to enriching -themselves in Russia. His statesmen, either from motives of their own -or to please his personal wishes, declared that France could not be -safe until Russia was crushed. Alexander on his side was surrounded by -bitter enemies of Napoleon. His ministers never wearied of emphasizing -the ruin caused to Russia by the Continental Blockade. The King of -Prussia, whom he had made his personal friend, pleaded for the complete -restoration of his dominions. His family, and especially his mother, -regarded Napoleon as the enemy of the human race; English agents were -perpetually inciting the Russians to declare for commercial freedom; -and three of the most accomplished and most able statesmen in Europe -constantly urged him to war with France, namely, Stein, whom Napoleon -had ordered the King of Prussia to dismiss; Pozzo di Borgo, a Corsican, -who had known Napoleon in his youth, and who hated him as a personal -enemy; and Nesselrode, a skilled diplomatist and an intimate friend of -Metternich. - -[Sidenote: Policy of Castlereagh.] - -These various causes, both political and personal, might not then -have led to war had it not been for the direct intervention of the -English by means of the new Prince Royal of Sweden, Bernadotte. Lord -Castlereagh, in January 1812, returned to office. He advocated the -carrying on of the war against Napoleon, not only by reinforcing -Wellington in the Peninsula, but by subsidizing the monarchs of the -Continent. He therefore despatched three diplomatists to the three -chief courts of the Continent, to endeavour to form a fresh coalition -against Napoleon. These were his brother, Sir Charles Stewart, -ambassador to Berlin, Lord Aberdeen to Vienna, and Lord Cathcart to -St. Petersburg. Lord Cathcart was a distinguished military officer, -and strenuously urged Alexander to declare war, and he brought with -him several English officers to assist in reorganizing the Russian -army, of whom the best known is Sir Robert Wilson. But it was rather -through Sweden than directly that Castlereagh influenced the Emperor -Alexander. Bernadotte, on being elected Prince Royal, had applied to -Sweden the Continental Blockade against England, but he soon perceived -how ruinous that policy was to his new country, and inclined to make -some arrangement with England. Being unable to break with Napoleon -by himself, Bernadotte acted as the intermediary between England and -Russia, and in April 1812 signed a secret treaty with Alexander at -Abo, by which Sweden renounced all claims on Finland on condition that -Russia should promise Norway in its stead. Both England and Russia -approved of this scheme. Frederick VI. of Denmark, who had succeeded -his father, Christian VII., in 1808, had, after the capture of the -Danish fleet in 1807, formed a most intimate alliance with Napoleon, -and Alexander at Abo held out to Bernadotte, not only a hope that he -might have the whole of Denmark as a result of successful war against -the French, but even an expectation that he might eventually receive -the throne of France as a reward for his services. Not less important -than the English intervention in Sweden was the effect of English -influence in Turkey; for it was through English mediation that the -Treaty of Bucharest was signed in May 1812, which allowed the Emperor -of Russia to concentrate all his military power against Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Prussia. The Ministry of Hardenberg.] - -Between France and Russia there remained, however, Austria, Poland, and -Prussia. Though Napoleon’s direct domain extended to Lübeck along the -coast, he had not ventured to annex Germany proper, which lies between -the Elbe and the Rhine, or to accept the title of German Emperor, in -addition to that of the Emperor of the French and King of Italy, as -had been suggested by the Prince Primate, Dalberg. Yet Germany proper, -owing to his creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Kingdom -of Westphalia, was so thoroughly under his influence that, from a -military point of view, it might be regarded as part of his Empire. -Austria, Poland, and Prussia were, however, more independent, and his -first effort, when he decided to attack Russia, was to secure their -active co-operation. The Emperor Francis, since the campaign of Wagram, -had abandoned the idea of resistance. He feared and disliked the -Russians; Napoleon was his son-in-law, and he did not intend to oppose -his wishes. He therefore promised willingly enough that an Austrian -army should invade Russia to the south of the direct French invasion. -In the Grand Duchy of Warsaw the Poles cared little for their Grand -Duke, the King of Saxony; they looked to Napoleon for the restoration -of their complete independence, and delighted in the thought of -striking a blow at their old foes, the Russians. In Prussia the -position was more complicated. Reduced as the kingdom was, the reforms -of Stein and Scharnhorst had created a national feeling, which could -not as yet be utilised in attacks on the French soldiers who occupied -the Prussian fortresses. Stein himself had been driven from Prussia by -Napoleon’s orders, but a successor, Hardenberg, completed his work. It -is significant that when Hardenberg was reappointed State Chancellor in -1810, he did not undertake the Foreign Office, as he had done in 1806, -but the ministries of the Finance and the Interior. It was Hardenberg -who in 1810 made the nobles subject to taxation, and brought Stein’s -promised Representative Assemblies into partial use; who, on 23rd -January 1811, suppressed the Teutonic Order, and made its possessions -part of the national domain; and who, on 11th September 1811, achieved -the logical result of Stein’s edict abolishing serfdom by granting -the peasants power to become absolute proprietors of two-thirds of -their holdings on surrendering the other third to the lords in full -recognition of all feudal dues and servitudes. - -Hardenberg’s most ardent coadjutor was William von Humboldt. As Stein -and Hardenberg had done the work of the French Revolution in Prussia -by abolishing feudalism and securing equality before the law, so -William von Humboldt established a national system of education in -many respects similar to Napoleon’s creation in France, and reformed -the whole department of public instruction. At the head of the system -was founded the University of Berlin. Prussia had deeply felt the loss -of the University of Halle when that city was separated from Prussia -by the Treaty of Tilsit. Königsberg, though made famous by Kant, was -too distant from the centre of the reduced kingdom to fill its place, -and the new national spirit was concentrated in the new University of -Berlin. Learned men came from all parts of Germany. Savigny, Fichte, -Wolf, Buttmann, Boeckh, Schleiermacher, and Niebuhr all enrolled -themselves as professors; and Germany, not merely Prussia, found a -worthy representative in the world of thought. - -In the resurrection of Prussia King Frederick William III. merely -acquiesced in the reforms of Stein and Hardenberg. But his former -leaning to neutrality had given place to a desire for revenge on the -French. In July 1810 he lost his patriotic wife, Queen Louise, and -her death only exasperated his feelings. Nevertheless, he refused to -declare himself on the side of Russia in 1812. The Emperor Alexander -announced his policy of allowing the French to invade, and his -intention of thus drawing Napoleon far from his base, and Frederick -William felt that he was not strong enough to openly oppose the French -Emperor. He was even constrained by the occupation of his fortresses -to go further, and, on 24th February 1812, he signed an offensive and -defensive alliance with Napoleon. By this treaty Prussia was not only -to feed the French armies passing through her dominions to invade -Russia, but to send an army of 30,000 men to act with them. Alexander -was not displeased by this behaviour. He knew that Prussia could not -help itself; he felt a sincere friendship for the hapless king; he -understood that beneath the surface, not only Prussia, but all Germany -was boiling with indignation against the French; and in 1812, when war -was at hand, he summoned the inspirer of German national feeling, the -great Prussian minister, Stein, from his exile in Austria to become his -adviser and coadjutor in his German policy. - -[Sidenote: The Invasion of Russia. May 1812.] - -Without any actual declaration of war, Russia entered into negotiations -with England, and Napoleon assembled a vast army on the banks of the -Vistula. In May 1812 he entered Germany to take the command, and at -Dresden had interviews with the King of Prussia and the Emperor of -Austria. Of the 325,000 men with whom he crossed the river Niémen and -invaded Russia only 155,000 were French; the remainder were foreign -contingents. He detached to his left Marshal Macdonald, with the -Prussian contingent and some Westphalians and Poles, to attack Riga and -advance on St. Petersburg, with the hope of joining Bernadotte and the -Swedes; he was supported on his right by the Austrian subsidiary force, -and with the centre of his army he advanced in person into Lithuania. -That province being occupied, Napoleon crossed the Dnieper, and on the -18th of August he took Smolensk, in spite of the efforts of a Russian -army of 80,000 men to cover the city. On his extreme right the Austrian -army, under Prince Schwartzenberg, was checked by the arrival of the -Russian army, set free by the Peace of Bucharest. The Russian generals, -Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, in the centre, steadily retreated. - -[Sidenote: Battle of Borodino. 7th Sept. 1812.] - -This military policy soon reduced the efficiency and numbers of the -French army; for it was drawn further from its base into a barren -country, in which it was harassed by peasants and guerillas, and it -was necessary to leave large divisions to protect the communications. -The Emperor Alexander had approved of this policy, and as the Russian -army retired the people abandoned their villages, as the Portuguese had -done during the invasion of Masséna in 1810. But the Russian soldiers -grumbled at this politic retreat, and the Emperor Alexander resolved -to strike one blow for his capital. Barclay de Tolly was replaced by -Kutuzov, and the Russian army suddenly halted on the banks of the -Mosková. On the 7th of September a most terrible battle was fought -there, which is known as the battle of Borodino. The Russians are said -to have lost 50,000 men, including General Bagration, and it is certain -that the French lost more than 30,000. Nevertheless, the French loss -was proportionately the most; for Napoleon was far away from any -reinforcements, whereas the Russians were fighting in their fatherland. -On the 14th of September the French army occupied Moscow. On the -16th, either by accident or on purpose, fire broke out in the Russian -capital. It raged for three days and three nights, and more than -three-fifths of the city was utterly destroyed. The Emperor Alexander -then entered into negotiations with Napoleon, and, whether he intended -it or not, he kept the French Emperor from moving until too late for -his safety. It was not until the 15th of October that Napoleon saw that -negotiating was waste of time, and started from Moscow. The winter was -an early one. Snow fell heavily. When Smolensk was reached, it was -found that all the provisions stored there had been destroyed. The -retreating army, now in a state of disorganisation, was hunted through -the country, not only by the Russian soldiers, but by the peasantry -returning to their homes. Marshal Ney covered the retreat, and won -on this occasion his title of ‘the bravest of the brave.’ Napoleon, -on being informed that a conspiracy against him, headed by General -Malet, had been discovered in Paris, left the retreating army early in -December. After his departure the cold increased. The retreat became -a rout; Murat, who succeeded to the command, could not keep the army -together; and but very few of the 155,000 Frenchmen who had invaded -Russia recrossed the river Niémen. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in the Peninsula. 1812.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Salamanca. 22d July 1812.] - -While Napoleon was wrecking one army in Russia, Wellington was -defeating another French army in Spain. Marmont, who had succeeded -Masséna, failed to prevent the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo in January, -or that of Badajoz in April, and after a long course of intricate -manœuvres, gave Wellington the opportunity to attack and defeat him -at the battle of Salamanca, July 22, 1812. The victory was complete. -Joseph Bonaparte evacuated Madrid, and withdrawing all his troops from -Andalusia fell back behind the Ebro. Wellington occupied Madrid on -August 12, and then with his main army advanced on Burgos. Burgos, -however, resisted all his assaults. The Anglo-Portuguese army had to -retire once more into Portugal, and Joseph Bonaparte for the last -time returned to his capital. While this campaign was being fought -Lord William Bentinck, who commanded the English garrison in Sicily, -was requested to send troops to the eastern coast of Spain to effect -a diversion. But the operations were badly combined; Sir John Murray -was driven from before Tarragona; and at a subsequent date Lord -William Bentinck himself failed to make an impression on Suchet’s army -at Alicante. The victory of Salamanca was a proof of the insecure -foundation on which the throne of Joseph Bonaparte rested. Owing to it -alone he had to leave Madrid, and evacuate the whole of southern Spain; -the military policy of the English ministers was justified; and though -Salamanca cannot be compared with the disasters in Russia, it yet had -its effect in showing the increasing weakness of the French military -power. - -[Sidenote: Prussia declares war. 16th March 1813.] - -The retreat of the French and their passage of the Niémen enabled -Prussia to throw off the mask of alliance with France. The Prussian -contingent, amounting to 18,000 men, had been placed under the command -of Marshal Macdonald, and was occupied in the siege of Riga. Napoleon -had hoped that this detached army upon his left would be joined by -Bernadotte at the head of the Swedes. But Bernadotte, as has been seen, -had forgotten his French nationality in accepting the position of heir -to the Swedish throne. His first idea was to make himself popular in -Sweden by securing the conquest of Norway to take the place of Finland, -and behind it lay the hope of possibly succeeding Napoleon himself. -In his original communications with the Emperor Alexander, he had -demanded the assistance of a Russian army for the conquest of Norway -as the price of his adhesion to the coalition against Napoleon. When -Alexander would not make a definite promise, Bernadotte applied to his -former sovereign in June 1812, and promised to assist in the French -invasion of Russia, if Napoleon would guarantee to him the possession -of Norway. But the French Emperor would make no compact with his former -marshal, and hoped that he would lend his assistance to the occupation -of St. Petersburg in return for vague promises. Bernadotte therefore -remained neutral, and Macdonald, without the expected help from Sweden, -could get no further than Riga. The retreat of the main French army -from Moscow made it necessary for Macdonald likewise to fall back, and -in the course of his retreat the Prussian contingent, under the command -of General York, deserted, and that general signed the Convention of -Tauroggen, on 30th December 1812, by which he abandoned France without -definitely declaring himself upon the side of Russia. Macdonald, with -his Westphalians and Poles, managed to leave Russia in safety, and -to join the remnants of the main army. But the desertion of York was -a symptom of what was to follow. Stein summoned the Estates of East -Prussia at Königsberg; the Prussians rose _en masse_, and the French -army, pursued by the Russian troops and these new enemies, retreated -behind the Vistula. - -Frederick William of Prussia at last threw off the mask, and, on the -7th of February 1813, he called out the reserve which had been formed -by the skilful military policy of Scharnhorst, and ordered the Landwehr -and the Landsturm to join the colours; on 27th February he signed the -Treaty of Kalisch with Russia, promising alliance; on 16th March he -declared war against France; and he joined the headquarters of his -friend Alexander, and lived in his company until the termination of the -war. Prussian enthusiasm grew to its height; the reserves fell in from -every city and district, and the broken French army, which was now left -under the command of Eugène de Beauharnais, retreated first behind the -Oder and then behind the Elbe, leaving powerful garrisons in Dantzic, -Stettin, and the chief Prussian fortresses. The Russians of the army -of the right pursued vigorously, and after driving the French from -Berlin, the Russian generals, Chernishev and Tetterborn, took Hamburg. -The resurrection of Prussia and the rapid retreat of the French caused -Bernadotte to declare himself openly on the side of the allies, and he -crossed the Baltic and entered Germany at the head of a Swedish army of -12,000 men. The King of Prussia’s declaration of war with France was -received with enthusiasm. Two separate Prussian armies were formed, -the first under Bülow to act with the Swedes, and the Russian army of -the right, and to defend Berlin, the other under Blücher in Silesia to -co-operate with the second invading army of the left from Russia. The -command in chief of this latter army was, after the death of Kutuzov in -May, conferred on Barclay de Tolly, while Wittgenstein commanded the -Russian contingent. - -[Sidenote: First Campaign of 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Armistice of Pleswitz. 3d June 1813.] - -In the spring of 1813 Napoleon started for Germany to face the new -coalition. His Westphalian, Bavarian, and Saxon allies were still true -to him and increased their contingents. He called to his assistance the -old soldiers who were employed in the garrisons of Holland and Northern -Germany, and he raised a large number of fresh conscripts, who, in -spite of their youth and inexperience, were at once directed upon -Germany. At the head of 250,000 men, eventually increased to 300,000, -he invaded Saxony. He defeated Wittgenstein at Lutzen or Gross Görschen -on the 2d of May, at which battle his friend, Marshal Bessières was -killed, and Scharnhorst was mortally wounded, and reoccupied Saxony. He -defeated the whole of the allied army of Silesia at Bautzen on the 20th -of May, and established his headquarters at Dresden. Meanwhile Vandamme -had recaptured Hamburg, and, after placing it in a state of defence, -joined the Emperor in Saxony. After these vigorous blows both sides -desired a rest, and on the 3d of June the Armistice of Pleswitz was -signed, and it was agreed that a congress should be held at Prague to -consider if terms of peace could not be arranged. The important point -to be decided at Prague was the position to be adopted by Austria; and -both sides prepared to offer a high price for her active assistance, -for her intervention would probably settle the result of the war. -Napoleon trusted that his father-in-law, the Emperor Francis, would -not abandon him, and counted upon the assistance of an Austrian army. -He relied also upon the hereditary hatred of Austria for Prussia, and -promised his father-in-law, as the price of his active assistance, -not only the restoration of the Illyrian provinces, but of the whole -of Silesia, which Frederick the Great had torn from Maria Theresa. -Napoleon was even sanguine enough to count upon the former friendship -which the Emperor Alexander had felt for him, and he hoped that the -invasion of Russia would be forgiven if he guaranteed the possession -of the whole of Poland. The country which would be sacrificed by these -arrangements was Prussia. Napoleon projected the entire extinction of -the Prussian kingdom, and suggested that the kingdom of Westphalia -should be extended to the Oder. That he should venture to offer such -terms showed how entirely Napoleon misunderstood his position. The -Emperor Francis, although his daughter was Napoleon’s wife, could not -forget the humiliations that Austria had undergone, and allowed his -feelings as an Austrian to outweigh his sentiments as a father. The -Emperor Alexander had been entirely cured by the invasion of Russia of -his former infatuation, and now distrusted the French Emperor as much -as he had formerly believed in him; he had struck up an intimacy with -the King of Prussia, and had promised him his restoration to the whole -of his dominions. - -[Sidenote: Convention of Reichenbach. 17th June 1813.] - -Meanwhile the rulers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a treaty at -Reichenbach on 17th June 1813, by which Austria assumed the position -of a mediator and promised to declare war against France, if the -conditions of peace, which she should offer, were rejected. In return -for this attitude, Austria was given a free hand to negotiate with -the South German States, and the idea of rousing a national German -feeling against France, which was strongly advocated by Stein, was -abandoned. Metternich had no liking for the national idea; it seemed -to him to bear the imprint of the spirit of the French Revolution, -and could only end in disaster to Austria. The rising of Prussia had -indeed been a success, but if it spread through Germany, it might -end in a united Germany with Prussia at its head, and the consequent -depreciation of the Austrian power. The example of Spain, which Stein -and patriotic Germans pointed to, seemed to cut in two ways; if, on -the one hand, it had raised a people in arms against Napoleon, on the -other it had encouraged revolutionary ideas. Both the Emperor Alexander -and King Frederick William felt the weight of these arguments, and the -conception of the war changed from a national uprising to a coalition -of the usual type. Under these circumstances, Napoleon’s propositions -were ignored, and proposals were made to him on the other hand that he -should be content with the natural limits of France, namely, the Rhine -and the Alps; that he should restore the Bourbons to Spain and the -independence of Holland; that he should abandon his position as head of -the Confederation of the Rhine and allow the Pope to return to Rome. -Murat was to remain at Naples, and Jerome on the throne of Westphalia, -and the terms offered were by no means unfavourable to France, though -perhaps hardly justified by the military position of the allies. -Metternich, who perceived that Austria held the key to the position, -brought these terms to Napoleon’s headquarters at Dresden, and informed -the Emperor that if they were not accepted, Austria would join the -coalition against him. - -[Sidenote: Austria declares war.] - -Napoleon refused with scorn; Castlereagh, through the English -ambassador, Lord Aberdeen, promised large subsidies to Austria; and -on the 1st of August 1813, the Emperor of Austria promised definitely -to join the allies with 200,000 men if Napoleon refused to accept the -terms offered to him. The Congress met at Prague. Caulaincourt, the -French plenipotentiary, stated that he had no power to accept the terms -offered by Francis, and Austria, on the 12th of August, declared war -against France. On the 14th of August, when it was too late, Napoleon -declared his acceptance of the terms, and received the answer that the -whole matter must be referred to the allied monarchs. War in fact was -inevitable, and the Armistice of Pleswitz was at an end. - -[Sidenote: Second Campaign of 1813 in Germany.] - -The intervention of Austria not only deprived Napoleon of an expected -ally, but endangered his military position in Saxony, as a strong -Austrian army was being concentrated in Bohemia under the command of -Prince Charles von Schwartzenberg. Nevertheless the French Emperor -refused to retire, and prepared at the head of 300,000 men to make face -against the allies in spite of their great superiority in number. The -plan of campaign of the allies was drawn up by Moreau, who had been -induced to leave America and give the advantage of his advice to the -Czar of Russia. There was also upon the staff of the Russian army one -of the ablest strategists in Europe who, like Moreau, had formerly -been an officer in the French army, General Jomini. The plan was to -direct an army from the north, of Prussians, Russians and Swedes, under -Bülow, Chernishev, and Bernadotte, an army from the east of Russians, -called the Army of Poland, which was being formed under Benningsen, -an army from Silesia, of Prussians under Blücher, and Russians under -Wittgenstein, and finally an army of Austrians under Schwartzenberg, -assisted by the Russian main army of Barclay de Tolly, and the Russian -Imperial Guard under the Grand Duke Constantine, upon Dresden. But -Napoleon with his accustomed rapidity of action determined to strike -first, and he detached three corps under Oudinot, Macdonald and -Vandamme, against Bernadotte, Blücher, and Schwartzenberg; Benningsen -was too far in the rear to be dangerous. Oudinot and Macdonald were -defeated by Bernadotte and Blücher at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach -respectively, on the 23d and 25th of August, and Schwartzenberg, -instead of waiting for the other armies, attacked the French centre at -Dresden. On the 26th and 27th of August a terrible battle was fought, -in which Moreau was mortally wounded. Napoleon was successful, but he -suffered severe losses which he was unable to repair. Three days later -he received the news that Vandamme’s army, which had penetrated into -Bohemia to cut off Schwartzenberg’s communications, had been forced to -capitulate at Kulm to the Russians under Barclay de Tolly. The battle -of Dresden proved to the allies that it was impossible for one of their -armies to overthrow Napoleon unassisted, and they therefore recurred to -their original plan. Napoleon once more endeavoured to break from his -defensive position and struck at Berlin; but Marshal Ney was defeated -by Bernadotte and Bülow at Dennewitz, on 6th September, and he had -to wait while the ring formed round him. The Emperor’s losses during -the first part of this campaign had been immense. He had lost over -10,000 men by the capitulation of Kulm; his young soldiers had been -decimated at the Katzbach and Dennewitz; and the troops of the German -contingents deserted _en masse_. In fact when the operations of the -allies were completed and their armies had concentrated around Leipzig, -to which place he had withdrawn, he had not more than 160,000 men, -whose confidence was shaken by repeated defeats, to oppose to more than -double that number. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Töplitz. 19th Sept. 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Leipzig. 16th-19th October 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Hanau.] - -After the battle of Dresden, the army of Schwartzenberg retired into -Bohemia, and the allied monarchs determined to define their position -as to the future. The enormous armies they were concentrating made -them feel sure of success, if they held together. On 9th September the -important Treaty of Töplitz was signed. By this treaty it was agreed -that Prussia and Austria should be restored as nearly as possible to -the limits they had held in 1805, that the Confederation of the Rhine -should be dissolved, and that entire independence should be granted -to the states of southern and western Germany. This decision overcame -the lingering hesitation of the south German monarchs, who had feared -retaliation from the allies for their consistent adhesion to Napoleon. -Of these states, Bavaria was the chief, and on 8th October the Treaty -of Ried was signed between Austria and Bavaria, by which Bavaria -promised the aid of 36,000 men in return for complete indemnity and the -recognition of complete sovereignty in her dominions. Then the allies -in their full strength attacked Napoleon. For three days, from the 16th -to the 19th of October, the terrible battle of Leipzig was fought. The -result was a foregone conclusion, and even without the desertion of the -Saxons in the course of the battle, the ruin of the French army was -certain. Napoleon’s forces were not only defeated, they were destroyed, -and in the utmost disorder the routed French divisions fled in a state -of disorganisation across Germany. At this moment Maximilian Joseph -of Bavaria, whom Napoleon had made a king, declared against him as -he had promised, and not only withdrew the Bavarian contingent, but -endeavoured to check the French retreat. At the battle of Hanau on -October the 30th, however, the remnant of the French army broke through -the Bavarians, and it eventually found safety behind the Rhine. - -[Sidenote: Insurrection of Germany against Napoleon 1813.] - -The battle of Leipzig was followed by a general rising throughout -central Europe against the French. The secret societies which had -been formed to promote the idea of the freedom of Germany acted in -every direction. Many isolated regiments of the French army were -cut off and the French garrisons in the various German cities were -closely besieged. The benefits which had been conferred by French -administration were forgotten and the people thought only of the -humiliation of the French occupation. Nor was this spirit confined -to Germany. The Dutch rose in rebellion, and declared in all the -chief cities of Holland for the Prince of Orange. That prince at once -left England and set himself at the head of the insurgents, and Lord -Castlereagh a few months later sent to his assistance an English -force under the command of Sir Thomas Graham to reduce the few Dutch -fortresses still occupied by French garrisons. In Italy also an almost -universal insurrection broke out against the French domination. Lord -William Bentinck, who commanded the English army which occupied Sicily, -sailed to Genoa with a powerful force and encouraged the insurgents -in that quarter. Meanwhile an Austrian army under General Hiller -invaded Italy from the north-east and defeated Eugène de Beauharnais -at Valsarno on the 26th of October. Against this unanimity of national -opposition Napoleon could make but little headway; the French people -were tired of the conscription; they had not approved of the invasion -of Russia; and were indisposed at the moment of crisis to support the -Emperor. - -[Sidenote: Campaign in the Peninsula 1813.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Vittoria. 21st June.] - -[Sidenote: Wellington invades France. Oct. 1813.] - -While the French armies were suffering the succession of disasters -which expelled them from Germany, a similar series of catastrophes -occurred in Spain. Wellington broke up from his quarters in the summer -of 1813, and marching in a north-easterly direction attempted to -cut off all communication between France and Madrid. This movement -completely overthrew the French domination in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte -with all the troops he could collect fled from Madrid. He was unable to -defend himself behind the Ebro as in 1812, for the positions on that -river had been skilfully turned. Wellington eventually came up with -the French army at Vittoria. There Marshal Jourdan, who commanded for -King Joseph, endeavoured to resist, but he was completely defeated by -the Anglo-Portuguese army on the 21st of June 1813. This victory drove -the French back into France, for Suchet was likewise obliged to abandon -his conquests in Valencia, and to retire into the mountains of Arragon -and Catalonia. The victory in the field was followed as in Germany -by a burst of national enthusiasm. The Spanish guerillas destroyed -every isolated French post, and even managed to place some serviceable -divisions at the disposition of Wellington. The English general took up -a position on the French frontier between Pampeluna and San Sebastian, -blockading the former and besieging the latter place. To face him Soult -was sent to the south-west of France to defend the frontier. On the -31st of August San Sebastian was stormed; Pampeluna speedily fell; -and Wellington was able to establish a new base of operations, and to -invade France. On the 10th of November the Anglo-Portuguese army drove -Soult from his positions on the Nivelle, and after the battles of the -Nive or Saint Pierre from the 9th to the 13th of December Wellington -invested Bayonne. - -[Sidenote: Negotiations for Peace.] - -These repeated disasters in different quarters induced Napoleon to -consider the advisability of concluding a peace. He was now only too -ready to accept the terms offered to him at the Congress of Prague. -The allies were by no means so united as they seemed. The Austrian -Minister Metternich, in particular, was not desirous of destroying the -power of France. England had no wish to come to any conclusion which -should disproportionately increase the strength of Russia, and the aim -of all the allied monarchs was to allow France to develop in her own -way as long as she withdrew her pretensions to interfere in Europe. -Metternich’s proposals, in November 1813, were that France should -preserve her natural limits of the Rhine and the Alps, but should -restore all former rulers in Holland, Italy, and Spain. Napoleon gave -evidence of his desire for peace at this period by the dismissal of -his Foreign Secretary, Maret, Duc de Bassano, and the appointment of -Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicenza, who was known to be in favour of peace -and was also a personal friend of the Emperor Alexander, at whose Court -he had been ambassador during the palmy days of the alliance between -France and Russia. The terms of peace offered by Metternich, which -are known as the Proposals of Frankfort, at which city the allied -monarchs were residing, were confided to M. de Saint-Aignan, a French -diplomatist who had been taken prisoner during the advance of the -allies and who was the brother-in-law of Caulaincourt. The proposals -were definitely acceded to by Lord Aberdeen on the part of England and -by Hardenberg on the part of Prussia. The favourable nature of them -was dictated by the fear entertained by the allied monarchs that France -would rise in her might as she had done in 1793 if her borders were -invaded. For this reason the allies remained for some weeks upon the -right bank of the Rhine, concentrating their forces and hesitating to -advance. Napoleon, however, could not understand that he was beaten. -Instead of replying at once to the Proposals of Frankfort, which were -dated the 9th of November, it was not until late in December that he -instructed Caulaincourt to go to the allied quarters and discuss them. -His instructions to Caulaincourt showed how little he appreciated the -position of affairs. He demanded that, in addition to the natural -limits of France, he should hold the cities of Wesel, Cassel opposite -Mayence, and Kehl opposite Strasbourg on the right bank of the Rhine, -which fairly signified that he did not abandon his projects on Germany. -He further demanded that a kingdom should be formed for his brother -Jerome in Germany, and for Eugène de Beauharnais in Italy. Before these -counter-propositions reached the headquarters of the allied monarchs, -they had resolved to invade France, and the opportunity was gone for -ever for France to attain her natural limits under the sanction of -Europe. - -[Sidenote: The Invasion of France 1814. First Campaign.] - -The attitude of the allies, as indicated in the Proposals of Frankfort, -was mainly dictated by Metternich, who did not desire to see his -Emperor’s son-in-law dethroned or to see France greatly weakened. -But the Emperor Alexander and his friend, the King of Prussia, soon -repented of the assent they had given to Metternich’s ideas. Alexander -desired to invade France as a reply to the invasion of Russia in 1812, -and hoped to occupy Paris as Napoleon had occupied Moscow. The King -of Prussia, and still more his generals and ministers, had felt most -keenly the humiliating condition to which Prussia had been degraded, -and desired to wreak their vengeance on France. It was therefore agreed -that since the Proposals of Frankfort had not been promptly accepted, -the result of a successful invasion of France should be the return of -that country into the limits she possessed at the beginning of the wars -of the Revolution. The attitude of Russia and Prussia was that adopted -by England. Lord Castlereagh heard with dismay, that it was intended -to allow France the limits of the Rhine, for by that concession she -would hold Belgium and Antwerp, which it had been the consistent policy -of all English Ministers for many generations to keep independent of -France. The barrier treaties of former days, and the wars against -Louis XIV. had been sustained for the purpose of keeping France out of -the Belgian Netherlands, and the English cabinet resolved to continue -this classic policy. For this purpose, Lord Castlereagh was in person -despatched to the headquarters of the allied monarchs, with the -greatest powers ever granted to a British statesman. He was given ‘full -powers to negotiate and conclude of his own authority, and without -further consultation with the government, all conventions or treaties, -either for the prosecution of war or for the restoration of peace.’[12] - -Lord Castlereagh sailed from Harwich on the 31st of December 1813, on -which day Blücher with the main Prussian army, known as the Army of -Silesia, crossed the Rhine in three columns at Coblentz, Mannheim, and -Mayence. Blücher was supported by three Russian _corps d’armée_, but -it was further south that the main Russian army in conjunction with -the Austrians invaded France under the command of Schwartzenberg. It -was not without some difficulty that the Emperor Alexander was induced -to consent to the violation of the neutrality of Switzerland. But the -military arguments put forward by his generals overcame his scruples. -By marching through Switzerland, Schwartzenberg’s army was enabled to -turn the mountains of the Jura, and to leave the French fortresses -on the Rhine, behind him. This invasion on two distinct lines gave -Napoleon the opportunity of carrying out one of the military manœuvres -of which he was most fond. He concentrated between the two invading -armies a force of between 50,000 and 70,000 men. This was a terrible -falling off from the vast armies with which he had invaded Russia in -1812, and fought the allies in Saxony in 1813; it was a falling off not -only in numbers, but in military efficiency, for with the exception -of the remnant of the Guard, he had only under his command some -regiments of conscripts and national guards untrained to war. At this -period Napoleon bitterly repented the mistake he had made, in leaving -over 150,000 veteran soldiers as garrisons in the various fortresses -in Europe. The presence of these men would very likely have turned -the scale. He had left, for instance, 12,000 men in Hamburg under -the command of Marshal Davout, 16,000 in Magdeburg, 8000 in Dantzic, -and large garrisons in other distant cities, such as Stettin. These -fortresses were blockaded by local militia; their occupation did not -withdraw many regular troops from the allied armies, while it fatally -weakened the resources of France. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Victories in France. 1814.] - -Nevertheless, with his boy conscripts and his Guard, Napoleon fought -one of his greatest campaigns. Blücher foolishly scattered his troops, -after his entry into Champagne. Napoleon quickly took advantage of -his mistake. He cut up division after division of Blücher’s army -at Brienne, Champaubert, Montmirail, and Vauchamps, between the -29th of January and the 14th of February, and then turning against -Schwartzenberg, who had also scattered his forces, he defeated a -Russian division at Nangis, and an Austrian division at Montereau -on the 17th and 18th of February. These rapid blows startled and -disconcerted the allies. Blücher’s army was practically destroyed; -Schwartzenberg fell back, and asked for an armistice; and proposals -were made for the evacuation of France. It was only the constancy of -the Emperor Alexander and the determination of Lord Castlereagh which -induced the allies to persist. Two _corps d’armée_, one of Prussians -under Bülow, the other of Russians under Wintzingerode, were on -Lord Castlereagh’s sole authority detached from Bernadotte’s army -and ordered to reinforce Blücher. Meanwhile, Alexander insisted that -Schwartzenberg should concentrate instead of retiring. In reality, -Napoleon’s successes were more fatal to himself than to the allies, -for they induced him to break off the negotiations at the Congress of -Châtillon. - -[Sidenote: Other movements against Napoleon. 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Bernadotte.] - -While the first campaign of 1814 was being fought out in France, the -movement against Napoleon was becoming general. Bernadotte had after -the victory of Leipzig been placed in command of the army in northern -Germany. Full of the idea which had been suggested to him by the -Emperor Alexander in 1812, that he might succeed Napoleon on the throne -of France, Bernadotte did not wish to appear before his own countrymen -in the light of an invader. He had occupied himself for some weeks -after the battle of Leipzig with blockading Davout in Hamburg, and -fighting the Danes in Holstein. Even if he could not obtain the throne -of France, he was quite resolved to win Norway, and for this purpose he -attacked the Danes, and after some fighting, compelled Frederick VI. -of Denmark to sign the Treaty of Kiel on 14th January 1814, by which -Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. -Bernadotte even went so far as to negotiate with Davout, to whom he -promised a free passage to France with all his troops as the price of -the surrender of Hamburg. But the Emperor Alexander would not submit to -this, and Bernadotte was imperiously ordered only to leave a blockading -force before Hamburg, and to advance to the French frontier. - -[Sidenote: Holland.] - -It was at this juncture that Bernadotte was deprived of his two finest -_corps d’armée_, which were ordered up to the assistance of Blücher. -But in addition to the danger threatened by Bernadotte’s army, Napoleon -also met with serious opposition in the Netherlands. The Dutch people -declared for the Prince of Orange, and Holland was quickly lost. -A force under the command of the Prince marched into Belgium, and -besieged Antwerp, which was defended by the former member of the -Committee of Public Safety, Carnot, who, though neglected by Napoleon -in the days of his greatness, had come to the help of France in the -time of her distress. To assist the Prince an English division under -Sir Thomas Graham had, as has been said, been despatched to Holland. -Graham failed to take Bergen-op-Zoom on the 20th of February, but -his presence in the Netherlands not only encouraged the Dutch, but -prevented Napoleon from obtaining help from that quarter. - -[Sidenote: Augereau.] - -[Sidenote: Wellington wins battle of Orthez. 27th February] - -In the south, Marshal Augereau, whom the Emperor had placed in -command at Lyons, was, as he himself said, no longer the Augereau of -Castiglione. He had been directed to make a diversion against the -Austrian left as it entered France with some conscripts and troops -drawn from the former Army of Spain, but he remained inactive, and his -operations were of no assistance to the Emperor. In the south-west -corner of France, Soult was unable to do more than make head against -Wellington and the Anglo-Portuguese army. After the battles of the Nive -or of Saint Pierre, Bayonne was completely invested, and Wellington, -leaving the left of his army to carry on the siege, marched eastwards -against Soult. That marshal had been weakened by the detachments -he had been ordered to send to Augereau, and to Napoleon himself. -Nevertheless, he made a gallant stand at Orthez on the 27th of -February, but was defeated and forced to fall back further into France. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -In Italy the Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais, who in the retreat from -Russia had given evidence that he was a general of the very first -order, offered a gallant resistance to the Austrians under General -Hiller. But the defection of the King of Bavaria, his father-in-law, -opened the passes of the Tyrol to the Austrians, and Eugène de -Beauharnais was then compelled to retreat. At the commencement of -1814, Metternich entered into negotiations with Murat, the King of -Naples. Through the influence of his wife, Caroline Murat, sister of -Napoleon, with whom Metternich had been in most intimate relations -when he was ambassador at Paris, Murat, in the hope of preserving -his kingdom, issued a violent proclamation against his benefactor, -Napoleon, and advanced to the banks of the Po, at the head of a -Neapolitan army of 80,000 men. This movement caused Eugène de -Beauharnais, whose fidelity to his stepfather shines out in bright -contrast to the treachery of Murat, to fall back still further. He -defeated the Austrians under Marshal Bellegarde on the Mincio on the -8th of February, but was unable to follow up his success owing to the -position of Murat. In his rear, Lord William Bentinck had landed at -Genoa and issued a proclamation promising independence to that city, -and the support of England in securing the independence and unity of -Italy. Napoleon at one time thought of calling Eugène de Beauharnais to -his side, but his rapid victories over the isolated _corps d’armée_ of -the allies in February caused him to abandon this wise project. - -[Sidenote: The Congress of Châtillon. 3d Feb.-19th March 1814.] - -It has been said that one effect of Napoleon’s victories was to break -up the Congress of Châtillon. It had been suggested that a congress -should meet at Mannheim at the time of the Proposals of Frankfort, but -Napoleon’s delay prevented it from assembling until after the invasion -of France was an accomplished fact. The success of this invasion -altered the attitude of the allies towards France. They saw that the -French nation was not going to arise in its might as it had done in -1793. They heard through sure hands that the people were almost in open -rebellion against the Emperor. The Legislative Body had dared to oppose -his wishes. Everywhere the conscription was evaded, and there was a -muttered feeling throughout France that the country had had enough of -war and that it was time that the blood-tax on the French youth should -cease. Even the army itself was beginning to despair. The Emperor had -lost his prestige in Russia and at Leipzig. His soldiers were not the -veterans of his former wars; his generals and his marshals began to -murmur and to fear that a war _à outrance_ would end in their personal -ruin. Under these circumstances the Congress of Châtillon met on the 3d -of February 1814. The French plenipotentiary was Caulaincourt, the most -upright of Napoleon’s statesmen. The other powers nominated, not their -chief ministers, Metternich, Nesselrode, Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, -although they were all at headquarters, but subordinate diplomatists, -namely, Count Philip Stadion, the predecessor of Metternich, for -Austria, William von Humboldt for Prussia, Razumovski for Russia, and -Lord Cathcart, Lord Aberdeen, and Sir Charles Stewart for England. - -At Châtillon very different conditions from the Proposals of Frankfort -were offered. The main stipulation was that France should return to -her limits before the Revolution. England haughtily declared that the -naval question with regard to the rights of neutrals was not to be -mentioned, and everything was made subject to the great question of -the French limits. Caulaincourt disputed the proposals on the ground -that it was unfair that France should be reduced to the limits she had -held in 1789 while the other powers had been so vastly increased by -the rearrangement of Germany and the partition of Poland. Nevertheless -he was most anxious that Napoleon should accept these proposals. He -granted that they were worse than the Proposals of Frankfort, but -argued that if the war continued they were likely to be worse still. -Napoleon, however, looked upon the Congress as an opportunity for -gaining time. He believed that by his military successes he would avert -the disasters which threatened him, and on the day of the battle of -Montereau, the 18th of February, he wrote that he was only willing -to agree to a peace on the basis of the Frankfort Proposals, and in -his own handwriting he added to his despatch to Caulaincourt, ‘Sign -nothing.’[13] It is worthy of note that in the Proposals of Châtillon -nothing was said about Napoleon himself. The Emperor Francis assumed -that his son-in-law would remain upon the throne of France, and Lord -Castlereagh expressed no view to the contrary. But the English Minister -was absolutely determined not to yield to Napoleon’s demand for the -natural limits of France. England was the paymaster of the coalition, -and Castlereagh having just promised £10,000,000 to pay the military -expenses of 1814 felt that he had the right to insist on his demand. -Napoleon in after years declared that his persistence in retaining -Belgium was the reason for his refusal to accede to the Proposals of -Châtillon. ‘Antwerp,’ he said to Las Cases, ‘was to me a province in -itself; it was the principal cause of my exile to Saint Helena, for -it was the required cession of that fortress which made me refuse the -terms offered at Châtillon. If they would have left it to me peace -would have been concluded.’[14] Metternich wrote to Caulaincourt -pressing the acceptance of the Proposals of Châtillon, but Napoleon -obstinately refused, and the Congress had practically failed by the -beginning of March, though it did not actually break up until the 19th -of that month. - -[Sidenote: Attitude of France towards Napoleon.] - -The fact that the French nation did not rise in arms against the -invaders has been mentioned as the primary cause for the difference -between the terms offered at Frankfort and at Châtillon. Nothing proves -more completely how thoroughly Napoleon had extinguished the spirit of -the Revolution than the lukewarmness with which his call to arms was -received in 1814. In 1793 the invasion of France had caused a frenzy of -patriotism. The people had submitted to the Reign of Terror, because -it meant a strong government which could expel the English, Prussians, -and Austrians. France was at that time hemmed in by difficulties -infinitely greater than those which she had to face in 1814. Then -she had no great general. In 1814 she possessed one of the greatest -generals the world has ever seen. In 1793 she was torn by civil war -in La Vendée and by brigands in every sparsely populated district. In -1814 she had enjoyed fifteen years of internal tranquillity. In 1793 -her finances were utterly disordered, her industries were destroyed, -and the whole country a prey to anarchy. In 1814 she had been for years -the chief nation in Europe, and the wealth of other countries had -been drained to enrich her. But the difference was that in 1793 and -the succeeding years the French people felt that they were fighting -to ward off the interference of foreign nations in their internal -affairs, whereas in 1814 they were called on to defend the power of -a single man who had infringed the rights and the freedom of other -nations. By his bureaucratic system Napoleon had crushed out the power -of popular initiative which had been the strength of the Republic; by -his suppression of individual liberty he had made the majority of the -French people disaffected to his Empire. - -[Sidenote: Exhaustion of France.] - -There must be considered also the exhaustion of actual physical -resources. In the campaigns of 1812 and 1813, it is estimated that -nearly 750,000 Frenchmen were either killed, wounded, or taken -prisoner. Before that time the Grand Army had been slowly destroyed -on many a field of battle, and there simply were not sufficient men -of military instinct and physical strength to fill the ranks. In -1813 Napoleon enrolled the conscripts whose turn would have come in -1815—mere boys of sixteen, who had melted away after the battle of -Leipzig—and the men he called to the ranks in 1814 were those who had -been passed over by the conscription in previous years, and were too -long inured to civil life to be willing to serve as soldiers. - -To the feeling that resistance to the invaders was not a national -duty, must be added a general indisposition to support the Empire. The -opinions which had found vent during the French Revolution had not been -extinguished by the Empire; they had only been suppressed; and all -the educated part of the nation was united in desiring representative -institutions so as to exercise a share in directing the policy of the -government. This opinion showed itself in the Legislative Body which -was summoned in December 1813. Napoleon had announced that his cause -was the cause of France; but in return the leaders of the Legislative -Body only begged him to make peace. A paragraph was inserted in the -report of the Legislative Body upon the Proposals of Frankfort, which -contains the following words: ‘It belongs to the Government according -to the Constitution to propose the most effectual means to repel the -enemy and secure peace. These means will only be effectual if the -French people are convinced that their blood will be shed only to -defend the country and our protective laws. It appears, therefore, -indispensable that at the same time that His Majesty shall propose -the most prompt and efficacious measures for the safety of the State, -the Government should be besought to maintain the entire and constant -execution of the laws which guarantee to the French people the rights -of liberty, security, and property, and to the nation the complete -enjoyment of its political rights. That guarantee appears the most -effectual means for restoring to the French people the energy necessary -for their defence in the present crisis.’ Napoleon was much irritated -by this attack on his arbitrary authority, and although this paragraph -was expunged from the report by 254 votes to 223 he nevertheless -dissolved the Legislative Body in a rage. - -[Sidenote: The Bourbons.] - -Neither at the Congress of Châtillon nor in the Legislative Body was -a single word said about restoring the Bourbons. They had lost all -credit during their exile. The French people did not want them. The -allied powers did not care about them. By Lord Castlereagh’s orders -Wellington received the Duc d’Angoulême, son of the Comte d’Artois, in -his camp in the south of France, but he distinctly refused to recognise -him in any way whatever. The English general went further and issued -a proclamation in which he declared that the war was being waged for -security to Europe, not for a change of dynasty in France, and that no -interference was either intended or would be permitted in the free -decision of the French people with regard to their internal government. -When the Duc d’Angoulême was favourably received in Bordeaux and the -Mayor of that city hoisted the white flag, Wellington wrote to the -Bourbon prince defining his attitude and censuring the assertion in the -Duke’s proclamation, that he was supported by England. - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Chaumont. 1st March 1814.] - -In spite of his real weakness Napoleon was so infatuated by his -successes in February 1814 that, as has been said, the Congress came to -an end, but he was not far wrong in his estimation of the effect of his -victories upon the allied monarchs. So profoundly was Schwartzenberg -terrified by the destruction of Blücher’s army and the victories of -Nangis and Montereau that he wished to retreat from France. Differences -between the powers at this juncture threatened to break up the -coalition, and it was only the determination of Lord Castlereagh that -kept them together. The English minister on the 1st of March 1814 -concluded the secret Treaty of Chaumont. By this treaty the relations -of the allied monarchs to each other on several points were defined, -and though many fresh causes of dissension arose at a later date, it -was the Treaty of Chaumont which kept the powers together until the -overthrow of Napoleon, and which laid the basis of the final settlement -at Vienna. By this treaty the four great powers, England, Russia, -Austria and Prussia, bound themselves, if France refused to return -within her ancient limits, to form an offensive and defensive alliance. -Each member of the coalition was to maintain 150,000 men in the field, -and England bound herself, in addition to paying her own contingent -and maintaining her navy, to contribute a subsidy of £5,000,000 a year -to be divided equally amongst the other three contracting parties. -As England by this arrangement offered more than twice as much as -any other country, Castlereagh practically became the master of the -coalition. After peace was concluded each of the powers was to furnish -a contingent of 60,000 men if any one of them were attacked. The -resettlement of Europe was to be arranged on the following bases: that -the German Empire should be restored as a federal union; that Holland -and Belgium should be united into a monarchy under the House of Orange; -that Spain should be restored to its ancient sovereign; that Italy -should be divided into independent states; and that Switzerland should -be guaranteed as independent and neutral by all the great powers. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s Second Campaign in France. March 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Paris. 30th March 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Occupation of Paris by the Allies.] - -The result of the Treaty of Chaumont was to stiffen the attitude of -the allies in France. All thought of retreat was abandoned and both -the Austrians under Schwartzenberg, and the Army of Silesia under -Blücher recommenced their advance upon Paris. Napoleon pursued the -tactics which had been crowned with success in the month of February, -and prepared to strike at each of the invading armies in turn. His -first movement as before was against Blücher. The Army of Silesia -had been reduced by the actions of Champaubert, Montmirail, etc., -from 60,000 to 30,000 men, but it was now increased to more than its -former number by the arrival of Saint Priest’s Russians and of the -two corps of Bülow and Wintzingerode which had been detached from -Bernadotte by Lord Castlereagh. Napoleon was not aware of the extent -of these reinforcements, and he therefore with his army of barely -30,000 men ventured to attack Blücher. On the 7th and 9th of March, -the severe actions of Craonne and Laon were fought. Neither side won -victories, but Napoleon failed to repeat his former successes, which -was tantamount to a defeat. After the battle of Laon both Blücher and -Napoleon reviewed the armies at their disposal, and the disparity of -their strength is shown by the fact that whereas Blücher reviewed -109,000 men, Napoleon found that including all reinforcements, he had -but 46,000. Having failed to check the Prussians, Napoleon turned to -attack Schwartzenberg’s army. On the 20th of March he fought an action -at Arcis-sur-Aube, in which the Russians repulsed the French attack. -The Emperor then resolved on a final effort. He determined to attack -the lines of communication of the invaders, and marched towards the -Vosges Mountains. But the invaders were in too strong force to be -terrified by this manœuvre. A few divisions only were left to watch -him, and the main armies continued their advance on Paris. On March -the 30th, Schwartzenberg and Blücher arrived in front of the French -capital. They had under their command about 200,000 men, whereas -Marshals Marmont and Mortier, who had been charged with the defence of -Paris, could not get under arms more than 28,000 including the National -Guard. In spite of this enormous difference of strength the two -marshals took up a position and prepared to defend Paris. But after the -most obstinate resistance the allies carried the French position after -ten hours’ fighting on the 30th of March, and on the following day -the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia entered Paris. Napoleon -rapidly followed the allied army, but the occupation of Paris was fatal -to his cause. He was ready to continue the war, but his marshals were -not. On the 4th of April Ney, Macdonald, Oudinot, and Lefebvre had an -interview with the Emperor, and told him that the army would fight no -more. Napoleon was obliged to give heed to their remonstrances, and he -sent Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt to make what arrangements might -be possible with the allied monarchs. - -[Sidenote: The Provisional Government at Paris.] - -On entering Paris the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William -proceeded at once to the residence of Talleyrand. That astute statesman -quickly decided upon a definite policy. He understood that the allies -had hitherto treated with Napoleon, and that they were not favourably -disposed to the Bourbons. He knew that the French nation did not -desire the return of the former dynasty. But he felt that the only -method which would enable France to take up a logical position on the -Continent was by the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. If Louis -XVIII. were accepted as King of France, it would be a contradiction in -terms to their professed belief in hereditary rights, and their hatred -for the results of the Revolution, for the allied monarchs to attack -the unity of France. For this reason Talleyrand persuaded Alexander -that it would be inadmissible either to accept the government of the -Empress Marie Louise in the name of her son, the King of Rome, or -still less to recognise Alexander’s candidate, Bernadotte. In his own -words to the Emperor: ‘Any attempt to create a Regency or to appoint -Bernadotte is a mere intrigue; nothing remains but Bonaparte or the -Bourbons.’ Alexander then declared that he would no longer treat with -Napoleon, and Talleyrand as Vice-Arch-Chancellor of the Empire summoned -the Senate to meet upon the 1st of April. - -The Senate at once elected a Provisional Government consisting of -Talleyrand as President and the Comte de Bournonville, former War -Minister of the Republic, the Comte de Jaucourt, a former leader of -the Legislative Assembly, the Abbé de Montesquiou, a former leader of -the Constituent Assembly, and the Duc de Dalberg, nephew of the Prince -Primate of Germany. The Senate then resolved that, whatever government -should be adopted, the sale of the national and ecclesiastical estates -in the days of the Revolution should be ratified, the liberty of -worship and of the press established, and a general amnesty declared. -On the following day the Emperor Alexander addressed the Senate. He -said: ‘It is neither ambition nor the love of conquest which has -led me hither; my armies have only entered France to repel unjust -aggressions. Your Emperor carried war into the heart of my dominions -when I only wished for peace. I am a friend of the French People; I -impute their faults to their chief alone; I am here with the most -friendly intentions; I wish only to protect your deliberations. You -are charged with one of the most glorious missions which generous men -can discharge,—that of securing the happiness of a great people, in -giving France institutions, at once strong and liberal, with which she -cannot dispense in the advanced state of civilisation to which she has -attained.’ Alexander in conclusion, as a sign of his goodwill, declared -that he would release the 150,000 French prisoners of war then in -Russia. - -[Sidenote: Abdication of Napoleon. 6th April 1814.] - -That evening the Senate solemnly declared Napoleon to be no longer -Emperor, and formed a Provisional Ministry, including Comte Beugnot, -Minister of the Interior, Baron Louis, Minister of Finance, and General -Dupont, who had been disgraced for the Capitulation of Baylen, Minister -for War. Matters had reached this stage when Napoleon’s emissaries -Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt, arrived at the headquarters of the -allied monarchs. These faithful adherents proposed that Napoleon -should abdicate in favour of his infant son. This offer, which would -have been gladly received some days before, was now rejected, owing -to the influence of Talleyrand, and on April the 6th, when Napoleon -received the news of this rejection, he unconditionally abdicated -at Fontainebleau. This step was made necessary by the fact that the -faithful marshals could not even speak in the name of the whole army on -behalf of Napoleon. Marshal Marmont, who had distinguished himself in -the great battle before Paris, had made separate terms for himself and -placed his army at the disposal of the allies. The desertion of Marmont -deprived Napoleon of the greater part of the forces on which he relied, -and rendered his unconditional abdication necessary. - -[Sidenote: Provisional Treaty of Paris. 11th April 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Battle of Toulouse. 10th April 1814.] - -The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the arrival of Lord -Castlereagh in Paris. The English minister had since the breaking up of -the Congress of Châtillon remained at the headquarters of the Emperor -of Austria at Dijon. It was there that he had entered into intimate -relations with Metternich, relations which were to lead to most -important results. On the 11th of April 1814, the Provisional Treaty -of Paris was signed. It was essentially a treaty between the Emperor -Napoleon, through his plenipotentiaries, and the allied monarchs. It -was not a treaty with France, for Louis XVIII. had not arrived from -England, or been recognised as king, and the Provisional Government -could only enter into provisional arrangements. By this treaty, which -was signed by Caulaincourt, Macdonald, Ney, Metternich, Nesselrode, -Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, Napoleon renounced for himself and his -descendants the Empire of France and the Kingdom of Italy. He was, -however, to retain the title of Emperor; the island of Elba was erected -into an independent principality for him, and an income of £180,000 a -year was granted to him. The duchies of Parma and Piacenza were secured -in full sovereignty to the Empress Marie Louise, and after her decease -to the King of Rome, and the divorced Empress Josephine was given an -annuity of £40,000 a year. On the day before this treaty was signed, -April 10th, 1814, the Battle of Toulouse was fought. Wellington after -his victory of Orthez had rapidly followed Soult into the heart of -Southern France. When he attacked the French positions in front of -Toulouse, he was ignorant of the great events which had been passing at -Paris and at Fontainebleau, and it was only after his entrance into the -city that he perceived the white cockade was being worn. - -[Sidenote: Arrival of Louis XVIII.] - -On the 20th of April 1814, Napoleon bade farewell to the Guard at -Fontainebleau, and started for Elba, and on the 24th his successor, -Louis XVIII., who had not entered France since his escape in -1791, landed at Calais. The new King was eminently fitted by his -natural character, which had been matured by his long exile, for a -constitutional monarch, but unfortunately he was surrounded by men who -had shared his exile, and who did not share his placable disposition. -On the 2d of May, when he had reached the neighbourhood of Paris, Louis -XVIII. published what is known as the Declaration of St. Ouen. In this -declaration, he promised a constitution to the French people, which -should provide among other things for a representative government with -two chambers, complete liberty of worship and the press, the right -of the representatives to grant taxation, the inviolability of all -property, including national and ecclesiastical estates, which had -been sold during the Revolution, the responsibility of the ministers, -irremoveability of the judges, and complete equality before the law. -On the following day, he entered Paris amid general rejoicings, for -the French people had forgotten their grievances of olden time in the -memory of their more recent sufferings in the latter years of Napoleon. -He was not in any way treated with by the Provisional Government; his -return was tacitly accepted as inevitable; and he returned to the -Tuileries as of divine right, without any bargain being made with him. - -[Sidenote: First Treaty of Paris. 30th May 1814.] - -The first important duty which fell to Louis XVIII. was the signature -of a definitive treaty of peace with the allies. The evacuation of -French territory by the invaders had been arranged with the Provisional -Government on the 23d of April, and the foreign troops were already -beginning to retire. By the definitive Treaty of Paris, which was -negotiated by Talleyrand on behalf of Louis XVIII., it was agreed that -France should return to her limits of 1792. By this arrangement, the -early annexations of the Revolution before the outbreak of war were -secured to France. These additions included Avignon and the County of -the Venaissin, which had formerly belonged to the Pope, and several -districts in Alsace, of which the most noteworthy were the Principality -of Montbéliard formerly the property of the King of Würtemberg, and -the Republic of Mulhouse. France also received Chambéry, and part of -Savoy, with certain rectifications of the frontier in the neighbourhood -of Geneva, and on the north-eastern border. All the former French -colonies, except the islands of the Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, -were restored to France. With regard to other countries, it was agreed, -as had been laid down in the Treaty of Chaumont, that Germany was to -become a Confederacy instead of an Empire, that Holland and Belgium -were to be united, that Italy was to be divided into independent -states, and that the independence of Switzerland was to be guaranteed -by all the great powers. At the same time that this treaty was signed, -a secret treaty was agreed to between the four invading powers, without -consulting France. This secret treaty dealt largely with the future -apportionment of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine which -had been administered by France ever since 1794. It was roughly agreed -that these provinces should be annexed to Prussia, and it was further -laid down, that Austria should possess the whole of Lombardy, and that -Genoa should be united to Sardinia. The details of this arrangement, -and the many other questions which were certain to arise were -adjourned, and it was settled that they should be considered at a great -congress which was to meet at Vienna. - -[Sidenote: Conclusion.] - -The two nations which had done the most to overthrow the excessive -power of Napoleon were England and Russia, and the two men most -conspicuously concerned were the Emperor Alexander and Lord -Castlereagh. The two rival German powers, Austria and Prussia, -naturally inclined to different sides. Prussia was the declared ally of -Russia; the Emperor Alexander and the King Frederick William had formed -one of the romantic personal friendships which Alexander loved; and -the Russian and Prussian ministers were in perfect accord in desiring -to punish France and her allies, and to aggrandise themselves. Austria -on the other hand naturally inclined to support England. Both feared -the increasing preponderance of Russia; both felt that enough had -been done in deposing Napoleon, and did not desire to wreak vengeance -on France; both were inclined to be moderate in their demands. This -rivalry between Russia with Prussia, and Austria with England had -appeared in its incipient stages before the Treaty of Chaumont, and it -was to rise to its height during the Congress of Vienna. The return of -the Bourbons to France was to have an important result on the rivalry -between the allies, and it is a significant proof of the inherent -power of France, and of the greatness of the ascendency which she had -won, that she was enabled at Vienna to act the most decisive part. The -overthrow of Napoleon had not really weakened France; she had lost her -natural territorial limits of the Rhine and the Alps which she might -have obtained but for the stubbornness of Napoleon; nevertheless, she -was still strong enough to be feared, and in the day of her greatest -disaster she was able to exert a greater influence in the affairs of -Europe than she had ever done since the time of Louis XIV. - - - - - CHAPTER XL - - 1814–1815 - - The - Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis XVIII. in - France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The - Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of - Paris—Napoleon sent to Saint Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return - of Louis XVIII.—Government of the Second Restoration—The - Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and Naples—Territorial - Results of the Congress of Vienna—The Principle of - Nationality—Permanent Results of the French Revolution - in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the Principles of - Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality. - - -[Sidenote: Congress of Vienna.] - -On the 1st of November 1814 the diplomatists who were to resettle -Europe as arranged by the definitive Treaty of Paris met at Vienna. -But many of the monarchs most concerned felt that they could not -give their entire confidence to any diplomatist, however faithful or -distinguished, and they therefore came to Vienna in person to support -their views. The final decision of disputes obviously lay in the hands -of the four powers which by their union had conquered Napoleon. These -four powers solemnly agreed to act in harmony and to prepare all -questions privately, and then lay them before the Congress. In fact -they intended to impose their will upon the smaller states of Europe -just as Napoleon had done. That they did not succeed and that their -concert was broken was due to the extraordinary ability of Talleyrand, -the first French plenipotentiary. The history of the Congress is the -history of Talleyrand’s skilful diplomacy, and the resettlement of -Europe which it effected was therefore largely the work of France. - -[Sidenote: Monarchs and Diplomatists present.] - -The Emperor Francis of Austria acted as host to his illustrious -guests. The royalties present were the Emperor Alexander of Russia, -with his Empress, the Grand Duke Constantine, and his sisters, the -Grand Duchesses Marie of Saxe-Weimar and Catherine of Oldenburg; the -King of Prussia with his nephew Prince William; the King and Queen of -Bavaria, the King and Crown Prince of Würtemburg, the King of Denmark, -the Prince of Orange, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Saxe-Weimar, and -Hesse-Cassel, the Dukes of Brunswick, Nassau, and Saxe-Coburg. The King -of Saxony was a prisoner of war and absent. - -The plenipotentiaries of Russia were Count Razumovski, Count von -Stackelberg, and Count Nesselrode, who were assisted by Stein, the -former Prussian minister, and one of Alexander’s most trusted advisers, -by Pozzo di Borgo, the Corsican, now appointed Russian ambassador to -Paris, by Count Capo d’Istria, the future President of Greece, by -Prince Adam Czartoryski, one of the most patriotic Poles, and by some -of the most famous Russian Generals, such as Chernishev and Wolkonski. -The Austrian plenipotentiaries were Prince Metternich, the State -Chancellor, the Baron von Wessenberg-Ampfingen, and Friedrich von -Gentz, who was appointed to act as Secretary to the Congress. - -England was represented by Lord Castlereagh, Lord Cathcart, Lord -Clancarty, and Lord Stewart, Castlereagh’s brother, who as Sir Charles -Stewart had played so great a part in the negotiations in 1813, and who -had been created a peer for his services. The English plenipotentiaries -were also aided by Count von Hardenberg, and Count von Münster, -who were deputed to represent Hanoverian interests. The Prussian -plenipotentiaries were Prince von Hardenberg, the State Chancellor, -and William von Humboldt, who in military matters were advised by -General von Knesebeck. The French representatives, whose part was to be -so important, were Talleyrand, Prince of Benevento, the Duc de Dalberg, -nephew of the Prince Primate, the Marquis de la Tour du Pin, and the -Comte Alexis de Noailles. These were the representatives of the great -powers. Among the representatives of the lesser powers may be noted -from the importance of their action, Cardinal Consalvi, who represented -the Pope, the Count of Labrador for Spain, Count Palmella for Portugal, -Count Bernstorf for Denmark, Count Löwenhielm for Sweden, the Marquis -de Saint-Marsan for Sardinia, the Duke di Campo-Chiaro for Murat, -King of Naples, Ruffo, for Ferdinand King of the Two Sicilies, Prince -von Wrede for Bavaria, Count Wintzingerode for Würtemburg, and Count -von Schulemburg for Saxony. In addition to these plenipotentiaries -representing powers of the first and second rank, were innumerable -representatives of petty principalities, deputies for the free cities -of Germany, and even agents for petty German princes mediatised by -Napoleon in 1806. - -[Sidenote: History of the Congress.] - -When Talleyrand with the French legation arrived in Vienna he found, -as has been said, that the four great powers had formed a close union -in order to control the Congress. His first step therefore was to set -France forth as the champion of the second-rate states of Europe. -The Count of Labrador, the Spanish representative, strongly resented -the conduct of the great powers in pretending to arrange matters, -as they called it, for the Congress. Talleyrand skilfully made use -of Labrador, and through him and Palmella, Bernstorf and Löwenhielm -managed to upset the preconcerted ideas of the four allies, and -insisted on every matter being brought before the Congress as a whole, -and being prepared by small committees specially selected for that -purpose. His next step was to sow dissension amongst the great powers. -As the champion of the smaller states he had already made France of -considerable importance, and he then claimed that she too had a right -to be treated as a great power and not as an enemy. His argument was -that Europe had fought Napoleon and not France; that Louis XVIII. was -the legitimate monarch of France; and that any disrespect shown to him -or his ambassadors would recoil on the heads of all other legitimate -monarchs. He claimed that France had as much right to make her voice -heard in the resettlement of Europe as any other country, because the -allied monarchs had distinctly recognised that she was only to be -thrust back into her former limits and not to be expunged from the map -of Europe. Having made his claim good on the right of the legitimacy of -his master to speak for France as a great power equal in all respects -to the others, he proceeded to sow dissension among the representatives -of the four allied monarchs. This was not a difficult thing to do, for -the seeds of dissension had long existed. The difference he introduced -was that in speaking as a fifth great power, and as the champion of the -smaller states, France became the arbiter in the chief questions before -the Congress. - -The division between the great powers was caused by the desire of -Russia and Prussia for the aggrandisement of their territories. The -Emperor Alexander wished to receive the whole of Poland. His idea, -which was inspired by his friend, Prince Adam Czartoryski, was to -form Poland into an independent kingdom ruled, however, by himself as -Emperor of Russia. The Poles were to have a new Constitution based -on that propounded in 1791, and the Czar of Russia was to be also -King of Poland, just as in former days the Electors of Saxony had -been Kings of Poland, but he was to be an hereditary, not an elected, -sovereign. To form once more a united Poland, Austria and Prussia were -to surrender their gains in the three partitions of Poland. Austria -was to receive compensation for her loss of Galicia in Italy; Prussia -was to be compensated for the loss of Prussian Poland by receiving -the whole of Saxony. As it had been already arranged that Prussia was -to receive the bulk of the Rhenish territory on the left bank of the -Rhine in addition to her great extensions of 1803, the result would be -to make Prussia by far the greatest power in Germany. Talleyrand was -acute enough to perceive that Lord Castlereagh did not approve of the -extension of the influence of Russia, and that Metternich was equally -indisposed to allow Prussia to obtain such a wholesale aggrandisement. -Saxony had been the faithful ally of France to the very last, and -Talleyrand felt that it would be an indelible stain on the French name -if it were thus sacrificed. He was cordially supported in this view by -his new master, for though the King of Saxony had been the faithful -ally of Napoleon, Louis XVIII. did not forget that his own mother was -a Saxon princess. Working, therefore, on the feelings of Castlereagh -and Metternich, he induced England and Austria to declare against the -scheme of Russia and Prussia. - -The Emperor Alexander and Frederick William blustered loudly; they -declared that they were in actual military possession of Poland and of -Saxony, and that they would hold those states by force of arms against -all comers. In answer, Talleyrand, Castlereagh, and Metternich signed -a treaty of mutual alliance between France, England, and Austria, on -the 3d of January 1815. By this secret treaty the three powers bound -themselves to resist by arms the schemes of Russia and Prussia, and -in the face of their determined opposition the Emperor Alexander gave -way. Immediately Napoleon returned from Elba he found the draft treaty -between the three powers on the table of Louis XVIII. and at once sent -it to Alexander. That monarch, confronted with the danger threatened by -Napoleon’s landing in France, contented himself with showing the draft -to Metternich and then threw it in the fire. The whole of this strange -story is of the utmost interest; it proves not only the ability of -Talleyrand, but the inherent strength of France. It is most significant -that within a few months after the occupation of Paris by the allies -for the first time France should again be recognised as a great power, -and form the main factor in breaking up the cohesion of the alliance, -which had been formed against her. - -[Sidenote: Secret Treaty of 3d Jan. 1815] - -[Sidenote: Treaty of Ghent. Dec. 24, 1814.] - -[Sidenote: Settlement of Saxony.] - -The result of Talleyrand’s skilful policy was thus to unite England, -Austria, and France, supported by many of the secondary states, such -as Bavaria and Spain, against the pretensions of Prussia and Russia. -Powerful armies were immediately set on foot. France in particular -raised her military forces from 130,000 to 200,000 men, and her new -army was in every way superior to that with which Napoleon had fought -his defensive campaigns in 1814, for it contained the veteran soldiers -who had been blockaded in the distant fortresses or had been prisoners -of war. England too was enabled to make adequate preparations, for on -December the 24th, 1814, a treaty had been signed at Ghent between the -United States and England which put an end to the war which had been -proceeding ever since 1812 on account of England’s naval pretensions. -Bavaria also promised to put in the field 30,000 men for every 100,000 -supplied by Austria. Although the secret treaty of January 3d was not -divulged until after the return of Napoleon from Elba, the determined -attitude of the opposition caused the Emperor Alexander to give way. -It was decided that instead of the whole of Saxony, Prussia should -only receive the district of Lusatia, together with the towns of -Torgau and Wittenberg; a territory which embraced half the area of -Saxony and one-third of its population. The King of Saxony, who had -been treated as a prisoner of war, and whom the Emperor of Russia had -even threatened to send to Siberia, was released from captivity, and -induced by the Duke of Wellington, who succeeded Lord Castlereagh as -English plenipotentiary in February 1815, to agree to these terms. -The salvation of Saxony was a matter of great gratification to Louis -XVIII., who remembered that though the king had been the faithful ally -of Napoleon, he was also his own near relative. - -[Sidenote: Settlement of Poland.] - -Since Prussia was obliged to give up her claim to the whole of Saxony, -Russia also had to withdraw from her scheme of uniting the whole of -Poland. Nevertheless, Russia retained the lion’s share of the Grand -Duchy of Warsaw; in 1774 her frontier had reached the Dwina and the -Dnieper; in 1793 she obtained half of Lithuania as far as Wilna; in -1795 she annexed the rest of Lithuania and touched the Niémen and the -Bug; in 1809 Napoleon had granted her the territory containing the -sources of the Bug; and now in 1815 her borders crossed the Vistula, -and by the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including that -city, penetrated for some distance between Eastern Prussia and Galicia. -Prussia received back its share of the two first partitions of Poland, -with the addition of the province of Posen and the city of Thorn, but -lost Warsaw and its share in the last partition; while Austria received -Cracow, which was to be administered as a free city. Alexander was -deeply disappointed by the frustration of his Polish schemes, but he -nevertheless kept his promise to Prince Adam Czartoryski and granted a -representative constitution and a measure of independence to Russian -Poland. - -[Sidenote: The Germanic Confederation.] - -Though the great diplomatic struggle arose over the combined question -of Saxony and Poland, the most important work of the Congress was -not confined to it alone. Committees were appointed to make new -arrangements for Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and to settle other -miscellaneous questions. Of these committees the most important was -that which reorganised Germany. It had been arranged by the secret -articles of the Treaty of Paris that a Germanic Confederation should -take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. The example of Napoleon and -his institution of the Confederation of the Rhine was followed and -developed. Instead of the hundreds of small states which had existed -at the commencement of the French Revolution, Germany, apart from -Austria and Prussia, was organised into only thirty-eight states. These -were the four kingdoms of Hanover, Bavaria, Würtemburg, and Saxony; -the seven grand duchies of Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, -Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; -the nine duchies of Nassau, Brunswick, Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Coburg, -Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, -and Anhalt-Köthen; eleven principalities, two of Schwartzburg, two of -Hohenzollern, two of Lippe, two of Reuss, Hesse-Homburg, Liechtenstein, -and Waldeck, and the four free cities of Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, -and Lübeck. The number of thirty-eight was made up by the duchies of -Holstein and Lauenburg, belonging to the King of Denmark, and the grand -duchy of Luxembourg, granted to the King of the Netherlands. In its -organisation the Germanic Confederation resembled the Confederation -of the Rhine. The Diet of the Confederation was to be always presided -over by Austria and was to consist of two Chambers. The Ordinary -Assembly was composed of seventeen members, one for each of the larger -states, one for the free cities combined, one for Brunswick, one for -Nassau, one for the four duchies of Saxony united, one for the three -duchies of Anhalt united, and one for the smaller principalities. This -Assembly was to sit permanently at Frankfort and to settle all ordinary -matters. In addition there was to be a General Assembly to be summoned -intermittently for important subjects, consisting of sixty-nine -members returned by the different states in proportion to their size -and population. Each state was to be supreme in internal matters, but -private wars against each other were forbidden as well as external wars -by individual states on powers outside the limits of the Confederacy. -In the territorial arrangements of the new Confederation, the most -important point is the disappearance of all ecclesiastical states. The -Prince-Primacy, which Napoleon had established in his Confederation of -the Rhine, was not maintained, and Dalberg, who had filled that office -throughout the Empire, was restricted to his ecclesiastical functions. - -[Sidenote: Territorial arrangements on the Rhine.] - -The most difficult problem to be decided was the final disposition of -the districts on the left bank of the Rhine, which had been ruled by -France ever since 1794. It had been settled by the secret articles at -Paris that these dominions should be used for the establishment of -strong powers upon the borders of France. The main difficulty was as -to the disposition of the important border fortresses of Mayence and -Luxembourg. Prussia laid claim to both these places, but was strongly -resisted by Austria, France, and the smaller states of Germany. It was -eventually resolved that Prussia should receive the northern territory -on the left bank of the Rhine, stretching from Elten to Coblentz, and -including Cologne, Trèves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. In compensation for -the Tyrol and Salzburg, which she was forced to return to Austria, and -in recognition of her former sovereignty in the Palatinate, Bavaria -was granted a district from the Prussian borders to Alsace, including -Mayence, which was designated Rhenish Bavaria. Finally, Luxembourg was -formed into a grand duchy, and given as a German state to the House -of Orange. It was not united to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, -which was formed out of Holland and Belgium, but was to retain its -independence under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands. The -union of the provinces of the Netherlands was one of the favourite -schemes of England, and was carried into effect in spite of the -well-known feeling of opposition between the Catholic provinces of -Belgium and the Protestant provinces of Holland. - -[Sidenote: Switzerland.] - -As in its reorganisation of Germany, so in the settlement of -Switzerland, the Congress of Vienna followed the example set by -Napoleon. The Emperor had quite given up the idea which had fascinated -the French Directory of forming Switzerland into a Republic, one -and indivisible. He had yielded to the wishes of the Swiss people -themselves, and organised them on the basis of a confederation of -independent cantons. The Congress of Vienna continued Napoleon’s -policy of forbidding the existence of subject cantons in spite of -the protests of the Canton of Berne. Napoleon’s cantons of Argau, -Thurgau, Saint-Gall, the Grisons, the Ticino, and the Pays de Vaud were -maintained, but the number of the cantons was raised from nineteen to -twenty-two by the formation of the three new cantons of Geneva, the -Valais, and Neufchâtel, which had formed part of the French Empire. -The Canton of Berne received in reply to its importunities the greater -part of the former Bishopric of Basle. The Swiss Confederation as -thus constituted was placed under the guarantee of the great powers -and declared neutral for ever. The Helvetic Constitution, which was -promulgated by a Federal Act dated the 7th of April 1815, was not quite -so liberal as Napoleon’s Constitution. Greater independence was secured -in that the constitutions of the separate cantons and organic reforms -in them had not to be submitted to the Federal Diet. The prohibition -against internal custom houses was removed. The presidency of the -Diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne alternately, and the -Helvetic Diet became a Congress of Delegates like the Germanic Diet -rather than a Legislative Assembly. It is to be noted that in spite of -the declaration of the Congress of Vienna, Prussia refused to renounce -her claims on her former territory of Neufchâtel, the independence of -which as a Swiss canton was not recognised by her until 1857. - -[Sidenote: Italy.] - -The resettlement of Italy presented more than one special problem. The -most difficult of these to solve was caused by the engagements entered -into by the allies with Murat in 1814. Talleyrand, on behalf of the -King of France, insisted on the dethronement and expulsion of Murat, -while Metternich from friendship for Caroline Murat wished to retain -him in his kingdom. The Emperor Alexander, whoever prided himself on -his fidelity to his engagements, wished to protect Murat, and had -at Vienna struck up a warm friendship with Eugène de Beauharnais, -Napoleon’s Viceroy of Italy. Murat, ungrateful though he was personally -toward Napoleon, had yet imbibed his master’s ideas in favour of the -unity and independence of Italy. During the campaign of 1814, he had -led his army to the banks of the Po, and he persisted in remaining -there after the Congress of Vienna had met. But the diplomatists at -Vienna had no wish to accept the great idea of Italian unity. Murat’s -aspirations in this direction were most annoying to them, and it was -with real pleasure that they heard after the landing of Napoleon from -Elba that Murat had by an indiscreet proclamation given them an excuse -for an open declaration of war. The Duke di Campo-Chiaro, Murat’s -representative at Vienna, had kept him informed of the differences -between the allied powers, and an indiscreet note asking whether he was -to be considered as at peace or at war with the House of Bourbon gave -the plenipotentiaries their opportunity. War was immediately declared -against him; an Austrian army defeated him at Tolentino on the 3d -of May 1815, and he was forced to fly from Italy. The acceptance of -Murat’s ambassador, who spoke in his name as King of the Two Sicilies, -made it difficult for the Congress to know how to treat with Ruffo -who had been sent as ambassador by Ferdinand, the Bourbon King of the -Two Sicilies, who had maintained his power in the island of Sicily -through the presence of the English garrison. Acting on the ground -of legitimacy, it was difficult to reject Ferdinand’s claims, which -were warmly supported by France and Spain, but Murat’s ill-considered -behaviour solved the difficulty, and after his defeat Ferdinand was -recognised as King of the Two Sicilies. Murat, later in the year, -landed in his former dominions, but he was taken prisoner and promptly -shot. - -Another Italian question which presented considerable difficulty was -the disposal of Genoa and the surrounding territory. When Lord William -Bentinck occupied that city, he had in the name of England promised -it independence and even hinted at the unity of Italy. Castlereagh -unfortunately felt it to be his duty to disavow Bentinck’s declaration, -and Genoa was united to Piedmont as part of the kingdom of Sardinia. -The third difficult question was the creation of a state for the -Empress Marie Louise. An independent sovereignty had been promised to -her. She was naturally supported by her father, the Emperor Francis -of Austria, and was ably represented at Vienna by her future husband, -Count Neipperg. It was eventually resolved that she should receive the -duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but the succession was not -secured to her son, the King of Rome, but was granted to the rightful -heir, the King of Etruria, who, until the succession fell in, was to -rule at Lucca. The other arrangements in Italy were comparatively -simple. Austria received the whole of Venetia and Lombardy, in the -place of Mantua and the Milanese, which she had possessed before 1789. -The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the principality of Piombino, was -restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, the uncle of the Emperor Francis -of Austria, with the eventual succession to the Duchy of Lucca. The -Pope received back his dominions including the Legations of Bologna -and Ferrara, and Duke Francis, the grandson of Hercules III., was -recognised as Duke of Modena, to which duchy he would have succeeded -had not Napoleon absorbed it in his kingdom of Italy. - -[Sidenote: Other States.] - -[Sidenote: Sweden.] - -[Sidenote: Denmark.] - -[Sidenote: Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Portugal.] - -[Sidenote: England.] - -The arrangements with regard to the other states of Europe made at -the Congress of Vienna were comparatively unimportant, and did not -present the same difficult problems as the resettlement of Germany, -Switzerland, and Italy. Norway in spite of its disinclination was -definitely ceded to Sweden, but Bernadotte had to restore to France the -West-Indian island of Guadeloupe, which had been handed over to him -by England in 1813, as part of the price of his alliance. Denmark had -by the Treaty of Kiel with Bernadotte been promised Swedish Pomerania -in the place of Norway. This promise was not carried out. Denmark -like Saxony had been too faithful an ally of Napoleon not to be made -to suffer. Swedish Pomerania was given to Prussia, and Denmark only -received the small Duchy of Lauenburg. By these arrangements both -Sweden and Denmark were greatly weakened, and the Scandinavian States, -by the loss of Finland and Pomerania, surrendered to their powerful -neighbours, Prussia and Russia, the command of the Baltic Sea. Spain, -owing to the ability of the Count of Labrador, and the support of -Talleyrand, not only lost nothing except the island of Trinidad, which -had been conquered by England, but was allowed to retain the district -round Olivenza, which had been ceded to her by Portugal in 1801. The -desertion of Portugal by England in this particular is the chief blot -on Lord Castlereagh’s policy at Vienna. The Portuguese army had fought -gallantly with Wellington, and there was no reason why she should have -been forced to consent to the definite cession of Olivenza to Spain -when other countries were winning back their former borders. Portugal -was also made to surrender French Guiana and Cayenne to France. -England, though she had borne the chief pecuniary stress of the war -and had been more instrumental than any other power in overthrowing -Napoleon, received less compensation than any other country. She kept -Malta, thus settling the question which led to the rupture of the -Peace of Amiens; she received Heligoland, which was ceded to her by -Denmark, as commanding the mouth of the Elbe; and she was also granted -the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, which enabled her to close -the Adriatic. Among colonial possessions England took from France the -Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, but she returned Martinique and the -Isle of Bourbon, and forced Sweden and Portugal to restore Guadeloupe -and French Guiana. With regard to Holland, England retained Ceylon and -the Cape of Good Hope, but she restored Java, Curaçao, and the other -Dutch possessions. In the West Indies also, she retained, as has been -said, the former Spanish island of Trinidad. - -[Sidenote: The Slave Trade.] - -[Sidenote: The Navigation of Rivers.] - -One reason for Castlereagh’s moderation at Vienna is to be found -in the pressure that was exerted upon him in England to secure the -abolition of the slave trade. It is a curious fact that while the -English plenipotentiary was taking such an important share in the -resettlement of Europe, the English people were mainly interested in -the question of the slave trade. The great changes which were leading -to new combinations in Europe, the aggrandisement of Prussia, the -reconstitution of Germany, the extension of Austria, all passed without -notice, but meetings, in Lord Castlereagh’s own words, were held in -nearly every village to insist upon his exerting his authority to -abolish the trade in negro slaves. Castlereagh therefore lent his -best efforts, in obedience to his constituents, to this end. The -other ambassadors could not understand why he troubled so much about -what seemed to them a trivial matter. They suspected a deep design, -and thought that the reason of England’s humanity was that her West -Indian colonies were well stocked with negroes, whereas the islands -she was restoring were empty of them. The plenipotentiaries of other -powers possessing colonies in the tropics therefore refused to comply -with Castlereagh’s request and it was eventually settled that the -slave trade should be abolished by France after five, and by Spain -after eight years. Castlereagh had to be content with this concession, -but to satisfy his English constituents he got a declaration condemning -the slave trade assented to by all the powers at the Congress. Another -point of great importance which was settled at the Congress of Vienna -was with regard to the navigation of rivers which flow through more -than one state. It had been the custom for all the petty sovereigns to -impose such heavy tolls on river traffic that such rivers as the Rhine -were made practically useless for commerce. This question was discussed -by a committee at the Congress, and a code for the international -regulation of rivers was drawn up and generally agreed to. - -[Sidenote: Close of the Congress of Vienna. June 1815.] - -These matters took long to discuss, and might have taken longer had -not the news arrived at the beginning of March 1815 that Napoleon had -left Elba and become once more undisputed ruler of France. In the month -of February the Duke of Wellington had succeeded Lord Castlereagh as -English representative at Vienna, for the latter nobleman had to return -to London to take his place in Parliament. At the news of the striking -event of Napoleon’s being once more at the head of a French army all -jealousies at Vienna ceased for the time. The Duke of Wellington was -taken into consultation by the allied monarchs, and it was resolved -to carry into effect the provisions of the Treaty of Chaumont. The -great armies which had been prepared for a struggle amongst themselves -were now turned by the allies against France. A treaty of alliance -was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, -on the 25th of March 1815, by which those powers promised to furnish -180,000 men each for the prosecution of war, and stipulated that -none of them should lay down arms until the power of Napoleon was -completely destroyed. It was arranged that three armies should invade -France, the first of 250,000 Austrians, Russians, and Bavarians under -Schwartzenberg across the Upper Rhine, the second of 150,000 Prussians -under Blücher across the Lower Rhine, and the third of 150,000 English, -Hanoverians and Dutch from the Netherlands. Subsidies to the extent of -£11,000,000 were promised by England to the allies. These arrangements -made, the allied monarchs and their ministers left Vienna. But the -final general Act of the Congress was not drawn up and signed until the -8th of June 1815, ten days before the battle of Waterloo. - -[Sidenote: The First Reign of Louis XVIII.] - -It has been said that the allied armies after the abdication of -Napoleon at Fontainebleau had retired and left France to the rule of -Louis XVIII. That King on returning to France had made most liberal -promises in the declaration known as the Declaration of Saint Ouen. -These principles were embodied in a Charter, which was granted on the -4th of June 1814. By this Charter representative institutions and -entire individual liberty were promised, and also the maintenance of -the administrative creations of the Empire. Under the new Constitution -there were to be two chambers, the one of hereditary peers, the other -of elected representatives. The promises of the Charter were very fair, -and had they been duly carried out, France might have been entirely -contented, but unfortunately for himself Louis XVIII. had not learned -experience in his exile. In spite of the Charter he regarded himself as -a ruler by right divine. _Emigrés_, even _émigrés_ who had borne arms -against France and consistently abused their fatherland, were promoted -to the highest offices in the State. The King surrounded himself with -reactionary courtiers, and what was worse with reactionary ministers. -The favour shown to returned _émigrés_, the haughty attitude of the -Princes of the blood, and the violent proclamations of the returned -bishops and clergy made the people of France fear that the promises -made in the Charter were but a sham, and that the next step would -be that the estates of the Church and of the Crown which had been -sold during the Revolution would be resumed. The feeling of distrust -was universal. The rule of Louis XVIII. had been accepted only as a -guarantee of peace. It was never popular, and the former subordinates -of Napoleon began to regret the Imperial _régime_. If this was the -feeling among the civil population, it was still more keenly felt -in the army. Prisoners of war, and the blockaded garrisons, who had -returned to France, felt sure that Napoleon’s defeat in 1814 had been -but accidental and wished to try conclusions once more with Europe. -In all ranks a desire was expressed to wipe out the disgrace of the -occupation of Paris by the allies. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon’s return from Elba. March, 1815.] - -On the 1st of March 1815, Napoleon, who had been informed of the -universal feeling in France, landed in the Gulf of San Juan, and began -the short reign which is known as the Hundred Days. He was accompanied -by the 800 men of the Guard whom he had been allowed to have at Elba, -and was received with the utmost enthusiasm by all classes. His journey -through France was a triumphal procession. The King’s brother, the -Comte d’Artois, vainly attempted to organise resistance at Lyons. -Marshal Ney, who had promised to arrest his patron, joined him with the -army under his command on the 17th of March, and on the 20th Napoleon -re-entered Paris and took up his quarters at the Tuileries. Louis -XVIII. had fled on the news of Ney’s defection, and escaping from -France took shelter at Ghent. Napoleon had learnt bitter lessons from -his misfortunes. He declared that he would grant full and complete -individual liberty, and also the freedom of the press, and on the 23d -of April he promulgated what he called the Additional Act consecrating -these principles. He felt his error in depending too entirely upon his -bureaucracy, and he appealed on the ground of patriotism to the men -of the Revolution whom he had in the days of his power carefully kept -from office. These men rallied round him, and he appointed their most -noteworthy representative, Carnot, his Minister of the Interior. He -declared his acceptance of the two chambers ordained by the Charter, -and most of the peers created by Louis XVIII. took the oath of -allegiance once again to Napoleon. - -[Sidenote: Campaign of Waterloo. June 1815.] - -After rousing national enthusiasm by appeals to patriotism and by -the liberal provisions of the Additional Act, Napoleon organised -his army, and in his favourite fashion decided to strike before any -invasion of France took place. Of the three armies prepared for the -invasion the one nearest within reach was that commanded by the Duke -of Wellington. That General on leaving Vienna had been placed at the -head of a miscellaneous force of English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and -Belgians. He greatly regretted the absence of most of his veterans of -the Peninsula who were still in America, and complained of the number -of raw troops under his command. He agreed to act in harmony with the -Prussians under Blücher, who brought his army into the Netherlands. -Napoleon determined to strike before Wellington and Blücher had united. -He crossed the frontier at the head of 130,000 men, and by his skilful -and rapid movements practically surprised the allied generals. On the -16th of June 1815, he defeated Blücher at Ligny, while Ney with his -left fought a drawn battle with the English advanced divisions at -Quatre Bras. By these engagements the English and Prussian armies were -separated. Napoleon then resolved to attack the English with the bulk -of his army, and detached Marshal Grouchy to pursue the Prussians. -Blücher, however, promised to come to Wellington’s assistance if the -English were attacked, and Wellington relying on this promise took up -his position at Waterloo. On the 18th of June the battle of Waterloo -was fought. The English army held its position in spite of repeated and -furious attacks, until Blücher came up on the French right. Unable to -continue the struggle against two foes, the French army was obliged to -give way, and after the repulse of the Guard, which might have covered -his retreat, Napoleon recognised that he was completely routed. He fled -to Paris, and on the 22d of June he abdicated in favour of his son, the -King of Rome. He nominated an executive commission of government, and -then went on board ship in the hope of escaping to America. In this -project he failed, and on 15th July he surrendered to Captain Maitland -on board H.M.S. _Bellerophon_. The army of Wellington and Blücher -pursued the defeated foe, but the rout had been too complete for the -French to make another stand. Cambrai the only place that attempted to -resist was easily taken, and on the 3d of July Wellington and Blücher -reoccupied Paris. Meanwhile the grand army of Schwartzenberg had also -invaded France, and the country was once more in the possession of the -allies. - -[Sidenote: Second Treaty of Paris. 20th Nov. 1815.] - -The terms of the second Treaty of Paris proved that the allied monarchs -understood the difference between the opposition made by France -to Europe in 1814 and 1815. In 1814 the Treaty of Paris which was -then concluded was, if not particularly liberal to France, at least -perfectly just. The allied monarchs and their ministers had appreciated -the fact that in 1814 they were fighting Napoleon and not France. The -campaign of 1815 had been of a different character. The French nation -and not merely the French army had given proof of their attachment both -to the Empire and to Napoleon’s person. It was therefore considered -necessary, not only to impose harsher terms upon France, but to exact -securities for the future. Several schemes were proposed, of which -one was to detach Alsace, Lorraine, and French Flanders, if not the -whole of Picardy, and to reduce the limits of France to what they were -before the conquests of Louis XIV. This scheme, which was earnestly -supported by Prussia, who hoped to get the lion’s share of the -districts taken from France, was warmly opposed by Austria and England. -The latter power was not to be bribed by the proposed extension of -the frontier of its new creation, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And -the former objected entirely to any increase of the power of Prussia. -Lord Castlereagh in his opposition to these extravagant suggestions -of Prussia was supported by the Emperor Alexander and his minister, -Nesselrode, and eventually it was agreed that France should be -reduced to its exact limits of 1789. This meant that France lost all -the cessions made to it in 1814, except Avignon and the Venaissin. -Chambéry and the part of Savoy then granted to France were restored -to the King of Sardinia; the districts in the neighbourhood of Geneva -were also returned to that canton, and the fortress of Huningen on the -borders of Switzerland was ordered to be dismantled; and the various -rectifications of the frontier on the eastern and north-eastern borders -were no longer sanctioned. A war contribution of 700,000,000 francs was -laid upon France, in addition to which she was to maintain, at the cost -of 250,000,000 francs a year, an army of 150,000 men in the possession -of her chief frontier fortresses for a period of five years. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon sent to St. Helena.] - -These were the most important conditions of peace contained in the -second Treaty of Paris, which was signed on 20th of November 1815. -But what France felt more bitterly than pecuniary contributions, or -even the loss of territory, was the decision of the allied powers that -the numerous pictures and works of art, which had been accumulated -in Paris during the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, should be -returned to their former owners. The Prussians were not satisfied with -this, they wished to punish Paris more severely. Blücher was only -prevented by the intervention of Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of -Wellington from exacting a contribution of a 110,000,000 francs from -the inhabitants of Paris alone. The Prussians even made preparations -to blow up the Bridge of Jena, whose name perpetuated their greatest -military humiliation, and were only prevented from their purpose by the -expressed determination of Louis XVIII. to stand upon the bridge and -be blown up with it if they persisted, and Blücher had to be satisfied -with the alteration of the name of the bridge from the Bridge of Jena -to the Bridge of the Military School. The question of the disposition -of the person of Napoleon was one of some difficulty. He reached Torbay -on board the _Bellerophon_ on the 24th of July 1815, and the English -Ministers did not know what to do with their illustrious prisoner. They -dared not trust him in any part of Europe or America from which he -could repeat his expedition from Elba. Blücher loudly declared that he -ought to be shot at Vincennes like the Duc d’Enghien, but the English -Government thought it would be sufficient to confine him on an isolated -island. For this purpose they borrowed the island of Saint Helena from -the East India Company, and on the 8th of August, Napoleon set sail for -his place of exile on board H.M.S. _Northumberland_. - -[Sidenote: The Holy Alliance. Sept. 1815] - -A month after the departure of Napoleon for St. Helena, the Emperor -Alexander, the Emperor Francis, and King Frederick William signed the -treaty which is known as the Holy Alliance. By this treaty it was -declared that the Christian religion was the sole base of government, -and the contracting monarchs promised to aid each other on all -occasions like brothers, and to recommend to their peoples the exercise -of the duties of the Christian religion. Lord Castlereagh declined -on behalf of the Prince Regent to join the Holy Alliance, but on the -28th of November 1815, after the signature of the Peace of Paris, he -agreed to an alliance that should include all the four powers, of which -the aims were to keep from the throne of France either Napoleon or -any relation of his, to combine together for the security of their -separate states, and the general tranquillity of Europe, and to hold at -fixed dates congresses for the settlement of disputed questions. - -[Sidenote: The Second Restoration of Louis XVIII. July 1815.] - -The second restoration of Louis XVIII. differed from the first as the -second Treaty of Paris differed from its predecessor. After the events -of the Hundred Days, the Bourbon King could no more delude himself -with the idea that he was welcome to the people of France. He owed his -seat upon the throne only to the absence of Napoleon and the presence -of the allied armies in France, and he prepared on this occasion to -punish those who had deserted him. He refused to grant an amnesty, and -on the 24th of July 1815, he proscribed fifty-seven of the leading men -in France, of whom nineteen were ordered to be tried by court-martial, -and thirty-eight were banished. The most illustrious of the victims who -perished under this proscription was Marshal Ney, who was shot at Paris -on the 7th of December, after being condemned to death by the Chamber -of Peers. This procedure was rendered necessary because it would have -been difficult to find a court-martial to condemn the bravest of the -French marshals. Marshal Moncey, who was nominated to preside over -such a court-martial, refused in an eloquent letter which caused him -to be sent to prison for three months. Far worse than these executions -was the result of the outbreak of brigandage in the south of France. -Under the pretext of being Royalists, the Companies of Jehu, which had -ravaged the south of France in the days of the Thermidorians and of -the Directory, again set to work. Political, religious, and personal -passions excited to massacre. Pillage and murder were rife throughout -the south of France, and among the victims who were slain in this White -Terror of 1815 were Marshal Brune, and Generals Ramel and Lagarde. -Special courts were formed by a law voted on the 12th of December 1815, -to punish political offences. These provost’s courts were as severe and -almost as unjust as the revolutionary tribunals in the provinces during -the Reign of Terror, and many hundreds of executions took place. -Finally, in January 1816, what was ironically called a Law of Amnesty -was passed. This law, from the list of its exceptions, was practically -a gigantic proscription. Among others, all surviving members of the -Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI. were exiled if -they had in any way accepted the authority of Napoleon during the -Hundred Days, which most of them had done. Under this Law of Amnesty -most of the great statesmen who had been concerned in the government of -France since 1793 were driven into exile. Conspicuous among them were -Carnot, Merlin of Douai, Sieyès, Cambacérès, and David, the greatest -painter of his time. - -[Sidenote: Government of the Second Restoration.] - -Restored for a second time to the throne of France, Louis XVIII. -declined to take warning from the result of his former policy. He again -showered his favours on returned _émigrés_, and pursued a thoroughly -reactionary policy. As soon as he was firmly seated at the Tuileries, -with the Prussians and the English encamped round Paris, he dismissed -Talleyrand and Fouché from office and formed a new and strongly -Royalist ministry under the presidency of the Duc de Richelieu, who had -spent the last twenty years of his life in exile as one of the chief -administrators of Russia. The king avowed his intention of keeping -the promises he made in the Charter of 1814, but those promises were -carried out in such a way as to make them absolutely illusory. He took -advantage of the general adhesion given to Napoleon on his return from -Elba to exclude from the Upper Chamber or House of Peers most of the -leading men in France, leaving the majority entirely in the hands of -former _émigrés_, and of men who by the excess of their royalism wished -to palliate their offence in not having emigrated. The Lower House, -or Chamber of Representatives, even exceeded the House of Peers in -its violent royalism. The deputies, chiefly elected under the direct -pressure of threats of vengeance, were ready to adopt any reactionary -measure suggested to them. Louis XVIII. gave this Assembly the name of -the ‘Chambre Introuvable,’ which he intended as a compliment, but which -has survived as a term of derision. Among the first laws voted were the -suspension of individual liberty, and of the liberty of the press, and -the request was then made that the King, in his goodness, would revise -fourteen articles of the Charter which were too liberal. But even this -chamber, aided by the presence of foreign armies, could not make France -revert to the condition in which it had been before 1789. A hint of the -resumption of ecclesiastical or national domains would have set the -whole country in an uproar, and the Chamber had to be satisfied with -voting a large sum of money out of the ordinary taxes as compensation -to the _émigrés_ for their sufferings in exile. - -[Sidenote: The Reaction in Spain.] - -[Sidenote: Naples.] - -The spirit of reaction went much further in Spain than in France. -Ferdinand VII., on returning to his capital in May 1814, issued a -proclamation attacking the Cortes, which had done so much to recover -the country from the hands of the French. In his own words: ‘A Cortes -convoked in a manner never before known in Spain has been profiting by -my captivity in France, and has usurped my rights by imposing on my -people an anarchical and seditious Constitution based on the democratic -principles of the French Revolution.’ The King of Spain then proceeded -to annul by his own absolute authority everything that had been done -during his absence. He re-established the Inquisition, and proscribed -and condemned to death all who had taken part in reforming the -institutions of Spain, whether under the authority of Joseph Bonaparte -or under that of the National Cortes. Many hundreds, if not thousands, -of Spanish patriots were put to death in a vain attempt of Ferdinand -VII. to restore things as they had been in former days. The attempt to -carry out a complete reaction resulted in utter failure. Insurrections -broke out in all directions, and the Spanish colonies in South America -took advantage of the troubles in the fatherland to strike a blow for -their own freedom. It is satisfactory to be able to state that the head -of the third reigning branch of the House of Bourbon behaved with more -moderation and wisdom than Ferdinand VII. of Spain or Louis XVIII. -of France. Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, returned to his -capital at Naples in June 1815. He can hardly be blamed for ordering -the execution of Murat whom he had always regarded as a usurper, and -it is greatly to his credit that he made some endeavour to retain -the excellent administration on the French system which had been -established by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat. - -[Sidenote: Results of the Congress of Vienna.] - -The final overthrow of Napoleon and his exile to St. Helena allowed the -new system for the government of Europe as laid down by the Congress -of Vienna to be tried. That system may be roughly designated as the -system of the Great Powers. Before 1789, certain states, such as -France and England and Spain, were, from fortuitous circumstances, or -the course of their history, larger, more united, and therefore more -fitted for war, than others, but the greater part of the Continent -was split up into small, and in the case of Germany, into very small -states. Several of these small states, such as Sweden and Holland, -had at different times exercised a very considerable influence, and -the policy of Frederick the Great had added another to them, in the -military state of Prussia. At the Congress of Vienna the tendency -was to diminish the number and power of the secondary states, and to -destroy minute sovereignties. Sweden and Denmark were relegated to the -rank of third-rate powers; the petty principalities of Germany were -built up into third-rate states. Austria and Prussia were established -as great powers, but the increase of their territory brought with it -dissimilar results. Prussia became the preponderant state of Germany, -while Austria, whose Imperial House had so long held the position -of Holy Roman Emperor, became less German, and now depended for its -strength on its Italian, Magyar, and Slavonic provinces. The irruption -of Russia into the European comity of nations was another significant -feature. By its annexation of the greater part of the Grand Duchy of -Warsaw, Russia thrust itself between Prussia and Austria territorially, -while its leading share in the overthrow of Napoleon made its place as -a European power unassailable. It may be doubted if the policy of Peter -the Great and the Empress Catherine was thus carried out. The tendency -of those rulers was to make the Baltic and the Black Sea Russian lakes, -and to build up an Empire of the East; affairs in Central Europe only -interested them in so far as they prevented interference with their -Eastern designs, and did not lead to the erection of powerful states on -the Russian border. - -[Sidenote: The Principle of Nationality.] - -Nothing is more remarkable in the settlement of Europe by the Congress -of Vienna than the entire neglect of the principle of nationality. Yet -it was the sentiment of national patriotism which had enabled France to -repulse Europe in arms, and had trained the soldiers with whom Napoleon -had given the law to the Continent and had overthrown the mercenary -armies of his opponents. It was the principle of nationality which had -crippled Napoleon’s finest armies in Spain, and which had produced -his expulsion from Russia. It was the feeling of intense national -patriotism which had made the Prussian army of 1813, and enabled -Prussia after its deepest humiliation to take rank as a first-class -power. But the diplomatists at Vienna treated the idea as without -force. They had not learnt the great lesson of the French Revolution, -that the first result of rousing a national consciousness of political -liberty is to create a spirit of national patriotism. The Congress of -Vienna trampled such notions under foot. The partition of Poland was -consecrated by Europe; Italy was placed under foreign rulers; Belgium -and Holland, in spite of the hereditary opposition of centuries, were -united under one king. The territories on the left bank of the Rhine, -which were happy under French rule, and had been an integral part of -France for twenty years, were roughly torn away, and divided between -Prussia, Bavaria, and the House of Orange, under the fancied necessity, -induced by the exploded notion of maintaining the balance of power in -Europe, of building up a bulwark against France. Such short-sighted -policy was certain to be undone. Holland and Belgium separated; Italy -became united; Poland maintained the consciousness of her national -unity, and has more than once endeavoured to regain her independence; -France has never ceased to yearn after her ‘natural’ frontier, -the Rhine; the states of Germany have developed a national German -patriotism which has led to the creation of the modern German Empire. -This feeling of conscious nationality was the result of the French -Revolution and the wars of Napoleon; its existence is the strength of -England, France, Russia, and Germany, its absence is the weakness of -Austria. In so far as the spirit of nationality was neglected at the -Congress of Vienna, its work was but temporary; in its resurrection, -which has filled the history of the present century, the work of the -French Revolution has been permanent. - -[Sidenote: Permanent results of the French Revolution.] - -But after all, the growth of the spirit of nationality is only a -secondary result of the French Revolution upon Europe; it did not -arise in France until foreign powers attempted to interfere with the -development of the French people after their own fashion; it did not -arise in Europe until Napoleon began to interfere with the development -of other nations. The primary results of the French Revolution,—the -recognition of individual liberty, which implied the abolition of -serfdom and of social privileges; the establishment of political -liberty, which implied the abolition of despots, however benevolent, -and of political privileges; the maintenance of the doctrine of the -sovereignty of the people, which implied the right of the people, -through their representatives, to govern themselves,—have also survived -the Congress of Vienna. When Europe tried to interfere, the French -people sacrificed these great gains to the spirit of nationality, -and bowed before the despotism of the Committee of Public Safety and -of Napoleon; they have since regained them. The French taught these -principles to the rest of Europe, and the history of Europe since 1815 -has been the history of their growth side by side with the idea of -nationality. How the two, liberty and nationality, can be preserved in -harmony is the great problem of the future; the history of Europe from -1789 to 1815 affords many examples of the difficulty of the problem and -of the dangers which beset its solution. - - - - - APPENDICES - - - - - APPENDIX I. - - THE RULERS AND MINISTERS OF THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815. - - (_Capitals indicate Rulers; small capitals, Chief Ministers; and - italics, Foreign Ministers._ - - - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ - | | Holy Roman Empire; | | | - | |after 1805, Austria. | Great Britain. | France. | - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+----------------------+ - |1789.|JOSEPH II. (Emperor |GEORGE III. (since |LOUIS XVI. (since | - | | since 1765; ruler of| 1760). | 1774). | - | | Austria since 1780).| WILLIAM PITT |_Comte de Montmorin_| - | |KAUNITZ (since 1756).| (since Dec. 1783). | (since 1787). | - | | _Philip Cobenzl_ | _Duke of Leeds_ | | - | | (since 1780). | (since Dec. 1783). | | - |1790.|LEOPOLD II. (Feb.) | | | - |1791.| |_Lord Grenville_ |_A. de Valdec de | - | | | (June). | Lessart_ (Nov.) | - |1792.|FRANCIS II. (March). | |REPUBLIC (Sept.) | - | | | | _Dumouriez_ (March).| - | | | | _Chambonas_ (June). | - | | | |_Bigot de Ste. Croix_| - | | | | (Aug.) | - | | | |_Lebrun Tondu_ (Aug.)| - |1793.| | | _Deforgues_ (June). | - |1794.| COLLOREDO | | (Ministry abolished—| - | | _Thugut_ (June). | | April ’94-Oct. ’95).| - |1795.| | |DIRECTORY (Oct.) | - | | | | _Delacroix_ (Nov.) | - |1796.| | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |1797.| _Louis Cobenzl_ | | _Talleyrand_ | - | | (April). | | | - |1798.| | | | - | | | | | - |1799.| _Thugut_ (Jan.) | |CONSULATE (Nov.) | - | | _Lehrbach_ (Oct.) | | _Reinhardt_ (July). | - | | | | _Talleyrand_ (Nov.) | - |1800.| | | | - |1801.| LOUIS COBENZL| HENRY ADDINGTON | | - | | | (March). | | - | | | _Lord Hawkesbury_ | | - | | | (March). | | - |1802.| | | | - |1803.| | | | - |1804.| |WILLIAM PITT (May). | | - | | | _Lord Harrowby_ „ | | - |1805.| |_Lord Mulgrave_(Jan.)|NAPOLEON, Emperor. | - |1806.|PHILIP STADION |LORD GRENVILLE (Feb.)| | - | | | _Charles James Fox_ | | - | | | (Feb.) | | - | | | _Viscount Howick_ | | - | | | (Sept.) | | - |1807.| |DUKE OF PORTLAND | _Champagny_ (Aug.) | - | | | (March). | | - | | |_George Canning_ | | - | | | (March). | | - |1808.| | | | - | | | | | - |1809.| METTERNICH | SPENCER PERCEVAL | | - | | | (Dec.) | | - | | | _Lord Bathurst_ | | - | | | (Oct.) | | - | | |_Lord Wellesley_ | | - | | | (Dec.) | | - |1810.| | | | - | | | | | - |1811.| | | _Maret_ (April). | - |1812.| | _Lord Castlereagh_ | | - | | | (March). | | - | | | EARL OF LIVERPOOL | | - | | | (June). | | - |1813.| | |_Caulaincourt_ (Nov.)| - |1814.| | |LOUIS XVIII. | - | | | |_Talleyrand_ (April).| - +-----+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ - - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - | | | | | - | Prussia. | Russia. | Spain. | | - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - |FREDERICK WILLIAM II.|CATHERINE II. (since |CHARLES IV. (since |1789.| - | (since 1786). | 1762). | Dec. 1788). | | - | _Hertzberg_ | _Ostermann_ |FLORIDA BLANCA | | - | (since 1756). | (since 1775). | (since 1773). | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1790.| - | _Schulemburg_ (May).| | |1791.| - | | | | | - |HAUGWITZ (Oct.) | |ARANDA (July). |1792.| - | | |GODOY (Nov.) | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1793.| - | | | |1794.| - | | | | | - | | | |1795.| - | | | | | - | |PAUL I. (Nov.) | |1796.| - | | OSTERMANN. | | | - | | _Panine._ | | | - |FREDERICK WILLIAM | | |1797.| - | III. (Nov.) | | | | - | | | _Saavedra_ (March). |1798.| - | | | _Urquijo_ (August). | | - | | | |1799.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | |GODOY (Dec.) |1800.| - | |ALEXANDER I. (Mar.) | |1801.| - | | PANINE. | | | - | | _Kotchoubey._ | | | - | | | | | - | | VORONZOV. | |1802.| - | | | |1803.| - |HARDENBERG (Aug.) | _Adam Czartoryski_ | |1804.| - | | (May). | | | - | | | |1805.| - |HAUGWITZ (Feb.) | _Baron Budberg_ | |1806.| - |HARDENBERG (Nov.) | (Aug.) | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |STEIN (July). | _Roumianzov_ (Sept.)| |1807.| - | _Goltz_ (July). | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | |JOSEPH BONAPARTE. |1808.| - | | | AZANZA. | | - | | | |1809.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |HARDENBERG (July). |ROUMIANZOV. | |1810.| - | | _Nesselrode._ | | | - | | | |1811.| - | | | |1812.| - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | |1813.| - | | |FERDINAND VII. |1814.| - | | | | | - +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----+ - - - - - APPENDIX II. - - THE RULERS OF THE SECOND-RATE POWERS OF EUROPE, 1789–1815. - - - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - | | Sweden. | Denmark. | Turkey. | Portugal. | - | | | | | | - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - |1789|Gustavus III. |Christian VII. |Abdul Hamid. |Maria I. | - | | (Since 1771.) | (Since 1766.) | (Since 1774.) |(Since 1777.) | - | | | |Selim III. | | - | | | | (April.) | | - |1790| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1791| | | | | - | |Gustavus IV. | | | | - |1792| (March.) | | | | - | | | | | | - |1793| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1794| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1795| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1796| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1797| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1798| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1799| | | |_Prince John, | - | | | | | Regent._ | - |1800| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1801| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1802| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1803| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1804| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1805| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1806| | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - |1807| | |Mustapha IV. | | - | | | | (May.) | | - |1808| |Frederick VI. |Mahmoud II. | | - | | | (March.) | (July.) | | - |1809|Charles XIII. | | | | - | | (May.) | | | | - |1810|_Bernadotte, | | | | - | | Prince Royal | | | | - | | (Aug.)_ | | | | - |1811| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1812| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1813| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1814| | | | | - | | | | | | - |1815| | | | | - +----+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+ - - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - | Sardinia. | The Two | Bavaria. | Würtemburg. | | - | | Sicilies. | | | | - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - |Victor Amadeus |Ferdinand IV. |Charles |Charles Eugène. |1789| - | III. (Since | (Since 1759.) |Theodore. (Since| (Since 1735.) | | - | 1773.) | | 1777.) | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | |1790| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1791| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1792| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1793| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1794| - | | | | | | - | | | |Frederick |1795| - | | | | Eugène. (Oct.) | | - |Charles Emmanuel| | | |1796| - | IV. (Oct.) | | | | | - | | | |Frederick I. |1797| - | | | | (Dec.) | | - | | | | |1798| - | | | | | | - | | |Maximilian | |1799| - | | | Joseph. | | | - | | | | |1800| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1801| - | | | | | | - |Victor Emmanuel | | | |1802| - | I. (June.) | | | | | - | | | | |1803| - | |----------------| | | | - | | Naples. | | |1804| - | |----------------| | | | - | | | | |1805| - | | | | | | - | |Joseph | | |1806| - | | Bonaparte | | | | - | | (March.) | | | | - | | | | |1807| - | | | | | | - | |Joachim Murat. | | |1808| - | | (August.) | | | | - | | | | |1809| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1810| - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - | | | | |1811| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1812| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1813| - | | | | | | - | |Ferdinand IV | | |1814| - | | | | | | - | | | | |1815| - +----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----+ - - - - - APPENDIX III. - - THE FAMILY OF NAPOLEON. - - - Charles Bonaparte == - b. 1746, d. 1785. | - +-----------------------------------------------------+------------------+------------- - | | - JOSEPH Alexandre ==(1779) Josephine = (1) NAPOLEON (1810) - b. 1768, de Beauharnais,| Tascher b. 1769, Marie - d. 1844. b. 1760, | de la d. 1821. Louise, - King of d. 1794. | Pagerie, of Austria, - Naples, | b. 1763, b. 1791, - 1806–1808. | d. 1814. d. 1847. - King of | Duchess of - Spain, | Parma, - 1808–1814. | 1815–47. - =(1794), | - Marie Julie | - Clary. | - | | - +-+---------+ +---------------------------------+ - | | | | - | | | | - Zénaide, Charlotte, Eugène de == (1806) Augusta Hortense, NAPOLEON II., - b. 1801, b. 1802, Beauharnais | of Bavaria. b. 1783, b. 1811, d. 1832, - d. 1854, d. 1839, b. 1781, | d. 1837, King of Rome, - =1822, =1827, d. 1824. | =1802, 1811. - her her Viceroy of | Louis Duke of - cousin, cousin, Italy, 1805–1814.| Bonaparte, Reichstadt, 1818. - Charles Napoleon Duke of | King of - Lucien, Louis, son Leuchtenberg. | Holland. - Prince of Louis. and had issue. | - of _s.p._ | - Canino | - | | - and had | - issue. | - | - +----------+---------------- - | | - Napoleon Napoleon == (1827) - Charles, Louis, | Charlotte - b. 1802, b. 1804, | Bonaparte. - d. 1807, d. 1831. | - chosen as Grand | - Napoleon’s Duke of | - heir Berg, | - (1805). 1808–1814. | - _s.p._ - - - Letizia Ramolino, - b. 1750, d. 1839. - ----+-------------+------------+-----------+------------+------------+ - | | | | | | - LUCIEN, LOUIS, JÉROME, ÉLISA, PAULINE, CAROLINE, - b. 1775, b. 1778, b. 1784, b. 1777, b. 1780, b. 1782, - d. 1840, d. 1846, d. 1860, d. 1820, d. 1825, d. 1839, - Prince of King of King of Grand Duchess of =(1800), - Canino, Holland Westphalia Duchess of Guastalla Joachim - =(1794), (1806–1810) (1807–1814) Tuscany (1808–1814), Murat, - Christine =(1802), =(1803) (1808–1814), =(1801), King of - Boyer, Hortense Eliza =(1797), Charles Naples - =(1802), de Beau- Patterson Felix Leclerc, (1808–1814), - Alexandrine harnais. =(1807) Baciocchi, =(1803), | - de Bleschamp, | Catherine | Camillo, | - | | of Würtem- | Prince and had - | | burg. and had Borghese. issue. - and had | | issue. | - issue. | | | - | | Napoleon, - | | b. 1801, - | | d. 1804. - | | - | +------+--------+---------+ - | | | | - | Jérome Napoleon Mathilde, - | Napoleon, Joseph, b. 1820, - | b. 1814, _Prince =Prince - | d. 1847. Napoleon_ Demidov. - | b. 1822, - | d. 1890, - | =(1859), - | Clothilde - | of Savoy. - | | - | +---------+---------+ - ----------+-------+ | | | - | | | | - NAPOLEON III.,==(1853) Eugénie Victor Louis Lætitia, - b. 1808, d. 1873. | de Montijo. Napoleon, Napoleon, b. 1866, - Emperor of the | b. 1862. b. 1864. =Duke of - French (1851–1870).| Aosta. - | - Napoleon Eugène, - Prince Imperial, - (1856–1879). - - - - - APPENDIX IV. - - NAPOLEON’S MARSHALS. - - - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - | | | General | General | - | Names. | Born. | of | of | MARSHAL. - | | | Brigade. | Division. | - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - |BERTHIER, |20 Nov. 1753 |22 May 1792 |13 June 1795 |19 May 1804 - | Louis Alexandre. | | (Maréchal | | - | | | de Camp) | | - | | | | | - |MURAT, Joachim. |25 March 1767|10 May 1796 |25 July 1799 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MONCEY, Bon |31 July 1754 |18 Feb. 1794 | 9 June 1794 | „ - | Adrien Jeannot. | | | | - | | | | | - |JOURDAN, Jean |29 April 1762|27 May 1793 |30 July 1793 | „ - |Baptiste. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MASSÉNA, André. | 6 May 1756 |22 Aug. 1793 |20 Dec. 1793 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - |AUGEREAU, Charles |21 Oct. 1757 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ - | Pierre François. | | | | - | | | | | - |BERNADOTTE, Jean |26 Jan. 1763 |26 June 1794 |22 Oct. 1794 | „ - | Baptiste Jules. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |SOULT, Jean de |29 March 1769|11 Oct. 1794 |21 April 1799| „ - | Dieu Nicolas. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |BRUNE, Guillaume |13 May 1763 | .. |17 Aug. 1797 | „ - | Marie Anne. | | | | - | | | | | - |LANNES, Jean. |11 April 1769|17 March 1797|10 May 1799 | „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - |MORTIER, Adolphe |13 Feb. 1768 |23 Feb. 1799 |25 Sept. 1799| „ - | Édouard Casimir | | | | - | Joseph. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |NEY, Michel. |10 Jan. 1769 | 1 Aug. 1796 |28 March 1799| „ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |DAVOUT, Louis |10 May 1770 |24 Sept. 1794| 3 July 1800 | „ - | Nicolas. | | | | - | | | | | - |BESSIÈRES, Jean | 6 Aug. 1768 |18 July 1800 |13 Sept. 1802| „ - | Baptiste. | | | | - | | | | | - |KELLERMANN, |28 May 1735 |9 March 1788 |19 March 1792| „ - | François | | (Maréchal | (Lieut.- | - | Christophe. | | de Camp) | General) | - | | | | | - |LEFEBVRE, François |15 Oct. 1755 | 2 Dec. 1793 |10 Jan. 1794 | „ - | Joseph. | | | | - | | | | | - |PÉRIGNON, Dominique|31 May 1754 | .. |25 Dec. 1793 | „ - | Catherine de. | | | | - | | | | | - |SÉRURIER, Jean | 8 Dec. 1742 |22 Aug. 1793 |13 June 1795 | „ - | Mathieu | | | | - | Philibert. | | | | - | | | | | - |VICTOR, Victor | 7 Dec. 1764 |20 Dec. 1793 |10 March 1797|13 July 1807 - | Claude Perrin, | | | | - | _called_. | | | | - | | | | | - |MACDONALD, Jacques |17 Nov. 1765 |26 Aug. 1793 |28 Nov. 1794 |12 July 1809 - | Étienne Joseph | | | | - | Alexandre. | | | | - | | | | | - |OUDINOT, Nicolas |25 April 1767|14 |June 1794|12 April 1799| „ - | Charles. | | | | - | | | | | - |MARMONT, Auguste |20 July 1774 |10 June 1798 | 9 Sept. 1800| „ - | Frédéric Louis | | | | - | Viesse de. | | | | - | | | | | - |SUCHET, Louis |2 March 1770 |23 March 1798|10 July 1799 | 8 July 1811 - | Gabriel. | | | | - | | | | | - |GOUVION-SAINT-CYR, |13 April 1764|10 June 1794 | 2 Sept. 1794|27 Aug. 1812 - | Laurent. | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - |PONIATOWSKI, | 7 May 1762 | .. | .. | Oct. 1813 - | Joseph, Prince. | | | | - | | | | | - |GROUCHY, |23 Oct. 1766 |7 Sept. 1792 |13 June 1795 |17 Apr. 1815 - | Emmanuel de. | | | | - +-------------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------ - - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - | Titles. | Notes. | - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - |Prince-Duke of Neufchâtel 15 March|Peer of France 1814; committed suicide| - | 1806; Prince of Wagram 31 Dec. | or was murdered at Bamberg 1 June | - | 1809. | 1815. | - | | | - |Prince 1 Feb. 1805; Grand Duke of |Shot at Pizzo in Italy 13 Oct. 1815. | - | Berg 15 March 1806; King of | | - | Naples 1 Aug. 1808. | | - | | | - |Duke of Conegliano 2 July 1808. |Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides | - | | 1833–42; diedat Paris 20 April 1842.| - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; Governor| - | | of the Hôtel des Invalides 1830–33; | - | | died at Paris 23 Nov. 1833. | - | | | - |Duke of Rivoli 24 April 1808; |Died at Paris 4 April 1817. | - | of Essling 31 Jan. 1810. | | - | | | - |Duke of Castiglione 26 April 1808.|Peer of France 1814; died at | - | | La Houssaye 12 June 1816. | - | | | - |Prince of Ponte Corvo 5 June 1806;|King of Sweden 5 Feb. 1818; died at | - | Crown Prince of Sweden 21 Aug. | Stockholm 8 March 1844. | - | 1810. | | - | | | - |Duke of Dalmatia 29 June 1808. |Minister for War Dec. 1814-March 1815;| - | | Peer of France June 1815; exiled | - | | 1815–19; Peer of France 1827; | - | | Minister for War 1830–34, 1840–45; | - | | Marshal-General 1847; died at Saint | - | | Amans 26 Nov. 1851. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Peer of France 2 June 1815; murdered | - | | at Avignon 2 Aug. 1815. | - | | | - |Duke of Montebello 15 June 1808. |Mortally wounded at the battle of | - | | Aspern; died at Vienna 31 May 1809. | - | | | - |Duke of Treviso 2 July 1808. |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; | - | | Ambassador to Russia 1830–31; | - | | Chancellor of the Legion of Honour | - | | 1831; Minister for War 1834–35; | - | | killed by the explosion of an | - | | infernal machine at Paris 28 July | - | | 1835. | - | | | - |Duke of Elchingen, 5 May 1808; |Peer of France 1814; shot at Paris 7 | - | Prince of the Moskowa 25 March | Dec. 1815. | - | 1813. | | - | | | - |Duke of Auerstädt 2 July 1808; |Minister for War 1815; Peer of France | - | Prince of Eckmühl 28 Nov. 1809. | at Paris 1 June 1823. | - | | | - |Duke of Istria 28 May 1809. |Killed at Lutzen 1 May 1813. | - | | | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808; Duke of Valmy |Peer of France 1814; died at Paris 13 | - | 2 May 1808. | Sept. 1820. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808; Duke of |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died at | - | Dantzic 10 Sept. 1808. | Paris 14 Sept. 1820. | - | | | - |Count 6 Sept. 1811. |Peer of France 1814; created a Marquis| - | | 1817; died at Paris 25 Dec. 1818. | - | | | - |Count 1 March 1808. |Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides, | - | | 1804–15; Peer of France 1814; died | - | | at Paris 21 Dec. 1819. | - | | | - |Duke of Belluno 10 Sept. 1808. |Peer of France 1815; Minister of War | - | | 1821–23; died at Paris 1 March 1841.| - | | | - |Duke of Taranto 9 Dec. 1809. |Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the| - | | Legion of Honour 1815–31; died at | - | | Courcelles 7 Sept. 1840. | - | | | - |Count 2 July 1808; Duke of Reggio |Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the| - | 14 April 1810. | Legion of Honour 1839–47; Governor | - | | of the Hôtel des Invalides 1842–47; | - | | died at Paris 13 Sept 1847. | - | | | - |Duke of Ragusa 28 June 1808. |Peer of France 1814; Ambassador to | - | | Russia 1826–28; died at Venice 22 | - | | July 1852. | - | | | - |Count 24 June 1808; Duke of |Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died | - | Albufera 3 Jan. 1813. | near Marseilles 3 Jan. 1826. | - | | | - |Count 3 May 1808. |Peer of France 1814; Minister for War | - | | July-Sept. 1815, 1817–19; created a | - | | Marquis 1819; died at Hyères 17 | - | | March 1830. | - | | | - | .... |Drowned in the Elster at the battle of| - | | Leipzig 19 Oct. 1813. | - | | | - |Count 28 Jan. 1809. |Exiled 1815–20; restored as Marshal | - | | 1831; died 29 May 1847. | - +----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ - - - - - APPENDIX V. - - NAPOLEON’S MINISTERS DURING THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE 1799–1814. - - - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - | | Foreign Affairs. | Interior. | Finances. | War. - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - |1799.|9 Nov. Charles |12 Nov. Pierre Simon|10 Nov. Martin |10 Nov. Louis - | |Maurice de | LAPLACE. | Michel | Alexandre BERTHIER. - | |TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD.| (Count 24 April | Charles GAUDIN. | - | |(Prince of Benevento| 1808.) | (Count 26 April | - | | 5 June 1806.) | | 1808; Duke of Gaeta| - | | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | - | | | | | - | „ | „ |25 Dec. Lucien | „ | „ - | | | BONAPARTE. | | - | | | | | - |1800.| „ | „ | „ |12 April. Lazare - | | | | | Nicolas - | | | | | Marguerite CARNOT. - | | | | | - | „ | „ |6 Nov. Jean Antoine | „ |8 Oct. Louis - | | | CHAPTAL. | | Alexandre BERTHIER. - | | | (Count 26 April | | (Prince of - | | | 1808; | | Neufchâtel - | | | Count of Chanteloup| | 13 March 1806; - | | | 25 March 1810.) | | Prince of Wagram - | | | | | 31 Dec. 1809.) - | | | | | - |1801.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1802.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1803.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1804.| „ |1 Aug. Jean Baptiste| „ | „ - | | | Nompère de | | - | | | CHAMPAGNY. | | - | | | | | - |1805.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1806.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1807.|8 Aug. Jean Baptiste|9 Aug. Emmanuel | „ |9 Aug. Henrí Jacques - | | Nompère de | CRETET. (Count of | | Guillaume CLARKE. - | |CHAMPAGNY. (Count 24| Champmol 26 | | (Count of Hunebourg - | | April 1808; | April 1808.) | | 24 April 1808; Duke - | | Duke of Cadore | | | of Feltre 15 Aug. - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | 1809.) - | | | | | - |1808.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1809.| „ |1 Oct. Jean Pierre | „ | „ - | | | Bachasson de | | - | | | MONTALIVET. | | - | | | (Comte 27 Nov. | | - | | | 1808.) | | - | | | | | - |1810.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1811.|17 April. Hugues | „ | „ | „ - | | Bernard MARET. | | | - | | (Count 3 May 1809; | | | - | | Duke of Bassano | | | - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | - | | | | | - |1812.| „ | „ | „ | „ - | | | | | - |1813.|20 Nov. Armand | „ | „ | „ - | | Augustin Louis | | | - | | CAULAINCOURT. (Duke| | | - | | of Vicenza 7 June | | | - | | 1808.) | | | - | | | | | - |1814.| „ | „ | „ | „ - +-----+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------- - - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+ - | Marine. | Justice. | Police. | Public Worship. | | - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----| - | 24 Nov. Pierre |19 July. Jean | 20 July. Joseph | |1799.| - | Alexandre | Jacques Régis | FOUCHÉ. | | | - | Laurent FORFAIT. | CAMBACÉRES. (Duke | | | | - | | of Parma 24 April | | | | - | | 1808.) | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ |25 Dec. André Joseph| | | „ | - | | ABRIAL. | | | | - | | (Count 26 April | | | | - | | 1808.) | | | | - | „ | | | |1800.| - | | | | | | - | „ | | | | „ | - | | | | | | - |1 Oct. Denis DECRÈS.| | | |1801.| - | (Count June 1808; | | | | | - |Duke 28 April 1813.)| | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ |15 Sept. Claude |15 Sept. (_Ministry | |1802.| - | | Ambroise REGNIER. | abolished._) | | | - | | (Count 24 April | | | | - | |1808; Duke of Massa | | | | - | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | | |1803.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ |10 July. Joseph | July. Jean Étienne |1804.| - | | | FOUCHÉ. (Count 24 | Marie PORTALIS. | | - | | | April 1808; | | | - | | | Duke of Otranto | | | - | | | 15 Aug. 1809.) | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1805.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1806.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | Aug. Félix Julíen |1807.| - | | | | Jean BIGOT DE | | - | | | | PRÉAMENEU. | | - | | | | (Count 24 April | | - | | | | 1808.) | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1808.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1809.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | June 8. Anne Jean | „ |1810.| - | | | Marie René SAVARY.| | | - | | | (Duke of Rovigo | | | - | | | 1808.) | | | - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1811.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1812.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | „ | „ |1813.| - | | | | | | - | „ | „ | | |1814.| - +--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+-----+ - - - - - APPENDIX VI. - - CONCORDANCE OF THE REPUBLICAN AND GREGORIAN CALENDARS - -(Extracted from Stephens’ _History of the French Revolution_, vol. ii. - (Longmans and Co.)) - - - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - | | YEAR II. | YEAR III. | YEAR IV. - | | 1793–1794. | 1794–1795. | 1795–1796. - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - | | | | - | 1 Vendémiaire, |22 September 1793.|22 September 1794.|23 September 1795. - |11 „ | 2 October. | 2 October. | 3 October. - |21 „ |12 October. |12 October. |13 October. - | 1 Brumaire, |22 October. |22 October. |23 October. - |11 „ | 1 November. | 1 November. | 2 November. - |21 „ |11 November. |11 November. |12 November. - | 1 Frimaire, |21 November. |21 November. |22 November. - |11 „ | 1 December. | 1 December. | 2 December. - |21 „ |11 December. |11 December. |12 December. - | 1 Nivôse, |21 December. |21 December. |22 December. - |11 „ |31 December. |31 December. | 1 January 1796. - |21 „ |10 January 1794. |10 January 1795. |11 January. - | 1 Pluviôse, |20 January. |20 January. |21 January. - |11 „ |30 January. |30 January. |31 January. - |21 „ | 9 February. | 9 February. |10 February. - | 1 Ventôse, |19 February. |19 February. |20 February. - |11 „ | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. - |21 „ |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. - | 1 Germinal, |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. - |11 „ |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. - |21 „ |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. - | 1 Floréal, |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. - |11 „ |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. - |21 „ |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. - | 1 Prairial, |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. - |11 „ |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. - |21 „ | 9 June. | 9 June. |9 June. - | 1 Messidor, |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. - |11 „ |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. - |21 „ | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. - | 1 Thermidor, |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. - |11 „ |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. - |21 „ | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. - |1 Fructidor, |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. - |11 „ |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. - |21 „ | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. - |1st Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide,’|17 September. |17 September. |17 September. - |5th Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide,’|21 September. |21 September. |21 September. - |6th Complementary Day,| | | - | or ‘Sans-Culottide.’| |22 September. | - +----------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------ - -NOTE.--Each month in the Republican Calendar consisted of _thirty_ days. - - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | YEAR V. | YEAR VI. | YEAR VII. | YEAR VIII. | - | 1796–1797. | 1797–1798. | 1798–1799. | 1799–1800. | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - | | | | | - |22 September 1796.|22 September 1797.|22 September 1798.|23 September 1799.| - | 2 October. | 2 October. | 2 October. | 3 October. | - |12 October. |12 October. |12 October. |13 October. | - |22 October. |22 October. |22 October. |23 October. | - | 1 November. | 1 November. | 1 November. | 2 November. | - |11 November. |11 November. |11 November. |12 November. | - |21 November. |21 November. |21 November. |22 November. | - | 1 December. | 1 December. | 1 December. | 2 December. | - |11 December. |11 December. |11 December. |12 December. | - |21 December. |21 December. |21 December. |22 December. | - |31 December. |31 December. |31 December. | 1 January 1800. | - |10 January 1797. |10 January 1798. |10 January 1799. |11 January. | - |20 January. |20 January. |20 January. |21 January. | - |30 January. |30 January. |30 January. |31 January. | - | 9 February. | 9 February. | 9 February. |10 February. | - |19 February. |19 February. |19 February. |20 February. | - | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. | 1 March. | - |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. |11 March. | - |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. |21 March. | - |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. |31 March. | - |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. |10 April. | - |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. |20 April. | - |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. |30 April. | - |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. |10 May. | - |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. |20 May. | - |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. |30 May. | - | 9 June. | 9 June. | 9 June. | 9 June. | - |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. |19 June. | - |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. |29 June. | - | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. | 9 July. | - |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. |19 July. | - |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. |29 July. | - | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. | 8 August. | - |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. |18 August. | - |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. |28 August. | - | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. | 7 September. | - | | | | | - |17 September. |17 September. |17 September. |17 September. | - | | | | | - |21 September. |21 September. |21 September. |21 September. | - | | | | | - | .. | .. |22 September. | .. | - +------------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+ - - - - - MAPS. - - Map 1. Europe in 1789. - „ 2. Europe in 1803. - „ 3. Europe in 1810. - „ 4. Europe in 1815. - -These maps are intended to show the limits of the principal states of -Europe at the beginning of 1789, after the rearrangement in 1803, at -the height of Napoleon’s power in 1810, and according to the settlement -made by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. - -The same colouring has been preserved through the series of maps in -order that the boundaries of each country may be compared at these -different dates. - -The red line in Map 1 marks the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. - -The area in Germany left uncoloured—in all four maps—was occupied by -various states too small in size to be indicated by colours. - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1789. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r. - -_The Red line marks the limits of the Holy Roman Empire._] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1803. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1810. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - -[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1815. - -Period VII. John Bartholomew & Co., Edin^r.] - - - - - INDEX - - -The dates given in brackets are those of the birth and death of the -person indexed; where only the date of death is known it is preceded by -a ♰. - -Full names and titles are given. - -Proper names commencing with ‘da,’ ‘de,’ ‘d’,’ are indexed under the -succeeding initial letter. - - - Abdul Hamid (1725–89), Sultan of Turkey, 44. - - Abensberg, battle of (20 April 1809), 272. - - Abercromby, Sir Ralph, English general (1735–1801), 224. - - Aberdeen, George Gordon, Earl of, English diplomatist (1784–1860), - 301, 311, 316, 323. - - Abo, treaty of (April 1812), 302. - - Aboukir Bay, French fleet defeated in, by Nelson (1 August 1798), 195. - - Abrantes, Duke of. _See_ Junot. - - Abrial, André Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1750–1828), 216. - - Acre, siege of (1799), 208. - - Acton, Joseph, Neapolitan statesman (1737–1808), 23. - - Adda, the, Bonaparte forces the passage of, at Lodi (1796), 174; - Suvórov, at Cassano (1799), 203. - - Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English statesman (1757–1844), - 225. - - Additional Act, the, declared by Napoleon (23 April 1815), 352. - - Adige, the, Italy up to, ceded to Austria by treaty of Campo-Formio - (1797), 192; - by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - Austrian positions on, turned by Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Adlersparre, George, Baron, Swedish general (1760–1837), 279. - - Aix-la-Chapelle, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35, 150, 230, - 344. - - Albuera, battle of (16 May 1811), 297. - - Albufera, battle of (26 Dec. 1811), 297. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Suchet. - - Aldenhoven, battle of (2 Oct. 1794), 150. - - Alessandria, fortress built at, by Victor Amadeus III., 27, 203, 204, - 218. - - Alexander I., Emperor of Russia (1777–1825), attitude at his - accession, 234; - joins coalition against France, 242, 243; - defeated at Austerlitz, 244; - at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; - interview with Napoleon at Tilsit, 249, 250; - makes treaty of Tilsit, 250; - conquers Finland, 254, 278; - acquisitions in Poland, and dislike of Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; - interview with Napoleon at Erfurt, 262; - conduct in 1809, 274; - war with Turkey, 281; - makes treaty of Bucharest, 281; - refuses a sister to Napoleon, 294; - causes of dissension with Napoleon, 299–301; - makes treaty of Abo with Bernadotte, 302; - summons Stein to his Court, 304; - his policy of retreat before Napoleon (1812), 305; - fights battle of Borodino, 305; - negotiates with Napoleon, 306; - forms friendship with Frederick William III. of Prussia, 308; - distrust of Napoleon, 310; - agrees to Proposals of Frankfort, 316; - desires to invade France, 317; - refuses to retreat, 319, 320; - enters Paris, 329; - influenced by Talleyrand, 329, 330; - speech to the French Senate, 330, 331; - greatness of his share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; - at the Congress of Vienna, 337; - his desire for the whole of Poland, 339; - forced to give way, 340, 341; - gave constitution to Poland, 342; - protected Murat and Eugène de Beauharnais, 345; - signs treaty against Napoleon (1815), 350; - opposes partition of France, 354; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Alexandria, 195, 224. - - Alicante, Bentinck repulsed at (1812), 307. - - Alkmaar, Convention of (18 Oct. 1799), 205. - - Almeida, siege of (1811), 296. - - Alps, French reach the summit of Mont Cenis (1795), 151; - Suvórov crosses (1799), 204, 205; - Bonaparte (1800), 218; - Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Alsace, rights of the Princes of the Empire in, 79; - proposals of Mirabeau and Merlin, 80; - letter of Leopold on, 89, 90; - _conclusion_ of the Diet of the Empire on, 108; - invaded by Würmser, 130, 139; - recovered by the French (1794), 140; - proposal to detach from France (1815), 354. - - Altdorf, Suvórov reaches (1799), 204. - - Altenkirchen, battle of (20 Sept. 1796), 178. - - Alton, Richard, Count d’, Austrian general (1732–90), 43, 47, 48, 63, - 64. - - Alvensleben, Philip Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman - (1745–1802), 153, 170, 179. - - Alvinzi (Alvinczy), Joseph, Austrian general (1735–1810), 176. - - America, South, 264, 358. - - —— United States of. _See_ United States. - - _Ami du Peuple,_ Marat’s journal, 61. - - Amiens, treaty of (1802), 225. - - Amnesty, general, decreed by the Convention (1795), 166. - - —— law of, promulgated (1815), 357. - - Amsterdam, 32, 149, 255. - - Ancients, Council of. _See_ Council. - - Ancona, 175, 207, 277. - - Angoulême, Maria Thérèse Charlotte, Duchess of, daughter of Louis XVI. - (1778–1851), 168. - - —— Louis Antoine, Duke of, son of the Comte d’Artois (1775–1844), 326, - 327. - - Anhalt, the Dukes of, Princes of the Empire (1789), 34, 343. - - Anhalt-Köthen, Louis, Duke of (1761–1819), 293. - - Anhalt-Zerbst, the Empress Catherine, a princess of, 18. - - Ankarström, John James, Swedish officer (1761–1792), 110. - - Anselme, Jacques Bernard Modeste d’, French general (1740–1812), 117. - - Anspach, Napoleon violates Prussian neutrality by marching through - (1805), 244. - - Antwerp, riot against the Austrians suppressed at (1788), 47; - abandoned to the Belgian patriots (1789), 64; - Napoleon’s buildings at, 276; - Carnot’s defence of (1814), 321; - its retention cause of Napoleon’s fall, 324. - - Aoust, Eustache, Comte d’, French general (1764–94), 140. - - Appenzell, democratic canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte - (1803), 228. - - Aranda, Don Pedro Pablo Abaracay Bolea, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1718–99), 4, 21, 126. - - Archbishop-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40. - - Arcis-sur-Aube battle of (20 March 1814), 328. - - Arcola, battle of (16 Nov. 1796), 176. - - Aremberg, Louis Engelbert, Duke of (1750–1820), 93. - - —— Prosper Louis, Duke of (1785–1863), 282. - - Argau, canton of Switzerland, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Aristocracy, Napoleon’s, 286. - - Armistices: Cherasco (1796), 174; - Foligno (1796), 175; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; Pleswitz (1813), 309. - - Arndt, Ernest Maurice, German poet (1769–1862), 291. - - Arragon, Suchet’s campaigns in, 275, 295. - - Arras, atrocities of Le Bon at (1794), 139. - - Artois, Charles Philippe, Comte d’, younger brother of Louis XVI., - afterwards King Charles X. of France (1757–1836), 55, 59, 102, - 139, 167, 172, 351. - - Aschaffenburg, principality of, granted to the Elector of Mayence, - 225, 260. - - Aspern or Essling, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273. - - Assignats issued in France, 74; - their effect, 98. - - Aubert-Dubayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal, French general (1759–1797), - 166, 182. - - Auckland, William Eden, Lord, English diplomatist (1744–1814), 65, 93. - - Auerstädt, battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Davout. - - Augereau, Charles Pierre François, Duke of Castiglione, French general - (1757–1816), 191, 219, 321; App. iv. - - Augsburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - —— city of, a free city of the Empire (1789), 35; - taken by Moreau (1800), 219; - maintained as a free city (1803), 226; - Masséna’s headquarters (1809), 272. - - Augusta, Princess, of Bavaria married to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258. - - Augustus, Prince, of Prussia (1779–1843), 337. - - Aulic Council, the, 35. - - Austerlitz, battle of (2 Dec. 1805), 244. - - Austria, position in 1789, 14–17; - influence in the Empire, 35; - obtained cessions by the treaty of Sistova (1791), 88; - got nothing in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - received Cracow, etc. at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - received Venice for Lombardy by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - and by treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - obtained Trent and Brixen, but lost much influence in the - resettlement of Germany (1803), 226; - formed into an empire (1805), 236; - lost Venice, Istria, the Tyrol, etc. by treaty of Pressburg (1805), - 245; - lost Trieste, Galicia, Salzburg, etc. by treaty of Vienna (1809), - 274; - at Congress of Vienna (1814) got back Cracow, 342, and Lombardy and - Venetia, 347. - _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II. - - Austrian Netherlands. _See_ Belgium. - - Auvergne, movement against the Convention in (1793), 131. - - Avignon, city of, wishes to join France (1790), 76; - secured to France by first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - and by second treaty of Paris (1815), 354. - - - Babeuf, François Noël (Gracchus), French socialist (1764–97), 181. - - Badajoz, treaty of (1801), 223; - taken by Soult (1810), 296; - by Wellington (1812), 306. - - Baden, condition in 1789, 37; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - made a grand duchy (1806), 245; - received Ortenau and the Breisgau (1809), 258; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1808), 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Charles Frederick, Charles Louis Frederick. - - Bagration, Peter, Prince, Russian general (1762–1812), 281, 305. - - Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French statesman (1736–93), 53, 59, 138. - - Baird, Sir David, English general (1757–1829), 224. - - Ball, Sir Alexander John, English admiral (1759–1809), 195. - - Baltic Sea, effort to exclude English commerce from, 222; - command of, given to Russia and Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, - 347. - - Bamberg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - Bank of France, founded by Bonaparte, 215. - - Bantry Bay, French expedition to (1796), 185. - - Barbé-Marbois, François, Comte de, French statesman (1745–1837), 188, - 191, 214. - - Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, Russian general (1755–1818), 305, - 309, 313. - - Barentin, Charles Louis François de - Paule de, French minister (1738–1819), 51. - - Barère, Bertrand, French orator (1755–1841), 117, 133, 134, 145, 149, - 155. - - Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph - Marie, French politician (1761–93), 100. - - Barras, Paul François Jean Nicolas, - Comte de, French statesman (1755–1829), 147, 164, 165; - nominates Bonaparte to command the armyof Italy, 174; - his attitude as a Director, 181; - co-operates in _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; - only original Director left (July 1799), 209, 210; - resigns (Nov. 1799), 211. - - Barrosa, battle of (5 March 1811), 297. - - Bartenstein, treaty of (April 1807), 248. - - Barthélemy, François, Marquis de, - French diplomatist (1747–1830), 156, 188, 189, 191. - - Basire, Claude, French politician (1764–94), 117. - - Basle, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical - prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 41; - with fiefs in Alsace, 79. - - —— bishopric of, part ceded to Baden (1803), 227; - part to canton of Berne (1815), 345. - - —— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - —— treaties of (1795), 156, 157. - - Basque Roads, affair in the (1809), 276. - - Bassano, Duke of. _See_ Maret. - - Bastille, capture of the (14 July 1789), 57, 58. - - Batavian Republic founded (1795), 150; - imitates the French constitutions, 193; - turned into the kingdom of Holland (1806), 254, 255. - - Battles: Abensberg (1809), 272; - Albuera (1811), 297; - Albufera (1811), 297; - Aldenhoven (1794), 150; - Alexandria (1801), 224; - Altenkirchen (1796), 178; - Arcis-sur-Aube (1814), 328; - Arcola (1796), 176; - Aspern (Essling) (1809), 273; - Auerstädt (1806), 247; - Austerlitz (1805), 244; - Barrosa (1811), 297; - Bautzen (1813), 309; - Bergen (1799), 205; - Biberach (1800), 219; - Borodino (1812), 305; - Braila (1809), 281; - Brienne (1814), 319; - Burgos (1808), 269; - Busaco (1810), 296; - Cairo (1799), 208; - Caldiero (1796), 176; - Caldiero (1805), 244; - Camperdown (1797), 194; - Cassano (1799), 203; - Castiglione (1796), 175; - Ceva (1796), 174; - Champaubert (1814), 319; - Copenhagen (1801), 222; - Corunna (1809), 270; - Craonne (1814), 328; - Dego (1796), 174; - Dennewitz (1813), 313; - Dresden (1813), 312; - Dubienka (1792), 122; - Eckmühl (1809), 273; - Elchingen (1805), 244; - Engen (1800), 219; - Espinosa (1808), 269; - Essling (Aspern) (1809), 273; - Ettlingen (1796), 178; - Eylau (1807), 248; - Famars (1793), 130; - Figueras (1794), 150; - First of June (1794), 145; - Fleurus (1794), 144; - Foksany (1788), 45; - Friedland (1807), 249; - Fuentes de Onor (1811), 297; - the Geisberg (1793), 140; - Genola (1799), 204; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; - Gross-Beeren (1813), 312; - Gross-Gorschen (Lützen) (1813), 309; - Hanau (1813), 314; - Heliopolis (1800), 224; - Hohenlinden (1800), 219; - Hondschoten (1793), 140; - Jemmappes (1792), 118; - Jena (1806), 247; - Kaiserslautern (1794), 144; - the Katzbach (1813), 312; - Kioge (1807), 252; - Laon (1814), 328; - Leipzig (1813), 314; - Ligny (1815), 352; - Loano (1795), 151, 173; - Lodi (1796), 174; - Lützen (Gross-Gorschen) (1813), 309; - Maciejowice (1794), 152; - Magnano (1799), 202; - Maida (1806), 256; - Marengo (1800), 218; - Matchin (1791), 96; - Medellin (1809), 275; - Medina del Rio Seco (1808), 267; - Millesimo (1796), 174; - the Mincio (1814), 322; - Mœskirchen (1800), 219; - Mondovi (1796), 174; - Montebello (1800), 218; - Montenotte (1796), 174; - Montereau (1814), 319; - Montmirail (1814), 319; - Mount Tabor (1799), 208; - Nangis (1814), 319; - Neerwinden (1793), 127; - Neumarkt (1797), 186; - the Nile (Aboukir Bay) (1798), 195; - the Nive (1813), 316; - the Nivelle (1813), 316; - Novi (1799), 204; - Ocana (1809), 276; - Orthez (1814), 321; - Pacy-sur-Eure (1793), 131; - Paris (1814), 329; - the Pyramids (1798), 195; - Quatre Bras (1815), 352; - Raab (1809), 273; - Raclawice (1794), 151; - Rivoli (1797), 176; - Roliça (1808), 265; - the Rymnik (1788), 45; - Sacilio (1809), 273; - St. Vincent (1797), 183; - Salamanca (1812), 306; - Saorgio (1794), 144; - Silistria (1809), 281; - Stockach (1799), 202; - Svenska Sound (1790), 95; - Talavera (1809), 275, 276; - Tobac (1788), 45; - Tolentino (1815), 346; - Toulouse (1814), 332; - Trafalgar (1805), 245; - the Trebbia (1799), 203; - Tudela (1808), 269; - Unzmarkt (1797), 186; - Valmy (1792), 115; - Valsarno (1813), 315; - Vauchamps (1814), 319; - Vimeiro (1808), 265, 266; - Vittoria (1813), 315; - Wagram (1809), 274; - Waterloo (1815), 353; - Wattignies (1793), 140; - Zielence (1792), 121, 122; - Zurich (1799), 204. - - Bautzen, battle of (20 May 1813), 309. - - Bavaria, the Emperor Joseph’s designs on, 16, 17; - its Elector also Elector Palatine, 34; - condition in 1789, 37; - invaded by Moreau (1796), 178; - treaty of Pfaffenhofen, 180; - promised to Austria by Bonaparte (1797), 193; - occupied by Moreau (1800), 219; - increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - invaded by the Austrians (1805), 243; - receives the Tyrol and becomes a kingdom (1806), 245; - receives Salzburg (1809), 257; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - invaded by the Austrians (1809), 272; - great internal reforms, 289; - member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342; - receives Mayence for the Tyrol (1815), 344. _See_ Charles Theodore, - Maximilian Joseph. - - Baylen, capitulation of (1808), 267, 268. - - Bayonne besieged by the English (1813, 1814), 316, 321. - - Beauharnais, Eugène de, step-son of Napoleon (1781–1824), 236, 238, - 239, 244, 255, 256, 273, 308, 315, 321, 322, 345. - - Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de, Austrian general (1725–1820), 174. - - Beccaria, Cæsar Bonesana, Marquis de, Italian philosopher (1738–94), - 26. - - Belgium, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in (1788), 15; - his apparent success, 43; - armed resistance in, 47; - abolition of Belgian liberties, 47, 48; - the Austrians driven from (1789), 64; - the Belgian Republic formed (Jan. 1790), 65; - struggle between the Van der Nootists and Vonckists, 92, 93; - reconquered by the Austrians (Dec. 1790), 94; - conquered by the French under Dumouriez (1792), 118; - annexed to the French Republic, 118; - rises against the French (1793), 126; - Dumouriez driven from (1793), 127; - reconquered by the French (1794), 144; - organised as part of the French Republic, 150; - cession to France agreed to by Austria at Leoben, 186; - and at Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; - organised into nine French departments, 230; - England insists on its separation from France, 318; - invaded by the Prince of Orange (1814), 321; - Napoleon refuses to give up, 324; - united with Holland into the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344, - 360. - - Belgrade, taken by the Austrians (1789), 45. - - Bellegarde, Henri, Comte de, Austrian general (1755–1831), on the - Mincio (1814), 322. - - Belluno, Duke of. _See_ Victor. - - Bender, city of, taken by the Russians (1789), 45. - - —— Blaise Colombeau, Baron, Austrian general (1713–98), 65, 93, 94. - - Benevento, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - Talleyrand made prince of, 277. - - Benezech, Pierre, French administrator (1745–1802), 166. - - Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus, Count, Russian general - (1745–1826), 221, 248, 249, 311. - - Bentinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, English general (1774–1839), - 307, 315, 322, 346. - - Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, English general (1770–1856), 266, - 297. - - Berg, grand duchy of, created for Murat (1806), its extent, 252; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - conferred on son of Louis Bonaparte (1808), 283. - - Bergen, battles of (19 Sept. and 2 Oct. 1799), 205. - - Bergen-op-Zoom, English repulsed from (1814), 321. - - Berlin, occupied by Napoleon (1806), 247; - decree issued at (1807), 251; - University of, founded, 303, 304; - the French driven from (1813), 308. - - Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, Prince of Ponte Corvo (1806), Prince - Royal of Sweden (1810), King Charles XIV. of Sweden (1818), - (1764–1844), French ambassador to Austria (1798), 197; - insulted at Vienna, 198; - Minister of War (1799), 210; - attacked by the Russians (1807), 247; - commanded the Saxons at Wagram (1809), 274; - Prince of Ponte Corvo, 277; - elected Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), 279; - signs treaty of Abo with Emperor Alexander (1812), 302; - intrigues with Napoleon, 307, 308; - invaded Germany (1813), 309; - wins battle of Gross-Beeren, 312; - and of Dennewitz, 313; - defeated the Danes and exchanged Pomerania for Norway (1814), 320; - rejected for throne of France, 330; - got Norway, but had to give up Guadeloupe (1815), 347; - one of Napoleon’s marshals, App. iv. - - Bernard, Great St., Bonaparte crosses (1800), 218. - - —— Little St., French reach the summit of (1795), 151. - - —— of Saintes, Adrien Antoine, French politician (1750–1819), 139. - - Berne, chief oligarchical canton of Switzerland in 1789, 41; - occupies Geneva (1792), 125; - occupied by the French (1798), 199; - Vaud and Argau separated from (1803), 228; - obtained part of the Bishopric of Basle (1815), 345. - - Bernis, François Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de, French statesman - (1715–94), 19. - - Bernstorf, Count Andrew, Danish statesman (1735–97), 32, 46, 120. - - —— Count Christian, Danish statesman (1769–1835), 338. - - Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Neufchâtel and Wagram, French - general (1753–1815), 200, 216, 241, 239, 283, App. iv. - - —— de Sauvigny, Louis Bénigne François, French administrator - (1742–89), 59. - - Bessarabia, conquered by the Russians under Potemkin (1789), 45; - under Bagration (1810), 281; - part of, ceded to Russia by treaty of Bucharest, 281. - - Bessières, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, French general (1768–1813), - 267, 297, 309, App. iv. - - Beugnot, Jacques Claude, Comte, French administrator (1761–1835), 331. - - Biberach, battle of (9 May 1800), 219. - - Bidassoa, the passage of, forced by the Spaniards (1739), 130; - by the French (1794), 140. - - Bigot de Préameneu, Félix Julien Jean, Comte, French jurist - (1747–1825), 215. - - Bilbao, taken by the French (1795), 151. - - Billaud-Varenne, Jacques Nicolas, French statesman (1756–1819), 193, - 134, 138, 139, 147, 149, 155. - - Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duc de, French general (1747–93), 138. - - Bischofswerder, Hans Rudolf, Baron von, Prussian statesman (♰1803), - 31, 87. - - Bishops, the Prince of Germany, 34, 39. - - Black Legion of Brunswick raised, 293. - - Blake, Joachim, Spanish general (♰1827), defeated at Albufera (1811), - 247. - - Blücher, Gebhard Lebrecht von, Prince of Wahlstatt, Prussian general - (1742–1819), 309, 312, 318, 319, 328, 329, 350, 352, 353, 355. - - Boeckh, Augustus, German scholar (1785–1861), 304. - - Bohemia, opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; - the reforms suspended, 66; - pacified by Leopold, 84. - - Boissy-d’Anglas, François Antoine, Comte, French statesman - (1756–1826), 155, 165, 168, 182. - - Bologna, belonged to the Pope, 24; - occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; - merged in the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - in the kingdom of Italy, 255; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Bonaparte, Caroline, Queen of Naples. _See_ Caroline. - - Bonaparte, Elisa (1777–1820), 283. - - —— Jerome (1784–1860), King of Westphalia. _See_ Jerome. - - —— Joseph (1768–1844), 239 (1806), 255. _See_ Joseph. - - —— Louis (1778–1846), 239, 254, 255. _See_ Louis. - - —— Lucien (1775–1840), 210, 216, 223. - - —— Napoleon (1769–1821) at the siege of Toulon (1793), 140; - brings up artillery for the defence of the Convention (1795), 164; - defeats the insurgents of Vendémiaire, 165; - appointed to the command of the army of Italy (1796), 174; - defeats the Sardinians, 174; - conquers Lombardy, 174; - makes armistice with the Pope, 175; - defeats the Austrians at Castiglione, 175, at Arcola and Rivoli, - 176; - invades the Tyrol and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - opposed the Clichians, 189; - sends Augereau to Paris to help the Directors, 191; - formed the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - signs treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - commands army of the Interior, 194; - takes Malta and invades Egypt (1798), 195; - campaign in Syria (1799), 208; - returns to France, 208; - makes _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210, 211; - provisional First Consul, 211; - First Consul, 214; - internal policy, 215; - forms the Bank of France and Code Civil, 215; - foreign policy, 216, 217; - wins battle of Marengo and conquers Italy, 218; - First Consul of the Cisalpine Republic, 220; - his Spanish policy, 223; - concludes the treaty of Amiens (1802), 225; - reorganises Switzerland, 228; - Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, 229; - makes Concordat with the Pope, 229; - forms the prefectures, 230; - educational reforms, 231; - First Consul for life (1802), 232; - arrests the English in France and occupies Hanover (1803), 233; - execution of the Duc d’Enghien (1804), 235; - Emperor of the French (1804), 236. _See_ Napoleon. - - —— Pauline, Princess Borghese (1780–1825), 283. - - Bonn, the university of, 40, 150. - - Bonnier-d’Alco, Ange Elisabeth Louis Antoine, French politician - (1749–1799), 202. - - Bordeaux, 131, 327. - - Borodino, battle of (7 Sept. 1812), 305. - - Bosnia, invaded by the Austrians (1788), 43. - - Bouillé, François Claude Amour, Marquis de, French general - (1739–1800), 72, 97, 98, 100. - - Boulogne, Napoleon’s camp at (1804–5), 241, 242. - - Bourbon, Isle of (Réunion), restored to France (1815), 348. - - Bourdon, Léonard Jean Joseph, French politician (1758–1816), 147. - - Bourdon de Vatry, Marc Antoine, French administrator (1761–1828), 210. - - Bourges, federalist army proposed to be formed at (1793), 131, 132. - - Bournonville, Pierre de Riel, Comte de, French general (1752–1821), - 330. - - Brabant, Constitution of, abolished by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47. - - Braila, battle of (1810), 281. - - Branicki, Francis Xavier, Polish statesman (♰1819), 121. - - Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. _See_ Pius VI., Pope. - - Breda, 48, 64. - - Breisgau, the, granted to the Duke of Modena (1803), 226; - to the Grand Duke of Baden (1805), 258. - - Bremen, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1810), 282; - one of the four free cities of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 343. - - Brescia formed part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192. - - Brest, blockaded by English fleet, 184; - French fleet at, unable to break the blockade (1805), 242. - - Brienne, battle of (29th Jan. 1814), 319. - - Brigandage rife in France under the Directory, 181; - put down by the Consulate, 215; - rife in Calabria, 256. - - Brissot, Jean Pierre, French politician (1754–1793), 101, 106, 107, - 116, 129. - - Brissotin section of the Girondin party in the Convention, 116. - - Brittany, opposition to the Convention in, 131; - pacified by Hoche, 180, 181. - - Brixen, bishopric of, united to Austria (1803), 226. - - Broglie, Victor François, Duc de, French general (1718–1804), 56. - - Bruges, 64. - - Bruix, Eustache, French admiral (1759–1805), 196. - - Brumaire, _coup d’état_ of the 18th (1799), 210, 211. - - Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general (1763–1815), 199, 205, - 219, 254, 356, App. iv. - - Brunswick, Duchy of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia (1806), 258; - a member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of. _See_ Charles William Ferdinand. - - Brunswick-Oels, Duke of. _See_ Frederick William. - - Brussels, 15, 47, 48, 64, 94, 118, 144. - - Bucharest, 45, 281. - - Buenos Ayres, 264. - - Bülow, Frederick William von, Prussian general (1755–1816), 309, 312, - 313; - detached to join Blücher in France (1814), 319, 320, 328. - - Burgos, battle of (10 Nov. 1808), 269; - Wellington fails to take (1812), and retreats from, 307. - - Burke, Edmund, English orator (1730–97), 120. - - Burrard, Sir Harry, English general (1755–1815), 266. - - Busaco, battle of (27 Sept. 1810), 296. - - Buttmann, Philip Charles, German scholar (1764–1829), 304. - - Buzot, François Nicolas Léonard, French politician (1760–94), 116. - - Buzotins, a section of the Girondins, 116. - - - Cabarrus, François, Spanish statesman (1752–1810), 21. - - Cadiz, besieged by the French (1810–12), 296, 297. - - Cadore, Duke of. _See_ Champagny. - - Cadoudal, Georges, Chouan leader (1771–1804), 234, 235. - - Caen, army organised by the Girondins against the Convention at - (1793), 131. - - Caillard, Antoine Bernard, French diplomatist (1737–1807), 215. - - Cairo, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - the Mamelukes defeated at (1799), 208; - taken by the English (1801), 224. - - Caisse d’amortissement founded, 287, 288. - - Calabria, brigandage in, encouraged by the English, 256. - - Calder, Sir Robert, English admiral (1745–1818), his action (1805), - 242. - - Caldiero, battle of (12 Nov. 1796), 176; - battle of (30 Oct. 1805), 244. - - Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis, Duke of Parma, French statesman - (1753–1824), 156, 159, 166, 182, 210, 214, 239, 287, 357. - - Cambon, Joseph, French statesman (1754–1820), 129, 133, 288. - - Cambrai, 353. - - Camperdown, battle of (11 Oct. 1797), 194. - - Campo-Chiaro, Duke of, Neapolitan statesman, 338, 346. - - Campo-Formio, treaty of (17 Oct. 1797), 192, 193. - - Campomanes, Don Pedro Rodriguez, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1723–1802), 21. - - Canning, George, English statesman (1770–1827), 295. - - Cantons of Switzerland, 228, 345. - - Cape of Good Hope taken by the English (1805), 264; - retained by them (1815), 348. - - Capitulations: of Ulm (1805), 243; - of Baylen (1808), 267, 268; - of Kulm (1813), 313. - - Capo d’Istria, John, Count, Greek statesman (1776–1831), 337. - - Carniola ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French statesman (1753–1823), 133, - 134, 140, 148, 165, 177, 181, 191, 214, 216, 321, 352, 357. - - Caroline, Marie, Queen of the Two Sicilies (1752–1814), 23. - - —— Murat, Queen of Naples (1782–1839), 322, 345. - - Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1756–1794), 139, 141, 149. - - Cassano, battle of (27 April 1799), 203. - - Castiglione, battle of (15 Aug. 1796), 175. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Augereau. - - Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, English - statesman (1769–1822), his views on the way to carry on the war - with Napoleon, 295; - returns to office (1812), 301; - his policy to form a fresh coalition, 301, 302; - efforts to get Austria to join (1813), 311; - sends expedition to Holland, 314; - sent with full powers to France (1814), 318; - persists in the war and calls up reinforcements for Blücher, 319, - 320; - opposition to the retention of Belgium by France, 324; - signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; - friendship with Metternich, 331; - signs treaty of Paris, 332; - one of the two men who did most to overthrow Napoleon, 334; - English representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814), 337; - signs treaty with France and Austria against Russia and Prussia, - 340; - disavows Bentinck’s Italian proclamation, 346; - gets the Slave Trade condemned, 349; - succeeded by Wellington at Vienna, 349; - opposes Prussia’s schemes for punishing France (1815), 354; - refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Catalonia, 144, 150, 151, 275. - - Cathcart, William Schaw, Lord, English general (1755–1843), 264, 301, - 323, 337. - - Catherine II., Empress of Russia (1729–96) a benevolent despot, 4; - attitude to other Powers of Europe (1789), 12, 13; - alliance with Joseph II., 17; - extension of Russia under, 18; - policy in Poland, 18; - internal policy, 19; - war with the Turks (1789–90), 43–45; - with the Swedes (1789–90), 45, 46; - deprived of the Austrian alliance by Leopold, 95; - makes peace with Sweden at Verela (1790), 95, 96; - with the Turks at Jassy (1792), 96; - attitude towards the French Revolution, 109, 121; - invades Poland (1793), 121; - signs second partition of Poland, 122; - asserts she is fighting Jacobinism in Poland, 125; - invades Poland (1795), 151; - extinguishes independence of Poland, 152; - receives the Comte d’Artois, 172; - death (1796), 185. - - Catherine, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg, Queen of Würtemburg - (1788–1819), 300, 337. - - —— Princess, of Würtemburg (1783–1835), marries Jerome Bonaparte, King - of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Cattaro, mouths of the river, ceded by Russia to France at Tilsit - (1807), 250. - - Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, French - statesman (1772–1827), 234, 239, 311, 316, 317, 323, 324, 329, - 331, 332. - - Cayenne restored to France (1814), 348. - - Ceva, battle of (16 April 1796), 174. - - Ceylon, taken by the English (1796), 264; - retained in 1815, 348. - - Chabot, François, French politician (1759–94), 117. - - Chalier, Marie Joseph, French politician (1747–93), 131. - - Chambéry, annexed to France (1814), 333; - restored to King of Sardinia (1815), 354. - - ‘Chambre Introuvable’ (1815), 357, 358. - - Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompère de, Duke of Cadore, French statesman - (1756–1834), 241. - - Champaubert, battle of (10 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Champ de Mars, Paris, massacre of (17 July 1791), 101. - - Championnet, Jean Etienne, French general (1762–1800), 200, 203, 204. - - Chaptal, Jean Antoine, Comte, French administrator (1756–1832), 216, - 241. - - Charles III., King of Spain (1716–88), benevolent despot, his reforms, - 4, 21; - commenced his career as a reforming monarch at Naples, 23. - - —— IV., King of Spain (1748–1819), 21, 77, 79, 193, 126, 157, 183, - 223, 232, 252, 253, 267. - - —— XIII., King of Sweden, formerly Duke of Sudermania (1748–1818), 46, - 110, 120, 171, 253, 279. - - —— II., King of Etruria (1799–1863), 253, 347. - - Charles Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (1757–1828), 38, 337, 342. - - —— Emmanuel IV., King of Sardinia (1751–1819), 200. - - —— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg, (1728–93), 37, 38. - - —— Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach (1728–1811), - 37, 79, 167, 180, 225, 227, 245, 258, 260. - - —— Louis Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (1786–1816), 258, 337, 342. - - —— Theodore, Elector of Bavaria and Elector Palatine (1729–99), 37, 172, 180. - - —— William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prussian general - (1735–1806), 32, 113, 114, 115, 116, 126, 246. - - —— Archduke, Austrian general (1771–1847), elected Grand Duke of - Belgium (1790), 94; - commands the Austrian army in Germany (1796), 177; - repulses Jourdan and Moreau, 178; - effect of his success, 180; - commands Austrian army in the Tyrol (1797), 185; - defeated by Bonaparte, and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - defeats Jourdan (1799), 202; - and advances to the Rhine, 204; - forced to retreat, 205; - campaign against Moreau (1800), superseded, 219; - invades Italy (1805), 243; - defeated at Caldiero, 244; - reorganises Austrian army, 271; - invades Bavaria (1809), 272; - defeated at Eckmühl, 273; - fights battle of Aspern, 273; - defeated at Wagram, 274. - - Charter, the, of 4 June 1814, 350. - - Chatham, John Pitt, Earl of, English general (1756–1820), 276. - - Châtillon, Congress of (1814), 323, 324. - - Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French politician (1763–94), 141. - - Chaumont, treaty of (1 March 1814), 327, 328. - - Chauvelin, François Bernard, Marquis de, French politician - (1766–1832), 120. - - Cherasco, armistice of (28 April 1796), 174. - - Chernishev, Alexander, Count, Russian general, 308, 312, 313, 337. - - Chestret, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49. - - Chiaramonti, Gregorio Barnaba Luigi. _See_ Pius VII., Pope. - - Choczim, taken by the Austrians and Russians (1788), 43. - - Choiseul, Etienne François, Duc de, French statesman (1719–85), made - the ‘Pacte de Famille’ with Spain, 14. - - Christian VII., King of Denmark (1749–1808), 32, 46, 171. - - Cintra, Convention of (30 Aug. 1808), 266. - - Circles, the executive divisions of the Holy Roman Empire, 36; - abolished (1803), 225. - - Cisalpine Republic, 192, 203, 220, 255. - - Ciudad Rodrigo, taken by Wellington (Jan. 1812), 306. - - Clancarty, Richard Trench, Earl of, English diplomatist (1767–1837), - 337. - - Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, Duke of Feltre, French general - (1765–1818), 241. - - Clavière, Etienne, French politician (1735–93), 41, 114, 125. - - Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789, 40. - - Clementine Museum at Rome reorganised by Pope Pius VI., 24. - - Clerfayt, François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Comte de, - Austrian general (1733–98), 88, 150, 172. - - Clichian party, 182, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191. - - Club, Cordeliers. _See_ Cordeliers. - - —— de Clichy, 182, 187. - - —— Jacobin. _See_ Jacobin. - - —— of 1789, 101. - - Cobenzl, Count Louis, Austrian statesman (1753–1808), 192, 220, 233, - 243, 270. - - —— Count Philip, Austrian statesman (1741–1810), 126. - - Coblentz, 150, 230, 344. - - Coburg, Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Prince of, Austrian - general (1737–1815), 43, 44, 45, 88, 127, 130, 144. - - Cochon de Lapparent, Charles, French administrator (1749–1825), 182, - 191. - - Cochrane, Thomas, Lord, Earl of Dundonald, English admiral - (1775–1860), 276. - - Code, Civil, bases of, laid by the Convention, 156; - Bonaparte’s commission to draw up, 215. - - Codes of law promulgated by Napoleon, 287. - - Colli, Louis Leonard Gaspard Venance, Baron, Sardinian general - (1760–1811), 174. - - Colloredo, Count Jerome, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1789, 39. - - Collot-d’Herbois, Jean Marie, French politician (1750–96), 117, 133, - 134, 138, 147, 149, 155. - - Cologne, Archbishop of, an Elector in the Holy Roman Empire, 34. - - —— archbishopric of, excellently ruled in 1789, 40; - merged in France, 225; - ceded to Prussia (1815), 344. - - —— city of, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - taken by the French (1794), 150; - ceded to Prussia (1815), 344. - - Committee of General Defence, 127. - - —— of General Security, 135, 136, 146, 148. - - —— of Mercy, 143. - - —— of Public Safety, the first chosen (April 1793), 127, 128; - its work, 132, 133; - formation of the Great, 133; - growth of its power, 134; - its system of government—the Reign of Terror, 135; - its instruments—the Committee of General Security, 135, 136; - the deputies on mission, 136, 137; - laws of the Suspects and the Maximum, 137; - the Revolutionary Tribunal, 137, 138; - its power organised, 138, 139; - its success, 139–141; - opposition to, 141–143; - overthrows the Hébertists, 142; - the Dantonists, 145; - its triumphs on land, 143, 144; - failure at sea, 144, 145; - Robespierre’s position in, 146; - renewed by a quarter monthly after Robespierre’s fall, 148; - its supremacy maintained, but its system changed, 148, 149; - filled by members of the Plain, 156. - - Commune of Paris overthrows the monarchy (Aug. 1792), 115; - its energy, 114; - insists on expulsion of the Girondins (June 1793), 129; - becomes Hébertist and opposes the Committee of Public Safety, 141; - becomes Robespierrist, and is decimated by the Convention, 147. - - Conclusum of the Empire, how arrived at, 33, 34. - - Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte (1802), 229, 230, 277. - - Condé, taken by the Austrians (1793), 130. - - Condé, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de, French general (1736–1818), - 106, 167, 178, 206, 207. - - Condillac, Etienne-Bonnot, Abbé de, French philosopher (1715–80), 25. - - Conegliano, Duke of. _See_ Moncey. - - Confederation, Germanic. _See_ Germanic. - - —— of the Rhine. _See_ Rhine. - - —— of Switzerland. _See_ Switzerland. - - —— of Targovitsa, asks Catherine to intervene in Poland (1795), 121. - - Conferences: - Erfurt (1808), 262; - Pilnitz (1791), 102; - Reichenbach, (1790), 87; - Tilsit (1807), 249, 250. - - Congresses: - Châtillon (1814), 323, 324; - the Hague (1799), 93, 94; - Prague (1813), 311; - Rastadt (1798), 186, 192, 202; - Reichenbach (1790), 87; - Sistova (1790), 88; - Vienna (1814–15), 336–350. - - Consalvi, Hercules, Cardinal, Italian statesman (1757–1824), 277, 337. - - Conscription, established in France (1798), 201; - in Germany, 289. - - Constance, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Grand Duchy of Baden (1803), 227. - - —— city of, taken by Massena (1799), 205. - - Constantine, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor Alexander (1779–1831), - 312, 337. - - Constantinople, great riot at (1807), 281. - - Constituent Assembly: - the Tiers Etat declares itself the National Assembly (June 1789), - 53; - oath of the Tennis Court, and Séance Royale, 54; - session of 4 August, 60; - makes the Constitution of 1791, 68–73; - authority passed to, 97; - discredited the executive, 98; - dissolved (1791), 105. - - Constitution, the French, of 1791, 68–73; - revised, 101; - completed, 103; - compared with the Polish of 1791, 104, 105; - its local arrangements confirmed by the Constitution of the Year - III., 162. - - —— the French, of 1793, 132, 138, 141. - - —— the French, of the Year III. (1795), 156, 159, 160, 161, 162. - - —— the French, of the Year VIII. (1799), 212–214; - the Consulate, 213; - the Legislature, 214, 215. - - —— the French, of the Empire (1805), 240. - - —— the French, promised by the Charter (1814), 350. - - —— the Polish, of 1791, 104, 105; - abrogated, 122. - - Consulate, the, in France, 213. - - Consuls, the (1799–1804), Bonaparte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, 214. - - —— the Provisional (1799), Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger Ducos, 211. - - Continental Blockade against England, 250, 251, 255, 261, 282, 300, - 301. - - Convention, National, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 127, 132, 134, 147, - 155, 163, 164, 165, 166. - - Conventions: Alexandria (1800), 218; - Alkmaar (1799), 205; - Cintra (1808), 268; - Leoben (1797), 186; - Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; - Tauroggen (1812), 308. - - Copenhagen, battle of (2 April 1801), 222; - bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by the English (1807), 252. - - Cordeliers Club at Paris, 101, 141. - - Corfu, occupied by the French (1797), 192. - _See_ Ionian Islands. - - Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis, English general (1738–1805), 197. - - Corsica, ceded to France by Genoa (1768), 27; - occupied by the English (1793), 145; - abandoned by them (1796), 183. - - Corunna, battle of (16 Jan. 1809), 270. - - _Corvée_, or forced labour, 5, 6, 16. - - Council of Ancients, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 189, 190, - 209, 210, 211. - - Council of Five Hundred, established in France (1795), 161, 162, 182, - 189, 190, 209, 210, 211. - - —— of State, established in France under the Consulate (1799), 213, - 231, 240. - - Court, Napoleon’s, 238, 239, 285, 286. - - Couthon, Georges Auguste, French politician (1756–94), 133, 135, 147. - - Cracow, university of, reorganised, 104; - Kosciuszko raises standard of Polish independence at (1794), 151; - given to Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - joined to Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; - given to Austria as a free city (1815), 342. - - Cradock, Sir John Francis, Lord Howden, English general (1762–1839), - 269, 275. - - Craonne, battle of (7 March 1814), 328. - - Croatia ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Cuesta, Don Gregorio Garcia de la, Spanish general (1740–1812), 267, - 275, 276. - - Curaçao, restored to Holland by England (1815), 348. - - Custine, Adam Philippe, Comte de, French general (1740–93), 118, 138. - - Czartoryski, Prince Adam George, Polish statesman (1770–1865), 337, - 339. - - - Dalberg, Charles Theodore de, German prelate (1744–1817), - Co-adjutor-Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in 1789, 39; - retained as Arch-Chancellor of the Empire with new territory (1803), - 225; - Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 259; - received Fulda and Hanau and became Prince Primate of the - Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - suggested that Napoleon should be Emperor of Germany, 302; - lost his territorial sovereignty (1815), 343. - - —— Emeric Joseph, Duc de, French statesman (1773–1833), 330, 338. - - Dalmatia, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - ceded to Austria (1797), 192; - annexed by Napoleon (1805), 245. - _See_ Illyrian Provinces. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Soult. - - Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford, English general (1750–1830), 266. - - Danton, George Jacques, French statesman (1759–94), 101, 107, 114, - 117, 120, 127, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143. - - Dantzic promised to Prussia by the treaty of Warsaw, 85; - the Poles refuse to surrender, 87; - given to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - besieged and taken by the French (1806), 247, 248; - French garrison left in 1812, 308; - besieged (1812–14), 319. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Lefebvre. - - Danubian Principalities, the, promised to Alexander by Napoleon - (1807), 250. - - Dardanelles, the, forced by an English fleet (1807), 280. - - Daru, Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, Comte, French administrator - (1767–1829), 241. - - Daunou, Pierre Claude François, French politician (1761–1840), 156. - - Dauphiné, influence of the Assembly in (1788), on the elections to the - States-General in France, 51. - - David, Jacques Louis, French painter (1748–1825), 357. - - Davout, Louis Nicolas, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl, French - general (1770–1823), 247, 272, 319, 320, App. iv. - - Debry, Jean Antoine, French politician (1760–1834), 202. - - Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789), 60. - - —— of Saint Ouen (1814), 332, 333. - - Decrès, Denis, Duke, French admiral (1761–1820), 216, 240. - - Defermon, Joseph, Comte, French administrator (1756–1831), 240. - - Dego, battle of (15 April 1796), 174. - - Delacroix, Charles, French politician (1740–1805), 166, 189, 190. - - Demarcation, line of, protecting Northern Germany, agreed to at treaty - of Basle between France and Prussia (1795), 157; - its effect on the position of Prussia, 170; - proposal to extend (1796), 179; - violated by the occupation of Hanover (1804), 242; - this violation leads Prussia to prepare for war, 246. - - Denmark, under Russian influence in 1789, 13; - its prosperity and reforms, 32; - the king a member of the Holy Roman Empire as Duke of Holstein, 34; - attacks Sweden (1788), but forced to make peace, 46; - remains neutral during the general war with France, 120, 124, 171; - joins League of the North and is attacked by England (1801), 222; - Copenhagen bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by England (1807), - 254; - Sweden declares war against (1808), 279; - a faithful ally of Napoleon, 302; - invaded by Bernadotte and forced to exchange Norway for Swedish - Pomerania (1814), 320; - gets the Duchy of Lauenburg for Swedish Pomerania (1815), 347; - cedes Heligoland to England (1815), 348. - - Dennewitz, battle of (6 Sept. 1813), 313. - - Deputies of the Convention sent on mission, 128; - put down the Girondin movement, 131; - an instrument of the Reign of Terror; their work—in the provinces, - 136; - with the armies, 136, 137. - - Desaix, Louis Charles Antoine, French general (1768–1800), 178, 208, - 219. - - Desmoulins, Camille, French politician (1762–94), 56, 133, 142, 143. - - Despots, the benevolent, of the eighteenth century, 4, 5; - the Emperor Joseph II., 15, 16; - the Empress Catherine of Russia, 19; - Charles III. of Spain, 21; - Leopold of Tuscany, 24; - Ferdinand of Parma, 25; - Frederick the Great of Prussia, 29; - Gustavus III. of Sweden, 33; - Charles Theodore of Bavaria and Charles Frederick of Baden, 37. - - Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), duchy of, 38, 79; - merged in France (1803), 227. - - Diderot, Denis, French philosopher (1713–84), 4, 9, 19. - - Diet, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichstag), 33, 35. - - Diet, the, of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260. - - —— the, of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Dignitaries, the Grand, of Napoleon’s Empire, 239. - - Dillon, Arthur, French general (1750–94), 115. - - —— Theobald, French general (1743–92), 111. - - Directors, the, of the French Republic (1795–99): elected Oct. 1795, - Barras, Carnot, Letourneur, Revellière-Lépeaux, Reubell, 165, 166; - May 1797, Barthélémy succeeds Letourneur, 188; - Sept. 1797, François de Neufchâteau and Merlin of Douai succeed - Barthélémy and Carnot, 191; - May 1798, Treilhard succeeds François de Neufchâteau, 195; - May 1799, Sieyès succeeds Reubell, 209; - June 1799, Ducos, Gohier, and Moulin succeed Merlin of Douai, - Revellière-Lépeaux, and Treilhard, 211. - - Directory, the, its functions as established by the Constitution of - the Year III., 160, 161; - foreign policy left to Reubell, 169, 179; - military affairs to Carnot, 177; - its internal policy, 180, 181; - struggle with the Clichians, 189, 190; - _coup d’état_ of Fructidor 1797, 191; - interferes in the elections of 1798 to the Legislature, 196; - its weakness (1799), 209; - struggle with the Legislature (1799), 209; - abolished 18 Brumaire (1799), 211. - - Dombrowski, John Henry, Polish general (1755–1818), 206. - - ‘Dotations,’ 286. - - Dresden, battle of (27 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1763–1824), 168. - - Dubienka, battle of (17 July 1792), 122. - - Dubitza taken by the Austrians (1788), 43. - - Dubois-Crancé, Edmond Louis Alexis, French politician (1747–1814), - 210. - - Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, English admiral (1747–1817), 280. - - Ducos, Roger, French politician (1754–1816), 209, 211. - - Dugommier, Jean François Coquille, French general (1721–94), 140, 144, - 150, 151. - - Dumont, André, French politician (1764–1836), 139. - - Dumouriez, Charles François, French general (1739–1823), 110, 111, - 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127. - - Duncan, Adam, Viscount, English admiral (1731–1804), 193, 194. - - Dunkirk besieged by the Duke of (1793), 130; - relieved by Houchard, 140. - - ‘Duodecimo duchies’ of Germany in 1789, 40. - - Duphot, Léonard, French general (1770–97), 200. - - Dupont de l’Étang, Pierre, Comte, French general (1765–1838), 267, - 268, 331. - - Dufort, Amédee Bretagne Malo, Comte de, French courtier (1770–1836), - 99. - - Duroc, Géraud Christophe Michel, Duke of Friuli, French general - (1772–1813), 217, 234, 239. - - Düsseldorf, 37, 172, 259. - - - Ecclesiastical princes of the Holy Roman Empire, 34, 39, 40; - their states secularised (1803), 170. - - Eckmühl, battle of (22 April 1809), 273. - - —— Prince of. _See_ Davout. - - Education, national system established before 1789 in Spain, 21; - in Portugal, 22; - in Tuscany, 24; - in Parma, 25; - in Lombardy, 26; - in Denmark, 32; - in Baden, 37; - attempted in Poland, 104; - reforms in, attempted by the Convention in France, 156; - Bonaparte’s scheme of, 231; - Napoleon’s system of, 258; - established in Prussia by Humboldt, 303, 304. - - Egypt, conquered by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - his administration of, and reconquest (1799), 208; - French expelled from, by the English (1801), 224; - failure of English expedition to (1808), 264. - - Ehrenbreitstein, fortress, taken by Marceau (1795), 172. - - Elba, declared a French island, 230; - granted to Napoleon (1814), 332; - his escape from (1815), 349, 351. - - Elchingen, battle of (20 Oct. 1805), 244. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Ney. - - Elections, the, to the States-General in France (1789), 50, 51. - - Electors, the eight, of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, 34; - the ten established in 1803, 225. - - Elizabeth, Madame, sister of Louis XVI. (1764–94), 61, 68. - - Elliot, Hugh, English diplomatist (1752–1830), 78. - - Elsinore, batteries at, passed by the English fleet (1801), 222. - - Elten, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - and again (1815), 344. - - Elwangen, the Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - _Emigrés_, Belgian, strong measures taken against (1789), 48. - - —— French, 59, 63, 81, 97, 106, 108, 109, 113, 137, 154, 166, 167, - 169, 172, 188, 214, 215, 351, 357, 358. - _See_ Condé. - - Emperor of the French, Napoleon declares himself (1804), 236; - refuses to be Emperor of Germany, 302. - - —— Holy Roman, position of, 34; - Francis II. abandons the title of (1804), 236. - _See_ Francis II., Joseph II., Leopold II. - - Empire, Holy Roman, 17, 33–36, 79–80, 108, 121, 193, 225–227. - - —— Napoleon’s, its establishment, 237, 238; - Grand Dignitaries of, 239; - institutions and administrative system, 240; - greatest extension of (1810), 282, 283. - - Engen, battle of (3 May 1800), 219. - - Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d’ (1722–1804), shot at - Vincennes, 235. - - England, condition of, 8; - Member of the Triple Alliance, 13, 32; - alliance with Portugal, 21; - condition in 1789, 27, 28; - looks favourably on the French Revolution, 63; - the affair of Nootka Sound, 77, 78; - the Emperor Leopold appeals to, 86; - attitude towards the French Republic, 120; - France declares war against (1793), 120; - paymaster of the coalition against France, 125, 126; - occupies Toulon, 139; - and Corsica, 145; - withdrew subsidies from Prussia, 153; - national feeling in, against France, 154; - supported the French _émigrés_, 154, 166, 167; - did not wish for peace with France, 169; - Spain declares war against, 183; - attempts at peace, 184, 190; - blockades and defeats the Dutch fleet, 193, 194; - takes Minorca and Malta, 195; - forms the second coalition, 197; - Bonaparte attacks her commerce through the Neutral League of the - North, 222; - drives the French out of Egypt, 224; - the Peace of Amiens, 225; - recommencement of the war with France, 233; - Napoleon’s project of invading, 241, 242; - forms the third coalition, 243; - the Continental Blockade against and its effect, 251; - seizes the Danish fleet, 252; - decides to actively intervene on the Continent, 263, 295; - hitherto contented with taking colonies and detached expeditions, - 264; - sends an army to Portugal, 265, 266; - promises subsidies to Austria (1809), 271; - the Walcheren Expedition, 276; - Castlereagh’s and Canning’s theories, 295; - forms fresh coalition, 301, 302; - greatness of her share in overthrowing Napoleon, 334; - colonial gains made at the Congress of Vienna, 348; - insists on abolition of the Slave Trade, 348, 349; - refuses to join the Holy Alliance, 355. _See_ Castlereagh, Pitt. - - Erfurt, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - —— conference at (1808), 262. - - Erthal, Baron Francis Louis of, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg - in 1789, 39. - - —— Baron Frederick Charles of, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence and - Prince-Bishop of Worms in 1789, 39. - - Espinosa, battle of (11 Nov. 1808), 269. - - Essen, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Essling or Aspern, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), 273. - - —— Prince of. _See_ Massena. - - Esterhazy, Nicholas Joseph, Prince (1714–90), 91. - - Etruria, kingdom of, 220, 253. _See_ Louis. - - Ettlingen, battle of (June 1796), 178. - - Eugène de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy. _See_ Beauharnais. - - Ewart, Joseph, English diplomatist (1760–92), English representative - at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87. - - Eylau, battle of (8 Feb. 1807), 248. - - - Fabry, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), 49. - - Famars, battle of (24 May 1793), 130. - - Faypoult, Guillaume Charles, French administrator (1752–1817), 166, - 182. - - Felino, Marquis of. _See_ Tillot. - - Feltre, Duke of. _See_ Clarke. - - Féraud, Jean, French politician (1764–1795), killed in rising of 1 - Prairial, 155. - - Ferdinand VII., King of Spain (1784–1833), 267, 358. - - —— IV., King of the Two Sicilies (1751–1825), 23, 120, 121, 171, 200, - 203, 256, 264, 346, 359. - - —— III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, second son of the Emperor Leopold - (1769–1824), 83, 120, 157, 171, 200, 206, 220, 225, 226, 260, 347. - - —— Duke of Parma and Piacenza, 25, 174, 175. - - —— Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa (1754–1806), 26. - - Ferrara, Legation of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - occupied by Bonaparte (1796), 175; - part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; - of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Ferrari, Raphael di, Doge of Genoa in 1789, 27. - - Fersen, Axel, Count (1759–1810), 113, 152. - - Fesch, Joseph, uncle of Napoleon (1763–1839), 239, 277. - - Feudalism, 3, 6, 8, 28, 60, 199, 256, 259, 288, 289, 290, 297, 303, - 361. - - Fichte, John Theophilus, German philosopher (1762–1814), 304. - - Figueras, battle of (20 Nov. 1794), 150, 151. - - Filangieri, Gaetano, Neapolitan political writer (1752–88), 23. - - Finance, Napoleon’s system of, 287, 288. - - Finland, belonged to Sweden (1789), 32; - campaigns of Gustavus III. in 1788, 45, 46; - (1790), 95; - conquered by the Emperor Alexander (1808), 250, 254, 279; - ceded to Russia by Bernadotte in exchange for Norway (1812), 302. - - Firmian, Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1716–82), 26. - - Fitzherbert, Alleyne, Lord St. Helens, English diplomatist - (1753–1839), 78. - - Five Hundred, Council of. _See_ Council. - - Flanders, the Estates of, declare their independence of Austria - (1789), 64. - - Flesselles, Jacques de, French administrator (1721–89), 58. - - Fleurus, battle of (26 June 1794), 144. - - Florence, 200, 283. - _See_ Tuscany. - - Florida Blanca, Joseph Monino, Count of, Spanish statesman - (1728–1809), 21, 77, 78. - - Flushing taken by the English (1809), 276. - - Foksany, battle of (31 July 1789), 45. - - Foligno, armistice of, between the Pope and Bonaparte (1796), 175. - - Fontainebleau, treaty of (1808), 252, 253; - Pope Pius VII. taken to, 278; - Napoleon abdicates at (1814), 331. - - Fontanes, Louis de, French writer (1757–1821), 288. - - Forfait, Pierre Alexandre Laurent, French administrator (1752–1807), - 216. - - Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, French politician (1763–1820), 210, - 216, 241, 357. - - Foullon de Doué, Joseph François, French administrator (1715–89), 59. - - Fox, Charles James, English statesman (1749–1806), 245, 247, 264. - - France, serfdom and feudalism practically extinct, 6; - why the Revolution broke out, 8; - position in 1789, 19, 20; - elections to the States-General (1789), 49, 51; - result of the capture of the Bastille in (July 1789), 59, 60; - divided into departments, 68, 69; - state of, in 1791, 98; - effect of the flight to Varennes on, 101, 102; - wishes for war, 107; - exasperated by Brunswick’s proclamation, 113; - invaded (1792), 114; - (1793), 130; - opposition to the Convention (1793), 131, 132; - submits to the Reign of Terror, 141; - becomes a vast arsenal, 143; - after the victory of Fleurus rejects the Terror, 148; - detests the Convention because of the Terror (1795), 163; - but would not rise against it, 164; - internal peace established (1796), 180; - state of (1796), 181; - acquiesced in the _coup d’état_ of Fructidor (1797), 191; - state of (1798), weary of politics, 196; - welcomed Bonaparte’s return (1799), 210; - pacified under the Consulate, 215; - organisation into prefectures, 230; - popularity of Bonaparte in (1802), 231; - enthusiastically welcomes the Empire, 237; - conduct to the Pope damaged Napoleon’s popularity in, 278; - Napoleon’s autocratic rule in, abolition of individual liberty and - representative institutions, 284; - indisposed to support Napoleon (1813), 315; - would not rise to defend France in 1814 as in 1793, 322; - weary of the military policy of Napoleon and physically exhausted, - 324–326; - reduced to its limits of 1792, 333; - distrusts Louis XVIII., 351; - welcomes Napoleon back (1815), 351, 352; - difference of its attitude in 1814 and 1815, 353, 354; - reduced to its limits of 1789, 354; - reactionary government of Louis XVIII., 357, 358. - - Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor, 1. Emperor of Austria (1768–1835), - succeeded his father Leopold (1792), 110; - elected and crowned Emperor, 112; - war with France, 112, 113; - loses Belgium, 118; - regarded himself as duped by being left out of second partition of - Poland (1793), 122; - makes Thugut his Foreign Minister, 126; - his armies invade France, 130, 139; - repulsed, 140; - receives Cracow and rest of Galicia at final partition of Poland - (1795), 152; - change in his attitude towards France, 153, 154; - exchanges French prisoners for Madame Royale, 168; - appealed to his people’s patriotism against Bonaparte (1796), 176; - signs Convention of Leoben (1797), 186; - and treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - again prepares for war with France (1798), 197, 201; - was more afraid of Russia than France, 206; - signs treaty of Lunéville and dismisses Thugut (1801), 220; - declares himself Emperor of Austria (1804), 236; - forms coalition with Russia and England, and invades Italy and - Bavaria (1805), 243; - signs treaty of Pressburg, 245; - prepares for a fresh war, and tries to rouse a national German - spirit, 270, 271; - invades Italy and Bavaria (1809), 272; - makes treaty of Vienna, and dismisses Stadion, 274; - appoints Metternich State Chancellor, 275; - gives his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon, 294; - invades Russia as Napoleon’s ally (1812), 303; - attempts to mediate between Napoleon and the allies, 310; - declares war against Napoleon (1813), 311; - does not want to overthrow Napoleon (1814), 316, 317, 324; - signs treaty of Chaumont, 327; - inclined to side with England against Russia and Prussia, 334; - receives the allied monarchs at Vienna (1814), 337; - signs secret treaty with England and France (3 Jan. 1815), 340; - obtains the duchy of Parma for his daughter Marie Louise, 346, 347; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355; - greatly weakened actually if not territorially by the great war, - 359. - - Francis IV., of Este, grandson of Hercules III., Duke of Modena - (1779–1846), 347. - - —— Prince, of Prussia, (1797), 189. - - François de Neufchâteau, Nicolas, Comte, French politician - (1750–1828), 190, 191, 195, 196. - - Franconia invaded by Jourdan (1796), 177, 178; - by Napoleon (1805), 244. - - Frankenberg, Cardinal, Archbishop of Malines, 47, 65. - - Frankfort-on-the-Main, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - Leopold crowned Emperor at (1790), 89; - Francis crowned Emperor at (1792), 112; - held to ransom by Custine (1792), 118; - taken by Jourdan (1796), 177; - maintained as a free city (1803), 226; - the Proposals of (1813), 316; - maintained as a free city and member of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Frankfort, Grand Duchy of, created (1806), 259, 260. - - Frederick II., King of Prussia, ‘the Great’ (1712–86), typical - benevolent despot, 4, 29; - decay of Prussia after his reign, 5; - opposed Austrian scheme of exchanging Belgium for Bavaria, 16, 17; - Joseph’s admiration for, 17; - suggested the partition of Poland, 18; - his policy, 30. - - —— VI., King of Denmark (1768–1839), 32, 302, 320, 337, 347. - - —— I., Duke, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1754–1816), 225, 245, - 258, 347. - - —— Augustus I., Elector, afterwards King, of Saxony (1750–1827), 38, - 179, 250, 259, 261, 274, 341. - - —— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg (♰1797), 180. - - —— William II., King of Prussia (1744–97), his character and policy, - 30, 31; - intrigues with the Turks against Austria, 45; - encourages the Belgian patriots, 48, 64; - occupies Liége, 63; - sends help to the Belgians, 65; - makes treaty with the Poles, 85; - intrigues against Austria, 85, 86; - makes Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87; - won over by Leopold, 88; - signs Declaration of Pilnitz with Leopold, 105; - and treaty with Leopold, 109; - refuses to break with Austria, 111; - directed the policy of the Emperor Francis (1792), 112; - orders retreat from France, 116; - invades Poland and signs second partition (1793), 122; - makes Haugwitz his minister, 126; - driven from Warsaw (1794), 151; - receives Warsaw in final partition of Poland (1795), 152; - yields to the anti-Austrian party at his Court, and becomes slack in - the war against France, 153; - signs treaty of Basle with France (1795), 157; - refuses to make alliance with France (1796), 170; - signs secret supplement to the treaty of Basle, 179; - death, 197. - - Frederick William III., King of Prussia (1770–1840), accession (1797), - 197; - insists on strict neutrality, 197; - attitude in 1799, 206; - admires Bonaparte, but refuses to make alliance with him, 217; - his territorial accessions (1803), 227; - persists in his neutrality, 234, 242; - inclines to war (1805), 246; - utterly defeated by Napoleon at Jena, 247; - signs treaty of Bartenstein with Russia, 248; - spared by Napoleon on the intercession of Alexander, 250; - summoned Stein and Scharnhorst to office, 290; - forced to dismiss Stein, 301; - obliged to sign alliance with Napoleon (1812), 304; - calls out the Landwehr and declares war against Napoleon (1813), - 308; - desires to be revenged on France, 317; - enters Paris (1814), 329; - his intimacy with the Emperor Alexander, 334; - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337; - desires the whole of Saxony, 339, 340; - gets a portion only, 341; - with part of Poland, but not Warsaw, 342; - and Rhenish Prussia, 344; - joins the Holy Alliance, 355. - - Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Oels (1771–1815), 293, 337. - - Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, their College in the - Diet, 34, 35; - reduced to six (1803), 226; - reduced to four (1815), 343. - - Freisingen, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227. - - Fréjus, Napoleon landed at, on his return from Egypt (1799), 209. - - French philosophers of the 18th century contrasted with the German, 9. - - Fréron, Louis Stanislas, French politician (1765–1802), 147, 155, 182. - - Fribourg, canton of Switzerland, 228. - - Friedland, battle of (14 June 1807), 249. - - Friuli, Duke of. _See_ Duroc. - - Fructidor, _coup d’état_ of 18th (4th Sept. 1797), 191. - - Fuentes de Onor, battle of (5 May 1811), 297. - - Fulda, bishopric of (1803), 227, 260. - - - Gaeta, siege and capture by the French (1806), 256. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Gaudin. - - Galicia, Western, obtained by Austria at third partition of Poland - (1795), 152; - ceded to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), 274; - restored to Austria (1815), 342. - - Gambier, James, Lord, English admiral (1756–1833), 277. - - Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de, French politician (1750–93), 133. - - Gaudin, Martin Michel Charles, Duke of Gaeta, French statesman - (1756–1844), 215, 216, 240, 287. - - Geisberg, battle of the (26 Dec. 1793), 140. - - Geneva, its condition as an independent republic in 1789, 41; - occupied by the Bernese troops (1792), 125; - united to France, 228, 230; - made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345. - - Genoa, its position in 1789, 27; - formed into the Liguria Republic (1797), 192; - besieged by the Austrians (1799), 203, 206, 218; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 255; - capital of a French department, 283; - occupied by the English (1814), 315; - his proclamation at, 322; - united to the kingdom of Sardinia (1815), 346. - - Genola, battle of (4 Nov. 1799), 204. - - Gensonné, Armand, French politician (1758–93), 106. - - Gentz, Friedrich von, German statesman (1764–1832), 291, 292, 337. - - George III., King of England (1738–1820), 120. - - Germanic Confederation formed (1815), 342, 343. - - Germany, condition of, in 1789, 33–40; - spread of revolutionary ideas in, 109; - resettlement of (1803), 225–227; - Napoleon’s rearrangement of (1806), 257–261; - Stadion’s attempt to rouse a national spirit in, 270, 271; - reforms made in, under French influence, 288, 289; - growth of a national spirit against the French in, 291–295; - national rising in, 314; - resettled at Congress of Vienna, 342, 345. - _See_ Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, Würtemburg. - - German literary movement at Weimar, 38. - - German philosophers of the 18th century compared with the French, 9. - - Germinal, Riot of the 12th (1 April 1795), in Paris, 155. - - Ghent, 64, 341, 352. - - Girondins, French political party, in the Legislative Assembly, 106; - in favour of war, 107; - their sections in the Convention, 116; - attacked the Mountain, 117; - views on the King’s trial, 119; - struggle with the Mountain, 128, 129; - overthrown (2 June 1793), 129; - attempt to raise the provinces of France against the Convention, - 131; - the leaders guillotined, 138; - recall of the survivors to the Convention (1795), 154; - they obtain power, 155. - - Giurgevo, battle of (8 July 1790), 88; - armistice of (19 Sept. 1790), 88. - - Glarus, 228. - - Gnesen, province of, ceded to Prussia at second partition of Poland - (1793), 123. - - Goa, 224. - - Gobel, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French bishop (1727–94), 70, 141. - - Godoy, Don Manuel de, Prince of the Peace, Spanish statesman - (1767–1851), 77, 126, 154, 157, 183, 255, 266, 267. - - Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet (1749–1832), 9, 10, 38. - - Gohier, Louis Jerome, French politician (1746–1830), 209, 211. - - Goltz, Bernhard William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1730–95), 86. - - Göttingen, university of, 39. - - Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, Laurent, French general (1764–1830), 275, App. iv. - - Graham, Sir Thomas, Lord Lynedoch, English general (1751–1843), 314, - 321. - - Grand Elector, proposed by Sieyès in 1799 but rejected by Bonaparte, - 213. - - Grand Livre, Cambon’s creation of, continued by Napoleon, 288. - - Greece, 257. - - Grégoire, Henri, French politician (1750–1831), 53. - - Grenelle, plot to attack the camp of (1796), 181. - - Grenville, Thomas, English diplomatist (1755–1846), 197. - - —— William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman (1759–1834), Pitt’s - foreign secretary (1790–1801), 120, 166, 167, 169. - - Grisons, republic of the, 41; - occupied by the Archduke Charles (1799), 202; - Suvórov in, 205; - Macdonald invades (1800), 218, 219; - formed into a canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - and retained by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Grodno, Diet of (24 Sept. 1793), second partition of Poland agreed to - at, 122. - - Gross-Beeren, battle of (23 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Gross-Gorschen (Lützen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309. - - Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de, French general (1766–1847), 353, - App. iv. - - Guadeloupe, French West India island, conquered by the English, 154; - restored to France by treaty of Amiens (1802), 232; - reconquered by the English (1810), 276; - returned to France by Sweden (1815), 347. - - Guadet, Marguerite Élie, French politician (1758–94), 106, 129. - - Guastalla, duchy of, granted to Pauline Bonaparte by Napoleon, 283; - granted with Parma to the Empress Marie Louise (1815), 347. - - Guerilla warfare against the French in Spain, 268, 297. - - Guiana, 155, 191, 223, 232, 348. - - Gustavus III., King of Sweden (1746–92), a benevolent despot of the - 18th century, 4; - his _coup d’état_ of 1772 and reforms, 33; - invades Russian Finland (1788), 45; - makes peace with Denmark (1789), 46; - overthrows the power of the nobility, 46; - sympathy with Marie Antoinette, 67, 68; - defeated by the Russians (1790), 95; - makes treaty of Verela with the Empress Catherine (1790), 95, 96; - proposes to rescue the French royal family, 109; - murdered, 110. - - Gustavus IV., King of Sweden (1778–1837), 110, 243, 253, 254, 279. - - - Hague, the, the Stadtholder driven from (1787), 31; - congress at (1790), 93, 94; - capital moved from, to Amsterdam by Louis Bonaparte, 255. - - Hainault, Estates of, suppressed by the Emperor Joseph (1789), 47. - - Hamburg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - English trade removed from Amsterdam to, 184; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - taken by the Russians (1813), 308; - recovered by Vandamme, 309; - defended by Davout (1813–14), 319, 320; - a free city of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Hanau granted to Dalberg, Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), 260; - battle of (30 Oct. 1813), 314. - - Hanover, Electorate of, independently administered under the King of - England, 38, 39; - bishopric of Osnabrück merged in (1803), 227; - occupied by the French under Mortier (1803), 233, 242; - promised to Prussia and offered to England by Napoleon (1806), 247; - part of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia, 258; - and part annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Hanriot, François, French politician (1761–94), 129, 147. - - Hardenberg, Charles Augustus, Count afterwards Prince von, Prussian - statesman (1750–1822), negotiated treaty of Basle (1795), 157; - opposed alliance with France (1796), 170; - became Minister for Foreign Affairs (1803), 234; - and State Chancellor (1807), 248; - completes the work of Stein (1809), 303; - accedes to the Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316; - signs Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), 332; - Prussian Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 337. - - —— William, Count von, Hanoverian statesman (1754–1826), 337. - - Harris, Sir James, Earl of Malmesbury. _See_ Malmesbury. - - Hassan Pasha, Turkish admiral, 45. - - Hatry, Jacques Maurice, French general (1740–1802), 193. - - Haugwitz, Christian Henry Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman, - (1752–1832) a partisan of France and enemy of Austria, 111; - appointed Foreign Minister (1792), 126; - in favour of peace with the French Republic, 153; - but against an alliance (1796), 170; - advocated a compromise, 179; - dismissed as too friendly to France (1803), 234; - signs treaty of Schönbrunn (1805), 247; - finally dismissed (1807), 248. - - Hébert, Jacques René, French politician (1755–94), 141, 142. - - Hébertists, the, 141, 142. - - Heidelberg ceded to Baden, 227. - - Heligoland, ceded by Denmark to England (1815), 348. - - Heliopolis, battle of (20 March 1800), 224. - - Helvetian Republic founded (1798), 199; - replaced by the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), 228. - - Henry, Prince, of Prussia (1726–1802), 111. - - Hérault-Séchelles, Marie Jean, French politician (1760–94), 133. - - Hercules III., Duke of Modena (1727–1803), 25, 26, 174, 175, 192, 226. - - Herder, Johann Gottfried, German philosopher (1744–1803), 9, 38. - - Herford, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Hermann, Russian general, defeated at Bergen (1799), 205. - - Hertzberg, Ewald Frederick, Count von, Prussian statesman (1725–1795), - 30, 31, 85, 87, 88. - - Hesse-Cassel, its condition in 1789, 38; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - increased in size, 227; - merged in the kingdom of Westphalia, 250, 258; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ William IX. - - Hesse-Darmstadt, increased in size (1803), 227; - made a Grand Duchy (1806), 259; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Louis X. - - Hesse-Homburg, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Hildesheim, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - Hildesheim, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Hiller, John, Baron von, Austrian general (1754–1819), 315. - - Hoche, Lazare, French general (1768–97), 140, 154, 180, 181, 185, 186, - 189, 191, 193, 194. - - Hoensbroeck, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de, Prince-Bishop of - Liége, 39, 49, 95. - - Hofer, Andrew, Tyrolese patriot (1767–1810), 273. - - Hohenlinden, battle of (3 Dec. 1800), 219. - - Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, Prince of, one of the chief Princes of the - Empire in Alsace, 79. - - Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, Prince of, Austrian general, 45. - - Hohenzollern, two principalities of, states of the Germanic - Confederation (1815), 343. - - Holland [the United Netherlands], a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; - position in 1789, 31; - revolution in (1787) 31, 32; - put down by Prussia, 32; - designs of Dumouriez on, 119, 120; - France declares war against (1793), 120; - failure of Dumouriez to invade (1793), 126; - conquered by Pichegru (1794–95), 149; - organised as the Batavian Republic, 150; - effect of its conquest on England, 184; - Delacroix sent as ambassador to, 190; - Hoche’s scheme of invading England from, 193; - its fleet destroyed at Camperdown (1797), 194; - invaded by English and Russians (1799), 205; - its changes of government, 254; - Louis Bonaparte, King of (1806), 254, 255; - colonies taken by England, 264; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282; - rises against the French (1813–14), 314, 320, 321; - joined to Belgium as the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), 344. - - —— kingdom of, formed for Louis Bonaparte, 254; - his administration (1806–1810), 254, 255. - - Holstein, duchy of, 34, 343. - - Holstein-Gottorp, Prince Peter of, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck in 1789, - 39. - - Holy Alliance, the, 355. - - Hondschoten, battle of (7 Sept. 1793), 140. - - Hood, Samuel, Lord, English admiral (1724–1816), 139. - - Houchard, Jean Nicolas, French general (1740–93), 138, 140. - - Howe, Richard, Earl, English admiral (1725–99), 145. - - Humbert, Jean Joseph Amable, French general (1755–1823), 197. - - Humboldt, William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1767–1835), 303, - 304, 323; - at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338. - - Hundred Days, the (March-June 1815), 351–353. - - Hungary, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in, 15, 16; - abolition of serfdom, 16; - Joseph’s dying concessions to, 66; - policy of the Emperor Leopold in, 90–92; - looked with favour on Napoleon, 270. - - Huningen, fortress to be dismantled by second treaty of Paris (1815), - 354. - - Hutchinson, John, Lord, afterwards Earl of Donoughmore, English - general (1757–1832), 224. - - - Igelström, Joseph, Count, Russian general (♰1817), 151, 152. - - Illyrian Provinces, Napoleon’s, formed (1805), ruled by Marmont, 245, - 256; - the Ionian islands added to (1807), 256; - increased (1809), 274; - given to Austria (1815), 347. - - Income tax imposed in France (1800), 215. - - India, Bonaparte’s projects on (1798), 194; - the Emperor Paul’s plans for invading, 220, 221. - - ‘Infernal Columns’ despatched to La Vendée, 141. - - ‘Infernal Machine,’ plot of the (1800), 231. - - Inquisition, the Holy, 21, 22, 25, 297, 358. - - Ionian Islands belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - ceded to France (1797), 192; - taken by the Russians (1798), 207; - ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), 250; - added to the Illyrian Provinces, 256; - given to England (1815), 348. - - Ireland, Hoche’s expedition to (1796), 185; - Humbert’s (1798), 197. - - Iron crown of Italy assumed by Napoleon (1805), 238. - - Ismail, besieged by the Russians (1789), 45; - stormed (1790), 96. - - Istria ceded to Austria (1797), 192; - annexed by Napoleon, 245. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Bessières. - - Italian unity, idea of, in the 18th century, 22; - promised by Bentinck (1813), 322; - defended by Murat (1814), 344. - - Italy, condition of, in 1789, 22–27; - Bonaparte’s arrangements in North, 192; - conquered by the French (1798–99), 200; - reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218, 219; - kingdom of, Napoleon’s, 238, 255; - rises against Napoleon (1813–14), 314, 315; - settlement of, at Vienna (1815), 345–347. - _See_ Genoa, Lombardy, Lucca, Modena, Naples, Parma, Rome, Sardinia, - Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. - - - Jablonowski, Ladislas, Polish statesman (1769–1802), 87. - - Jachvill, Prince, 221. - - Jacobin Club, growth of its importance in France, 100, 105; - debates on the war question in, 107; - Hébertists expelled from (1793), 142; - the headquarters of Robespierre’s party, 147; - closed (1794), 149. - - Jaffa taken by Bonaparte (1799), 208. - - Jahn, Frederick Louis, German publicist (1778–1852), 291. - - Janissaries, the, dethrone the Sultan Selim III. (1807), 280; - fight the new militia in Constantinople, 281. - - Janssens, John William, Dutch general (1762–1835), 155. - - Jassy, treaty of (9 Jan. 1792), 96. - - Jaucourt, Arnail François, Marquis de, French statesman (1757–1852), - 330. - - Java, taken by the English (1811), 264; - restored to Holland (1815), 348. - - Javogues, Claude, French politician (1759–96), 139. - - Jeanbon or Jean Bon (André) called Saint-André. _See_ Saint-André. - - Jehu, companies of, ravage the south of France in 1796, 181; - in 1815, 356. - - Jemmappes, battle of (6 Nov. 1792), 118. - - Jena, university of, 38; - battle of (14 Oct. 1806), 247. - - Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1784–1860), 258, 259. - - Jervis, Sir John, Earl St. Vincent, English admiral (1734–1823), 183. - - Jesuits expelled from Spain by Aranda, 21; - from Portugal by Pombal, 22; - from Naples by Tanucci, 23. - - Jeunesse Dorée or Fréronienne, important political part played by, in - Paris (1794–95), 155. - - Jews, toleration to, insisted on by Napoleon, 289. - - John VI., King of Portugal (1769–1826), 22, 120, 223, 252, 253. - - —— Archduke, seventh son of the Emperor Leopold (1782–1863), 219, 272, - 273, 274. - - Jomini, Henri, Baron, French general (1779–1862), 312. - - Joseph II., Emperor (1741–90), typical benevolent despot of the 18th - century, 4; - preferred Russia to France, 12; - position in 1789, 14–17; - internal policy, 15, 16; - abolition of serfdom, 16; - foreign policy, 16, 17; - German policy, 17, 35; - alliance with Russia, 17; - attacks the Turks, 17; - the Pope’s visit to, 24; - defeated by the Turks (1788), 43; - prophecy in Jan. 1789, 44; - policy in Belgium, 46–48; - death and character, 66; - why he failed, 67; - comparison between, and Louis XVI., 67, 68. - - Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoleon (1768–1844), King of - Naples (1806), his good administration, 256; - King of Spain (1808), 267; - his reforms, 289, 297; - driven from Madrid (1812), 306; - returned, 307; - finally retired from Madrid, defeated at Vittoria (1813), 315. - - Joseph, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1776–1847), 270. - - Josephine, the Empress, first wife of Napoleon (1763–1814), 285, 293, - 332. - - Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine, French general (1769–99), 186, 200, - 204. - - Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French general (1762–1833), 140, 144, - 150, 172, 177, 178, 202, 315, App. iv. - - Journalists, rise of their importance in Paris (1789), 61. - - Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish statesman (1744–1811), 21. - - Joyeuse Entrée or Constitution of Brabant, abrogated by the Emperor - Joseph (1789), 47. - - Junot, Andoche, Duke of Abrantes, French general (1771–1813), 253, - 265, 266, 296. - - - Kaiserslautern, battle of (19 Aug. 1794), 144. - - Kalisch, ceded to Prussia in second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - treaty of (27 Feb. 1813), 308. - - Kalkreuth, Frederick Adolphus, Count von, Prussian general - (1737–1818), 153. - - Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724–1804), 9. - - Katt, Lieutenant, Prussian officer, attacked Magdeburg (1809), 293. - - Katzbach, battle of the (25 Aug. 1813), 312. - - Kaunitz, Wenceslas, Prince von, Austrian statesman (1711–94), made the - treaty of 1756 with France, 19; - at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), 87; - wrote the despatch and letter which led to war with France, 108, - 109; - practically succeeded by Thugut (1792), 126. - - Keller, Dorotheus Louis Christopher, Count, Prussian statesman - (1757–1827), 65, 93. - - Kellermann, François Christophe, Duke of Valmy, French general - (1735–1820), 115, App. iv. - - —— François Étienne, French general (1770–1835), 218. - - Kempten, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - Kiel, treaty of (14 Jan. 1814), 320. - - Kioge, Danes defeated at, by the English (1807), 252. - - Klagenfurt, Joubert joins Bonaparte at (1797), 186. - - Kléber, Jean Baptiste, French general (1753–1800), 150, 172, 208, 224. - - Knesebeck, Charles Frederick, Baron von, Prussian general (1768–1844), - 33. - - Knights of the Holy Roman Empire, 40; - deprived of their sovereign rights by Napoleon, 260. - - Kolichev, Nicholas, Russian diplomatist (♰1813), 198, 217. - - Kollontai, Hugh, Polish statesman (1752–1812), 104, 122. - - Königsberg, Estates of East Prussia summoned at, by Stein (1813), 308. - - Körner, Charles Theodore, German poet (1791–1813), 291. - - Korsakov, Alexander Rymski, Russian general (1753–1840), 204. - - Kosciuszko, Thaddeus, Polish patriot (1746–1817), defeated by Suvórov - at Dubienka (1792), 122; - raises standard of Polish independence at Cracow, and takes Warsaw - (1794), 151; - defeated by the Russians, wounded and taken prisoner at Maciejowice - (1795), 152; - welcomed in Paris, 206. - - Kray, Paul, Baron, Austrian general (1735–1804), 202. - - Kulm, capitulation of (1813), 313. - - Kutuzov, Michael Larivonovitch Golenitchev, Prince, Russian general - (1745–1813), 96, 281, 305; - death (1813), 309. - - - Labrador, Pedro Gomez Ravelo, Count of, Spanish statesman (1775–1850), - 338, 347. - - Lacuée de Cessac, Gérard Jean, Comte, French administrator - (1752–1841), 241. - - Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, - French general (1757–1834), leads the minority of the nobility in - the States-General to join the Tiers État (June 1789), 54; - commandant of the National Guard of Paris, 59; - brings Louis XVI. to Paris (6 Oct. 1789), 62; - got Mirabeau’s proposition on ministers rejected, 72; - most influential man in France (1790), 73; - fires on the people (17 July 1791), on the Champ de Mars, 101; - placed in command of an army on the frontier (1792), 107; - offers to help the king (July 1792), 112; - deserts, 114. - - Lagarde, Marie Jacques Martin, French general (♰1815), 356. - - La Harpe, Frederick Cæsar de, Swiss statesman (1754–1838), 234. - - La Marck, Auguste Marie Raymond, Comte de (1753–1833), 72, 73. - - Lambesc, Charles Eugène de Lorraine, Prince de, French officer - (1751–1825), 57. - - Lambrechts, Charles Joseph Mathieu, Comte, French politician - (1753–1823), 191. - - Lameth, Alexandre Theodore Victor, Vicomte de, French politician - (1760–1829), 100. - - Lampredi, Giovanni Maria, Italian jurist (1732–93), 24. - - Landau, siege of, relieved by Pichegru (1793), 140. - - Lanjunais, Jean Denis, Comte, French politician (1753–1827), 154. - - Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello, French general (1769–1809), 218, - 269, App. iv. - - Laon, battle of (9 March 1814), 328. - - La Place, Pierre Simon, French astronomer (1749–1827), 216. - - La Tour du Pin Gouvernet, Frédéric, Marquis de, French diplomatist - (1750–1837), 338. - - Lauenburg, Duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation, granted to - the King of Denmark (1815), 347. - - League of the Princes, formed by Frederick the Great, 30, 35; - joined by the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, 39. - - La Bon, Ghislain Joseph François, French politician (1765–95), 139. - - Le Brun, Charles François, Duke of Piacenza, French statesman - (1739–1824), 214, 239, 287. - - Lebrun Tondu, Pierre Henri Hélène, French politician (1763–93), 114. - - Le Chapelier, Isaac Gui René, French politician (1754–94), 52, 100. - - Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel, French general (1772–1802), 223, 232. - - Lecourbe, Claude Joseph, Comte, French general (1760–1815), 204. - - Leeds, Francis Godolphin Osborne, Duke of, English statesman - (1751–99), 28. - - Lefebvre, François Joseph, Duke of Dantzic, French general - (1755–1820), 248, 329, App. iv. - - Legations, the. _See_ Bologna, Ferrara. - - Leghorn, its prosperity promoted by the Grand Duke Leopold, 27; - capital of a French department, 283. - - Legion of Honour, the, 284. - - Legislative Assembly, the, in France (1791–92), 105, 106, 108, 111, - 113, 114. - - —— Body, the (Corps Législatif), 214, 240, 285, 322, 326. - - Legislature, the French, under the Constitution of the Year III. _See_ - Council of Ancients, Council of Five Hundred. - - —— the French, under the Constitution of the Year VIII. _See_ - Legislative Body, Senate, Tribunate. - - Leiningen, the Prince of, one of chief princes holding fiefs of the - Empire in Alsace, 79. - - Leipzig, battle of (16–19 Oct. 1813), 314. - - Lenoir-Laroche, Jean Jacques, French administrator (1749–1825), 190. - - Leoben, the Preliminaries of, signed 17th April 1797, 186; - arrangements of, followed in the treaty of Campo-Formio, 192. - - Leopold II., Emperor (1747–92), typical benevolent despot of the 18th - century, 4; - considered the French the enemies of Austria, 12; - his administration as Grand Duke of Tuscany (1765–90), 24, 25, 83; - implored by Marie Antoinette to interfere in France, 81; - succeeds Joseph II. (1790), 83; - his internal policy, 83, 84; - position of Austria, 84; - appeals to England against Prussia, 86; - signs Convention of Reichenbach (1790), 87, 88; - makes armistice with the Turks, 88; - and treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; - elected and crowned Emperor, 89; - letter to Louis XVI. on the rights of the Princes of the Empire in - Alsace, 89, 90; - his policy towards Hungary, 90–92; - crowned King of Hungary, 91; - reconquers Belgium (1790), 94; - occupies Liége, 95; - his position in 1791, 97; - promises to intervene in France, 99; - issues Manifesto of Padua, 102; - signs Declaration of Pilnitz, 103; - his letter and despatch to Louis XVI., 108, 109; - makes an alliance with Prussia against France, 109; - death (1 March 1792), 110. - - Leopold, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1774–94), 91. - - Le Quesnoy, besieged by the Austrians (1793), 130. - - Lessart, Antoine de Valdec de, French statesman (1742–92), 109. - - Letourneur, Charles Louis François Honoré, French statesman - (1751–1817), 165, 182, 188. - - Letourneux, Pierre, French administrator (1761–1805), 191. - - ‘Liberum Veto,’ the, in Poland, 18; - abolished by Polish Constitution of 1791, 104. - - Lichtenstein, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Liége, revolution in (Aug. 1789), 49; - occupied by the Prussians (1790), 63; - by the Austrians (1791), 94, 95; - by Dumouriez (1792), 118. - - Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de, Austrian general (1734–1814), 65. - - Ligny, battle of (16 June 1815), 352. - - Ligurian Republic founded by Bonaparte (1797), 192; - the Doge appointed by France (1801), 220; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, 243, 283. - - Lille, besieged by the Austrians (1792), 114, 118; - conference at (1797), 190. - - Limburg, occupied by the Austrians under Bender (1790), 93. - - —— Count Augustus of, Prince-Bishop of Spires in 1789, 39. - - Limon, Geoffroi, Marquis de, French _émigrés_ (♰1799), 113. - - Lindet, Jean Baptiste Robert, French statesman (1743–1825), 132, 133, - 148, 210. - - Lippe, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Lisbon, occupied by the French under Junot (1807), 253. - - Lithuania, conquered by Napoleon (1812), 305; - absorbed in Russia, 342. - - Llanos, Don Juan Gomez, minister of the Duke of Parma, 25. - - Loano, battle of (24 Nov. 1795), 151, 173. - - Lobau, Napoleon in the island of (1809), 273. - - Locke, John, English philosopher (1632–1704), 9. - - Lodi, battle of (10 May 1796), 174. - - Lombardy, belonged to Austria in 1789, its good administration, 26; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - formed part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192; - occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; - reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - formed part of the kingdom of Italy (1805), 255; - restored to Austria (1815), 347. - - Loménie de Brienne, Étienne Charles, Cardinal de, French statesman - (1727–1794), 49, 51, 70. - - Longwy, taken by the Prussians (27 Aug. 1792), 114. - - Loudon, Gideon Ernest, Count, Austrian general (1716–90), 43, 45, 88. - - Louis XV., King of France (1710–1774), 19. - - —— XVI., King of France (1754–93), 20, 49, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, - 67, 68, 75, 76, 99, 100, 103, 106, 108, 111, 112, 113, 139. - - —— XVII., _de jure_ King of France (1785–95), 168. - - —— XVIII., King of France (1755–1824), 26, 102, 166, 167, 188, 206, - 217, 332, 333, 340, 341, 350, 351, 352, 353, 355, 356–358. - - —— I., King of Etruria (1773–1803), 220, 232. - - —— Bonaparte, King of Holland (1777–1846), 254, 255, 282, 283. - - —— X., Landgrave, afterwards Grand Duke, of Hesse-Darmstadt - (1753–1830), 79, 227, 259, 260, 342. - - —— Philippe, Duke of Orleans, afterwards King of the French - (1773–1850), 189. - - —— Louis Dominique, Baron, French statesman (1755–1837), 240, 331. - - Louisa, Queen of Prussia (1776–1810), 246, 304. - - Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France (1801), 232; - sold by Napoleon to the United States, 242. - - Loustalot, Elysée, French journalist (1762–90), 61. - - Louvain, 15, 48, 64. - - Louverture, Toussaint (1743–1803), 232. - - Louvet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1760–97), 117, 154. - - Löwenhielm, Gustavus Charles Frederick, Count von, Swedish diplomatist - (1771–1856), 338. - - Lübeck, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 302; - as a free city member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Lucca, Republic of, in 1789, 27; - annexed by Napoleon (1805), 243, 255; - Elisa Bonaparte, Duchess of, 283; - made a Grand Duchy for the King of Etruria with reversion to - Tuscany (1815), 347. - - Lucchesini, Jerome, Prussian diplomatist (1752–1825), 31, 85, 87, 88, - 89, 153. - - Lucerne, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - one of the three meeting-places of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345. - - Lückner, Nicolas, Baron, French general (1722–94), 107. - - Ludovica, the Empress, third wife of the Emperor Francis II. - (1772–1816), 271. - - Lunéville, treaty of (9 Feb. 1801), 219, 220. - - Lusatia, annexed to Saxony (1806), 259; - to Prussia (1815), 341. - - Lützen (Gross-Gorschen), battle of (2 May 1813), 309. - - Luxembourg, the Austrians retreat to, from Belgium (1789), 64; - made into a Grand Duchy (1815), 343; - and given to the King of the Netherlands, 344. - - Lynedoch, Sir Thomas Graham, Lord. _See_ Graham. - - Lyons rises in insurrection against the Convention (1793), 131; - taken, 140. - - - Macdonald, Jacques Étienne Joseph Alexandre, Duke of Taranto, French - general (1765–1840), 203, 219, 273, 305, 306, 308, 312, 329, 331, - 332. - - Maciejowice, battle of (12 Oct. 1794), 152. - - Mack, Charles, Baron, Austrian general (1752–1828), 200, 243, 244. - - Mackintosh, Sir James, English statesman (1765–1832), 233. - - Madame Royale. _See_ Angoulême, Duchess of. - - Madeira, occupied by the English (1801), 223, 224. - - Maestricht, besieged by Miranda (1793), 126; - taken by Kléber (1794), 150. - - Magdeburg formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia, 258; - Katt’s attack on, 293; - French garrison in, besieged (1814), 319. - - Magnano, battle of (5 April 1799), 202. - - Mahmoud II., Sultan of Turkey (1785–1839), 281. - - Maida, battle of (4 July 1806), 256. - - Maillard, Stanislas, French politician (1763–94), 62. - - Maillebois, Yves Marie Desmarets, Comte de, French general - (1715–1791), 31, 32. - - Maitland, Sir Frederick Lewis, English captain (1779–1839), 353. - - Malet, Claude François, French general (1754–1812), 306. - - Malines, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1788), 47; - abandoned to the Belgian patriots, 64. - - Malmaison, château of, settled on the Empress Josephine, 293. - - Malmesbury, Sir James Harris, Earl of, English diplomatist - (1746–1820), 32, 184, 190. - - Malta, taken by Bonaparte (1798), 195; - by the English (1800), 195, 204; - the Emperor Paul Grand Master of the Knights of, 207, 217; - a cause of the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, 225; - England refuses to surrender, 233; - granted to England at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Mamelukes defeated by Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids (1798), - 195; - at the battle of Cairo (1799), 208. - - Manifesto of Padua issued by the Emperor Leopold (5 July 1791), 102. - - Mannheim, university of, 37; - taken by Pichegru (1795), 172; - given to Baden (1803), 227. - - Mantua, Leopold’s interview with Durfort at, 99; - besieged by Bonaparte (1796–97), 175, 176; - part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - besieged by Suvórov (1799), 203. - - Marat, Jean Paul, French statesman (1744–93), 61, 101, 107, 117, 155. - - Marceau, François Séverin Desgraviers, French general (1769–96), 172; - killed at Altenkirchen (1796), 178. - - Marengo, battle of (14 June 1800), 218. - - Maret, Hugues Bernard, Duke of Bassano, French statesman (1763–1839), - 241, 316. - - Maria I., Queen of Portugal (1734–1816), 22, 253. - - —— Beatrice of Este, heiress of Modena, married to the Archduke - Ferdinand, 25, 26. - - —— Theresa, the Empress (1717–80), 19. - - Marie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, sister of the Emperor Alexander, - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337. - - —— Amélie, Duchess of Parma, daughter of Maria Theresa, 25. - - —— Antoinette, Queen of France, daughter of Maria Theresa (1755–93), - disliked in France as an Austrian, 12; - opposes Necker, 55; - urges Louis XVI. to oppose the Assembly, 61, 68; - wishes her brother Leopold to interfere in France, 75, 80, 81; - unpopularity increased by Prussian intrigues, 86; - admiration of Gustavus III. of Sweden for, 95; - demands Leopold’s aid, 99; - escapes to Varennes, 99, 100; - reveals French plan of campaign to Austria, 112; - ordered to be sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal for trial, 134; - guillotined, 138. - - —— Caroline, Queen of the Two Sicilies, daughter of Maria Theresa. - _See_ Caroline. - - —— Louise, the Empress, Napoleon’s second wife (1791–1847), 294, 330, - 332, 346, 347. - - —— —— Queen of Spain (1754–1819), 77, 267. - - Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa, French - general (1774–1852), 245, 256, 306, 329, 331, App. iv. - - Marseillaise, the, 113. - - Marseilles opposes the Convention (1793), 151. - - Marshals, Napoleon’s, 239; - list of, App. iv. - - Martinique, French West India island, taken by the English, 154; - restored to France (1802), 252; - again taken by the English (1809), 276; - restored to France (1815), 348. - - Massa, Duke of. _See_ Regnier. - - —— Principality of, merged in the Duchy of Modena, 25. - - Massacres in the prisons of Paris (Sept. 1792), 115. - - Masséna, André, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling, French general - (1758–1817), 204, 218, 221, 244, 272, 296, 297, App. iv. - - Matchin, battle of (9 July 1791), 96. - - Maubeuge besieged by the Austrians (1793), 140. - - Mauprat, M. de, reforming minister in Parma, 25. - - Mauritius, the island of the, taken by the English (1809), 264, 276; - ceded to England by the first Treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Maximilian, Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa, Elector-Archbishop - of Cologne in 1789, 40. - - —— Joseph, Elector, afterwards King, of Bavaria (1770–1825), his - power increased by the secularisations (1803), 227; - receives Swabia and the Tyrol and takes the title of king (1806), - 245; - receives Salzburg (1809), 257; - marries a daughter to Eugène de Beauharnais, 258; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - sends troops to serve under Napoleon at Wagram, 274; - signs Treaty of Ried against Napoleon (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314; - attacks Napoleon and is defeated at Hanau, 314; - opens the passes through the Tyrol into Italy to the Austrians, 321; - agrees to support Austria and England against Russia and Prussia - (1815), 341; - member of the Germanic Confederation, 342; - gives up the Tyrol and Salzburg to Austria, and receives Rhenish - Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Maximum, Law of the, in France, 128; - an instrument of the Terror, 137; - abolished by the Thermidorians, 149; - temporarily imposed by Napoleon, 285. - - Mayence, the Archbishop-Elector of, Chancellor of the Holy Roman - Empire, and President of the College of Prince, 54. - - —— archbishopric-electorate of, condition in 1789, 39; - merged in France (1801), 193; - given to Bavaria (1815), 344. - - —— city of, taken by the French under Custine (1792), 118; - by the Prussians after a long siege (1793), 130; - besieged by Kléber in vain (1795), 172; - taken by the French under Hatry (1797), 193; - capital of a French department, 230; - ceded to Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Mecklenburg, the duchies of, their backward state in 1789, 38; - made grand duchies and members of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - Medellin, battle of (28 March 1809), 275. - - Medina del Rio Seco, battle of (14 July 1808), 267. - - Melas, Michael Baron von, Austrian general (1730–1806), 175, 204, 218. - - Menou, Jacques François, Baron de, French general (1750–1810), 156, - 224. - - Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude, Comte de, Austrian diplomatist - (1722–94), 93, 94, 99. - - Merlin [de Douai], Philippe Antoine, Comte, French statesman - (1754–1838), 80, 137, 148, 149, 156, 159, 166, 182, 191, 209, 357. - - —— [de Thionville], Antoine Christophe, French politician (1762–1833), - 117. - - Methuen Treaty, its effect on Portugal, 14, 21, 252. - - Metternich, Clement Wenceslas Lothaire, Count, afterwards Prince, von, - Austrian statesman (1773–1859), becomes State Chancellor of - Austria (1809), 275; - opposes Stein’s idea of rousing the national spirit of Germany - against Napoleon, 310, 311; - brings terms agreed on at Reichenbach to Napoleon at Dresden (1813), - 311; - lays down the Proposals of Frankfort, 316; - intrigues with Murat, 322; - presses terms offered at Châtillon, 324; - becomes intimate with Castlereagh, 331; - signs Provisional Treaty of Paris, 332; - Austrian representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; - signs treaty of alliance with England and France against Russia and - Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), 340. - - Middle classes in Europe in the 18th century, 7. - - Milan, university of, 26; - taken by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - meeting of Lombard delegates at, 175; - taken by Suvórov (1799), 203; - by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - Napoleon crowned King of Italy at (1805), 238; - issues Decree of, establishing the Continental Blockade against - England (1808), 251. - - Milanese, the. _See_ Lombardy. - - Miles, William Augustus, English diplomatist (1754–1817), 78. - - Millesimo, battle of (13 April 1796), 174. - - Mincio, battle of the (8 Feb. 1814), 322. - - Ministers of the French Directory, 166, 182, 190, 191, 210; - of the Consulate, 216; - of the Empire, 240, 241. - - Minorca taken by the English (1798), 195, 264. - - Minsk, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland - (1793), 122. - - Miollis, Sextius Alexandre François, Comte, French general - (1759–1829), 277. - - Miot de Melito, André François, Comte, French administrator - (1762–1841), 256. - - Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de, French statesman - (1749–1791), 54, 56, 60, 61, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 98, 99. - - Mirabeau, Victor Riqueti, Marquis de, French economist (1715–89), 25. - - Miranda, Don Francisco, French general (1750–1816), 126, 127. - - Mirandola, principality of, united with Modena in 1789, 25. - - Mittau, Louis XVIII. settled at, by the Emperor Paul (1797), 206; - ordered to leave (1802), 217. - - Modena, duchy of, condition in 1789, 25, 26; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - part of the Cisalpine Republic, 192; - of the kingdom of Italy, 255; - granted to Ferdinand IV., 347. - - Moeskirch, battle of (5 May 1800), 218. - - Moldavia, conquered by the Austrians (1789), 45; - by the Russians (1810), 281; - part of, ceded to Russia (1812), 281. - - Möllendorf, Richard Joachim Heinrich, Count von, Prussian general - (1725–1816), 153. - - Moncey, Bon Adrien Jeannot de, Duke of Conegliano, French general - (1754–1842), 151, 275, 356, App. iv. - - Mondovi, battle of (22 April 1796), 174. - - Monge, Gaspard, Comte, French mathematician (1746–1818), 114. - - Montbéliard, ceded by Würtermburg to France, 227; - merged in the department of the Doubs, 230; - secured to France by the first treaty of Paris, 333. - - Mont-Blanc, Savoy organised as the French department of the, 230. - - —— Cenis, 151. - - Montebello, battle of (4 June 1800), 218. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Lannes. - - Montenotte, battle of (12 April 1796), 174. - - Montereau, battle of (18 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, French philosopher - (1689–1755), 9. - - Montesquiou-Fézensac, Anne Pierre, Marquis de, French general - (1739–98), 117. - - —— —— François Nicolas, Abbé-Duc de, French politician (1757–1832), - 330. - - Monte Video, English expedition to (1806), 264. - - Montgelas, Maximilian Joseph Garnerin, Comte de, Bavarian statesman - (1759–1838), 289. - - Montluçon, Bonaparte’s treaty with the Vendéan leaders at (1800), - 215. - - Montmirail, battle of (11 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Montmorin-Saint-Hérem, Armand Marc, Comte de, French statesman - (1745–92), 78. - - Mont-Terrible, department of, merged in the department of the - Haut-Rhin, 230. - - Moore, Sir John, English general (1761–1809), 254, 266, 269, 270. - - Moreau, Jean Victor, French general (1761–1813), 168, 178, 186, 193, - 194, 203, 211, 218, 219, 234, 235, 312. - - Moreaux, Jean René, French general (1758–95), 144, 150. - - Morkov, Arcadius Ivanovitch, Count, Russian diplomatist, (♰1827), - 243. - - Mortier, Adolphe Edouard Casimir Joseph, Duke of Treviso, French - general (1768–1835), 233, 329, App. iv. - - Moscow, occupied by Napoleon (1812), 306. - - Moskowa, Prince of the. _See_ Ney. - - Moulin, Jean François Auguste, French general (1752–1810), 209. - - Mounier, Jean Joseph, French statesman (1758–1806), 51, 55. - - Mountain, the French political party, germs in the Jacobin Club - (1792), 107; - the party in the Convention, 116, 117; - attacked by the Girondins, 117; - struggle with the Girondins, 128, 129; - as a party ceases to exist (1795), 156. - - Mount Tabor, battle of (16 April 1799), 208. - - Mulhouse, Republic of, merged in the Haut-Rhin, 230; - secured to France (1814), 333. - - Müller, Jacques Léonard, Baron, French general (1749–1824), 140. - - —— Johann von, German historian (1752–1809), 259. - - Munich, taken by the French under Moreau (1800), 219. - - Münster, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - —— bishopric of, part of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; - part of, annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - —— city of, capital of a French department, 282. - - —— Ernest Frederick, Count von, Hanoverian diplomatist (1766–1841), - 337. - - Murat, Joachim, Grand Duke of Berg, King of Naples, French general - (1771–1815), 239, 259, 267, 283, 306, 322, 345, 346, App. iv. - - Murbach, the Abbot of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in - Alsace, 79. - - Murray, Sir John, English general (♰1827), 307. - - Musæus, John Charles Augustus, German author (1735–87), 38. - - Mustapha IV., Sultan of Turkey (1779–1808), 280, 281. - - Mysticism in the 18th century, 10. - - - Namur, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1789), 48. - - Nancy, Bouillé suppresses a military mutiny at (Aug. 1790), 72, 97, - 98. - - Nangis, battle of (17 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Nantes, Carrier’s atrocities at (1793), 139, 141. - - Naples, reforms of Tanucci in, 23; - occupied by the French (1798), and the Parthenopean Republic - founded, 200; - evacuated by the French (1799), and the revenge of Ferdinand, 203; - attacked by Napoleon (1804), 242; - Joseph Bonaparte’s rule in, 256; - Murat king of, 283; - Ferdinand returns to (1814), 346, 359; - behaves moderately, 359. - - Napoleon (1769–1821), crowned Emperor, 238; - his Court, 239; - his ministers, 240, 241; - the camp at Boulogne, 241; - organises the Grand Army, 241, 242; - wins the battle of Austerlitz, 244; - crushes Prussia at Jena, 247; - defeats the Russians at Eylau and Friedland, 248, 249; - holds interview with Alexander at Tilsit, 249, 250; - the Continental Blockade against England, 251; - his rearrangement of Europe, 254–257; - Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - his Polish policy, 261; - the Conference at Erfurt, 262; - makes his brother King of Spain, 267; - takes Madrid, 269; - defeats the Austrians (1809), 272–274; - quarrel with the Pope, 277, 278; - greatest extension of his Empire (1810), 282, 283; - his administration, 283–285; - belief in heredity, 285, 286; - aristocracy, 286, 287; - reforms, 287, 288; - divorces Josephine, 293; - marries Marie Louise, 294; - his differences with Alexander, 299–301; - invades Russia (1812), 305; - his retreat, 306; - first campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 309; - refuses the terms offered him by the allies, 311; - second campaign of 1813 in Saxony, 312, 313; - defeated at Leipzig, 314; - first defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 319; - rejects the terms offered by the allies at Châtillon, 323, 324; - second defensive campaign of 1814 in France, 328, 329; - abdicates, 331; - leaves Elba and returns to France (1815), 351; - defeated at Waterloo, 353; - sent to St. Helena, 355. - _See_ Bonaparte. - - Napoleon, King of Rome, birth of, 294; - granted succession to Parma by the Provisional Treaty of Paris - (1814), 332; - but not by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Narbonne-Lara, Comte Louis de, French politician (1755–1813), 106, - 107, 109. - - Nassau, duchy of, increased in 1803, 227; - merged in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), 259; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - - Nassau-Siegen, Prince Charles Henry Nicholas Otho of, Russian admiral - (1745–1809), 44, 95. - - National Assembly. _See_ Constituent Assembly. - - —— Guards formed in Paris, 57; - throughout France, 59. - - Nationality, the principle of, 2, 3; - extinct in 18th-century Germany, 40; - made the French successful and the Poles fail, 153; - roused against Napoleon in Spain, 298; - in Germany, 293, 314; - rejected by the Congress of Vienna, 360. - - Natural limits of France, the Rhine and the Alps, claimed at Basle - (1795), 157; - demanded by the Directory, 170; - recognised secretly by Prussia, 179; - by the Preliminaries of Leoben, 186; - by the Treaty of Campo-Formio, 192; - by the Treaty of Lunéville, 220; - abandoned by Napoleon’s annexations, 282; - offered by the allies at Dresden, 311; - at Frankfort, 316; - opposed by Castlereagh, 318, 324. - - Necker, Jacques, French statesman (1732–1804), 49, 51, 56, 58, 61, 74. - - Neipperg, Albert Adam, Count (1774–1829), 346, 347. - - Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, English admiral (1758–1805), 183, 195, 222, - 242, 244, 245. - - Nesselrode, Charles Robert, Count, Russian statesman (1780–1863), 301, - 332, 337. - - Netherlands, Austrian. _See_ Belgium. - - —— The Protestant, or the United Provinces. _See_ Holland. - - —— Kingdom of the, formed (1815), 344. - - Neufchâtel, belonged to Prussia in 1789, 41; - Berthier created Prince-Duke of, 283, 286; - made a Canton of Switzerland (1815), 345. - - Neumarkt, battle of (20 March 1797), 186. - - Neutral League of the North, the, 222. - - Ney, Michel, Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the Moskowa, French general - (1769–1815), 244, 296, 306, 313, 329, 332, 351, 352, 356, App. iv. - - Nice, port of, improved by Victor Amadeus III., 26; - taken by the French (1792), 117; - annexed, 118; - formally ceded to France, 174; - formed into a department, 230; - restored to Sardinia (1814), 333. - - Niebuhr, Barthold George, German historian (1776–1831), 304. - - Nile, battle of the (1 Aug. 1798), 195. - - Nimeguen, 149. - - Nive, battle of the (9–13 Dec. 1813), 316. - - Nivelle, battle of the (10 Nov. 1813), 316. - - Noailles, Comte Alexis de, French diplomatist (1783–1835), 338. - - Nobility, the European, in the 18th century, 7. - - Nootka Sound, 77–9. - - Nore, mutiny at the, 183, 193. - - Normal School of Paris, founded by Napoleon, 288. - - Normandy, the rising in, against the Convention, suppressed, 132, 133. - - Norway, 32, 302, 320, 347. - - Novi (Bosnia) taken by Loudon (1788), 43. - - —— (Italy), battle of (15 Aug. 1799), 204. - - Noyades at Nantes, 139. - - Nuremberg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, 35; - retained its independence (1803), 226; - granted to Bavaria (1806), 257. - - - Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June 1789), 54. - - Ocana, battle of (12 Nov. 1809), 276. - - Ochakov (Oczakoff), 43, 44, 96. - - Oldenburg, duchy of (1815), 282, 300, 342. - - Olivenza ceded by Portugal to Spain (1801), 223; - left to Spain by the Congress of Vienna, 348. - - Oporto, rising against the French at (1808), 265; - taken by Soult, 270; - recaptured by Wellesley (1809), 275. - - Orange, Prince of. _See_ William V., William VI. - - Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of (1747–93), 57, 138. - - Orsova besieged by the Austrians (1789), 45; - taken by the Prince of Coburg (1789), 88; - ceded to Austria (1791), 88. - - Ortenau given to Baden (1807), 258. - - Orthez, battle of (27 Feb. 1814), 321. - - Osnabrück, the Duke of York bishop of, in 1789, 39; - merged in Hanover (1803), 227; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - Ostend taken by the Belgian patriots (1789), 64. - - Otranto, Duke of. _See_ Fouché. - - Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, Duke of Reggio, French general (1767–1847), - 312, 329, App. iv. - - - Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, Italian scholar (1710–85), 25. - - Pacte de Famille, the, between France and Spain, 14, 20, 77–79. - - Pacy, the Norman insurgents against the Convention defeated at (13 - July 1793), 131. - - Paderborn, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34. - - —— bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227; - in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), 258. - - Padua, Manifesto of, 102. - - Pahlen, Peter, Count von der, Russian general (♰1826), 221. - - Palestine, conquered by Bonaparte (1799), 208. - - Palm, John Philip, German bookseller (♰1806), 293. - - Palmella, Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, Count, afterwards Duke, of, - Portuguese statesman (1786–1850), 338. - - Pampeluna besieged and taken by Wellington (1813), 315, 316. - - Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot (1726–1807), 27, 145. - - Papacy, the, its temporal power in the 18th century, 24. - - Paris, takes part in the Revolution, 56; - riot of 12 July (1789), 57; - the taking of the Bastille, 57, 58; - the King brought to (6 Oct. 1789), 62; - keeps the King prisoner in the Tuileries, 99; - massacre of 17 July (1791), 101; - invades the Tuileries (20 June 1792), 112; - takes the Tuileries (10 Aug. 1792), 113; - massacres in (Sept. 1792), 115; - people of, refuse to support Robespierre, 147; - fights against the Convention, 13 Vendémiaire, 164, 165; - welcomes the Empire, 238; - battle of (1814), 239; - occupied by the allies, 239; - provisional treaty of, 331, 332; - return of Louis XVIII. to, 333; - first treaty of, 333, 334; - return of Napoleon to (1815), 351; - reoccupied by the allies, 353; - second treaty of, 353, 354. - - Parker, Sir Hyde, English admiral (1739–1807), 222. - - Parma, city of, capital of a French department, 283. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Cambacérès. - - —— and Piacenza, Duchess of. _See_ Marie Louise. - - —— ——, Duke of. _See_ Ferdinand, Louis. - - —— ——, duchies of, well governed in the 18th century, 25; - conquered by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - exchanged for kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; - granted to Marie Louise by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), - 332; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Parthenopean Republic, founded (1798), 200; - overthrown (1799), 203. - - Passau, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1801), 227. - - Paul, Emperor, of Russia (1754–1801), his accession (1796), 185; - inclines to war with France, 198; - declares war against France (1798), 202; - receives Louis XVIII., 204; - withdraws his troops from the Continent, 206; - becomes Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, 207; - quarrels with Austria and England, 207; - makes peace with France, 207; - admiration for Bonaparte, 216, 217; - schemes for an invasion of India, 220, 221; - forms Neutral League of the North, 221, 222; - assassinated, 222. - - Pavia, the university of, 26. - - Peace, Prince of the. _See_ Godoy. - - Peltier, Jean Gabriel, French journalist (1765–1825), 133. - - Peninsular War: campaign of 1808, 265, 266; - of 1809, 275, 276; - of 1810, 296; - of 1811, 296, 297; - of 1812, 306, 307; - of 1813, 315. - - _Père Duchesne_, 142. - - Pérignon, Dominique Catherine, Comte, French general (1754–1818), 183, - App. iv. - - Pesth, 90, 91. - - Pétiet, Claude, French administrator (1749–1805), 182, 190. - - Pétion, Jérome, French politician (1753–94), 78, 86. - - Pfaffenhofen, treaty of (1796), 180. - - Philosophers, the eighteenth century, 4, 9, 17, 38. - - Piacenza, Duchy of. _See_ Parma. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Le Brun. - - Pichegru, Charles, French general (1761–1804), 140, 144, 149, 167, - 172, 188, 191, 234, 235. - - Piedmont, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; - left to Victor Amadeus (1797), 192; - occupied by the French under Joubert (1798), 200; - occupied by the Austrians (1799), 206; - conquered by Bonaparte (1800), 218; - annexed to France (1801), 220, 230, 255. - - Pigot, Sir Henry, English general (1752–1840), 195. - - Pilnitz, Conference between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick - William at (1791), 102; - the Declaration of, 103; - its effect on France, 106. - - Pisa, the university of, 24, 200. - - Pitt, William, English statesman (1759–1806), 28, 45, 78, 86, 97, 120, - 125, 126, 166, 167, 169, 184, 189, 190, 225, 243, 245, 264. - - Pius VI., Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope (1717–99), 24, 66, 76, 175, - 177, 200, 203, 217. - - —— VII., Gregorio Barnabé Luigi Chiaramonti, Pope (1742–1834), 217, - 220, 229, 230, 238, 277, 278, 347. - - Plain, deputies of the Centre in the Convention called the, 117, 129, - 156. - - Pleswitz, armistice of (3 June 1813), 309. - - Plettenberg, the Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Münster in 1789, 39. - - Pléville de Peley, Georges René, French admiral (1726–1805), 190, 196. - - Podolia, province of, taken by Russia at the second partition of - Poland (1793), 122. - - Poland, its extinction impending in 1789, 14; - Catherine’s policy in the first partition of, 18; - Prussia’s share of, and aims on, 30; - treaty of Warsaw with Prussia, 85; - refuses to surrender Thorn and Dantzic (1790), 87; - attempts at reform, 103, 104; - the Constitution of 1791, 104, 105; - invaded by the Russians (1792), 121; - attacked by the Prussians (1793), 122; - second partition of (1793), 122; - causes of the failure of the attempt at constitutional reform, 123; - insurrection in (1794), 151; - victory of the Russians, 151, 152; - final partition and extinction of Polish independence (1795), 152; - comparison between French and Polish revolutions, 152, 153; - looked favourably on by the Directory, 206; - Napoleon’s campaign in 1807, 248, 249; - Napoleon’s Polish policy, 261; - creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 261; - serfdom abolished in, 289; - the Emperor Alexander’s ideas on (1814), 339; - final rearrangement of (1815), 342. - - Police, Ministry of General, established in France (1796), 182; - abolished under the Consulate, but restored under the Empire, 241. - - Polignac, Armand Jules Marie Heraclius, Comte, afterwards Duc de, - French politician (1771–1847), 235. - - Polish Legion formed for the service of France (1797), 206. - - Pombal, Sebastian José de Carvalho-Mello, Marquis of, Portuguese - statesman (1699–1782), 22. - - Pomerania, Prussian, its backward state in 1789, 29. - - —— Swedish, possession of, gave the King of Sweden a voice in the Diet - of the Empire, 34; - occupied by the French under Brune (1808), 250, 254, 279; - exchanged for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; - given to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de (1721–64), 19. - - Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, Polish patriot, French general - (1762–1813), 121, 122, App. iv. - - —— Stanislas, King of Poland (1732–98), 104, 122, 151, 152. - - Ponte Corvo, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, 24; - Bernadotte made Prince of (1806), 277. - - Pontine marshes drained by Pope Pius VI., 24. - - Popes. _See_ Pius VI., Pius VII. - - Porentruy, district of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, - 230. - - Portalis, Jean Etienne Marie, French statesman (1745–1807), 214, 215. - - Portugal, its condition in 1789, 14, 21, 22; - declares war against the French Republic (1793), 120; - treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), 183; - England comes to the help of, 184; - attacked by Spain, and forced to cede Olivenza by the treaty of - Badajoz (1801), 223; - Napoleon’s schemes against, 252; - to be divided by treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; - conquered by the French, 253; - rises in insurrection against the French, 265; - English army sent to, 265; - freed from the French by the Convention of Cintra, 266; - invaded by the French under Masséna (1810), 296; - their repulse (1811), 297; - deserted by Castlereagh at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Portuguese Legion, formed by Junot, for the service of France, 253. - - Posen, province of, taken by Prussia in the second partition of Poland - (1793), 122; - given back to Prussia (1815), 342. - - Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch, Prince, Russian statesman - (1736–1791), 43, 44, 45, 96. - - Potocki, Stanislas Felix, Polish statesman (1745–1805), 121. - - Potsdam, treaty of (3 Nov. 1805), 247. - - Pozzo di Borgo, Charles Andrew, Count, Russian diplomatist - (1764–1842), 301, 337. - - Praga, suburb of Warsaw, stormed by Suvórov (4 Nov. 1794), 152. - - Prague, congress of (1813), 311. - - Prairial, the insurrection of 1st, in Paris (1795), 155, 156. - - Prefectures, Bonaparte’s establishment of, in France, 230. - - Preliminaries of Leoben signed (17 April 1797), 186. - - Pressburg, treaty of (26 Dec. 1805), 245. - - Prieur [of the Côte-d’Or], Claude Antoine, French statesman - (1763–1832), 133, 134. - - —— [of the Marne], Pierre Louis, French statesman (1760–1827), 133. - - Prince-Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, 39, 40. - - _Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard_, Rousseau’s, 10. - - Proposals of Frankfort (1813), 316, 317. - - Provera, John Nicholas, Baron, Austrian general (1747–1801), 176. - - Prussia, administrative decay in, 5; - serfdom in, 5; - a member of the Triple Alliance, 13; - condition in 1789, 28–30; - policy of, 30, 31; - intervention in Holland (1787), 32; - influence in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, 34; - position of, in 1789, 84; - anti-Austrian policy, 84–86; - alliance with Austria against France (1792), 109; - its share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - in the third partition of Poland (1795), 152; - more anti-Austrian than anti-French, 152; - makes treaty of Basle with the French Republic (1795), 156, 157; - becomes protector of North Germany, by the conclusion of the line of - demarcation, 170, 171; - its great increase in importance by the secularisations of 1803, - 227; - neutrality violated by the French (1805), 244; - advantages obtained by its policy of neutrality, 246; - desires to fight France, 246, 247; - crushed at Jena, and occupied by the French, 247; - deprived of its Rhenish Westphalian and Polish provinces (1807), - 250; - reorganisation of, under Stein and Scharnhorst, 289–291; - becomes the recognised leader of the revived German national spirit, - 292; - Stein’s reforms completed by Hardenberg, 303; - foundation of the University of Berlin, 303, 304; - obliged to allow Napoleon to traverse it, and to send him a contingent - (1812), 304; - rises against the French, 308, 309; - receives part of Saxony (1815), 341; - and part of Prussian Poland, 342; - obtains large Rhenish province, 344; - gets Swedish Pomerania, 347; - as a result of the period becomes the preponderant German power, - 359. - _See_ Frederick William II., Frederick William III. - - Public Safety, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Pyramids, battle of the (21 July 1798), 195. - - Pyrenees, campaigns in the, 133, 140, 144, 150, 151, 315, 316. - - - Quatre Bras, battle of (16 June 1815), 352. - - Quedlinburg, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Quiberon Bay, defeat of the French _émigrés_ at (June 1794), 154. - - Quinette, Nicolas Marie, Baron, French administrator (1762–1821), 210. - - - Raab, battle of (14 June 1809), 273. - - Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, Jean Paul, French politician (1743–93), 52. - - Raclawice, battle of (4 April 1794), 151. - - Radet, Étienne, Baron, French general (1762–1825), 278. - - Ragusa, Duke of. _See_ Marmont. - - Ramel, Jean Pierre, French general (1768–1815), 356. - - —— de Nogaret, Jacques, French politician (1760–1819), 182. - - Rapinat, Jacques, French administrator (1750–1818), 199, 209. - - Rasomovski, Andrew, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian diplomatist - (1751–1836), 323, 337. - - Rastadt, Congress at, 186, 192, 202. - - Ratisbon, bishopric of, granted to the Elector of Mayence (1803), 225; - to the King of Bavaria (1805), 260. - - —— a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, where the Imperial Diet met, - 35, 225, 257. - - Reason, the Worship of, in Paris, 141; - attacked by Danton and Robespierre, 142. - - Receivers-general of taxes, their establishment under the Consulate, - 215. - - Reden, Baron, Dutch diplomatist (♰1799), 87. - - Regency, Portuguese, formed (1808), 266. - - Reggio, duchy of, belonged to the Duke of Modena in 1789, 25; - merged in the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Oudinot. - - Regnier, Claude Ambroise, Duke of Massa, French statesman (1736–1814), - 216, 239, 240, 241. - - Reichenbach, conference, Congress and convention of (June 1790), 87, - 88; - treaty of (17 June 1813), 310. - - Reichskammergericht. _See_ Tribunal, Imperial. - - Reichstag. _See_ Diet, Imperial. - - Reign of Terror in France. _See_ Terror. - - Reinhard, Charles Frédéric, Comte, French diplomatist (1761–1837), - 210. - - Renier, Paolo (♰1789), Doge of Venice in 1789, 27. - - Repnin, Nicholas Vassilievitch, Prince, Russian general (1734–1801), - 44, 96. - - Retreats, famous military: Moreau’s, from Bavaria (1796), 178; - Moore’s, from Salamanca (1808–09), 269, 270; - Napoleon’s, from Moscow (1812), 306. - - Reubell, Jean François, French statesman (1747–1807), 150, 156, 165, - 169, 179, 181, 191, 209. - - Réunion, island of (Isle of Bourbon), restored to France (1815), 348. - - Reuss, the principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - Reuss, Prince Anton von (1738–96), 87. - - Réveillon, Jean (1796), sack of his house at Paris (June 1789), 56. - - Revellière-Lépeaux, Louis Marie de la, French statesman (1753–1824), - 165, 171, 181, 182, 209. - - Revolution, the reasons why it began in France, 7, 8. - _See_ France. - - Revolutionary Propaganda, decreed by the Convention (18 Nov. 1792), - 118; - its effect on the character of the war, 125; - the decree repealed (16 May 1793), 133; - idea adopted by the Hébertists, 141; - formally abandoned by the Thermidorian Committee of Public Safety, - 148, 159. - - —— Tribunal. _See_ Tribunal. - - _Révolutions de Paris_, important journal edited by Loustalot, 61. - - Reynier, Jean Louis Ebenezer, Comte, French general (1771–1814), 256, - 296. - - Rhine, the, declared the natural boundary of France, 157; - crossed by Moreau (1796), 178; - by Moreau (1797), 186; - by Blücher (1813), 318. - - —— Confederation of the, formed by Napoleon (1806), 245; - its members, 260, 261; - replaced by the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342, 343. - - Ricci, Scipio de, Bishop of Pistoia, Italian statesman (1741–1810), - 24, 83. - - Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septimanie du Plessis, Duc de, - French statesman (1766–1822), 357. - - Ried, treaty of (8 Oct. 1813), 313, 314. - - Riga, besieged by the French under Macdonald (1812), 307. - - Rivers, stipulations on the navigation of, 349. - - Rivière, Charles François de Riffardeau, Marquis, afterwards Duc de, - French _émigré_ (1763–1827), 235. - - Rivoli, battle of (14 Jan. 1797), 176. - —— Duke of. _See_ Masséna. - - Roberjot, Claude, French politician (1753–99), 202. - - Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore de, French statesman - (1758–1794), opposes intervention of France on behalf of Spain - (1790), 78; - moves motion preventing election of deputies of the Constituent to - the Legislative Assembly, 105; - opposes war with Austria, 105; - a leader in the Convention, 117; - attacked by Louvet, 117; - views on the King’s trial, 119; - his struggle with the Girondins, 129; - member of the Committee of Public Safety, 133; - his position and character, 134, 135; - attacks the Hébertists, 142; - establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being, 146; - overthrown in Thermidor (1794), 146, 147; - guillotined, 147. - - Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de, French general - (1725–1807), 107. - - Rödt, Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Constance in 1789, 39. - - Roggenbach, Baron Joseph Sigismund of, Prince-Bishop of Basle in 1789 - (♰1794), 39. - - Roland de la Platière, Jean Marie, French administrator (1734–93), - 110, 112, 114. - - —— Manon Jeanne, Madame (1754–93), her salon, 116. - - Roliça, battle of (17 Aug. 1808), 265. - - Romagna, the, part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), 192. - - Roman Empire, the Holy. _See_ Empire. - - Roman Republic, the, established (1798), 200; - overthrown (1799), 203. - - Rome, administration of the Popes at, 24; - occupied by French troops (1798), 200; - evacuated by them, 203; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 255; - declared the second city of the Empire, 277, 278; - capital of a French department, 283; - restored to the Pope (1815), 347. - - Rosas, taken by the French (3 Feb. 1795), 150, 151. - - Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Genevese philosopher (1712–78), 9, 10, 41, - 146. - - Roussillon, 130, 140. - - Ruffo, Alvaro, Commander, afterwards Prince, Neapolitan diplomatist - (♰1825), 338, 346. - - Rügen, island of, belonged to Sweden in 1789, 32. - _See_ Pomerania, Swedish. - - Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, Bavarian statesman (1753–1814), 37. - - Russia, condition and growth of, under Catherine, 18, 19; - invaded by the Swedes (1788–90), 45, 95; - obtains increase of territory by the treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; - her share in the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - in the third partition (1795), 152; - accession of Paul, 185, 198; - her intervention in the war with France and its results, 206, 207; - disapproves of war with England, 221; - murder of Paul (1801), 221; - trade of, 234; - joins the coalition against Napoleon (1805), 242, 243; - defeated at Eylau, 248; - and Friedland, 249; - results, 249; - cessions made to, by the treaty of Tilsit, 249, 250, 261; - grumbles at the Continental Blockade, 261, 300; - attitude towards Austria (1809), 272; - annexes Finland, 278, 299, 302; - its cessions from the Turks in 1812, 281; - incited by England to war with France, 301; - invaded by Napoleon (1812), 305, 306; - drives out the French, 306; - its share in the overthrow of Napoleon, 334; - its annexations from Poland (1815), 341, 342; - a result of the period its taking a prominent place in European - polity, 359, 360. - _See_ Alexander, Catherine, Paul. - - Russian Armament, the (1788), 45. - - Rymnik, battle of the (12 Aug. 1789), 45. - - - Sacilio, battle of (16 April 1809), 273. - - Safety, Public, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Saint-Aignan, Paul Hippolyte de Beauvilliers, Marquis de, French - diplomatist (1782–1831), 316. - - Saint-André, André Jeanbon, _called_, French administrator - (1749–1813), 133. - - Saint Bernard, the Great, 218. - - Saint Bernard, the Little, 151. - - Saint-Claude, abbey of, in the Jura, 6. - - Saint-Cloud, the Councils removed to from Paris, 210; - Bonaparte’s _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire (1799) at, 211. - - Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion de. _See_ Gouvion. - - Saint-Gall, the canton of, created by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Saint-Gothard, Suvórov’s passage of the (1799), 204. - - Saint Helena, Napoleon deported to (1815), 355. - - Saint-Helens, Alleyne Fitzherbert, Lord. _See_ Fitzherbert. - - Saint-Just, Louis Léon Antoine Florelle de, French politician - (1767–94), 133, 135, 138, 140, 142, 147. - - Saint Lucia, island of, ceded to France (1783), 19; - restored to England by the first treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Saint-Marsan, Filippo Antonio Maria Asinari, Marquis de, Italian - diplomatist (1761–1828), 338. - - Saint Ouen, Declaration of (2 May 1814), 332, 333. - - Saint-Petersburg, threatened by the Swedes (1790), 95. - - Saint Priest, Guillaume Emmanuel Guignard, Comte de, French _émigré_, - Russian general (1776–1814), 328. - - Saint-Vincent, battle of (14 Feb. 1797), 183. - - Saint-Vincent, Sir John Jervis, Earl. _See_ Jervis. - - Salamanca, Moore’s advance to (1808), 269; - battle of (22 July 1812), 306. - - Saliceti, Christophe, French politician (1757–1809), 256. - - Salkief, circle of, in Poland, ceded to Russia (1807), 261. - - Salm, petty German principalities (1789), 34; - territories in Germany annexed by Napoleon (1810), 282. - - —— Salm, Constantine Alexander, Prince of (1762–1828), 79. - - Salomon, Gabriel René, French politician (♰1792), 60. - - Salzburg, the Archbishop of, alternate president of the College of - Princes in 1789, 34. - - Salzburg, archbishopric of, made into an electorate for the Grand Duke - Ferdinand of Tuscany (1803), 225, 229; - ceded to Bavaria (1809), 257, 274; - restored to Austria (1815), 344. - - San Domingo, Bonaparte’s attempt to reconquer (1802), 232. - - —— Ildefonso, treaty of (19 Aug. 1796), 183. - - —— Sebastian, threatened by the French (1794), 144; - taken by the French (1795), 157; - stormed by Wellington (1813), 315, 316. - - Saorgio, battle of (29 April 1794), 144. - - Saragossa, siege of (1809), 275. - - Sardinia, kingdom of, condition in 1789, 26, 27; - attacked by the French (1792), 117; - subsidised by England, 126; - restored to Victor Emmanuel I., with the addition of Genoa, 346; - got back Savoy (1815), 354. - _See_ Charles Emmanuel III., Victor Amadeus IV., Victor Emmanuel I., - _also_ Nice, Piedmont, Savoy. - - Savigny, Frederick Charles von, German jurist (1779–1861), 304. - - Savona, Pope Pius VII. imprisoned at, 278. - - Savoy, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, 26; - conquered by the French (1792), 117; - annexed to France, 118; - ceded by the King of Sardinia (1797), 174; - made into the department of Mont-Blanc, 230; - left to France (1814), 333; - restored to the King of Sardinia (1815), 354. - - Saxe-Coburg, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - —— —— Saalfeld, Prince Francis Josias of. _See_ Coburg, Prince of. - - —— Gotha, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - —— Hildburghausen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - —— Meiningen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 343. - - Saxe-Teschen, Duke Albert of, Austrian general (1738–1822), 113. - - Saxe-Weimar, duchy of, 38; - made a Grand Duchy and a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - _See_ Charles Augustus. - - Saxony, electorate of, its condition in 1789, 38; - receives Lower Lusatia, and made a kingdom (1806), 259; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - invaded by Schill (1809), 293; - occupied by Napoleon (1813), 309; - proposition to merge it in Prussia rejected (1814), 339, 340; - part of, ceded to Prussia (1815), 341; - a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Frederick Augustus. - - Schaffhausen, Thurgau, separated from the canton of, by Bonaparte - (1803), 228. - - Scharnhorst, Gerard David von, Prussian general (1755–1813), - reorganised the Prussian army, 290, 291, 308; - mortally wounded at Lützen, 309. - - Scheldt, navigation of the, declared free by the National Convention, - 118. - - Schérer, Barthélemy Louis Joseph, French general (1747–1804), 173, - 190, 202, 203. - - Schill, Friedrich, Prussian officer (1773–1809), 293. - - Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich, German poet (1759–1805), 9, 38. - - Schimmelpenninck, Roger John, Count, Dutch statesman (1761–1825), 254. - - Schleiermacher, Ernst Friedrich, German philosopher (1779–1834), 304. - - Schlieffen, Friedrich von, Prussian general (♰1791), 63, 65, 94, 95. - - Schönbrunn, treaty of (15 Feb. 1806), 247. - - Schönfeld, Wilhelm Christoph von, Prussian general (♰1797), 65, 93. - - Schulenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, Count von, Prussian statesman - (1730–1802), 126. - - —— —— Albert, Count von, Saxon diplomatist (1772–1853), 338. - - Schulz, pastor of Gielsdorf, the case of, 10. - - Schwartzberg, two principalities of, recognised as states of the - Germanic Confederation (1815), 343. - - Schwartzenberg, Prince Charles Philip von, Austrian general - (1771–1820), 294, 305, 312, 313, 318, 319, 320, 328, 329, 350, - 353. - - Schweitz, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Séance Royale, held by Louis XVI. (23 June 1789), 54. - - Sebastiani, François Horace Bastien, Comte, French general - (1772–1851), 275, 280. - - Secularisation of the ecclesiastical states of the Empire proposed by - France, 170; - agreed to at Lunéville (1801), 220; - its tendency, 226; - carried out (1803), and its effects, 226, 227. - - Security, General, Committee of. _See_ Committee. - - Selim III., Sultan of the Ottoman Turks (1761–1808), 44, 88, 89, 96, - 280, 281. - - Senate of France, established by the Constitution of the Year VIII., - its functions, 214; - given power to dissolve the Tribunate and Legislative Body (1803), - 232; - offers the title of Emperor to Napoleon (1804), 236; - its position under the Empire, 240, 284; - appoints a Provisional Government (1814), 330; - declares Napoleon dethroned, 331. - - Serfdom in Europe in the 18th century, 5, 6; - abolished in Hungary by Joseph II., 16; - the Russian peasant partly protected from, by his village - organisation, 19; - prevalent in Prussia, 29, 30; - abolished in Denmark (1788), 32; - abolished in Baden (1783), 37; - its existence a cause of the failure of the Poles to maintain their - independence, 152; - disappeared from Central Europe under the influence of the French - Revolution and Napoleon, 288, 289; - abolished in Prussia by Stein, 290; - its general abolition a permanent result of the period, 361. - - Sérurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, French general (1742–1819), App. iv. - - Servan, Joseph, French general (1741–1808), 114. - - Servia, conquered by the Austrians under Loudon (1789), 45; - independence recognised by the Turks (1812), 281. - - Shumla, 281. - - Sicily, not much affected by Tanucci’s reforms, 23; - held by the English for Ferdinand IV., 256, 264. - - Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount. _See_ Addington. - - Sieges: Acre (1799), 208; - Alessandria (1799), 203, 204; - Alexandria (1801), 224; - Almeida (1811), 296; - Antwerp (1814), 321; - Badajoz (1812), 306; - Bayonne (1814), 316, 321; - Bender (1789), 45; - Burgos(1812), 307; - Cadiz (1810–12), 296, 297; - Cairo (1801), 224; - Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), 306; - Condé (1793), 130; - Dantzic (1806–7), 248, 249; - Dantzic (1813–14), 319; - Dunkirk (1793), 130, 140; - Gaeta (1807), 256; - Genoa (1799–1800), 205, 206, 218; - Giurgevo (1790), 88; - Hamburg (1813–14), 319, 320; - Ismail (1789–90), 45, 96; - Landau (1793), 140; - Le Quesnoy (1793), 130; - Lille (1792), 114, 118; - Lyons (1793), 131, 140; - Magdeburg (1813–14), 319; - Mantua (1796–97), 175, 176; - Mantua (1799), 203; - Maubeuge (1793), 140; - Mayence (1793), 130; - Mayence (1795), 172; - Mayence (1797), 193; - Ochakov (1788), 43, 44; - Orsova (1789–90), 45, 88; - Pampeluna (1813), 316; - Riga (1812), 307; - San Sebastian (1813), 315, 316; - Saragossa (1809), 275; - Stettin (1813–14), 319; - Tarragona (1812), 307; - Toulon (1793), 140; - Valenciennes (1793), 130; - Warsaw (1794), 151, 152. - - Siena, 24, 283. - - Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1748–1836), 53, 54, - 60, 150, 156, 159, 165, 166, 182, 197, 209, 219, 211, 213, 357. - - Silesia, the Prussian Army of, formed under Blücher (1813), 309; - defeated the French at the Katzbach, 319; - crosses the Rhine, 318; - cut to pieces by Napoleon, 319. - - Silistria, taken by Kutuzov (1811), 281. - - Siméon, Joseph Jerome, Comte, French administrator (1749–1842), 259. - - Sistova, congress of (1790–91), 88; - treaty of (4 Aug. 1791), 89. - - Slave trade, the Negro, condemned by the Congress of Vienna at the - demand of Castlereagh (1815), 348, 349. - - Smith, Sir William Sidney, English admiral (1764–1840), 145, 208. - - Smolensk, 305, 306. - - Socialism opposed even by the Hébertists, 141. - - Soleure, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Soltikov, Ivan, Count, Russian general (1736–1805), 43. - - Somo Sierra, Napoleon forces the pass of the (1808), 269. - - Sotin de la Coindière, Pierre, French administrator (1764–1810), - Minister of Police (1797), 190. - - Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dalmatia, French general - (1769–1851), 269, 270, 275, 296, 297, 315, 316, 321, 332, App. iv. - - Sovereignty of the people, the doctrine of, 2. - - Spain, allied to France by the Pacte de Famille, 14; - its condition in 1789, 20, 21; - the reforms of Aranda, 21; - demands the help of France against England in the Nootka Sound - affair (1790), 78; - declares war against France (1793), 119; - subsidised by England, 126; - invades France, 130; - defeated by the French (1794), 140; - invaded by the French (1795), 144; - weary of the war with France, 154; - makes peace with France at Basle (1795), 157; - makes alliance with France at San Ildefonso, and attacks England, - 183; - fleet defeated off Cape St. Vincent (1797), 183; - Bonaparte’s communications with, 223; - attacks Portugal, and gets Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), - 223; - cedes Louisiana to France, 232; - agrees at Fontainebleau for the partition of Portugal, 252, 253; - course of politics in, 266, 267; - Napoleon makes Joseph Bonaparte king of (1808), 267; - the Spanish people rise against the French, 267, 268; - Napoleon in Spain, 268–70; - the guerilla war against the French, 297; - evacuated by the French (1813), 315; - lost Trinidad, but kept Olivenza at the Congress of Vienna - (1814–15), 348; - reactionary policy of Ferdinand VII. in (1815), 358. - _See_ Charles IV., Ferdinand VII., Joseph, Peninsular War. - - Spanish Armament, the (1790), 78. - - Spielmann, Anton, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (♰1738–1813), - Austrian representative at Reichenbach (1790), 87. - - Spires, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34; - and one of the Princes holding largest fiefs in Alsace, 79. - - —— bishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine merged in - Baden (1803), 227. - - —— city of, taken by Custine (1792), 118. - - Splügen pass, forced by Macdonald (1800), 219. - - Stäblo, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34. - - Stackelberg, Gustavus, Count von, Russian diplomatist (♰1825), 337. - - Stadion, John Philip Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman - (1763–1824), tried to rouse Germany against Napoleon, 270, 271; - succeeded by Metternich (1809), 275; - inspired by Gentz, 292; - Austrian plenipotentiary at Châtillon (1814), 323. - - Staps, Friedrich (1792–1809), schemed to assassinate Napoleon, 293. - - State, doctrine of the, 4, 292. - - States of the Church. _See_ Papal States. - - States-General of France, summoned (1788), 43; - a financial expedient, 49, 50; - the elections to, 50, 51; - struggle between the Orders, 52, 53; - declares itself the National Assembly, 53. - _See_ Constituent Assembly. - - Stein, Henry Frederick Charles, Freiherr von, Prussian statesman - (1757–1831), a Knight of the Empire, 40; - his reforms in Prussia, 290; - dismissed by Napoleon’s orders, 291; - pressed Alexander to war with Napoleon, 301; - his work completed by Hardenberg, 303; - at the Russian headquarters (1812), 304; - summoned the Estates of Prussia at Königsberg, 308; - his idea of rousing a German national spirit abandoned by the allied - monarchs (1813), 310; - present at the Congress of Vienna, 337. - - Stéphanie Tascher de la Pagerie (1789–1860), married to the Hereditary - Grand Duke of Baden (1806), 258. - - Stettin, French garrison left in (1813), 308; - besieged (1813–14), 319. - - Stewart, Hon. Sir Charles, afterwards Lord, English general and - diplomatist (1778–1854), 301, 323, 337. - - —— Robert, Viscount Castlereagh. _See_ Castlereagh. - - Stockach, battle of (25 March 1799), 202. - - Stralsund, taken by the French (1807), 250. - - Strasbourg, Archbishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 34; - one of chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, 79. - - —— archbishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine ceded - to Baden (1803), 227. - - Stuart, Hon. Sir Charles, English general (1753–1801), 184, 195. - - —— Sir John, English general (1762–1810), 256. - - Stuttgart, 37, 38, 178. - - Suchet, Louis Gabriel, Duke of Albufera, French general (1770–1826), - 275, 297, 307, 315, App. iv. - - Sudermania, Duke of. _See_ Charles XIII., King of Sweden. - - Supreme Being, Worship of the, established by Robespierre (1794), 146. - - Suspects, Law of the, 137. - - Suvórov, Alexander Vassilivitch, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian - general (1729–1800), gallantry at the siege of Ochákov (1788), 44; - defeats the Turks at Foksany and the Rymnik (1789), 45; - stormed Ismail, and served at Matchin (1790–91), 96; - defeated the Poles at Zielence and Dubienka (1792), 121, 122; - defeated Kosciuszko at Maciejowice, and took Warsaw (1794), 152; - defeats the French at Cassano and the Trebbia, and conquers Northern - Italy (1799), 203; - defeats Joubert at Novi, and crosses the Alps, 204; - repulsed by the French, 205; - accuses the Austrians of causing his failure, 207. - - Svenska Sound, battle of (9 July 1790), 95. - - Swabia, part ceded to Bavaria, 245; - part to Würtemburg, 258. - - Sweden, its condition in 1789, 32, 33; - at war with Russia and Denmark, 45, 46; - makes peace with the Danes (1789), 46; - the _coup d’état_ of Gustavus III. (1789), 46; - peace with Russia, 95, 96; - death of Gustavus III., 110; - neutral in the war against France, 120, 124, 171; - loses Pomerania and Finland, 250, 254; - revolution in, and dethronement of Gustavus IV. (1809), 278, 279; - Bernadotte elected Prince Royal (1810), 279; - exchanges Pomerania for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), 320; - cession of Norway confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - _See_ Bernadotte, Charles XIII., Gustavus III., Gustavus IV. - - Switzerland, its condition in 1789, 41; - its neutrality in the war against France, 120, 125, 171; - headquarters of French diplomacy, 156; - and of the _émigrés_ diplomacy, 166, 167; - revolution of 1798, 198, 199; - invaded by the French and the Helvetian Republic formed, 199; - Masséna’s campaign in (1799), 204, 205; - reorganised by Bonaparte as the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), - 228, 229; - neutrality of, violated by the allies (1814), 318; - independence and neutrality guaranteed by the treaty of Paris - (1814), 334; - reorganised, and given a fresh constitution by the Congress of - Vienna (1815), 344, 345. - - Syria, Bonaparte’s campaign in (1799), 208. - - - Tagliamento, Bonaparte forces the passage of the (16 March 1797), 185, - 186. - - Talavera, battle of (27 July 1809), 275. - - Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Bishop of Autun, afterwards - Prince of Benevento, French statesman (1754–1838), consecrates the - Constitutional bishops in France (1790), 70; - appointed Foreign Minister (1797), and advocated the _coup d’état_ - of 18 Fructidor, 190; - resigned (1799), 210; - advised Bonaparte to the _coup d’état_ of 18 Brumaire, 210; - Foreign Minister under the Consulate, 216; - Grand Chamberlain of the Empire, 239; - Foreign Minister under the Empire, 241; - created Prince of Benevento, 277; - his policy after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, 329, 330; - President of the Provisional Government of France, 330; - gets the Bourbons accepted, 331; - negotiates the first treaty of Paris, 333; - French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), 338; - his masterly attitude, 338, 339; - signs treaty with Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (3 - Jan. 1815), 340; - dismissed by Louis XVIII. (1815), 357. - - Tallien, Jean Lambert, French politician (1769–1820), 166. - - Talma, François Joseph, French actor (1763–1826), 262. - - Tanucci, Bernardo, Marquis, Italian statesman (1698–1783), 4, 23. - - Taranto, Duke of. _See_ Macdonald. - - Targovitsa, Confederation of, asks Catherine’s aid to overthrow the - Polish Constitution of 1791, 121. - - Tarragona, English failure before (1812), 307. - - Tauroggen, convention of (1812), 308. - - Temeswar, the Banat of, invaded by the Turks (1788), 43. - - Tennis Court, Oath of the (20 June 1789), 54. - - Terror, the Reign of, weapons of, forged, 128; - Robespierre deemed the author of, 135, 147; - the system of, 135–138; - the deputies on mission, 136, 137; - revolutionary tribunal, 137, 138; - the Terror in the provinces, 138, 139; - excused by France because of the success of the Committee of Public - Safety against the foreign foes, 141; - Danton believed it too stringent, 143; - rose to its height (June-July 1794), 145, 146; - system abandoned, 148. - - —— the White, in France (1815), 356, 357. - - Tetterborn, Baron von, Russian general (♰1836), 308. - - Teutonic Order, the, suppressed by Hardenberg in Prussia, 303. - - Texel, Dutch fleet in the, captured by French hussars (1795), 149; - blockaded by the English fleet, 184, 193; - defeated in the battle of Camperdown (1797), 194; - captured by the English (1799), 205. - - Theo-philanthropy, new religion started in France, 181, 182. - - Thermidor, overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th, 147. - - Thermidorians, rule of the, 148, 149, 154–157; - their foreign policy, 156, 157. - - Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford. _See_ Rumford. - - Thorn, promised to Prussia by the Poles (1790), 85; - but not surrendered (1791), 87; - obtained by Prussia at the second partition of Poland (1793), 122; - restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342. - - Thouret, Jacques Guillaume, French politician (1746–94), 100. - - Thugut, Franz Maria, Baron, Austrian statesman (1734–1818), becomes - Austrian Foreign Minister, 126; - his policy, 153, 154; - in favour of continuing the war with France, 169; - delayed the treaty of Campo-Formio as long as he could, 192; - retired from office, 220. - - Thurgau, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Thuriot de la Rozière, Jacques Alexis, French politician (1758–1829), - 133. - - Thurn and Taxis, Prince of, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet - of the Empire (1792), 108. - - Ticino, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Tiers État, Order of the, in the States-General, its struggle with the - privileged Orders, 51, 53; - declares itself the National Assembly, 53. - - Tillot, Guillaume Léon du, Marquis of Felino, Italian statesman - (1711–1774), 25. - - Tilsit, the meeting of Napoleon and Alexander at, 249, 250; - the treaty of (7 July 1807), 250. - - Tirlemont, 48, 64. - - Titles abolished in France by the Constituent Assembly, 60. - - Tloczow, circle of, ceded to Russia (1807), 26. - - Tobac, battle of (1789), 45. - - Tobago, ceded by England to France (1783), 19; - ceded to England by the treaty of Paris (1814), 333; - cession recognised by the Congress of Vienna, 348. - - Tolentino, treaty of (19 Feb. 1797), 177; - battle of (3 May 1815), 346. - - Toleration, Napoleon insists on religious, in Europe, 289. - - Töplitz, treaty of (9 Sept. 1813), 313. - - Torgau ceded by Saxony to Prussia (1815), 341. - - Torres Vedras, Masséna repulsed from the lines of (1810), 296. - - Tortona, fortress of, built by Victor Amadeus III., 27. - - Toulon, 139, 140. - - Toulouse, battle of (10 April 1814), 332. - - Trafalgar, battle of (21 Oct. 1805), 244, 245. - - Trautmannsdorf, Count Albert von, Austrian statesman (1749–1817), 47, - 64. - - Treaties: Amiens (1802), 225; - Badajoz (1801), 223; - Bartenstein (1807), 248; - Basle (1795), 156, 157; - Bucharest (1812), 281; - Campo-Formio (1797), 192, 193; - Chaumont (1814), 327, 328; - Fontainebleau (1807), 252, 253; - Ghent (1814), 341; - Jassy (1792), 96; - Kalisch (1813), 308; - Kiel (1814), 320; - Lunéville (1801), 219, 220; - Paris, Provisional (1814), 331, 332; - Paris, First (1814), 333, 334; - Paris, Second (1815), 353, 354; - Pfaffenhofen (1796), 180; - Potsdam (1805), 247; - Pressburg (1805), 245; - Reichenbach (1813), 310; - Ried (1813), 313, 314; - San Ildefonso (1796), 183; - Schönbrunn (1806), 247; - of 3 Jan. 1815, secret, 341; - of 1756, 11, 12, 19; - Sistova (1791), 89; - Tilsit (1807), 250; - Tolentino (1797), 177; - Töplitz (1813), 313; - Verela (1790), 95–96; - Versailles (1783), 13, 19, 28; - Vienna (1809), 274; - Vienna (1815), 350; - Warsaw (1790), 85. - - Trebbia, battle of the (17–19 June 1799), 203. - - Treilhard, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French statesman (1742–1810), 148, - 166, 195, 209. - - Trent, Macdonald joined by Brune at (1800), 219. - - —— bishopric of, granted to Austria (1803), 226. - - Trèves, the Archbishop of, an Elector in 1789, 34; - one of the chief Princes of the Empire, with fiefs in Alsace, 79; - electorate abolished (1803), 225. - - —— city of, taken by the French (1795), 150; - capital of a French department, 230. - - —— electorate of, well governed in 1789, 40; - conquered by the French under Moreaux (1795), 150; - ceded to France, 193, 225; - given to Prussia (1815), 344. - - Treviso, Duke of. _See_ Mortier. - - Tribunal, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire - (Reichskammergericht), 35. - - —— the Revolutionary, of Paris, established (March 1793), 128; - its powers and effect, 137; - its system of work, 138; - its powers increased (June 1794), 146, 147; - condemns Carrier, 149. - - Tribunate, formed by the Constitution of the Year VIII., its - functions, 214; - reduced to fifty members (1805), 240; - suppressed (1808), 284. - - Trieste ceded to Napoleon (1809), 274. - - Trinidad, island of, taken by the English (1797), 264; - ceded to England by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 348. - - Triple Alliance, the, of England, Holland, and Prussia, formed 1788, - 13, 32. - - Tronchet, François Denis, French jurist (1726–1806), 215. - - Truguet, Laurent Jean François, Comte, French admiral (1752–1839), - 166, 190. - - Tudela, battle of (23 Nov. 1808), 269. - - Tuileries, Palace at Paris, 62, 99, 100, 112, 113, 129, 155, 164, 165. - - Turin, observatory at, built by Victor Amadeus III., 26; - threatened by Bonaparte (1796), 174; - occupied by Suvórov (1799), 203. - - Turkey, travelling to decay, 14; - Joseph declares war against, 17; - campaign of 1788 against the Russians and Austrians, 43, 44; - accession of Sultan Selim (1789), 44; - campaign of 1789, 45; - Prussia negotiates with, 45, 85; - campaign of 1790 against the Austrians, 88; - treaty of Sistova (1791), 89; - campaign of 1790–91 against the Russians, 96; - treaty of Jassy (1792), 96; - looked with favour on the French Revolution, 171; - defeated by Bonaparte in Syria and Egypt (1799), 208; - French army in Illyria to threaten, 256; - its general policy (1796–1807), 280; - revolution in, and accession of Mahmoud (1807–08), 280, 281; - war with Russia (1809–12), 281; - treaty of Bucharest (1812), 281. - _See_ Abdul Hamid, Mahmoud, Mustapha, Selim. - - Turreau, Louis Marie, Baron, French general (1756–1816), 141. - - Tuscany, its prosperity under the Grand Duke Leopold, 24, 25; - declares war against France (1793), 120; - makes peace with France, 157, 171; - occupied by the French (1799), 200; - evacuated by them, 203; - restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand (1800), 206; - made into the kingdom of Etruria (1801), 220; - annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1808), 255; - Elisa Bonaparte, Grand Duchess of, 283; - restored to Ferdinand (1815), 347. - _See_ Ferdinand II., Leopold. - - Two Sicilies, kingdom of the. _See_ Naples. - - Tyrol, the opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, 15; - Joseph suspends his edicts, 66; - pacified by Leopold (1790), 84; - invaded by Bonaparte (1797), 186; - by Macdonald (1800), 219; - ceded to Bavaria (1805), 245; - Hofer’s insurrection in (1809), 273, 274; - restored to Austria by Bavaria (1815), 344. - - Ulm, 35, 243, 244. - - United States of America, 145, 159, 160, 242, 341. - - Universities: Berlin, 303, 304; - Bonn, 40; - Cracow, 105; - Göttingen, 39; - Jena, 38; - Mannheim, 37; - Milan, 26; - Parma, 25; - Pavia, 26; - Pisa, 24; - Siena, 24. - - University of France founded by Napoleon, its constitution, 288. - - Unterwalden, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), - 228. - - Unzmarkt, battle of (22 March 1797), 186. - - Uri, a canton of Switzerland, 41, 228. - - - Vadier, Marc Guillaume Alexis, French politician (1736–1828), 149, - 155. - - Valais, the, declared an independent Republic (1803), 228; - annexed by Napoleon (1810), 283; - made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 345. - - Valence, Pope Pius VI. dies at (1798), 203. - - Valencia, taken by Moncey (1809), 275. - - Valenciennes, taken by the English and Austrians (1793), 130. - - Valmy, battle of (20 Sept. 1792), 115. - - —— Duke of. _See_ Kellermann. - - Valsarno, battle of (26 Oct. 1813), 315. - - Vancouver Island, the affair of Nootka Sound (1790), 77, 78; - the Spaniards claim, 79. - - Vandamme, Dominique René, Comte, French general (1770–1830), 309, 312, - 313. - - Van der Mersch, John Andrew, Belgian general (1734–92), 48, 64, 93. - - Van der Noot, Henry Charles Nicholas, Belgian statesman (1735–1827), - 48, 64, 65, 92, 93, 94. - - Vandernootists or Statists, Belgian political party, 47, 48, 92, 93. - - Van der Spiegel, John, Baron, Dutch statesman, Grand Pensionary of - Holland, 65, 93. - - Varennes, the flight of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette from Paris - (June 1791), stopped at, 100. - - Vauchamps, battle of (14 Feb. 1814), 319. - - Vaud, Pays de, revolts against Berne (1798), 199; - made an independent canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 344. - - Venaissin, the county of the, 76, 333, 354. - - Vendée, La, the insurrection in, 128, 130, 131, 141, 143, 180, 181, - 215. - - Vendémiaire, the insurrection of 13th (5 Oct. 1795), in Paris, 164, - 165. - - Venice, condition of the Republic in 1789, 27; - remained neutral in the war against the French Republic, 124; - promised to Austria in exchange for Lombardy at Leoben, 186; - occupied by Bonaparte (1797), 191, 192; - ceded the Ionian Islands to France, 192; - ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), 192; - conclave met at (1799), 206; - occupied by Brune (1800), 219; - ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Lunéville (1801), 220; - ceded to the kingdom of Italy by the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), - 245, 255; - granted to Austria by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 347. - - Verdun, taken by the Prussians (1792), 114, 115. - - Verela, treaty of (14 Aug. 1790), 95, 96. - - Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien, French politician (1753–93), 106, 114, - 116, 129. - - Verona, belonged to Venice in 1789, 27; - punished by Bonaparte for the murder of French soldiers (1796), 191; - Schérer attacked at, 202. - - Versailles, the States-General meets at (May 1789), 51; - invaded by the women of Paris (5 Oct. 1789), 62. - - —— the treaty of (1783), 13, 19, 28. - - Veto, the question of the, in the Constituent Assembly, 61. - - Vicenza, Duke of. _See_ Caulaincourt. - - Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia (1726–96), 26, 27, 63, 117, 126, - 173, 174. - - —— Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia (1759–1824), 346, 354. - - —— Victor Claude Perrin, _called_, French general (1764–1841), 269, - 275, 276, 297, App. iv. - - Vienna, the inscription on the Emperor Joseph’s statue at, 66; - Bernadotte insulted at (1798), 198; - the French approach (1801), 219; - occupied by Napoleon (1805), 244; - and (1809), 273; - treaty of (1809), 274; - and (1815), 350. - - —— the Congress of, 336, 350, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, - 347, 348, 349. - - _Vieux Cordelier_, the, 142, 143. - - Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de, French admiral - (1763–1806), 242, 244, 245. - - Vimeiro, battle of (21 Aug. 1808), 265, 266. - - Vins, Charles, Baron de, Austrian general (♰1794), 88. - - Virtue, Reign of, Robespierre’s belief in a, 146. - - Visconti, Ennius Quirinus, Italian antiquary (1751–1818), 24. - - Vittoria, taken by the French (1795), 151; - battle of (21 June 1813), 315. - - Volhynia, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of - Poland (1793), 122. - - Volta, Alessandro, Italian man of science (1745–1827), 26. - - Voltaire, François Marie, Arouet de, French philosopher (1694–1778), - 6, 9. - - Vonck, Francis, Belgian politician (1752–1797), 48, 93. - - Vonckists, Belgian political party, 48, 65, 92, 93. - - Vyborg, the Swedish fleet blockaded in the Gulf of (1790), 95. - - - Wagram, battle of (6 July 1809), 274. - - Walcheren, the English expedition to (1809), 276. - - Waldeck, principality of, a state of the Germanic Confederation - (1815), 343. - - —— Prince Christian Augustus of, Austrian general (1744–98), 184. - - Wallachia, invaded by the Austrians (1789), 45; - conquered by the Russians (1810), 281. - - Warsaw, treaty made at, between the Poles and Prussia (29 March 1790), - 85; - occupied by Kosciuszko (1794), 151; - besieged by the Prussians, 151; - taken by the Russians, 152; - ceded to Prussia (1795), 152; - Napoleon enters (1807), 248; - given to Russia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), 342. - - Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, founded by Napoleon (1807), 259, 261; - Western Galicia ceded to, by Austria (1809), 274; - dissolved (1815), 342. - - Waterloo, battle of (18 June 1815), 353. - - Watteville, Nicholas Rodolphe de, Swiss statesman (1760–1832), 228. - - Wattignies, battle of (16 Oct. 1793), 140. - - Weimar, headquarters of the German literary movement, 38. - _See_ Saxe-Weimar. - - Wellesley, Hon. Sir Arthur, Duke of Wellington. _See_ Wellington. - - —— Richard, Marquis, English statesman (1760–1842), 295. - - Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, English general (1769–1852), - defeated the Danish army at Kioge (1807), 252; - sent to Portugal (1808), 265; - defeats the French at Roliça and Vimeiro, 265, 266; - recalled, 266; - again sent to Portugal (1809), 275; - takes Oporto, 275; - defeats the French at Talavera, 275, 276; - forms the Anglo-Portuguese army, 296; - campaign of 1810, 1811, 296, 297; - campaign of 1812 and victory of Salamanca, 306; - wins battle of Vittoria (1813), 315; - invades France, and wins battles of the Nivelle and the Nive (1813), - 316; - wins battle of Orthez (1814), 321; - his attitude towards the Duc d’Angoulême, 326, 327; - defeats Soult at Toulouse, 332; - succeeds Castlereagh as English plenipotentiary at the Congress of - Vienna (1815), 341, 349; - signs the treaty of Vienna, 350; - takes command of the allied armies in Belgium, 352; - defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 353. - - Werden, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), 227. - - Wessenberg-Ampfingen, Johann Philip, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist - (1773–1858), 337. - - West India Islands, the French, taken by the English, 154; - restored at the Peace of Amiens (1802), 232; - recaptured (1809), 264; - restored except Saint Lucia and Tobago (1815), 348. - - Westphalia, kingdom of, formed by Napoleon (1807), 250; - its limits, 258; - administration, 258, 259; - member of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260. - - Wetzlar, seat of the Imperial Tribunal of the Empire, 35; - taken by Hoche (1796), 186; - merged in the electorate of Mayence (1803), 225. - - White Terror in France in 1815, 356, 357. - - Wickham, William, English diplomatist (1768–1845), 166, 167, 182. - - Widdin, the Pasha of, defeated at Foksany (1789), 45. - - Wieland, Christoph Martin, German poet (1733–1813), 38. - - William V., Prince of Orange, and Stadtholder of the United - Netherlands (1748–1806), 31, 32, 149, 179, 227. - - —— VI., Prince of Orange, and I. King of the Netherlands (1772–1843), - 314, 320, 321, 344. - - —— Prince Royal, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1781–1864), 337. - - —— IX., Landgrave, afterwards Elector and Grand Duke of Hesse-Cassel - (1743–1821), 6, 38, 157, 225, 227, 250, 258, 337; - made a Grand Duke and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), - 342. - - —— Prince, of Prussia, afterwards German Emperor (1797–1888), 337. - - Wilson, Sir Robert Thomas, English general (1777–1849), 301. - - Wintzingerode, Ferdinand, Baron, Russian general (1770–1818), 319, - 320, 328, 338. - - Wissembourg, lines of, stormed by the Austrians (1793), 139. - - Wittenberg, ceded to Prussia by Saxony (1815), 341. - - Wittgenstein, Louis Adolphus Peter, Prince of Sayn-, Russian general - (1769–1843), 309. - - Wolf, Frederick Augustus, German scholar (1759–1824), 304. - - Wolkonski, Nicholas, Prince Repnin-, Russian general (1778–1845), 337. - - Worms, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, - 34; - one of the chief princes in Alsace, 79. - - —— city of, headquarters of Condé’s army of French _émigrés_, 106; - taken by Custine, 118. - - Worship of Reason at Paris (1793), 142. - - —— of the Supreme Being, 146. - - Wrede, Charles Philip, Prince von, Bavarian general (1767–1838), 338. - - Würmser, Dagobert Sigismund, Count, Austrian general (1724–97), 40, - 130, 139, 140, 175, 176. - - Würtemburg, duchy of, condition in 1789, 37, 38; - invaded by Moreau (1796), 180; - made an electorate (1803), 225; - receives extension of territory, 227; - invaded by Napoleon (1805), 244; - made a kingdom (1806), 245; - receives Austrian Swabia, 258; - state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260; - of the Germanic Confederation (1815), 342. - _See_ Charles Eugène, Frederick, Frederick Eugène. - - Würtzburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman - Empire, 35. - - Würtzburg, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), 227; - exchanged for Salzburg (1809), and made a Grand Duchy, 260; - a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, 260. - - —— city of, taken by Jourdan (1796), 177. - - - York, Frederick, Duke of, English general (1763–1827), 39, 127, 130, - 140, 205. - - —— von Wartenburg, John David Louis, Count, Prussian general - (1759–1830), 308. - - - Zettin, taken by the Austrians (1790), 88. - - Zielence, battle of (18 June 1792), 122. - - Zubov, Prince Plato, Russian statesman (1767–1822), 221. - - Zug, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228. - - Zurich, battle of (26 Sept. 1799), 204. - - —— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), 228; - made one of the presiding cantons of the Helvetian Diet (1815), 345. - - Zweibrücken. _See_ Deux-Ponts. - - - - - +------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | - | FOOTNOTES: | - | | - | [1] _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana._ By the Ritter von | - | Arneth: Vienna, 1872. | - | | - | [2] Vehse’s _Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy | - | of Austria_, English translation. London, 1856, vol. ii. p. 305. | - | | - | [3] _Memoirs of the Court Aristocracy and Diplomacy of | - | Austria_, by E. Vehse, translated by Franz Demmler. London: | - | 1856, vol. ii. p. 334. | - | | - | [4] _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, by Albert Sorel, | - | vol. ii. p. 50. | - | | - | [5] _A History of the French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens. | - | Vol. i., chapter i. gives a detailed account of the method of | - | election. | - | | - | [6] On Mirabeau’s proposed Ministries, see _A History of the | - | French Revolution_, by H. Morse Stephens, vol. i., pp. 246 and | - | 247. | - | | - | [7] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | - | 69. | - | | - | [8] Sorel, _L’Europe et la Révolution Française_, vol. ii. p. | - | 194, footnote. | - | | - | [9] Coxe’s _Hist. of House of Austria_, ed. 1847, vol. iii. p. | - | 552, footnote. | - | | - | [10] _Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807: Diplomatische | - | Correspondenzen._ Ed. by P. Bailleu, vol. i. p. 41. | - | | - | [11] Bailleu, _op. cit._ vol. i. p. 48. | - | | - | [12] Alison’s _Lives of Lord Castlereagh, and Sir Charles | - | Stewart_, vol. ii p. 241. | - | | - | [13] Fain, _Manuscrit de l’An_ 1813, pp. 297, 298. | - | | - | [14] Las Cases, _Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène_, vol. vii. pp. 56, | - | 57. | - | | - +------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - _Crown 8vo._ _One Volume._ _With Maps and Plans._ 7_s._ 6_d._ - - MAY ALSO BE HAD IN TWO PERIODS:— - -Period I.—To Elizabeth, 1603. 4_s._ Period II.—To Victoria, 1895. 4_s._ - - =An Advanced History of England.= - For use in Colleges and Upper Forms of Schools. - By CYRIL RANSOME, M.A., Professor of Modern History and - English Literature, Yorkshire College, Victoria University. - - ‘It will supply a want long felt in the educational world.... - As to the plan of Mr. Ransome’s history, we think he has - certainly carried out his aim of bringing out the prominence - of leading events, by full treatment and condensing as much - as possible the minor points.... 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Morse Stephens - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815 - -Author: H. Morse Stephens - -Release Date: August 1, 2020 [EBook #62817] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE 1789-1815 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Robert Tonsing, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" width="661" height="1000" /> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="ph2">PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY<br /> - <span class="mlarge">REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE<br /> - 1789–1815</span></div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="titlepage"> - <h1>REVOLUTIONARY<br /> - EUROPE</h1> - - <div class="xlarge">1789–1815</div> - - <div class=" small mt10">BY</div> - - <div class="large mt2">H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A.</div> - - <div class="small mt1">BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD<br /> - <span class="xsmall">PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, U.S.A.<br /> - AUTHOR OF ‘A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,’ ETC.</span></div> - - <div class="large gespertt mt10"><i>PERIOD VII</i></div> - - <div class="large mt10 lh2"><span class="gothic">London</span><br /> - RIVINGTON, PERCIVAL, & CO.<br /> - 1896</div> - - <div class="mt5"><i>Third Edition</i></div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="center"><i>All Rights Reserved</i></div> - - <hr class="page" /> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - - <div class="xlarge center gespertt1 mb3">AUTHOR’S PREFACE</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> this volume I have endeavoured to write a history of Europe during - an important period of transition. I have reduced military details to - the smallest possible limits, and have preferred to mention rather - than to describe battles and campaigns, in order to have more space - to devote to such questions as the Belgian revolution of 1789, the - reorganisation of Prussia in 1806–12, and the Congress of Vienna. - I have throughout tried to describe the French Revolution in its - influence on Europe, and Napoleon’s career as a great reformer rather - than as a great conqueror. The inner meaning of the period and its - general results I have sketched in a short introductory chapter, on - which the rest of the volume is really a detailed historical commentary.</p> - - <p>The maps which accompany the volume are intended to show the changes - in the boundaries of States, and not to give the position of places - mentioned in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> text. Every one who reads such a volume as the - present must use an atlas as his constant companion, for no book of - this size could possibly contain a sufficient number of maps adequate - to the illustration of the events narrated.</p> - - <p>In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Mr. W. R. Morfill, Reader - in Slavonic to the University of Oxford, for giving me a canon for - the spelling of Russian proper names, and to the Editor, Mr. Arthur - Hassall, for willing assistance and friendly encouragement.</p> - - <div class="right">H. MORSE STEPHENS.</div> - - <p><span class="smcap">Cambridge, 1893.</span></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CONTENTS"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> - <h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - </div> - - <table class="mb5" summary="Contents"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdr xsmall"><div>PAGE</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: <span class="smcap">i.</span> - The Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; <span class="smcap">ii.</span> - The Principle of Nationality; <span class="smcap">iii.</span> The Principle - of Personal Liberty—The Eighteenth Century, the Era of the - Benevolent Despots—The condition of the Labouring Classes in - the Eighteenth Century: Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper - Classes—Why France led the way to modern ideas in the French - Revolution—The influence of the thinkers and writers of the - Eighteenth Century in bringing about the change—Contrast - between the French and German thinkers—The low state of - morality and general indifference to religion—Conclusion,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>1</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1789</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, - 1788—The Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph - <span class="smcap">II.</span>—His Internal Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: - Catherine—Poland—France: Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>—Spain: Charles - <span class="smcap">IV.</span>—Portugal: Maria <span class="smcap">\LI</span>—Italy—The Two - Sicilies: Ferdinand <span class="smcap">IV.</span>—Naples—Sicily—Rome: - Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>—Tuscany: Grand Duke - Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: Duke Hercules - <span class="smcap">III.</span>—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - <span class="smcap">III.</span>—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George - <span class="smcap">III.</span>—The Policy of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick - William <span class="smcap">II.</span>—Policy of Prussia—Holland—Denmark: - Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span>—Sweden: Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>—The - Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trèves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>11</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1789–1790</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span>—The - Turkish War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of - Foksany and the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in - Sweden—Affairs in Belgium—Policy of Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span> - in Belgium—Revolution in Liége—Elections to the - States-General in France—Meeting of the States-General: - struggle between the Orders—The Tiers État declares - itself the National Assembly—Oath of the Tennis Court—The - Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the King—Dismissal - of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture of the - Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration of - the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the women - of Paris to Versailles—Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> goes to reside - in Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>—Failure of his reign—The - attitude of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> to the French Revolution—The - new French Constitution—Civil Constitution of the - Clergy—Measures of the Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger - threatened to the new state of affairs in France by a - foreign war—Mirabeau and the French Court—Probable causes - of a foreign war—Avignon and the Venaissin—Affair of Nootka - Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights of Princes of the Empire in - Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master of the situation, </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>42</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1790–1792</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly in - France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France and - Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death of - the Emperor <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span>Leopold—Murder of Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - II. crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia and - Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres - of September in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the - National Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest - of Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest of - Belgium—Execution of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and - Poland,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>82</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1793–1795</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span> (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again - enters the Comity of Nations,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>124</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1795–1797</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy - of France—Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span>—The - Directory—The Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five - Hundred—Local Administration of France—The Insurrection of - Vendémiaire—The Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The - First French Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution - of the Convention—England and the <i>Émigrés</i>—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and Austria,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>158</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1797–1799</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest of - Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span>the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>187</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1799–1804</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>—The Consulate—The - Council of State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The - Senate—Internal Policy of the Consulate—General - Reconciliation—The Code Civil—Ministers of the - Consulate—Foreign Policy of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The - Pope—Campaign of Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter - Campaign of Moreau and Macdonald—The Treaty of - Lunéville—Arrangements in Italy—Policy and Murder of the - Emperor Paul of Russia—The Neutral League of the North—Battle - of Copenhagen—War between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of - Badajoz—Campaign of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between - England and France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation - of the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis - <span class="smcap">II.</span> resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that - of Emperor of Austria,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>212</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1804–1808</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>237</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1808–1812</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of the Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>263</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1810–1812</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, - and his Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>299</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc1"><div><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc2"><div>1814–1815</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> - in France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred Days—The - Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second Treaty of - Paris—Napoleon sent to St. Helena—The Holy Alliance—Return - of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span>Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>—Government of the Second - Restoration—The Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in Spain and - Naples—Territorial Results of the Congress of Vienna—The - Principle of Nationality—Permanent Results of the French - Revolution in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the - Principles of Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>336</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="short" /> - <div class="center gespertt mt5 mb2">APPENDICES</div> - - <table class="lh2 mb5" summary="Appendices"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_I"><span class="smcap">Appendix I.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl">The Rulers and Ministers of the Great Powers of Europe, 1789–1815,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>364</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_II"><span class="smcap">Appendix II.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl">The Rulers of the Second-rate Powers of Europe, 1789–1815,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>366</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_III"><span class="smcap">Appendix III.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl"> The Family of Napoleon,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>368</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_IV"><span class="smcap">Appendix IV.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl">Napoleon’s Marshals,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>370</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_V"><span class="smcap">Appendix V.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl">Napoleon’s Ministers during the Consulate and Empire, 1799–1814,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>372</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#APPENDIX_VI"><span class="smcap">Appendix VI.</span></a></td> - <td class="tdl">Concordance of the Republican and Gregorian Calendars,</td> - <td class="tdr"><div>374</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a>,</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr"><div>377</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <div class="center gespertt mt5 mb2"><a href="#MAPS">MAPS</a></div> - - <table class="lh2" summary="Maps"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <td class="tdr0"><div>Europe in 1789.<br /> - Europe in 1802.<br /> - Europe in 1810.<br /> - Europe in 1815.</div></td> - <td class="x400">}</td> - <td class="tdl vac"><i>At end of book.</i></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="INTRODUCTION"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span> - <h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">The Period from 1789 to 1815 an Era of Transition—The Principles - propounded during the period which have modified the - political conceptions of the Eighteenth Century: <span class="smcap">i.</span> - The Principle of the Sovereignty of the People; <span class="smcap">ii.</span> - The Principle of Nationality; <span class="smcap">iii.</span> The Principle - of Personal Liberty—The Eighteenth Century, the Era of the - Benevolent Despots—The condition of the Labouring Classes in - the Eighteenth Century: Serfdom—The Middle Classes—The Upper - Classes—Why France led the way to modern ideas in the French - Revolution—The influence of the thinkers and writers of the - Eighteenth Century in bringing about the change—Contrast - between the French and German thinkers—The low state of - morality and general indifference to religion—Conclusion.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">A Period of Transition.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> period from 1789 to 1815—that is, the era of the French Revolution - and of the domination of Napoleon—marks one of the most important - transitions in the history of Europe. Great as is the difference - between the material condition of the Europe of the nineteenth century, - with its railways and its electric telegraphs, and the Europe of the - eighteenth century, with its bad roads and uncertain posts, it is not - greater than the contrast between the political, social, and economical - ideas which prevailed then and which prevail now. Modern principles, - that mark a new departure in human progress and in its evidence, - Civilisation, took their rise during this epoch of transition, and - their development underlies the history of the period, and gives the - key to its meaning.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Sovereignty of the People.</div> - - <p>The conception that government exists for the promotion of the - security and prosperity of the governed was fully grasped in the - eighteenth century. But it was held alike by philosophers <span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>and rulers, - alike in civilised England and in Russia emerging from barbarism - that, whilst government existed for the good of the people, it - must not be administered by the people. This fundamental principle - is in the nineteenth century entirely denied. It is now believed - that the government should be directed by the people through their - representatives, and that it is better for a nation to make mistakes - in the course of its self-government than to be ruled, be it ever so - wisely, by an irresponsible monarch. This notion of the sovereignty of - the people was energetically propounded during the great Revolution in - France. It is not yet universally accepted in all the states of modern - Europe. But it has profoundly affected the political development of - the nineteenth century. It lies at the base of one group of modern - political ideas; and, though in 1815 it seemed to have been propounded - only to be condemned, one of the most striking features of the modern - history of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, has been its gradual - acceptance and steady growth in civilised countries.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Principle of Nationality.</div> - - <p>The second political belief introduced during the epoch of transition - from 1789 to 1815 was the recognition of the idea of nationality in - contradistinction to that of the State, which prevailed in the last - century. In the eighteenth century the State was typified by the - ruling authority. National boundaries and race limits were regarded as - of no importance. It was not felt to be an anomaly that the Catholic - Netherlands or Belgium should be governed by the House of Austria, - or that an Austrian prince should reign in Tuscany and a Spanish - prince in Naples. The first partition of Poland was not condemned as - an offence against nature, but as an artful scheme devised for the - purpose of enlarging the neighbouring states, which had appropriated - the districts lying nearest to their own territories. But during the - wars of the Revolution and of Napoleon the idea of nationality made - itself felt. France, as a nation in arms, proved to be more than a - match for the Europe of the old <span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>conceptions. And it was not until her - own sense of nationality was absorbed in Napoleon’s creation of a new - Empire of the West that France was vanquished by coming in contact with - the Spanish, the Russian, and the German peoples in the place of her - former foes, the sovereigns of Europe. The idea of nationality, like - the idea of the sovereignty of the people, seemed to be condemned in - 1815 by the Congress of Vienna. The Catholic Netherlands were united - with the provinces of Holland; Norway was forcibly separated from - Denmark; Italy was once more parcelled out into independent states - under foreign princes. But the Congress of Vienna could not eradicate - the new idea. It had taken too deep a root. And another striking - feature of the European history of the nineteenth century has been the - formation of new nations, resting their <i>raison d’être</i> on the feeling - of nationality and the identity of race.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Principle of Personal Liberty.</div> - - <p>The third modern notion which has transformed Europe is the recognition - of the principle of personal and individual liberty. Feudalism left the - impress of its graduation of rights and duties marked deeply on the - constitutions of the European States. The sovereignty of the people - implies political liberty of action; feudalism denied the propriety and - advantages of social and economical freedom. Theoretically, freedom - of individual thought and action was acknowledged to be a good thing - by all wise philosophers and rulers. Practically, the poorer classes - were kept in bondage either as agricultural serfs by their lords or as - journeymen workmen by the trade-guilds. Where personal and individual - liberty had been attained, political liberty became an object of - ambition, and political liberty led to the idea of the sovereignty of - the people. The last vestiges of feudalism were swept away during this - era of transition. The doctrines of the French Revolution did more - than the victories of Napoleon to destroy the political system of the - eighteenth century. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 might return to the - former notions of government and the State, but it did <span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>not attempt - to restore the old restrictions on individual liberty. With personal - freedom acknowledged, the reactionary tendency of the Congress of - Vienna was left of no effect. Liberty of thought and action led to the - resurrection of the conceptions of nationality and of the sovereignty - of the people, which were but for the moment extinguished by the defeat - of France in the person of Napoleon by the armies of united Europe.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Benevolent Despots.</div> - - <p>The period which preceded the French Revolution and the era of - war, from the troubles of which modern Europe was to be born, may - be characterised as that of the benevolent despots. The State was - everything; the nation nothing. The ruler was supreme, but his - supremacy rested on the assumption that he ruled his subjects for their - good. This conception of the <i>Aufgeklärte Despotismus</i> was developed - to its highest degree by Frederick the Great of Prussia. ‘I am but the - first servant of the nation,’ he wrote, a phrase which irresistibly - recalls the definition of the position of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> by the - first leaders of the French Revolution. This attitude was defended by - great thinkers like Diderot, and is the keynote to the internal policy - of the monarchs of the latter half of the eighteenth century towards - their people. The Empress Catherine of Russia, Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> - of Sweden, Charles <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Spain, the Archduke Leopold of - Tuscany, and, above all, the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> defended their - absolutism on the ground that they exercised their power for the good - of their subjects. Never was more earnest zeal displayed in promoting - the material well-being of all classes, never did monarchs labour - so hard to justify their existence, or effect such important civil - reforms, as on the eve of the French Revolution, which was to herald - the overthrow of the doctrine of absolute monarchy. The intrinsic - weakness of the position of the benevolent despots was that they could - not ensure the permanence of their reforms, or vivify the rotten fabric - of the administrative edifices, which had grown up in the feudal - monarchies. Great ministers, such as Tanucci and Aranda, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>could do much - to help their masters to carry out their benevolent ideas, but they - could not form or nominate their successors, or create a perfect body - of unselfish administrators. When Frederick the Great’s master hand was - withdrawn, Prussia speedily exhibited a condition of administrative - decay, and since this was the case in Prussia, which had been for more - than forty years under the rule of the greatest and wisest of the - benevolent despots, the falling-off was likely to be even more marked - in other countries. The conception of benevolent despots ruling for - their people’s good was eventually superseded, as was certain to be the - case, owing to the impossibility of their ensuring its permanence, by - the modern idea of the people ruling themselves.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Condition of the Labouring Classes.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Serfdom.</div> - - <p>And, in truth, while doing full justice to the sentiments and the - endeavours of the benevolent despots, it cannot honestly be said that - their efforts had done much to improve the condition of the labouring - classes by the end of the eighteenth century. The great majority of - the peasants of Europe were throughout that century absolute serfs. To - take once more the example of Prussia, the only attempts to improve - the condition of the peasants had been made in the royal domain, and - they had only been very tentative. The dwellers on the estates of the - Prussian nobility in Silesia and Brandenburg were treated no better - than negro slaves in America and the West Indies. They were not allowed - to leave their villages, or to marry without their lords’ consent; - their children had to serve in the lords’ families for several years at - a nominal wage, and they themselves had to labour at least three days, - and often six days, a week on their lords’ estate. These <i>corvées</i> or - forced labours occupied so much of the peasant’s time that he could - only cultivate his own farm by moonlight. This state of absolute - serfdom was general in Central and Eastern Europe, in the greater part - of Germany, in Poland and in Russia, and where it existed the artisan - class was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> equally depressed, for no man was allowed to learn a trade - without his lord’s permission, and an escaped serf had no chance of - admission into the trade-guilds of the cities. Towards the west a - more advanced civilisation improved the condition of the labourers; - the Italian peasant and the German peasant on the Rhine had obtained - freedom to marry without his lord’s interference; but, nevertheless, it - was a leading prince on the Rhine, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who - sold his subjects to England to serve as mercenaries in the American - War of Independence. In France the peasant was far better off. The only - serfs left, who existed on the domain of the Abbey of Saint-Claude - in the Jura, on whose behalf Voltaire wielded his powerful pen, were - in a far happier condition than the German serfs; they could marry - whom they pleased; they might emigrate without leave; their persons - were free; all they were deprived of was the power of selling their - property or devising it by will. The rest of the French peasants - and the agricultural classes generally were extremely independent. - Feudalism had left them some annoyances but few real grievances, and - the inconveniences they suffered were due solely to the inequalities - of the copyhold system of tenure and its infringements of their - personal liberty. The French peasants and farmers were indignant at an - occasional day’s <i>corvée</i>, or forced labour, which really represented - the modern rent, and at the succession-duties they had to pay the - descendants or representatives of their ancestors’ feudal lords. The - German, Polish, and Hungarian peasant, on the contrary, crushed beneath - the burden of his personal servitude, did not dream of pretending to - own the plot of land, which his lord kindly allowed him to cultivate in - his few spare moments.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Middle Classes.</div> - - <p>The mass of the population of Central and Eastern Europe was purely - agricultural, and in its poverty expected naught but the bare - necessaries of existence. Trade, commerce, and manufactures were - therefore practically non-existent. This meant that the cities, - and consequently the middle classes, formed but an insignificant - factor in the population. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> the West of Europe, on the Rhine, and - more especially in France, where the agricultural classes were more - independent, more wealthy, and more civilised, existence demanded more - comforts, and a well-to-do and intelligent commercial and manufacturing - urban element quickly developed to supply the demand created. Commerce, - trade, and the concentrated employment of labour produced a prosperous - and enlightened middle class, accustomed for generations to education - and the possession of personal freedom. With wealth always goes - civilisation and education, and as there was a larger middle class in - France and Western Germany than in Central and Eastern Europe, the - peasants in those parts were better educated and more intelligent.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Upper Classes.</div> - - <p>The condition of the upper classes followed the same geographical - distribution. The highest aristocracy of all European countries was - indeed, as it has always been, on much the same intellectual and social - level. Paris was its centre, the capital of society, fashion, and - luxury, where Russian, Austrian, Swedish, and English nobles met on an - equality. But the bulk of the German and Eastern European aristocracy - was in education and refinement inferior to the bulk of the French - nobility. Yet they possessed an authority which the French nobility had - lost. The Russian, Prussian, and Austrian nobleman and the Hungarian - magnate was the owner of thousands of serfs, who cultivated his lands - and rendered him implicit obedience. The French nobleman exacted only - certain rents, either copyhold quit-rents or feudal services, from the - tenants on his ancestral estates. His tenants were in no sense his - serfs; they owed him no personal service, and resented the payment - of the rent substituted for such service. The patriarchal feeling of - loyalty to the lord had long disappeared, and the French peasant did - not acknowledge any subjection to his landlord, while the Prussian and - Russian serf recognised his bondage to his master.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Why France experienced the Revolution.</div> - - <p>These considerations help to show why the Revolution, which was after - twenty-six years to inaugurate modern Europe,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> broke out in France. It - was because the French peasant was more independent, more wealthy, and - better educated than the German serf, that he resented the political - and social privileges of his landlord and the payment of rent, more - than the serf objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed - an enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found - leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession of a great - measure of personal freedom that they were ready to strike a blow - for political liberty, and eventually promulgated the idea of social - equality. The ideas of the sovereignty of the people, of nationality - and of personal liberty, did not originate in France. They are as - old as civilisation. But they had been clouded in the Middle Ages by - feudalism, and, after the Reformation, had been succeeded by different - political conceptions, which had crystallised in the eighteenth century - into the doctrines of the supremacy of the State, of the arbitrary rule - of benevolent or enlightened despots. England and Holland had developed - separately from the rest of the Western World. For reasons lying deep - in their internal history and their geographical position, they had rid - themselves alike of feudalism and absolute monarchy; they had developed - a sense of their independent nationality, and had recognised the - importance of personal freedom. In England especially, the abolition - of the relics of feudalism in the seventeenth century had placed the - English farmers and peasants in a different economical position from - their fellows on the Continent. There existed in England none of the - invidious distinctions between nobleman and <i>roturier</i> in the matter - of bearing national burdens, which had survived in France, and, though - owing to the curiosities of the franchise the larger proportion of - Englishmen had but a very small share in electing the representatives - of the people, the government carried on as it was by a small oligarchy - of great families possessed an appearance of political liberty, and of - a wisely-balanced machine for administrative purposes.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Intellectual movement of the eighteenth century.</div> - - <p>Nor must the influence of intellectual ideas, as bearing on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> problems - which the French Revolution was to force on the attention of the more - backward and more oppressed nations of Europe, be underrated. The - great French writers of the eighteenth century—Voltaire, Montesquieu, - Diderot, and Rousseau—had been deeply impregnated with the ideas of - Locke and the English political thinkers of his school. In their - different lines they insisted that government existed for the good - of the governed, and investigated the origins of government and the - relations of man in the social state. It was their speculations which - altered the character of absolute monarchy and based its retention on - its benevolent purposes; they, too, insisted upon the rights of man to - preserve his personal freedom, as long as it did not clash with the - maintenance and security of civil society. The great French writers of - the eighteenth century exercised by their works a smaller influence on - the outbreak and actual course of the French Revolution than has been - generally supposed. The causes of the movement were chiefly economical - and political, not philosophical or social: its rapid development was - due to historical circumstances, and mainly to the attitude of the - rest of Europe. But the text-books of its leaders were the works of - the French thinkers of the eighteenth century, and if their doctrines - had little actual influence in bringing about the Revolution, they - influenced its development and the extension of its principles - throughout Europe. It is curious to contrast the opinions of the great - French writers of the middle of the eighteenth century, whose arguments - mainly affected the general conceptions of man living in society, - that is, of government, with the views advocated by the great German - writers of the end of the century, who concentrated their attention - upon man in his individual capacity for culture and self-improvement. - Schiller, Goethe, Kant, and Herder were, further, more cosmopolitan - than German. The problems of man and his intellectual and artistic - development proved more attractive to the great German thinkers than - the difficulties presented by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> economical, social, and political - diversities of different classes of society. Goethe, for instance, - understood the signification of the French Revolution, and was much - interested in its effects on the human race, but he cared very little - about its impression on Germany.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Morality and Religion in the eighteenth century.</div> - - <p>Finally, the low state of morality in the eighteenth century had sapped - the earnestness in the cause of humanity of men of all classes in all - countries. Disbelief in the Christian religion was general in both the - Protestant and Catholic countries of the Continent. The immorality - of most of the prelates in Catholic countries was notorious, and was - equalled by their avowed contempt for the doctrines of the religion - they professed to teach. The Protestant pastors of Germany were quite - as open in their infidelity. In the famous case of Schulz, the pastor - of Gielsdorf, who openly denied Christianity, and taught simply that - morality was necessary, the High Consistory of Berlin held that he was, - nevertheless, still fitted to hold his office as the Lutheran pastor of - his village. Christianity in both Catholic and Protestant countries was - replaced by the vague sentiments of morality, which are best presented - in Rousseau’s <i>Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard</i>. In reaction to - this vague and dogmaless morality, there existed many secret societies - and coteries of mystics, such as the Rosati and the Illuminati, who - replaced religion by ornate and symbolical ceremonies.</p> - - <p>Such was the political, economical, intellectual and moral state - of Europe in 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution. The whole - continent was to pass through twenty-six years of almost unceasing - war, at the end of which it was to emerge with new conceptions and new - ideals of both political and social life. The new ideas seemed indeed - to be checked, if not destroyed, in 1815, but once inspired into men’s - minds they could not be forgotten, and their subsequent development - forms the history of modern Europe in the nineteenth century.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_I"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> - <h2>CHAPTER I<br /><span class="large">1789</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">The Treaty of 1756 between France and Austria—The Triple - Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland, - 1788—The Minor Powers of Europe—Austria: Joseph - <span class="smcap">ii.</span>—His Internal Policy—His Foreign Policy—Russia: - Catherine—Poland—France: Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span>—Spain: Charles - <span class="smcap">iv.</span>—Portugal: Maria <span class="smcap">i.</span>—Italy—The Two - Sicilies: Ferdinand <span class="smcap">iv.</span>—Naples—Sicily—Rome: - Pope Pius <span class="smcap">vi.</span>—Tuscany: Grand Duke - Leopold—Parma: Duke Ferdinand—Modena: Duke Hercules - <span class="smcap">iii.</span>—Lombardy—Sardinia: Victor Amadeus - <span class="smcap">iii.</span>—Lucca—Genoa—Venice—England: George - <span class="smcap">iii.</span>—The Policy of Pitt—Prussia: Frederick William - <span class="smcap">ii.</span>—Policy of Prussia—Holland—Denmark: Christian - <span class="smcap">vii.</span>—Sweden: Gustavus <span class="smcap">iii.</span>—The - Holy Roman Empire—The Diet—The Electors—College - of Princes—College of Free Cities—The Imperial - Tribunal—The Aulic Council—The Circles—The Princes of - Germany—Bavaria—Baden—Würtemburg—Saxony—Saxe-Weimar—The - Ecclesiastical Princes—Mayence—Trêves—Cologne—The - Petty Princes and Knights of the - Empire—Switzerland—Geneva—Conclusion.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Treaty of 1756.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> states of Europe at the commencement of the year 1789 were ranked - diplomatically in two important groups, the one dominated by the - connection between France, Austria, Spain, and Russia; the other - by the alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland. The great - transformation which had been effected by the treaty between France - and Austria in 1756 in the relationship between the powers of Europe - was the crowning diplomatic event of the eighteenth century. The - arrangements then entered into and the alliances tested in the Seven - Years’ War still subsisted in 1789. But the spirit which lay at the - root of the Austro-French alliance was sensibly modified. The Treaty - of 1756 had never been really popular in either country. In France,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> - Marie Antoinette, whose marriage with Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> had set the - seal on the Austrian alliance, was detested as the living symbol of the - hated treaty, as <i>l’Autrichienne</i>, the Austrian woman, and the most - accredited political thinkers and writers were always dwelling on the - traditional policy of France, and on the system of Henri <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, - Richelieu, and Louis <span class="smcap">XIV.</span>, which held the House of Hapsburg - to be the hereditary and the inevitable enemy of the House of Bourbon - and of the French nation. The dislike of the alliance was felt with - equal intensity in Austria by the wealthy and the educated classes. The - Austrian generals resented the inefficacy of the French intervention - during the Seven Years’ War, and the Austrian people attributed its - reverses in that war to it with as much acrimony as if France had acted - as an enemy instead of as an ally. The same sentiment actuated even - the Imperial House. ‘Our natural enemies, travestied as allies, who do - more harm than if they were open enemies;’<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> such is the language in - which Leopold of Tuscany, brother of Marie Antoinette, characterised - the French in a letter written in December 1784 to his brother, the - Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> The Emperor Joseph was himself of the same - opinion. He preferred his Russian ally, the Empress Catherine, to his - brother-in-law, Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, King of France, and the tendency - of his foreign policy was to strengthen his friendship with Russia, - even at the expense of sacrificing his alliance with France. Russia, - whose expansion under the great Empress had been enormous since the - conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, cared but little for either of the - allies, and pursued independently its course of steady development. - Catherine had, indeed, during most of the later years of Frederick - the Great, remained in alliance with Prussia, and to some extent had - been on friendly terms with England. But her natural tendency was to - distrust England. In 1780 she had placed herself at the head of the - ‘Armed Neutrality,’ which opposed the naval pretensions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>of England, - and in 1788 she had formally proposed a close quadruple alliance - between Russia, Austria, France, and Spain.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Prussia, England, and Holland.</div> - - <p>If the relations between France, Russia, and Austria were unsettled, - the Triple Alliance between Prussia, Holland, and England was hardly on - a more stable footing in 1789. Prussia, since the death of Frederick - the Great, had become really decrepit, while apparently remaining a - first-rate military power. Though still preserving the prestige of - its famous King, who died in 1786, and recognising its alliance with - England, Prussia in 1789 exhibited a decaying internal administration, - and a vacillating foreign policy. England had received a heavy blow by - the success of the colonists in North America, and by the Treaty of - Versailles, and the powers of the Continent, while envying her wealth, - held her military power of but small account. This opinion prevailed - even at Berlin, and the new King of Prussia gave many evidences that - the alliance of England was rather distasteful to him than otherwise. - The third member of the alliance, Holland, was in the weakest condition - of all, and it was only by invoking the armed interference of Prussia - that England had maintained the authority of the Prince of Orange, as - Stadtholder, in 1787. Though this interference had led to the formation - of the famous Triple Alliance of 1788, in reality the English and - Prussian statesmen profoundly distrusted each other, while the forcing - of the yoke of the Stadtholder upon them caused the Dutch democratic - party in Holland to abhor the allies and to look for help to France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Minor Powers of Europe.</div> - - <p>The rest of the European states were bound more or less firmly to - the one or the other of the two coalitions. The smaller states of - Germany, aggravated or intimidated by the measures of the Emperor - Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, had rallied to the side of Prussia. In the north, - Denmark, whose reigning house was connected by family ties with the - royal families of England and Prussia, was completely under Russian - influence, while Sweden, under Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> was actually at - war with Catherine <span class="smcap">II.</span> Poland, torn by internal dissensions, - and threatened with complete destruction by its neighbours, was - awaiting its final partition. The southern states of Europe were almost - entirely bound to the Franco-Austrian alliance. Spain had been united - to France by the offensive and defensive treaty, known as the ‘Pacte - de Famille,’ concluded by the French minister, Choiseul, in 1761, and - tested in the war of American Independence. Portugal, though connected - with England, commercially by the Methuen treaty, and politically by - a long course of protection against Spanish pretensions, was striving - by a series of royal marriages to become the ally of Spain. In Italy, - Naples was ruled by a Spanish prince married to an Austrian princess; - Sardinia was closely allied with France, and the remainder of the - peninsula was mainly under Austrian influence. Turkey, now travelling - towards decay, was looked upon by Russia and Austria as their - legitimate prey, and met with encouragement in resistance, but not with - active help, from England and France.</p> - - <p>After thus roughly sketching the general attitude of the powers of - Europe to each other in 1789, it will be well to examine each state - separately before entering on the history of the exciting period which - followed. Great and sweeping alterations were to be effected; many - diplomatic variations were to take place. The most important result of - the period of the French Revolution and of Napoleon was its influence - upon the minds of men, as shown in the growth of certain political - conceptions, which have moulded modern Europe. But great changes were - also brought about in dynasties and in the geographical boundaries of - states, which can only be understood by a knowledge of the condition of - Europe in 1789.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Austria: Joseph II.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Joseph II.: Internal Policy.</div> - - <p>The figure of most importance in the beginning of the year 1789 was - that of the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, and his dominions were those - in which an observer would have prophesied a great revolution. Joseph - was at that date a man of forty-seven; he had been elected Emperor in - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> place of his father, Francis of Lorraine, in 1765, and succeeded - to the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria on the death - of his mother, Maria Theresa, in 1780. He was, perhaps, the best - type of the class of benevolent despots. A singularly industrious, - enlightened, and able ruler, his ideas were far in advance of those of - his age,—so much in advance, indeed, that his efforts to impose them - upon his subjects brought upon himself hatred instead of gratitude, - and among the people turbulence and insurrection instead of peace and - tranquillity. The history of the Emperor Joseph’s reforms, and of the - disturbances which resulted from them, belongs to an earlier volume of - this series. In 1789 the whole of the hereditary dominions of the House - of Hapsburg were in a state of ferment. The Emperor’s scheme of welding - them into an Austrian nation, by insisting on the use of the German - language, by simplifying the state of the law and the administration, - and assimilating the various religious and educational institutions, - had roused the fire of local patriotism. In Hungary and in the Tyrol, - in Bohemia, and, above all, in the Austrian Netherlands, or Belgium, - there was declared rebellion, fanned by local prejudices, religious - fanaticism, and the spirit of caste. The first and second of these - causes were chiefly responsible in the Austrian Netherlands, the third - in Hungary. The Belgians, and more especially the Brabançons, were in - arms for their local rights and ancient constitutions, which had been - infringed by the Emperor’s decrees. The Belgian clergy, who looked upon - Joseph as worse than an infidel for his treatment of the Pope and his - suppression of religious houses, were inflamed at the establishment - of an Imperial Seminary in Brussels as a rival to the Roman Catholic - University of Louvain. But in Hungary it was the magnates of the - country who had fought so gallantly for Maria Theresa and saved her - throne, who were in an attitude of open disaffection. This was partly - due to Joseph’s infringement of their Constitution and his removal of - the Iron Crown to Vienna, but still<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> more to his abolition of serfdom. - As has been already stated, serfdom in Europe was practically extinct - in the western part of the Continent, that is, in France, in Belgium, - and on the Rhine, while it increased in intensity steadily towards - the east, and was as bad in Prussia Proper, Poland, and Hungary, as - in Russia. ‘Most merciful Emperor,’ ran a petition from an Hungarian - peasant to Joseph, ‘four days’ forced labour for the seigneur; the - fifth day, fishing for him; the sixth day, hunting with him; and the - seventh belongs to God. Consider, most merciful Emperor, how can I - pay dues and taxes?’<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The iniquity of serfdom, with its practice of - forced labour, was accentuated in Hungary by the constitutional custom - which exempted the nobility from all taxation. The Emperor Joseph - abolished serfdom in Hungary on 22nd August 1785, and inaugurated a - system of removing feudal burdens, and converting forced labour, by - means of a gradually diminishing tax. The condition of the hereditary - dominions of the House of Hapsburg was thus, in 1789, one of seething - discontent where it was not open rebellion; Belgian burghers and - Hungarian magnates were alike infuriated by the Emperor’s efforts at - reform; and the poor serfs of Hungary and Bohemia and the working men - of Belgium, whom he designed to benefit by direct legislation and - financial measures, were too weak to render him any help. His hope of - creating an Austrian state and an Austrian people out of his scattered - dominions was fated to be thwarted; obstacles of distance, race, and - language, cannot be overcome by legislation, however wise; and the - Emperor’s well-intentioned endeavours nearly lost his House its ancient - patrimony.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Joseph II. Foreign Policy.</div> - - <p>The foreign policy of the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> was dictated by - the same leading principle as his internal reforms—the desire to form - his various territories into a compact state. His schemes to exchange - the Austrian Netherlands for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>Bavaria in order to unite his possessions - in Swabia with the nucleus of the Hapsburg territories were frustrated - by the policy of Frederick the Great. His attempt to make his authority - as Emperor more than nominal, and to create a real German empire based - on a German patriotic feeling, proved an utter failure. Foiled in these - two projects, the creation of an Austrian compact state, which he - deemed practicable, and the resurrection of a mighty Germany under his - headship, which he acknowledged to be but a dream, Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> - turned his thoughts towards Russia. The ideal of his early manhood - had been his mother’s foe, Frederick the Great of Prussia; the ideal - of his later years was the Empress Catherine of Russia. Both were - specimens of the enlightened despots of the age; both had extended the - realms they ruled; both endeavoured to form their states into compact - entities; both had succeeded in administration and in war; and both - were cynical disciples of the eighteenth-century philosophers. They - were successively his models. It is characteristic of the Emperor - Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> that the only picture in his private cabinet in - the Hofburg at Vienna was a portrait of Frederick; the only picture in - his bedroom one of Catherine. After the death of Frederick the Great, - the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, despising his successor, expressed - more loudly his admiration for Catherine. In 1787 he accompanied her - in her famous progress to the Crimea. Fascinated by her personality - and dazzled by her projects, the Emperor was persuaded to ally himself - with Russia against the Turks, and hoped to partition Turkey with her, - as his mother, Frederick, and Catherine had accomplished the first - partition of Poland. In 1788 he accordingly declared war against the - Sublime Porte. But he found that the Turks, in spite of the corruption - of their government, were still no contemptible foes. His own army was - demoralised by the misconduct of the aristocratic officers; disease - decimated his troops; and the Emperor Joseph returned from the campaign - of 1788 with the seeds of mortal illness in his system, but with his - determination to pursue the war unabated.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Russia: Catherine.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Poland.</div> - - <p>Russia, the chosen ally of Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, was in 1789 ruled by - the Empress Catherine <span class="smcap">II.</span> This great monarch, though by birth - a princess of the petty German state of Anhalt-Zerbst, ranks with - Peter the Great as a founder of the Russian Empire; more Russian than - the Russians, she understood the importance of the development of her - adopted country geographically towards the Baltic and the Black Sea, - and the capacity of her people to support her in her enterprises. - She was at this time sixty years of age, in full possession of her - remarkable powers, and having ruled for twenty-seven years, she had - fortified her authority by experience. Peter the Great had seen the - absolute necessity that the Russian Empire should have access to the - sea, and had built Saint Petersburg; Catherine had moved southward and - extended her dominions to the Black Sea. She hoped to make the Baltic - and the Black Sea Russian lakes, and on that account was the consistent - and watchful enemy of Sweden and the Turks. Upon the western frontier - of Russia lay Poland. The natural policy of Russia was to maintain and - even to strengthen Poland as a buffer between Russia and the military - powers of Austria and Prussia. But the extraordinary Constitution - of Poland, which provided for the election of a powerless king, and - recognised the right of civil war and the power of any nobleman to - forbid any measure proposed at the Diet by the exercise of what was - called the <i>liberum veto</i>, kept the unfortunate country in a state - of anarchy, unable either to defend or to oppose. It might have been - possible to reform the Constitution, and make the Poles an organised - nation, but the neighbouring monarchs considered it easier to share - the country amongst them, and had, under the guidance of Frederick - the Great, carried out in 1772 the first partition, which excluded - Poland from the sea, brought the borders of the three powers, Austria, - Prussia, and Russia, nearer to each other, and caused Russia to become - an European instead of essentially an Eastern monarchy. Catherine - grasped the fact that in her present position Russia must intervene in - European politics,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> owing to the condition of Poland, and decided to - derive what benefit she could from this circumstance. In her internal - government Catherine was one of the benevolent despots. The patroness - of Diderot, she expressed her admiration for the new doctrines of the - Rights of Man, and even summoned a convention to draw up a Russian - constitution. But she knew that the new doctrines were not applicable - to the Russian people, and would be absurdly inappropriate to the nomad - Tartar tribes which wandered over the southern districts of the Russian - Empire. She was fully aware that their village organisation protected - the peasants from many of the evils which prevailed in seemingly more - enlightened countries, and gave them a right and interest in the soil - to which they were attached. Russia, in fact, had experienced no - Reformation, no Renaissance, no awakening of the ideas of individual - and political liberty, and therefore was eminently fitted for the rule - of a benevolent despot.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">France: Louis XVI.</div> - - <p>Next to the Austro-Russian alliance, the Austro-French alliance, - sealed by the Treaty of 1756, was of the greatest significance to the - peace and welfare of Europe in 1789. As has been said, in neither - country was the alliance popular; France and Austria were hereditary - enemies; classical policy in both courts favoured a resumption of this - enmity; the friendship was rather dynastic than national, the work of - Kaunitz and Maria Theresa, the Abbé de Bernis, Madame de Pompadour, - and Louis <span class="smcap">XV.</span> France still appeared a very powerful nation. - Its intervention in the American War of Independence had largely - contributed to England’s loss of her American colonies, and the - Treaty of Versailles in 1783 had involved a confession that England - was beaten by her cession of the West India islands of St. Lucia and - Tobago. But in spite of her seeming power, France was from political - and economic causes really very weak. She had been unable in 1787 - to effectually support the republican and French party in Holland, - and had been forced to allow England and Prussia to reinstate the - Stadtholder, the Prince of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> Orange. In spite of her alliance with - Austria, she had been obliged in pursuance of a peace policy, made - necessary by her financial condition, to draw near to England, and had - made a commercial treaty with her in 1786. The weakness of France arose - from internal circumstances. The State and the Court were financially - identical. The Court was extravagant, and the result was a chronic - national deficit. Efforts had been made to meet this deficit, but - all expedients, even partial bankruptcy, had failed. It was evident - that a systematic attempt must be made to rearrange the finances by - introducing a regular scheme of taxation to take the place of the - feudal arrangements for filling the royal treasury, which with some - modifications still survived. But a regular scheme of taxation, which - should abolish feudal privileges, and make the government responsible - to the nation for its expenditure, could not be established without the - consent of the people, and the educated classes, who were both numerous - and prosperous, claimed a voice in its establishment. The feeling of - political discontent went deeper. The French people had outgrown their - system of government; the peasants and farmers resented the existence - of the economic, social, and political privileges dating from the - Middle Ages, which had survived the duties originally accompanying - them; the bourgeois argued that they should have a share in regulating - the affairs of the State; the educated classes sympathised with - both. The day for benevolent despotism was over in France; Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was benevolent in disposition, but too weak to reform the - system under which he ruled; and it was the system, not the person of - the monarch, which the French people disliked; it was the system as a - whole which they had outgrown.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Spain: Charles IV.</div> - - <p>Much of the strength of France rested on its intimate alliance with - Spain. The two great Bourbon houses had been closely united by the - ‘Pacte de Famille’ concluded in 1761, which bound them in an offensive - and defensive alliance. Spain had loyally fulfilled her part of the - bargain, and had suffered much in the War of American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> Independence - against England. Spain had had the good fortune to be ruled by one of - the most enlightened of the benevolent despots, Charles <span class="smcap">III.</span>, - whose minister, Aranda, was one of the greatest statesmen of his - century. Aranda is best known from his persecution of the Jesuits, who - had spread their influence over the minds of the Spanish people so - far as to be the dictators of education and opinion. Their expulsion - contributed to the power of the Crown, which undertook the direction - of every form of national energy. Aranda was a great administrator; - he spent vast sums on the improvement of communications and on public - works, and he built up a powerful Spanish navy. The two evils which - had depressed the fame of Spain, the personal lethargy of the people, - due to the stamping out of liberty of thought by the Inquisition, and - the poverty, caused by the influx of gold from the Spanish colonies, - which prevented any encouragement of national industry, were however - too great for any administrator to subdue, without a national uprising - and the development of a national love for liberty. Aranda was ably - helped by Campomanes, who founded a national system of education to - take the place of the Jesuits’ schools and colleges, by Jovellanos, a - great jurist and political economist, by Cabarrus, a skilful financier, - who founded the bank of St. Charles, and developed a system of national - credit, and by Florida Blanca, who superintended the department of - foreign affairs, and succeeded Aranda in supreme power in 1774. Charles - <span class="smcap">III.</span> died on 12th December 1788, and his successor, Charles - <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, whose weakness of character was manifested throughout - the period from 1789 to 1815, commenced his reign by maintaining - Florida Blanca at the head of Spanish affairs, with Cabarrus and other - experienced ministers.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Portugal: Maria I.</div> - - <p>Portugal was the intimate ally of England as Spain was of France. The - hereditary connection of Portugal and England dated back for many - centuries, and had been strengthened by the Methuen Treaty in 1703, - which had made Portugal largely dependent on England.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> The great - Portuguese minister, Pombal, who had commenced the persecution of - the Jesuits and had effected internal and administrative reforms, - comparable to those of Aranda in Spain, had been disgraced in 1777, - but the offices of State were filled by his pupils and managed on the - principle, which he had initiated, of advancing the prosperity of the - people. Pombal, while holding the strongest views on the importance - of maintaining the royal absolutism, believed in the modern doctrines - of reform; he had abolished slavery, encouraged education, and in - the received ideas of political economy had encouraged by means of - protection manufactures and agriculture. The essential weakness of - Portugal rested, like that of Spain, on the exhaustion and consequent - lethargy of its people; the Jesuits and the Inquisition had stamped out - freedom of thought. Financially, also, its condition resembled that - of Spain, for the sovereign derived such wealth from Brazil as to be - independent of taxes, levied on the people. Politically the aim of the - House of Braganza, during the latter part of the eighteenth century, - had been to endeavour to free itself from dependence on England by - uniting closely through inter-marriages with the reigning family in - Spain. Queen Maria <span class="smcap">I.</span>, who had succeeded Joseph, the patron of - Pombal, in 1777, was a fanatical lady of weak intellect, and in 1789 - the royal power was in the hands of the heir-apparent, Prince John, who - was recognised as Regent some years later, and eventually succeeded to - the throne in 1816, as John <span class="smcap">VI.</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Italy.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Naples: Ferdinand IV.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Sicily.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Rome: Pope Pius VI.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Tuscany: Grand Duke Leopold.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Parma: Duke Ferdinand.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Modena: Duke Hercules III.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Lombardy.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Sardinia: Victor Amadeus III.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Lucca: Republic.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Genoa: Republic.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Venice.</div> - - <p>Italy, in the eighteenth century, was composed of a number of small - states. The idea of Italian unity lived only in the minds of the great - Italian writers and thinkers; it met with no support from the powers - of Europe. Italy was still the home of music and the arts, which - were fostered by the numerous small Courts; but politically, owing - to its subdivision, it hardly counted as a power, and its diplomacy - had little weight in the European State system. It was entirely under - the influence of France and Austria, and showed the tendencies of the - century in the good government<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> of most of the petty rulers. The most - important of the Italian states was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, - which comprised the southern part of the peninsula and the island - of Sicily. The kingdom had been granted to Ferdinand <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, - when his father, the celebrated Don Carlos, succeeded as Charles - <span class="smcap">III.</span> to the throne of Spain in 1759. It was in Naples that - Charles <span class="smcap">III.</span> had commenced his career as a reforming monarch, - and the great Neapolitan minister, Tanucci, continued to administer the - affairs of the kingdom in a most enlightened fashion during the early - years of the new monarch’s reign. His policy was to check the feudal - instincts of the Neapolitan barons, whom he deprived of the lucrative - right of administering justice, and thus to strengthen the influence - of the Crown; and he also opposed the pretensions of the Pope, and - concurred in the suppression of the Jesuits. The power thus acquired - for the Crown was wisely used; the financial system was revised, - education was encouraged, and an attempt was made to procure a general - reform of the laws. The young publicist, Filangieri, whose <i>Science - of Legislation</i> contained the most enlightened views on political - economy and government, and who ranks next to Montesquieu as a typical - political thinker of the eighteenth century, was a Neapolitan, and - his speculations largely influenced the current of Italian thought. - Sicily, however, remained to a great extent untouched by the influence - of the great Neapolitan minister owing to its insular jealousy and the - maintenance of its mediæval parliament. Ferdinand <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, in - 1768, married Maria Carolina, the ablest daughter of the Empress Maria - Theresa, who at once assumed the most entire sway over her ill-educated - and indolent husband. She secured the dismissal of Tanucci, whom she - disliked on much the same grounds that her sister, Marie Antoinette, - disliked the reforming French ministers, Turgot and Necker, in 1776, - and after an interval replaced him by Acton, a native of France of - Irish descent, who, owing to the temper of his patroness, was not able - to continue efficiently the work of Tanucci. The States of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> Church, - including the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara and the principalities - of Benevento and Ponte Corvo, were also governed in accordance with the - enlightened ideas of the eighteenth century. The Papacy had much fallen - in influence, and had been forced to comply with the demands of Pombal, - Choiseul, Aranda, and Tanucci for the suppression of its spiritual - mainstay, the order of the Jesuits; but it nevertheless maintained its - temporal sovereignty in Italy. Giovanni Angelo Braschi, who had been - elected Pope in 1775, and taken the title of Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, was a - man of singular ability and courtly manners. But he had to assent to - vast reforms in Tuscany, which seriously affected the wealth of the - Church in that part of the country, and had been unable, in spite of - a personal visit to Vienna, to persuade Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> to alter - his policy towards the Papacy. His most notable internal measures in - the Papal States were the draining of the Pontine marshes, and his - reconstitution of the Clementine Museum at Rome, which he placed under - the charge of the eminent antiquary, Ennius Quirinus Visconti. Tuscany - flourished under the rule of the Grand Duke Leopold, brother and - eventual successor of Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, the ablest administrator of - all the benevolent despots. His reforms extended in every direction; - with the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, he reduced the - number of bishoprics and monasteries; he drained many of the marshes, - and so benefited agriculture; he reorganised education and encouraged - the Universities of Pisa and Siena. But his greatest reforms were - legal and economic. Tuscany having originated from a number of - mediæval republics, had been hitherto administered as a collection of - semi-independent cities and districts, with their own laws and local - finances. Leopold was one of the first monarchs to project a uniform - code of laws for his state, which he intrusted to the great jurist, - Lampredi, to compile, and he abolished all personal privileges before - the law, torture, the right of asylum for malefactors, confiscation of - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> property of condemned malefactors, and secret denunciations. In - economics he was the pupil of the French physiocrats, and the friend of - the Marquis de Mirabeau, the ‘Ami des hommes,’ and in consonance with - their doctrines he swept away all the internal customs duties and other - restrictions on industry and commerce. Lastly, Leopold, seeing that - his state was not strong enough to carry on a real war, abolished the - Tuscan army, to the great advantage of his finances. Next to Tuscany, - the best-governed state in Italy was Parma. Ferdinand, Duke of Parma - and Piacenza, was the only son of Don Philip, the second son of Philip - <span class="smcap">V.</span> of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese, by Elizabeth of France, - daughter of Louis <span class="smcap">XV.</span> He was educated by the celebrated French - philosopher, Condillac, and early in his reign showed the influence of - the best eighteenth century ideas. He had succeeded his father in 1765, - and continued his minister, a Frenchman, Du Tillot, Marquis of Felino, - in office. Du Tillot, though working in a smaller sphere, was as great - a reformer as Pombal and Tanucci. He brought about the suppression of - the Inquisition in Parma, improved the internal administration, and - encouraged education so greatly that the University of Parma, under - the management of the learned scholar, Paciaudi, became one of the - most famous in Europe. In 1769 Duke Ferdinand married Maria Amelia, - daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, who two years later secured the - dismissal of Du Tillot from office. This dismissal was not, however, - followed by a reaction, though it put a close to the progress of - reform, and Parma, under the administration, first of a Spaniard, - Llanos, and then of a Frenchman, Mauprat, retained its reputation as - a well governed state. It was otherwise with Modena, where the last - Duke of the House of Este, Hercules <span class="smcap">III.</span>, reigned. This - prince had succeeded to the duchies of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola - in 1780, when already a man of fifty-three, and had added to them by - marriage the principalities of Massa and Carrara. His only daughter - and heiress, Maria Beatrice, was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> married to the Austrian Archduke - Ferdinand, younger brother of the Emperor Joseph, and Governor-General - of Lombardy. Duke Hercules was a superstitious and avaricious ruler, - whose chief care was to amass money, and, politically, he followed out - the wishes of Austria. While the House of Austria, by its scions or by - marriages, ruled the greater part of Italy indirectly, it possessed the - direct sovereignty of Lombardy, or, more accurately, of the Milanese - and Mantua. This province profited by the salutary policy of Joseph - <span class="smcap">II.</span>, and was administered, under the governor-generalship - of the Archduke Ferdinand, by a great statesman, Count Firmian, who - understood and carried out the most important reforms. His patronage - of the arts and of education was especially remarkable; he laboured - ardently to restore the efficiency of the Universities of Milan and - Pavia, and appointed Beccaria, the celebrated philanthropist, Professor - of Political Economy at the former, and Volta, the equally celebrated - man of science, Professor of Physics at the latter. The only other - monarchy of Italy, that of Sardinia, was more closely related to France - than to Austria. Its king, Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, had married - a Spanish princess, and two of his daughters were married to the two - brothers of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> of France—Monsieur, the Comte de - Provence, and the Comte d’Artois. His dominions comprised the island - of Sardinia, Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice, and it was a great subject - of complaint to his Piedmontese subjects that he unduly favoured his - French-speaking province of Savoy. He, too, was influenced by the - spirit of his century; he encouraged agriculture and commerce; he - patronised literature and science; he built the Observatory at Turin, - and founded academies of science and fine arts; and he undertook great - public works, of which the most important was the improvement of the - harbour of Nice. But in one matter he pursued an opposite policy to the - Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, for he increased and reorganised his - army, and constructed fortifications of the most modern description - at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> Tortona and Alessandria. Lastly must be noticed three Italian - republics, survivals of the Middle Ages. Of these the smallest was the - Republic of Lucca, which was entirely surrounded by the Grand Duchy of - Tuscany. Its trade suffered from the encouragement given by the Grand - Duke Leopold to Leghorn; but, on the whole, it was well governed and - prosperous. It was otherwise with the two great aristocratic republics, - in which the long continuance of oligarchical government had stamped - out all vestiges of political liberty. The Republic of Genoa, of which - Raphael di Ferrari was Doge in 1789, was in utter decay. Its people - were poverty-stricken; its trade had gone to Leghorn and Nice; and - its laws and customs were unreformed. It was so weak that it had been - unable to subdue the rebels in Corsica, who had risen under Paoli for - the right of self-government, and it had ended by ceding the island - to France in 1768. The Republic of Venice, of which the Doge in 1789 - was Paul Renier, had not fallen so low in the eyes of Europe. Its - possessions on the mainland, which extended from Verona to the Tyrol - and along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, and included the Ionian - Islands, were administered for the benefit of the Venetian oligarchy, - and supplied it with wealth. From Dalmatia was raised a considerable - army, but the administration was wholly selfish, and did not keep pace - in enlightenment with that of Lombardy, Parma, Tuscany, and Naples. On - the whole, where monarchy existed in Italy, it tended in the eighteenth - century to benevolent despotism; and such rule was far more beneficial - to the people than that of the antiquated republics. Politically, the - whole country might be reckoned as a factor in the Franco-Austrian - alliance.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">England: George III.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Policy of Pitt.</div> - - <p>The chief power of the Triple Alliance, which balanced the - loosely-defined league of Russia, France, and Austria, was England. - The severe blow which had been struck by the revolt of her American - colonies had made Great Britain appear weaker than she really was to - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> powers of the Continent. The Treaty of Versailles, by which she - had been obliged to make cessions to France, seemed to have set the - seal on her humiliation. But in reality her finances were more affected - than her fighting strength, and the English navy, which, from her - insular position, must always constitute the principal element of her - force, was as excellent as ever. The policy of the younger Pitt, who - had come into office in 1783, was one of peace and retrenchment. The - country had lasted well through the financial strain of the American - War, and the chief aim of the minister was to allow its vast commercial - and industrial resources to expand. As a pupil of Adam Smith, Pitt - understood the great principles of political economy, and the most - significant part of his foreign policy was his conclusion of the - Commercial Treaty with France. A fiscal system, far in advance of that - in any continental country, enabled the English Government to draw on - the wealth of the nation more effectively than any other government, - if the money was needed for patriotic purposes. In spite of his love - of peace, Pitt was induced by his first Foreign Secretary, the Duke of - Leeds, to take an active part in European politics, and was eventually - led by the state of affairs in Holland to enter into the Triple - Alliance. At home, England was unaffected by the intellectual movement - which led to the French Revolution. She had in the previous century - got rid of the relics of feudalism, which pressed so heavily on the - continental farmer and peasant, and had won the boons of individual and - commercial liberty, and of equality before the law; while politically, - though her government was an oligarchy, supported by the class of - wealthy merchants and traders, an opportunity was afforded through - the existence of a free press and of the system of election, however - hampered by antiquated franchises, for public opinion to make itself - felt.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Prussia: Frederick William II.</div> - - <p>Prussia, the other principal member of the Triple Alliance, contrasted - in every way with England. Seemingly, owing to the prestige of - Frederick the Great’s victories and that able<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> monarch’s careful - organisation of his army, Prussia was the first military state in - Europe; in reality, her reputation was greater than her actual power. - Prussia was weak where England was strong. Prussia had no financial - system worthy of the name, no industrial wealth, and no national bank; - her only resources for war were a certain quantity of specie stored - up in Berlin. The Prussian Government was an absolutism, in which the - monarch’s will was supreme; its administration was based on feudalism, - of which England had entirely and France had practically got rid, with - all its mediæval incidents of serfdom, privilege of the nobility, and - social and commercial inequalities. The Prussian army was not national; - the soldiers were treated as slaves, and the officers, who were all of - noble birth, were tyrants in the maintenance of military discipline.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Policy of Prussia.</div> - - <p>Frederick the Great was one of the finest types of the benevolent - despot of the eighteenth century, but in him the belief in the - importance of his despotic power outweighed his benevolence. While - wishing for the prosperity of the people, he deliberately maintained - the authority of the nobility, and discouraged any desire for change - on the part of the agriculturists or citizens. The former were left - at the disposal of their lords, the latter trammelled by antiquated - civic constitutions. The weakness of Prussia was not only inherent in - its government, but was also due to geographical causes. Its component - parts were scattered; its Rhenish duchies and East Friesland were - separated from its main territories by many German states; its central - districts, the Marks of Brandenburg, were sparsely populated, and cut - off from the sea; its largest provinces, Prussia Proper, Pomerania, - Silesia, and Prussian Poland were, in spite of German and French - Huguenot colonies, mainly Slavonic, and as backward in civilisation as - other Slavonic races in the eighteenth century. In Russia, however, - the Slavonic population in its barbarism yet retained sufficient local - organisation to make its lot fairly endurable; in eastern Prussia, - and especially in Prussian Poland, the people<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> had been brought - into contact with the mediæval and Latin civilisation, and were - consequently treated as absolute serfs without the relief afforded by - local institutions. The policy of Prussia, as laid down by Frederick - the Great, had both Prussian and German aspirations, and in both was - utterly selfish. The example set by the cynical monarch in the Silesian - wars had left a deep impress on the minds of Prussian statesmen, and - the maxims of justice and international law were subordinated by them - to expediency. The Prussian policy of Frederick the Great culminated - in the first partition of Poland, which he had suggested, by means - of which Prussia united her eastern province of Prussia Proper to - Brandenburg, and cut off Poland from the sea, and the aim of his - successors was to pursue this path of aggrandisement, and, by further - annexations, to connect Silesia directly with Prussia Proper. The - German policy of Prussia was to assume the leadership of the Empire - by pretending the greatest zeal for the rights of the Princes of the - Empire, and posing as their protector, and it was on this ground that - Frederick the Great formed the League of the Princes. The hereditary - enemy of Prussia was Austria, which, though distinctly injured by - the conquest of Silesia, still retained the chief influence over the - Empire, and also showed a tendency to check the designs on Poland. - It was Frederick the Great of Prussia who had thwarted the Emperor’s - scheme of exchanging the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, and he - intrigued against Austria at the Courts both of Russia and France. It - was as a counterblow to the Franco-Austro-Russian alliance that Prussia - intervened in Holland, at the request of England, and formed the Triple - Alliance with England and Holland in 1788. King Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span> of Prussia, who succeeded his famous uncle in 1786, was - a man of feeble intellect and undecided nature, but he had thoroughly - imbibed the classic ideas of Prussian policy, and regarded Austria - as the inevitable foe of Prussia, to be duped and taken advantage of - on every possible occasion. His chief minister, Hertzberg, was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> - consistent enemy of Austria, but owing to the curious character of the - king, the real power of the State rested not with the minister but - with the royal favourites, of whom the chief at the end of 1788 were - Bischofswerder and Lucchesini.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Holland.</div> - - <p>Holland was the link which bound England and Prussia together. Its - military power was of no account, but the wealth of its inhabitants, - derived from their vast commercial expansion in Asia and aptitude - for banking, made the Republic of the United Provinces of the - greatest importance. The Seven Provinces preserved the most complete - autonomy; only the veriest semblance of federation held them - together. Practically, the only bond of union was in the power of the - Stadtholder, which had been restored in 1747. In the more wealthy - provinces, such as Holland, the commercial aristocracy, which filled - the ranks of the local governments, resented the position of the - Stadtholder, who held the command-in-chief of the army and navy; but in - the poorer and agricultural provinces, such as Friesland and Groningen, - the landed aristocracy generally supported the Stadtholderate. In 1780 - the United Provinces had joined in the Neutral League of the North, - invented by Catherine of Russia to break the commercial supremacy of - England, and in the war which followed they had suffered severe losses, - and had been compelled to cede Negapatam in India to England in 1783 on - the conclusion of peace. The Stadtholder, William <span class="smcap">V.</span>, Prince - of Orange, in whose family the office had been declared hereditary, was - vehemently accused of favouring England during this war, and when peace - was declared a movement was set on foot, headed by the authorities of - the Province of Holland, to oust him from his position, and to draw - up a new constitution for the Dutch Netherlands on the same lines - as that of the United States of America. This movement grew to its - height in 1786; a French Legion, commanded by the Comte de Maillebois, - was raised; the Stadtholder had to fly from the Hague, and the armed - intervention of France was requested. But, as has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> been said, France, - in spite of her seeming power, was too weak to intervene, and the - Dutch patriots were abandoned to their fate. On the other side, that - of the Stadtholder, England, through its able ambassador at the Hague, - Sir James Harris, afterwards Lord Malmesbury, induced Prussia to - act. England and Prussia had dynastic and political reasons for this - conduct. The Stadtholder was, through his mother, a first cousin of - George <span class="smcap">III.</span>, and had married a sister of Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span>, while politically, the acquisition of Holland to the - Franco-Austrian alliance, through the expulsion of the Stadtholder, - would bring nearly the whole of Europe into that system, and would - practically enclose the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. In September - 1787, therefore, a Prussian army, under the Duke of Brunswick, had - occupied Amsterdam, and placed the Stadtholder firmly in power; the - Dutch patriots fled to France; the Legion of Maillebois was disbanded; - and in 1788 the work was consummated by the signature of the Triple - Alliance.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Denmark: Christian VII.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Sweden: Gustavus III.</div> - - <p>The two northern kingdoms, Denmark and Sweden, had adhered to the - Neutral League against England in 1780, but for generations a bitter - animosity had existed between them. Denmark, which in 1789 included - Norway, was in an extremely prosperous condition. The philanthropic - ideas of the eighteenth century had made great way, and on 20th - June 1788 a royal ordinance had destroyed the last vestige of - serfdom. Efforts were made to improve the condition of the people by - reorganising the state of the finances, law and education, and progress - was made in every direction. These reforms were not the work of the - King, Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, who had fallen into a state of dotage, - but of the Prince Royal, afterwards Frederick <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, and of his - minister, Count Andrew Bernstorff, the nephew of the greatest Danish - statesman of the eighteenth century. Sweden, which in 1789 included the - greater part of Finland as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island - of Rügen, was under the sway of one of the most enlightened rulers of - the century,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> That monarch had in 1772, by a - <i>coup d’état</i>, overthrown the power of the Swedish Estates, with their - division into the two parties of the Caps and the Hats, subsidised - respectively by Russia and France. He had made use of his absolutism to - carry out some of the benevolent ideas of the time. He had abolished - torture, regulated taxation, encouraged commerce and industry, and - diminished, where he did not destroy, the privileges of the nobility. - Had he contented himself with these internal reforms he would have - won the lasting gratitude of the Swedish people, but he insisted on - playing a part in continental politics, which involved the maintenance - of a large army and the consequent exhaustion of the people. Though he - too had joined the League of the North in 1780, he afterwards assumed - a strong anti-Russian attitude, and resolved to take advantage of - the Russo-Turkish war in order to regain some of his lost provinces. - Accordingly he invaded Russia in the summer of 1788, while his fleet - threatened St. Petersburg.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Empire.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Diet.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">College of Electors.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">College of Princes.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">College of Free Cities.</div> - - <p>Hitherto a sketch has been given of states, which in 1789 possessed a - certain unity, and were able to play a part as independent countries - of more or less weight in European politics. It was otherwise with - the Holy Roman Empire, which still remained in the same condition, - and was ruled in the same manner, as had been arranged at the Treaty - of Westphalia in 1648. True Germany, that is Germany to the west of - the Oder, had been under this arrangement split up into a number of - independent sovereignties, loosely bound together as the Holy Roman - Empire. The number of these petty states caused the Empire to be, from - a military point of view, utterly inefficient; the bond was too loose - to allow of general internal reforms or of a consistent foreign policy; - and the federal arrangements were too cumbrous and unwieldy to allow - of Germany ranking as a great power. The Imperial Diet or Reichstag - consisted of three colleges, and a majority was required in each of - the upper colleges to agree to a resolution, which, when confirmed by - the Emperor, became a <i>conclusum</i> of the Empire.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> The first of these - colleges was that of the eight Electors, three ecclesiastical, the - Elector-Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, and Cologne, and five lay, the - Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, and Hanover, who were also Kings of - Hungary, Prussia, and England, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector - Palatine, who in 1789 was also Elector of Bavaria. The president of - this college was the Elector-Archbishop of Mayence, as Chancellor of - the Empire. The second college was that of the Princes, which consisted - of one hundred voices, thirty-six ecclesiastical and sixty-four - lay. In this college all the Electors had voices under different - designations; Hanover possessed six for different principalities, - Prussia six for the duchy of Guelders, the county of Mœurs, etc., - Austria three, and so on, while the Kings of Denmark and Sweden also - were represented as Dukes of Holstein and of Pomerania. Less important - princes differing in power from the Landgraves of Hesse, the Margraves - of Baden, and the Duke of Würtemburg to the petty princes of Salm and - Anhalt, possessed single voices, and made up the number of temporal - voters in the college to sixty. The ecclesiastical princes included - thirty-four of the wealthiest bishops and abbots, many of whom ruled - over considerable territories, and of whom the most important were the - Archbishop of Salzburg, the Bishops of Bamberg, Augsburg, Würtzburg, - Spires, Worms, Strasbourg, Basle, Constance, Paderborn, Hildesheim, - and Münster, and the Abbots of Elwangen, Kempten, and Stablo. The - other six voices were called collegiate, and representatives to hold - them were elected by the petty lay and ecclesiastical sovereigns - who abounded in Franconia, Swabia, and Westphalia, to the number of - four lay and two ecclesiastical representatives. The presidency of - this college was held alternately by the Archduke of Austria and the - Archbishop of Salzburg. The third or inferior college was that of the - free cities, and any opposition on its part could prevent a decision - arrived at by the two upper or superior colleges being presented - to the Emperor for his assent as a <i>conclusum</i> of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> Empire. It - consisted of the representatives of fifty-two imperial free cities, - divided into two ‘benches,’ of which the Bench of Westphalia included - Frankfort-on-the-Main, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Hamburg, Bremen, and - Lübeck, and the Bench of Swabia included Nuremberg, Ratisbon, Ulm, - and Augsburg. The presidency of this college belonged to the city - of Ratisbon, in which the Diet held its sittings. By this elaborate - federative system, all sense of German unity was lost; the electors, - princes, and free cities were represented only by delegates; the - smaller states felt themselves swamped and were obliged to look to a - great power, Austria or France, Prussia or Hanover, to preserve their - political independence.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Imperial Tribunal.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Emperor.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Aulic Council.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Circles.</div> - - <p>The other important institution of the Empire, the Imperial Tribunal - or Reichskammergericht, which sat at Wetzlar and was intended to - settle disputes between the German sovereigns, had also fallen into - desuetude. Its venality and procrastination became proverbial, and it - possessed no machinery to put its decrees into force. At the head of - the Empire was the Emperor, who was elected and crowned with all the - elaborate ceremonial of the Middle Ages. The office had been, with - one exception, conferred on the head of House of Austria, since the - Treaty of Westphalia, but it brought little actual authority on the - holder. It was as ruler of the hereditary dominions of the House of - Hapsburg that the Emperor exerted some influence, not as an Emperor. - Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, indeed, endeavoured to be Emperor in more than - name, with the result that Frederick the Great was enabled to form - the League of Princes against him. As the chief Catholic state, - Austria, however, possessed a great influence in the Imperial Diet, - for the ecclesiastical members of the Colleges of Electors and Princes - naturally inclined to support her, and it was on their votes that - she relied. She even went so far as to establish the Aulic Council - at Vienna, which intervened in cases between sovereign princes, and - usurped some of the prerogatives of the Imperial Tribunal of Wetzlar. - The executive power of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> Empire, when it had come to a decision, was - entrusted to the circles. These circles each had their own Diet, and it - was their duty, for instance, to raise money and troops when the Empire - decided to go to war. Of the ten circles of the Empire, originally - created, one, that of Burgundy, had been extinguished or nearly so by - the conquests of Louis <span class="smcap">XIV.</span>, and those situated in the eastern - portion were entirely controlled by the important states of Prussia, - Saxony, and Austria. It was only in Western Germany, in the circles - of Westphalia, Franconia, and Swabia that the organisation was fairly - tried, and the result was signal failure, whenever those circles put - their contingents in the field. It could hardly be otherwise, when, - owing to minute subdivision and divided authority, a single company of - soldiers might be raised from half a dozen different petty sovereigns, - each of whom would try to throw the burden of their maintenance on - his colleagues. The Holy Roman Empire, in short, like other mediæval - institutions, had fallen into decay with the mediæval systems of - warfare and religion; some of its component states, such as Austria - and Prussia, or in a lesser degree Bavaria, might possess a real - power; but, as a whole, it was utterly inefficient to defend itself, - and formed a feeble barrier between France and the kingdoms of Eastern - Europe.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Princes of Germany.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Bavaria.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Baden.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Würtemburg.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Saxony.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Saxe-Weimar.</div> - - <p>The impotence of the Empire for offensive and defensive purposes did - not, however, greatly affect the German people; the educated classes - prided themselves on being superior to patriotic impulses, and on being - cosmopolitan rather than German; the poorer classes thought more of - the internal administration which affected them than of the attitude - of the Empire to European politics. The tendency towards benevolent - despotism, which distinguished the greater powers, showed itself also - in the petty states of Germany in the diminution, if not the abolition, - of the ancient Estates and in the restraints placed on the authority - of the nobility. The increased power of the sovereign was generally, - if not universally, used to foster the prosperity of his subjects,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> - or at least to promote literature and art. A notice of a few of the - principal rulers of Germany will justify this view. Charles Theodore, - the Elector Palatine, who in 1778 had succeeded to the Electorate - of Bavaria, and united once more the territories of the House of - Wittelsbach, was a most enlightened sovereign. In the Palatinate he had - founded a brilliant University at Mannheim, and one of the most famous - picture galleries in Europe at Düsseldorf; in Bavaria he suppressed - some of the numerous convents, which stifled progress, in spite of his - sincere Catholicism. He took as one of his ministers the celebrated - American, Benjamin Thompson, whom he created Count Rumford, and that - man of science and learning endeavoured to suppress mendacity, and made - efforts to bring material comforts within reach of the very poorest. - Nevertheless, in some points, the Elector Charles Theodore showed - himself a bigot; he left education entirely in the hands of the Roman - Catholic priesthood and ex-Jesuits, and he allowed the Protestants in - his dominions to be persecuted. The Margrave Charles Frederick, who - in 1771 reunited in his person the two margraviates of Baden-Baden - and Baden-Durlach, was a more thoroughly enlightened prince. He was - truly a benevolent despot; he was a student of political economy, on - which he himself wrote a treatise, and applied its principles to his - little state; he established a scheme of primary education; and on 23d - July 1783 he abolished serfdom in his dominions, while maintaining - the royal <i>corvées</i> and the prohibition for a subject to leave the - country without obtaining his permission. The Duke Charles Eugène of - Würtemburg formed a contrast to his neighbours. He established, like - them, his own absolutism, but he used his power to impose heavy taxes - and raise an army out of all proportion to the size of his duchy. - He treated his subjects like slaves, and his administration was so - cruel that the Aulic Council threatened to take measures against him. - Nevertheless, he was a patron of literature and the arts. He built a - theatre at Stuttgart and founded the Academy of Fine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> Arts there, and - he defrayed the expense of the education of the poet Schiller, who, - however, afterwards satirised him and fled to Weimar. Yet Charles - Eugène of Würtemburg appears an enlightened monarch to such princes as - Duke Charles of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), whose successor, Maximilian - Joseph, was to succeed the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, and - to become the first King of Bavaria, for that prince sacrificed his - people to his passion for the chase, and to William <span class="smcap">IX.</span>, - Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who sold his subjects by the hundred to - the English Government to carry on the war in America. Going further - east, Saxony, which had ranked among the great states of Germany, was - in a state of decline. The Electors Augustus <span class="smcap">II.</span> and Augustus - <span class="smcap">III.</span> had been Kings of Poland, and had ruined their hereditary - dominions to support their royal dignity and position. Fortunately - Frederick Augustus, who was Elector in 1789, had not been elected to - the Polish throne, and had been able to do something for the prosperity - of his subjects. He formed a commission to draw up a code of laws, he - abolished torture, encouraged industry and agriculture, and founded - an Academy of Mines. But he did not go so far, for instance, as the - Margrave of Baden, and made no attempt to suppress serfdom. The glory - of Saxony was not, however, on the eve of the French Revolution its - electoral house; its intellectual capital was not the beautiful city of - Dresden. That place was taken by Weimar, where Duke Charles Augustus - of Saxe-Weimar collected around him the great philosophers and men of - letters who made the German name famous at the end of the eighteenth - century and the beginning of the nineteenth. To his Court resorted the - most illustrious Germans of the time, Goethe and Schiller, Herder, - Wieland, and Musæus; and the University of his state at Jena became the - most famous in Germany. It is not necessary to particularise the other - states; it is enough to say that those in the north were generally - very backward, especially the duchies of Mecklenburg, and that Hanover - was left to the rule of an aristocratic oligarchy, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> allowed - no reforms, although its University at Göttingen, founded by George - <span class="smcap">II.</span>, took rank with the best.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Mayence.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Trèves.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Cologne.</div> - - <p>The Ecclesiastical States followed also the movement of the century. - The ecclesiastical rulers were often enlightened men, but they were - to a great extent the slaves of their chapters. These chapters were - generally filled by younger sons of the smaller princes, who insisted - on the newly-elected prelates entering into the closest bonds with - them to make no changes in the feudal system in the bishoprics. The - prince-bishops and abbots at the close of the eighteenth century were, - therefore, generally scions of noble houses, such as, for instance, - Francis Joseph, Baron of Roggenbach, Bishop of Basle, Baron Francis - Louis of Erthal, Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg, the Baron of Rödt, - Bishop of Constance, the Count of Hoensbroeck, Bishop of Liége, - Count Augustus of Limburg, Bishop of Spires, Count Jerome Colloredo, - Archbishop of Salzburg, and the Baron of Plettenberg, Abbot of Münster. - One curious point deserves notice, that in some instances, Protestant - princes had the right to present to Catholic prince-bishoprics, and - in 1789 the Duke of York was Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück, and Prince - Peter Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck. Of - higher rank and more independent of their chapters were the three - archbishop-electors, who were therefore more able to rule their states - in consonance with the ideas of the century. The chief of these was - Baron Frederick Charles of Erthal, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, and - Prince-Bishop of Worms, the Chancellor of the Empire <i>ex officio</i>. This - great prelate busied himself mostly with his pleasures, but his rank - caused his countenance to be sought by all parties, and his adhesion - to Frederick the Great’s League of Princes was the greatest gain the - King of Prussia made in his anti-Austrian policy. In 1789 he had - completely abandoned the cares of internal and external politics to his - coadjutor Charles, Baron de Dalberg, who was to play a leading part - in the history of Germany during the period of the French Revolution - and Napoleon. The Archbishop-Elector <span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>of Trèves in 1789 was Clement - Wenceslas, a Saxon prince, and an excellent ruler, who, in 1783, - even issued an edict of tolerance, allowing men of any religion to - settle in his state, and exercise any trade or profession there. The - last Elector-Archbishop was the Archduke Maximilian, the youngest - brother of the Emperor Joseph, Archbishop of Cologne, who shared his - brother’s liberal opinions, and patronised his predecessor’s creation, - the University of Bonn, which had been founded in opposition to the - ultramontane University of Cologne, for the encouragement of the modern - developments of science. The tendency of all these governments, lay - and clerical, was to promote the prosperity of the people; Joseph - <span class="smcap">II.</span> was but the type of the German princes of his time; all - wished to do good for the people, but not by them; their characters - differed widely, from the enlightened Margrave of Baden to the hunting - Duke of Deux-Ponts; but in their different ways and in different - degrees they generally meant well. But, while the more important - princes showed the tendency of the century, their poorer contemporaries - were unable to do so. They were mostly in debt, owing to their efforts - to rival the wealthy princes, and in order to raise money resorted to - all the devices of mediæval feudalism. The few villages over which they - ruled suffered from this tyranny, and it was always possible to know - when a traveller crossed the frontier into one of these ‘duodecimo - duchies.’ Beneath the petty princes were the Ritters or Knights of the - Empire, who abounded in Franconia and Swabia. These knights had no - representation in the Imperial Diet, and were consequently dependent - directly on the Emperor. Their poverty made them take service with - the wealthy princes; and to quote but two instances, Stein, the great - Prussian minister, and Würmser, the celebrated Austrian general, were - both Knights of the Empire. The result of this minute subdivision of - Germany was to destroy the sense of national patriotism; which was - not to rise again until after Germany had passed through the mould of - Napoleon’s domination.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Switzerland.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Geneva.</div> - - <p>The other European confederation, Switzerland, presented the same - symptoms of internal decay as the Holy Roman Empire, but it was - preserved from the same political degradation by the consciousness - of its nationality and the persistence of its local governments. The - eighteenth century was marked in Switzerland by struggles between - canton and canton, Catholics and Protestants, nobles and bourgeois. - In some cantons, such as Berne, an oligarchical system was maintained - in the hands of a few noble families; in others, such as Uri, a - purely democratic form of government was preserved, which allowed - every peasant a voice in the local administration. Where feudalism - had been established, the peasants were in no better condition than - in the rest of Europe, but in the mountain cantons such a <i>régime</i> - was impossible, and individual and political freedom still existed. - It must be remembered that the Switzerland of the eighteenth century - was not identical with that of the nineteenth. The Grisons formed no - part of the confederation, Neufchâtel belonged to Prussia, and Geneva - was an independent republic. The part the latter had played in the - intellectual movement of the century was most conspicuous. Rousseau - was born in Geneva, and Voltaire retired and spent his last years in - its neighbourhood. But Geneva had just before 1789 been the scene of a - revolution resembling that in Holland. A struggle broke out between the - bourgeois families, which monopolised the magistracy, and the mass of - the people, which had ended in the victory of the former. The Genevese - democrats were expelled, and many of them, notably Clavière, exercised - a considerable influence on the course of the Revolution in France.</p> - - <p>The state of Europe in 1789 showed everywhere a sense of awakening - to new ideas. The bonds of feudalism were ready to break asunder; - the benevolent despots had recognised the rights of individual and - commercial freedom; the French Revolution was able to sow in ripe - ground the two new principles of the sovereignty of the people and the - sentiment of nationality.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_II"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> - <h2>CHAPTER II<br /><span class="large">1789–1790</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">The Empress Catherine and the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span>—The - Turkish War—Campaign of 1789 against the Turks—Battles of - Foksany and the Rymnik—Capture of Belgrade—Revolution in - Sweden—Affairs in Belgium—Policy of Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span> - in Belgium—Revolution in Liége—Elections to the - States-General in France—Meeting of the States-General: - struggle between the Orders—The Tiers État declares - itself the National Assembly—Oath of the Tennis Court—The - Séance Royale—Mirabeau’s Address to the King—Dismissal - of Necker—Riot of 12th July in Paris—Capture of the - Bastille—Recall of Necker—Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span> visits - Paris—Murder of Foullon—Session of 4th August—Declaration of - the Rights of Man—Question of the Veto—March of the women - of Paris to Versailles—Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span> goes to reside - in Paris—Effect of the Revolution in France on Europe—The - Revolution in Belgium—Formation of the Belgian Republic—Death - of the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span>—Failure of his reign—The - attitude of Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span> to the French Revolution—The - new French Constitution—Civil Constitution of the - Clergy—Measures of the Constituent Assembly—Mirabeau—Danger - threatened to the new state of affairs in France by a - foreign war—Mirabeau and the French Court—Probable causes - of a foreign war—Avignon and the Venaissin—Affair of Nootka - Sound—The Pacte de Famille—Rights of Princes of the Empire in - Alsace—The Emperor Leopold master of the situation.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Catherine and Joseph II. 1789.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">At</span> the commencement of the year 1789 the thoughts of European statesmen - were mainly turned to the events which were passing in the east of - Europe. The alliance between Catherine of Russia and the Emperor Joseph - <span class="smcap">II.</span> was regarded with anxiety not only by Pitt in England - and by King Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> of Prussia, but by the - French ministers and by all the smaller states of Europe. The projects - of Russia and Austria for the extension of their boundaries at the - expense of Turkey, Poland, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> Bavaria, were viewed with alarm, and - the ambitious ideas of their rulers with dismay. The attention of - educated people, who were not statesmen or politicians, but disciples - of the philosophical teachers of the eighteenth century, was entirely - concentrated on the progress of the Emperor Joseph’s policy in the - Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. Success seemed to have crowned the - warlike measures of General d’Alton; the Belgian patriots were in - prison or in exile; and the philanthropic and centralising reforms of - the Emperor seemed to have ended in Belgium in the establishment of - a military despotism. France was known to be in an almost desperate - financial condition; and the convocation of the States-General for - 1st May 1789, was generally looked upon as a means adopted by Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> to obtain financial relief. The great results, which - were to follow the meeting of the States-General, were little expected - by even the most acute political observers, and it was not foreseen - that for more than a quarter of a century the interest of Europe was - to be fixed upon France, and that a series of events in that country, - unparalleled in history, were to bring about an entire modification in - the political system of Europe, and to open a new era in the history of - mankind.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The War with the Turks.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Joseph’s prediction.</div> - - <p>The campaign of 1788 had, upon the whole, terminated favourably for - the Austrians and Russians in their war with the Turks. Loudon, who - commanded the Austrian forces, had taken Dubitza, and penetrating into - Bosnia had reduced Novi on 3d October. Francis Josias, of the House of - Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, commonly known as the Prince of Coburg, at the - head of an Austrian army, had in conjunction with a Russian force under - Prince Soltikov taken Choczim on 20th September. But, on the other - hand, the Turks had overrun and laid waste the Banat of Temesvar and - routed the Austrian army in that quarter, which was under the personal - command of the Emperor. The Russians had also made some progress, and - on 6th December Potemkin, with terrible loss of life, and owing mainly - to the intrepidity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> of Suvórov and Repnin stormed Oczakoff (Ochakov). - These successes, despite his own failure, greatly inspirited Joseph, - who, in a letter to Prince Charles of Nassau, made the following - curious predictions in January 1789:<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>—‘If the Grand Vizier should - come to meet me or the Russians near the Danube, he must offer a - battle; and then, after having defeated him, I shall drive him back - to take refuge under the cannon of Silistria. In October 1789 I shall - call a congress, at which the Osmanlis will be obliged to beg for peace - from the Giaours. The treaties of Carlowitz and Passarowitz will serve - as the basis for my ambassadors on which to conclude peace; in it, - however, I shall claim Choczim and part of Moldavia. Russia will keep - the Crimea, Prince Charles of Sweden will be Duke of Courland, and the - Grand Duke of Florence King of the Romans. Then there will be universal - peace in Europe. Until then, France will have settled affairs with the - notables of the nation; and the other gentlemen think too much about - themselves and too little about Austria.’</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign of 1789.</div> - - <p>The campaign of 1789 was far from fulfilling the expectations of - the Emperor Joseph. His own health had suffered too much from the - privations of the previous year to enable him to take the field again - in person, but he was well served by his generals. The Grand Vizier - determined to adopt the offensive, and crossed the Danube at Rustchuk - in March at the head of an army of 90,000 men, with the intention of - invading Transylvania. But an unexpected event led to the recall of - the most experienced Turkish general. The Sultan Abdul Hamid died - at Constantinople on 7th April, and his nephew and successor, Selim - <span class="smcap">III.</span>, at once disgraced the Grand Vizier, and replaced him in - the command of the western army and the office of Grand Vizier by the - Pasha of Widdin. This incompetent commander rashly advanced, and was - defeated by the Prince of Coburg and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>Suvoróv at Foksany on 31st July - in an attempt to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. - The allies then took the offensive and inflicted a crushing defeat on - the main Turkish army on the Rymnik, in which 18,000 Austrians and - 7000 Russians routed nearly 100,000 Turks, and took all their baggage - and artillery. This great victory was vigorously followed up. Loudon - was appointed Commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, and he took - Belgrade on 9th October, and after occupying the whole of Servia, laid - siege to Orsova. For these services Joseph conferred upon him the title - of generalissimo, which had only been borne before by Wallenstein, - Montecuculi, and Prince Eugène. Among other results of the victory on - the Rymnik, the Prince of Coburg took Bucharest and occupied Moldavia, - while the Prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg forced his way into Wallachia. - In the eastern quarter of the Turkish frontier Prince Potemkin was - equally successful. He defeated the Turkish High Admiral, Hassan Pasha, - in a pitched battle at Tobac, and conquered Bessarabia, capturing - Bender, and laying siege to Ismail.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Revolution in Sweden.</div> - - <p>Doubtless Catherine and Joseph would have met with even greater - successes, and perhaps they might have driven the Turks out of Europe, - had not their attention been diverted directly by the affairs of Sweden - and Belgium, and indirectly by the startling events which were taking - place in France. The Triple Alliance looked with great disfavour on the - alliance between Austria and Russia. Pitt, as has been said, prepared - a great fleet, which is known in English naval history as the Russian - Armament, and Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> began to negotiate an - alliance with Turkey. But they limited their direct interference to - inducing Denmark to make peace with Sweden. Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> of - Sweden had, in 1788, forced his way at the head of 30,000 men into - Russian Finland, and the sound of his guns had been heard in Saint - Petersburg, which, owing to the absence of the bulk of the Russian - troops, was almost defenceless. But the Swedish nobility had great - influence over the army; they disliked the war with Russia;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> and took - this opportunity to declare themselves. Under the secret leadership - of Prince Charles, Duke of Sudermania, they refused to obey the - king’s orders, and hoped in the embarrassment which ensued to regain - their former power. At this moment Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, King of - Denmark and Norway, at the instance of Catherine, invaded Sweden and - prepared to besiege Gothenburg. Gustavus saw the opportunity which - this invasion offered to rouse the patriotic feelings of the Swedes. - He appealed to the people, and leaving the command of the army in - Finland to the Duke of Sudermania, raised a fresh army of volunteers - to resist the invaders. In spite of his efforts, Sweden was in great - danger of falling before the combined attacks of Russia and Denmark. - The Triple Alliance now intervened promptly and decisively, and by - threatening to attack Denmark by land and sea, they induced Bernstorff, - the Danish minister, to evacuate Sweden and to agree to an armistice. - Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> returned to Stockholm with the reputation of - having repulsed the invaders, and summoned the Diet to meet on 2d - February 1789. Sure of the support of the Commons he proposed a new - Constitution, or rather a new fundamental law for the Swedish monarchy, - which is summed up in one of the articles: ‘The king can administer - the affairs of the State as seems good to him.’ The nobility opposed a - fruitless resistance; Gustavus imprisoned their leaders and completed - the work of his former revolution of 1772 by this <i>coup d’état</i>. He - then renewed the war with Russia, but the military operations of his - campaign in 1789 were not marked by any event of importance.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Affairs in Belgium, 1789.</div> - - <p>While Catherine of Russia was being distracted from the vigorous - prosecution of the war against Turkey by the invasion of the Swedes, - her ally, the Emperor Joseph, was chiefly concerned with the state - of affairs in the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium. It seemed at - first as if he was to be as successful as Gustavus in changing the - old constitution of the country. But there was this difference. - Whereas Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> was enacting the part of a national<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> - deliverer, and had the Swedish people on his side in his overthrow of - the nobility, Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> was opposed not only by the Belgian - nobles, but by the clergy and the people also. The country seemed quiet - enough under the government of Count Trautmannsdorf and the military - rule of the Captain-General d’Alton. The suppression of the risings at - Brussels and Louvain, Malines and Antwerp seemed to have established - the Austrian sway most firmly, and the leading opponents of the - Emperor’s policy were in exile. The Estates of the different provinces - were convoked as usual, and all of them, except those of Hainault and - Brabant, voted the customary subsidies. The Estates of Hainault were at - once dissolved by a military force, and their constitution abolished - on 31st January 1789. By this example the Emperor hoped to overawe the - wealthy and populous province of Brabant, and when it did not have - the expected effect, he directed Trautmannsdorf to summon a special - meeting of the Estates of Brabant, and to require them to increase - the number of deputies of the Third Estate or Commons, and to grant a - permanent subsidy. He also maintained his attitude towards the Church, - and tried to compel Cardinal Frankenberg, the Archbishop of Malines, to - withdraw his opposition to the new Imperial Seminary at Brussels, or - to resign his see. The Archbishop stoutly refused to comply, and the - Estates of Brabant proved equally stubborn. Joseph then decided on a - sudden blow, and by his orders Count Trautmannsdorf, on 18th June 1789, - declared the ‘Joyeuse Entrée,’ or Constitution of Brabant abolished. - The day was the anniversary of the battle of Kolin, in which, at the - crisis of the Seven Years’ War, the Austrians had defeated Frederick - the Great. D’Alton thought he made a happy comparison in saying: ‘The - 18th of June is a happy epoch for the House of Austria; for on that - day the glorious victory of Kolin saved the monarchy, and the Emperor - became master of the Netherlands.’ But the victory was not to be won - so easily. The two parties of opposition, the Van der Nootists, or - partisans of Van<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> der Noot, the supporter of the ancient constitutional - rights, and the Vonckists, or followers of Vonck, the advocate of - popular or democratic ideas, united. The Triple Alliance was as glad - to hamper Joseph’s activity in the East by encouraging these Belgian - patriots, as it had been to leave Gustavus free to harass Catherine, by - stopping the interference of Denmark in the north, and the ministers of - England, Holland, and Prussia all entered into relations with Van der - Noot. That partisan, encouraged by hopes of active assistance, formed - a patriotic committee at Breda, on the Dutch frontier, and raised an - army of exiles, which was placed under the command of Colonel Van der - Mersch. Joseph was not to be intimidated. D’Alton put down popular - riots, which broke out in various towns, notably at Tirlemont, Louvain, - Namur, and Brussels, with unrelenting severity. A sweeping decree was - issued on 19th October against the exiles or <i>émigrés</i>, declaring that - ordinary emigration would be punished by banishment and confiscation - of property, and that joining an armed force on the frontier for the - purpose of invasion would be punished by death, and that informers - against <i>émigrés</i> would receive a reward of 10,000 livres and absolute - impunity.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> But all the Emperor’s measures and decrees were of no - effect. The meeting of the States-General in France had been followed - by the capture of the Bastille and the bringing of the King of France - from Versailles to Paris by a Parisian mob; and the effects of the - French Revolution on affairs in Belgium was soon to be perceived.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Revolution in Liège.</div> - - <p>In the bishopric of Liège, which, from its situation, always - reflected and repeated any political troubles that took place in - Belgium, the influence of the French Revolution was immediately - felt. The inhabitants of the bishopric had long resented the rule - of the prince-bishops, and felt the anomaly of being subject to an - ecclesiastical sovereign. Many exiles from the democratic party in - Belgium assembled in the bishopric, and on the news of the capture of - the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>Bastille, the people of Liége needed little persuasion to renew - their former insurrection. The revolution was carried out without the - shedding of blood. On 16th and 17th August 1789 the people of the city - of Liége rose in rebellion; on the 18th MM. Chestret and Fabry were - chosen burgomasters by popular acclamation, the garrison was disarmed, - and the citadel occupied by bourgeois national guards. On the same day - the Prince-Bishop, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de Hoensbroeck, was - brought into the city, and he signed a proclamation acknowledging the - revolution and abrogating the despotic settlement of 1684. The other - towns in the bishopric followed the example of the capital, and in each - of them free municipalities were elected and national guards raised and - armed. The Prince-Bishop, after accepting the loss of his political - power, fled to Trèves, and considered himself fortunate to be allowed - to escape.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Elections to the States-General.</div> - - <p>It is now time to examine the course of the events in France, which led - to such important developments upon its north-east frontier, and which - distracted the attention of all the monarchs and ministers of Europe, - except Catherine of Russia, from the wars in the North and East. It - was owing to the increasing difficulty of raising money for carrying - on the administration of the State and paying the interest on the - national debt, and the consequent necessity for revising the system of - taxation and reorganising the financial resources of France that Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, on the advice of his minister, Loménie de Brienne, had - vaguely promised in November 1787 to summon the States-General for July - 1792, and had definitely convoked the ancient assembly of France on 8th - August 1788 to meet at Versailles on 1st May 1789. But the arrangements - for the elections were not made by Loménie de Brienne, who retired - from office in the same month as the States-General was convoked, - but by his successor Necker, who was recalled to office as an expert - financier, in view of the fact that the summons of the States-General - was looked on as a purely financial expedient. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> procedure to be - adopted in electing deputies gave rise to much anxious deliberation - and heated controversy in the public press, and the Notables of 1787 - were again assembled to give their advice. The burning question was - as to the representation of the Tiers État, Third Estate or Commons. - The ancient representative assembly of France was known to consist - of the three orders of the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Tiers État, - and the disputed question was as to the proportion of the number of - deputies of the Tiers État to that of the two other orders. This and - the other electoral questions were finally settled by the Résultat du - Conseil published on 27th December 1788. It was decreed that the royal - bailliages and royal sénéchaussées, feudal circumscriptions which had - long fallen into disuse, should be treated as electoral units, and that - they should elect, according to the extent of their population, one or - more deputations, each consisting of four members, one chosen by the - Nobility, one by the Clergy, and two by the Tiers État. The elections - were to be made in two and sometimes in three degrees, and at each - stage <i>cahiers</i> or statements of grievances and projects for reform - were to be drawn up by the electoral assemblies.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> In provinces, where - there were no royal bailliages or sénéchaussées, and consequently - no Grand Baillis or Grand Sénéchals to preside, corresponding - circumscriptions were adopted or invented. During the early months - of 1789 the French people were fully occupied in the election of the - deputies to the States-General. Whatever might be the opinion of the - French Court or the French Ministry, the people,—and more especially - the educated bourgeois of the towns and the country lawyers,—looked - upon the future assembly as something more than a financial expedient; - they trusted to it to draw up a new political system for the State, - which should admit the representative principle and allow the taxpayer - a voice not only in the granting, but in the spending of the national - revenue. The working classes, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>whether in the towns or the rural - districts, did not take much active interest in the elections, and - their representatives in the secondary electoral assemblies were - generally educated bourgeois, but they vaguely built high hopes on the - meeting of the States-General, and expected it to give them land or - higher wages. Considering the novelty of choosing representatives in - France, it is extraordinary that the electoral operations were carried - out as peacefully and as efficiently as they were. This was mainly - due to the success of a little revolutionary movement in Dauphiné, - where an unauthorised and irregular assembly had met in July 1788 to - protest against the abolition of the provincial Parlements by Loménie - de Brienne. That minister had left office when he was not permitted - to put down the assembly in Dauphiné by force, and Necker hoped to - save the prestige of the monarchy by summoning a new assembly of the - province in its place. But the ruse was quickly perceived; the men who - had sat in the illegal assembly were elected to its successor, and in - the eyes of France the representatives of the Dauphiné had won a signal - victory over the Court. The new assembly in Dauphiné became the court - of appeal in every electoral difficulty, and its secretary, Mounier, - the leader of the Tiers État of France. Owing to his energy and ability - local jealousies of town against town, province against province, - class jealousies and personal rivalry, were set at rest, and it was - more owing to Mounier than to any one else that the deputies to the - States-General were legally and quietly elected, and that the acts of - the future assembly could not be stigmatised as the work of a factious - or unrepresentative minority of the French nation.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Meeting of the States-General.</div> - - <p>On 5th May 1789 the first States-General held in France since the - year 1614 met at Versailles. Barentin, the Keeper of the Seals, and - Necker harangued the collected deputies, and the latter explained - the desperate financial situation of the State and the necessity for - immediate action to relieve the national treasury. The representatives - of the nobility and clergy then retired to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> separate chambers, - leaving their colleagues of the Tiers État in the great hall. No word - was spoken about the relation of the three orders to each other. - It was assumed that each order was to deliberate separately. The - representatives of the Tiers État were placed in a most difficult - position. There was no advantage in their being as numerous as - the two other orders put together, if the three orders were to be - independent of each other, for in that case the majorities of the - privileged orders could outweigh the opinion of the majority among - themselves. The question of <i>vote par ordre</i>, which would give each - order equal authority, or <i>vote par tête</i>, which would allow the - numerical preponderance of the Tiers État to take effect, had been - long recognised as crucial. It had been assumed from the grant of - double representation to the Tiers État that the Government intended - to sanction the <i>vote par tête</i>, and the tacit acknowledgment of the - separation of the orders and consequent recognition of the <i>vote par - ordre</i> on 5th May disconcerted for the moment the popular leaders.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Struggle between the Orders.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Tiers État declare themselves the National Assembly.</div> - - <p>But the deputies of the Tiers État, under the guidance of Le Chapelier, - a Breton lawyer from Rennes, and of Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, a - Protestant pastor from Nîmes, proceeded to take up a most skilful - attitude. They resolved on a policy of masterly inactivity. They - refused to form themselves into the assembly of the Order of the Tiers - État; they refused to open letters addressed to them under that title; - they refused to elect a president or secretaries; and stated that - they were a body of citizens, representatives of the French nation, - waiting in that hall to be joined by the other deputies. This attitude - received the unanimous approval of the people of Paris, and threw upon - the Government the onus of declaring that the double representation - of the Tiers État was merely a sterile gift. The representatives of - the two privileged orders treated the situation very differently. The - nobility accepted the separation of the orders to distinct chambers, - and resolved to constitute their chamber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> by 188 votes to 47, while the - clergy only decided in the same sense by 133 votes to 114. Even this - majority was not really significant. For, owing to a tendency which had - developed during the course of the elections, the greater part of the - deputies of the clergy were poor country curés, who sympathised with - the Tiers État, from which they sprung, and not with the prelates and - dignitaries of the Church, who belonged to the nobility. This tendency - of the true majority of the clergy was well known to the leaders of - the Tiers État and encouraged them in their passive attitude. In - vain the King and Necker attempted to terminate the deadlock; the - deputies of the Tiers État persisted that they did not form an order, - and they were reinforced by the representatives of Paris, where the - elections were not concluded until the end of May. At last, on 10th - June, on the proposition of the Abbé Sieyès, deputy for Paris, a final - invitation was sent to the deputies of the nobility and the clergy to - join the deputies of the Tiers État, and it was resolved that whether - the request was granted or refused the Tiers État would constitute - itself into a regular deliberative body. The invitation was rejected - by the nobility, and only a few curés, including the Abbé Grégoire, - belonging to the Order of the Clergy, complied with it. The deputies - then verified their powers, and elected Bailly, a famous astronomer - and deputy for Paris, to be their president. But what sort of assembly - were they? They denied that they were representatives of an Order, and - they were certainly not the States-General of France. The question was - hotly debated, and on 16th June they declared themselves the National - Assembly. They then declared all the taxes, hitherto levied, to be - illegal, and ordered that they should only be paid provisionally. This - defiant conduct disconcerted the King and his ministers, and it was - announced that a Séance Royale, or Royal Session, would be held by the - King in person to settle all disputed questions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Oath of the Tennis Court. 20th June.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Séance Royale. 23d June.</div> - - <p>On 20th June the deputies of the Tiers État, or of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> National - Assembly, as they now termed themselves, were excluded from their usual - meeting-place. They therefore met in the Jeu de Paume or Tennis Court - at Versailles, and, amidst a scene of wild excitement, swore that they - would not separate until they had drawn up a new Constitution for - France. By this act they practically became rebels, and the French - Revolution really commenced. On 22d June they met in the Church of - Saint Louis at Versailles, where they were joined by 149 deputies of - the clergy, who thus recognised the act of rebellion. On 23d June the - Séance Royale was held. In the speech from the throne it was announced - that the King, ‘of his own goodness and generosity,’ would levy no - taxes in future without the assent of the representatives of the - people, but it was also declared that the financial privileges of the - nobility and clergy were unassailable, and that the States-General - was to vote <i>par ordre</i>. This was the most critical moment in the - first stage of the Revolution. If the deputies of the Tiers État had - given way, the oath of the Tennis Court would have seemed only an - idle threat. But they found a leader in the Comte de Mirabeau, deputy - for the Tiers État of Aix, a man of extraordinary ability, who in - the course of a tempestuous career had travelled much and learned - much. He courageously faced the situation, and after making a reply - to the Grand Master of the Ceremonies that the deputies of France - would only be expelled by force, he induced the National Assembly to - declare the persons of its members inviolable. Sieyès summed up the - situation by telling the deputies: ‘Gentlemen, you are to-day what - you were yesterday.’ Before this daring opposition the King gave way: - on 25th June the minority of the Order of the Nobility, consisting of - forty-seven deputies, headed by the Marquis de Lafayette, the friend - of Washington, joined the National Assembly, and two days later the - majority of that Order reluctantly followed their example at the - command of the King.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Mirabeau’s Address to the King. 9th July.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Dismissal of Necker. 12th July.</div> - - <p>The rapid transformation of the deputies of the Tiers État<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> into a - National Assembly, which defied the royal authority and spoke of - drawing up a new Constitution for France, exasperated the courtiers, - who looked with disgust at all attempts to modify the <i>ancien régime</i>. - The King did not share their feelings; he was honestly desirous of - doing his duty by his people, and preferred the diminution of his - royal prerogative to coming into open conflict with his subjects and - to initiating a civil war. He had hitherto trusted to Necker and - followed Necker’s advice. But the result had not been encouraging. His - minister had repeatedly put him in a false position. He had been made - to speak in a haughty tone to the deputies of the Tiers État at the - Séance Royale on 23d June, and then to eat his words by directing the - deputies of the Nobility to join the self-created National Assembly. - This great concession seemed to have been wrung from him; the deputies - of the Tiers État appeared to have won a great victory in the face - of the royal opposition, when in reality the King had yielded from - the goodness of his heart. Since he found that following the advice - of Necker had only resulted in a loss of authority, combined with - profound unpopularity, without improving the financial prospect, Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> not unnaturally turned his attention to the enemies of - the minister. These enemies were headed by the Queen, Marie Antoinette, - who resented Necker’s endeavours to restrain the extravagance of the - Court and his admission of the need to make concessions to the will of - the people, and by the King’s younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, a - staunch supporter of the absolute prerogative of the Crown and of the - system of the <i>ancien régime</i>. Yielding unwillingly to the arguments of - the enemies of Necker and of the National Assembly, the King determined - to use force, and he began to concentrate troops in the neighbourhood - of Paris and Versailles. The National Assembly did not know what to - do; Mounier and other leaders had formed a committee to draw up the - bases of a new constitution; but they had no force on which they could - depend to resist the royal troops, and felt that they would probably be - arrested and the Assembly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> dissolved long before the foundation of the - Constitution was laid. At this crisis Mirabeau again came to the front. - With the most daring audacity he attacked and revealed the policy of - the Court on 8th July, and on 9th July carried an address to the King - on the part of the Assembly, requesting the immediate removal of the - troops collected in the neighbourhood, but protesting the loyalty of - the Assembly to the person of the King. But the King was now under the - influence of the opponents of the Assembly. His answer to Mirabeau’s - address was the dismissal of Necker and his colleagues on 12th July, - the banishment of Necker, and the appointment of the Maréchal de - Broglie, an experienced general, who detested the idea of change, to be - Minister for War and Marshal-General of the troops in the neighbourhood - of Paris.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Formation of National Guards.</div> - - <p>Hitherto the struggle had been between the Court and the deputies of - the Tiers État; the popular element was now to intervene; and the - people of Paris was for the first time to make its influence felt. The - news of Necker’s dismissal was received in Paris with wrath and dismay. - A young lawyer without practice, named Camille Desmoulins, announced - the event to the crowd collected in the Palais Royal and incited his - hearers to resistance. His words were eagerly applauded. The population - of Paris, both bourgeois and proletariat, had watched the course of - events at Versailles with unflagging interest, and the formation of a - camp of soldiers in the neighbourhood with terror. The working classes, - who lived near the margin of starvation, expected that the National - Assembly would cause in some way a rise in wages and a decrease in - the price of necessaries, and were exasperated at the prospect of the - non-fulfilment of their hopes. They had already sacked the house of a - manufacturer, named Réveillon, who was reported to have spoken scornful - words of their poverty, on 28th April, and were ready for any mischief. - From the Palais Royal, excited by the news and the words of Camille - Desmoulins, started a tumultuous procession bearing busts of Necker - and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> of the Duke of Orleans, a prince of the royal house, who had been - exiled by the King for previous opposition to him, and who was regarded - as a supporter of the popular claims. The procession was charged by a - German cavalry regiment in the French service, commanded by the Prince - de Lambesc, a near relative of the Queen, and the mob dispersed to riot - and to pillage. The more patriotic rioters broke into the gunsmiths’ - shops to seize weapons, the rest pillaged the butchers’ and bakers’ - shops, and burned the barriers where octroi duties were collected. This - scene of riot brought about its own remedy. The bourgeois, terrified - for the safety of their shops, took up arms, and on the following - day formed themselves into companies of national guards for the - preservation of the peace. The guidance of this movement was taken by - the electors of Paris, who, after completing their work of electing - deputies for Paris, continued to meet at the Hôtel-de-Ville.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Capture of the Bastille. 14th July.</div> - - <p>The 14th of July found the capital of France organised for resistance. - The Gardes Françaises, the force maintained for the security of Paris, - were devoted to the cause of the National Assembly, and were resolved - to fight with the people, not against them. And it was ascertained - that the soldiers in the camp were very lukewarm in their attachment - to their officers, and were likely to refuse to attack the citizens. - Under these circumstances an idea arose that an armed demonstration of - the Parisians at Versailles would strengthen the King, whose sentiments - were well known, to resist the Court party and to recall Necker. With - this notion, large crowds approached the Hôtel des Invalides and the - Bastille, the two principal store-houses of arms in Paris. The crowd, - which went to the Hôtel des Invalides, had no difficulty in seizing - the arms there, in spite of the opposition of the Governor. But it was - otherwise at the Bastille. The mob, which collected in the Governor’s - Court in that fortress and shouted for arms, was isolated by the - raising of the outer drawbridge and fired upon by the weak garrison - in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> the Bastille itself. The sound of this firing brought a number of - armed men from other parts of the city; the outer drawbridge was cut - down, and preparations were being made to force a way into the fortress - itself, when the garrison surrendered. The result of the firing upon - the mob in the Governor’s Court had been to kill eighty-three persons - and wound many others. The sight of the corpses and the cries of the - wounded excited the anger of the successful conquerors of the fortress. - A panic arose, and three officers and four soldiers of the garrison - were murdered. Then the more disciplined of the conquerors started to - take the rest of the defenders of the Bastille to the Hôtel-de-Ville. - On the way the Governor and the Major of the fortress were murdered by - the mob, and M. de Flesselles, the Provost of the merchants of Paris, - who was accused of encouraging the Governor to resist, was also slain. - By these events the people of Paris felt that they had commenced a - war against the Crown; entrenchments were thrown up and barricades - were erected in the streets; all shops were shut up; the barriers were - closed; no one was allowed to leave the city, and preparations were - made to stand a siege.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Recall of Necker. 15th July.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The King’s visit to Paris. 17th July.</div> - - <p>But if the people of Paris were ready to fight, the King was not. As - has been said, he loathed the idea of civil war, and when he heard of - the capture of the Bastille and of the martial attitude of Paris, he - at once gave up the idea of opposing the revolutionary movement by - force. He dismissed his reactionary ministers and recalled Necker, and - he declared himself ready to co-operate with the National Assembly - in restoring order. The first victories of the Assembly had been won - by its statesmanlike inaction in the month of May and its courage on - 23d June; the victory over the party of force had been won by Paris - on 14th July. The Assembly prepared to take advantage of this fresh - success. On 16th July it legalised the establishment of National Guards - and elective municipalities all over France, and recognising that the - only way to convince the Parisians that the King had accepted the new - situation and had abandoned the idea of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> employing force, was to induce - the King to visit Paris in person, it proposed that he should do so - at once. Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was not devoid of personal courage, and - consented. On 17th July, accordingly, he entered Paris accompanied by - 100 deputies, and amidst wild acclamation put on the tricolour cockade, - which the Parisians had assumed as their badge, and consented to the - nomination of Bailly, the President of the National Assembly, to be - Mayor of Paris, and of Lafayette to be Commander-in-chief of the Paris - National Guard. These concessions, and the victory of the National - Assembly and of Paris threw consternation among the court party of - reaction: the Comte d’Artois and those of his adherents, who were most - hated as conspicuous reactionaries or who had advocated the employment - of force, fled from the country.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Murder of Foullon. 21st July.</div> - - <p>The immediate results of the capture of the Bastille were no less - important in the provinces of France. In every city, even in small - country towns, mayors and municipalities were elected and National - Guards formed; in many the local citadels were seized by the people; - in all the troops fraternised with the people; and in some there was - bloodshed. This movement was essentially bourgeois; where blood was - shed and pillage took place at the hands of the working classes, the - new National Guards soon restored order. The general excitement was so - great that it is surprising that there was not more bloodshed and that - peace was so quickly and efficiently established. Among these outbreaks - the most noteworthy took place in Paris itself, where on 21st July - Foullon de Doué, who had been nominated to succeed Necker on 12th July, - and his son-in-law Berthier de Sauvigny were murdered almost before the - eyes of Bailly, the new Mayor of Paris. But these occasional town riots - were speedily quelled by the armed bourgeois. Far more widespread and - important was the upheaval in the rural districts of France.</p> - - <p>The peasants believed that the time had come, when they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> were to - own their land free from copyhold rights or the relics of feudal - servitudes. Even the better-educated farmers for their own interests - favoured this idea. The result was a regular jacquerie in many - parts of France. The châteaux of the lords were burnt, or in some - instances only the charters stored in them, and the lords’ dovecotes - and rabbit-warrens were generally destroyed. In certain provinces - the National Guards of the neighbouring towns put down these rural - outbreaks, occasionally with great severity, but as a rule they ran - their course unchecked.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Session of 4th August.</div> - - <p>On 4th August a deputy named Salomon read a report on these occurrences - to the National Assembly, or as it is generally called from the - Constitution it framed, the Constituent Assembly. His report was - followed by a curious scene, which marked the transition from feudal - to modern France. The scene was opened by the sacrifice by some of the - young liberal noblemen of their feudal rights. Privileges of all sorts, - privileges of class, of town and of province were solemnly abandoned. - Feudal customs and all relics of feudalism were condemned and declared - to be abolished. Even tithes were swept away, in spite of a protest - from Sieyès, and the ‘orgie,’ as Mirabeau termed it, closed with a - decree that a monument should be erected to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, ‘the - restorer of French liberty.’</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Declaration of the Rights of Man.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Suspensive Veto.</div> - - <p>But it was not possible to restore peace and prosperity to France - by the abolition of the relics of feudalism. Destruction of former - anomalies and of a crumbling system of government would inevitably lead - to anarchy, unless accompanied by the construction of a new scheme of - central and local administration. It was here that the Constituent - Assembly failed. The deputies were quick to destroy but slow to - construct. For two months they wasted time instead of hastening to draw - up a new constitution for France. They first wrangled over the wording - of a Declaration of the Rights of Man, which they resolved to compile - in imitation of the founders of the American Republic. They then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> - debated lengthily whether the future representative assembly of France - should consist of one or two chambers, and whether the King should have - power to veto its acts. The first question was decided in favour of a - single chamber, more because the English Constitution sanctioned two - chambers, and the deputies feared to be thought imitators, than for - any logical reason. And the debate on the second question terminated - in the grant to the King of a suspensive veto for six months, in spite - of the eloquence of Mirabeau, who saw that a monarchical constitution, - which gave the King no more power than the President of the United - States of America, would prove unworkable, because it would divorce - responsibility from real authority, leaving the former to the King and - the latter to the Legislature.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The march of the Women to Versailles. 5th October.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The King brought to Paris. 6th October.</div> - - <p>During the two months occupied by these debates the situation had - again become critical. Necker’s only idea to relieve the financial - situation was to propose loans, which the Assembly granted, but which - he could not succeed in raising. The King was again being acted - upon by the Court party, which advocated the use of force and the - dissolution of the Assembly, and this party was encouraged by the - Queen and by the King’s sister, Madame Elizabeth. He was also urged - to leave the neighbourhood of Paris and to establish himself in some - provincial town, where the populace could be more easily restrained - by the regular troops. He would not heartily agree to either of these - courses, but weakly consented once more to concentrate troops round his - person. Everything advised at Versailles was soon known in Paris. The - journalists, who had since the capture of the Bastille sprung up in the - capital to advocate the views of the popular party, and of whom the - ablest were Loustalot, editor of the <i>Révolutions de Paris</i>, and Marat, - editor of the <i>Ami du Peuple</i>, kept warning the people of Paris against - treason on the part of the King, and prophesying dire consequences if - he were allowed to leave the neighbourhood or to concentrate troops. - Their words did not fall on unheeding ears. The working classes feared - a siege of Paris<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> again as they had done in July, and looked on the - King’s presence in Paris as the only means to keep down the price - of necessaries. The thinking bourgeois, whether liberal deputies in - the Assembly or national guards in Paris, feared a sudden forced - dissolution of the Assembly, and not only the loss of the advantages - they had gained but punishment for the part they had played. Both - these elements were perceptible in the movement which followed. The - description given in the popular journals of a banquet at Versailles, - honoured by the presence of the royal family, at which the national - cockade had been trampled underfoot, on 1st October, roused the people - of Paris to a frenzy of wrath and fear. On 5th October a crowd of women - collected in Paris, declaring that they were starving, and were led to - Versailles by Maillard, one of the conquerors of the Bastille, followed - by a mob. The representatives of the women interviewed the King, and - the mob prepared to spend the night outside the palace walls. Late at - night they were followed by a powerful detachment of the National Guard - of Paris, under the command of Lafayette, who protested that he came to - save the King. Nevertheless, owing to bad management, some of the mob - broke into the palace before daybreak on the morning of 6th October and - murdered two of the royal bodyguards. Lafayette came to the rescue and - demanded that the King and royal family should come to Paris and take - up their residence at the Tuileries. The King, horrified by the events - of the morning, and obliged to obey Lafayette, consented, and the royal - family, accompanied by the mob, and escorted by the National Guard, at - once proceeded to the capital. This second victory of the Parisians was - not less important than the first: on 14th July the people of Paris had - terrified the King into abandoning the idea of dissolving the National - Assembly by force; on 6th October they brought him amongst them, so - that if he again conceived the idea, he would be unable to execute it.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Effect in Europe.</div> - - <p>The capture of the Bastille caused the most profound<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> astonishment in - Europe. Where the people possessed some amount of political liberty, - as in the United States of America and in England, it appealed to the - imagination, and the French were regarded as the conquerors of their - freedom. In the neighbourhood of France, in the Rhenish principalities, - in Belgium, and above all in Liège, it caused a general sense of - discontent and even riots. The despotic monarchs of Europe and their - principal ministers did not pay so much attention to the capture of - the Bastille as did the inhabitants of free countries; they did not - for one moment believe that the National Assembly would be allowed to - alter the old constitution of France, and looked upon the whole of the - popular movement with a favourable eye as likely to weaken France and - prevent her from interfering in the affairs of the Continent. They took - care, however, to suppress all similar risings in their own states. The - King of Sardinia and the Elector of Mayence were especially severe; - the Emperor’s General d’Alton was more than severe in Belgium; and the - King of Prussia sent General Schlieffen with a strong force to restore - the authority of the Bishop of Liège. This attitude of the continental - monarchs was encouraged by the first French <i>émigrés</i>, who loudly - declared that the success of the Assembly was due to the culpable - weakness of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Belgian Revolution. Oct. 1789-Jan. 1790.</div> - - <p>The tidings of the events of 5th and 6th October showed both the French - <i>émigrés</i> and the continental monarchs that they were wrong in their - estimate of the Revolution. That the French royal family should be - triumphantly brought to Paris and be practically imprisoned in the - Tuileries under the eyes of the Parisian populace was a startling - proof of the power of the people. It proportionately encouraged the - supporters of all the popular movements on the French borders. Of - these, the most important was that which had already made so much - progress two years before in Belgium. The first result of the removal - of the King of France to Paris was the Belgian Revolution of 1789, - which filled almost as large a place in the eyes of contemporaries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> - as the French Revolution itself. Encouraged by the Triple Alliance, - and more especially by Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> of Prussia, the - Belgian exiles of both wings, the supporters of Van der Noot, the - advocate of the ancient Constitution, and of Vonck, the radical, had - formed a patriotic army at Breda. The news of the events of 5th and 6th - October determined them to act. On 23d October the army under Van der - Mersch crossed the border, and on 24th October Van der Noot issued a - manifesto declaring the Emperor Joseph deprived of his sovereignty over - the Duchy of Brabant for having violated its fundamental charter.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Formation of the Belgian Republic, 10th Jan. 1790.</div> - - <p>The march of the patriotic army was both rapid and successful. Bruges - and Ostend opened their gates to the exiles; the fort of St. Pierre - at Ghent was stormed; and the Estates of Flanders at once assembled, - published a declaration of independence, and called on the other - provinces to join in the movement. In Brabant the excitement was at - its height. Trautmannsdorf in vain promised to restore the ‘Joyeuse - Entrée,’ to abolish the Imperial Seminary at Brussels, and to declare a - general amnesty. The patriots would not trust him, and Van der Mersch - advanced into the Duchy and occupied Tirlemont. The people of Brussels - then rose in insurrection. From 7th to 12th December was a period of - long-continued riot and street fighting. Many of the Austrian soldiers - deserted to the popular side, and those who remained true to their - colours were shot at from windows and refused to charge. The advance - of Van der Mersch set the seal upon d’Alton’s discomfiture. He made a - capitulation on 12th December, and marched out of Brussels, leaving - his guns, military stores, and military chest containing 3,000,000 - florins behind. He retreated to Luxembourg, the only province which - remained faithful to the House of Austria, and his example was followed - by the imperial garrisons of Malines, Antwerp, and Louvain, which - were abandoned to the patriots. D’Alton himself died at Trèves, it is - said by taking poison, on being summoned to Vienna to be tried by a - court-martial, and was succeeded in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> command of the Austrian troops in - Luxembourg by General Bender. On 18th December the patriot committee - entered Brussels, headed by Van der Noot, who was hailed by the people - as the Belgian Franklin. On 7th January 1790 representatives from all - the provinces of the former Austrian Netherlands met at Brussels under - the presidency of Cardinal Frankenberg, Archbishop of Malines, and - on 10th January they passed a federal constitution for the ‘United - Belgian States,’ resembling that of Holland, under which each province - was to preserve its internal independence, and only foreign affairs - and national defence were left to the central government. Van der Noot - was chosen Minister of State, and he at once asked for the official - recognition of the new Belgian Constitution by the Triple Alliance, - whose ministers at the Hague, Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and Van der - Spiegel had, he asserted, promised to guarantee the independence of - the new United States of Belgium. Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> of - Prussia endeavoured to carry out this promise. He authorised one of his - officers, General Schönfeld, to organise the Belgian army, and ordered - General Schlieffen at Liége to enter into communication with the new - government. But England and Holland, though approving the insurrection - of Belgium as affording a powerful counterpoise to the Emperor’s policy - in the East, were in no hurry to guarantee the new Republic, and Van - der Noot then determined, under the influence of the radicals or - Vonckists, to solicit the help of France, and announced the new Belgian - Constitution in a significant manner both to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and to - the President of the National Assembly.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Death of the Emperor Joseph. 20th Feb. 1790.</div> - - <p>The news of the declaration of the independence of the Belgian - provinces, and of the revolution which had led to it, proved to be the - death-blow of the Emperor Joseph. To the Prince de Ligne, a native - of Belgium, he said, just before his death, ‘Your country has killed - me; the taking of Ghent is my agony; the evacuation of Brussels is - my death. What a disgrace this is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> for me! I die; I must be made of - wood, if I did not. Go to the Netherlands; make them return to their - allegiance. If you do not succeed in the attempt, remain there. Do not - sacrifice your fortune for me; you have children.’ The dying Emperor - in his despair made concessions in every direction. He humbled his - pride to entreat the Pope to use his influence with the Belgian clergy. - He gave in to the Hungarian magnates, who demanded the repeal of his - great reforms with threats of insurrection; and on 28th January 1790 he - issued his ‘Revocatio Ordinationum quæ sensu communi legibus adversari - videbantur,’ by which he revoked all his reforms in Hungary, except - the edict of toleration and the decrees against serfdom; and on 18th - February he ordered the Crown of St. Stephen to be sent back to Pesth. - He assented to the suspension of his reforming edicts in Bohemia, and - even in the Tyrol, where an insurrection was on the point of breaking - out. Then, feeling his life a failure, he prepared for death. He - confessed and received the ordinances of the Church; the last words - he was heard to say were: ‘I believe I have done my duty as a man and - a prince,’ and on the morning of 20th February he died. The words he - wished to be written on his grave were: ‘Here rests a prince, whose - intentions were pure; but who had the misfortune to see all his plans - miscarry;’ but the people of Vienna, with a deeper sense of the merits - of the great ruler who had lived in their midst, placed on his statue - the inscription, ‘Josepho secundo, arduis nato, magnis perfuncto, - majoribus præcepto, qui saluti publicæ vixit non diu, sed totus.’ - The failure of the career of Joseph, the noblest sovereign of the - eighteenth century,—one of the noblest sovereigns of any century,—was - a proof of the fallacy of the eighteenth century conception of - benevolent despotism. He had tried to accomplish in his dominions the - very measures of reform which the Constituent Assembly had undertaken - in France. The abolition of the relics of feudalism, the creation of a - spirit of nationality, based upon the existence of uniform laws, the - nationalisation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> Church and of education, the removal of all - caste privileges, whether in the payment of taxes or in eligibility for - public employment, and the maintenance of good internal administration, - the primary aims and the great achievements of the Revolution in - France, were also the objects of Joseph’s reforms. But everything was - to be done for the people, nothing by the people, and it is doubtful - whether, if Joseph had been in the place of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, - the French people would have relished the advantages he might have - conferred. The spirit of locality was perhaps not so strong in France - as in the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria. Dauphiné and - Burgundy did not differ from Brittany and Normandy as much as Bohemia - and Hungary, Belgium and the Milanese differed from each other. Yet the - abolition of local distinctions might have been resented in France, - as it was in the dominions of Joseph, if it had been accomplished by - the monarch, instead of being the work of elected representatives. - It is indeed remarkable that, allowing for the want of exactness in - the parallel, owing to the difference of local conditions, the very - reforms, which rallied all France to the side of the Revolution, - should have led to the disastrous termination of the Emperor Joseph’s - reign, and it is difficult to avoid coming to the conclusion that the - whole subject illustrates the grand distinction between the eighteenth - and the nineteenth centuries, the distinction between alterations in - the political, social, or economical conditions of a state made by a - monarch for his people, and by a people for itself.</p> - - <p>Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, indeed, showed himself a very different type of - monarch from Joseph. He wished for the good of his people as ardently - as his brother-in-law, but he had during the early years of his reign - been satisfied with wishing for reforms, instead of energetically - initiating them. When the success of the Revolution was assured by - the policy of the deputies of the Tiers État, by the capture of the - Bastille and by his own establishment at Paris, he never thought of - setting himself at the head of the party of reform. He did not openly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> - ally himself with the Tiers État, to vanquish the opposition of the - nobles, as Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Sweden had done; he did not dream - of outbidding the National Assembly for popularity by lavish promises, - as other monarchs before and since have done; and he did not even try - to share the credit of the representatives of the people by exhibiting - an ardent zeal for reform. The horror he felt for civil war was not - recognised; his partial yielding to the Court party of reaction in - July and October, though at so late a date and so half-heartedly as - to nullify any chance of its success, was imputed to him as a crime; - and the difficulty presented by the fact that his dearest relatives, - his Queen, Marie Antoinette, and his sister, Madame Elizabeth, were - against all reform, was never fully appreciated. In consequence, the - King’s real wishes to please his people and avoid bloodshed were looked - on as simulated by the members of the National Assembly, and not only - Louis himself, but the very principle of the French monarchy, were - regarded as hostile to representative institutions. Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> - was as weak as Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> was energetic, but he was equally - well-intentioned; and it was a distinct misfortune, both for himself - and for France, that the value of the passive inertness, which he - generally opposed to the reactionary schemes of his family and of the - partisans of the <i>ancien régime</i>, was not adequately recognised.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The New French Constitution. 1789–1791.</div> - - <p>This attitude towards the King had an important effect upon the - constitution which the Constituent Assembly was engaged in framing - during the year 1790. Only the main points in the growth of this - Constitution, which occupied the greater part of the time of the - Assembly from 1789 to 1791, can here be touched upon. But one striking - feature must first be observed, that it was drawn up and applied - piecemeal, not as an organic whole, like the later French constitutions - of the revolutionary period. The first important principle was decreed - upon 12th November 1789, when it was resolved that all the old local - divisions of France, which perpetuated the memory of the gradual - growth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> of the French provinces into France, should be abolished, and - that the country should be divided into eighty departments of nearly - equal size. It was naturally some months before the new division - was effected, and still longer before the further division of each - department into districts, and each district into cantons was finished. - No wiser step for converting France from a congeries of provinces into - a nation could have been devised. On the basis of the new divisions - a new local government was established. Each department and district - was to be administered by elected authorities, elaborately chosen by a - system of double election. Next to the local government, the judicial - system was reorganised. The Parlements were all abolished, and local - courts, consisting of elected judges of departmental and district - tribunals, and elected justices of the peace, were substituted. A - uniform system of law was projected, and juries were sanctioned in - criminal but not in civil cases. In these sweeping reforms one natural - blemish is perceptible: from having no elected officials the other - extreme was adopted of having all officials elected.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Civil Constitution of the Clergy.</div> - - <p>The mania for election affected the reform of the ecclesiastical - arrangements of France, and directly brought about the schism, which - so largely contributed to the misfortunes of France during the - revolutionary period. On 2d November 1789 it had been resolved, in - the face of the financial distress, that the property of the Church - in France should be confiscated or resumed, as it was represented by - opposite parties, while acknowledging the duty of providing and paying - curés and bishops. This implied the formation of a State Church, a - measure which needed the most delicate handling. On 13th February 1790 - all monasteries and religious houses were suppressed; but as there had - already been a partial suppression a few years previously, this would - not by itself have caused a schism. It was otherwise with regard to the - Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It was resolved to reduce the number - of bishoprics to one for each department, and that all the beneficed - clergy, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> curés to bishops, should be elected. This violation of - a fundamental principle of the Catholic Church could not be allowed - to pass unchallenged, and when the Constituent Assembly found that - opposition was raised, it drove matters to a crisis by ordering that - every beneficed ecclesiastic should take an oath to observe the new - Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This oath was generally refused by - the bishops and dignitaries, and largely by the parochial clergy, and - it was resolved by the Assembly, on 27th November 1790, that all who - refused the oath within one week should be held to be dismissed from - their offices. The King sanctioned this decree on 26th December 1790, - and the great schism in France began. It was doubtful at first whether - apostolical succession could be preserved in the new Church of France. - Only four beneficed bishops, including Loménie de Brienne, Cardinal - Archbishop of Sens, and Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, out of one hundred - and thirty-five, and three coadjutor bishops, or bishops <i>in partibus</i>, - including Gobel, Bishop of Lydda, consented to take the oath, but - by them the first of the elected bishops of departmental sees were - consecrated.</p> - - <p>The measures of the Constituent Assembly in abolishing the old - provincial divisions and law courts, and substituting new and more - modern arrangements for administration, were in the nature of great - reforms, though marred by the mania for election; the attempt to - establish a Gallican Church, though obviously opposed to the discipline - of the Catholic Church, and seriously discounted by the same mania, - was patriotic, if not very wise; but the arrangements for the central - administration were utterly absurd. In their dislike of the system - of the <i>ancien régime</i>, and their fear of a strong executive, the - Constituent Assembly thought it could not do enough to hamper the - authority of the throne and of the central administration. The King, - under the new Constitution, was left powerless. He was to be the first - functionary of the State, nothing more. His veto on the measures of the - Legislature was to have effect for only six months; his guards were - suppressed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> and his position made untenable for a strong monarch, and - unbearable for a weak one. The ministers were invested with supreme - executive authority, but more regulations were made to ensure their - responsibility and limit their actual power, than to define their - functions. They were to be answerable to the Legislature, in which they - were not allowed to sit; and their measures were to be criticised by - an irresponsible representative assembly. Under such regulations the - King and his ministers, that is, the executive, were put in a position - of inferiority, which no vigorous man could be expected to accept, to - the inevitable derangement of the whole administrative machine. In - addition to the Constitution, the Constituent Assembly carried several - measures of the greatest importance to a free state. All citizens, - of whatever religion or class, were declared eligible for employment - by the State; and on 13th April 1790 a noble decree, declaring the - most absolute and entire toleration of every form of religion, was - carried. The Constitution of 1791 was, on the whole, a praiseworthy - effort of untried legislators to give their country a representative - constitution. It was marred only by the fatal jealousy of giving due - authority to the executive, and the mania for election. But it was - in no way democratic. For the election to all offices was to be by - at least two degrees, and no man was to have a vote unless he was an - ‘active citizen.’ To be an active citizen, a man had to contribute to - the direct taxation of the country an amount equivalent in value to - three days’ wages in his locality. Further, to be eligible for office, - a candidate had to pay taxes of the value of a ‘silver mark,’ which - inevitably restricted all offices to the bourgeois, or very prosperous - working men.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Other acts of the Constituent Assembly.</div> - - <p>Though the main occupation of the Constituent Assembly was the - building up of the Constitution of 1791, it interfered only too much - in matters of current administration. It was soon obvious that its - power exceeded that of the King, and it has been observed that Van der - Noot announced the new Belgian Constitution alike to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> King and the - President of the Assembly, as to authorities of equal importance. The - mischief produced by this constant interference was perceptible in - every department of government. Mirabeau, who was a profound master of - statecraft, saw through the fallacies of endeavouring to separate the - legislative and executive powers in the State, and, what was implied - in the preponderance of a legislature in which the ministers had no - seat, to divorce authority from responsibility. He understood and - approved of the English system, and as soon as the Constituent Assembly - had removed to Paris in October 1789, after the establishment of the - King at the Tuileries, and he had got the ear of the Court through his - friend, La Marck, Mirabeau proposed the formation of a constitutional - ministry, after the English fashion, from among the leading members of - the Assembly. His scheme got noised abroad: the Assembly in its fear - of the executive, which was afterwards consecrated in the Constitution - of 1791, and stimulated by Lafayette, who dreaded the influence of a - strong ministry, passed a motion on 7th November, that no member of the - Assembly could take office as a minister while he remained a deputy, or - for three years after his resignation.</p> - - <p>The spirit, which lay at the root of this decree, showed itself in - other ways. The fear of the influence of the Crown extended itself - to the army and navy, as the natural instruments of the Crown for - re-establishing its former authority. The army, already disorganised by - the emigration of many of its officers, was practically destroyed in - its efficiency as a fighting machine by the relaxation of discipline - among the soldiers, caused not only by the actual decrees of the - Assembly, but by the impunity allowed to desertion and mutiny. The - Marquis de Bouillé, the general commanding at Metz, did indeed put - down a military mutiny at Nancy on 31st August 1790, but his action, - though applauded by the Assembly, which could not openly encourage - mutiny, was isolated and not imitated. In the navy matters were even - more desperate, for a larger proportion of officers deserted, resigned, - or emigrated than in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> the army, and loss of discipline is even more - disastrous in a naval than in a military force. The weakness of the - army was intended to be compensated by the enrolment of national - guards. But these citizen soldiers could not be treated with the - strictness of regular troops. They were chiefly of the bourgeois class, - and had the prejudices of that class, caring more for the protection of - their property than for military efficiency. In Paris they were of the - most importance, owing to their numbers, and their commander-in-chief, - Lafayette, probably the most powerful man in France in 1790. The - framing of the Constitution, and the disorganisation of the central - authority and its instruments were the chief results of the labours of - the Constituent Assembly in 1790; but among its minor acts should be - noted the abolition of titles of nobility, liveries and other relics of - social pre-eminence on 13th July 1790, as an evidence of its desire to - extirpate even the outward signs of the <i>ancien régime</i>.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Mirabeau.</div> - - <p>Only one man seems to have understood the dangers to which France - was drifting owing to the policy of the Constituent Assembly, and - that man was Mirabeau. He had done more than any man to assure the - victory of the Tiers État in June 1789; he was the greatest orator and - greatest statesman the revolutionary crisis had produced. Mirabeau, - however, hated anarchy as much as he did despotism. He saw the absolute - necessity of establishing a strong executive, if the crisis of 1789, - the dissolution of the old authorities, the unpunished riots in towns, - and the jacquerie in the rural districts were not to lead to anarchy. - Foiled in his prudent scheme of selecting a strong ministry from the - Constituent Assembly<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> by the vote of 7th November 1789, Mirabeau - saw that it was impossible to overcome the distrust of the Assembly - for the executive. He therefore turned to the Court, and in May 1790 - he became the secret adviser of the King through the mediation of - his friend La Marck. In a series of memoirs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>or notes for the Court - of surpassing political wisdom, Mirabeau analysed the situation of - affairs and proposed remedies. The two main dangers were the state of - the finances and the fear of foreign intervention. Mirabeau’s horror - of national bankruptcy was as great as his personal extravagance in - expenditure. In September 1789 he advocated Necker’s scheme of a - general contribution, though it was accompanied by stipulations which - were certain to make it almost entirely unproductive, and he personally - disapproved of it; in December 1789 he grudgingly acquiesced in the - first issue of ‘assignats’ or promises to pay, based on the value of - the property of the Church, resumed or confiscated by the Assembly, - and to be extinguished as this property was sold. In August 1790 - he went yet further. Comprehending that men are mainly influenced - by their pecuniary interests, he advocated a wide extension of the - system of assignats, down to small sums, on the grounds that they - would then be able to reach the hands of the poorer classes and give - them an interest in their maintaining their value, and would also - frustrate the machinations of speculators, who began to make money by - depreciating the exchange of specie against the new paper currency. But - he also wisely proposed and successfully carried severe regulations - for the extinction of assignats as the national property was realised, - regulations which, unfortunately, were not strictly observed. His - decree was followed in September 1790 by the retirement of Necker from - office, and it is a significant proof of the change in popular opinion - that the final retirement of the minister, whose dismissal in July 1789 - had brought about the capture of the Bastille, was received without - excitement.</p> - - <p>The other great danger which France incurred, by the disorganising - policy of the Constituent Assembly, was the possibility of the armed - intervention of foreign powers. Mirabeau thought that if national - bankruptcy and the interference of foreigners could be avoided, the - anarchy, which was making itself felt, might soon be quelled. He did - not fear civil war; indeed, he argued that it might be a positive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> - advantage, and that as long as the King did not retract his concession - of a representative constitution, a large portion of his subjects - would support him in winning back the legitimate authority of the - executive. But foreign war was to him an evil to be feared as much as - national bankruptcy. He knew the spirit of his countrymen well, and - that they would in case of national disaster submit to any despotism - rather than submit to the dictation or the interference of a foreign - power in their internal affairs. Success in a foreign war owing to the - state of the army was not to be expected, but if it did come, it would - with almost equal certainty lead to the despotism of the conquering - government, whether it were the reigning monarch, his successor, or a - victorious general. To avoid a foreign war it was necessary as far as - possible to leave the conduct of foreign affairs in the hands of the - King. This was Mirabeau’s intention in the great debate on the right - of declaring peace and war in May 1790, and he succeeded in getting - the Assembly to sanction the initiation of peace or war as part of the - duties of the King. But at this period Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was too weak - or too unwilling to understand the paramount necessity of maintaining - peace. Mirabeau, therefore, got himself elected to a special Diplomatic - Committee of the Constituent Assembly, and as its reporter endeavoured - throughout the year 1790 to keep France clear of international - complications.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Mirabeau and the Court.</div> - - <p>Unfortunately neither Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> nor his ministers, and still - less Marie Antoinette, grasped the truth of Mirabeau’s memoirs for - the Court. On the contrary, the one idea of the Queen was to get her - brother, the Emperor Leopold, to interfere, and, if necessary, by force - of arms to restore the power of the French monarch. The King, too, was - startled at Mirabeau’s ideas; he felt no horror at the notion of a - foreign war, but would suffer anything rather than engage in a civil - war. The wise advice of the great statesman went unheeded; both King - and Queen regarded their connection with him as the clever muzzling of - a dangerous revolutionary leader. They could not comprehend<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> his desire - to establish a strong executive for the sake of France, and looked - on it as a bit of personal ambition. The King was not sufficiently - far-seeing, nor the Queen sufficiently patriotic to understand his - views. If the Constituent Assembly distrusted the Court, the King and - Queen no less strongly distrusted Mirabeau.</p> - - <p>As reporter of the Diplomatic Committee, Mirabeau had three different - problems to solve, in which the policy of the Assembly came in contact - with foreign powers, the affairs of Avignon, the maintenance of the - Pacte de Famille with Spain, and the interference caused by the - legislation of the Assembly with the Princes of the Empire who owned - fiefs of the Empire in Alsace.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Avignon and the Venaissin.</div> - - <p>The city of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, though inhabited - by Frenchmen and surrounded by French territory, were under the - sovereignty of the Pope. As early as the ‘orgie’ of 4th August 1789 - the Constituent Assembly had pronounced on the expediency of uniting - both the city and the county with France. A French party was formed in - Avignon; and a free municipal constitution after the model of those - just established in France was framed and assented to by the Cardinal - Vice-Legate in April 1790. The Pope, however, annulled his deputy’s - assent, with the result that fierce street fighting took place in the - city, which was only stopped by the intervention of the National Guard - of the neighbouring French city of Orange. The result of these events - was that the city of Avignon, or at least the French party there, - declared Avignon united to France on 12th June 1790. The inhabitants - of the Venaissin, on the other hand, declared their attachment for the - Pope, and their wish to remain subject to him. When these circumstances - became known in Paris a strong party showed itself in the Assembly in - favour of accepting the union of Avignon with or without the Pope’s - assent. Mirabeau skilfully averted the danger of a flagrant breach of - international law by securing the appointment of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> Avignon Committee, - and when it became necessary to send regular troops to maintain order - in the city, he secured their despatch thither without the assumption - of any rights of sovereignty.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Affair of Nootka Sound. May 1790.</div> - - <p>Far more serious was the question which arose in May 1790, and which - gave rise to the debate in the Constituent Assembly on the right - of declaring peace and war, for it brought into prominence a doubt - whether the Assembly should recognise the treaties made by the French - monarchy. Of these treaties, the most popular in France, and the first - to be brought into evidence, was the Pacte de Famille, which had - been concluded in 1761 by Choiseul between France and Spain. Charles - <span class="smcap">IV.</span> had succeeded his able and accomplished father, Charles - <span class="smcap">III.</span>, on 12th December 1788. The new monarch was completely - under the influence of his wife, Marie Louise, a princess of Parma, - who in her turn was governed by a young guardsman, her lover, Godoy. - Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> made a friend of Godoy, a fact which of itself - shows the essential weakness of his character. He, as well as his - Queen, was, outwardly at least, deeply religious, and it was pretty - certain that before long a reaction would take place at the Spanish - Court against the liberal <i>régime</i>, which, in the previous reign, - under the administration of Aranda and Florida Blanca, Campomanes and - Jovellanos, had done so much for Spain. But for the first three years - of his reign, Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> maintained his father’s experienced - ministers, with the assent of the Queen, who did not dare at once to - introduce her lover into the ministry, or invest him openly with power. - Florida Blanca, the Spanish minister, with Spanish pride, refused to - recognise the actual weakness of Spain, and was particularly active in - maintaining her supremacy in America. When, therefore, Vancouver Island - was demonstrated to be an island and not a peninsula, he claimed its - possession for Spain, and also alleged pre-colonisation. But he went - further. Spanish officers had seized an English ship in Nootka Sound, - now St. George’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> Sound, in Vancouver Island, had destroyed an English - settlement there, and had even insulted an English naval captain. When - Pitt demanded reparation, Florida Blanca replied haughtily, and claimed - the possession of the island on the grounds stated. Pitt at once sent - one of the ablest English diplomatists, Alleyne Fitzherbert, afterwards - Lord St. Helens, to threaten to declare war, and prepared a great - fleet, known in English naval history as the Spanish Armament.</p> - - <p>Both Pitt and Florida Blanca knew that a war between England and Spain - would only be seriously undertaken if France decided to intervene. - Florida Blanca claimed the assistance of France under the terms of - the Pacte de Famille, and Pitt, who understood that power had passed - from Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> to the Constituent Assembly, sent two secret - emissaries to Paris to see if the Assembly was inclined to maintain - the policy of the <i>ancien régime</i>. One of these emissaries was Hugh - Elliot, brother of Sir Gilbert Elliot, afterwards Lord Minto, an old - schoolfellow of Mirabeau, who was expected to influence the orator, and - the other, William Augustus Miles, who was to ally himself with the - leading democratic deputies. The question came before the Constituent - Assembly on a letter from the Comte de Montmorin, Minister for Foreign - Affairs. The enthusiasm in the Assembly for the maintenance of the - Spanish Alliance was extreme, defiance was hurled at England, Spain’s - faithful adherence to the Pacte de Famille in the Seven Years’ War and - the War of American Independence was remembered, and a fleet for active - service was ordered to be got ready at Brest, and sixteen new ships of - war built. But the first burst of enthusiasm soon cooled. Some deputies - feared war would strengthen the monarchy, others did not like to be - bound by the treaties, especially the dynastic treaties of the <i>ancien - régime</i>, and others again, headed by Robespierre and Pétion, inveighed - against the idea of any offensive war. The whole question was referred - to the Diplomatic Committee. Mirabeau, who knew perfectly well that - Spain would not fight without the aid of France, read an able report, - recommending<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> that the Pacte de Famille should be changed to a simple - defensive treaty, which was adopted. The Court of Spain, seeing that no - help was to be got from France under these circumstances, resigned its - pretensions to Vancouver Island, and consented to pay the compensation - demanded by England. This diplomatic victory of England exasperated - the Spaniards; Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> was surprised and disgusted at the - concessions made by Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, and declared them a breach of - the Pacte de Famille; and by her conduct France lost the friendship of - her closest ally of the eighteenth century.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace.</div> - - <p>The third question in which the new state of things in France - touched the diplomatic system of old Europe and threatened to cause - international complications, which might lead to a foreign war, was - concerned with the fiefs of the Empire in Alsace. By the Treaty of - Westphalia that province had been ceded to France in full and entire - sovereignty, but reserving the rights of the Empire. The complications - caused by this ambiguous arrangement had raised perpetual difficulties - throughout the reigns of Louis <span class="smcap">XIV.</span> and Louis <span class="smcap">XV.</span>, - and many separate treaties had been concluded with individual princes, - by which they recognised the sovereignty of France in Alsace, in return - for the acknowledgment of all their ancient rights. A further problem - was added by the fact that the more important princely landowners in - Alsace were also ruling and independent sovereigns across the French - border. They were thus supreme, save for the loose over-lordship of - the Emperor in Germany, and subject to the French monarchy for their - domains in Alsace. Among the principal of these rulers were the - three ecclesiastical electors, the Archbishops of Mayence, Trèves, - and Cologne, the Bishops of Strasbourg, Spires, Worms, and Basle, - the Abbot of Murbach, the Dukes of Würtemburg and of Deux-Ponts or - Zweibrücken, the Elector Palatine, the Margrave of Baden, the Landgrave - of Hesse-Darmstadt, and the Princes of Nassau, Leiningen, Salm-Salm, - and Hohenlohe-Bartenstein. These princes were naturally profoundly - affected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> by the abolition of feudalism decreed by the Constituent - Assembly, which further complicated their position. They felt as German - princes, and appealed against the measures of the Assembly as contrary - to international law, and violating the Treaty of Westphalia and the - many separate treaties. The protests of certain of these princes were - laid before the Assembly on 11th February 1790, and referred by it to - the Feudal Committee on 28th April. The reporter of the Committee on - this matter was Merlin of Douai, one of the greatest French jurists - and statesmen of the whole revolutionary period. On 28th October he - read his report, in which he insisted on the new principle of the - sovereignty of the people. He asserted that the unity of Alsace with - France rested not on ancient treaties, but on the unanimous resolution - of the Alsatian people to be Frenchmen. But at the same time he argued - that in practice old rights ought to be maintained. Mirabeau, with his - usual sagacity, saw that international complications might, on this - ground, be adjourned, if not altogether avoided; and it was on his - motion that the Constituent Assembly resolved to uphold the sovereignty - of France in Alsace, and the application of all its decrees to that - province, but at the same time requested the King to arrange the amount - of indemnity to be paid to the Princes of the Empire as compensation - for the rights of which they were thus deprived. These princes, - however, with but very few exceptions, refused absolutely to accept any - monetary compensation, and appealed to the Diet of the Empire. It was - on this question, therefore, that foreign intervention most seriously - threatened France at the end of 1790, in spite of the diplomatic - knowledge and skill of two of her leading statesmen, Mirabeau and - Merlin of Douai.</p> - - <p>While Mirabeau was doing his best to keep France from the disturbance, - and even disasters, which a foreign war would cause in the midst of her - new development, the Queen cast all her hopes for the restoration of - the power of the French monarchy on the armed help of foreign states. - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> a half-hearted fashion was opposed to foreign - interference, but his younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, and the - French <i>émigrés</i>, who had established themselves on the borders of - France, declared that the King was not in his right senses, and that - he was forced to yield to the measures of the Constituent Assembly - against his will. They felt no patriotic misgivings, and loudly invoked - the assistance of all monarchs in the cause of monarchy and the feudal - system. The ruler on whom the Queen chiefly relied, and to whom she - appealed most fervently, the monarch to whom the <i>émigrés</i> looked with - most confidence, was Leopold, the brother and successor of Joseph - <span class="smcap">II.</span> He held the key of the position; he was the sovereign - especially feared by the leaders of the Constituent Assembly, and as - Emperor and as brother of Marie Antoinette he was expected by the - royalists to intervene in the affairs of France.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_III"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> - <h2>CHAPTER III<br /><span class="large">1790–1792</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">The Emperor Leopold—His Internal Policy—The Policy of - Prussia—Leopold’s Foreign Policy—Conference of - Reichenbach—Leopold and the Turks—Treaty of Sistova—Leopold - crowned Emperor—Leopold and Hungary—State of Parties - in Belgium—Their Internal Dissensions—Congress at the - Hague—Leopold reconquers Belgium—War between Russia - and Sweden—Treaty of Verela—War between Russia and the - Turks—Capture of Ismail—Treaty of Jassy—Position of - Leopold—The State of France—Mirabeau’s advice—Death of - Mirabeau—The Flight to Varennes—Its Results: in France—The - Massacre of 17th July 1791—Revision of the Constitution—Its - Results: in Europe—Manifesto of Padua—Declaration of - Pilnitz—Completion of the French Constitution of 1791—The - Polish Constitution of 1791—The Legislative Assembly in - France—The Girondins—Approach of War between France and - Austria—Causes of the War—Attitude of Europe—Death of - the Emperor Leopold—Murder of Gustavus <span class="smcap">ii.</span> of - Sweden—Policy of Dumouriez—War declared by France against - Austria—Invasion of the Tuileries, 20th June 1792—Francis - <span class="smcap">ii.</span> crowned Emperor—Invasion of France by Prussia - and Austria—Insurrection of 10th August 1792—Suspension of - Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span>—Desertion of Lafayette—The Massacres - of September in the prisons—Battle of Valmy—Meeting of the - National Convention—The Girondins and the Mountain—Conquest - of Savoy, Nice, and Mayence—Battle of Jemmappes—Conquest of - Belgium—Execution of Louis <span class="smcap">xvi.</span>—War declared against - Spain, Holland, England and the Empire—Catherine invades - Poland—Overthrow of the Polish Constitution—Second Partition - of Poland—Contrast between the resistance of France and Poland.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Emperor Leopold.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> successor of Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, the Emperor Leopold, was, except - perhaps Catherine of Russia, the ablest monarch of his time. He had had - a long experience in the art of government, for he had succeeded to - the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1765, on the death of - his father, the Emperor Francis of Lorraine. While his brother Joseph<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> - was kept until 1780 by Maria Theresa in leading-strings as far as the - actual administration of the Hapsburg dominions was concerned, and - was only able to exert his authority as Emperor, Leopold had from his - boyhood been an absolute and irresponsible sovereign, and had imbibed - from his education an Italian knowledge of statecraft. During his - long reign in Tuscany he showed the finest qualities of a benevolent - despot in his measures for increasing the material comforts of his - people, combined with tact and diplomatic subtlety. His reforms were - as sweeping as those of Joseph, but were so managed as not to set - his dominions in a flame. With the help of Scipio de Ricci, Bishop - of Pistoia, he freed the people of Tuscany from the heavy burden of - an excessive number of ecclesiastics; he reorganised the internal - administration, and especially the judicial system; and he showed such - intelligence in grasping and partially applying the new principles of - political economy as to be called ‘the physiocratic prince.’ He had - been Grand Duke of Tuscany for twenty-five years, and when he succeeded - his elder brother Joseph as King of Hungary and Bohemia in February - 1790, he had earned the reputation of a singularly wise and prudent - statesman, and of one who, if it could be done, might be expected to - restore the power of the House of Austria. He abandoned the Grand Duchy - of Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand, and at once applied himself to - the difficult task bequeathed to him by Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Policy of Leopold.</div> - - <p>Leopold found the power of Austria seriously affected by dangers from - within and dangers from without. He at once undid much of Joseph’s - work. He recognised the difference between consolidating and unifying a - nation, which was essentially one, and a congeries of nations speaking - different languages, belonging to different races, and geographically - widely separated. In Tuscany he had accomplished a great work in - abolishing the local franchises of the cities and building up a Tuscan - state, but he understood that such a work was impossible in the divided - hereditary dominions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> of the House of Hapsburg, and that the Emperor - Joseph had been attempting a hopeless task. Leopold’s first step was, - therefore, to restore the former state of things in such parts of his - dominions as were not in open insurrection. In Austria proper, in - Bohemia, in the Milanese, and in the Tyrol, the concessions of Leopold - were received with demonstrations of popular gratitude. He abolished - the new system of taxation and the unpopular seminaries; he recognised - the separate administrations of provinces which were essentially - diverse; he gave up futile attempts at unification. But, at the same - time, he maintained the edict of religious toleration, the most noble - of Joseph’s reforms, and introduced many slight but appreciable - improvements in the local institutions which he restored. Having thus - assured the fidelity of an important body of his subjects, he prepared - to deal with the declared rebels in Belgium and the unconcealed - opposition in Hungary. It was here that Leopold suffered most from the - foreign policy of Maria Theresa and Joseph, for it was indisputable - that the prevalent discontent and insurrection in Belgium and Hungary - was fostered by the Triple Alliance, and especially by Prussia. He - had a serious war with the Turks on his hands; his ally, Catherine of - Russia, was too much occupied with her wars with the Swedes and Turks - and with the affairs of Poland, to come to his help; France, excited - by her internal dissensions, and with the Assembly indisposed to the - maintenance of the Treaty of 1756, might almost be reckoned an enemy; - the Empire had been roused to distrust by the policy of Joseph, and the - Triple Alliance was openly hostile. Under these circumstances Prussia - appeared at once the chief power on the Continent and the principal - enemy of Austria, and it was with Prussia that Leopold first resolved - to deal.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Policy of Prussia.</div> - - <p>The events of the year 1789 had greatly improved the position of - Prussia on the Continent. The pretensions of Joseph to Bavaria had made - Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, as it had made Frederick the Great, - the real leader of the Princes of the Empire, and the Triple Alliance - had done more to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> improve and strengthen his position in Europe. The - classic policy of Prussia was consistent opposition to Austria, and - Hertzberg, the Prussian minister, in pursuance of this policy, had - made use of all Joseph’s mistakes to lower the power of the House of - Hapsburg. He felt it necessary, indeed, to disavow a treaty with the - Turks, which the too zealous Prussian envoy had signed in January 1790, - but he was eager to make use of the difficulties of Russia and Austria - caused by the Turkish war to forward Prussia’s designs on Poland. His - main aim was to obtain the cession of the important Polish cities of - Thorn and Dantzic, which would give Prussia complete control of the - great river Vistula. The ablest Prussian diplomatist, Lucchesini, was - sent to Warsaw, and on 29th March 1790 he signed a treaty of friendship - and union with the Poles, by which Poland was to cede Thorn and Dantzic - to Prussia in return for the retrocession of part of Austrian Galicia, - which had fallen to Austria at the first partition, while Prussia - promised to guarantee the territory and constitution of Poland, and - to send an army of 18,000 men to the help of the Poles if they were - attacked.</p> - - <p>This treaty, shameless even in its epoch for its desertion of allies, - breach of former engagements and absence of good faith, was highly - approved by Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> and Hertzberg. They would - not have dared to conclude it but for the seeming weakness of Russia - and Austria, the partners in the former partition. Russia was hampered - by the Swedish and Turkish wars, and the discontent of the ceded - provinces of Poland. Austria was in a still more desperate condition. - With the Turkish war still unconcluded, with open insurrection in - Belgium, and disaffection in Hungary, unpopular in the Empire, and - deprived of the alliance of France by the unconcealed dislike of the - Assembly to the Treaty of 1756, it seemed as if the House of Hapsburg - must now give way entirely to the House of Hohenzollern. Of the active - encouragement given to the Turks, the Belgians, the Hungarians, and - the Princes of the Empire against Austria by Prussia, mention has been - made.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> Not less skilful was the conduct of the Prussian ambassador - at Paris, Goltz, who intrigued with the more extreme leaders in the - Assembly, and especially Pétion,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> against Austria, and in particular - did all in his power to increase the growing unpopularity of Marie - Antoinette and to insist that she was a traitor to France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Policy of Leopold.</div> - - <p>Had a less able statesman than Leopold been the successor of Joseph, - the schemes of Prussia might have been crowned with success. But he had - not ruled in the native city of Machiavelli for a quarter of a century - for nothing; and he set to work to checkmate the designs of Hertzberg - and Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> His wise measures of conciliation - speedily rallied the heart of the hereditary dominions to him; and he - determined to use diplomacy to establish his position in Europe before - he dealt with Belgium and Hungary. He quickly perceived that Prussia’s - real strength lay in the support of the Triple Alliance; her financial - situation was such that she dared not undertake a serious war without - the active countenance of England and Holland. He knew that it was - worse than hopeless to rely upon France, and therefore at once applied - to England. He protested that he did not share his brother’s attachment - for Russia, or his schemes for the division of the Ottoman provinces; - and he further hinted that he would abandon all attempt to reconquer - Belgium and surrender it to France unless he received some assistance. - Pitt felt the weight of these considerations; he did not care much - about what happened to Poland, but he cared a great deal that the - French should not occupy Belgium. When, therefore, the King of Prussia - mobilised a powerful army in Silesia, and demanded through Hertzberg - that Austria should on the one hand make an armistice with the Turks, - and on the other restore Galicia to Poland, Leopold, trusting that - he had broken the harmony of the Triple Alliance, made no elaborate - warlike preparations, but demanded a conference.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p> - <div class="sidenote">The Conference of Reichenbach. June 1790.</div> - - <p>The King of Hungary and Bohemia thoroughly understood the character of - the Prussian king and the intrigues of his courtiers and ministers; he - knew that Hertzberg was the real enemy of Austria, and that Frederick - William was unstable and easily persuaded. He felt that his own - strength lay in diplomacy, not war. On 26th June the two Austrian - envoys, Reuss and Spielmann, arrived at the headquarters of the - Prussian army in Silesia at Reichenbach, and demanded a conference. - Rather to the disgust of the Prussians, their allies of the Triple - Alliance insisted on being present, and a regular congress was held, - at which Hertzberg and Lucchesini represented Prussia, Reuss and - Spielmann, Austria, Ewart, England, Reden, Holland, and Jablonowski, - the Poles. Even the Hungarian malcontents and the Belgian rebels, - relying on the promises of Frederick William, ventured to send envoys. - The conclusions of the congress justified Leopold’s diplomatic skill. - When Hertzberg laid the Prussian demands in full before the assembled - envoys, to his surprise Jablonowski declared that the Poles would - never cede Thorn and Dantzic, while the representatives of England and - Holland not only advocated the maintenance of the <i>status quo</i>, but - refused the co-operation of their governments in Prussia’s schemes for - aggrandisement. The policy of Hertzberg and Kaunitz, of perpetuating - the rivalry of Prussia and Austria, had failed. Leopold was far too - acute to leave these matters to ministers. He placed himself in direct - communication with the King of Prussia and his personal favourites, - Lucchesini and Bischofswerder; he argued that the interests of the - two great German states both with regard to Poland and France were - identical, and on 27th July 1790 the Convention of Reichenbach was - signed, by which Austria promised at once to make an armistice with the - Turks, and eventually to conclude peace with them under the mediation - of the Triple Alliance, while, on the other hand, the powers of the - Triple Alliance guaranteed the restoration of the Austrian authority<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> - in Belgium. It was more privately arranged that Prussia should withdraw - from encouraging discontent in Hungary and Belgium, and support - Leopold’s candidature for the Imperial throne. This great diplomatic - victory did more than merely check the active enmity of Prussia; it - established the ascendency of Leopold over the weak mind of Frederick - William; and it eventually, in May 1791, brought about, not indeed his - actual dismissal from office, but the removal of Hertzberg, the sworn - foe of Austria, from the charge of the foreign policy of Prussia.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Leopold and the Turks.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Treaty of Sistova. 4th Aug. 1791.</div> - - <p>The first actual consequence of the Convention of Reichenbach was the - conclusion of an armistice between Austria and the Turks. The war had - never been looked on with favour by Leopold, who regarded Joseph’s - infatuation for the grandiose schemes of Catherine of Russia as absurd, - and the dismemberment of Turkey as impracticable, and at the present - time undesirable. He had not attempted to press matters against the - Turks, and had withdrawn many of his best troops under Loudon from the - seat of war to Bohemia to strengthen his position at Reichenbach. The - Prince of Coburg, who succeeded Loudon, aided by an earthquake, took - Orsova, and laid siege to Giurgevo, but he was defeated in his camp - after a severe battle on 8th July 1790. This defeat was only partially - compensated by a victory won by Clerfayt, and by the capture of Zettin - by General de Vins on 20th July. Under these circumstances Leopold was - not sorry to conclude an armistice for nine months at Giurgevo on 19th - September. Shortly afterwards a congress of plenipotentiaries from - Austria, Turkey, and the mediating powers met, as had been arranged - at Reichenbach, at Sistova. The negotiations lasted for many months; - Leopold insisted on the cession by Turkey of Old Orsova and a district - in Croatia, which would make the Danube and the Unna the boundary - between Austria and Turkey; Prussia at first strongly protested against - any cession to Austria; the congress even for a time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> broke up; and it - was not until Leopold adroitly got Lucchesini, the Prussian envoy, on - his side, that the important Treaty of Sistova upon the terms desired - by Leopold was concluded on 4th August 1791.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Leopold crowned Emperor. 9th Oct. 1790.</div> - - <p>By this treaty the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg were - relieved from the danger of foreign war; the next result which Leopold - drew from the Convention of Reichenbach was the re-establishment - of the Austrian ascendency in Germany. Assured of the support of - Prussia, Leopold travelled to the Rhine. On 30th September 1790 he was - unanimously elected King of the Romans; on 4th October he solemnly - entered Frankfort, and on 9th October he was crowned Emperor. But it - was not enough for him to be crowned Emperor; he had to destroy the bad - effect of his brother Joseph’s attitude towards the Empire; he had to - become the real as well as the nominal head and leader of the German - princes, and to win back the advantages which Prussia had secured by - forming the League of Princes. The opportunity was afforded to him by - the disinclination of the German princes, who owned territories in - Alsace, Lorraine, and Franche Comté, to accept the compensation offered - to them by the French Constituent Assembly. Their protests took the - shape of a clause in the ‘capitulation’ laid before him and accepted - by him on his election as Emperor by which he promised to intervene on - behalf of the Empire for the preservation of the rights, sanctioned - by the Treaty of Westphalia, of the princes, whose interests were - affected. Leopold thus seized this opportunity to pose as the head of - the German Empire, and on 14th December 1790 he wrote a very strong - letter to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, in which he said: ‘The territories in - question have not been transferred to the kingdom of France; they are - subject to the supremacy of the Emperor and the Empire: no member - of the Empire has the right to transfer that supremacy to a foreign - nation. It follows, therefore, that the decrees of the Assembly are - null and void so far as concerns the Empire and its members,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> and that - everything ought to be replaced on the ancient footing.’<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Leopold and Hungary.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Leopold crowned King of Hungary. 15th Nov. 1790.</div> - - <p>After being crowned Emperor at Frankfort, Leopold returned to Vienna - and proceeded to establish his power firmly in Hungary. The discontent - aroused in the most backward part of his dominions by the Emperor - Joseph’s measures had not been appeased by that monarch’s wholesale - retractation, nor even by the return of the Crown of St. Stephen. The - Hungarian nobles regarded Joseph’s retractation as a sign of weakness, - and, encouraged by the intrigues of Prussia and the difficulties - in which Leopold was involved by the war with the Turks, resolved - to obtain more sweeping concessions. The example of France exerted - an influence even in Hungary, and the following sentences from a - memorial,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> presented to Leopold by the people of Pesth, might have - been written by a Parisian popular society: ‘From the rights of nations - and of man, and from that social compact whence States arose, it is - incontestable that sovereignty originates from the people. This axiom - our parent Nature has impressed on the hearts of all; it is one of - those which a just prince (and such we trust Your Majesty will ever be) - cannot dispute; it is one of those inalienable, imprescriptible rights - which the people cannot forfeit by neglect or disuse. Our constitution - places the sovereignty jointly in the king and people, in such a manner - that the remedies necessary to be applied according to the ends of - social life for the security of persons and property, are in the power - of the people. We are sure, therefore, that at the meeting of the - ensuing Diet, Your Majesty will not confine yourself to the objects - mentioned in your rescript; but will also restore our freedom to us, - in like manner as to the Belgians, who have conquered theirs with the - sword. It would be an example big with danger to teach the world that a - people can only protect or regain their liberties by the sword, and not - by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>obedience.’ The Hungarian Diet, which Leopold had summoned for the - ceremony of his coronation, and to which the people of Pesth alluded in - this remarkable address, was largely attended. The Hungarian nobility - regarded its convocation as a further sign of weakness, for none - had been held since the accession of Maria Theresa, and prepared an - inaugural act or compact, which would have reduced the kings of Hungary - to a similar position to that occupied by the kings of Poland. Full of - confidence in themselves they even went so far as to send envoys, as - has been mentioned, to the Congress of Reichenbach. Leopold, however, - had no intention of yielding to these demands; his only desire was to - gain time until he had secured his position by diplomacy. Meanwhile - he tried to stir up opposition in Hungary itself, by encouraging - the other nationalities in the kingdom, such as the inhabitants of - Croatia and the Banat. But when the Congress of Reichenbach was over, - the armistice of Giurgevo concluded, and his coronation as Emperor - performed, Leopold proceeded to deal with the Hungarians. He first - ordered the army of 60,000 men, which he had concentrated in Bohemia - to support his attitude against the Prussians, to Pesth, and then - directed the Diet to remove to Presburg for his coronation as King - of Hungary. He then declared that nothing would induce him to accept - the proposed new constitution, or to consent to an infringement of - the Edict of Toleration, and that he would only consent to the terms - of the inaugural acts of his grandfather, Charles <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, and - his mother, Maria Theresa. The Hungarian nobles, overcome by his - firmness and the presence of his troops, yielded; the Emperor appointed - his fourth son, the Archduke Leopold, to be Palatine of Hungary in - the place of the late Prince Esterhazy; and it was from him that he - received the Crown of St. Stephen on 15th November, on the terms he had - stipulated.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Parties in Belgium.</div> - - <p>Having gained this victory by his firmness, Leopold proceeded to win - popularity by a timely concession, and proposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> a law, obliging every - future king to be crowned within six months of his accession. This - concession was received with the wildest enthusiasm, as it obviated - the possibility of conduct resembling that of Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>; - the Diet granted the Emperor a gift of 225,000 florins instead of the - usual 100,000 florins; and the disaffected attitude of the nobility - was changed for one of hearty admiration and gratitude. The bourgeois - of Pesth and their declarations were disavowed; the echo of the - French Revolution, which had been heard there, was quickly stifled; - and the Hungarian nobility, well contented with Leopold, declined to - encourage the popular aspirations. The difficulties which the Emperor - Leopold encountered in Hungary were trifling to those which faced - him in Belgium. But in this quarter time had worked for the House of - Hapsburg, and when the Congress of Plenipotentiaries, arranged at - the Congress of Reichenbach, met at the Hague in October 1790, the - situation had entirely changed. The victory of the Belgian rebels - in 1789 had been followed by internal dissensions, which appeared - directly the new Constitution was proclaimed. The first difference was - between the Van der Nootists, or Statists, as they termed themselves, - and the Vonckists. The latter, inspired by the success of the French - Revolution, advocated a thoroughly democratic constitution, and the - organisation of a new elective system of local administration, to the - great disgust of the Statists, who desired simply the restoration of - the old order of things, but with the central government controlled - by elected assembly instead of being in the hands of the House of - Hapsburg. Curiously enough popular feeling ran in a direction very - different from that followed in France. Influenced by the priests, - the Belgian people, and more especially the mob of Brussels, were - convinced that the Vonckists were atheists; the democrats were attacked - in the streets, maltreated and imprisoned; the bourgeois National - Guards refused to protect them; they were proscribed by Van der Noot - and the party in power; and after many riots and disturbances Vonck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> - fled to France in April 1790. These events greatly weakened the - Belgian Republic, for the democratic party, which had been energetic - in the revolution, numbered in its ranks many of the ablest and - most enlightened men in the country. But even more serious was the - result abroad, for the National Assembly of France and Lafayette were - surprised and disgusted at the persecution of the democrats, and the - sympathy of the French people was entirely alienated from the Belgian - leaders. Still more striking in its effect was the conduct of the Van - der Nootists towards the gallant officer, Van der Mersch, who had - commanded the patriot troops in the invasion of October 1789. Not - satisfied with superseding him by the Prussian general, Schönfeld, - the Van der Nootists had him arrested on a charge of disorganising - the Belgian army and imprisoned at Antwerp, to the great wrath of the - people of Flanders, of which province Van der Mersch was a native. The - conquering party was further divided. The nobility and clergy, headed - by the Duc d’Aremberg, were jealous of the ascendency assumed by Van - der Noot, and of the continued omnipotence of the Assembly at Brussels. - Under these circumstances it was a significant fact that the Austrian - troops in Luxembourg under the command of Marshal Bender were able with - the help of the people themselves to occupy the province of Limburg.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Congress at the Hague. Oct. 1790.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Leopold reconquers Belgium.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Austrians at Liége.</div> - - <p>In October 1790 the Congress, which had been resolved on at - Reichenbach, met at the Hague. The Austrian plenipotentiary was the - Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, the most accomplished Austrian diplomatist - and ambassador at Paris, and the representatives of England, Prussia, - and Holland were Lord Auckland, Count Keller, and the Grand Pensionary - Van der Spiegel. Leopold now reaped the advantages of his skilful - diplomacy at Reichenbach. England and Holland understood that the new - Emperor was a very different man from his predecessor, and Prussia - dared not act without them. As he had promised, Leopold solemnly - announced his intention to restore all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> the charters, laws, and - arrangements, which had existed in Belgium in the time of his mother, - Maria Theresa, under the guarantee of the three powers, and further - promised a general amnesty if his authority was recognised by 21st - November. The Belgian States-General made no reply to Leopold, and - the Emperor proceeded to concentrate 45,000 men under Bender in - Luxembourg. Then the Belgian leaders applied to the Congress at the - Hague for a prolongation of the armistice and the restoration of the - state of government existing in the time of Charles <span class="smcap">VI.</span> and - not in that of Maria Theresa. These demands were supported by the - representatives of the Triple Alliance, but rejected by the Austrian - ambassador. On 21st November the Belgian States-General elected the - Archduke Charles, the third son of the Emperor, to be hereditary Grand - Duke, but the time had gone by for compromises, and on the following - day Bender entered Belgium. The experiences of a year of revolution - made the Belgian people not unwilling to return under the sway of - Austria; the cities surrendered without a blow, and on 2d December - 1790 Brussels capitulated. Van der Noot fled with his chief friends, - and Belgium was won back by Leopold as easily as it had been lost by - Joseph. On 8th December the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau assented to the - restoration of the liberties recognised in the inaugural act of Charles - <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, but Leopold disavowed his ambassador and insisted on the - authority possessed by Maria Theresa at the close of her reign. Under - these circumstances the mediating powers refused their guarantee, a - refusal which rather gratified the Emperor than otherwise, as it freed - him from the fear of foreign interference. Not only in Belgium itself, - but in the neighbouring bishopric of Liége also, Leopold established - Austrian ascendency. The princes of the Circle of the Empire, which - adjoined, were dissatisfied with the conduct of Prussia and General - Schlieffen, and appealed to the Emperor. He was only too glad to assert - his authority; Schlieffen evacuated the territory; and on 13th<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> January - 1791 it was occupied by an Austrian force, which re-established the - Prince-bishop in all his former authority.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Russia and Sweden.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Verela. Aug. 14th 1790.</div> - - <p>The entire reversal of Joseph’s policy by Leopold, the arrangements - made at Reichenbach, and the friendly attitude of the new Emperor - towards the powers forming the Triple Alliance, deprived Russia of her - only ally at a time when the Empress had on her hands two exhausting - wars with Sweden and Turkey. The former was the most serious. Gustavus - <span class="smcap">III.</span>, freed from the dangers of a Danish invasion, and by - his <i>coup d’état</i> from the formidable plots of his nobility, rejoined - his army in Finland and prepared to carry on the war vigorously by - land and sea. His army was too small to effect much in spite of his - near approach to St. Petersburg, and his chief confidence was in his - fleet. This fleet was soon blockaded in the Gulf of Vyborg by the - Russian admiral, the Prince of Nassau-Siegen, one of the most famous - soldiers of fortune of the century; an attempt it made to break out on - 24th June 1790 was repulsed, and the Russians even hoped to force it - to capitulate. But, to their surprise, the Swedes broke the blockade - on the 3d July, though with a loss of 5000 men, and on 9th July won a - great naval victory in Svenska Sound, in which the Russians lost 30 - ships, 600 guns and 6000 men. But this victory led to no corresponding - diplomatic result. Catherine, defeated though she was, made overtures - in no humiliated spirit to the King of Sweden, and proposed to him - that, instead of quarrelling with his neighbours, he should turn - his attention to the state of affairs in France. The chivalrous and - romantic king was not unwilling to listen to her suggestions; he had, - during a visit to Paris, been much impressed by Marie Antoinette, and - was full of pity at the situation of the royal family of France and - of disgust at the progress of the Revolution. He felt, too, that the - war with Russia was not popular among his people, and on 14th August - 1790 he signed a treaty of peace at Verela, by which the <i>status quo - ante bellum</i> between Russia and Sweden was restored without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> any - compensation in money or territory being obtained by the victorious - Swedes.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Capture of Ismail. 20th Dec. 1790.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Jassy. 9th Jan. 1792.</div> - - <p>While resisting the Swedes, Catherine made her chief effort against - the Turks. In this quarter the defection of Leopold and the Armistice - of Giurgevo seriously compromised her position. The war had resolved - itself into the siege of the strong city of Ismail, where the Turks - defended themselves with the utmost tenacity. The Russian attacks - were foiled again and again, and Potemkin resigned the conduct of the - siege in despair. His place was taken by Suvórov, whose brilliant - victory on the Rymnik in 1789 had marked him as the greatest Russian - general of his time. His valour and constancy equalled those qualities - in the Turks; and Ismail was stormed on 20th December 1790, after a - scene of carnage which cost the lives of 10,000 Russians and 30,000 - Turks. In the following year the Russians pressed onwards towards - Constantinople, and on 9th July 1791 the Russian General Repnin, under - whom served Suvórov and Kutuzov, defeated the Grand Vizier at Matchin. - But the Empress Catherine was not inclined to follow up these military - advantages. The policy of Leopold had isolated her; the Treaty of - Sistova had deprived her of an auxiliary army against the Turks; the - state of affairs in Poland demanded her most serious attention; and she - had to observe the action of Europe on the French Revolution and of the - French Revolution on Europe, in the hope of deriving some advantage for - Russia from the complications. She, therefore, signed a treaty of peace - with the Turks at Jassy on 9th January 1792, by which Russia retained - only Oczakoff and the coast-line between the mouths of the Bug and the - Dniester. By making this peace, Catherine only deferred the prosecution - of the schemes of Russia against the Ottoman Empire, and certain - clauses with regard to the Danubian Principalities, affording a pretext - for future wars, were skilfully included in the Treaty of Jassy.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Position of Leopold.</div> - - <p>The success of the policy of the Emperor Leopold entirely altered - the situation of the European states and their attitude towards each - other. He was in 1791 not only master in his own dominions, but the - recognised representative of the Empire, in fact as well as in name. - He had broken down the combination against Austria and the solidarity - of the Triple Alliance. England was far more favourably inclined to - him than she had ever been to Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>; Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span> of Prussia was his ally not his enemy. He was, therefore, - able in 1791 to turn his thoughts to the situation of France, and to - see what advantages could be drawn from the position of affairs there - for the benefit of Austria. The political effacement of France in - foreign affairs was due to the assumption of all real authority by the - Constituent Assembly, while leaving the responsibility to the King’s - ministers, and Leopold did not doubt that the result of an entire - victory of the popular party would be a recurrence to the classical - policy of opposition to Austria and the rupture of the Treaty of 1756. - It was to his interest to prevent this, and he had therefore political, - as well as personal, ends to secure in endeavouring to restore the - authority of the King of France. The capture of the Bastille and the - transference of the royal family to Paris were great events in the - history of France, but they only affected Leopold as weakening the - authority of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and Marie Antoinette, the faithful - allies of Austria. The behaviour of the Constituent Assembly gave him - pretexts for interfering in France, in spite of the diplomatic ability - of Mirabeau, and he was earnestly besought by the French <i>émigrés</i>, - or opponents of the new state of things in France, who had gone into - voluntary exile with the King’s younger brother, the Comte d’Artois, at - their head, to intervene on behalf of the French monarchy.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The state of France, 1791.</div> - - <p>The conduct of the Constituent Assembly in disorganising every branch - of the executive in France had its natural effect by the commencement - of 1791. The army, in spite of the effort of General Bouillé to restore - discipline by making an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> example of some Swiss mutineers at Nancy in - 1790, was rendered inefficient by the disaffection of the soldiers and - the exaggerated royalism of most of the officers; the navy was in a - still worse condition; the Civil Constitution of the Clergy had caused - a schism, which disturbed the minds of men in all parts of France, - and created an army of opponents to the work of the Assembly, who had - peculiar influence over the rural communities; the issue of assignats - on the security of the confiscated domains of the Church had inflated - the currency, and, while giving an appearance of fictitious prosperity, - had really given a feeling of insecurity to all trade and commerce; - the old internal administrations of the provinces had been replaced - by the new administrations of the departments, which were filled by - inexperienced men, utterly unable to cope with the difficulties of - a time of unrest and revolution. The practical disorganisation of - the executive was meanwhile being consecrated by the measures of the - Constituent Assembly, which, in the Constitution it was drawing up, in - its fear of the power of the monarchy, so hampered the authority of the - executive as to destroy the necessary foundations of good government.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Death of Mirabeau.</div> - - <p>In its ardour for the Rights of Man and the principle of election, - the Constituent Assembly forgot the need for enforcing the authority - of the law, and the necessity for providing a strong arm to carry it - into effect. Mirabeau had clearly perceived that France was drifting - into a state of anarchy. In his secret notes for the Court he insisted - on the importance of restoring its proper power to the executive, and - he advised the King to leave Paris and call the partisans of order to - his side. Civil war, he contended, was preferable to anarchy, cloaked - by fine words; it would openly divide France into the adherents of - order and of disorder, and result in the maintenance of the popular - rights sanctioned by the royal power. The King was to acknowledge the - right of the people to legislate, and tax themselves through their - representatives, but was to point out the importance of maintaining a - strong government <span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>to secure the happiness of the governed. Against - foreign war, however, Mirabeau strongly protested; foreign interference - would rouse the spirit of national patriotism, and if the King was - suspected of favouring the foreigners, it would result in the overthrow - of the monarchy, and in a long struggle before the country could agree - on a new form of government. However, on 2d April 1791, Mirabeau - died, and France was deprived of its most sagacious, if not its only, - statesman. In truth, Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and Marie Antoinette had - no wish to take Mirabeau’s advice; the King regarded civil war as a - horrible calamity, and to be shunned in every way and at any sacrifice; - the Queen longed for the interference of her brother, the Emperor, and - begged him to intervene to restore the royal authority. The King’s - religious convictions were wounded by the Civil Constitution of the - Clergy; the Queen was roused to wrath by the feeling that she was a - prisoner, by daily insults in the press, and by the degradation of the - power of the monarchy. On 18th April 1791 the royal prisoners were - prevented by the Parisians from going to Saint-Cloud for Easter, and - on 18th May the Emperor Leopold issued a circular to all crowned heads - calling attention to the position of the King of France in his capital. - On 20th May he had an interview with the Comte de Durfort, a secret - emissary from the Tuileries, at Mantua, and charged him to tell the - King and Queen of France that ‘he was going to concern himself with - their affairs, not in words, but in acts.’</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Flight to Varennes. 21st June 1791.</div> - - <p>The action of the Parisian mob on 18th April caused Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> - and Marie Antoinette to resolve to escape secretly from Paris, - since they were obviously prisoners and could not leave openly. - They determined, contrary to the advice so often given by Mirabeau, - and contrary also to the wishes of the Emperor and of his able - representative at the Hague, the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, who knew - France better than any living diplomatist, to fly towards the frontier. - Leopold, under the pretext of supporting his authority in Belgium - and Luxembourg, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> of his allies, the Elector-Archbishop of - Trèves and the Bishop of Liége, massed his troops upon the frontier in - readiness to succour or assist, and Bouillé, who commanded at Metz, - made preparations to have the part of his forces on which he could rely - ready to receive the fugitive monarch. On 20th June 1791 the royal - family left Paris by night, after the King had drawn up a declaration - protesting against the whole of the measures of the Constituent - Assembly, and disavowing them. The flight, from a combination of - circumstances, ended in the royal family being stopped at Varennes, - and being brought back to Paris in custody. It had the most momentous - results upon the history of the French Revolution, which are sometimes - disregarded in the recollection of the romantic circumstances attending - it.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Results of the Flight to Varennes.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Massacre of 17th July in Paris.</div> - - <p>The primary result of the flight to Varennes was the sudden - comprehension by France that Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was an unwilling - collaborator in the work of reconstituting the French government - on a new basis. Hitherto the people, and even the leaders of the - Constituent Assembly, had believed in his acquiescence, if not in his - hearty assistance. But the declaration, left behind on the occasion - of his flight, proved the contrary. The statesmen of the Constituent - Assembly, including the makers of the new Constitution, such as Le - Chapelier and Thouret, and the triumvirate of Duport, Barnave, and - Lameth, who, after Mirabeau’s death, were the undisputed leaders of - the majority, saw they had gone too far, and that in their desire to - weaken the royal authority, they had seriously weakened the executive, - and had made the King’s position intolerable. They therefore threw the - blame of the flight to Varennes on the subordinates in the scheme, - ignored the King’s declaration, and acted on the supposition that he - was misled by bad advisers. This attitude not being wholly approved - by the Jacobin Club, which, through its affiliated clubs in the - provinces, exercised the most powerful sway in the formation of public - opinion, the believers in the royal authority seceded and formed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> - Constitutional Club, or Club of 1789, which temporarily weakened - the power of the Jacobins in Paris. But this secession was entirely - sanctioned by the bourgeois classes both in Paris and throughout - France, who had the strongest interest in the maintenance of order, and - who sent in numerous declarations of their adhesion to the cause of - monarchy. Moreover, their chief representatives in arms, the National - Guard of Paris, under the command of Lafayette, had soon an opportunity - of giving practical proof of this loyal disposition. The Cordeliers - Club, which was chiefly influenced by Danton, a lawyer of Paris, who - had Mirabeau’s gift of seeing things as they really were, felt it - impossible to hush things up. They understood the King’s declaration - to mean a declaration of war against the new Constitution; his flight - to Varennes they rightly interpreted to show that he was trusting to - the intervention of foreign powers to re-establish him in his former - position; and they resolved to draw up a petition for his dethronement. - This petition was largely the work of Danton and of Brissot, a - pamphleteer and journalist, who had been imprisoned in the Bastille, - and had imbibed republican notions in America, and a large crowd - assembled to sign it on the Champ de Mars. Lafayette determined to - disperse this crowd, and the National Guard, under his command, fired - on the people, killing several persons. This vigorous measure, which - was intended to show the power of the party of order, was followed by - vigorous steps against the party for dethronement.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Revision of the Constitution.</div> - - <p>The leaders of the Cordeliers were proscribed. Danton and Marat fled - to England, and the party of order seemed triumphant. A revision of - the Constitution was undertaken, and various reactionary clauses, - specially directed against the press, the popular clubs or societies, - and the rights of assembly and of petition, were inserted. But this - new attitude of the Constituent Assembly had but a slight effect - upon France, for the king’s flight had caused the people in general - to believe that he was the enemy of their new-born<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> liberties, and a - traitor in league with foreign powers to overthrow them.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Effects of the Flight to Varennes.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Manifesto of Padua. 6th July 1791.</div> - - <p>The flight to Varennes proved to the people of France, as well as - to the monarchs and statesmen of Europe, that Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> - was a prisoner in Paris, and an enemy to the new settlement of the - government, as laid down by the Constitution in course of preparation. - The Emperor Leopold, as brother of Marie Antoinette, as Holy Roman - Emperor and supporter of dynastic legitimacy, as the leading monarch of - Europe, decided to intervene. On 6th July 1791 he issued the Manifesto - of Padua, in which he invited the sovereigns of Europe to join him in - declaring the cause of the King of France to be their own, in exacting - that he should be freed from all popular restraint, and in refusing - to recognise any constitutional laws as legitimately established in - France, except such as might be sanctioned by the King acting in - perfect freedom. The English Government paid little or no attention to - these requests of Leopold, but the Empress Catherine, and the Kings - of Prussia, Spain, and Sweden, for different reasons and in different - degrees, heartily accepted Leopold’s views, and armed intervention to - carry them into effect was suggested. But Leopold had no desire for - war. His policy since his accession had been distinctly in favour of - peace. He was a diplomatist, not a soldier, and he desired to frighten - France by threats, rather than to fight France for the liberty of Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and his family.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Declaration of Pilnitz, 27th Aug. 1791.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Completion of the Constitution.</div> - - <p>The sequel to the Manifesto of Padua was a conference at Pilnitz - between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> - of Prussia, accompanied by their ministers, in August 1791. At this - conference the King’s brothers, Monsieur, the Comte de Provence, - afterwards Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, who had escaped from France at the - time of the flight to Varennes, and the Comte d’Artois, afterwards - Charles <span class="smcap">X.</span>, who had fled in July 1789, at the epoch of the - capture of the Bastille, were present. They had their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> own aims to - serve. They were disgusted at the weak conduct, as they termed it, of - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> in yielding so far as he had done to the popular - wishes; they desired to undo the whole effect of the Revolution and - to restore the Bourbon monarchy in its ancient authority by the arms - of the monarchs of Europe. But Leopold did not care about the French - princes or the Bourbon monarchy. He cared rather for the safety of - his sister, Marie Antoinette, and the maintenance through her of the - Franco-Austrian alliance. In the Declaration of Pilnitz, which was - signed by the Emperor and the King of Prussia on 27th August 1791, the - two sovereigns declared that the situation of the King of France was an - object of interest common to all European monarchs, and that they hoped - other monarchs would use with them the most efficacious means to put - the King of France in a position to lay in perfect liberty the bases - of a monarchical government, suited alike to the rights of sovereigns - and the happiness of the French nation. Provided that other powers - would co-operate with them they were willing to act promptly, and - had therefore placed their armies on foot. These threats exasperated - but did not terrify the French people. Leopold had no intention of - entering upon hostilities, and found a loophole by which to escape from - declaring war in the acceptance by Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> of the completed - Constitution on 21st September 1791. He then solemnly withdrew his - pretensions to interfere in the internal affairs of France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Polish Constitution. 3d May 1791.</div> - - <p>While the first Constitution of France, sanctioning the representative - principle and the rights of the people, was being slowly built up in - the midst of troubles and intrigues in Paris, a not less remarkable - constitution was promulgated in Poland, manifesting the same ideas. - The partition of Poland in 1773 had proved to all patriotic Poles that - their independence as a nation was in the utmost peril. A serious - effort was therefore made to organise the country, and to place the - government on a settled and logical basis. The army was made national - instead of feudal;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> an attempt was made to establish a national system - of finance, and a scheme of national education was propounded and - partly carried into effect. But these measures were but steps in the - work of making Poland a nation, instead of a loose confederation of - nobles; the final decision was taken in 1788, when the Polish Diet - elected a Committee to draw up a new Constitution, raised the national - army to 60,000 men, and decreed regular taxes in order to replenish - the national treasury. This consciousness of nationality enabled - Stanislas Poniatowski, King of Poland, to negotiate as an independent - and powerful sovereign with Prussia in 1789, and to send his envoys to - Reichenbach in 1790 to act with the envoys of the other powers. The - leading member of the Polish Constitutional Committee was Kollontai, a - most remarkable man, and a Catholic priest, who had done good service - as Rector of the University of Cracow, which he reorganised, and - who had been made Vice-Grand-Chancellor of the kingdom. He was the - principal author of the Polish Constitution, which was accepted by the - Diet of Warsaw on 3d May 1791. This Constitution was noteworthy in what - it abolished and what it created. It abolished the elective monarchy, - the source of so many evils and intrigues, and declared the throne of - Poland hereditary in the House of Saxony in succession to Stanislas - Poniatowski, and it also abolished the <i>liberum veto</i>, which had - enabled one member of the Diet to thwart the wishes of the majority. It - created a regular government, conferring the legislative power on the - King, the Senate, and an elected Chamber, and the executive power on - the King, aided by six ministers responsible to the Legislature. The - cities were permitted to elect their judges and deputies to the Diet; - but the plague-spot of serfdom was too delicate to touch, and the Diet - only declared its willingness to sanction all arrangements made between - a lord and his serfs for the benefit of the latter. In some respects - this Constitution compares favourably with that of France drawn up at - the same time; if it does not proclaim so firmly the liberty of man, - it at any rate is free from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> lamentable fear of the power of the - executive, which vitiated the work of the French reformers. France - feared its executive after a long course of despotic monarchy; Poland - felt the need of a strong executive after a long history of anarchy. - Both countries, trying to be free, were affected in different ways, and - with very different results, by the intervention of foreign powers.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Legislative Assembly.</div> - - <p>The acceptance of the completed French Constitution was the signal - for the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. It was at once - succeeded by the Legislative Assembly, elected under the provisions - of the new Constitution. The new Assembly consisted, owing to a - self-denying ordinance passed in May 1791, on the proposition of - Robespierre, forbidding the election of deputies sitting in the - Constituent Assembly to its successor, of none but untried men, who - had no experience of politics. They were mostly young men who had - learned to talk in their local popular societies, and who at once - joined the mother of such societies, the Jacobin Club at Paris. They - were forbidden by a clause in the Constitution of 1791 to interfere - with constitutional questions, which could only be touched by a - Convention summoned for the purpose, and so could only interfere in - current politics and matters of administration. In such interference - they were justified by the position of powerlessness into which the - executive authority, the King and his ministers, were reduced by - the Constitution. The two burning questions which first came before - them were, the treatment of the clergy who had not taken the oath to - observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and of the <i>émigrés</i>. - Both questions gave plenty of opportunity for the display of fervid - revolutionary and patriotic eloquence, for the priests, who had not - taken the oath, were undisguisedly stirring up opposition to the - Revolution in the provinces, and the <i>émigrés</i> were forming an army - on the French frontier. And the Legislative Assembly was in a greater - degree than either its predecessor, the Constituent, or its successor, - the Convention, liable to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> be swayed by oratory. The deputies liked - to listen to glowing words and patriotic sentiments, and were largely - influenced by the speeches of three great orators, Vergniaud, Gensonné, - and Guadet, who all came from Bordeaux, the capital of the department - of the Gironde, and to whose supporters posterity has given the name of - Girondins. But these orators were in their turn influenced by a Norman - deputy, Brissot. This veteran pamphleteer was a sincere republican; - he also, having long been a journalist, believed himself a master - of foreign politics. He desired to bring about a war between France - and Austria. He believed that such a war would either cause the King - to throw in his lot heartily with the Revolution, or, what was more - likely, would make him declare himself openly against it, and would - thus enable the advanced democratic party to call him a traitor, and - by rousing all France against him, pave the way for his overthrow and - the establishment of a republic. The first step was taken to make Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> appear the opponent of the Revolution by passing a decree - against the priests, who had not taken the oath, which his conscience - would not permit him to sign; the second by passing a decree against - the <i>émigrés</i>, who were led by his own brothers, and an instruction - that he should ask the Emperor and the German princes on the Rhine to - prevent the <i>émigrés</i> from forming an army, and to expel them if they - did so.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Approach of War between France and the Emperor.</div> - - <p>The question of the expediency of war with Austria was soon taken - up in France, and not only the Legislative Assembly but the popular - clubs busied themselves in discussing it. The Declaration of - Pilnitz exasperated the whole nation, which resented dictation or - interference in the internal affairs of France, and the warlike and - menacing attitude of the army of <i>émigrés</i>, which had been formed by - the Prince de Condé on the French frontier at Worms, increased the - universal wrath. Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, whose ministers had been but - feeble figure-heads during the Constituent Assembly, at this juncture - appointed the Comte de Narbonne, a young man of distinguished ability, - to be Minister for War. Narbonne<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> grasped the situation. He saw the - people wished for war, and he therefore declared that the King was as - patriotic as his subjects, and was also ready for war if satisfaction - were not given to France. Three large armies were formed and placed - upon the frontiers under the command of Generals Rochambeau, Lückner, - and Lafayette, of whom the two former were created Marshals of France. - By this policy Narbonne took the wind out of the sails of Brissot and - the Girondins; he hoped that if the Austrian war was successful the - King would be sufficiently strengthened in popularity to regain his - authority as head of the executive; while, if it failed, the nation - in its extremity would turn to its legitimate sovereign and invest - him with dictatorial power. The leaders of the democratic party in - Paris, which had been scattered by Lafayette in July 1791, saw this - equally clearly with Narbonne, and therefore opposed the war with all - their might. The Jacobin Club had become their headquarters; most of - the deputies who came up from the provinces joined the mother society - in Paris, and it soon became more powerful than ever in creating - public opinion. The effect of the secession and consequent formation - of the Club of 1789 only made the Jacobins more frankly democratic, - while the presence of many of its members in the Legislative Assembly - strengthened the influence of the Jacobin Club. It was in the Jacobin - Club during the debates on the war that the difference between what - were to be the Girondin and the Mountain parties in the Convention - first appeared. Brissot and the Girondin orators argued in favour of - war; while Marat, Danton, and still more Robespierre, whose career in - the Constituent Assembly had made him exceedingly popular, opposed it. - The last-mentioned orator was indeed the chief opponent of the war; he - saw through Narbonne’s schemes, and hinted that the projected war was - merely a court intrigue to promote the power of the King. The political - strife became personal, and Robespierre, Marat, and Danton became the - sworn foes of Brissot and the Girondins.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Causes of war between France and the Emperor.</div> - - <p>The main causes of the war were the questions of the rights of the - Princes of the Empire in Alsace and of the <i>émigrés</i>. The defence of - the former rights as rights of the Empire had been pressed upon Leopold - at the time of his election as Emperor, and on 26th April 1791 the - Prince of Thurn and Taxis, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet - to meet. It assembled, and after a long discussion a <i>conclusum</i> was - arrived at, that the Empire maintained the Treaties of Westphalia and - of the eighteenth century now violated by France, and requested the - Emperor to take severe measures against the revolutionary propaganda. - The Emperor Leopold, as sovereign of Austria, had withdrawn from the - position he had taken up at Pilnitz, but as Emperor he was obliged - to submit this <i>conclusum</i> of the Diet to the King of France, which - he did in a strongly-worded despatch drawn up by the Chancellor - Kaunitz, which was laid before the Legislative Assembly on 3d December - 1791. It was as Emperor also that Leopold defended the conduct of - the border princes of the Empire, notably the Elector-Archbishops of - Trèves, Cologne, and Mayence, and the Bishops of Spires and Worms, in - sheltering French <i>émigrés</i>. On 29th November 1791 the Assembly had - desired the King to write to the Emperor and to these border princes - protesting against the enlistment of troops by the <i>émigrés</i>, and the - Emperor’s answer defending the conduct of the princes concerned was - read to the Assembly on 14th December. The replies of Leopold were - referred to the Diplomatic Committee, and on its report, the Assembly - resolved on 25th January 1792 that the Emperor should be requested to - explain his attitude towards France and to promise to undertake nothing - against her independence in forming her own constitution and settling - her own mode of government before 1st March 1792, and that an evasive - or unsatisfactory reply should be considered as annulling the Treaty of - 1756 and as an act of hostility. The answer to this demand, which was - drafted by Kaunitz, was read to the Assembly on 1st March; it censured - the course which was being taken by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> France, stigmatised the Revolution - and accused the Jacobins of fomenting anarchy, and its first results - were the dismissal of Narbonne, the impeachment of De Lessart, the - Foreign Minister, and the formation of a Girondin ministry.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Death of Leopold, 1st March 1792.</div> - - <p>In the position he had taken up the Emperor Leopold was generally - supported. The Princes of the Empire, as was represented in their - <i>conclusum</i> passed at the Diet, not only resented the interference - of France with historic rights in Alsace and her dictation as to - whom they should shelter, but were beginning to fear the contagion - of the revolutionary conceptions of the rights of man and political - liberty. Throughout the Rhine provinces the peasants had risen in - partial rebellion against their lords; in all the great cities of - western Germany the more enlightened bourgeois protested against - their exclusion from political influence. This contagion, however, - did not spread far in these early days. The Empress Catherine, the - King of Prussia, and the King of Sweden, who chiefly urged Leopold to - make a brave stand against the Legislative Assembly, were urged by - other motives. Catherine wished to see Austria and Prussia embroiled - with France so as to have her hands free to deal with the Poles, who - seemed likely with their new Constitution to ward off destruction. - Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> was disgusted by the disrespect shown - to the principle of monarchy by the Parisians’ treatment of Louis - <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> had imbibed a knightly admiration - for Marie Antoinette, and felt a personal desire to relieve her from - her position of humiliation. Each monarch showed his inclination - characteristically. Catherine received some French <i>émigrés</i>, who - found their way to her distant court, with kindness, and dismissed - the French ambassador; Gustavus hurried to Spa to consult with the - French <i>émigrés</i>, and proposed an immediate expedition to carry off - the French court; Frederick William signed an offensive and defensive - alliance with the Emperor on 2d February 1792, which saved him the - trouble of personal decision, and left to the Emperor the harassing - business of arranging the details of the war and of so carrying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> out - the necessary diplomatic negotiations which preceded an open rupture, - that the interference of the powers should seem justified. In the - midst of his preparations the Emperor Leopold died suddenly on 1st - March 1792, the very day on which his last manifesto was read to the - Legislative Assembly. His death was an irreparable blow for Austria, - for Germany, for France, and for Europe. In his short reign he had - shown himself to be a monarch of extraordinary ability, possessing - alike singular tact and great force of character. He was succeeded - in the hereditary dominions of the House of Hapsburg by his eldest - son Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span>, an inexperienced youth, quite unfitted to - continue Leopold’s policy in the troublous times approaching.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Murder of Gustavus III. 29th March 1792.</div> - - <p>Europe had hardly recovered from the shock of the Emperor’s sudden - death, when it was startled by the news of the murder of Gustavus - <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Sweden, who was shot on his way from a masked ball - at Stockholm by an officer named Ankarström, on 16th March 1792. He - lingered till 29th March, when he died, and was succeeded on the throne - of Sweden by his infant son, Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span> Duke Charles of - Sudermania was appointed Regent. He at once reversed the policy of the - late king; he felt none of the sympathy so warmly expressed by Gustavus - <span class="smcap">III.</span> for Marie Antoinette, and he distrusted the close - alliance which had been entered into with Russia after the Treaty of - Verela. His first measure was to place Sweden in a position of absolute - neutrality, from which she never swerved during his tenure of power.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Policy of Dumouriez.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">War declared by France against Austria. 20th April 1792.</div> - - <p>Of the ministers who came into office in France in March 1792 through - the influence of the Girondins in the Legislative Assembly, the most - notable were Roland and Dumouriez. The former was a sincere republican, - who was induced by his wife to take up an offensive attitude to the - King, the latter an experienced soldier and diplomatist, who was well - fitted for the ministry of foreign affairs. Dumouriez at once accepted - war with Austria as inevitable, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> directed all his efforts to - isolate her. He was a sworn enemy of the Austrian alliance, entered - into by the Treaty of 1756, and cemented by the marriage of Marie - Antoinette, and his first step was to endeavour to detach Prussia. He - was sanguine enough to believe in the possibility of doing this, but - he did not understand the character of Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> - It was difficult to induce that monarch to make up his mind, but when - he did make it up he was obstinate. The French party at his Court, - headed by his uncle Prince Henry, and in his ministry, represented - by Haugwitz, was very strong; but, on the other hand, he had been - convinced by Leopold that the cause of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was the - cause of monarchy, and the German party at Berlin hinted that if he - allowed Austria to pose as the defender of the rights of the Empire by - herself, the policy of Frederick the Great to make Prussia the leader - of Germany would be undone. Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, therefore, - listened coldly to the overtures of Dumouriez, and made preparations - to support his ally in the field. On 20th April 1792 the Legislative - Assembly assented almost unanimously to the King’s proposition, as read - by Dumouriez, to declare war against the King of Hungary and Bohemia, - as Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span> was at this time styled, and the great war, - which was to rage with but slight intermissions for twenty-three years, - began.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Invasion of the Tuileries. 20th June 1792.</div> - - <p>The commencement of the first campaign of 1792 proved how thoroughly - the French army had been disorganised and demoralised by the policy of - the Constituent Assembly and the general course of the Revolution. An - attempt was made to invade the Austrian Netherlands or Belgium on four - lines; but one column was seized with panic and rushed back to Lille, - murdering its general, Theobald Dillon. The other commanders found - their soldiers filled with a spirit of distrust for their officers - and hardly amenable to discipline, and it soon became obvious that - France would have to stand on the defensive. This news profoundly - moved the people of France and especially of Paris. The word treachery - was freely used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> in connection with the Court, and it was asserted - that the plan of campaign had been revealed to the Austrians by the - Queen. This was true; Marie Antoinette had always looked to Austrian - help to rescue her from her position, and Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> had now - entirely come round to her view. At this juncture he dismissed his - Girondin ministers on their insisting upon his signing a decree, which - had been passed by the Assembly ordering the deportation of priests - who had not taken the oath, and even accepted the resignation of the - ablest of them, Dumouriez, who had offered to form a new ministry. The - populace of Paris was intensely excited by the failure of the attack - on Belgium, the concentration of the Prussian army on the frontier, - and the dismissal of the popular ministers, and a body of petitioners, - after filing through the hall of the Assembly, burst into the Tuileries - and for some hours filled the palace, insulting the King and Queen and - forcing the former to put on a red cap of liberty. The invasion of the - Tuileries marked the final breach between the King and the people. - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> longed more ardently than ever for the arrival - of the allied monarchs; and the Jacobin leaders, who perceived the - impossibility that France should be successful in war with an unwilling - king at her head, began to plot for his overthrow. His last chance - was lost, when he rejected the proffered assistance of Lafayette, who - returned from his army without leave and offered to bring the National - Guard of Paris to his help.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Francis II. Emperor. 14th July 1792.</div> - - <p>The news of the invasion of the Tuileries by the mob on the 20th June - further decided the allied monarchs to take immediate action. Francis - <span class="smcap">II.</span>, who was crowned Emperor at Frankfort on 14th July 1792, - was eager to come to his aunt’s help. The position of the allies was - now reversed. Instead of Austria in the person of the experienced - Emperor Leopold guiding Prussia, it was now Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span> of Prussia who directed the policy of the young Emperor - Francis. It was arranged that the Prussians should invade Champagne,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> - supported by a <i>corps</i> of Austrians and <i>émigrés</i> on their left, and - joined midway by a <i>corps</i> of Austrians from their right, while an - Austrian army under Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen was to march from the - Netherlands and invest Lille. The central Prussian army was placed - under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, who issued a proclamation, - drafted by an <i>émigré</i>, M. de Limon, and filled with violent language - by Count Fersen, threatening to hold Paris liable for the safety of the - King, and vowing vengeance on the French people as rebels.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Insurrection of 10th Aug. 1792.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Suspension of Louis XVI. 10th Aug. 1792.</div> - - <p>Brunswick’s proclamation was the very thing to complete the - exasperation of the French people. National patriotism rose to its - height; the country had been declared in danger, and thousands of - volunteers were arming and preparing to go to the front; the threats - of the Prussians only increased the national spirit of resistance; and - the universal feeling was one of defiance. But there was obviously no - chance of success while the executive remained in its present hands. - The King’s power of interfering with the preparations for resistance - had to be stopped. This was clearly understood by the democratic - leaders, who, ever since 20th June 1792, had been organising an armed - rising. They waited till some volunteers from Marseilles entered the - capital, singing the song that bears their name, and then they struck. - The royal plans for the defence of the Tuileries were thwarted; a - number of the most energetic democrats ousted the Council-General of - the Commune of Paris, and formed an Insurrectionary Commune; and the - men of the poorer districts of Paris, the Faubourgs Saint-Antoine - and Saint-Marceau, headed by the Marseillais, advanced to attack the - royal palace. Before the assault commenced, Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, - accompanied by his family and his ministers, took refuge in the hall - of the Legislative Assembly. The attack was gallantly resisted by the - Swiss Guards, who garrisoned the palace, but the people were eventually - successful and the Tuileries was taken. The Legislative Assembly at - once declared the King suspended from his office,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> and ordered him - to be confined with his family in the Temple. It then elected a new - ministry, consisting of three of the former Girondin ministers, Roland, - Clavière, and Servan for the Interior, Finance, and War, and three new - men, Danton, Monge, and Lebrun for Justice, the Marine, and Foreign - Affairs. This ministry, with the help of an extraordinary Commission - of Twenty-one, elected by the Legislative, and of the Commune of - Paris, displayed the greatest energy. By means of domiciliary visits, - those suspected of opposition to the insurrection of 10th August were - seized and imprisoned; a camp was formed for the defence of Paris; - men were everywhere raised and equipped and sent to the front; and - commissioners were sent throughout France, and especially to the - armies, to tell the tale of the insurrection and to secure the adhesion - of the people. Danton was the heart and soul of the defence movement - and of the ministry, and inspired confidence and patriotism into those - who hesitated; the Commission of Twenty-one, whose mouthpiece was the - great orator Vergniaud, aided him to the best of their power; the - Legislative directed the convocation of the primary assemblies, without - distinction of active and passive citizens, for the election of a - National Convention; and the Commune of Paris took measures to prevent - any attempt at a counter-revolution.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Desertion of Lafayette.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Massacres of September 1792.</div> - - <p>But no amount of energy and patriotism could in a moment make trained - armies and enable France to repulse the most famous troops in Europe. - Fortunately for France, in this crisis, her untrained soldiers behaved - admirably. Lafayette, on the news of the insurrection of 10th August, - arrested the commissioners sent to him by the Legislative Assembly, - and endeavoured to induce his army to march to the aid of the King. - But his men refused; the former commander of the National Guard of - Paris deserted, and Dumouriez took command of his army. Lille made a - gallant resistance to the Austrians, who had formed the siege, but the - Prussians met with no such obstinate opposition. Longwy surrendered - to them on 27th August, and Verdun on 2nd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> September, and they - continued their march directly on Paris. Dumouriez fell back with - his main army to defend the uplands,—they can hardly be called the - mountains,—of the Argonne. He summoned to him the <i>corps d’armée</i> on - the Belgian frontier under Arther Dillon, and a detachment from the - Army of the Rhine under Kellermann, while he was also reinforced by - some thousands of undisciplined, and therefore useless, volunteers, - and by a fine division of old soldiers collected from the garrisons - in the interior. In Paris the news of the Prussian advance caused a - panic; it seemed impossible that Dumouriez’ hastily concentrated army - could oppose an effective resistance; and even Danton and Vergniaud - could hardly keep up the enthusiasm they had at first aroused. At this - juncture the Parisian volunteers were half afraid to go to the front - for fear that the numerous prisoners, arrested during the domiciliary - visits, would break out and revenge themselves on the families of the - volunteers. This feeling induced the horrible series of murders, known - as the Massacres of September, in the prisons. The massacres began - fortuitously, and there were not more than 200 murderers at work; but - the crowd, including national guards, stood by and saw them committed - without raising a hand to help the victims. All Paris was responsible - for the murders; they could have been easily stopped; but no one - wanted to check them: the feeling which allowed them was the popular - feeling; neither Danton, nor Roland, nor the Commune of Paris, nor the - Legislative Assembly cared to interfere; the massacres were the answer - to the Prussian advance and the capture of Longwy, as the insurrection - of 10th August was the reply to Brunswick’s manifesto.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Valmy. 20th Sept. 1792.</div> - - <p>On 20th September 1792 the main Prussian army, which had reached the - Argonne, attacked the position occupied by Kellermann at Valmy, and - was repulsed. The victory was not a great one; the battle was not very - hotly contested; the losses on both sides were insignificant; but its - results both military and political were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> immense. The King of Prussia, - who complained that the Austrians had not fulfilled their engagements, - and that the whole burden was thrown on him, was easily persuaded by - the Duke of Brunswick to order a retreat. The Duke of Brunswick was - induced to give that advice from military considerations, in that his - army was wasted by disease and harassed by the inclement weather, - and from policy, because, like many Prussian officers, he considered - it unnatural for Prussians and Austrians to fight side by side. The - retiring army was not hotly pressed; Dumouriez still hoped to induce - Prussia to quit the coalition against France, and pursued with more - courtesy than vigour until the army of Brunswick was beyond the limits - of French territory.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Meeting of the Convention. 20th Sep. 1792.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Parties in the Convention.</div> - - <p>On the day of the battle, or as it is with more correctness termed the - cannonade, of Valmy, the National Convention met in Paris and assumed - the direction of affairs. It contained all the most distinguished men - who had sat in the two former assemblies on the Left, or democratic - side, and its first act was to declare France a Republic. After - this had been unanimously carried, dissensions at once arose, and a - fundamental difference between two groups of deputies appeared, which - threatened to end in the proscription of the one or the other. On - the one side were the distinguished orators of the Gironde, who have - given their name to the whole party, reinforced by the presence of - several old members of the Constituent Assembly and of a few young and - inexperienced men. This group was roughly divided into Buzotins and - Brissotins, or followers of Buzot, a leading ex-Constituant, and of - Brissot, the author of the war; but some of the greatest of them, like - Vergniaud, refused to ally themselves with either leader. The chief - meeting-place of the Buzotins, who included most of the younger men, - was Madame Roland’s salon. On the other side, taking their name from - the high benches on which they sat, were the deputies of the Mountain, - including almost the whole of the representatives of Paris, and all - the energetic republicans, who had brought about the insurrection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> - of 10th August. This group comprised Robespierre, Danton and Marat, - Collot-d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, all deputies for Paris, and none - of whom, except Robespierre, had ever sat in either of the former - assemblies, with some leaders of the extreme party in the Legislative, - Merlin of Thionville, Chabot and Basire. It was not long before open - quarrels arose between the two groups. The Girondins accused the - leaders of the Mountain of having in the Insurrectionary Commune - fomented the massacres of September in the prisons, and abused them - as sanguinary and ambitious anarchists. This accusation was formally - indeed brought against Robespierre by Louvet, a Rolandist Girondin, - in an elaborate attack delivered on 29th October; while at the same - time the Mountain accused the Girondins of being federalists and - desiring to destroy the essential unity of the Republic, an accusation - which was used with deadly effect at a later date. Both groups,—they - cannot be called parties, for they had no party ties and recognised no - party obligations,—appealed to the great majority of the Convention, - the deputies of the Centre, who sat in the Plain or Marsh. The - representative of this vast majority was Barère, an ex-Constituant, who - trimmed judiciously between the two opposing groups.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Conquest of Savoy and Nice.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Capture of Mayence. 21st October 1792.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Jemmappes. 6th Nov. 1792.</div> - - <p>The Convention, which had been elected in days of deepest dejection, if - not despair, when the Prussians were moving on Paris and the Austrians - were besieging Lille, was soon raised by a succession of conquests to a - state of patriotic exaltation, bordering on delirium. In the month of - September, just after the battle of Valmy, General Montesquiou occupied - Savoy, and General Anselme the county and city of Nice, territories - belonging to the King of Sardinia, without striking a blow. This was - followed by a more important series of successes. Though not as a - body engaged in war with France, many princes of the Empire had sent - contingents to the aid of the Prussians and Austrians. In reply, still - without declaring war on the Empire, the French attacked the Rhenish - princes. On 1st October General<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> Custine, commanding a corps of the - Army of the Rhine, took Spires, on October 4 Worms, and on October - 21 Mayence, one of the bulwarks of the Empire and the capital of the - Elector-Archbishop. From Mayence Custine detached divisions in other - directions, and held the wealthy city of Frankfort-on-the-Main to - ransom. Not less startlingly rapid were the conquests of Dumouriez on - the north-east frontier. After the retreat of the Prussians he turned - north against the Austrians; he raised the siege of Lille, which had - been heroically defended, and on 6th November he defeated the Austrians - in a pitched battle at Jemmappes, near Mons. This victory laid Belgium - open to him. He occupied the whole country, entered Brussels as a - conqueror, and established his headquarters at Liége. The conquest of - Belgium intoxicated the Convention; they believed their armies to be - invincible; they regarded themselves as having a mission to carry the - doctrines of the French Revolution as embodied in the Rights of Man - and the Sovereignty of the People into all countries; they declared - themselves on 19th November ready to wage war for all peoples upon all - kings; and in disregard of all international obligations, they declared - the Scheldt, which by treaty had been closed to commerce for years, a - free river, because it had its source in a free country.</p> - - <p>The intoxication which followed this series of unparalleled successes - blinded the Convention to the need of improving and disciplining their - troops. The French republicans did not comprehend that the chief cause - of the facile conquests of their armies was that they met with the - sympathy of the conquered. Belgium, the Rhine provinces, Savoy, and - Nice were all filled with revolutionary enthusiasm, and welcomed the - French as liberators; they requested to be united to France, when - primary assemblies were summoned by the French commissioners, and - on 9th November Savoy and Nice, and on 13th December the Austrian - Netherlands or Belgium, were declared a part of France. In spite of - these military<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> successes, the republican army could not be organised - in a day; the seeds of anarchy sown by the Constituent had gone too - deep to enable discipline to be restored except by sharp measures; the - administration of the army, that is, the commissariat, the war office, - etc., was in a state of chaos; the soldiers, both officers and men, - of all the armies, kept their eyes too closely fixed on the course of - politics in Paris to do their duty efficiently at the front.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Execution of Louis XVI. 21st Jan. 1793.</div> - - <p>The burning question which divided the Convention at the end of 1792 - was the treatment to be meted out to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> Robespierre - urged that, as a political measure, he should be put to death; but the - Girondins, filled with an idea of imitating the English republicans - of the seventeenth century, decided on a royal trial. When the trial, - which was but a defence of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> by his counsel, was - over, the Girondins, in their desire to avoid responsibility, or - perhaps from a genuine belief that it might save the King’s life, - proposed that the sentence on him should be submitted to the primary - assemblies of the people. The deputies of the Mountain feared no - responsibility, and taunted the Girondins with being concealed - royalists. The motion for an appeal to the people was rejected; the - King was sentenced to death by a small majority; and on 21st January - 1793 Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was guillotined at Paris.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">War with Spain, Holland, England, and the Empire.</div> - - <p>The result of the execution of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> was to give a - pretext to the countries of Europe which had not yet declared war - against the French Republic to do so. Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> of Spain, - in the hope of saving the chief of the Bourbon family, maintained his - minister at Paris until the last possible moment, and it was with - reluctance that he placed his army in the field on the news of the - King’s execution. The French Republic accepted the challenge, and early - in March declared war against Spain. The war with Holland stood on a - different basis. Dumouriez, after his conquest of Belgium, looked on - Holland as an easy and particularly wealthy prey. He believed that by - conquering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> Holland, France would have in her hands a means of forcing - England to keep the peace. His views were supported by Danton, who - was sent on mission to Dumouriez’ headquarters. The contrary was the - result. Pitt sincerely wished for peace, and was essentially a peace - minister, but he had no idea of allowing the faithful ally of England, - Holland, to be overrun and held to ransom by the French. The opening - of the Scheldt had crowned the long series of French breaches of - international law, and Pitt resented the assumption of the Convention - that the law of nature, as interpreted by themselves, was to take - the place of the law of nations. Pitt’s hand was also forced in two - directions; the philippics of Burke had roused the fears of English - property-holders against the spread of French principles; and George - <span class="smcap">III.</span> was as anxious as any Continental monarch to preserve the - dignity of kings. Pitt and his foreign minister, Grenville, gradually - became convinced that the French meant to fight England, and that war - was inevitable, and Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was ordered to - leave London. The French leaders were under a misconception with regard - to the spread of their ideas in England; they knew that a large body of - educated men sympathised with them, and expected a national democratic - rising which should overthrow not only Pitt, but the English monarchy. - They did not understand that an English parliamentary opposition, in - spite of its words, is as staunchly loyal as the ministry, and that it - would never foment or encourage insurrection. Under these circumstances - and deluded by these misconceptions France declared war against England - and Holland on 1st February 1793. Many smaller nations entered on - the fray. Sweden under the prudent government of the Regent Duke of - Sudermania, Denmark under Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span> and Bernstorff, - and Switzerland declared their neutrality. But Portugal, where the - heir-apparent, afterwards King John <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, had become regent - for his mother, Maria Francisca, who was insane; Tuscany, whose Grand - Duke, Ferdinand, was a brother of the Emperor; Naples, or rather the - Two Sicilies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> whose king was a Bourbon, and whose queen was a sister - of Marie Antoinette, all declared war on the French Republic. Catherine - of Russia wore mourning for Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> inveighed against the - wickedness of the French republicans, and proceeded to take advantage - of the occupation of the rest of Europe in the affairs of France to - prosecute her schemes on Poland. Last of all, the Holy Roman Empire, - which had decreed the armament of the contingents of the circles, on - 23d November 1792, after the news of the capture of Mayence, solemnly, - and with all the circumlocution inseparable from the movement of the - unwieldy machine, declared war against France on 22d March 1793.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Catherine invades Poland.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Second partition of Poland. 24th Sept. 1793.</div> - - <p>While regenerated France was at bay with nearly the whole of Europe, - regenerated Poland was being conquered by a single power. While Europe - pretended to fight France on behalf of the principle of monarchy, - Catherine invaded Poland, because by the Constitution of 3d May 1791 - it had strengthened its monarchy. France was attacked because it was - asserted to be in a state of anarchy, Poland because it had by wise - reforms tried to put an end to an historic system of constitutional - anarchy. As soon as Catherine had made peace with the Turks at Jassy, - and Austria and Prussia were engaged in war with France, she intervened - to overthrow the new Polish Constitution. It was not difficult to find - Polish nobles who resented the abrogation of the old system, and, - under Catherine’s encouragement, Branicki, Felix Potocki, and some - others formed the Confederation of Targovitsa, and protested against - the abolition of the <i>liberum veto</i> and the reforms of 3d May 1791. - They then asked Catherine to send a Russian army to their assistance. - She willingly complied, and on 18th May 1792 published a manifesto, - stating that she was the guarantor of the ancient Polish Constitution, - and stigmatising the reformers of 1791 as Jacobins. Suvórov at once - entered Poland at the head of 80,000 Russians and 20,000 Cossacks, and - by force of numbers defeated the Polish army under Joseph<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> Poniatowski - at Zielencé on 18th June 1792, and under Kosciuszko at Dubienka on 17th - July. These defeats caused the reformers of 1791, including Kollontai - and Kosciuszko, to go into exile; their place at the Diet was taken by - the leaders of the Confederation of Targovitsa, and the Constitution - of 3d May 1791 was abrogated. The conquest of the Polish patriots by - Russia greatly excited the King of Prussia and the Emperor, and was one - of the causes which induced Frederick William to order Brunswick to - retreat after his trifling check at Valmy. The Polish patriots appealed - to Prussia for help under the terms of the alliance of 1790, but the - King only answered that he had not recognised the Constitution of 3d - May 1791, and that the Polish leaders were Jacobins and imitators and - allies of the French revolutionary leaders. A Prussian army, therefore, - entered Poland to co-operate with the Russians and to share the spoil. - A treaty of partition was signed by Catherine and Frederick William - on 4th January 1793, by which Russia was to annex eastern Poland, - including the whole of Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia, and Little Russia, and - Prussia was to have Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch, and the cities of Dantzic - and Thorn. Austria was too hotly engaged in the war with France to - be able to claim a share, but the conduct of Prussia at this time in - excluding her from the partition of Poland was never forgotten nor - forgiven, and increased the hereditary feeling of distrust between - the two powers. The Emperor Francis regarded himself as duped, and - Prussia by acting alone broke the solemn engagements entered into with - Leopold, and commenced the policy which was to end in the conclusion - of the Treaty of Basle with the French Republic. Though the second - partition of Poland was agreed upon in 1792, it was not consummated - until the following year. A Diet was called at Grodno, and there, in - the presence of the Russian soldiers, Stanislas Poniatowski and the - Diet consented in silence, on 24th September 1793, to the arrangements - made between Russia and Prussia. On 16th October Catherine signed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> - treaty, guaranteeing the liberty of Poland, that is, the abuses of the - old Constitution, which were certain to give Russia the opportunity - of finishing the work of blotting out the Poles as an independent - nationality from the map of Europe.</p> - - <p>The close of the year 1792 thus witnessed at the same time the - overthrow of Poland and France in arms against foreign aggression. - Each country was to make a violent effort for independence. The French - were to be successful, because under the influence of personal and - political freedom every Frenchman felt it his duty to resist foreign - interference; Poland was to fail, because it was not the Polish people, - but only the enlightened Polish nobles and bourgeois, who appreciated - the situation.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_IV"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> - <h2>CHAPTER IV<br /><span class="large">1793–1795</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">France at War with Europe—Altered Character of the War—The - Revolutionary Propaganda—First Campaign of 1793—Battle of - Neerwinden—Desertion of Dumouriez—Creation of the Committee - of Public Safety—Insurrection in La Vendée—Creation of - the Revolutionary Tribunal—Struggle between the Girondins - and the Mountain—Overthrow of the Girondins—Second - Campaign of 1793—Loss of Valenciennes and Mayence—Civil - War in France—Royalist and Federalist Risings—Loss - of Toulon—Constitution of 1793—The work of the first - Committee of Public Safety—The Great Committee of Public - Safety—Growth of its Power—Position of Robespierre—The Reign - of Terror—The Committee of General Security, the Deputies - on Mission, the Revolutionary Tribunal, the Laws of the - Suspects and the Maximum—Results of the Terror—Battles - of Hondschoten, Wattignies, and the Geisberg—Relief of - Maubeuge—Recovery of Lyons and Toulon—Fall of the Hébertists - and the Dantonists—Campaign of 1794—Battles of Fleurus, - Kaiserslautern, and 1st June 1794—Fall of Robespierre—Rule - of the Thermidorians: First Phase: the Survivors of the - Mountain—Conquest of Holland—The Batavian Republic—Successes - on the Rhine, in Savoy, Italy, and Spain—Insurrection - in Poland—The Campaign of Kosciuszko—Third and Final - Partition of Poland—Contrast between the Polish and - French Revolutions—Its Causes—Change in the Attitude of - the Continental Powers to the French Republic—Rule of the - Thermidorians: Second Phase: the Survivors of the Girondins - and Deputies of the Centre—Insurrections of 12th Germinal - and 1st Prairial in Paris—The Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">iii.</span> (1795)—The Treaties of Basle—France again - enters the Comity of Nations.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">France at War with Europe.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> first months of 1793 found France at war with Europe. Though - such minor states as Denmark and Sweden and Venice declared their - neutrality, they manifested no desire to assist the French Republic, - and their neutrality was but of slight service. It was otherwise <span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>with - the neutrality of Switzerland. The Swiss cantons had nearly been drawn - into the general war by the support given to the revolutionary party - in the Republic of Geneva by the French ministry, which included among - its members Clavière, a Genevese exile. The canton of Berne went so - far as to occupy the city of Geneva, and it was only by the exercise - of much diplomatic skill that open war was avoided. The neutrality of - Switzerland made the land blockade of the French Republic of no avail. - Through secret agents in Switzerland, arms, provisions, and necessaries - were obtained from Southern Germany, and diplomatic relations were - maintained with the democrats residing in the states of the belligerent - powers. The declaration of war by the Holy Roman Empire completed the - armed opposition of the greater countries of Europe against France. - Of these countries Russia alone sent no army or fleet against the - Republic, and Catherine satisfied herself with stating that she was - engaged in conquering Jacobins in Poland.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Altered character of the War.</div> - - <p>The character of the war in 1793 differed from that waged in 1792. - In 1792 France was invaded on behalf of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, and - the fighting was carried on according to the principles which had - existed in the eighteenth century. But in 1793 the powers were at - war with France for a different and more far-reaching reason. The - revolutionary propaganda, that is, the idea consecrated in the decree - of the Convention on the 19th of November 1792, that France was to - spread among all countries the new doctrines of liberty, equality, and - fraternity, vitally affected every government in Europe. England in - particular, which had studiously kept aloof while the Revolution was - pursuing its course at home, only felt obliged to interfere when the - new rulers of France announced their intention of disregarding all - principles of international law, and of converting other nations to - their doctrines. It was this common opposition to the revolutionary - propaganda which united the powers of Europe against France in 1793. - England made herself the paymaster<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> of the coalition. She lavished - money freely, not only in subsidies to Prussia and Austria, but to less - important countries, such as Spain and Sardinia. With this community - of aim necessarily came a community of action. The war against France - became a matter of principle and not of intrigue. This new attitude - was marked by changes of ministry both in Prussia and in Austria. - The failure of the invasion of 1792 disgusted Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span> with his advisers. The Duke of Brunswick fell into open - disgrace, and Schulemburg, the foreign minister, made way for Haugwitz. - At Vienna, Count Philip Cobenzl, the Vice-Chancellor of State, who had - managed foreign affairs owing to the old age of Kaunitz, was dismissed, - and his place was taken by Thugut, a man of low origin, whose sole - political object was the humiliation of France, and his guiding - principle a horror of French principles. Even in the secondary states - similar ministerial changes took place, of which the most remarkable - was the dismissal of Aranda in Spain, who was succeeded in power by - Godoy, the Queen’s lover.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">First Campaign of 1793.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Neerwinden. 21st March 1793.</div> - - <p>The first result of the formation of the coalition was a determined - attack upon Dumouriez’ position in Belgium. That general had hitherto - not despaired of detaching Prussia from Austria, but the execution of - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> destroyed his last hope. Both Prussia and England - declined to listen to his lavish promises; his army had wasted away - while in winter quarters; the first volunteers returned to their homes - in thousands when France was freed from the invaders; the troops he - retained were deprived of all necessaries by the disorganisation - of the French War Office; and the people of Belgium, finding that - their country was annexed to the French Republic, in spite of their - patriotic desire for independence, showed their hostility in every - way, and harassed instead of aiding the French troops. Under these - circumstances, Dumouriez’ invasion of Holland failed, as it was certain - to fail. His right wing, which was besieging Maestricht under the - command of General Miranda, was defeated by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> Austrians under the - command of the Prince of Coburg, and he had to withdraw his advanced - divisions, for fear of being cut off from France. He was rapidly - pursued. An English army, under the Duke of York, joined the Austrians, - under the Prince of Coburg, and Dumouriez was utterly defeated by - the allies at Neerwinden on the 21st March 1793. The defeat became a - rout, and the French were driven from Belgium as speedily as they had - conquered it. Dumouriez then made a fruitless effort to lead his army - against the Convention. He arrested four deputies and the Minister for - War who had been sent to suspend him from his command, but, finding - that his army would not follow him, he deserted to the Austrians on the - 5th April.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Effect on the Convention.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Committee of Public Safety.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Insurrection in La Vendée. 1793.</div> - - <p>The effect of Dumouriez’ reverses, and, finally, of his desertion, - on the temper of the Convention was most striking. The enthusiasts - who believed in the inauguration of a new era, who boasted that free - Frenchmen, even without arms and discipline, would be able to defeat - all foreign armies, and who considered that the career of the Republic - was certain to be one of victory, were rudely awakened. The need of - the creation of a strong government was forced upon the attention of - the Convention. Danton, recurring to the views of Mirabeau, proposed - that a new ministry should be chosen from among the members of the - Legislature. But the republicans had the same horror of the power - of the executive as the constitutionalists, and Danton’s motion was - rejected. Nevertheless, it was quite impossible that an unwieldy - assembly and a discredited ministry could defend France with any - degree of success. As early as January 1793, a Committee of General - Defence had been elected by the principal committees of the Convention; - this was replaced, on the news of the defeat at Neerwinden, by a - Committee of General Defence of twenty-five members chosen directly - by the Convention; this was still too unwieldy, and on the news of - the desertion of Dumouriez, the first Committee of Public Safety of - nine members,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> exercising supreme executive authority, was appointed. - But the question was, how was the Committee to be enabled to rule. - Its first duty was to raise soldiers to meet the enemies upon every - frontier. For this purpose eighty-two deputies of the Convention were - sent through France, two and two, to raise by volunteering where - possible, but by conscription if other measures failed, 300,000 men. - This call for recruits caused disturbances in many parts of France; - in La Vendée it started civil war. It was to protest against the - conscription, and not to defend the Church or the nobility, that - the people of La Vendée rose in insurrection. But the leadership - of the movement, which had at first been taken by gamekeepers and - postillions, was speedily assumed by members of the ancient French - clergy and nobility. Cohesion was thus given to the insurgents, and a - large and important district in the west of France maintained for a - time a successful opposition to the decrees of the Convention. But the - reverses and desertion of Dumouriez not only caused, for the first time - in the history of the Revolution, the creation of a real executive, - it caused also the forging of the weapons by which that executive - was in the future to establish the Reign of Terror. On 9th March the - Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris was established. Its special object was - the summary punishment of all enemies of the Revolution. On the 4th of - April the Convention decreed that a maximum price of food should be - fixed. Extended powers were granted to deputies sent on mission to the - armies or to the departments; and an army, consisting of the very poor, - or <i>sans culottes</i>, was proposed.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Overthrow of the Girondins. 2d June 1793.</div> - - <p>While these measures, which did not take full effect for some months, - were being debated, the Convention was torn by the opposition between - the Girondins and the deputies of the Mountain. The details of the - struggle are not important. The arguments used by the Girondins were - that their enemies were responsible for the massacres of September in - the prisons, that they were under the influence of the Commune<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> of - Paris, and that they encouraged anarchy. The Mountain, on their side, - alleged that the Girondins were concealed royalists, because they had - voted against the execution of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, that they were - federalists, who desired to destroy the unity of the Republic, and that - they preferred a weak to a strong government. The struggle was mainly - carried on in the tribune of the Convention; Robespierre attacked - Brissot, Vergniaud, and Guadet, and these orators replied by attacking - Robespierre and Danton. The latter for a time endeavoured to avoid - breaking with the Girondins, but he was so violently impeached for his - conduct while on mission in Belgium, and accused of being an accomplice - of Dumouriez, that in self-defence he was forced to take up the - gauntlet. He had been elected to the first Committee of Public Safety, - and though his constitutional indolence prevented him from becoming its - most important member, he shared with Cambon, the financier, the chief - responsibility of the new method of government. Meanwhile, worse news - kept coming from every frontier. It was felt to be both injudicious and - unpatriotic for the Convention to be occupied in personal squabbles - when the fate of France was in the balance. The Commune of Paris - decided to intervene. The deputies who sat in the Plain, or Centre of - the Convention, were more influenced by the eloquence of the Girondins - than by the energy of the Mountain, and it was with regret that they - felt obliged to yield to the Commune of Paris. On the 31st May 1793, - regular troops and national guards, under the direction of Hanriot, the - commander of the National Guard of Paris, surrounded the Tuileries, - to which the Convention had removed on the 10th May, and the Commune - demanded that the leading Girondins should be expelled from the - Convention, and sent for trial before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The - <i>coup d’état</i> was completed on the 2d June, when these demands were - complied with, and from that date the Girondins as a political party in - the Convention ceased to exist.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Second Campaign of 1793.</div> - - <p>The desertion of Dumouriez left the way clear for the Austrians and - English to invade France. They advanced slowly and did not attempt, - like the Duke of Brunswick in the previous year, to mask the frontier - fortresses and move straight upon Paris. On 24th May the French camp at - Famars was stormed; on 12th July Condé, on 28th July Valenciennes, were - taken after making an obstinate resistance, and the allies were thus - firmly established in France. Then, fortunately for the Convention, - the allied commanders-in-chief quarrelled. The Duke of York, acting - under the orders of the English ministry, besieged Dunkirk, which port - he desired to hold for the disembarkation of supplies. The Prince of - Coburg, with the Austrians, refused to assist in the siege of Dunkirk, - and invested Le Quesnoy. Further south the Prussians captured Mayence - on the 22d of July, and a mixed army of Austrians and troops of the - Empire under Würmser forced their way into Alsace. At both ends of - the Pyrenees Spanish armies invaded the French Republic. In the - eastern Pyrenees nearly the whole of Roussillon was conquered, and in - the western Pyrenees the passage of the Bidassoa was forced. These - repeated reverses in so many quarters did not destroy the courage of - the Convention or of the French people, but they proved that hastily - raised undisciplined masses can never be a match for trained soldiers. - The successes of Dumouriez and Custine had been as much the result of - accident and of the hearty reception given to them by the natives of - the districts they invaded as of talent and bravery, but the first - defeats showed how thoroughly the policy of the Constituent Assembly - had sapped the discipline of the French army.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Civil war in France.</div> - - <p>To add to the dangers which threatened France during the summer of - 1793, civil war in many quarters redoubled the perils caused by the - foreign invasion. The war in La Vendée increased in magnitude almost - daily, and the soldiers of the Republic were frequently defeated by - the hardy peasants who fought in guerilla fashion among their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> woods - and marshes. Throughout Brittany and in the mountains of Auvergne - similar movements took place, generally guided by priests and country - gentlemen; but except in La Vendée there was no serious royalist - manifestation. But the expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention - had given rise to another movement of even greater importance. The - insurrections in La Vendée and similar risings in country or mountain - districts were the work of ignorant peasants; the movement in favour of - the Girondins was headed by wealthy and intelligent cities. The news of - the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 2d of June was received with consternation in - most of the chief cities of France. Girondin journals had long preached - the wickedness of the Commune of Paris, and that the leaders of the - Mountain were either anarchists or ambitious men aiming at power. - These words now had their effect. Several of the deputies proscribed - on the 2d of June escaped into the provinces, and a group of them, - collected at Caen in Normandy, endeavoured to organise an army against - the Convention. Other cities followed the example. Marseilles arrested - the representatives on mission; Bordeaux refused to receive the - deputies sent to it; Lyons started a counter-revolution and executed - Chalier, the leader of the local democratic party; and several cities - agreed to send detachments of local troops to form a central army - against the Convention at Bourges. For a few days matters looked most - threatening for the victorious members of the Mountain, but they were - well served by the deputies on mission. The Norman army was easily - defeated at Pacy on the 13th of July; Bordeaux and Marseilles quickly - submitted, and Lyons was invested. But the success of the Mountain was - due to something more than the vigour of its representatives in the - provinces. The general sentiment in France was that the conduct of - the Girondins in causing civil war showed the very excess of want of - patriotism; even if the Commune of Paris had done wrong in interfering - with the Convention, the Girondins had behaved worse in attempting - to rouse the provinces, and owing to this sentiment many departments - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>and many cities speedily repented of the encouragement they had given - to the Girondin designs, and withdrew their support to the proposed - concentration of local troops at Bourges.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Constitution of 1793.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The work of the first Committee of Public Safety.</div> - - <p>The deputies of the Mountain met the unparalleled dangers of foreign - and civil war with undaunted courage. Their first measure was to - draw up with extreme rapidity a republican constitution, which is - known as the Constitution of 1793. As it never came into effect, the - details of this proposed system of government need not be described. - But the fact that it was drawn up, promulgated, and sent before the - primary assemblies of the people, deprived the Girondin insurgents - of one of their chief weapons. They had asserted that the Mountain - admired anarchy and wished to retain power for the Convention and - themselves. To these allegations the issue of the Constitution of - 1793 was an adequate reply. But it was quite impossible, according to - the leaders of the Mountain, for the Convention to abandon the reins - of power. A general election at such a time would but increase the - difficulty of the situation. So, while declaring the existence of the - new Constitution, it deferred putting it into effect, and strengthened - the authority of its new executive, the Committee of Public Safety. - The advantages to be derived from the concentration of authority in - a few hands became quite clear to the Convention after the expulsion - of the Girondins. It may be doubted whether the distinguished orators - who directed Girondin opinion, from their constant apprehension of - the dangers of a strong executive to individual liberty, would ever - have perceived them. The existence of the Committee made it possible - for representatives on mission and other agents of government to - have a central authority on which to rely. It was the Committee - which directed the short campaign in Normandy which overthrew the - most promising movement of the escaped Girondin deputies; it was the - prudence of a member of the Committee, Robert Lindet, which pacified - Normandy, after the victory had been won, by ruthlessly tracking down - the ringleaders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> and generously sparing those who had been led away; - it was the Committee which first attempted to re-establish discipline - in the armies and to supply them with provisions and munitions of war; - and it was on the motion of the most important member of the first - Committee, Danton, that the fatal decree of the 19th of November, which - consecrated the revolutionary propaganda, and gave good reason for the - continued opposition of foreign powers, was repealed. This good work - in all directions showed the members of the Convention that they were - acting in the right direction.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Great Committee of Public Safety.</div> - - <p>On 10th July 1793 the first Committee was dissolved on the motion of - Camille Desmoulins, but a new Committee with similar powers was at - once elected. This Committee, which may be called the Great Committee - of Public Safety, remained in power for more than a year. Danton was - not a member of it, partly because he believed he could do better work - outside, partly because of his dislike of continued labour; Cambon also - was not re-elected, preferring to confine himself to the charge of - the finances of the Republic as the principal member of the Financial - Committee. The nine members originally elected in July were Barère, who - acted as reporter throughout its tenure of office, and was therefore in - some respects the most important of them all; Jean Bon Saint-André, who - took charge of naval matters; Prieur of the Marne and Robert Lindet, - whose main duties were to provide for the feeding of the armies; - Hérault de Séchelles, the chief author of the Constitution of 1793, who - busied himself with foreign affairs; Couthon, Saint-Just, Gasparin, and - Thuriot. Robespierre entered the Committee in the place of Gasparin on - the 27th of July; Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or were added on the - 14th of August to superintend the military operations on the frontiers; - Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois were added on September the 6th - to establish the Reign of Terror; and on the 20th of September Thuriot - retired. The steps in the growth of the supremacy of this second - Committee of Public Safety are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> significant. On the 1st of August 1793 - Barère read his first report to the Convention. In it he proposed the - most energetic, not to say sanguinary, measures. The war was to be - carried on with the utmost energy; La Vendée was to be destroyed; and - Marie Antoinette was to be sent for trial before the Revolutionary - Tribunal. On the same day Danton proposed that the Committee should be - formally recognised as a provisional government, and that the ministers - should be directed to act as its subordinates. This motion was not - carried, but the entire control over the resources of France, and the - lives of Frenchmen, which Danton contemplated, was secured without the - passing of a formal decree. The Convention seems to have been very - glad to rid itself of the work of government. It accepted without a - murmur every measure proposed by the Committee of Public Safety; it - re-elected the members month after month; it threw all responsibility - upon them and registered all the decrees they proposed. As has been - said, it definitely gave them the charge of the military operations by - the election of Carnot and Prieur of the Côte-d’Or, and it established - the unity of their internal administration by the election of - Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Position of Robespierre.</div> - - <p>The rule of the second or Great Committee of Public Safety is generally - known as the Reign of Terror. The Committee itself divided the chief - functions of government among its members. The special functions of - all, except those of Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just, have been - already noticed. Robespierre was the only one amongst them who had any - reputation outside, or indeed within, the walls of the Convention. - His conduct during the session of the Constituent Assembly, his - clear-sighted opposition to the war with Austria, his sagacious - views on the subject of the treatment of the King, his war against - the Girondin federalists, his oratorical talent, and above all his - reputation for being absolutely incorruptible and sincerely patriotic, - made him the man of mark among the Committee. He was well aware of the - importance of his position. His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> colleagues on the Committee used him - as their figure-head to represent them on great occasions, and he made - it his business to lay down the general principles which underlay the - system of revolutionary government—that is, of the Reign of Terror. But - though to the Convention and to France at large Robespierre was the - most conspicuous member of the Committee of Public Safety, he really - exercised but very slight influence on the actual work of government. - He had no department of the State given into his charge; he had not - the necessary fluency or facility to take Barère’s place as ordinary - reporter; he was not on terms of friendship with the majority of his - fellow-workers; he was made use of, but was neither trusted nor liked - by the real governors of France. It was to their benefit that the - system of the solidarity of the Committee was established, which gave - to all their measures the sanction of Robespierre’s great reputation - for incorruptibility and patriotism. The majority of the Committee - had no positive views on government; they tried to do the work which - lay to their hands in the best way they could; Robespierre alone - hoped to evolve out of the Reign of Terror a new system of republican - government. His only real friends in the Committee were the two men - least suited to give him effectual help, for Couthon was a cripple, - and unable to attend with the necessary assiduity, and Saint-Just was - but five-and-twenty, the youngest of the Committee, and was generally - absent from Paris on special missions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Reign of Terror.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Committee of General Security.</div> - - <p>The system by which the Great Committee of Public Safety regulated the - Reign of Terror was based upon two important institutions. The first of - these was the Committee of General Security which sat in Paris, and was - elected from the members of the Convention, and which exercised general - police control over all France. On great occasions its members sat with - the Committee of Public Safety as a Committee of Government, but its - special functions were to deal with men, while the Committee of Public - Safety dealt with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> measures. Danton, who was the principal creator of - the supremacy of the Great Committee of Public Safety—though he himself - refused to join it—saw the importance of subordinating in fact, if not - in name, the Committee of General Security to the Committee of Public - Safety. On 11th September 1793 a Committee of General Security had been - elected, containing certain deputies of independent character, and - Danton, fearing a rivalry would arise between the two Committees, at - once obtained its dissolution, and secured, on September the 14th, the - election of a Committee of General Security which would act in harmony - with the great Committee. The members elected at this time were with - but few exceptions re-elected every month.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Deputies on Mission.</div> - - <p>The second instrument by which the Great Committee ruled were the - deputies on mission. The practice of sending deputies on special - missions originated in August 1792. It had grown in importance, and - the deputies proved their value in their vigorous suppression of the - Girondin movement in the provinces in the summer of 1793. The power - of deputies on mission was more than once specifically declared to be - unlimited. On grounds of public safety they were not only permitted, - but were ordered, to alter the composition of local authorities, - whether municipal or departmental. They had full powers to arrest - and to make requisitions. They were consistently supported by the - Committee of Public Safety sitting in Paris, and the greatest latitude - was given to them in administering the local government. As long as - they preserved the peace and sent up plenty of supplies of money, and, - when demanded, of recruits to Paris, their methods of government were - not minutely inquired into. Besides the deputies on mission employed - in the internal administration, another important body of similar - representatives were kept at the headquarters of the different armies. - These deputies likewise had unlimited authority. They could arrest even - generals-in-chief at their absolute will; they could degrade officers - of any rank; they could interfere with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> military operations; and could - overrule the orders of a general in the field. The Committee of General - Security and the deputies on mission ruled by means of inspiring - terror. This terror was based on the existence of the Revolutionary - Tribunal in Paris, and of its imitations termed revolutionary or - military commissions in the provinces, and the armies.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Law of the Suspects.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Law of the Maximum.</div> - - <p>The Revolutionary Tribunal took cognisance of all political offences, - and its sentence was almost invariably death. Nearly every Frenchman - or Frenchwoman could be brought within the net of the Revolutionary - Tribunal by the Law of the Suspects. By this law, which was most - carefully drafted by Merlin of Douai, any one who for any reason could - be suspected of disliking the new state of affairs could be arrested. - All relatives of <i>émigrés</i> or of noblemen came into this category as - well as all former functionaries and officials of whatever sort. But - since the Law of the Suspects was not sufficiently wide to impress the - ordinary bourgeois, more especially the petty bourgeois, with terror, a - new weapon was forged in the Law of the Maximum. This law was put into - operation in September 1793. The laws of political economy could not be - seriously affected by such a measure as the Law of the Maximum, which - fixed maximum prices at which all articles of prime necessity were - to be sold. Such a law was certain to be evaded; but its existence, - and the fact that evasions of the Law of the Maximum brought the - offender under the Revolutionary Tribunal, was enough to establish the - Reign of Terror over the petty bourgeois. There were other means for - extending the system which need not here be particularised, such as - the necessity of every person carrying a card with him giving a full - history of his conduct during the Revolution, the encouragement of - denunciations by the bestowal of rewards, and similar precautions. The - Revolutionary Tribunal was provided with victims under these measures - by the Committee of General Security, and by the numerous little - Revolutionary Committees sitting in every section of Paris, and in - every city, district, and village<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> throughout France. The Revolutionary - Committees consisted of tried Jacobins, and were in the provinces - appointed by the deputies on mission. They were frequently purified by - the expulsion of any member who gave evidence of moderate opinions. The - Revolutionary Committees filled the prisons—it was the business of the - Revolutionary Tribunal to empty them. This it did with much expedition. - The death sentences of the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris, which only - averaged three a week from April to September 1793, averaged thirty-two - a week from September 1793 to June 1794, and 196 a week in June and - July 1794. This increase was very gradual; it became an established - system to send batches of victims to the guillotine every day; and the - numbers in these batches increased steadily. The Committee of Public - Safety, through its agent, the Committee of General Security, did not - much care who were executed as long as a considerable number went to - the scaffold every day. Exceptions to this rule are, however, to be - noted in the executions of Marie Antoinette on 16th October 1793, of - twenty-one Girondins on 31st October, of certain generals, such as - Custine, Houchard, and Biron, and of the Duke of Orleans and Bailly, - which intimidated courtiers, deputies, generals, and ex-Constituants.</p> - - <p>This system of terror was not suddenly evolved—it was the result of - gradual growth. The two men mainly responsible for systematising it and - carrying it into effect were Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois, who - were specially added to the Committee of Public Safety to superintend - the internal administration of France. On 10th October 1793, on the - motion of Saint-Just, the Constitution of 1793 was declared suspended, - and revolutionary government, that is, the Reign of Terror, was ordered - to continue until a general peace. On 10th December Billaud-Varenne - read a report which defined the system, of which the most important - clause was the substitution of national agents nominated by the - government,—that is, by the deputies on mission,—to take the place of - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> elected procureurs-syndics of the districts. The Reign of Terror - in the provinces varied greatly. Some proconsuls, such as Carrier at - Nantes and Le Bon at Arras, carried out their government in the most - bloodthirsty fashion, but the ‘Noyades,’ or drowning of prisoners - wholesale at Nantes, must not be regarded as typical of the terror - in the provinces. Many proconsuls, such as André Dumont, contented - themselves with threats, and while filling their prisons with suspects - declined to empty them by means of the guillotine. Other proconsuls, - such as Bernard of Saintes, preferred to send an occasional batch of - prisoners to Paris to having a revolutionary tribunal of their own; - but in every case except those of Carrier and Javogues, which were - too atrocious to be passed over, the Committee of Public Safety gave - its agents in the provinces a free hand to rule as they would so long - as they maintained internal tranquillity and passive obedience to the - decrees of the revolutionary government.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Results of the Terror.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battles of Hondschoten and Wattignies. 1793.</div> - - <p>While the government of the Committee of Public Safety was being - organised in Paris and in the provinces, disasters succeeded each other - with rapidity both on the frontiers and in the interior of France. The - Prussians, after the capture of Mayence, only advanced a short distance - into France; but the Austrians made steady progress in the north-east - in conjunction with the English, and, under Würmser, penetrated Alsace - and stormed the lines of Wissembourg. The Comte d’Artois declared his - intention to place himself at the head of the insurgents in La Vendée, - at Lyons, and in the mountains of Auvergne. The English also promised - to send armed assistance in every direction. But the younger brother - of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> thought it enough to make promises—he did - absolutely nothing to fulfil them. The English on their part confined - themselves to one important operation. They had on the outbreak of - war despatched a fleet to the Mediterranean under the command of Lord - Hood, and on the 4th of August 1793 the insurgents at Toulon, in the - course of their opposition to the Convention, surrendered their city to - the allied English and Spanish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> fleets. In Lyons the same progress of - opposition was to be observed. The original insurgents had professed - federalist opinions, but when the Convention sent an army against - them open royalists took the place of the federalists. The vigorous - action of the new government soon freed the French Republic from - its foreign and internal foes. Carnot, on taking charge of military - measures, saw that the only means of defeating the invaders was to - take advantage of the numbers of his soldiers and to act in masses. - Acting on this policy General Houchard raised the siege of Dunkirk - and defeated the English and Hanoverians in the battle of Hondschoten - (8th September). In spite of his victory Houchard was disgraced for - not following it up with vigour. Jourdan, his successor, carrying out - the same policy, concentrated his army against the Austrians, raised - the siege of Maubeuge, and defeated the Austrians at Wattignies (16th - October). These victories did not drive the Anglo-Austrian army out - of France, but they stopped the progress of the allies and caused - them to stand upon the defensive. Farther south the same vigour was - displayed. Saint-Just restored discipline in the armies of the Rhine - and the Moselle. Hoche, at the head of the latter, won the victory - of the Geisberg (25th September) over the Austrians and Prussians, - while Pichegru, at the head of the Army of the Rhine, relieved - Landau and drove Würmser across the Rhine. Almost at the same time a - powerful army, of which the best regiments were the former garrison of - Valenciennes, captured Lyons on the 9th of October, and on the 18th of - December Toulon was retaken by an army under the command of General - Dugommier. It was at the siege of Toulon that Napoleon Bonaparte first - made himself conspicuous and won the rank of general of brigade. The - republican armies were equally successful against the Spaniards. The - Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, under D’Aoust, recovered Roussillon, - while that of the Western Pyrenees, under Müller, drove the Spaniards - across the Bidassoa. In La Vendée equal success was achieved. The - former garrison of Mayence, which was composed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> excellent soldiers - who had gained experience and discipline from their long resistance - to the Prussians, destroyed the Vendéan armies, and the insurrection - of the province was severely punished by Carrier at Nantes and by - the infernal columns which, under General Turreau, were directed to - devastate the country. These repeated successes in every quarter - reconciled the French people to the hideous <i>régime</i> of the Reign of - Terror. Its despotism was excused because of its success, and its - absolute authority reluctantly submitted to as a necessary evil.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Fall of the Hébertists and Dantonists.</div> - - <p>In Paris the supremacy of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign - of Terror met with opposition in two distinct quarters. On the one - hand the Commune of Paris, which was principally influenced by the - Procureur-Syndic, Chaumette, and his substitute, Hébert, soon began - to resent the loss of its former authority. The Commune had actually - carried out the <i>coup d’état</i> which overthrew the Girondins, and had - expected to reap the chief advantage for itself. In order to form a - party it demanded that the revolutionary government should cease and - that the Constitution of 1793 should be put into force. But this cry - did not raise a sufficiently powerful support. The leaders of the - Commune, therefore, allied themselves with the most extreme democratic - party, which met generally at the Cordeliers Club. This extreme party - professed absolutely atheistic principles. It proclaimed the Worship - of Reason; it celebrated that worship with orgies in the cathedral of - Notre Dame; it induced Gobel, Bishop of Paris, to resign his see; it - carried its opposition to Christianity to an extreme; and started a - system of persecution against the Christian religion. In home politics - it did not defend the socialistic notions which had found some currency - in Paris, but it nevertheless declared itself the party of the <i>sans - culottes</i>, and denounced all rich men and bourgeois as selfish egotists - and enemies of the people. In foreign policy it adopted the doctrines - of the revolutionary propaganda and declared it the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> destiny of France - to destroy all tyrants. The Committee of Public Safety, as soon as - its power was firmly organised, resolved to overthrow this party of - opposition by striking at its leaders. Robespierre attacked them in the - Jacobin Club, and caused them to be excluded as atheists and enemies of - all government; Danton denounced the Worship of Reason as a disgraceful - masquerade; Camille Desmoulins exhausted his resources of eloquence - and sarcasm to hold them and their doctrines up to reprobation in the - <i>Vieux Cordelier</i>. As soon as the extreme party, which is commonly - called the Hébertist party, after its most conspicuous leader Hébert, - the editor of the <i>Père Duchesne</i>, was thoroughly discredited, the - Committee of Public Safety struck. On 24th Ventôse (14th March 1794) - Hébert and his principal supporters were arrested on the report of - Saint-Just. They were at once sent for trial before the Revolutionary - Tribunal, and on 4th Germinal (24th March) they were guillotined.</p> - - <p>The Hébertists fell because they opposed the despotism of the new - government. The Dantonists, who followed them to the guillotine, fell - because they believed the Reign of Terror to be carried too far. Danton - had done more than any man to bring about the supremacy of the Great - Committee of Public Safety. Convinced as he was that only a strong - executive could possibly disentangle France from the dangers which - beset her on every side, he had consistently advocated the creation - of a strong government. Though not himself a member of the Great - Committee, he had believed it to be his duty to support its power on - every possible occasion. He had not only been the chief author of its - supremacy, but the principal creator of the system by which it ruled. - But he began to believe, in the beginning of the year 1794, that the - Reign of Terror was being too stringently exercised. He was quite in - accord with Billaud-Varenne and Collot-d’Herbois in considering it - necessary to frighten the people of France into acquiescence with the - new order of things, but he did not consider that it was necessary - to shed so much blood to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> accomplish the work of fright. His friend - Camille Desmoulins had in the <i>Vieux Cordelier</i> not only exposed the - Hébertists, but had hinted at the need for mercy and the advantages of - appointing a Committee of Mercy. The Great Committee of Public Safety - was not only determined to maintain its autocratic power, but to defend - its system of government. Danton’s influence in the Convention was - still sufficiently great to give the members of the Committee a cause - for uneasiness. It therefore resolved, in order to stop all murmuring - against the Reign of Terror, and to establish a reign of terror - over the Convention itself, to make an example of the most vigorous - patriot in France. On 10th Germinal (30th March 1794) Danton, Camille - Desmoulins, and their chief adherents were arrested, and on 16th - Germinal (5th April 1794) the Dantonists followed the Hébertists to the - guillotine. These two blows ensured the supremacy of the Committee of - Public Safety and the continuance of the Reign of Terror.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1794.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Fleurus. June 26, 1794.</div> - - <p>The Great Committee of Public Safety knew that its tenure of power - rested on its successful conduct of the foreign war. Throughout - the interior tranquillity prevailed except in La Vendée, where the - sanguinary measures adopted perpetuated a guerilla warfare. The French - troops were, in 1794, in a very different condition from that in which - they had been left at the commencement of 1793. The measures of terror - which pacified France had been in the army the cause of the restoration - of discipline. Constant fighting had converted the men into efficient - soldiers. Excellent officers had come to the front during the campaign, - and, owing to the rapidity of promotion, most of the generals were - young and energetic men. All that was best in France had gone to the - front. There, and there alone, men who might have fallen under the - terrible Law of the Suspects at home, were not only safe themselves, - but by their presence in the ranks of the Republic protected their - relatives. All the resources of France were laid at the disposal of her - armies. The country became one vast arsenal. The soldiers were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> well - fed, clothed, and armed, and the ablest administrators were employed in - rendering them efficient. The result of this concentration of France - upon the foreign war was success in every quarter. In the spring of - 1794 the various armies took the offensive, the Army of the North, - under Pichegru, marched by the northern line into Belgium, while a new - army, afterwards called the Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse, which was - formed out of the Army of the Ardennes, and a wing of the Army of the - Moselle penetrated Belgium from the south. Before these two armies the - English and Austrians fell back. They were rapidly pursued, and on the - 26th of June 1794 Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus. This victory, like - the victory of Jemmappes the year before, laid Belgium open to the - French armies. Brussels was reoccupied; the English and Dutch retired - into Holland; the Austrians fell back behind the Meuse. Meanwhile, the - Army of the Moselle, under René Moreaux, stormed the Prussian position - at Kaiserslautern, and with the Army of the Rhine drove the Austrians - across that river. The Army of Italy, which had taken Toulon, also took - the offensive, and defeated the Piedmontese at Saorgio. Dugommier, with - the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, turned the tables on the Spaniards, - and crossing the mountains penetrated into Catalonia, while the Army of - the Western Pyrenees invaded Spain in that quarter, and threatened San - Sebastian.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of the 1st of June.</div> - - <p>The only checks which the Great Committee received were at sea. Whether - it was because it is more difficult to improvise a navy than an army, - or because sufficient attention was not paid to the republican navy, it - is impossible to decide, but it is quite certain that the sailors of - the Republic did not rival the soldiers in success, though they did in - valour. One reason for this was that all the best sailors preferred the - lucrative work of preying upon the commerce of the world in frigates - and privateers to serving in the regular fleets, where no prizes were - to be made. The two principal French fleets were those stationed at - Toulon and at Brest. An ineffectual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> effort had been made by Sir Sidney - Smith to burn the Toulon fleet when the English and Spaniards evacuated - that port. Nevertheless, a new fleet was soon prepared, but its action - against the English and the Spaniards who blockaded the coast were - ineffectual. The English on leaving Toulon had proceeded to Corsica. - That island had been raised against the Convention by the native - patriot, Paoli, who invited the English to come and take possession in - the name of George <span class="smcap">III.</span> In Corsica, owing to the weakness of - the French Mediterranean fleet, the English remained unmolested for - nearly a year. The Brest fleet, however, came to blows with the English - Channel fleet, under the command of Lord Howe. The United States of - America had agreed to pay part of the debt which they owed France for - money lent during the War of American Independence in grain, and a - convoy was sent to protect the grain-ships. Lord Howe was directed to - cut off this convoy, and the French fleet left Brest to ensure its - safe arrival. From one point of view, the action of the French fleet - was crowned with success, for the convoy arrived safely, but the fleet - itself was utterly defeated by Lord Howe on the 1st of June 1794. Since - the object had been attained, the Committee of Public Safety claimed - credit for the action in which the fleet had been engaged, and the - reports which Barère read daily from the tribune of the Convention were - invariably of battles won and of feats of valour.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Fall of Robespierre, 9th Thermidor (27th July) 1794.</div> - - <p>The brilliant successes which followed the establishment of the power - of the Great Committee of Public Safety justified its despotism in the - eyes of France, but as soon as those successes had freed France from - the invaders, it was generally felt that the weight of the Reign of - Terror was intolerable, and that it had become unnecessary. It was at - this period of most brilliant military triumphs that the Terror grew - to its greatest height in Paris. On 22d Prairial (10th of June 1794) - a law was passed to accelerate the procedure of the Revolutionary - Tribunal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> and the number of deaths upon the guillotine increased to - an average of 196 a week. Robespierre, who, as has been said, was - more of a statesman than his colleagues upon the Committee of Public - Safety, who were simply administrators, understood the tenor of feeling - in France. He believed that the time was coming when the Reign of - Terror should cease, and a new Reign of Virtue, carrying into effect - the maxims of Rousseau, could be established. The working members of - the Committee allowed Robespierre to theorise to his heart’s content; - as long as he did not interfere with them, he might advocate what - principles he pleased. The first evidence of Robespierre’s new tendency - appeared in his establishment of the Worship of the Supreme Being. He - was a profoundly religious and virtuous man, and the chief cause of - his hatred of Hébert and Danton was his belief that they were immoral - atheists. On 18th Floréal (7th May 1794) Robespierre made his most - famous speech in the Convention, by which he induced the Convention - to officially acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being and the - immortality of the soul. The speech was followed on 20th Prairial by - a great festival in honour of the Supreme Being, at which Robespierre - presided. This was the day when his power seemed greatest, but many of - his colleagues laughed at his assumption of virtue and at his posing - as a high priest. He perceived clearly that he could not establish his - chimerical Reign of Virtue without destroying the scoffers who refused - to believe in him and his doctrines. He absented himself for six weeks - from the meetings of the Committee, and prepared a speech by which he - hoped to induce the Convention to proscribe his opponents.</p> - - <p>On 8th Thermidor (26th July 1794) he read this speech to the - Convention, and attacked covertly, and without mentioning many names, - not only certain of his colleagues in the Committee of Public Safety, - but also the majority of the Committee of General Security and of the - Financial Committee. These men, who had been governing France while - Robespierre was theorising, would not tamely submit to be ejected from - power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> and guillotined. On the evening of the same day Robespierre - read his speech to the Jacobin Club, which was the headquarters of - the puritans who believed in the possibility of a Reign of Virtue. - But on 9th Thermidor the accused deputies determined to act. It was - not only the working members of the Committees, but also the friends - of Danton, the independent deputies of the Mountain, and the members - of the Centre, who felt threatened, and their attitude was speedily - declared. Saint-Just began to read a report accusing Billaud-Varenne - and Collot-d’Herbois by name, but he was interrupted, and Robespierre - himself, with Couthon, Saint-Just, and two other deputies were, after - a stormy scene, ordered under arrest. But the puritan party were not - only strong in the Jacobin Club; they dominated the Commune of Paris - ever since the overthrow of the Hébertists. Hanriot, the commandant - of the National Guard of Paris, rescued Robespierre and the other - imprisoned deputies, and took them to the Hôtel-de-Ville, where a - scheme of government was discussed. The Convention did not wait to be - attacked. It declared Robespierre and all his adherents to be outlaws, - and Barras, Fréron, and Léonard Bourdon collected columns of regular - troops and national guards to attack the Hôtel-de-Ville. The Convention - was completely successful. The people of Paris, like the people of all - France, persisted in considering Robespierre as the author of the Reign - of Terror, while not only his enemies but his colleagues threw upon - him the responsibility for all the atrocities included under the name - of the Terror. Though personally he had very little influence in the - Committee, he was represented and regarded as its master. Consequently - no hand was raised to protect Robespierre and the puritans; the - Hôtel-de-Ville was easily occupied by Barras; Robespierre was wounded - in the mouth by a gendarme, and on 10th Thermidor (28th July) he was - guillotined, and was accompanied or followed to the scaffold by the - small group of colleagues who had been impeached with him, and by the - majority of the Commune of Paris.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Rule of the Thermidorians. First Phase.</div> - - <p>The death of Robespierre did not lead to a change of government, but - it led to an alteration in the system by which the government was - administered. The deputies who had been most instrumental in the - revolution of Thermidor belonged to the Mountain, and expected to - retain power in their hands; but they saw the necessity of preventing - such a permanence of power as had existed during the previous year. It - was, therefore, resolved that the Committees of Government—that is, the - Committees of Public Safety and of General Security—should be renewed - by a quarter every month, and that the retiring members should not - be eligible for re-election until a month had passed. The survivors - of the Great Committee still believed in the system of government by - terror, but their new colleagues understood that now that France was - victorious the country would no longer submit to such rigorous measures - of repression. The victory of Fleurus had done away with the necessity - of continually employing the guillotine. The system of terror was - therefore tacitly abandoned; the supremacy of the Committees continued; - the Law of the Suspects was unrepealed; the Revolutionary Tribunal - continued to exist; representatives were still sent on mission with - unlimited powers; but the succession of executions ceased, and the - method of government, though arbitrary, was no longer sanguinary. The - men who ruled France from Thermidor (July) 1794 to Ventôse (March) 1795 - were deputies of the Mountain, men of the type of Carnot and Robert - Lindet, the most sagacious of the members of the Great Committee of - Public Safety. The most conspicuous of the new men of this period were - Merlin of Douai and Treilhard, who took charge of the foreign policy. - These statesmen, while Carnot superintended the carrying on of the - war with his accustomed vigour and success, finally broke with the - propagandist doctrines which had made the war of unparalleled magnitude - and bitterness, and Merlin of Douai, on 14th Frimaire (4th December) - 1794 read a report in the name of the Committee<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> of Public Safety, - declaring that the Republic did not wish to be at war with Europe for - ever, and laying down the bases on which treaties of peace honourable - to France could be made. While the Thermidorians were administering - the government strongly and honourably, they were beset with cries of - vengeance against the Terrorists of the previous year. They felt it - necessary to yield to the general outcry, and on 21st Brumaire, Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span> (11th November 1794), Carrier, the most ferocious of the - proconsuls of the Terror, was sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. - He was tried and eventually executed for his crimes. The agitation - was stronger against the organisers of the Terror, Billaud-Varenne, - and Collot-d’Herbois, with whom were associated in the popular hatred - Barère, the reporter, and Vadier, who had been the most conspicuous - member of the Committee of General Security. Both the doctrines and - the men of the Terror had still plenty of supporters in Paris, who - now dominated the Jacobin Club, which was therefore closed by the - Thermidorians in December 1794. Almost at the same date the Law of - the Maximum was repealed. In the same month the survivors of the - seventy-three deputies who had protested against the proscription of - the Girondins, and consequently been imprisoned, were recalled to their - seats in the Convention.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Conquest of Holland. 1794–5.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Batavian Republic.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Successes in other quarters.</div> - - <p>Meanwhile the series of victories which had commenced during the rule - of the Great Committee of Public Safety continued. Pichegru at the - head of the Army of the North pursued the English and their Dutch and - Hanoverian allies. On the 9th of October he took Nimeguen, and forcing - his way across the frozen rivers drove the English through Holland. He - occupied Amsterdam, and then with his hussars took the Dutch fleet, - which was unable to leave its moorings in the Texel owing to the ice. - By the end of January 1795 the whole of Holland was in the possession - of the French. The Stadtholder, the Prince of Orange, fled to England, - and the English troops were soon after withdrawn. The conquest of - Holland was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> of the greatest service to the Thermidorians, for it - enabled them, by drawing upon the wealth of that country, to relieve - the financial distress of the French Republic. With regard to Belgium - there was no difficulty in coming to a decision as to its future, for - the Decree of Reunion passed in the days of Dumouriez’ success remained - unrepealed, and the Austrian Netherlands were therefore organised as - part of the French Republic. It was otherwise with regard to Holland. - The Thermidorians did not desire to further aggravate the fears of - Europe by annexing that country, but at the same time they were quite - resolved that it should not again fall under the power of the English. - Reubell and Sieyès, two ex-Constituants who had remained in obscurity - during the Reign of Terror, were despatched to Holland to see what - could be done. They found many Dutch admirers of the doctrines of - the French Revolution, and speedily conciliated the burghers of the - Dutch cities, who had always resented the power of the Stadtholder. - With the help of these parties and of the Dutch patriots who had been - exiled in 1787, and who now returned from France full of enthusiasm - for democracy, they organised a Batavian Republic on the model of the - French Republic, and in March 1795 a Treaty of Peace and Alliance was - signed between the French and Batavian Republics. In other quarters - the French Republic was likewise triumphant. Maestricht was taken - by Kléber on the 4th of November 1794. Jourdan with the Army of the - Sambre-and-Meuse, defeated the Austrians under Clerfayt at Aldenhoven - on the 2d of October, and marching south occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, - Bonn, Cologne, and Coblentz. Meanwhile the Army of the Moselle, - under René Moreaux, finally drove the Prussians out of France and - occupied the Palatinate and the whole of the Electorate of Trèves. On - the southern frontier there were similar successes. The Army of the - Eastern Pyrenees, which had invaded Catalonia, stormed the Spanish - camp at Figueras on the 20th of November 1794, and took Rosas on - the 3rd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> of February 1795. In the first of these actions the French - General Dugommier was killed in action. Moncey, with the Army of the - Western Pyrenees, took Bilbao, Vittoria, and San Sebastian. The Army - of Italy won the victory of Loano on the 24th of November, which - opened communication with Genoa. The Army of the Alps finally reached - the summits of Mont Cenis and the Little St. Bernard, and drove the - Piedmontese before it.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Poland. 1794–5.</div> - - <p>While the French nation had thus after much suffering and long - submission to the Reign of Terror secured its independence and made - itself feared by Europe, a Polish insurrection had taken place which - was not crowned with the same success. The second partition of - Poland, which was consummated in 1793, has been described. But the - Polish nation was not inclined to acknowledge its extinction without - another blow. Many Polish exiles came to France, and the leader of - the Polish patriots, Kosciuszko, received a flattering reception, - though no promise of active help. On the 23d of March 1794 Kosciuszko - entered Cracow and raised the standard of national independence. - This news caused a general rising in Prussian Poland, where the new - administrators of Prussia had behaved with extreme cruelty. Stanislas - Poniatowski, King of Poland, acting under the influence of the Russian - general commanding at Warsaw, Igelstrom, disavowed Kosciuszko and - declared him a rebel. But the Polish people welcomed Kosciuszko - as a liberator. He defeated the Russians at Raclawice on the 4th - of April 1794, and after a further victory occupied Warsaw on the - 19th. Both Russians and Prussians prepared to defend the provinces - they had annexed in 1793, and laid siege to Warsaw in July 1794. By - the beginning of September all Prussian Poland was in a flame of - insurrection; Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, who was conducting the - siege in person, rapidly retreated and summoned to his assistance a - large proportion of the troops hitherto employed against France. But - though the Prussians had temporarily retired, Catherine of Russia - determined, at all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> hazards, to conquer the Poles. She gathered a great - army from all parts of her empire, and placed it under the command of - the most famous of the Russian generals, Suvórov. Caught between the - army of Suvórov and the army of Fersen, who had succeeded Igelstrom in - command of the Russians already in Poland, the Polish patriots were - utterly defeated at Maciejowice on the 12th of October 1794, when - Kosciuszko was wounded and taken prisoner. On the 4th of November, - Praga, the suburb of Warsaw on the right bank of the Vistula, was - stormed by Suvórov, and on the 9th of November the capital surrendered. - Catherine determined to complete the work of the destruction of Poland. - Stanislas Poniatowski was removed from Poland on the 7th of January - 1795, and on the 25th of November 1795 he abdicated the throne.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Extinction of Poland. 1795.</div> - - <p>The division of the spoils caused much trouble to the allies. The - Austrians, who had been left in the lurch at the second partition, - claimed a share, and, like the Prussians, weakened their armies on - the frontier of France in order to defend their claims on Poland. By - the final partition, which was arranged between the powers in 1795, - Prussia received Warsaw and the surrounding palatinates; Austria - received Cracow and the rest of Galicia, and the Russians were content - with rectifying their frontier from Grodno to Minsk. It is interesting - to contrast the simultaneous failure of the Poles and success of the - French. The cause lay in the fact that the great bulk of the Polish - people were serfs, to whom it mattered little what master they served, - whereas the French people had long thrown off the bonds of personal - serfdom, and had just succeeded in getting rid of the last shackles of - the privileged classes. The Polish Constitution of 1791 was the work of - a few enlightened noblemen and priests, and was gladly accepted by the - educated bourgeois of the cities, but the peasants were in too degraded - a condition to understand what personal liberty meant. In France every - peasant, every farmer had profited by the Revolution, and was wedded to - its cause not only for political<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> reasons, but because of the purchases - of ecclesiastical property which he had made. The national feeling in - France embraced the whole people, and made France successful against - her foreign foes; the national feeling in Poland only existed among - a minority of the population, and the result was that Kosciuszko was - unable to attain the triumph which he so well merited.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Change in the attitude of Continental Powers.</div> - - <p>The successes of the French Republic and the failure of the Polish - national movement affected the attitude of the coalition both towards - France and towards its own members. The Prussians, ever since the - defeat of Brunswick in 1792, had openly expressed their belief that the - Austrians were betraying them and using them as catspaws. Frederick - William <span class="smcap">II.</span> for a long time battled against these views, - which were held by the chief Prussian statesmen, such as Haugwitz and - Alvensleben, by the most respected Prussian generals such as Kalkreuth - and Möllendorf, and by his own personal clique of favourites, headed - by Lucchesini. In the year 1793 he had confined his operations against - France to the siege of Mayence, while his best troops were directed - on Poland, and in 1794 he had still further reduced the number of - his soldiers upon the Rhine. England, which had paid large subsidies - to the Prussian government, resented this conduct, and declared its - intention of withdrawing all subsidies unless Prussia would do as she - was directed. Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span> declared that he would not - receive the English subsidies on these terms; but the truth was, that - his attention was far more occupied by the gains he hoped to get in - Poland than with the prosecution of the war against France. Austria, - also, where Thugut had in 1794 become the nominal as well as the real - director of the foreign policy of the Emperor Francis, was getting - tired of the war with France. Prussia’s conduct in making the second - partition of Poland in 1793, and leaving the Emperor out, had sown the - seeds of discontent. Thugut was determined that the same thing should - not occur again, and, therefore, when the Polish insurrection broke - out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> in 1794, Austria also denuded her armies upon the French frontier. - This attitude of Prussia and Austria does not entirely account for - the victories of the French republican armies, but it explains to - some extent the ease with which those victories were obtained. Spain - also was weary of the war. Godoy felt that his tenure of office was - imperilled by the existence of two French armies in Spain which might - easily march upon Madrid, and the Queen, and therefore the King, was - entirely under the influence of Godoy. Many of the princes of the - Holy Roman Empire likewise wished to see the war at an end, for it - was their states upon the left bank of the Rhine which were occupied - by the French armies; it was their states upon the right bank of the - Rhine which would be invaded by the passage of that river, whereas the - home dominions of Austria and Prussia were far to the east, and not - likely to be reached by an invading army. England was the only power - which seriously desired to prosecute the war, for in England a national - feeling of repulsion against the French had arisen. The English - government, however, was unable to strike any effective blow; Hoche - destroyed a body of <i>émigrés</i> landed from English ships at Quiberon Bay - in July 1794; the continental powers who received subsidies were not - very earnest in doing the work for which they were paid; the French - occupation of Holland had deprived England of the only base from which - an army could act in Europe; and the English government had therefore - to be contented with blockading the French ports and occupying the - French West Indian Colonies.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Rule of the Thermidorians. Second Phase.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Insurrection of 12th Germinal. 1st April 1795.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Insurrection of 1st Prairial. 20th May 1795.</div> - - <p>The recall of those sympathisers with the Girondin party, who had been - imprisoned, in December 1794 was followed in March 1795 by the recall - to their seats in the Convention of the outlawed Girondin leaders, of - whom the most conspicuous were Lanjuinais and Louvet. The return of - these victims increased the clamour against the surviving Terrorist - leaders and proconsuls who had ruled France in 1793–94 in Paris, or - on mission in the provinces. Hot debates took place on the necessity - of punishing what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> was now termed ‘Robespierre’s tail.’ In Paris a - powerful section of the populace—namely, the young bourgeois, who - were commonly called the Jeunesse Dorée, or after their leader Fréron - the Jeunesse Fréronienne—never ceased to demand the punishment of the - Terrorists. Popular sympathy was generally with the Jeunesse Dorée; - conspicuous Jacobins of the Terror were beaten in the streets; the - heart of Marat was taken from the Pantheon and thrown down a sewer; and - the busts of Marat, who was regarded as the apostle of Terrorism, were - everywhere broken. The former rulers of Paris, the old members of the - Jacobin Club and the Revolutionary Committees, were not inclined to - submit to popular vengeance without striking a blow. On 12th Germinal, - Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> (1st April 1795) they raised an insurrection in the - turbulent Faubourg Saint-Antoine, and the insurgents broke into the - Convention shouting ‘Bread and the Constitution of 1793.’ The only - result of this riot was that Billaud-Varenne, Collot-d’Herbois, Barère, - and Vadier were ordered to be deported to French Guiana without trial. - The persecution of the Terrorists continued. A commission was appointed - to inquire into the acts of the former proconsuls; power passed into - the hands of the returned Girondins and the members of the Plain or - Centre. Certain of the remaining deputies of the Mountain, supported - by the Jacobins of Paris, then resolved on a second insurrection. On - 1st Prairial, Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> (20th May 1795) the Convention was - again invaded by a Saint-Antoine mob, headed by women who had gained - the unenviable name of the ‘Furies of the Guillotine.’ A deputy named - Féraud was taken for Fréron and murdered on the spot, and throughout - the day the hall of the Convention was occupied by a howling mob, - which vainly endeavoured to compel the President, Boissy-d’Anglas, to - pass the decrees they desired. Meanwhile the Committees of Government - prepared to act with vigour. With the help of some regular troops - quartered in Paris, of the national guards of the bourgeois sections, - and of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> Jeunesse Dorée, they expelled the mob, and on the following - days a force composed of these elements under the command of General - Menou, an ex-Constituant, disarmed the revolutionary sections. The - victory of the Committees was the victory of the enemies of the Reign - of Terror. Some of the former Terrorist deputies were condemned to - death and committed suicide, others were impeached and placed under - arrest, and the Mountain as a party ceased to exist. The expulsion of - the deputies of the Mountain caused the Committees of Government to be - filled by the members of the Centre, the men who during the Reign of - Terror had been peacefully occupied in the legislative and educational - reforms, which were the most lasting works of the Convention. Of - these new members the most typical is Cambacérès, the great jurist - and principal law reformer of the period, on whose labours Napoleon - compiled the Code Civil. While the Committees were engaged in the work - of government, a commission of eleven deputies was appointed to draw up - a new Constitution which should avoid the errors of its predecessors. - The chief authors of this Constitution, which is known as the - Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span>, were Boissy-d’Anglas and Daunou.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaties of Basle. 1795.</div> - - <p>The direction of foreign policy was still mainly conducted by Merlin - of Douai, who was now aided in this department by Cambacérès, - Sieyès, and Reubell. Their great work—indeed the great work of the - Thermidorians—was the conclusion of the Treaties of Basle. The causes - of these treaties have been shown in the examination just made of the - changed attitude of the powers of Europe towards the French Republic. - The agent of the French Republic in Switzerland, Barthélemy, was the - diplomatist who negotiated the series of treaties. Switzerland had - throughout the Reign of Terror been the centre of diplomatic action, - for in Switzerland alone France could meet the representatives of - foreign powers. The first and the most important of the Treaties of - Basle was that between France and Prussia, which was signed upon the - 5th of April 1795. By it not only was peace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> concluded between the - contracting powers, but a line of demarcation was agreed to be drawn - by which Prussia might secure safety from French invasion for the - states of Northern Germany. One point only was left in abeyance by - Barthélemy and Hardenberg, the negotiators of this treaty. The French - Government insisted that France, in reward for her exertions, and in - compensation for the long war, should receive her natural limits of the - Rhine. Prussia’s territory upon the left bank of the Rhine was very - small in amount, and it was agreed that the amount of compensation she - should receive for ceding it to France should be left unsettled for the - present. Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, who posed as a guardian of - the Holy Roman Empire, refused openly to assent to the doctrine that - France should reach the Rhine and thus consecrate the infringement of - the limits of the Empire. He had no desire to appear ready to consent - to any such arrangement, for he felt that such a policy would leave to - Austria the position of protector of the Empire. The Treaty of Basle - with Prussia was succeeded at the same place by a treaty with Spain - on the 22d of July, and finally by a treaty with the most energetic - of the petty princes of the Empire, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, - on the 29th of August. Peace had already on February 9th been made - with Tuscany, which had most unwillingly declared war on France under - pressure from England. Of these treaties, the most important was that - with Spain, which was excessively popular at Madrid, and won for Godoy - the high-sounding title of ‘Prince of the Peace.’ Thus, after three - years of war, France re-entered the comity of nations and broke up the - coalition formed against her independence.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_V"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> - <h2>CHAPTER V<br /><span class="large">1795–1797</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Results of the Treaties of Basle on the Foreign Policy of - France—Constitution of the Year III—The Directory—The - Legislature: Councils of Ancients and of Five Hundred—Local - Administration of France—The Insurrection of Vendémiaire—The - Rising of 13th Vendémiaire in Paris—The First French - Directors, Councils, and Ministers—Dissolution of - the Convention—England and the <i>Emigrés</i>—Treason of - Pichegru—Exchange of Madame Royale—Desire for Peace in - France—France and Prussia—Suggestion of Secularisations in - Germany—France and the Smaller States of Europe—Attitude of - Russia—Campaign of 1795 in Germany—Bonaparte’s Campaigns - of 1796 in Italy—Battle of Montenotte—Armistice of - Cherasco—Battle of Lodi—Armistice of Foligno—Conquest of - Upper Italy—Battles of Castiglione, Arcola, and Rivoli—Peace - of Tolentino with the Pope—Campaign of 1796 in Germany—Battle - of Altenkirchen—Retreat of Moreau—Effects of the Campaign - in Germany—Treaty between Prussia and France—Internal - Policy of the Directory—Pacification of La Vendée—The - State of France—The Directory, Councils, and Ministers in - 1796—Creation of the Ministry of Police—Alliance between - France and Spain—Treaty of San Ildefonso—Battle of Cape - Saint-Vincent—The Batavian Republic—Negotiations between - England and the Directory—Death of the Empress Catherine of - Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797 in the Tyrol—The Campaign - of 1797 in Germany—Preliminaries of Leoben between France and Austria.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Result of the Treaties of Basle.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> conclusion of the Treaties of Basle in the spring and summer of - 1795 brought France once more into a recognised position among the - nations of Europe. The idea of a revolutionary propaganda had been - entirely abandoned by the leading Thermidorians, who looked upon it as - the first duty of the French Government to secure peace for France. - All the great statesmen of the revolutionary period, from Mirabeau to - Danton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> and Robespierre, had protested against the absurd notion that - it was the mission of France to secure the pre-eminence of democratic - ideas throughout the whole of Europe. Events had shown that it was a - task of quite sufficient difficulty to secure the prevalence of such - ideas in France. The abandonment of the revolutionary propaganda broke - up the league of old Europe against new France. When the Prussian - state, and still more the ancient monarchy of Spain, had consented to - make peace with France, the rest of the powers of the Continent felt - that they could no longer affect to treat the French republicans as - beyond the pale of humanity, or the French Republic as having destroyed - the title of France to be reckoned as a nation.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Constitution of the Year III.</div> - - <p>The Thermidorians, not satisfied with their diplomatic success, - constructed a new government for France. The authors of the policy, - which resulted in the Treaties of Basle, were also the sponsors of - the ‘Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span>’ The task of drawing up - the bases of a new Constitution was referred upon 14th Germinal, Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span> (3d April 1795) to a committee of seven deputies, but - the details were worked out by a subsequent commission of eleven. - Among the seven the most important were Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Merlin - of Douai, who were also at this period the three principal members - of the Committee of Public Safety. Just as in making the Treaties of - Basle, they and their colleagues had recurred to the fundamental ideas - and policy of the old French Monarchy, so in the new Constitution - they exhibited the influence of bygone ideas. The experience of the - Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, and of the Convention until - the formation of the Committee of Public Safety, had shown the utter - inadequacy of intrusting supreme executive and administrative authority - to an unwieldy deliberative assembly. The power of the monarchy in - all modern states has rested upon the conviction of the importance - of consolidating, as far as possible, the executive authority; the - founders of the United States of America understood this truth, and - invested their President<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> with power resembling that exercised by - kings; and the Convention, when it yielded to the voice of Danton, - and conferred supreme authority upon the Committee of Public Safety, - had reaped the advantage in its victories upon all the frontiers. - Even the most obtuse of the deputies who sat in the Convention had - learnt this lesson. And the founders of the Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span> had no difficulty in carrying the most important point - in their programme. This was the entire separation of the executive - and legislative powers. The Constitution of 1791, in its jealousy of - the monarchy, had practically deprived the king and his ministers of - all real authority, while leaving him the entire responsibility. The - Constitution of 1793 had placed all executive authority in the hands of - the Legislature. The Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> endeavoured - to separate the executive and legislative authorities.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Directory.</div> - - <p>Under the new arrangement the executive was placed in the hands of - five Directors. One was to retire every year and was not eligible - for re-election; his successor was to be chosen by the Legislature. - In order to secure an entire separation between the members of the - Directory and of the Legislature, no member of the latter could - be elected a Director until twelve months had elapsed after the - resignation of his seat. The Directors were to appoint the Ministers, - who were to have no connection whatever with the Legislature, and who - were to act as the agents of the Directors. The individual Directors - were to exercise no authority in their own names. They were to live - under the same roof in the Palace of the Luxembourg at Paris. They were - to meet daily, and the will of the majority was to be taken as the will - of the whole. They were to elect a President every month, who was to - act as their mouthpiece at the reception of foreign ambassadors and on - all occasions of ceremony. The control of the internal administration, - the management of the armies and fleets, and all questions of foreign - policy were entirely left to the Directors. But treaties, declarations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> - of war and similar acts had to be ratified by the Legislature. The - Directors had nothing whatever to do with the work of legislation, and - their assent was not needed to new laws. With regard to the revenue, - the administration of the finances and of the treasury rested with the - Directors, but they could not impose fresh taxes without the assent of - the Legislature.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Legislature.</div> - - <p>The Legislature, under the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> - consisted of two chambers—the Council of Ancients and the Council - of Five Hundred. It is a curious commentary upon the debates which - took place in the Constituent Assembly in August 1789, when the - establishment of two chambers was rejected with scorn as being an - obvious imitation of the English Parliament, that in 1795 this very - principle was almost unanimously adopted. The experience of the - three great revolutionary assemblies had convinced Sieyès and his - colleagues of the inexpediency of leaving important measures to be - decided in a single chamber. The delay necessitated by a law being - obliged to pass before two distinct deliberative bodies now appeared - most advantageous, when compared with the headlong precipitation which - had marked all the earlier stages of the Revolution. The Council of - Ancients was to consist of men forty-five years old and upwards, and, - therefore, presumably not liable to be carried away by sudden bursts of - enthusiasm. For the Council of Five Hundred there was no limitation of - age, and elderly men were not precluded from being returned to it. The - Council of Five Hundred consisted, as its name implies, of five hundred - deputies; the Council of Ancients of two hundred and fifty. Dictated - by experience, also, were the measures taken for the election of - deputies. In order to avoid the inconvenience which had resulted from - the election of an entirely new body of representatives at one and the - same moment, as had happened in 1791, it was resolved that one-third of - the two Councils should retire yearly. Deputies were to be chosen by - an elaborate system of primary and secondary assemblies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> held in each - department of France, and a property qualification was demanded both - for the electors and the deputies. With these safeguards Sieyès and his - colleagues believed they had secured a practical means of obviating - all the errors of the past. The Council of Five Hundred had allotted - to it as its special function the initiation of all fresh taxation and - the revision of all money bills. The Council of Ancients was the court - of appeal in diplomatic questions, such as the declaration of war. In - actual legislation the consent of the majority of both chambers was - needed for a new law. For their most important function—the yearly - election of a new Director—the two chambers were to form one united - assembly.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Local Administration of France.</div> - - <p>By this Constitution, the conspicuous drawbacks of the two former - Constitutions, namely, the enforced weakness of the executive and - the undefined powers of the Legislature were avoided. But the local - administration established by the Constitution of 1791 had proved so - excellent that it was only slightly modified and not radically altered. - The great achievement of the Constituent Assembly—the abolition of old - provincial jealousies by the division of France into departments—was - maintained. The wise step which had been taken by the Great Committee - of Public Safety in abolishing the directories of the departments - and of the districts was sanctioned, and the council-generals were - left to act alone. The main distinction between the administrative - systems of 1791 and 1795 was that the elected <i>procureurs-syndics</i> - and <i>procureurs-généraux-syndics</i>, established by the former, were - replaced by officials nominated by the supreme executive at Paris. - These officials went under the name of agents during the Directory, - but possessed the same authority and carried out the same functions as - the <i>sous-préfets</i> and <i>préfets</i> afterwards appointed by Napoleon. The - courts of justice, whether local, appellant, or supreme, established by - the Constitution of 1791, were left untouched by the Constitution of - the Year <span class="smcap">III.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Insurrection of Vendémiaire.</div> - - <p>In spite of the glories of the conquest of Holland, the passage of - the Rhine, the victory of Quiberon, and the invasion of Spain,—in - spite of the even greater credit justly earned by the Treaties of - Basle,—in spite of the new Constitution, which, if faulty in places, - was superior to those which had preceded it—the Thermidorians were - intensely unpopular in France. The recollection of the Reign of - Terror weighed upon the imaginations of the people even after the - death of Robespierre, the deportation of Billaud-Varenne, and the - closing of the Jacobin Club. The Convention was still in the minds of - men shrouded by the remembrance of the innocent blood that had been - shed. The inauguration of the new constitutional system was looked - upon as an opportunity for driving the members of the Convention from - power, and threats of vengeance were everywhere heard against them. - Intriguers, some of them possibly royalists, who desired the return - of the Bourbons, but most of them bourgeois or aristocrats who had - personal reasons for desiring revenge, hoped to take advantage of this - general feeling to overthrow the Republic. But the mass of Frenchmen - were sincerely republican, and were clear-sighted enough to perceive - that the return of the Bourbons would be followed by the loss of the - material advantages that had been gained by the sale of the lands of - the Church and the nobility. The members of the Convention understood - the intentions of the intriguers, and understood also that the French - people sincerely loved the Republic. They proceeded to frustrate the - designs of their enemies by decreeing that two-thirds of the new - Legislature must be elected from among the deputies of the Convention. - The intriguers in Paris, thus foiled in their expectations of a certain - majority in the new Legislature, tried to rouse the people of Paris - into active insurrection. There can be no doubt that not only in Paris, - but throughout France, the action of the Convention in ordering the - election of so large a proportion of the old deputies was profoundly - unpopular, but it was one thing to dislike a measure and another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> thing - to involve France in a fresh revolution. In the provincial towns there - was universal grumbling but no active opposition. In Paris, however, - where the intriguers abounded, it was hoped that the <i>jeunesse dorée</i>, - who had played so great a part in the previous winter, assisted by the - bourgeois Sections, would be able by making an imposing display of - force to compel the Convention to revoke the obnoxious decree.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Fighting in Paris, 13th Vendémiaire (5th October 1795).</div> - - <p>This project of the agitators in Paris was soon known in the - Convention, and had the result of causing the divided forces of the - Thermidorians to close up their ranks. The three chief groups in this - party were the returned Girondins, the leaders of the Plain, and - the former adherents of the Terror. The leaders of all these groups - united in the presence of a common danger, for they felt that the - dissolution of the Convention without some such measure of security - as the re-election of the two-thirds to the forthcoming Legislature - would lead to their own proscription. They therefore appointed Barras, - who had commanded in the attack upon the Hôtel-de-Ville upon the - 9th Thermidor of the previous year, and overthrown the supporters - of Robespierre assembled there, to watch over their safety. Barras - summoned to his assistance Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then in Paris - engaged in protesting against his recall from the Army of Italy. The - antecedents of this young general, his well-known Jacobin principles - and his former friendship for Augustin Robespierre, had led to his - recall and to his being placed upon the unemployed list. Barras had - under his command the garrison of regular troops quartered in Paris and - the armed guards of the Convention. The Royalist agitators counted on - the <i>jeunesse dorée</i> and the bourgeois Sections. Bonaparte perceived - that in numbers each party was evenly matched, and he at once sent for - the artillery quartered at Meudon. The Convention declared itself <i>en - permanence</i>, the troops were stationed round the Tuileries, Bonaparte’s - guns were mounted in the gardens and the Place du Carrousel. The attack - on the Convention was made on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> the 13th Vendémiaire (5th October) in a - very slovenly manner. No effort had been made to concentrate the force - of the assailants at a given moment, and as the first column marched - carelessly down without recognised leaders, it was fired upon and - almost entirely cut to pieces by Bonaparte’s artillery. Nevertheless - column after column of devoted national guards approached the Tuileries - with the utmost gallantry to meet the same fate. The insurrection of - 13th Vendémiaire cannot be compared with the other famous insurrections - of the 14th July 1789 and 10th August 1792, for not one of the - defenders of the Convention was wounded. It was a butchery, not a - battle.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The First Directors.</div> - - <p>The Convention, conscious of its unpopularity, and not desiring to - increase it, made but slight efforts to discover and punish the - leaders of the insurrection of 13th Vendémiaire. Only a few military - executions, after trial by court-martial, of a few prisoners taken with - arms in their hands were permitted, and no vigour was shown in hunting - down even the most conspicuous agitators. It was resolved at once to - proceed to the election of the first Directors under the new system. - Sieyès refused to be one of them. It was generally agreed, though not - formally declared, that the first Directors should all be deputies of - the Convention who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., and who might - therefore be presumed to be faithful to republican institutions, if not - from inclination at least from fear. The five deputies actually elected - were—Barras, whose conduct on the 9th Thermidor, and on the 13th - Vendémiaire, had obtained for him the gratitude of the majority of the - deputies; Reubell, an ex-Constituant and an Alsatian, who was believed - to have a special knowledge of foreign affairs; Revellière-Lépeaux, - another ex-Constituant, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, a - good lawyer, and the future inventor of a new religion; Carnot, the - famous military member of the Great Committee of Public Safety, who - was selected for his strategic ability; and Letourneur, an ex-officer - of Engineers, like Carnot, who was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> expected to act as Carnot’s - assistant. To the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred - were elected among the two-thirds chosen from the Convention the more - conspicuous Thermidorians, including Sieyès, Cambacérès, Tallien, and - Treilhard. The six first ministers were appointed by the Directors on - 14th Brumaire (5th November). They were Merlin of Douai and Charles - Delacroix, two ex-deputies of the Convention who had not been elected - to the new Legislature, appointed to the Ministries of Justice and - of Foreign Affairs, Aubert-Dubayet, a distinguished general, to the - Ministry of War, and Faypoult, Benezech and Admiral Truguet to the - Ministries of Finance, the Interior, and the Marine.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Dissolution of the Convention.</div> - - <p>The first Directors elected and the new Legislature constituted, the - Convention had to decree its own dissolution. The three years during - which it had sat are perhaps the most important and most critical in - the whole history of France. The Convention had not merely witnessed - the rise and fall of many cliques and many parties; it had allowed the - Reign of Terror to be established, and had punished its inventors with - death or deportation. It had passed through nearly every variety of - government, and had seen France in her greatest degradation and at the - height of her success. Its last act, passed on the very day on which it - dissolved itself, 4th Brumaire (26th October), was worthy of its best - and greatest days, for it was an act declaring a complete amnesty for - all political offences, or supposed offences, since the declaration of - the Republic.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">England and the Emigrés.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treason of Pichegru.</div> - - <p>The successful establishment of the Directory and the victory won - over the royalist agitators on 13th Vendémiaire had a profound effect - upon the policy of England. Hitherto Pitt and Grenville, inspired - by their agent in Switzerland, William Wickham, had believed in the - vain promises of the royalist <i>émigrés</i>, and had hoped by their means - to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France. The headquarters of the - royalist agitators were, as they had always been, in Switzerland. - Neither the Comte de Provence, who,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> since his nephew’s death, called - himself Louis <i>XVIII.</i>, nor the Comte d’Artois were really deceived - by the hopes held out by their royalist friends. But the English - ministers, deluded by the extravagant promises of the <i>émigrés</i> and by - the reports of Wickham, considered the prospects of an overthrow of - the Republic to be excellent. They had shown their confidence in the - <i>émigrés</i> by the active assistance they had given to the expedition to - Quiberon Bay, and still more by the large sums of secret-service money - which had been expended in Switzerland. The efforts of the royalist - <i>émigrés</i> took two directions; on the one hand, they had fomented the - feeling of discontent in Paris which had culminated in the insurrection - of 13th Vendémiaire, and, on the other, they had attempted to affect - the loyalty of the generals of the Republic. The general on whom they - counted most was Pichegru, the conqueror of Holland. This general, like - Dumouriez in 1793, was more ambitious to attain wealth and power for - himself than success for the Republic. During his sojourn in Paris in - the spring of 1795 he had formed a close alliance with the royalist - agitators in the capital, and on proceeding to take up the command of - the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle he entered into direct communications - with the Prince de Condé, the general commanding the <i>émigré</i> army - in Germany. Condé promised Pichegru the government of Alsace, the - Château of Chambord, a million livres in cash, an income of two hundred - thousand livres a year, and the rank of Marshal of France, if he would - undertake to restore the Bourbons. Great hopes were built upon these - negotiations, and the Comte de Provence left Verona to take part in - them. But the success of these intrigues was nullified by the victory - of 13th Vendémiaire; the Margrave of Baden-Baden refused to allow the - Pretender to enter his territory; Wickham was unwillingly convinced - that the purchase of the general did not include the purchase of his - army; and the Directory, as soon as it had firmly seized the reins of - power, recalled Pichegru, whose transactions with Condé had been more - than suspected, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> replaced him by a thorough republican, Moreau. - These failures convinced Pitt and Grenville that there was no advantage - to be gained in trusting to the promises of the <i>émigrés</i>.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Exchange of Madame Royale.</div> - - <p>The Directory, on assuming power, resolved to continue the policy - of the Thermidorians, and not to recur to the notions of the - revolutionary propaganda. It desired to show Europe that France was - ready to enter into the comity of nations, and did not presume for - the future to interfere with the internal arrangements of other - countries. It, therefore, on grounds of humanity, took up again the - negotiations which had been commenced in July 1793 for the release - of the children of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, and, using Spain as an - intermediary, entered into communications on this subject with the - bitterest enemy of France—Austria. The death of the Dauphin, commonly - called Louis <span class="smcap">XVII.</span>, had left only one of the children of - Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and Marie Antoinette in the hands of the Republic. - The Thermidorians had, at the instigation of one of their leaders, - Boissy-d’Anglas, seen the expediency of proving to Europe that the - French republicans were not barbarians, by offering to surrender the - person of Madame Royale to her Austrian relatives. This project was - carried out by the Directory. On 20th December 1795 Madame Royale was - exchanged in Switzerland for the four deputies and the Minister of - War whom Dumouriez had handed over to the Austrians, and for another - deputy, Drouet, the former postmaster at Sainte-Menehould, who had been - taken prisoner by the Austrians in 1793.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Desire for Peace in France.</div> - - <p>The exchange of Madame Royale was a manifest evidence of the desire - of the Directors to conclude peace. The Prussian ambassador at Paris - reported to his government on 28th December 1795, ‘The general cry in - Paris is, “Make peace and you will have money and bread.”’<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Peace, - indeed, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>was the desire not only of the people of Paris, but of the - people of all France, of the majority in the new Legislature, and - of the Directory. It was hoped that the Treaties of Basle were but - the preliminaries of a general peace throughout Europe. But the two - remaining enemies of the French Republic, England and Austria, did not - see their way to meeting the Directory halfway. Pitt and Grenville - argued that a peace made with the Directory would be only of the nature - of a truce. They were ready enough to make peace, but considered it - inadvisable to negotiate with a government which seemed to them in - its essence unstable. Owing either to the intrigues of the <i>émigrés</i>, - or to their own knowledge of politics, they grasped the fact that the - new government of France was constructed on a faulty basis, and that a - peace concluded with it would not be lasting. The attitude of Austria - was somewhat different. Thugut, the Austrian minister, believed that - France was exhausted, and that by a continuance of war substantial - concessions could be wrung from her. Reubell, the Director who took - charge of the conduct of Foreign Affairs, expressed himself as follows - to the Prussian ambassador at Paris: ‘The war with Austria troubles us - less than the war with England. Our means for supporting the former - are ready, but not without having exhausted all the resources of the - Republic. It will be probably the last effort of the two belligerent - powers.... Our plan of campaign is almost settled; the war will be - defensive in Germany and offensive in Italy. It is important to us to - detach Austria from England and Sardinia from Austria.’<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Contrary - to their wish, therefore, the Directors found themselves obliged to - continue the war with England and Austria.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">France and Prussia.</div> - - <p>While continuing the war with these two powers, the French Directory, - like the Thermidorians, hoped to obtain not only the neutrality of - Prussia and Spain, which had been secured by the Treaties of Basle, - but their active co-operation. One of its first diplomatic endeavours - was to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>enter into close relations with Prussia. Some of the ministers - of Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, notably Alvensleben, were in favour - of an alliance with France; but the King himself, though he had been - forced by the emptiness of his treasury, and his projects on Poland to - make peace with the French republicans, looked on the idea of making an - alliance with them with horror. In this attitude he was supported by - his two ablest ministers, Haugwitz and Hardenberg. By the terms of the - Treaty of Basle Hardenberg had secured the preponderance of Prussia in - northern Germany. A line of demarcation or neutrality was drawn across - Germany, and the northern states, which were thus freed from the fear - of a French invasion, looked to Prussia as their leader and saviour. - An excuse for not forming an offensive and defensive alliance with - France was found in the occupation by the French troops of the Prussian - territories on the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia would only negotiate - on the basis of the restoration of the <i>status quo ante bellum</i>, and - the French Directory, like its predecessors, the Thermidorian Committee - of Public Safety and the Great Committee of Public Safety, insisted on - the cession to France of all territory up to the Rhine. The Directors, - had they wished, could not have opposed the universal feeling in France - in favour of making the Rhine the frontier, and proposed that Prussia - should take compensation for its cessions on the left bank of the - Rhine, by secularising the bishoprics and abbeys of northern Germany - and annexing their territories. This proposal, which would bring in - its train the overthrow of the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, - could not be sponsored by Prussia. The policy of Frederick the Great - had been to assume that Prussia, not Austria, was the true defender of - the rights of the Empire, and his nephew, in spite of Alvensleben’s - representations, feared to break with the hereditary policy. The - arrangement with regard to the line of demarcation had placed Prussia - in the position of the guardian of the Empire; the acceptance of - the French propositions would have made her seem its destroyer. The - attempts of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> Directory, and afterwards of the Consulate, to secure - an alliance with Prussia, were therefore foredoomed to failure.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">France and the Smaller States.</div> - - <p>The victories of the French Republic were received with more than - toleration in the smaller states of Europe, which feared the - aggressions of Austria, Prussia, and Russia far more than any invasion - by the French. Switzerland had profited greatly by the strict - neutrality it had maintained. The wealth of France had poured freely - into the cantons for the purchase of provisions and other necessaries; - the residence of the diplomatists of Europe at Berne, the headquarters - of Wickham, and at Basle, the headquarters of the French minister - Barthélemy, had also been profitable to the country, while the Swiss, - ready as ever to accept money from all sides, were enabled to make very - considerable gains. Of the Princes of Italy, Ferdinand, Grand Duke of - Tuscany, and brother of the Emperor, had, to the disgust of the Court - of Vienna, made a separate peace with the French Republic in February - 1795; Ferdinand of Naples had followed his example, and the King of - Sardinia alone remained in armed opposition to France. With Portugal - the Directory and the Committee of Public Safety, refused to treat, - for, like the French statesmen throughout the eighteenth century, - the Directors regarded Portugal as merely a province of England. - With the smaller northern powers the Directory established the most - friendly relations. Christian VII. of Denmark had always maintained his - neutrality, and through the French minister, resident at his Court, - many important secret negotiations had passed with Prussia. In Sweden, - Charles, Duke of Sudermania, the guardian of the young King Gustavus - <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, abandoned the policy of Gustavus III., and now made a - treaty of friendship and a commercial treaty with the French Republic. - The only other state to be mentioned is Turkey. The Turks looked upon - the events which were passing in the West of Europe with unconcern; - still they were inclined to be friendly with the French Republic, - because it was engaged in fighting with Austria, and thus distracted - the attention of one of the hereditary enemies of the Sublime Porte.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Russia.</div> - - <p>Catherine of Russia, now at the close of her long reign, still regarded - the French Revolution as affording a happy opportunity for her to - pursue her schemes on Poland without active interference from Prussia - or Austria. Her one desire was that France should continue the war, - and for this reason she cordially received at her court the Comte - d’Artois, and encouraged the presence of French <i>émigrés</i>. The Treaties - of Basle had greatly offended her, for Prussia was thus left free to - interfere in Poland, but Catherine was too wise to attempt to do more - than intrigue with the affairs of Western Europe. She had no idea of - intervening actively.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1795.</div> - - <p>The campaign of 1795 on the Rhine frontier is chiefly important in - regard to the treason of Pichegru. The Elector of Bavaria, who was at - the same time the Elector Palatine, had, as has already been said, - been uniformly friendly to the French. It was by his connivance that - two of the most important fortresses upon the Rhine, Mannheim and - Düsseldorf, were surrendered to Pichegru and Jourdan respectively. - Meanwhile Marceau besieged the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, and Kléber - the city of Mayence. There can be little doubt, though it is not - absolutely proved by documents, that it was because of the negotiations - he had commenced with the Prince de Condé that Pichegru did not - advance into Germany. Jourdan, who did advance with the Army of the - Sambre-and-Meuse, therefore found himself unprotected on his right, - and was forced to retire with considerable loss. Marceau succeeded in - taking Ehrenbreitstein, but the same treacherous inaction of Pichegru - allowed the Austrian General Clerfayt to force Kléber to raise the - siege of Mayence. It was on 20th October 1795 that Jourdan recrossed - the Rhine; on the 29th Kléber was driven from before Mayence; and on - the 30th Pichegru was defeated and driven behind the Queich. The first - operations of the French armies under the Directory were, thus, owing - to Pichegru’s treachery, unsuccessful, and on the 21st December an - armistice was made between the French and the Austrians on the Rhine.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> - In the north, owing to the Treaties of Basle, there were no military - operations of importance during the autumn of 1795, and the French - army maintained its position on the frontier of Holland. In the south - considerable alterations were made. The treaty of peace with Spain - enabled the experienced and warlike soldiers of the two armies of - the Pyrenees to be despatched to reinforce the Army of Italy, which - was also joined by the bulk of the troops of the Army of the Alps. - General Schérer, who commanded the Army of Italy, pushed forward, and - by a victory at Loano on the 24th November 1795, opened up a direct - communication with Genoa and cut off the Sardinians from the sea. In - the four armies of the Directory which had thus taken the place of the - thirteen armies of the Republic, there were under arms at the close of - 1795 about 300,000 men under experienced generals, excluding what was - known as the Army of the Interior, which guarded Paris and garrisoned - the chief cities of France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in Italy, 1796. First Stage.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Armistice of Cherasco. April 28, 1796.</div> - - <p>Reubell, in his conversation with the Prussian ambassador at Paris, - openly declared that the chief military effort of France in 1796 was - to be made in Italy. Hitherto the Army of Italy had been overshadowed - by the operations of the armies engaged upon the Rhine; but the - Directory now desired to attack Austria in a vital place. Upon the - Rhine they were in reality waging war with the Empire and not with - Austria. Mayence, for instance, was the capital of an Elector, not an - Austrian city, and blows struck in that quarter affected the Empire - and the petty princes of the Empire far more than they did Austria. - But in Italy the House of Austria owned an important possession in - the Milanese. Between the Milanese and the French Army of Italy was - Piedmont, the principal state of the King of Sardinia. Victor Amadeus - <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Sardinia was the only petty monarch in Europe who - had not attempted to make peace with the French Republic. In his - resentment at the loss of Savoy and Nice he had thrown himself into - the arms of Austria, and had borrowed an Austrian general, Colli, to - command his small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> but well equipped army. This was the situation - when Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been nominated to the command of the - Army of Italy by the Directory, on the proposition of Barras, to whom - he had rendered such signal service on 13th Vendémiaire, arrived to - take up his new command on the 27th of March 1796. He understood the - policy of the Directory, and determined to crush the King of Sardinia - first, in order to be free to attack the Austrians in the Milanese. He - therefore turned the Maritime Alps and separated the Austrian from the - Sardinian army. The rapidity of his success was such as to surprise the - Directors. After turning the Alps Bonaparte struck north and defeated - the Sardinians at Montenotte, Millesimo, and Dego on the 12th, 13th, - and 15th April, stormed their camp at Ceva on 16th April, and finally - defeated them at Mondovi on 22d April. He then threatened Turin, and - the King of Sardinia signed an armistice with him at Cherasco on 28th - April, abandoning to the French army his most important frontier - fortresses. As the first result of these military operations the King - of Sardinia sued for peace, which he was only granted on recognising - the cession to France of Savoy and Nice, and as a second result General - Bonaparte was enabled to attack the Austrians in Lombardy without - leaving a hostile power behind him.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Italy. Second Stage.</div> - - <p>The operations of the second stage of the famous campaign of 1796 - were as rapid and as completely successful. On the 8th May Bonaparte - crossed the river Po by skilfully misleading the Austrians as to his - intentions, and on 10th May he forced the passage of the Adda at Lodi, - where he won one of his most famous victories. The Austrian General - Beaulieu felt himself incapable of holding the lines of the other - rivers, and fled into the Tyrol. Bonaparte first occupied Milan, and - then forced the Dukes of Parma and of Modena to submit to his demands, - and to send ambassadors to treat for peace at Paris. To these petty - princelets Bonaparte behaved with the utmost arrogance; not satisfied - with making large requisitions of money and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> provisions, he selected - their finest pictures and works of art, and directed them to be sent - to Paris. Far more important, from his spiritual position, though not - of greater military strength, was the Pope. The French armies occupied - the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna, and Bonaparte then threatened - to march on Rome. In terror Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span> concluded, on the - 24th June 1796, an armistice at Foligno, by which he abandoned Ancona, - and promised to send to Paris the large sum of 20,000,000 livres, with - many manuscripts and works of art. The conquest of Italy revealed to - Europe the French Republic in a new light. It showed the monarchs, - and especially the rulers of little states, that the revolutionary - propaganda which they had hated and dreaded so much had given way to - an even more dangerous military policy, directed by a victorious and - ambitious general.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Italy. Third Stage.</div> - - <p>But Austria was not going to be driven out of Italy by a single - campaign. The beaten army of Beaulieu was reorganised by General - Melas, and reinforced by 30,000 picked men from the Rhine. This army, - amounting in all to 70,000 men, was placed under the command of Marshal - Würmser, who, at the end of July, debouched from the Tyrol and invaded - Italy by the two sides of Lake Garda. Bonaparte, whose army did not - exceed 40,000 men, broke up the siege of Mantua which he had formed, - and utterly defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Castiglione - on 5th August 1796. Würmser fell back, but in September, the following - month, he invaded Italy by the valley of the Brenta, and threw himself - into Mantua. Bonaparte, now considering himself for a time freed from - the danger of another Austrian attack, made an effort to reconstitute - Northern Italy. Several of the cities, notably Modena, Bologna, and - Ferrara, had declared themselves republics, but Bonaparte could see - no advantage in little republics, and summoned a general assembly of - deputies from the whole of Lombardy to meet at Milan. This assembly was - disposed to form a Lombard Republic, but before it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> could complete its - deliberations Bonaparte had to fight another Austrian army.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Italy. Fourth Stage.</div> - - <p>The Austrians, disgusted and surprised by these successive defeats, - prepared to make a great effort. For the first time, the Emperor - appealed directly to the patriotism of the people, and more especially - of the nobility. A new army was equipped, which, if not so numerous, - was more enthusiastic than the former armies, and was placed under - the command of General Alvinzi. Bonaparte had received few or no - reinforcements, and felt himself unable to face an army of 60,000 men. - He waited, therefore, patiently in his headquarters at Verona while - Alvinzi advanced slowly down the Brenta. Having learnt experience - from their former defeats, the Austrians were in no hurry to come - to blows, even with the small French army in front of them. Alvinzi - entrenched himself in a formidable position on the heights of Caldiero, - and repulsed a French attack upon the 12th of November. Another such - check meant the ruin of the French army. Bonaparte decided to turn - the position. Advancing along the causeway through the marshes upon - Alvinzi’s left, he fought the celebrated battle of Arcola on the 16th - of November, and Alvinzi, finding his position untenable, retreated - into the Tyrol.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Italy. Fifth Stage.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Tolentino. Feb. 19, 1797.</div> - - <p>Even yet the Austrians were not finally discouraged. Würmser held out - in Mantua; the Pope, incited by the Court of Vienna, did not observe - the Armistice of Foligno, and determined to raise the Italian populace - against the French; and it was resolved to make a final effort. In - the depth of winter Alvinzi advanced down the eastern shore of Lake - Garda, but was stopped and utterly defeated at Rivoli on the 14th - January 1797. Provera, who had endeavoured to relieve Würmser by the - Brenta, while Alvinzi occupied the main French army at Rivoli, was also - defeated, and on 2d February 1797 Mantua surrendered. These successive - blows destroyed the military power of Austria in Italy, and Bonaparte - began to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> plans for invading Austria itself. But before he started - it was necessary to establish peace behind him. The behaviour of the - Pope showed the general that His Holiness could not be trusted, and it - was only under the pressure of a French advance upon Rome that Pius - <span class="smcap">VI.</span> signed a treaty of peace with the French at Tolentino on - 19th February 1797. By this treaty Bonaparte’s lines of communication - were secured; the people of Lombardy were his enthusiastic admirers, - and everything promised a speedy and successful advance upon Vienna.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in Germany, 1796.</div> - - <p>As Reubell had stated to the Prussian ambassador, the chief effort of - the French armies was directed in the year 1796 against the Austrians - in Italy. But the operations in Germany were nevertheless of extreme - importance; not on account of what was achieved, but because of - their effect on the policy of the Princes of the Empire. Carnot, - who was left in entire charge of military affairs by the Directory, - combined a skilful plan of campaign. He directed the Army of the - Rhine-and-Moselle, now under the command of Moreau, and the Army of - the Sambre-and-Meuse, still under the command of Jourdan, to make a - simultaneous advance into the heart of Germany, and to unite their - forces upon the Danube. The generals were sufficiently able, and the - troops sufficiently experienced in war, to carry out this movement; but - at the head of the Austrians, for the first time since the outbreak - of the war, there appeared a general of real military genius. The - Archduke Charles, the third son of the Emperor Leopold, and the brother - of the reigning Emperor, Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span>, was only a young man, - but he proved himself to be a profound strategist. On the 1st June - 1796 he announced to the French generals that the armistice, which - had lasted six months, was at an end. Jourdan at once advanced from - Düsseldorf, and after taking Frankfort and Würtzburg invaded Franconia. - The Archduke Charles immediately opposed him with his whole army, and - Jourdan had to fall back after a three weeks’ campaign.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> Moreau was - not able to cross the Rhine until 24–25 June 1796. The operation was - one of extreme difficulty, which was chiefly overcome by the skill - and gallantry of Desaix. Moreau then proceeded to carry out Carnot’s - orders; he advanced with great rapidity; he defeated the Prince de - Condé and his army of <i>émigrés</i> at Ettlingen; he occupied Stuttgart, - and forced his way into Bavaria, reaching the Danube in the month of - August. To oppose him the Archduke Charles marched rapidly to the - south, and Jourdan once more left Düsseldorf and invaded Franconia. The - Archduke Charles soon understood the intentions of Carnot, and took - up a central position between the two French armies at Ingolstadt. He - waited until the French generals had penetrated far from their base of - operations, and then, leaving but a weak division in front of Moreau, - he attacked Jourdan in force. The French Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse - was overcome by the weight of numbers; on the 3d of September it - was driven from Würtzburg, and on the 20th of September defeated at - Altenkirchen, where Marceau, one of the most renowned of the young - generals of the republican period, was killed. Having driven back - Jourdan, the Archduke Charles turned upon Moreau. That general had - imprudently continued to advance into Bavaria, and did not perceive - until late in September the critical position in which he had been - left by the retreat of Jourdan. When he did perceive it, he extricated - himself by one of the most famous retreats known in military history. - For forty days he fell back through a hostile country, with bad roads, - and offering almost innumerable difficulties from its lofty mountains - and dense forests, and harassed by the presence of a victorious - Austrian army attempting to cut off his retreat, and eventually he - recrossed the Rhine on the 24th of October.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Effects of the Campaign in Germany.</div> - - <p>From a military point of view, apart from the intrinsic interest - presented by the operations of the armies, the chief importance of - the campaign of 1796 in Germany lay in the fact that it occupied a - considerable force of Austrian troops,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> which were thus prevented from - being sent as reinforcements to the Austrian army in Italy. From the - diplomatic point of view, the campaign had results almost rivalling - those achieved by Bonaparte in Italy. The advance of the French threw - the states of Southern Germany into the hands of Prussia. They felt - a natural sentiment of jealousy at perceiving the states of Northern - Germany escaping the horrors of war, owing to the line of demarcation - established by the Treaty of Basle. Many of the smaller states, and at - least one of the larger states, Saxony, implored the intervention of - Prussia. Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, only too glad to pose as the - guardian of the Empire, made use of all his influence to induce the - French Directory to consent to the further extension of the line of - demarcation. Reubell, the Director who took charge of foreign policy, - was possessed by the idea that Prussia and France were natural allies, - and induced the Directory to meet the views of Frederick William - <span class="smcap">II.</span>; but in return he demanded that Prussia should enter into - an offensive and defensive alliance with the French Republic. The - King of Prussia, in his hatred of Jacobin principles, was inclined - to reject this proposal, but his ministers, notably Haugwitz and - Alvensleben, persuaded him that it was impossible to refuse entirely. - A compromise was arranged, and on 5th August 1796 a secret supplement - to the Treaty of Basle was signed between France and Prussia. By this - secret convention Prussia definitely promised to recognise the limits - of the Rhine for the French Republic, and in return France guaranteed - that at a general peace not only the King of Prussia should receive - compensation for the territories he surrendered, by the cession of some - ecclesiastical states, but also that his brother-in-law, the Prince of - Orange, should receive a sovereignty in Germany, to make up for the - loss of the Stadtholderate in Holland. It proved impossible to extend - the line of demarcation to the southern states of Germany as long as - the Austrian army of the Archduke Charles remained there. And therefore - the petty rulers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> endeavoured to make peace with France on their own - account. The Duke of Würtemburg and the Margrave of Baden both opened - negotiations, and since the Elector of Bavaria had fled into Saxony on - the advance of Moreau, the Estates of Bavaria signed a treaty of peace - with the French general at Pfaffenhofen on the 7th September 1796. But - the successes of the Archduke Charles and the retreat of Moreau put - an end to these peaceful dispositions. The Elector of Bavaria refused - to ratify the treaty his Estates had made; the Duke of Würtemburg - dismissed the minister who had conducted his negotiations; and in spite - of all the efforts of Prussia, the predominance of Austria continued in - Southern Germany.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Policy of the Directory, 1796.</div> - - <p>The successes of Bonaparte in Italy, and the operations of the French - armies in Germany which, though they had ended in retreat, had not been - discreditable to the generals or soldiers, reacted very favourably upon - the position of the Directory. The French, as a nation, have always - been dazzled by military glory, and since the armies of the Directory - were victorious, they were inclined to look upon the government of - the Directory as excellent. But military successes did not merely add - to the reputation of the Directors; by means of them their financial - difficulties were relieved. The doctrine that invading armies should - live upon the resources of the invaded countries was a most convenient - one. Not only did the armies in Italy and Germany maintain themselves - free of cost to the Directory, but the generals sent large sums of - money to Paris. It was therefore unnecessary to impose fresh taxes - or issue more paper money. But the relief of financial distress was - not the only result of the government of the Directory in 1796; it - restored internal peace. Hoche, after his defeat of the <i>émigrés</i> at - Quiberon Bay in 1795, devoted himself to the pacification of Brittany - and La Vendée. The chief credit due to the Directors is that they gave - the young general a free hand. While putting down armed insurrection, - and defeating the Vendéan chiefs whenever they appeared, Hoche used - the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> most conciliatory measures towards individuals. His policy, as he - himself declared in one of his proclamations, was to make the Republic - loved. While punishing brigandage severely, he conveniently forgot all - past offences as long as the offenders occupied themselves peacefully; - and on the 15th of July 1796 the Directory was able to announce to - the Legislature that the whole of France was at peace. In truth, all - political disturbances were at an end. The majority of the French - people frankly accepted the Republic, and seemed to care very little - what was the actual form of the republican government. But though - political disturbances were over, the troubled times through which - France had passed had left only too much scope for private animosity. - In the south armed bands, resembling the Companies of Jehu of 1795, - pretended to be acting for the defence of religion, when they were - really moved by desire of plunder and booty. In the centre the pretext - of religion was not alleged, but armed bands of brigands collected - in the forests and the mountains, and, like the banditti in Italy, - pillaged travellers on the high roads, and held whole villages to - ransom. These evils steadily diminished with the consistent enforcement - of the law, but it was some years before France became absolutely safe - for travellers. Of less importance were the insurrections fomented - by the extreme democratic party. Democracy was discredited by the - recollection of the Reign of Terror, and the plot of Babeuf in May, - and an attack on the camp at Grenelle in November 1796, were easily - suppressed.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">First changes in the Directory and the Legislature, 1797.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Changes in the Ministry.</div> - - <p>By the terms of the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> no change in - the Directory or the Legislature was to be made until February 1797. - By this arrangement a period of consistent government was secured. The - Directors, on the whole, acted harmoniously together. The pre-eminence - of Reubell and Carnot was generally recognised; Barras occupied - himself chiefly with his pleasures; Revellière-Lépeaux was engaged in - establishing his new religion of Theo-philanthropy, which made some - converts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> in the towns, but found no followers in the villages; and - Letourneur simply acted as Carnot’s lieutenant. In the Legislature - the chief leaders, such as Sieyès, Cambacérès, and Boissy-d’Anglas, - showed occasionally their jealousy of their former colleagues in the - Convention; but, on the whole, they did not try to interfere with their - measures. The only heated debates which took place in the Council of - Five Hundred were on the nature of the disturbances in the south of - France. These were roundly asserted by the opposing parties to be - caused by intrigues of priests, or by intrigues of Jacobins. Fréron, - who had been sent by the Directory to settle these troubles, was very - violently attacked, and with difficulty exculpated himself from the - charge of political partisanship. But, on the whole, the debates in - both branches of the Legislature were very tame. Nevertheless there - appeared, during 1796, the germ of what in 1797 was known as the - Clichian party, so called from its meeting at the Club de Clichy. This - party was not openly royalist, but the chiefs of the French <i>émigrés</i>, - supported by the funds supplied by Wickham, believed they could use - it to serve their own purposes, as they had made use of the agitators - in the Paris Sections in 1795. In the ministry no changes of great - importance were made in 1796; Ramel, the former colleague of Cambon - in the Financial Committee of the Convention, replaced Faypoult as - Minister of the Finances; and Pétiet, a former commissary-general, was - appointed Minister of War in succession to Aubert-Dubayet. Of more - importance was the creation of a seventh ministry, of General Police, - in January 1796, for it was an evidence of a new spirit, and the first - symptom of the elaborate scheme for muzzling public opinion, which was - developed to its height by Fouché at a later date. Merlin of Douai - left the Ministry of the Interior for three months to organise the new - department, and was succeeded in April 1796 by Cochon de Lapparent, a - former member of the Convention.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">France and Spain.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of San Ildefonso. 19th Aug. 1796.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of St. Vincent.</div> - - <p>It has been said that the Directors endeavoured in vain to form - an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> were more - successful with regard to Spain. The power of Godoy, who for the - negotiations at Basle had been created Prince of the Peace, rose to its - height. General Pérignon, who had been sent as ambassador to Madrid by - the Directory, skilfully flattered the vanity of the new prince, and, - to the astonishment of all Europe, an offensive and defensive alliance - was signed between the French Republic and the ancient Bourbon monarchy - of Spain at San Ildefonso, on the 19th of August 1796, by which Spain - agreed to declare war against England, and the French promised to - assist in the conquest of Portugal, which was to be divided between - the two allies. From a military point of view the alliance with Spain - did not yield any advantage to France, but from a naval standpoint - it proved of incalculable value. The English were obliged to abandon - Corsica, their only foothold in the Mediterranean, and to concentrate - their fleet at Gibraltar. The Spanish navy, to which much attention had - been paid throughout the eighteenth century, had certainly improved, - and, united with a few French men-of-war, far outnumbered the English - Mediterranean Fleet. This was the year of the great English naval - mutiny at the Nore, and the profound discontent which possessed the - English sailors was equally perceptible at Gibraltar. But fortunately - the English admiral, Sir John Jervis, was a man of singular ability, - who understood the English sailor perfectly. He showed no mercy to - ringleaders, but maintained discipline, and even made it popular - by looking after the men’s food, and appealing to their patriotic - feelings. He understood that, on the eve of a battle, the sailors would - cease their disaffection. Accordingly he kept at sea for several months - after the junction of the French and Spanish fleets, announcing his - intention to offer battle; and when discipline was restored he utterly - defeated the French and Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent, on the 14th of - February 1797. By this victory, in which Nelson greatly distinguished - himself, the Spanish fleet was practically destroyed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> for offensive - purposes, and the high hopes that the Directory had built on the naval - assistance of Spain were frustrated. England had promptly, as in former - days, come to the help of Portugal, and sent an army under the Hon. - Sir Charles Stuart to defend the country, and a general, the Prince of - Waldeck, to reorganise the Portuguese army.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Directory and England.</div> - - <p>While the Directory made an alliance with Spain, and hoped to make one - with Prussia, its sentiments of hostility towards England remained - undiminished. It had been expected in France that the conquest of - Holland and the formation of the Batavian Republic, in close alliance - with the French Republic, would have struck a more serious blow at - the prosperity of England than it had really done. As a matter of - fact, the loss of Holland proved but a slight commercial disaster; the - commerce of the North of Europe, which passed through English hands, - merely moved from Amsterdam to Hamburg, and the English merchants - suffered little. From a naval point of view, the French possession - of Holland made it necessary for England to set on foot a powerful - fleet to watch the Dutch navy in the Texel, while she also had to - maintain a fleet blockading the French port of Brest in addition to - her Mediterranean fleet. The English government was more profoundly - affected by Bonaparte’s victories in Italy than by the loss of Holland. - In November 1796 Lord Malmesbury was sent to Paris to discuss the bases - of a peace. He began to negotiate for the restoration of the <i>status - quo ante bellum</i>, and demanded the surrender of Belgium to the Emperor. - Such terms were ridiculous; the French Directors, even had they wished, - would not have dared to withdraw from their policy of making the Rhine - the frontier of France. The diplomatic habitudes of Lord Malmesbury - were regarded by the Directors as proofs of his double-dealing, and - he was abruptly ordered to leave Paris on the 20th December 1796. - There was little real expectation of peace on either side. At the - very time Lord Malmesbury was in Paris the Directory was preparing - a naval expedition in Brest harbour.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> It was announced that the - expedition was intended for the West Indies, and it was placed under - the command of Hoche. On the 16th of December it set sail for Bantry - Bay, for the Directory had really recurred to the old French idea of - attacking England through Ireland. But a terrible storm scattered the - French Fleet, and only two or three ships reached Bantry Bay, and they - returned to France without effecting a landing.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Death of Catherine of Russia. Nov. 17, 1796.</div> - - <p>Though the history of Europe during the year 1796 is chiefly bound up - in the policy and military achievements of France, the close of the - year witnessed the disappearance of the greatest monarch of Eastern - Europe. On the 17th November 1796, Catherine of Russia died. The - importance of her reign belongs to the period prior to the French - Revolution, and her attitude towards the series of events grouped under - that title, was chiefly dictated by the course of events in Poland. She - was succeeded on the throne of Russia by her son, the Emperor Paul. The - new monarch soon gave evidence of the aberration of intellect which led - him into the strange excesses that brought about his assassination. - His first step in foreign politics was to decline to assist Austria - with his armies, and he even withdrew a Russian fleet which his mother - had recently sent to the assistance of England. In conversation he - expressed his detestation of the French as Jacobins, but none the less - he opened negotiations with the Directory by means of his ambassador at - Berlin, Kolichev, who communicated freely with the French ambassador - Caillard.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1797.</div> - - <p>In the commencement of the year 1797 the interest of Europe was - concentrated upon Bonaparte and his army. Being master of Italy he - now determined to invade the home domains of the House of Austria. - He begged the Directory to act with energy in Germany in order to - prevent reinforcements being sent against him. The Emperor recalled - his brother, the Archduke Charles, from the Rhine, and placed in him - command of the Austrian army in the Tyrol. On the 16th of March 1797 - Bonaparte<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> forced the passage of Tagliamento. Joubert, who was acting - independently in the district of Friuli, made his way by that route - into the Tyrol, and joined his general-in-chief at Klagenfurt on the - 13th of March. With the combined army Bonaparte pursued the Austrians. - He defeated the Archduke Charles at Neumarkt and Unzmarkt, and on 7th - April he entered Leoben. The Archduke Charles felt it impossible to - oppose the French longer, and on the 17th of April 1797 preliminaries - of peace were signed at Leoben.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1797 in Germany.</div> - - <p>Simultaneously with Bonaparte’s advance the Armies of the - Rhine-and-Moselle under Moreau, and of the Sambre-and-Meuse under - Hoche, were set in motion. The latter advanced from Düsseldorf, - defeated the Austrians in five engagements, took Wetzlar, and was - already marching on Giessen in Hanover when his progress was stopped by - the news of the signature of the Preliminaries of Leoben. Moreau, on - his side, had not been able to cross the Rhine until 20th April, and - had made no further offensive movement, when he was ordered to cease - operations.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Preliminaries of Leoben. April 17, 1797.</div> - - <p>By the Preliminaries of Leoben the war between France and Austria, - which had lasted without intermission for five years, came to a - termination. By the Convention signed at that place, Austria agreed - that the Rhine should be recognised as the frontier of France, which - involved the cession of Belgium. In Italy the Emperor promised to give - up the Milanese, and to receive Venice in compensation. These were - the territorial bases agreed to, and General Bonaparte was intrusted - by the Directory with the task of concluding a definitive peace with - Austria. But this Convention only bound Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span> as head of - the House of Hapsburg, not as Emperor. It was therefore agreed that a - congress should be held at Rastadt, at which terms of peace should be - arranged between the French Republic and the Empire. The Preliminaries - of Leoben crowned Bonaparte’s great victories, and the monarchs of - Europe quickly recognised that they had no longer to deal with the - French Republic, but with the young Corsican general.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VI<br /><span class="large">1797–1799</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Elections of 1797 in France—Policy of the Clichians—Struggle - between the Directors and the Clichians—Negotiations for - Peace between England and the Directory—Changes in the - French Ministry—Revolution of 18th Fructidor—Bonaparte - in Italy—Occupation of Venice—The Ligurian and Cisalpine - Republics formed—Annexation of the Ionian Islands by - France—Treaty of Campo-Formio—Capture of Mayence—The - Batavian Republic—Battle of Camperdown—Bonaparte’s - Expedition to the East—Capture of Malta—Conquest - of Egypt—Battle of the Nile—Internal Policy of the - Directory after 18th Fructidor—Foreign Policy—Attitude - of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—The Helvetian - Republic—Italian Affairs—The Roman and Parthenopean Republics - formed—Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France—The - Law of Conscription—Outbreak of War between Austria and - France—Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt—The - Campaign of 1799—In Italy—Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia - and Novi—Italy lost to France—In Switzerland—Battle - of Zurich—In Holland—Battles of Bergen—Results of the - Campaign of 1799—Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul - of Russia—Bonaparte’s Campaign of 1799 in Syria—Siege of - Acre—Battle of Mount Tabor—Struggle between the Directors and - the Legislature in France—Revolution of 22d Prairial—Changes - in the Directory and Ministry—Bonaparte’s return to - France—Revolution of 18th Brumaire—End of the Government of - the Directory in France.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Elections of 1797 in France.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">In</span> the month of May 1797 a new Director and a new third of the - Legislature were, in accordance with the Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span>, elected in France. These elections were entirely - favourable to the Clichian party. This party, which had gradually grown - up since the dissolution of the Convention, and took its name from - the Club de Clichy, was led by men of very considerable ability. The - sentiment which united them was a loathing of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> the memory of the Reign - of Terror and a desire to expel from power those who had taken part in - it. This sentiment was very general in France, and the new legislators - returned to the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred - were, with but few exceptions, men who had not sat in the Convention. - Many of them were former members of the Constituent and Legislative - Assemblies, and had a considerable knowledge of parliamentary tactics. - Foremost among this group was Barbé-Marbois, who had, under the Bourbon - monarchy, been intendant of San Domingo, but the deputy belonging to it - who attracted most attention was General Pichegru. The first success - of the Clichian party was won in the election of the new Director. - The retiring Director on whom the lot had fallen was Letourneur, and - to fill his place was chosen Barthélemy, a former marquis, and the - diplomatist who had negotiated the Treaties of Basle. This election was - very significant. It seemed to presage a consistent peace policy. It - afforded a guarantee that the proscription of the nobles of the <i>ancien - régime</i> was to be ended.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Policy of the Clichians.</div> - - <p>In foreign policy it was indeed the aim of the Clichians to bring - about a universal peace. Their home policy was neither so definite - nor so logical. In their hatred of the Terrorists there can be no - doubt that the wiser heads among the Clichians desired a return to a - monarchical government. Pichegru and the more self-seeking among them - thought that they could obtain money and power by a new revolution. - Never were the prospects of a counter-revolution more promising. The - Clichians, recognising the impossibility of restoring the Bourbon - Monarchy in its former authority, were in favour of a constitutional, - limited monarchy after the English pattern. But Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, - and the Comte d’Artois, buoyed up by the hopes of the <i>émigrés</i> - refused to make the slightest concession; they would not acknowledge - the Constitution of 1791; they would not even promise to consent to - the slightest limitation of the old monarchical power. Under these - circumstances the Clichians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> had to look for a king elsewhere. A few, - among whom may possibly be counted Pichegru, were ready to accept - Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> on his own terms. A larger party were in favour - of the Duke of Orleans, son of Philippe Égalité, and, in the future, - King of the French as Louis Philippe. Others favoured the accession - of a Prussian prince, and negotiations were opened at Berlin to see - whether Prince Francis, the nephew of Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, - would accept the throne. With such divisions of opinion, there was no - doubt that the internal policy of the Clichians, even though backed by - large subsidies from England, which passed to them through Switzerland, - was certain to bring about no result. Nor was their peace policy more - likely to succeed. The wars of the French Republic had organised a body - of valiant and experienced soldiers whose trade was war, and to whom - the idea of peace was repugnant. Both Bonaparte and Hoche, the two - greatest generals of the Directory, naturally looked with suspicion and - dislike upon the policy of the Clichians.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Struggle between the Directory and the Clichians.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Negotiations for Peace between England and the Directory.</div> - - <p>It need hardly be said that the attitude of the Clichians was one of - open hostility to the four original Directors. Their one adherent - in the Directory, Barthélemy, proved to be a very weak support, and - his brother Directors soon saw that it was unnecessary to trouble - themselves about him. The four remaining original Directors were - united in their dislike of the new theories, and also as regicides - had reason to fear their success. A severe struggle was therefore - imminent between the majority of the Legislature and of the Executive. - A crisis had arisen which tested the political theories which had - found their expression in the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> - The Legislature endeavoured to encroach upon the authority of the - Directory; the Directors refused to yield one jot of their power. The - first active measure of hostility in the Councils was an attack upon - the Foreign Minister, Charles Delacroix. Pitt had decided to make - a second attempt to bring about peace between England and France, - though without much expectation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> of its success, and a conference was - opened at Lille on the 4th July 1797, at which Lord Malmesbury was - present as the English plenipotentiary. He presented, on behalf of - England, almost the same demands as had been rejected in the previous - December, and the negotiations were speedily broken off. Using this as - a pretext, the hostile majority in the Council of Ancients and Council - of Five Hundred accused the Directors of not sincerely wishing for - peace, and threw the chief blame for the rupture of the conference on - their minister, Delacroix. The Directory yielded. Charles Delacroix - was sent as ambassador to Holland, and was succeeded as Foreign - Minister by Talleyrand. This skilful and subtle diplomatist saw that - the rivalry between the two powers in the State must lead to an open - rupture. He sided strongly with the Directors; he communicated with - Hoche and Bonaparte, and there can be little doubt that he was one of - the principal, if not the principal, author of the <i>coup d’état</i> or - revolution which followed. The dismissal of Delacroix was perhaps the - most important episode; but the other ministers were likewise violently - attacked by the Councils, and in addition to the Foreign Office every - department of State, except the ministries of Finance and Justice, - changed hands in July 1797. François de Neufchâteau became Minister - of the Interior, General Schérer Minister for War, Pleville de Peley - Minister of the Marine, and Lenoir-Laroche, who was succeeded in a few - days by Sotin de la Coindière, Minister of Police.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Revolution of 18th Fructidor. (4th September 1797.)</div> - - <p>The revolution of the 18th Fructidor was one which created but little - interest among the people of France. It was the result of an intrinsic - weakness in the Constitution, not of a popular movement. Two co-equal - powers can never exist in the government of a State: when a collision - takes place one must be overthrown. In their measures for overthrowing - or muzzling the leaders of the opposition in the Legislature, the four - senior Directors could not agree. Carnot, the greatest of them all, - disliked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> any interference with the Constitution, and looked upon - the employment of force as likely to lead to great disasters. The - other original Directors, Barras, Reubell, and Revellière-Lépeaux, - were, however, perfectly agreed. They were determined to use the - regular troops that formed the garrison of Paris; Hoche, from Holland, - sent them a sum of money; and Bonaparte instructed one of his best - generals, Augereau, to act according to their orders. Accordingly, on - the morning of the 18th Fructidor (4th September 1797) fifty-five of - the leaders of the Clichian party in the Legislature, including both - Barbé-Marbois and Pichegru, were arrested, and were at once deported, - with the ex-minister of Police, Cochon de Lapparent, and several other - individuals, without trial, to Cayenne and Sinnamari. The same harsh - measures were not taken with regard to the two dissentient Directors, - Carnot and Barthélemy, who were given every facility for escaping from - France. This revolution was carried out without the shedding of a - single drop of blood, and the success of the Directors was acquiesced - in by the people of France.</p> - - <p>Merlin of Douai, the great jurist and statesman, and François de - Neufchâteau, a dramatist and former member of the Legislative - Assembly, were elected as the new Directors in the place of Carnot and - Barthélemy, and were succeeded in the ministries of Justice and the - Interior by Lambrechts and Letourneur.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bonaparte in Italy.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Occupation of Venice.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Ligurian Republic.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Cisalpine Republic.</div> - - <p>After the conclusion of the Preliminaries of Leoben Bonaparte returned - to Italy and established himself at Montebello, near Milan. He was - appointed plenipotentiary of the French Republic to conclude a final - treaty with Austria, but the negotiations lasted for many months. - During this time the young general was chiefly engaged in settling - Italy. He first made a terrible example of the city of Verona, where - the people had risen in revolt during his campaign in the Tyrol, and - had murdered the wounded French soldiers left in their city. He next - occupied Venice, and exacted from it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> a heavy contribution in money. - Having thus established his power throughout northern Italy, Bonaparte - began to set up new governments. On the 15th of June 1797 be insisted - on the dissolution of the ancient government of Genoa, and formed - that city and the surrounding districts into a new Ligurian Republic. - Piedmont, by the terms of the Treaty of Cherasco, was left to the - King of Sardinia, but Bonaparte at once formed Lombardy, Modena, - Reggio, Bologna, Ferrara, the Romagna, Brescia, and Mantua into one - State, which he named the Cisalpine Republic. The Constitution of - this new Republic, which was modelled on the Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span>, was promulgated on the 9th of July 1797. In these - measures Bonaparte had carefully avoided any annexations by France. It - was otherwise with regard to the Ionian Islands, which were ceded to - the French Republic by Venice. Corfu was occupied on the 28th of June - 1797, and Bonaparte believed that by this cession the French fleet in - the Mediterranean would be able to close the Adriatic Sea.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Campo-Formio. 17th October 1797.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Capture of Mayence. 29th December 1797.</div> - - <p>During the months in which Italy was being thus reconstructed, the - Austrian plenipotentiary, Cobenzl, was skilfully delaying the signature - of a definitive treaty between France and Austria. In truth, the - Austrians, like the English, Thugut, like Pitt, hoped that the Clichian - party would win the day. The successful <i>coup d’état</i> of 18th of - Fructidor destroyed his hopes, and on 17th of October 1797 the Treaty - of Campo-Formio was signed. The bases laid down by the Preliminaries of - Leoben were generally followed. The frontier of the Rhine for France - was solemnly recognised. The new arrangements in Italy were also agreed - to, and to Austria was ceded Venice and all the territories of Venice - in Istria and Dalmatia and up to the Adige, in compensation for the - loss of the Milanese. The Emperor also engaged to use his influence - at the Congress of Rastadt to secure peace between France and the - Holy Roman Empire. The Treaty of Campo-Formio really<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> struck a more - severe blow at the Empire than at the House of Austria. The cession - of the Rhine frontier to France implied the loss to the Empire of the - electorates of Trèves, Mayence, and the Palatinate, while it only - deprived Austria of her mutinous and rebellious subjects in Belgium. - A secret clause was also added to the Treaty, by which the French - Republic promised to guarantee the whole of Bavaria to the House of - Austria, in return for the immediate evacuation of all the fortresses - which the Austrians occupied upon the Rhine. Immediately upon receiving - the news of the Treaty of Campo-Formio the Directory equipped a special - army under the command of General Hatry for the capture of Mayence, - the only place on the left bank of the Rhine not in the possession of - France. Deprived of the assistance of Austria, the troops of the Empire - and of the Elector of Mayence could make but little resistance, and on - 29th of December 1797 Mayence was once more surrendered to the French - Republic.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Holland. The Batavian Republic.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Camperdown. 11th October 1797.</div> - - <p>The Batavian Republic, which had been established in 1795 in Holland, - was also considerably affected by the revolution of 18th Fructidor. - The Dutch Legislature had been influenced by every current of feeling - in France, and during the predominance of the Clichians had made no - real effort to support their French allies. After the conclusion of - the Convention of Leoben, and the consequent cessation of hostilities - in Germany, the Directory despatched Hoche to Holland. He there busied - himself with another effort for his favourite scheme for the invasion - of England. For this purpose he relied upon the powerful Dutch fleet, - which was being blockaded by an English squadron under Admiral Duncan - in the Texel. During the mutiny at the Nore in the summer of 1797 - the position of the blockading English fleet had been very critical, - and on one occasion it is stated that two English ships were left to - watch fifteen Dutch. Directly after the revolution of Fructidor, the - Directors, who did not feel certain of the support of Moreau, removed - Hoche from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> Holland and placed him in command of the united Armies - of the Rhine-and-Moselle and the Sambre-and-Meuse under the title of - the Army of Germany. Hardly had he taken up his command when the most - distinguished rival of Bonaparte died on the 18th of September 1797. - Though deprived of the active superintendence of Hoche, the government - of the Batavian Republic, under the influence of the vigorous war - policy of the new Directory, ordered the Dutch fleet to leave the - Texel. It was met at sea by Admiral Duncan off the dunes or downs - of Kampe (Camperdown), and entirely defeated after the most hotly - contested naval battle of the war. The naval policy of the Directory - had thus resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet in the battle - of Cape St. Vincent and of the Dutch fleet in the battle of Camperdown.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bonaparte in Paris.</div> - - <p>On the 5th of December 1797 General Bonaparte arrived in Paris. The - death of Hoche had left him without a rival, and the revolution of the - 18th of Fructidor had been so entirely the result of the assistance - of the army that its greatest general was practically the master of - the political situation. The Directors received him with transports - of enthusiasm and gave him a public reception, but, nevertheless, - they were overawed by the extent of his reputation and afraid that he - might attempt to take an active part in politics. He was appointed to - the command of the Army of the Interior, which was intended for the - invasion of England. Bonaparte, like Hoche, sincerely wished that such - an invasion should be effected, but he understood the extraordinary - difficulty inherent in any attempt to transport an army across the - Channel in the presence of a powerful fleet. He therefore advised the - Directory that it would be wiser not to attack England directly, but to - make an effort to overthrow her power in Asia. It seemed to him more - practicable to invade India than to invade England. His imagination - was stirred by the conception of an expedition to the East, and the - Directory was only too glad to remove from France for a time its most - able and ambitious general.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Expedition to Egypt. 1798.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of the Nile. 1st August.</div> - - <p>On the 9th of May 1798 Bonaparte left Toulon at the head of a picked - force of his veterans of Italy, and accompanied not only by his - favourite generals, but also by some of the leading savants and men - of letters of France. On the 9th of June the fleet reached Malta, and - on the 12th the Knights of St. John of the Hospital, who had held - the island ever since the Middle Ages, surrendered it to the French - general. Leaving a garrison in Malta, Bonaparte then proceeded to - Egypt. He disembarked in front of Alexandria on the 1st of July, and - upon the 4th he occupied that city. He then advanced on Cairo, and - on the 21st of July he defeated the Mamelukes at the Battle of the - Pyramids, and on the 24th he occupied Cairo. The English fleet in the - Mediterranean, under the command of Nelson, had been intended to stop - the expedition to Egypt, but it had been misdirected, and was unable - to prevent the disembarkation of the French forces. On the 1st of - August, however, Nelson appeared before Alexandria, and in the battle - of Aboukir Bay, generally known as the Battle of the Nile, he destroyed - the French fleet. This victory entirely cut off Bonaparte and his army - from France. The English held the Mediterranean, and for many months - prevented the despatch of either news or reinforcements. In November - they strengthened their position in the great south European sea by the - occupation of Minorca by an army under the Hon. Sir Charles Stuart, and - in 1800 the French garrison in Malta surrendered to General Pigot and - Captain Sir Alexander Ball.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Policy of the Directory.</div> - - <p>Before Bonaparte left Paris the time had come round for the election - of a new Director. The lot fell upon François de Neufchâteau to - retire, and his place was filled by Treilhard, a former member of the - Constituent Assembly and of the Convention. Treilhard had been himself - one of the leading Thermidorians, and since the close of the Convention - he had been employed first as Minister in Holland and then as one of - the French plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Rastadt. There is - little doubt that Sieyès<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> might have entered the Directory had he so - wished, but he preferred to act in a different capacity. François - de Neufchâteau at once returned to his former office of Minister of - the Interior, and the only other alteration in the ministry was the - appointment of Admiral Bruix to be Minister of Marine. The Directory, - inspired by its victory on the 18th of Fructidor, did not hesitate to - infringe the terms of the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> The - Royalists or Clichians had not dared to appear at the elections to - the Councils in 1798, and the democrats had been able to elect whom - they wished. But the Directors did not intend to be subject to the - democrats any more than to the Clichians, and without the slightest - show of legality they quashed many of the elections to the Councils - and gave the vacant seats to their own nominees. This disregard of the - law was also shown in other branches of the internal policy of the - Directory. The Directors, in spite of the Constitution, interfered with - the finances, and, by the advice of Ramel, followed Cambon’s example of - declaring a partial bankruptcy. This, however, had but little effect in - France, for, owing to the depreciation in the value of the government - paper money, very little interest was expected by the creditors of the - State. In purely internal administration the weariness of the French - people of political disturbances enabled the agents of the Directory - to maintain the public peace without difficulty. The lack of capital - in the country was compensated by the fact that the government was - the only great employer of labour, and the spoils of the conquered - countries enabled it to pay the workmen sufficiently. It seems - surprising that this bankrupt government should have been acknowledged - without opposition throughout France, but the cause is to be found in - the universal attention paid to the course of foreign affairs.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Foreign Policy of the Directory.</div> - - <p>The Peace of Campo-Formio had, as has been shown, left France face to - face with England, and it was to strike a blow at the power of England - that Bonaparte proceeded to Egypt. For the same reason the Directory - carried out the favourite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> scheme of Hoche, and despatched a force - to Ireland under General Humbert in August 1798, which was forced to - surrender to Lord Cornwallis in September. But though the powers of the - Continent had been compelled to acknowledge the military superiority of - France, they were only seeking a loophole by which to enter once more - upon a general war. The departure of Bonaparte seemed to offer them - a good opportunity, and pretexts were not wanting for the formation - of a new coalition against France. The English ministry understood - this attitude of the Continental powers, and their emissaries were - busy in all the Courts of Europe. The Directors knew of these efforts - of Pitt and did their best to counteract them. The keynote of the - French policy was, as it had always been, to make an ally of Prussia. - For this purpose Sieyès, who, though not in office, was probably the - most influential man in France, obtained his nomination to a special - embassy to Berlin. He hoped by mixed measures of conciliation and of - menace to induce Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Prussia, who had - succeeded his father in November 1797, to enter into an offensive and - defensive alliance. But that monarch, in spite of the weakness of his - personal character, had absolutely determined to maintain his father’s - policy of strict neutrality, and neither the arguments of Sieyès nor - those of Mr. Thomas Grenville, the brother of the English Foreign - Minister, could induce him to swerve from it in either direction. The - efforts of England were crowned with more success at Vienna and St. - Petersburg. The Emperor Francis, and still more the Austrian people, - were profoundly disgusted by the triumphs of the French, and flattered - themselves that their defeats had been due to the genius of Bonaparte - more than to the valour of the French soldiers. On the conclusion of - the Treaty of Campo-Formio, Bonaparte had, without consulting the - Directory, nominated General Bernadotte to be the French Ambassador - at Vienna. The Austrian people took this appointment as an insult; - Bernadotte, though well received by the Emperor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> and his ministers, - soon found that he was most unpopular in Vienna, and on the 13th of - April 1798 the Viennese mob collected in front of the French Embassy, - insulted the ambassador, and tore down the insignia of the French - Republic. In spite of this insult the Directors did not at once declare - war against Austria, but it afforded a pretext for dwelling on the - inborn hatred of the Austrians for the French in their proclamations - to the French people. Since such was the disposition of the Austrian - people, it need hardly be said that the English envoy was heartily - welcomed at Vienna. At St. Petersburg the application of Pitt for armed - help was favourably received. The Emperor Paul, though already showing - signs of the brutal insanity which was to lead to his assassination, - still preserved the prestige of being the heir of the great Catherine. - His ministers were those of Catherine; his policy was based on hers. - But whereas Catherine had steadfastly refused to go to war with France, - Paul showed a decided inclination, which was fostered by his generals, - to see whether the Russian army would not be more successful than - the Prussian or the Austrian against the seemingly invincible French - republicans.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Helvetian Republic. April 1798.</div> - - <p>The French Directory, though recognising that it might have soon to - contend again with the power of Austria, and for the first time with - that of Russia, nevertheless roused without any reason fresh enemies - upon the French frontiers. Its greatest mistake at this period was its - interference with the affairs of Switzerland. For this interference - there was no real cause, but the Directors could not resist the - temptation of inflicting their special form of republic upon the Swiss. - The organisation of most of the cantons of Switzerland was essentially - feudal and oligarchical. The government of each canton and of each - city was in the hands of a very few families, and the people were in - much the same condition politically, socially, and economically as - the people of France before the Revolution. The Swiss peasants had - caught the contagion of revolution from France, and in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> beginning - of 1798 the people of the Pays de Vaud rose in insurrection against - the authority of the Canton of Berne. This rising was followed by - popular tumults in other cantons, and the peasants everywhere destroyed - the signs of the feudal system and declared themselves in favour - of ‘Liberty—Equality—Fraternity.’ The popular leaders appealed to - France for help, and a powerful army under the command of General - Brune invaded Switzerland. The militia of the cantons was speedily - routed; Brune occupied Berne and sent the national treasury to - Paris, and a freely-elected Constituent Assembly was summoned. This - assembly proclaimed an Helvetian Republic, one and indivisible, with - a Directory, two Councils, and Ministers, in imitation of the French, - the Cisalpine, and the Batavian Republics, to take the place of the old - Swiss federal constitution. Great reforms were speedily accomplished; - on the 8th of May 1798 internal customs-houses were abolished, and on - the 13th of May torture was forbidden in judicial processes; on the - 3d of August marriages between persons of different religions were - declared legal; and eventually all feudal rights were suppressed. - Great as were these reforms, they were not entirely acceptable to the - Swiss people. The mountaineers of Uri, Schweitz and Unterwalden, the - descendants of the founders of the ancient Swiss liberties, objected - to be freed under the influence of French bayonets, and the cry of - national patriotism soon raised an army against the French liberators - of the peasants. The French troops had to remain perpetually under - arms, and the Helvetian Republic, in spite of the popular freedom which - it secured, was hated even by the peasants whom it had relieved. The - hatred for the French name was increased by the arbitrary conduct, - and it was asserted by the corrupt behaviour, of Rapinat, the French - commissioner, who was a near relative of Reubell, the Director. The - intervention of the Directory had, therefore, in Switzerland, roused - a people in arms, even though it had been dictated by the best of - motives.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Italian affairs.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Roman Republic. February 1798.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Parthenopean Republic. January 1799.</div> - - <p>When Bonaparte left Italy he had been succeeded in the command of the - French troops which occupied the frontiers of the Cisalpine Republic by - General Berthier. This general, desirous of emulating the successes of - Bonaparte, took the opportunity of the murder of the French ambassador - at Rome, General Duphot, to occupy the Eternal City. The Pope, Pius - <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, fled from Rome to the Carthusian monastery at Pisa, - and the Roman people declared themselves to be once more the Roman - Republic. Consuls and Tribunes, as in ancient days, were elected; - the Directory, full of classical recollections, recognised the Roman - Republic with transports of enthusiasm; and General Berthier took the - opportunity to send large sums of money to Paris. The King of Naples, - or to speak more accurately, the King of the Two Sicilies, regarded - the new republic with anything but favour. Encouraged by English and - Austrian envoys, and still more by the news of Nelson’s victory at - the Battle of the Nile, he determined to attack Rome. He placed one - of the most distinguished of the Austrian generals, Mack, at the head - of his army, and, without declaring war, occupied Rome on the 29th of - November 1798. The French troops for the moment had to retire. But - Championnet, who had succeeded Berthier, quickly concentrated his army, - and on the 15th of December he reoccupied Rome in force. Championnet - then took the offensive; he invaded the Neapolitan territory, and he - quickly conquered all Ferdinand’s dominions in Italy. The King fled - to Sicily, and in January 1799 the Parthenopean Republic was solemnly - installed at Naples. The two remaining independent states of Italy - were also occupied by the French armies. The one of these, Piedmont, - was conquered without any declaration of war or any pretext by General - Joubert in November 1798, and King Charles Emmanuel <span class="smcap">IV.</span> fled - to Sardinia. The other, Tuscany, in spite of the desire of the Grand - Duke to remain at peace with France, was the next victim, and on the - 25th of March 1799 the French troops occupied Florence.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Law of Conscription. 5th Sept. 1798.</div> - - <p>The occupation of the whole of Italy and of Switzerland did not - increase the military strength of France; on the contrary, the - proceedings of the Directory only aroused the most profound disgust - and fear in Austria, Russia, and England. The Directors felt that a - far more terrible war than they had yet been engaged in was about to - break forth, and it may be assumed that, on the eve of hostilities, - they even regretted the absence of Bonaparte. Enormous numbers of - soldiers would be necessary in a new war. Trained and experienced - officers and non-commissioned officers existed, but the difficulty was - how to fill the ranks. It was no longer possible to have recourse to - the measures of the Convention, to the <i>levée en masse</i>, and to the - appeal for volunteers with the cry that the country was in danger. The - Republic had now become a military power, and the question was how to - recruit its armies, not how to rouse the whole population. On the 19th - of Fructidor, Year <span class="smcap">VI.</span> (5th September 1798), the Councils of - the Ancients and of Five Hundred, on the application of the Directory, - passed the first Law of Conscription. By this law all Frenchmen between - the ages of twenty and twenty-five with certain exceptions were - declared to be subject to military service. They were divided into five - classes, and one or more classes could be called out by the executive - authority after receiving the consent of the Legislature. This law is - the starting-point of the military levies which formed the army of - Napoleon, and the principle of conscription was thus laid down many - months before Bonaparte became First Consul.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Outbreak of War. 1799.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battles of Stockach and Magnano. 25th March and 5th April.</div> - - <p>Mention has been made of the riot at Vienna which caused the departure - of the French ambassador, Bernadotte. He was not replaced by the - Directory, and long negotiations took place on the subject of the - compensation due to the Republic for this insult. But neither party - was in earnest. Both the French Directory and the Emperor Francis were - preparing for the contest. The first overt act of war took place at - the commencement of 1799, when the Austrian troops, under the command - of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> Archduke Charles, occupied the passes of the Grisons, and it - was in this quarter that before war was actually declared the first - engagements were fought. In Italy General Schérer was attacked at - Verona by the Austrian General Kray, and in Germany General Jourdan - fell back into the Black Forest. In both of these quarters many - skirmishes took place, and eventually on the 25th of March 1799 the - Archduke Charles defeated Jourdan in a pitched battle at Stockach. A - few days later, on the 5th of April, Schérer was defeated at Magnano. - Meanwhile the Congress of Rastadt was still sitting, and Austria was - nominally at peace with France. The conclusion of a treaty between - France and the Empire, which was the subject of the deliberations - at Rastadt, was necessarily a difficult matter to negotiate, for it - involved nothing less than the entire reconstitution of the Holy - Roman Empire, a reconstitution which could only be carried out by - the secularisation of the bishoprics. Eventually, in the month of - April 1799, after the engagements of Stockach and Magnano, the French - plenipotentiaries at Rastadt understood that it was hopeless to expect - to conclude a treaty with the Empire. They therefore asked for their - passports to France. These passports were refused. As they left Rastadt - the French plenipotentiaries were attacked by some Austrian hussars; - two of them, Roberjot and Bonnier-d’Alco, were killed, and the other, - Jean Debry, left for dead. This odious violation of international law - and the rights of ambassadors took the place of a formal declaration - of war, and roused not only the Directory but the French people to the - most strenuous exertions. Meanwhile the Emperor Paul of Russia declared - war against France, and ordered three armies to be despatched to the - scenes of action.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Italy. 1799.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of the Trebbia. 17th-19th June.</div> - - <p>The campaign of 1799 was fought out in three localities, in all of - which the Russians played a most prominent part. In Italy a Russian - army, under the command of one of the most famous generals in Europe, - Suvórov, reinforced the Austrians after the battle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> Magnano. - Suvórov forced the passage of the Adda at Cassano on the 27th of - April, and rapidly drove Moreau, who had succeeded Schérer in command, - across northern Italy. On the 28th of April Suvórov entered Milan, - and the Cisalpine Republic at once expired. On the 27th of May he - entered Turin, and after leaving besieging armies before Mantua and - Alessandria, shut up the remnants of Moreau’s army in Genoa. But the - army of Moreau was not the only French army in the Italian Peninsula. - Several powerful divisions, under the name of the Army of Naples, were - concentrated in Rome and Naples to support the newly-formed Roman and - Parthenopean Republics. Macdonald, who had succeeded Championnet in the - command of this army, rapidly concentrated and threatened to take the - Austro-Russian army in flank. Suvórov withdrew from Turin and turned - to his left to meet his new assailant. On the banks of the Trebbia a - three days’ battle was fought from the 17th to the 19th of June. The - issue of the battle itself was doubtful, but Macdonald, finding himself - unsupported by Moreau from Genoa, was obliged to retreat into Tuscany. - Fearing to be cut off, he then forced his way along the difficult - passage between the mountains and the sea, and joined Moreau, after - collecting every French soldier from the garrisons in the south of - Italy. The retreat of the French was followed by an outburst against - the Italian republicans.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Death of Pope Pius VI. 29th Aug. 1799.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Novi. 15th August.</div> - - <p>The Parthenopean Republic was at once overthrown, and King Ferdinand - of the Two Sicilies wreaked cruel vengeance on his subjects. Pope - Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span> had been removed from his retreat near Florence - to Valence, and the French Directors had some idea of keeping him - prisoner as a hostage in the same way as Napoleon afterwards imprisoned - his successor. But the old Pope could not bear the sufferings of his - imprisonment, and died at Valence on the 29th of August 1799. Rome, - deprived of the presence of the Pope and the Cardinals, fell under the - dominion of the Roman nobles, who followed the example of the King of - the Two Sicilies in persecuting the republicans. Meanwhile the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> French - Directory appointed General Joubert, who was believed to be the best - of the former subordinates of Bonaparte, to take command at Genoa of - the relics of the armies of Moreau and Macdonald. With these soldiers - he burst out of Genoa to raise the siege of Alessandria, but on the - 15th of August he was utterly defeated by Suvórov at Novi in a great - battle, in which Joubert himself was killed. In spite of these defeats - the Directory refused to believe that Italy was lost. A new army was - formed, and placed under the command of Championnet, who, however, - was defeated at Genola on the 4th of November by the Austrians, under - Melas, and driven back into France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Switzerland. 1799.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Zurich. 26th Sept.</div> - - <p>While Suvórov was conquering Italy and destroying the recollection - of the victories of Bonaparte in that country, Masséna, who was in - command of the French army in Switzerland, was engaged in a most - difficult task. The Archduke Charles, who also had under his command a - Russian army under Korsakov, forced his way slowly into Switzerland, - driving the French before him, and in August 1799 left Korsakov in - command at Zurich. The Archduke was then ordered to take the bulk of - his army to the Rhine in order to invade France. Korsakov, abandoned - to his own resources, showed himself far inferior in military ability - to Suvórov. Masséna, with singular boldness, refused to remain on the - defensive, and on the 26th of September drove the Russians out of - Zurich. His victory was won just in time, for Suvórov, after defeating - Joubert at Novi, had determined, in spite of the terrible weather, - to cross the Alps. It was on the 24th of September, two days before - Masséna’s victory at Zurich, that the main Russian army arrived at the - summit of the St. Gothard Pass. General Lecourbe, one of the finest - mountain generals of his day, occupied the St. Gothard, and with a few - battalions kept the whole Russian army at bay. Suvórov nevertheless - persevered and hoped to turn Masséna’s flank. But it was several weeks - before he could reach the village of Altdorf. Being unable to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> find - boats to cross the lake, he had now to retreat, and when he reached - the Grisons his army was practically destroyed by starvation and the - stress of the weather. Masséna, thus relieved of his most formidable - enemies, took possession of Constance, and by threatening the flank of - the Archduke Charles forced the main Austrian army to fall back to the - Danube.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign in Holland. 1799.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battles of Bergen.</div> - - <p>The third campaign of 1799 was fought in Holland. In this quarter it - had been arranged that the English and Russians were to act in concert. - On the 27th of August the English fleet had successfully reached the - Dutch coast, and had captured the relics of the Dutch fleet, defeated - at Camperdown, in the Texel. After this operation an English army, - under the Duke of York, and a Russian army, under General Hermann, - disembarked at the Helder. General Brune was hurriedly despatched to - take command of the few French troops in Holland, and co-operated - with the army of the Batavian Republic under General Janssens. The - campaign consisted of a succession of fierce but indecisive battles - in the neighbourhood of Bergen. The English and Russians did not act - harmoniously together; the country was unsuited for field operations; - and supplies were not adequately provided. As a result of the - operations, though he had not been really defeated, the Duke of York - signed the Convention of Alkmaar on the 18th October, by which he - agreed to surrender all prisoners on being allowed to evacuate Holland.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Results of the Campaigns.</div> - - <p>The results of the campaigns of 1799 were decidedly favourable to - France. Though Italy was lost, and more than one French army had been - defeated, the victories of Masséna and of Brune more than compensated - for these disasters. Not only had France not been invaded, but she had - been able to retain her position in Switzerland and in Holland, and - to hold the whole of the right bank of the Rhine. England, in spite - of the Convention of Alkmaar, could point to the victory of the Nile - and the capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel as real successes, - and Pitt and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> Grenville did not despair of ultimate victory. The King - of Prussia, who, when the affairs of France seemed to be desperate, - had begun to assume an attitude of opposition, and demanded the - evacuation of the Prussian provinces on the Rhine, speedily repented - of his indiscretion, and made excuses for his behaviour. The Austrian - ministers evinced no desire to continue the war; they resented the - high-handed conduct of Suvórov, and showed themselves more afraid of - their powerful ally, Russia, than of their declared enemy, France. They - implored the English government to bring about the withdrawal of the - Russian troops, and the Emperor Paul was only too glad to comply. The - retreat of the Russians left Italy practically in the hands of Austria. - The Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany was restored to his dominions, but - the King of Sardinia was not recalled, and Piedmont remained in the - occupation of the Austrian troops. Genoa alone was held by a French - garrison, which was closely besieged by the Austrians on the land side, - and blockaded by the English Mediterranean fleet. It was under the - influence of Austria and under the protection of Austrian troops that - the Conclave met at Venice in November 1799 to elect a new Pope.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Russia.</div> - - <p>The significant feature of the campaigns of 1799 was the intervention - of Russia. Mention has been made of the abandonment of the policy of - the great Catherine by her successor. This change in the attitude - of Russia was due mainly to the influence of England, but partly - to the encouragement given by the French Directory to the Poles. - The restoration of Poland to its place among the nations had long - been a favourite idea among French republicans. Kosciuszko had been - enthusiastically welcomed at Paris, and the first of the Polish - legions which were to do good service under Napoleon was raised by - Dombrowski in 1797. The Emperor Paul had met this attitude by welcoming - the pretender Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> to Russia, where he lent him the - palace of Mittau and gave him a considerable pension. He also took - into Russian pay the armed corps of <i>émigrés</i> under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> the command of - the Prince de Condé. But fear of French assistance to Poland would not - alone have induced the Emperor Paul to declare war. He was particularly - offended by the French occupation of the Ionian Islands and of Malta. - By the Treaty of Campo-Formio the Ionian Islands had been ceded to - France, and the Russians regarded this cession as an indication that - the Directory was going to interfere actively in the affairs of the - East. The bad impression created by the occupation of the Ionian - Islands had been increased by the conquest of Malta and the expedition - to Egypt. Though Russia quite intended to destroy the power of Turkey, - she had no idea of allowing any western nation to share the spoils. It - was for this reason that the Emperor Paul accepted the title of Grand - Master of the Knights of St. John, which the expelled Knights of Malta - offered to him, and that he occupied the Ionian Islands with a Russian - force in 1798. The foreign policy of the Emperor was so far popular - in Russia in that it maintained the sole right of Russia to interfere - in the East, but it was unpopular in that it seemed by the despatch - of the armies under Suvórov and Korsakov to bolster up the power of - Austria. Suvórov and his officers returned to Russia with a feeling of - respect for their enemies, but with a feeling of intense disgust at the - behaviour of their allies. Suvórov, indeed, went so far as to accuse - the Austrians of playing the part of traitors, and the anger of Paul - was raised to its height by the capture of Ancona, which was delivered - by a secret compact to the Austrian general in spite of the assistance - of Russian troops. He was equally angry with England on account of the - failure of the expedition to Holland. Every thing at the close of 1799 - conduced to make the Emperor Paul seek for a pretext to make peace, if - not an actual alliance, with the French Republic.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in Syria. 1799.</div> - - <p>While these important campaigns were being fought out in Europe, - Bonaparte had not been idle in the East. The Battle of the Pyramids - had made him master of Egypt, and though cut off by the English fleet - from communication with France,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> he remained master of the country. - His internal administration made him excessively popular among the - Egyptians. He removed the Turks and Mamelukes from office, and called - on the Egyptians to govern themselves. But the Turks did not intend - to lose Egypt without striking another blow, and a powerful army was - sent for its reconquest. Bonaparte determined to meet this army half - way, and in February 1799 he advanced into Syria. He speedily reduced - Palestine and took Jaffa, and then laid siege to the strong fortress of - Acre. Assisted by the English sailors of Sir Sidney Smith, the garrison - of Acre made a gallant defence. The Turkish army advancing to its - relief was defeated by Bonaparte at Mount Tabor on the 16th of April. - In spite of his victory, he had, nevertheless, to abandon the siege - of Acre, and on the 20th of May he commenced his retreat to Egypt. He - there found the position to be extremely critical. The Mamelukes had - reorganised their army and reoccupied Cairo, and a Turkish army had - been disembarked by the English fleet at Aboukir. Meanwhile Desaix, - whom he had left in command in Egypt, had gone up the Nile for the - conquest of the interior. Bonaparte soon re-established his power; he - defeated the Mamelukes at Cairo, and drove the Turkish army into the - sea. At this juncture he heard the news of the events of the campaigns - in Europe, and, what affected him more, of the course of politics at - Paris. He determined, therefore, to return to France, and leaving - Kléber in command in Egypt, he set sail with a few personal friends. - The ship on which he embarked escaped the English cruisers, and he - landed at Fréjus on the 9th of October 1799 after a perilous voyage of - forty-seven days.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Quarrel between the Councils and the Directory.</div> - - <p>The varying issues of the campaigns of 1799 had profoundly affected - the situation of the Directors, and the disasters in Italy had turned - the hopes both of the army and of the French people towards Bonaparte. - At the annual change in the composition of the Directory and the - Councils which took place in 1799 a considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> alteration had been - made. The new third of the Councils consisted almost entirely of men - who, without being either Jacobins or Clichians, longed to see the - establishment of a strong government in order to secure peace. The - Directory, which had seemed so strong after the revolution of the - 18th of Fructidor, had been considerably weakened by the behaviour - of the Directors themselves. The election of none but civilians to - the highest offices in the State was disliked by the army, and the - characters of the Directors themselves had suffered. Reubell was the - Director designed by lot to retire in May 1799; he was perhaps the - ablest and most experienced of them all, but had been discredited by - the bad conduct of his relative, Rapinat, in Switzerland. Sieyès was - elected to succeed Reubell. This choice, and the acceptance of Sieyès, - testified to a new condition of affairs. The former abbé might have - been a Director on at least two former occasions, in 1795 and 1798, and - his acceptance at this juncture was very significant. He had failed - in his embassy to Berlin to induce the new King of Prussia to become - the active ally of France, and had been convinced by his diplomatic - experiences that the government of France must become frankly - military, since the monarchical powers of Europe would not accept the - possibility of a peaceable French Republic. From an internal point of - view the acceptance of Sieyès indicated an increase of power for the - Legislature, of which he was the idol.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Coup d’état of 30th Prairial (18th June 1799).</div> - - <p>The election of Sieyès was followed by a bloodless revolution. - He maintained that the failure of the Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">III.</span> was due to the usurpation of the functions of the - Legislature by the Directory, and, therefore, when the Councils - declared Treilhard and Merlin of Douai to have been illegally chosen - Directors, and called for the resignation of Revellière-Lépeaux, they - found a powerful ally in Sieyès. The attacked Directors yielded without - a struggle, and on 30th Prairial, Year <span class="smcap">VII.</span> (18th June 1799), - they were replaced by three personal friends of Sieyès, Gohier, Roger - Ducos, and General Moulin. Barras was thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> the only member left of - the original Directory. The Councils, not satisfied with this victory, - began to usurp the executive functions of the Directory, and a general - change of ministry took place. The new ministers were Reinhard, Robert - Lindet, Cambacérès, Quinette, Bernadotte, replaced on 14th September by - Dubois-Crancé, Fouché, and Bourdon de Vatry, who succeeded Talleyrand - and his colleagues as Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Finances, - Justice, the Interior, War, Police, and the Marine respectively. It is - worthy of note that four of the new ministers were formerly leading - members of the Convention. But the administration of the Councils was - not more effective than that of the Directory, and the news of the - disembarkation of Bonaparte at Fréjus was received with a feeling of - general satisfaction throughout France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Revolution of 18th Brumaire. (9th November 1799.)</div> - - <p>Bonaparte reached Paris on the 16th of October, and his assistance was - sought by men of all parties. He allied himself with none, but there - can be little doubt that he took the advice mainly of Talleyrand, - Fouché, and Sieyès. Nevertheless he did not repulse the leaders of - the Councils, and to show their attachment for him the Council of - Five Hundred, on the 22d of October 1799, elected his brother Lucien - Bonaparte to be their president, and the whole Legislature gave him - a grand banquet on 6th November. The first stage of the revolution - of Brumaire was a decree by which the Council of Ancients, or rather - certain of its members, who had been initiated into the project of - a <i>coup d’état</i>, taking advantage of a clause in the Constitution - applicable to circumstances of popular agitation, resolved in the early - morning of the 18th Brumaire, Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> (9th November 1799), - that the two Councils should leave Paris and meet at Saint-Cloud; and - the execution of this decree was intrusted to General Bonaparte. In - the palace of Saint-Cloud it was easy to surround the legislators by a - body of troops faithful to Bonaparte, since the command of the troops - in Paris was in the hands of one of his friends, General Lefebvre, who - was discontented at not having been elected a Director<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> instead of - Moulin. Sieyès and Roger Ducos, who were in the plot, at once declared - their resignations; Barras was induced to acquiesce; and the other two - Directors were guarded as prisoners in the palace of the Luxembourg - by General Moreau. On the following morning, the 19th of Brumaire, - Bonaparte entered the Councils, escorted by soldiers; the Ancients - listened to him quietly; but the Five Hundred were in a tumult; a - proposal was made to declare the general and his supporters <i>hors la - loi</i> or outlaws; and after a stormy scene the deputies were driven from - the hall by the grenadiers. In the evening a few deputies, who were in - the secret of the general’s plans, met and decreed the suppression of - the Directory and the creation of a provisional government, consisting - of three Consuls. The three men chosen for this office were Bonaparte, - Sieyès, and Roger Ducos. Commissions were appointed to revise the - Constitution and to draw up with the Consuls new fundamental laws for - the Republic. By this revolution Bonaparte practically became ruler of - France, for Sieyès had no influence with the army, and Roger Ducos no - influence with anybody. It was a military revolution like that of the - 18th Fructidor; it was a bloodless revolution like that of the 18th - Fructidor; but it differed in that, instead of establishing the power - of five men, it established the power of one. And that one man was the - idol of the army, and generally acknowledged to be the greatest general - of France. The preponderance of Bonaparte was quickly recognised by - his colleagues. ‘Who shall preside?’ said Sieyès at the first meeting - of the provisional Consuls on 20th Brumaire. ‘Do you not see that the - general is in the chair?’ replied Roger Ducos. And Sieyès, who was - the chief epigram maker as well as the constitution-monger of the - Revolution, is said to have summed up the situation with the remark to - his friends on the same evening: ‘Messieurs, nous avons un maître; il - sait tout, il peut tout, il veut tout.’</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VII<br /><span class="large">1799–1804</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">viii.</span>—The Consulate—The - Council of State—The Tribunate—The Legislative Body—The - Senate—Internal Policy of the Consulate—General - Reconciliation—The Code Civil—Ministers of the - Consulate—Foreign Policy of the Consulate—Russia—Prussia—The - Pope—Campaign of Marengo—Campaign of Hohenlinden—Winter - Campaign of Moreau and Macdonald—The Treaty of - Lunéville—Arrangements in Italy—Policy and Murder of the - Emperor Paul of Russia—The Neutral League of the North—Battle - of Copenhagen—War between Spain and Portugal—Treaty of - Badajoz—Campaign of 1801 in Egypt—Peace of Amiens between - England and France—Reconstitution of Germany—Secularisation - of the German ecclesiastical dominions—Reconstitution of - Switzerland—Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte—Internal - Organisation of France under the Consulate—The new - Departments—Annexation of Piedmont—The Préfectures—System of - National Education—Constitutional Changes in France—Bonaparte - First Consul for life—Recommencement of War between - England and France—Causes—Position of Affairs on the - Continent—Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal—Execution of the Duc - d’Enghien—Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French—Francis - <span class="smcap">ii.</span> resigns the title of Holy Roman Emperor for that - of Emperor of Austria.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Constitution of the Year VIII.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> revolution of the 18th of Brumaire had placed supreme power in - the hands of Bonaparte; that power was speedily legalised and defined - in the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> The chief political - problem was once more how to regulate the relation between the - legislative and executive authorities. The Constitution of 1791, and - still more that of 1793, had entirely subordinated the executive to - the legislative authority; the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> - (1795) had endeavoured to co-ordinate them; the Constitution of the - Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> (1799) entirely subordinated the legislative to - the executive. It fell once more to Sieyès, one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> principal - authors of the Constitutions of 1791 and 1795, as Second Provisional - Consul, to define the new arrangements. His attempt at co-ordinating - the two powers in the State in 1795 had failed in its operation: as - was inevitable, the two authorities declined to preserve their legal - relations to each other. On the 18th of Fructidor, Year <span class="smcap">V.</span> - (4th September 1797), the executive in the form of the Directory had - usurped and partially destroyed the power of the Legislature, and - on the 30th of Prairial, Year <span class="smcap">VII.</span> (18th of June 1799) the - Legislature had acted in the same way towards the executive. By the - Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>, therefore, the executive power - was frankly acknowledged to be supreme. In its details it was entirely - the work of Sieyès, though his main idea—the appointment of a Grand - Elector who should nominate to fill all offices, but should exercise no - power—was rejected by Bonaparte. The new Constitution was soon ready; - it was submitted to the primary assemblies of the people on the 14th - December 1799, and was accepted by them by 3,011,107 votes against - 1567, and was officially proclaimed on the 24th of December.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Consulate.</div> - - <p>The key-stone of the new Constitution was the Consulate. There were - to be three Consuls nominated for ten years, but these officials - were not to be equal in authority, as had been the case with the - Directors. On the contrary, the First Consul was to be perpetual - president and perpetual representative of the governing triumvirate. - All administrative power was placed in his hands, and the Second and - Third Consuls were little more than his chief assistants. The Consuls - acting together nominated the Ministers, and also the Council of State, - which was intended to be at the same time an administrative tribunal of - appeal, and the originating source in matters of legislation.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Legislature.</div> - - <p>In the work of legislation the Council of State was supplemented by the - Tribunate and the Legislative Body. All laws prepared by the Council - of State were first submitted to the Tribunate, which was composed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> - of one hundred members. The Tribunate could neither reject nor amend - a law, but decided whether to support or oppose the project before - the Legislative Body. The Legislative Body consisted of three hundred - deputies chosen by certain electoral assemblies formed by a complicated - scheme out of the taxpayers of the departments. By this scheme, after - three series of elections, what was termed a ‘National List’ was drawn - up. From this national list the Senate chose the members both of the - Legislative Body and the Tribunate. The Legislative Body alone voted - the taxes. In legislative matters it played the part of a national - jury, listening to the arguments for or against brought forward by - the Tribunate on every project prepared by the Council of State, and - deciding in every case without discussion. The Legislative Body alone - could give a project of the Council of State the character of a law. - The Senate was composed of eighty members nominated for life by the - Consuls. Its duties were to choose the members of the Tribunate and - Legislative Body from the National List, and to decide whether any - law or measure of the government was contrary to the Constitution. If - it decided that such law or measure was unconstitutional it had the - authority to annul it.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Policy of the Consulate.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Code Napoléon.</div> - - <p>The Consulate was composed of Bonaparte as First Consul, with - Cambacérès and Le Brun, both famous jurists, as his associates. Their - policy was one of general reconciliation. The individuals deported - after the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor were allowed to return - to France if they had not, like Pichegru, become declared royalists. - They were even taken into favour; while Carnot was appointed Minister - of War, Portalis and Barbé-Marbois were nominated to the Council of - State. The lists of emigration were closed; no longer could persons be - declared to have emigrated on mere suspicion, and the First Consul, as - an administrative measure, annulled the decrees excluding relations of - <i>émigrés</i> and former nobles from filling executive offices. More than - 150,000 <i>émigrés</i> were also allowed to return, mostly priests, who were - no longer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> regarded as rebels, and who, whether they had taken the oath - to observe the Civil Constitution of the Clergy or not, were allowed - to resume their sacred functions on simply promising to obey the new - Constitution of the State. The Consulate did even more than this for - the cause of religion; many churches which had been appropriated - for civil purposes were restored to their original uses. Brigandage - was sternly put down, and Bonaparte, at last, pacified La Vendée by - negotiating a treaty of amnesty with the remaining Vendéan leaders at - Montluçon, on the 17th of January 1800. A special effort was made to - put the finances in order, and Gaudin, who held office as Minister of - the Finances throughout the Consulate and the Empire, first proved - his extraordinary powers. His financial reforms may be roughly summed - up by the mention of his two most important measures. The decrees of - the Directory in favour of forced loans from the rich, which had been - arbitrarily and unfairly carried out, were abrogated and replaced by - a general income tax of twenty-five per cent. This established some - justice in the collection, which partly compensated for the heaviness - of the tax. The second measure was the appointment of receivers-general - of taxes in every department. These men had to give heavy security, and - were allowed a fair measure of profit in the form of a percentage on - what they collected. They were strictly supervised, and the scandalous - dilapidations which had signalised the period of the Directory were - made impossible for the future. Further, in order to secure the support - of the capitalists, the Bank of France was founded under the guarantee - of the State. Finally, the First Consul decided to carry into effect - the projects of the legal reformers of the Constituent Assembly and the - Convention. Their labours had made possible the formation of a uniform - code of law for France. Bonaparte appointed a Commission, consisting of - Tronchet, Portalis, and Bigot de Préameneu, to examine the labours of - their predecessors, and with their help to draw up the admirable civil - code, which was afterwards known as the Code Napoléon.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Ministry.</div> - - <p>In no respect was the administrative ability of the Consuls better - manifested than in the selection they made of their ministers. It has - already been noticed that Gaudin, the greatest financier of France, was - appointed Minister of the Finances. Talleyrand and Fouché once more - took possession of the portfolios of Foreign Affairs and of Police, - which they held for many years. Their first Minister of the Marine, - Forfait, did not remain long in office, but his successor, Decrès, - held that post from 1801 till 1814. The same may be said with regard - to the Ministry of Justice. Abrial, the first occupant of this post, - gave way to Regnier in 1802, but he likewise remained in office till - 1814. The Ministries of War and of the Interior were more difficult to - fill; Carnot soon resented the tone of Bonaparte, and was succeeded - by Berthier, afterwards Prince of Neufchâtel, who had been Chief of - the Staff to Bonaparte in Italy. La Place, the great astronomer, had - been appointed Minister of the Interior by the Provisional Government - in November 1799. He did not show himself very efficient, and was - succeeded by Lucien Bonaparte, the First Consul’s ablest brother, in - the following month. He too failed to carry out the wishes of the - Consuls, and was succeeded in 1800 by one of the most distinguished - administrators of the period, Chaptal.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The External Policy of the Consulate.</div> - - <p>Of foreign affairs Bonaparte, as First Consul, assumed the entire - management; in internal matters he laid down the main principles - indeed, but he allowed his colleagues some share in the government. - He found France once more at war, as she had been before the Treaty - of Campo-Formio, with Austria and England. But another redoubtable - enemy had been added in Russia. Fortunately for France, for reasons - which have already been indicated, the Emperor Paul was profoundly - dissatisfied with his allies. From an unreasoning hatred for France, - the Russian Emperor had now altered his sentiments to one of profound - admiration for the person of the First Consul. Bonaparte was soon - notified of this disposition at the Court of St. Petersburg. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> sent - his most intimate friend, Duroc, on a special mission to Russia, and - the idea was already suggested that Russia and France ought to be the - arbiters of Europe. He offered to recognise Paul not only as Grand - Master of the Knights of Malta, but as the sovereign of that island, - and promised in every way to forward Russian interests. In return, - Paul, with his usual exaggeration, declared Bonaparte to be his dearest - friend, surrounded himself with his portraits, drank publicly to his - health, and ordered Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> to leave Mittau. The Russian - ambassador in Paris, Kolichev, on behalf of his master, proposed that - Bonaparte should take the title of King of France, and make the crown - hereditary in his family. Next in importance to the commencement of - good relations with Russia, was the First Consul’s effort to make the - King of Prussia his declared ally. For this purpose he sent Duroc also - to Berlin. But Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> was a different type - of monarch from the Emperor Paul; he could not so readily alter his - policy. Personally, he too admired the First Consul, and regarded him - as the restorer of order and as a monarch in embryo; but, in spite of - his admiration, he refused to comply with the wishes of Bonaparte, - as he had rejected the propositions of the Directory, and insisted - on the maintenance of his consistent attitude of strict neutrality. - The last point to be noticed in the foreign policy of Bonaparte was - his attitude towards the Pope. He not only allowed the body of Pope - Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span> to be removed from Valence to be buried at Rome, - but he recognised the new Pope, Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, although he had - been elected at Venice under Austrian influence: he even offered to - restore him to his temporal dominion at Rome, and promised to enter - into negotiations with him with regard to the re-establishment of the - Catholic Church in France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Campaign of Marengo. 1800.</div> - - <p>With the two great enemies of France, Austria and England, the First - Consul had no desire to treat. Though unable to strike at England, - owing to the weakness of the French navy, he could yet attack the - Austrians in two quarters. Two powerful armies were prepared,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> the - one the Army of the Danube, which was placed under the command of - Moreau, and the other the Army of the Interior, soon to become famous - as the Second Army of Italy. Of all the conquests in Italy made by - the French in 1796 and 1797, only Genoa remained in their possession. - Masséna, fresh from his victories in Switzerland, had taken command of - the besieged army. His defence is one of the most famous in history, - and does no less honour to the general than his victory at Zurich. - Bonaparte desired to relieve Genoa; and he resolved not to advance - along the coast, as he had done in 1796, but by crossing the Alps, and - descending upon Piedmont, to cut off the Austrian army occupying that - province.</p> - - <p>In the month of May Bonaparte crossed the Great Saint Bernard Pass at - the head of 40,000 men, and fell at once on the Austrian flank. He was - too late to relieve Genoa, which surrendered on the 4th of June, when - but few of the soldiers were still able to stand, but he was in time to - close the retreat of the Austrians upon Lombardy. On the 9th June 1800 - General Lannes defeated the Austrian advanced guard at Montebello, and - Bonaparte then barred the road from Alessandria to Piacenza. General - Melas, though not yet joined by the troops which had taken Genoa, - had a larger army than Bonaparte; on June 14 he forced his way out - of Alessandria, and drove back the French columns which occupied the - village of Marengo. The battle was practically lost by the French, when - Desaix, who had been detached to the left with 6000 men, fell upon - the Austrian flank. Desaix was killed, but the vigour of his attack - practically cut the Austrian army in two. The dragoons of Kellermann - completed the victory, and General Melas signed the Convention of - Alessandria, by which he surrendered Genoa, Piedmont, and the Milanese - to the French, and promised to withdraw the Austrian garrisons from all - cities to the west of the Mincio. Bonaparte then attended a <i>Te Deum</i> - sung in honour of his victory in the cathedral of Milan, and returned - to Paris, leaving the Army of Grisons, under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> the command of General - Macdonald, to follow up the Austrians.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Hohenlinden.</div> - - <p>While Bonaparte was winning the battle of Marengo, and reconquering - Italy by a single blow, Moreau was again face to face with his old - opponent, the Archduke Charles. The French advance was very slow. - Fierce battles were fought at Engen, Mœskirchen, and Biberach in May - 1800, and by the close of the summer Moreau had his headquarters at - Augsburg, and his advanced guard at Munich. The slowness of Moreau’s - progress dissatisfied the First Consul, as did the want of success - of the Archduke Charles dissatisfy the court of Vienna. Augereau was - sent with 20,000 men to the assistance of Moreau, who was ordered, in - spite of the severity of the winter, to continue his advance; and the - Archduke John was appointed to succeed his brother, and ordered to take - the offensive. The crowning event of this winter campaign was the great - victory of Hohenlinden, which was won by Moreau on the 3d of December - 1800. The Austrians lost the whole of their baggage and artillery and - 12,000 prisoners.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Winter Campaign of 1800.</div> - - <p>The First Consul from Paris ordered Moreau and Macdonald to advance - into the home districts of the House of Austria. Moreau accordingly - pushed along the Inn, the Salz, the Traun, and the Ens, driving the - disorganised and discouraged Austrians before him until he was within - twenty leagues of Vienna. Macdonald, at the same time, crossed the - Splügen Pass in spite of the avalanches, and penetrated into the - Tyrol, thus turning the Austrian forces on the Mincio and the Adige. - On arriving at Trent, Macdonald turned to the right and was joined by - Brune, who had occupied the territory of Venice, and the united French - army marched upon Vienna. Under these circumstances, with Italy lost, - and Vienna threatened from two quarters, the Emperor Francis sued for - peace, which was concluded at Lunéville on the 9th of February 1801.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Treaty of Lunéville. Feb. 9, 1801.</div> - - <p>The Treaty of Lunéville was more important from its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> destruction of the - old Holy Roman Empire than as the treaty of peace between France and - Austria. From the latter point of view the Emperor Francis once more, - as in the Treaty of Campo-Formio, recognised the Rhine as the limit - of France. In Italy the Cisalpine Republic was once more constituted - with the Adige as its frontier, Modena was to be compensated with the - Breisgau, and Venice was again left to the House of Austria. Tuscany - was taken from its Austrian Grand Duke, and erected into a kingdom of - Etruria in favour of the Prince of Parma, a relative of the King of - Spain, and Piedmont was annexed to France; but the King of the Two - Sicilies was allowed to retain his dominions, and the Pope was restored - to all his possessions except the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara. - The Cisalpine Republic was reorganised, and granted a Constitution on - the model of that of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>, in which Bonaparte was - appointed First Consul. The Ligurian Republic was maintained, with - the alteration that its Doge was nominated by France instead of being - elected. The result of the new arrangements in Northern Italy was that - both France and Austria had a foothold by their occupation of Piedmont - and Venice, with the Cisalpine Republic as a buffer between them. - The principle of secularising the German bishoprics was also again - recognised in the Treaty of Lunéville, and the actual manner in which - it should be carried out was referred to a special commission, whose - conclusions were not adopted till 1803. The principal result of the - treaty in Austria was the retirement of the minister Thugut, who was - succeeded as State Chancellor by Count Louis Cobenzl, the diplomatist, - who had negotiated the treaties both of Campo-Formio and of Lunéville.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Murder of the Emperor Paul. 23d March 1801.</div> - - <p>The admiration of the Emperor Paul for Bonaparte increased daily, and - it was the Russian Czar, not the French First Consul, who proposed an - invasion of India across Asia, in order to strike a blow at the English - power in the East. Indeed, the English had taken the place of the - French in the mind of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> Paul, who, not satisfied with forming once again - the Neutral League of the North, determined to send his best troops - against them. The Emperor’s proposition was that one expedition should - consist of 35,000 Frenchmen and 35,000 Russians, under the command of - Masséna. This column was to go down the Danube, and then up the Don to - a point whence it would be but a short march to the Volga. It was then - to proceed down the Volga to Astrakhan, thence across the Caspian Sea - to Astrabad, and then to march by Herat and Kandahar to the Punjab. - Another column was to move by Khiva and Bokhara, and to invade India - by the north of Afghanistan. These grandiose plans were not entirely - accepted by Bonaparte, and the death of the Emperor prevented an - attempt being made to see if they were practicable. The madness of Paul - had steadily increased during his short reign. His nobility disapproved - heartily of his war policy, both against France and later against - England; his adoption of the Neutral League and its policy had done - much to ruin the wealthy nobles of Northern Russia by forbidding the - exportation of Russian commodities on English ships. To the discontent - of the nobility, of the politicians, and of the capitalists must be - added the fears of the courtiers. Even the heir to the throne, his - eldest son Alexander, perceived that the rule of the maniac could not - be borne much longer. It is hardly necessary to particularise all the - causes of his unpopularity; it is enough to say that his behaviour - was that of a madman. Certain courtiers, of whom the leaders were - Count Pahlen, a Livonian nobleman; Benningsen, a Hanoverian general; - Plato Zubov, the last favourite of the Empress Catherine, and his - brother Nicholas, and the Prince Jachvill, determined to put an end - to the tyranny of the Czar. In the night of the 23d of March 1801 - he was attacked by these conspirators and ordered to sign an act of - abdication; he refused; the lamp went out, and the Emperor was struck - down and strangled by an unknown hand among his assailants.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Neutral League of the North. 1800–1.</div> - - <p>When Bonaparte first entered office he recognised that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> England was - a more formidable, because a less approachable, enemy than Austria. - Knowing that the French navy was unable to meet the English, he hoped - to counterbalance the maritime preponderance of England by a league - against her commerce. Owing to the long period of war, nothing was to - be gained by solemn decrees forbidding the importation of goods into - France, it was necessary to strike through the neutral nations. The - three great commercial seats of English trade were the Levant, the - Baltic, and Portugal. The failure of the expedition to Egypt proved - that it was impossible to destroy the English trade in the Levant, and - Bonaparte therefore resolved to strike in the other two directions. - Acting mainly through the Emperor Paul, the Armed Neutrality of the - North, or the Neutral League of 1780, was re-established between - the Baltic powers of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. The real - intention of Paul and of Bonaparte was to exclude English commerce - entirely from the Baltic; but for the second time the Baltic powers - nominally made themselves the guarantors of the rights of neutrals. - They protested against the right assumed by England to search neutral - ships, and to confiscate as contraband of war all the goods of - belligerent powers found in them, and also against the prohibition - against neutral ships trading between different enemies’ ports. The - Emperor Paul, like the Empress Catherine twenty years before, made - himself the patron of the Neutral League.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Copenhagen. 2d April 1801.</div> - - <p>The English government naturally refused to accede to the demands of - the Neutral League, and when the Baltic was closed to them an English - fleet was ordered to force the blockade. This fleet was placed under - the command of Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as second in command. On - the 30th of March 1801 the fleet sailed down the Sound, in spite of the - Danish batteries at Elsinore, and on the 2d of April Copenhagen was - bombarded and a large part of the Danish fleet destroyed. This victory, - and still more the death of the Emperor Paul, caused the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> dissolution - of the Neutral League of the North, and Bonaparte had to adjourn for - some years his schemes for the annihilation of English commerce.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Spain and Portugal. 1800–1.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Badajoz.</div> - - <p>In the Iberian peninsula the designs of Bonaparte against English trade - were more successful. Spain still remained the ally of France in spite - of the sufferings that alliance had brought upon her, but Portugal had - hitherto continued the faithful friend of England. Through Portugal - English goods entered Spain and the south of France, and Bonaparte - resolved to put an end to the neutrality of Portugal. For this purpose, - in the year 1800, he despatched his ablest brother, Lucien Bonaparte, - as ambassador to Madrid, with orders to negotiate with the Prince - Regent of Portugal. The terms offered were that the Portuguese ports - were to be closed to English trade, that special commercial advantages - were to be given to French merchants, that French Guiana was to - be extended to the river Amazon, and that a portion of Portuguese - territory was to be ceded to Spain until Trinidad and Minorca were - recovered by the latter power. The Prince Regent of Portugal rejected - these hard terms; Spain declared war in the beginning of 1801, and - 22,000 veteran French soldiers, under the command of General Leclerc, - Bonaparte’s brother-in-law, were sent to the assistance of Spain. - The campaign was a very short one. The French troops never came into - action; but the Portuguese were twice defeated in pitched battles, and - lost some of their fortresses. The Prince Regent sued for peace, and a - treaty was signed between Spain and Portugal at Badajoz on the 6th of - June 1801. By this treaty the city and district of Olivenza were ceded - to Spain, and, by a subsequent arrangement, the limits of French Guiana - were extended to the river Amazon. Bonaparte was much disgusted with - these treaties, and especially with the continued refusal of Portugal - to close her ports to English commerce, and it was many months before - he consented to ratify them. England refused to recognise Portugal as - an enemy; but an English force occupied the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> island of Madeira, and the - East India Company’s troops garrisoned Goa.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in Egypt. 1800–1.</div> - - <p>When Bonaparte left Egypt he was unable, owing to the stringency of - the blockade maintained by the English fleet, to take more than a few - companions with him. Kléber, who, as has been said, succeeded him - in the command of the French army, soon found himself confronted by - a powerful Turkish and Mameluke army. This army he defeated at the - battle of Heliopolis on the 20th of March 1800, after which success - Egypt again submitted to French rule. On the 14th of June 1800, the - very day on which his former comrade Desaix met a soldier’s death at - the battle of Marengo, Kléber was assassinated by a Muhammadan fanatic - in Cairo. Menou, the new French general in Egypt, was in every way - Kléber’s inferior, and concentrated the French troops in the two cities - of Cairo and Alexandria. Isolated entirely from the mother country, and - unable to receive reinforcements or ammunition, the English government - regarded the French in Egypt as an easy prey. On the 19th of March 1801 - a powerful English army disembarked at Aboukir, under the command of - Sir Ralph Abercromby, and defeated the French before Alexandria two - days later in a pitched battle, in which Abercromby was killed. Siege - was then laid to Alexandria and Cairo, and both cities surrendered to - the English general, Lord Hutchinson, before the arrival of a division - from India, which, under the command of Sir David Baird, had sailed up - the Red Sea, marched across the Soudan desert, and descended the Nile - to Cairo in boats. As a result of these operations, a convention was - signed between the French and English generals in Egypt on the 2d of - September 1801, by which the French garrisons evacuated all remaining - posts, and were conveyed to France in English ships.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Peace of Amiens. 25th March 1802.</div> - - <p>Though neither Bonaparte nor the leaders of English political opinion - believed it possible for a permanent peace to be agreed to in the - interests of their respective countries, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> outcry of both the - English and the French people against the prolonged war made it - necessary for their rulers to conclude some kind of a truce. Pitt had - in 1801 gone out of office, and his successor Addington, afterwards - Lord Sidmouth, declared in favour of a peace policy. The treaty, which - is known as the Peace of Amiens, was really nothing more than a truce. - Only a very general agreement was come to, and many essential points - were left undecided. Both nations needed a rest, and neither government - looked upon the Peace of Amiens as affording a permanent solution of - their differences. Many loopholes were left, which were certain to - afford pretexts for renewing the war to both contracting powers, and of - these the most notable was the question of the possession of Malta.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Reconstitution of Germany.</div> - - <p>Far more important than the temporary Peace of Amiens was the - reconstitution of Germany, which was finally accepted by the Diet at - Ratisbon on the 25th of February 1803. The Holy Roman Empire which - had lasted so many centuries ceased to exist. The ancient division - of the Empire into circles was abolished, and the three colleges - which formed the Diet were profoundly affected. Instead of the eight - electors, three ecclesiastical and five lay, that formerly existed, - ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay, were created. The - Archbishops of Cologne and Trèves, whose states being on the left bank - of the Rhine were absorbed into France, lost their electoral dignity. - The Archbishop-Elector of Mayence was retained as Arch-Chancellor of - the Empire, and he received as his dominions the Bishopric of Ratisbon, - the Principality of Aschaffenburg, and the County of Wetzlar. The - nine lay electors were the five princes who had formerly enjoyed the - dignity, namely, the Electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria, - and Hanover, and four new Electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke - of Würtemburg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Grand Duke - Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor, and former Grand Duke of Tuscany, - who was appointed Elector<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> of Salzburg. By this new arrangement, and - by the abolition of two-thirds of the ecclesiastical electorate, the - majority in the College of Electors passed from the Catholics to the - Protestants. In the College of Princes there was the same result, for - by the secularisation of the Catholic bishoprics the majority passed to - the Protestant rulers. More sweeping still was the alteration in the - third College—that of the Free Cities. Instead of fifty-two constituent - members of this College only six were retained, and their maintenance - was due to the intervention of France. These six cities were Augsburg, - Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, Lübeck, and Nuremberg. By these - changes the constitution of the Empire was entirely altered; but still - more notable was the change in the position of the various princes in - Germany, for the tendency of the secularisation of the ecclesiastical - states was to diminish the number of ruling princes and to increase the - extent of their dominions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Secularisations in Germany.</div> - - <p>The great war with France had shown the weakness of the Empire as an - organisation, and had also proved the advantages to the inhabitants - of the existence of large and powerful states. It was, therefore, - the already existing kingdoms which received the greatest addition - of territory under the new arrangements. Nominally, the secularised - bishoprics were intended to compensate those German princes whose - territories on the left bank of the Rhine had been ceded to France; - practically, the powerful states only were increased. Austria, whose - new possession of Venice in place of the Milanese had been reaffirmed - by the Treaty of Lunéville, only acquired in Germany the Bishoprics of - Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian princes received independent states, - namely, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand, who, as has been said, - was given the Archbishopric of Salzburg, with the title of Elector, - and the Duke of Modena, who received the Breisgau. Nevertheless, the - power of Austria was greatly weakened, for under the old arrangement - the ecclesiastical electors and the Catholic bishops had always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> been - partisans of Austria. Prussia was the country which profited the - most, though she had suffered the least in the war against France. In - exchange for part of the Duchy of Cleves, the Duchy of Guelders, and - the County of Moers, Prussia received the large and wealthy Bishoprics - of Hildesheim, Paderborn, Erfurt, and part of Münster, together with - a number of abbeys, of which the largest were Herford, Quedlinburg, - Elten, Essen, and Werden, and several free cities. Hanover received - the Bishopric of Osnabrück, to which the King of England, as Elector - of Hanover, had previously possessed the alternate nomination. Bavaria - was made into a powerful and concentrated state. In exchange for the - Palatinate, the Duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), the Principalities - of Juliers, Simmern and Lautern, she received the Bishoprics of - Würtzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg, Freisingen, and part of Passau, together - with a large number of abbeys and free cities. Baden received the - portion of the Bishoprics of Spires, Strasbourg, and Basle, situated - on the right bank of the Rhine, the Bishopric of Constance, the - cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim, and many abbeys and free cities. - Finally, the Duchy of Würtemburg, in exchange for the Principality - of Montbéliard, received abbeys and free towns, which increased its - population by a hundred thousand inhabitants. It is not necessary to - describe the various accessions granted to the Princes of Hesse-Cassel, - Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and the rest; but, it may be noted that the - Prince of Orange, the former Stadtholder of Holland, received the - Bishopric of Fulda. These changes remodelled Germany, and in the result - were most prejudicial to France; for instead of there existing a series - of buffers in the shape of small and weak states, France was brought - almost directly into contact with Prussia and Austria.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Reconstitution of Switzerland.</div> - - <p>At the same time that the ancient federal Holy Roman Empire was - reconstituted, the ancient federal Republic of Switzerland was likewise - reorganised. The reasons which had induced the Directory to intervene - in Swiss affairs still existed; the revolutionary party<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> which opposed - the federal idea, and desired to form a united Switzerland, remained - in direct opposition to the supporters of the former government of the - cantons. It was essentially the question of government which divided - the two parties, and there was no suggestion of restoring the feudal - system, or the privileges of certain towns and certain cantons over - others. The breath of the French Revolution had swept away political - inequalities as completely in Switzerland as in France. Soon after the - Treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte withdrew the French troops from the new - Helvetic Republic. Civil war, as he expected, recommenced, and the - Helvetic Government was driven from Berne by the federalists. Bonaparte - therefore despatched an army to restore order, and summoned the - leading Swiss statesmen to Paris. To them he propounded a new scheme - of federal government, which was accepted, and the Act of Mediation, - which was promulgated on the 19th of February 1803, established the - new Constitution, and recognised the First Consul as Mediator. By - the Act of Mediation Switzerland was divided into nineteen cantons, - each of which had its own local government and special laws and - taxes. The thirteen old cantons were maintained; six of them were - democratic—Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri, and Zug; - seven were oligarchical—Basle, Berne, Friburg, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, - Soleure, and Zürich. The six new cantons added by Bonaparte comprised - five territories which had formerly been subject; the Pays de Vaud - and Aargau were made independent of Berne; Thurgau was separated from - Schaffhausen, and Ticino from Uri and Unterwalden, and the canton of - Saint-Gall was formed out of certain districts formerly belonging to - Appenzell, Glarus, and Schwyz; finally, the Grisons, which had hitherto - been an independent mountain republic, was declared a canton of - Switzerland. Geneva had some years before been added to France as the - Department of the Leman, and the Valais was now declared independent—a - preliminary step to its ultimate annexation by France. The Federal - Diet was to consist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> of twenty-five deputies, two from the six largest - cantons, Aargau, Berne, the Grisons, Saint-Gall, the Pays de Vaud, - and Zurich, and one from each of the others. The Diet was to meet - every year in the capital of a different canton, and the Landamman - of that canton was for that year the President of the Confederation. - The Federal Act once more declared the entire abolition of feudalism, - and of all privileges of birth, etc., and forbade for the future all - internal customs duties. Bonaparte proclaimed that he would not allow - the interference of any other power in Switzerland, and took the title - of Mediator of the Confederation of Switzerland.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Concordat. 1801–2.</div> - - <p>It has already been stated that Bonaparte desired to stand well with - the Catholic Church, and had recognised the advantages of a state - religion. One of his most important measures during the Consulate was - to put an end to the schism which had lasted since the promulgation of - the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, with the assistance of - the Pope, Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> All the bishops elected under the Civil - Constitution of the Clergy, and most of those who had emigrated, sooner - than take the oath of allegiance to it, resigned, and the leaders of - both sections were nominated and instituted to different dioceses. - A new circumscription of sees was agreed to, and France was divided - into fifty bishoprics and ten archbishoprics. It was agreed by the - Concordat, which was signed between the Pope and the First Consul on - the 15th of July 1801, and solemnly proclaimed on the 18th of April - 1802, after being sanctioned by the Legislative Body, that the First - Consul should nominate all bishops, and the Pope should institute. - The government of the Consulate recognised the Catholic, Apostolic - and Roman religion as that of the majority of the French people, and - ordained that its public worship should be carried on freely so long as - the police regulations were observed. All ecclesiastics were to swear - fidelity to the government, which promised to pay a suitable salary to - all bishops and curés. In return, the Pope promised that neither he - nor his successors would lay any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> claim to the ecclesiastical estates - which had been alienated, and that all such property should be held the - indisputable possession of its purchaser.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Organisation.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Prefectures.</div> - - <p>The recognition of the frontier of the Rhine by the Treaty of Lunéville - and the Diet of Ratisbon largely increased the territory of France. - The First Consul proceeded to organise the additions on the bases - laid down by the Constituent Assembly, Convention, and Directory. - Belgium was divided into nine departments. The Rhenish territories, - including the Palatinate, the Diocese of Trèves, etc., were divided - into four departments, of which the headquarters were Aix-la-Chapelle, - Coblentz, Mayence, and Trèves. Further south, the Department of the - Mont-Terrible, which had been formed by the Convention out of the - Republic of Mulhouse and the District of Porentruy, was merged into the - Department of the Haut-Rhin, and the Principality of Montbéliard was - united to the Department of the Doubs. The Republic of Geneva, as has - been said, formed the Department of the Leman. Savoy was constituted - as the Department of Mont-Blanc, and the County of Nice that of the - Alpes-Maritimes. These were the recognised limits of France in 1801, - and were defensible on geographical grounds; but, on the 11th of - September 1802, Bonaparte went further, and declared the union of - Piedmont with France. Instead of being amalgamated with the Cisalpine - Republic, Piedmont was divided into six departments, and the island - of Elba was detached from Tuscany and declared, like Corsica, to be a - French island. At the head of each department a Préfet was appointed, - to take the place of the national agents maintained by the Directory. - At the head of each subdivision, now called an arrondissement instead - of a district, was placed a Sous-Préfet, also nominated by the supreme - executive, and at the head of each commune was the Maire, who was also - nominated and not elected. Préfets, Sous-Préfets, and Maires were - assisted by nominated councils in administrative matters, and appeals - from their decisions lay to the Council of State.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Education.</div> - - <p>Just as Bonaparte had built up the new Code of Law on the bases laid - by the Legislative Committee of the Convention, so, too, he made use - of the labours of its Committee of Public Instruction to establish - a scheme of national education. In every commune which could afford - the expense, he maintained the primary school established by the - Convention; but he feared to burden the National Treasury with the - expense of schools in the poorer communes, and preferred to leave their - establishment to local endeavour. In secondary education, he suppressed - the central schools of the Convention, and replaced them by twenty-nine - lycées, specially intended for the education of the middle classes. For - higher education, he founded ten schools of law and six of medicine; - he improved the Polytechnic School, and started a school of mechanics, - which became later the famous École des Arts et Métiers. The key-stone - of the whole educational system, the foundation of the University, was, - however, not laid till some years later.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Constitutional Changes.</div> - - <p>The great administrative reforms of Bonaparte made him as popular among - all classes of the population as his victories had made him in the - army. Not only in France, but throughout Europe, he was looked upon as - the restorer of order and good government. This sentiment appeared most - vividly at the time when a plot against his life was discovered on the - 24th of September 1800. This plot, which is known as the Conspiracy - of the Infernal Machine, is said to have been the work of the Jacobin - party; the explosion took place in the Rue Sainte-Nicaise, too late - to do him any harm, but it was used as a pretext to exile the most - vigorous republicans. So great was his popularity, that rumours were - already heard of making him monarch. The first step in this direction - was taken in 1802, when the Council of State proposed that the primary - assemblies should be summoned to decide whether Bonaparte should not be - made First Consul for life. In May 1802 this proposal was laid before - the people, and was carried by more than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> 3,500,000 votes to 8000. Some - slight changes were made at the same time, of which the most important - were that the First Consul was enabled to nominate his successor, that - the lists of candidates for public functions were replaced by electoral - colleges appointed for life, and that the Senate was given the right to - dissolve the Tribunate and the Legislative Body.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bonaparte’s Colonial Policy.</div> - - <p>The First Consul clearly understood that the Peace of Amiens was not - likely to last, and that war would soon break out again with England. - He knew that England derived much of her influence from her navy and - her colonies; he therefore spared no efforts to restore the French - navy, and to make France once more a colonial power. His first essays - in this direction were to obtain Louisiana from Spain in exchange for - the kingdom of Etruria, formed in Italy for Prince Louis of Parma, and - the extension of the limits of French Guiana to the Amazon extorted - from Portugal. But his main project was to restore the French power - in the West Indies. Guadeloupe and Martinique and the French Antilles - had been restored to France by the Treaty of Amiens, and the First - Consul resolved to make them the starting-point for the reconquest of - San Domingo. This island had, as a result of the policy of Sonthonax - and Polverel, the proconsuls of the Convention, been entirely lost - to France; the planters and other whites had fled; and the revolted - slaves and mulattoes were masters of the island. Toussaint Louverture, - the leader of the negroes, refused to hold any communications with - Bonaparte, and the First Consul therefore, as soon as the Peace of - Amiens had opened the sea, sent an expedition of 20,000 men against - him, commanded by his brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The island - was reconquered by May 1802; but the victorious army was practically - destroyed by yellow fever. Toussaint Louverture was taken prisoner and - sent to France: but nevertheless, as soon as war with England again - broke out, and the arrival of reinforcements was prevented by English - cruisers, the negroes rose afresh under new leaders and destroyed the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> - remnant of the garrison. It may be added that the French Antilles were - recaptured by the English in 1809 and 1810.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Recommencement of the War between England and France. 18th - May 1803.</div> - - <p>It has been said that the Treaty of Amiens was practically only a - truce, and that many points of interest to the two nations were left - undecided. Of these the most important regarded Malta. The English - ministry positively refused to surrender this island to the Knights - of Saint John, under the protectorate of the Emperor Alexander, - which would leave it at the mercy of France. Bonaparte demanded the - evacuation of Malta with much insistance as one of the conditions of - the Treaty of Amiens; but the English government in reply pointed to - the annexation of Elba, Parma and Piacenza, and Piedmont, and the - interference in Switzerland, as also being breaches of the treaty. The - First Consul was also very exasperated at the personal attacks made on - him in the irresponsible English press. He failed to understand that - by the English law the government could not prevent the publication - of libels against him, and regarded their refusal to punish the - libellers as personal insults to himself. The French ambassador in - London prosecuted Peltier, the chief libeller, before the Court of - King’s Bench. He was brilliantly defended by Sir J. Mackintosh, and - only ordered to pay a small fine. A public subscription was raised to - pay his fine and costs, and the First Consul regarded this as adding - a further insult to the injuries he had received. In truth, both - governments felt that war was inevitable, and in May 1803 the rupture - was complete. The English navy began to seize the French trading - vessels, and the First Consul, as a reprisal, arrested all the English - travellers he could find in France, and ordered Mortier to occupy - Hanover.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Position of Foreign Affairs.</div> - - <p>The First Consul entered upon a fresh war with England with a light - heart, for he believed that she would be unable to obtain any allies. - Austria was exhausted by the terrible wars she had undergone, and the - State Chancellor, Cobenzl, held that she needed time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> to recuperate. - Prussia persisted in her attitude of strict neutrality; Haugwitz was - dismissed from the Secretaryship of State for Foreign Affairs as - being too French in his sympathies, after the occupation of Hanover, - and was succeeded by Hardenberg, the maker of the Treaty of Basle. - Spain was Bonaparte’s faithful and hopeful ally; and Russia, the - most formidable of the continental powers, inclined to his side. The - attitude of the Emperor Alexander at this period was of the greatest - importance. Educated by a Swiss publicist who sincerely loved France, - La Harpe, the Emperor of Russia was inclined to admire the results of - the French Revolution and the French people. His sentiments for the - person of Bonaparte were nearly as full of enthusiastic admiration as - those of his father, the Emperor Paul. He made the French ambassadors - at St. Petersburg, Duroc and Caulaincourt, his personal friends, and - wrote letters to Bonaparte expressing his feelings. But the Emperor’s - relatives, especially his mother, with his ministers and his courtiers, - were opposed to France and in favour of a close alliance with England, - or at the very least of the maintenance of strict neutrality. England - practically commanded the Russian trade, and war with England meant - the loss of the only market for Russian raw material, the consequent - impoverishment of the Russian people, and the ruin of the Russian - capitalists. Nevertheless the Emperor Alexander was an autocrat, and - Bonaparte counted upon his friendship even though he could not secure - his alliance.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Plot of Pichegru and Cadoudal.</div> - - <p>On the outbreak of war the numerous French exiles in England offered - their services to the English Government. It is significant of the - change which had come over the state of affairs that, instead of - endeavouring to raise a counter-revolution, they proposed to attack the - person of the First Consul. The leaders of the new plot were Pichegru, - now a declared royalist and partisan of the Bourbons, and Georges - Cadoudal, the celebrated Chouan leader. Both had the audacity to go to - Paris and to enter into relations with General Moreau. Moreau, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> - he resented the lofty position of Bonaparte and refused to serve him, - would be no party to an assassination, more especially an assassination - which would restore the Bourbons, and Cadoudal and Pichegru had to - act with the assistance of certain French noblemen and some former - Chouans. A plot was formed to murder the First Consul on the road - from Malmaison to Paris, but it was discovered by the French police, - and Bonaparte in terror ordered the gates of Paris to be closed as in - the most terrible days of the Revolution, and proclaimed the pain of - death against all who sheltered the conspirators. After some daring - adventures the leaders were seized; Georges Cadoudal was executed; - Pichegru was strangled in prison; and Moreau, who was condemned to two - years’ imprisonment, was allowed to go into exile in the United States. - The French noblemen implicated were treated with more leniency, and the - lives of their two chiefs, Armand de Polignac and Charles de Rivière, - were spared.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Execution of the Duc d’Enghien. 21st March 1804.</div> - - <p>The discovery of this plot against his life, which was undoubtedly - fostered by the Bourbon princes, made the First Consul determined to - wreak his vengeance against that unfortunate family. Being unable to - seize the persons of the pretender, Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, and his - brother, the Comte d’Artois, who resided in England, he carried off a - young Bourbon prince, the eldest son of the Prince de Condé, who was - quite innocent of the conspiracy of Pichegru. The Duc d’Enghien was - at this time living at Ettenheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was - arrested there by French soldiers, contrary to all international law, - and taken to Vincennes. He was at once tried by a military commission - as an <i>émigré</i> who had borne arms against France, and was condemned to - death. The sentence was immediately carried out in spite of the demands - of the young prince for an interview with the First Consul. This - execution was a great political mistake. Bonaparte expected that it - would terrify the Bourbon princes, but it reacted to his own prejudice. - The Court of Saint Petersburg went into mourning; the King<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> of Prussia, - who had at last almost resolved to make an alliance with France, began - to negotiate with Russia; the royal family of Austria looked upon the - execution as a pendant to that of Marie Antoinette; and the English - Government made use of the horror caused by it to endeavour to form a - fresh coalition against France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French. 18th May 1804.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Francis II. becomes Emperor of Austria.</div> - - <p>Directly after this tragedy, which proved that Bonaparte was - practically an absolute monarch, he decided to take upon himself the - rank of Emperor of the French. The Senate offered this title to the - First Consul at Saint-Cloud on the 18th of May 1804, and the people - ratified it by a majority of more than 3,500,000 votes. By the <i>senatus - consultum</i> which made him Emperor the office was made hereditary to - his direct descendants. As he had no children he was given the power - to adopt, a power which it was undoubtedly expected would be used in - favour of his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais. A few months after the - Corsican soldier of fortune was declared Emperor of the French, the - last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span>, resolved to rid himself - of what was now but an empty title. The new Constitution of the Holy - Roman Empire had destroyed the imperial authority by depriving it of - the votes of the ecclesiastical members in the Diet, and increasing or - consolidating the dominions of the principal German states. Francis - <span class="smcap">II.</span> acknowledged the new order of things. On the 11th of - August 1804, he erected the Austrian dominions into an hereditary - empire, and on the 7th of December following, five days after the - coronation of Bonaparte as the Emperor Napoleon by the Pope at Paris, - the last Holy Roman Emperor proclaimed himself Emperor of Austria under - the title of Francis <span class="smcap">I.</span> This then was the result of fifteen - years of revolution, the disappearance of the ancient figure-head of - Europe, and the creation of a new Empire founded on the power of the - sword.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_VIII"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> - <h2>CHAPTER VIII<br /><span class="large">1804–1808</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Napoleon, Emperor of the French—His Coronation as Emperor and - as King of Italy—The Imperial Court—The Grand Dignitaries, - Marshals, and Imperial Household—Institutions of the - Empire—Ministers and Government—The Camp at Boulogne—Pitt’s - last coalition—Campaign of 1805—Capitulation of Ulm—Battles - of Austerlitz and Caldiero—Battle of Trafalgar—Treaty of - Pressburg—Death of Pitt—Prussia declares War—Campaign of - Jena—Campaign of Eylau—Campaign of Friedland—Interview - and Peace of Tilsit—The Continental Blockade—Capture - of the Danish Fleet by England—French Invasion and - Conquest of Portugal—State of Sweden—The Rearrangement - of Europe—Louis Bonaparte King of Holland—Italy—Joseph - Bonaparte King of Naples—Battle of Maida—Rearrangement of - Germany—Bavaria—Würtemburg—Baden—Jerome Bonaparte King of - Westphalia—Murat Grand Duke of Berg—Saxony—Smaller States of - Germany—Mediatisation of Petty Princes—Confederation of the - Rhine—Poland—The Grand Duchy of Warsaw—Conference of Erfurt.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Empire.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Napoleon’s</span> elevation to the rank of Emperor of the French only - legalised in a more striking fashion the possession of power which he - had long held. It did not make his authority any greater, for he had - been practically the absolute monarch of France ever since 1799, but - it gave promise of permanency, and that was what the French people - most needed after the series of successive governments which had run - their course since 1789. It is a mistake to regard Napoleon as having - been made supreme ruler of France by the army alone; the legalisation - of his power was even more enthusiastically received by the peaceful - part of the population. The few ardent republicans who were left - had been terrified out of resistance by the wholesale<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> deportation - of the principal Jacobins after the affair of the Infernal Machine. - The adherents of the Bourbons were equally discouraged by the severe - punishment dealt out to Pichegru and Georges Cadoudal. Every section - of both the military and civil communities was ready to hail Napoleon - as Emperor. But in the institution of the Empire he appealed to more - than men’s interests, he appealed to their imaginations. This he did - in two ways. He created a Court, with all the magnificent apparatus of - the great officers of the household, stately ceremonies and ancient - customs, which gave to the people of Paris the spectacle of royal pomp - which they had long regretted. On the other hand, he called to his - assistance the most powerful engine for influencing the imagination of - men, namely, religion. He determined to be consecrated with a ceremony - which should exceed in splendour all the coronation ceremonies of - the Bourbons. He summoned the Pope to France, and instead of being - crowned at Rheims by the Archbishop and Primate, he received his - crown at Paris from the hands of the Holy Father himself. At the very - moment of his coronation he showed a pride of bearing at least equal - to that of any of his predecessors upon the throne of France. After - the Pope had anointed him, girded the sword of empire about him, and - given him the sceptre, he prepared to place the crown upon the head - of the new Caesar. But Napoleon gently took the crown from the hands - of Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, and after replacing it on the altar, raised it - and crowned himself. The presence of the Pope in Paris for this great - ceremony following upon the Concordat, caused Napoleon to be looked - upon as the restorer of the Catholic religion, and greatly strengthened - his position. Not satisfied with the crown of France, he accepted that - of Italy also on the 20th of May 1805, and proceeded to Milan, where - he placed upon his head the Iron Crown of the old Lombard Kings. He at - once declared his intention of not personally administering his Italian - kingdom, and appointed his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, to be - Viceroy of Italy.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Imperial Court.</div> - - <p>It has been said that Napoleon created a new Court, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> was intended - to efface the recollection of the magnificence of the old Court of - Versailles. At the head of this Court he created a hierarchy of - Grand Dignitaries of the Empire, who were designed to form a Council - of Regency in case of necessity. The chief of them was the Grand - Elector, whose duty was to convoke the Senate, the Legislative Body, - and the Electoral Colleges,—this post was conferred on the Emperor’s - elder brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Next ranked the Arch-Chancellor of - the Empire, who was the chief of the judicial body,—this post was - conferred on Cambacérès, the former Second Consul. Third came the - Arch-Chancellor of State, whose business it was to receive foreign - ambassadors and ratify treaties—this post was conferred upon Eugène de - Beauharnais. Next came the Arch-Treasurer of the Empire, which post was - first filled by Le Brun, the former Third Consul, and the remaining - Grand Dignitaries were the Constable of the Empire, Louis Bonaparte, - the Grand Admiral, Marshal Murat, and the Grand Judge, Regnier. In - the same way as the Grand Dignitaries were at the head of the civil - administration of the Empire, Napoleon created Marshals of France to be - the representatives of the army. The first marshals were eighteen in - number, and included all the most famous generals of the revolutionary - period except Pichegru and Moreau, whose fate has been related. It was - indispensable for the rank of Marshal of France to have commanded an - army in the field, or at least a detached corps, and the office was - surrounded with so many privileges as to make it the object of ambition - to every colonel of a French regiment. The third hierarchy consisted of - the great officers of the Emperor’s household, who comprised a Grand - Marshal, Duroc; a Grand Almoner, his uncle, Joseph Fesch, whom he had - induced the Pope to make a cardinal; a Grand Chamberlain, Talleyrand; - a Grand Huntsman, Marshal Berthier; and a Grand Equerry, Caulaincourt; - and most of the first occupants of these offices were personal friends - and former comrades in arms of the Emperor.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Institutions of the Empire.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Administrative System of the Empire.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s Ministers.</div> - - <p>The Senate remained under the Constitution of the Empire, as under - that of the Consulate, the most important and dignified political - body. It was extended by the addition of the Grand Dignitaries, of - the members of the Emperor’s family, and of those whom he specially - wished to reward; its seats were conferred for life; but it did little - but congratulate the Emperor on all his proceedings. The Tribunate - was reduced to fifty members, and the Legislative Body was allowed - to discuss laws, but only in closed committees. These institutions, - carefully devised though they were to maintain a semblance of free - discussion, were really reduced to impotence by the autocratic power - of the Emperor. The Council of State became more and more the real - key-stone of the administration of France. It was the one institution - of the Consulate which developed under the Empire. But it did not - develop collectively, but rather as a convenient administrative centre - and a court of appeal for administrators in every branch of the - government. Though the ministries were maintained, they were, as the - government became more bureaucratic in its form, and more concentrated - into the hand of Napoleon, infinitely subdivided, and the head of each - subdivision had a seat in the Council of State. By this arrangement - the Emperor was able to keep a check on his ministers, and to prevent - the administration from being thrown out of gear by the death or - retirement of a single man. Nevertheless, the ministries, as in all - highly organised states, were of vast importance, and Napoleon was - fortunate in the men he placed at their head. It is worthy of note that - three of the ministers who had served him during the Consulate remained - in office throughout the Empire, namely, Gaudin, afterwards created - Duke of Gaeta, Minister of Finance, who had several assistants in the - Council of State, of whom the most notable were Defermon, a former - deputy in the Constituent Assembly and the Convention, and Louis; - Decrès, also created a duke, Minister of the Marine; and Regnier, Duke<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> - of Massa and Grand Judge, Minister of Justice. At the War Office, - the Emperor retained his chief of the staff, Marshal Berthier, until - 1807, when he was succeeded by General Clarke, Duke of Feltre; and the - various sections were presided over by able administrators, of whom the - best were perhaps Lacuée de Cessac and Daru. At the Foreign Office, - Talleyrand remained supreme until after the Treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, - when he was replaced by Champagny, Duke of Cadore, who in his turn - gave way to Maret, Duke of Bassano. At the Ministry of the Interior a - change was made at the beginning of the Empire by the retirement of - Chaptal, who had held that post with singular distinction throughout - the Consulate, and the appointment of Champagny. But this department - was overshadowed by the existence of the Ministry of General Police. - Napoleon abolished this office in 1803, in the hope, doubtless, of - dispensing with the services of Fouché; but that astute minister was a - necessity, and in 1804 he was again appointed to his old office, which - he held until 1810.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Camp at Boulogne.</div> - - <p>In the midst of the <i>fêtes</i> which accompanied his acceptance of the - Empire, Napoleon did not forget that he was engaged in war with - England. He declared that as he had crossed the Alps, so, too, he - could cross the Channel. For this purpose he collected a flotilla of - flat-bottomed boats at Boulogne, and encamped picked soldiers from - the Armies of the Rhine and of Italy upon the coast. But he felt that - it would be impossible for his flotilla to cross the Channel while - the English fleets were masters of the sea. He therefore determined - to unite the two French fleets, which were concentrated at Toulon and - Brest, and summoned his allies, the Dutch and the Spaniards, to prepare - fleets also. He kept 120,000 veterans continually at work practising - embarkation and disembarkation, and it was commonly believed, not - only in Europe, but in England itself, that the invasion would be - carried into effect. The army was equipped in a very thorough fashion, - and carefully organised as the Grand Army under the most experienced - generals in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> France, and it became one of the most efficient fighting - machines ever known in the history of the world, its discipline being - perfect and its enthusiasm unbounded.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Villeneuve’s Failure.</div> - - <p>While making these preparations for the invasion of England, Napoleon - struck at other more accessible branches of the British power. In 1803 - he occupied Hanover, the hereditary dominion of George <span class="smcap">III.</span>, - in spite of its being covered by the Prussian line of demarcation. In - 1804 he sent a division into the kingdom of Naples, in order to close - the Neapolitan ports to English trade; and once more he threatened - Portugal. He also endeavoured to stir up a maritime foe to the English, - and sold to the United States the province of Louisiana, which he had - annexed from Spain, in the hope of obtaining their alliance. It was - only necessary for Napoleon to be master of the Channel for a few - hours, and to have a fine day, for his project of invading England to - succeed. According to his instructions, Admiral Villeneuve left Toulon - in March 1805, eluded Nelson, joined the Spanish fleet, and made his - way to the West Indies, where he expected to meet the fleet from Brest. - But the Brest fleet could not break through the blockade; Villeneuve - had to return, and, after an action with an English squadron under Sir - Robert Calder on 22nd July, he put into Ferrol. At Napoleon’s command, - the admiral set out for Brest on 11th August, but meeting with bad - weather, he lost heart and sailed away to Cadiz. Thus foiled in his - great scheme for bringing up an overpowering French fleet to cover his - invading army, Napoleon dared not leave the harbour of Boulogne.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Pitt’s New Coalition. 1805.</div> - - <p>While threatened by the Boulogne flotilla, the English Government did - all in its power to raise enemies on the Continent against Napoleon. - Prussia, as usual, insisted on her neutrality; but Russia and Austria - were not unwilling to try their strength once more with France. The - Emperor Alexander of Russia was personally inclined to admire Napoleon, - but he was induced by his Court, his family, and his ministry, who - pointed out to him<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> the importance of remaining on good terms with - England, to sign an alliance with Pitt; he was further profoundly - irritated by the violent scene which Napoleon, as First Consul, had had - with his ambassador, Count Morkov, and was horrified at the execution - of the Duc d’Enghien. The Emperor Francis of Austria was even more - willing to fight Napoleon. He had spent the period of peace since the - Treaty of Lunéville in reorganising his army, and believed that he - would be more successful now that he was freed from the incubus of his - position as Holy Roman Emperor. The State Chancellor, Cobenzl, was also - keenly in favour of war, for he was a sincere believer in the might of - Russia, and had imbibed a desire to please the Court of St. Petersburg, - at which he had long held the post of Austrian ambassador. To induce - these powerful allies to attack in force, Pitt, who was once more - Prime Minister, did not grudge the wealth of England. Large subsidies - were offered both to Russia and Austria, which supplied the means for - commencing the campaign; and strenuous efforts were made to win the - assistance of Prussia.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Outbreak of War.</div> - - <p>In the second line, Pitt counted on the assistance of Sweden and - Naples. Napoleon’s promptitude in invading the latter country destroyed - any chance of its effecting a diversion in Italy, and Gustavus - <span class="smcap">IV.</span> of Sweden, though, like his father, a violent enemy of - France, was unable to bring any active assistance, while Prussia - remained neutral. A pretext for war was found in the annexation of - Lucca and Genoa to the French Empire, and the Austrians and Russians - resolved to strike at once. General Mack, with a powerful Austrian - force, invaded Bavaria before the declaration of war, and, by the - occupation of Ulm, he believed he had secured the valley of the - Danube. Meanwhile the principal Austrian army of 120,000 men, under - the Archduke Charles, invaded Italy, and a powerful force of Russians - kept close to the Prussian frontier, in the hope of inducing Prussia to - declare war against France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1805.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Surrender of Ulm. 20th Oct. 1805.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Austerlitz. 2d Dec. 1805.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Trafalgar. 21st Oct. 1805.</div> - - <p>Napoleon, despairing of success in his projected invasion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> England, - resolved to turn promptly upon England’s principal ally, and directed - the Grand Army to break up from Boulogne and enter Germany. Mack - regarded it as certain that the French, as in the campaigns of Moreau, - would advance through the Black Forest. Napoleon encouraged his - illusion by showing him a few French troops in that quarter. Meanwhile, - the Grand Army advanced in two portions through Würtemburg and - Franconia, and, on reaching the Danube, after violating the Prussian - neutrality by marching through Anspach, cut off Mack’s retreat on - Vienna. The Austrian general made an effort to break through the French - army, but he was defeated by Ney at Elchingen, and surrendered on the - 20th of October 1805 with 33,000 men. The capitulation of Ulm did more - than deprive Austria of a serviceable army,—it left open the road to - Vienna. Napoleon rapidly followed up his success. He marched past a - united Russian and Austrian army, which was quartered in Moravia, to - influence Prussia, occupied Vienna, crossed the Danube, and eventually - faced the army of the two emperors at Austerlitz. On the 2d of December - 1805, the anniversary of his coronation, the Grand Army utterly - defeated the Austrians and Russians. The allies lost 15,000 men killed - and wounded, 20,000 prisoners, and 189 guns; and the Emperor Francis - found himself defenceless, for his only other army, that in Italy, - had been defeated at Caldiero by Eugène de Beauharnais and Masséna on - the 30th of October. While the rapid campaign of Austerlitz,—perhaps - the most glorious of Napoleon’s military career,—was taking place, he - lost the navy which he had prepared with so much care, and which had - been intended to cover his invasion of England. The French admiral, - Villeneuve, left Cadiz at the head of the united French and Spanish - fleet, consisting of thirty-three ships of the line and five frigates. - He had not gone far when he was met by Nelson at the head of the - English squadron of twenty-seven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> ships off Cape Trafalgar. The victory - of Trafalgar, which was won on the 21st of October, was as complete - as that of Austerlitz. The French and Spanish fleet was as entirely - destroyed as the Austrian and Russian army. The allies at Trafalgar - lost 7000 men in killed and wounded, and the English only 3000, among - whom, however, was Nelson himself.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Pressburg. 26th Dec. 1805.</div> - - <p>The result of the battle of Austerlitz was the Treaty of Pressburg, - which was signed by Austria and France on the 26th of December 1805. - The Russians had only lost one army, and their territory had not been - invaded, so that they were still enabled to remain in arms. But Austria - was completely crushed. By the Treaty of Pressburg, Venice, Istria, and - Dalmatia were ceded to the Kingdom of Italy; but Napoleon kept the two - latter provinces under his direct rule, and gave the command of them to - General Marmont. The Tyrol and part of Swabia were ceded to Bavaria, - and the Elector of that State took the title of King. The same title - was conferred on the Duke of Würtemburg; the Duke of Baden became a - Grand Duke; many small German principalities were suppressed, and, on - 12th of July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed under the - protectorate of the French Emperor. England could not blame Austria - for making a separate treaty with France, for she herself had been - saved from invasion by the departure of the Grand Army from Boulogne, - not less than by the victory of Trafalgar. The news of Austerlitz was - followed on the 23d of January 1806 by the death of Pitt, and the new - English ministry of Fox and Grenville, now that the fear of invasion - was over, desired to enter into negotiations with Napoleon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Overthrow of Prussia.</div> - - <p>The overthrow of Austria was followed by the overthrow of Prussia. - Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> had prided himself on the manner in - which, in spite of many temptations, he had maintained his attitude of - strict neutrality. Neither the offers of the Directory or of Napoleon, - nor the subsidies lavishly promised by England, had been able to - disturb his determination. The Prussian ministry proudly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> pointed to - the fact that, while the rest of Europe had been torn by disastrous - wars, Prussia had remained at peace ever since the Treaty of Basle - in 1795. She had profited by her peace policy as much as France and - Austria by their war policy. The rearrangement of Germany in 1803 had - converted Prussia from a collection of scattered states into a united - kingdom. She had even, up to the year 1803, maintained the freedom of - the whole of the north of Germany from the terrible French invaders - by the observation of the line of demarcation settled in 1795. The - northern states of Germany looked to Prussia as their leader, and since - the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire the Prussian policy had been - completely victorious over the Austrian. The maintenance of the line - of demarcation was the favourite scheme of the Prussian King, and as - long as it was observed, nothing short of invasion would have disturbed - his neutrality. But the occupation of Hanover in 1803, as one of the - measures taken by Napoleon against England, had infringed the line - of demarcation, and from that moment Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> - inclined towards war.</p> - - <p>In this warlike attitude he was encouraged by Russia and England, - and still more by his own army. The Prussian army, the creation of - Frederick the Great, represented in more than an ordinary fashion the - Prussian nation. Relying on the recollections of the Seven Years’ - War, and confident in the proverbial discipline of their soldiers, - the Prussian generals believed that they would be able to defeat the - conquerors of the rest of Europe. With the utmost ardour the young - Prussian noblemen shouted for war; they resented the long peace, and - applauded the new attitude of the king. He was stimulated likewise by - the hatred for France, which was openly encouraged by his beautiful - Queen Louisa, and he met with opposition only from a few of his more - experienced ministers, and from the old Duke of Brunswick, who well - knew the excellence of the French troops. Undecided and hesitating, - Frederick William refused to join the coalition of Austria and - Russia in 1805, when his assistance would have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> been of the greatest - service. He signed, indeed, the Treaty of Potsdam on 3d November 1805, - undertaking to mediate, and to join the coalition with 180,000 men if - Napoleon refused the terms he offered. But the proposed intervention - came to nothing. Haugwitz, the Prussian minister, awaited at Napoleon’s - headquarters the result of the battle of Austerlitz, and on December - 15 he signed the Treaty of Schönbrunn, by which Prussia ceded Cleves - to France and Anspach to Bavaria, and received provisional possession - of Hanover. Two months later, on February 15, Prussia was compelled by - a supplementary treaty to definitely accept Hanover from Napoleon, an - arrangement which was tantamount to declaring war with England.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Jena. Oct. 1806.</div> - - <p>The long neutrality of Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> was thus broken, - and, as it soon appeared, in vain. For Napoleon almost immediately - offered to restore Hanover to England, with which country he was - induced to enter into negotiations for peace by the accession of Fox - to office. At this news Frederick William mobilised his troops and - prepared for war with France. In October 1806 he ordered the victor of - Austerlitz to at once retire behind the Rhine, and slowly concentrated - his army in Thuringia without waiting for the succour promised by the - Russians. The Prussian officers applauded their king’s conduct, for - they desired to have the glory of defeating the French entirely to - themselves. On the 14th of October 1806 the two corps of the Prussian - army, which were advancing along the river Saale, were defeated by - Napoleon himself at Jena, and by Marshal Davout at Auerstädt. The - triumph was as complete as that of Austerlitz; and on the 25th the - French army entered Berlin.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Eylau.</div> - - <p>It was now necessary for the Grand Army to attack the Russians. - Napoleon, after occupying nearly the whole of Prussia and laying siege - to Dantzic, entered Poland. He was received with an enthusiastic - welcome by the Poles, whose independence he hinted at restoring. Polish - troops had long served in his armies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> and the sympathy of the French - people for the oppressed Poles was known throughout Poland. On the 15th - of December 1806 Napoleon occupied Warsaw and sent his army into winter - quarters upon the Russian frontier. The Russian general, Benningsen, - one of the murderers of the Emperor Paul, conceived the idea of - surprising part of the French army in its winter quarters. He drove - back the division of Bernadotte; but when he reached the neighbourhood - of Königsberg he found that Napoleon had received information of his - movement and had collected the bulk of his army. It was now Napoleon’s - turn to pursue the Russians. At the head of 60,000 men he found 80,000 - Russians intrenched in the village of Eylau, and attacked them during - a snowstorm on the 8th of February 1807. The battle was long disputed. - The Russians had to retire, but it was estimated that the loss of both - armies was about the same, namely, 35,000 men. This loss was far more - severe to the French than to the Russians, for the French soldiers - slain at Eylau were veterans of the Grand Army, and their place could - only be taken by raw conscripts.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Friedland. 14th June 1807.</div> - - <p>The result of the battle of Eylau was to allow the French army to - remain undisturbed in its winter quarters. In the Russian camp, - meanwhile, important diplomatic negotiations had been going on. - Frederick William cemented his friendship with the Emperor Alexander, - and appointed the most able of his servants, Hardenberg, to be State - Chancellor in the place of Haugwitz. Prussia could indeed give but - little real help, for her army was destroyed, and her country almost - entirely in the hands of the French; but Alexander, nevertheless, - consented in April 1807 to sign the Treaty of Bartenstein with - Frederick William, by which they formed an offensive and defensive - alliance. But the hopes of the diplomatists, founded on the drawn - battle of Eylau, were soon to be frustrated by the military successes - of Napoleon. On the 24th of May 1807 Dantzic, which had withstood a - desperate siege, surrendered to General Lefebvre, and the besieging - troops were able to join the main army.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> The summer campaign of 1807 - was very short. Benningsen, accompanied by the Emperor Alexander in - person, advanced to attack the French army on the 14th of June. The - Russians foolishly crossed the Alle at Friedland, and with the river - at their back were completely defeated with a loss of 25,000 men. The - victory of Friedland was decisive; it did not destroy the Russian - Empire, as the victories of Austerlitz and Jena had destroyed the - Austrian Empire and the Prussian Kingdom; it did not extinguish the - fighting power of Russia; it did not diminish the <i>morale</i> of the - Russian army, which proudly boasted that it had made a better stand - against the French than either the Austrians or the Prussians. It was - not positively necessary for the very existence of his monarchy that - the Emperor Alexander should treat with Napoleon, but his successive - defeats justified him before his Court and his ministers in demanding - peace. He could reply to their arguments in favour of an English - alliance for Russia that he had loyally tried to carry out the terms of - that alliance, but that under the circumstances he could maintain it no - longer. He had always wished for peace with France and the friendship - of Napoleon; he now considered himself free to follow his personal - inclinations.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Interview at Tilsit, 25th June 1807.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Peace of Tilsit, 7th July 1807.</div> - - <p>On the 25th of June 1807 the Emperor of the French and the Czar of - Russia had their famous interview at Tilsit on a raft moored in the - middle of the river Niemen. The personal magnetism of Napoleon and his - glory as a great conqueror powerfully impressed the vivid imagination - of Alexander, who had always felt the warmest admiration for him. - During this interview Napoleon spread before the eyes of the Emperor - of Russia his favourite conception of the re-establishment of the - old Empires of the East and of the West. They were to be faithful - allies. France was to be the supreme power over the Latin races and - in the centre of Europe; Russia was to represent the Greek Empire - and to expand into Asia. These grandiose views charmed the Emperor - Alexander, who believed that in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> adopting them he was following out - the policy of Peter the Great and of the Empress Catherine. The - one enemy to be feared and to be crushed according to Napoleon was - England. And Alexander, in spite of the loss which his subjects would - suffer, promised to enter into Napoleon’s policy for the exclusion of - England’s commerce from the Continent, and to accept the doctrine of - the Continental Blockade. But, at the same time, Alexander did not - dare to go so far as to promise to declare war against England, in - spite of the pressure put upon him by Napoleon. The first interview at - Tilsit was followed by others, and eventually by the Peace of Tilsit. - By this treaty Russia ceded the Ionian Islands and the mouths of the - river Cattaro in the south of Dalmatia, which had been occupied by - the Russians since 1799, to France. Napoleon, on his part, promised - that he would not restore the independence of Poland, and advised - Alexander to obtain compensation for the growth of the power of France - from Sweden and from Turkey. In pursuance of this policy a division of - the French army invaded Swedish Pomerania and took Stralsund, while - the Russians occupied Finland. Alexander was pressed by Napoleon to - invade Turkey, and was promised the assistance of France in obtaining - the cession of the Danubian principalities. The Emperor of Russia made - loyal efforts to obtain a favourable peace for his ally, the King of - Prussia. But Napoleon, though willing to humour Alexander, and desirous - of making Russia his firm ally, did not hesitate to show his contempt - for Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> He thought for a time of entirely - extinguishing Prussia, but on the representations of Alexander he - contented himself by taking possession of the Rhenish and Westphalian - provinces of Prussia, and forming them with the principality of - Hesse-Cassel into the kingdom of Westphalia. He also included Prussian - Poland in his new Grand Duchy of Warsaw.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Continental Blockade.</div> - - <p>The Peace of Tilsit left Napoleon face to face with only one enemy, and - that was England. The destruction of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> French fleet at Trafalgar - and the diminution of the strength of the Grand Army from the losses - suffered at Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau, proved to the Emperor of the - French that he had better abandon his project of invading England. - But if he could not cross the Channel in force or meet the English - fleets at sea, he believed he could ruin England by excluding her - from the markets of the Continent. The English ministry, in pursuance - of its reading of international law, had closed all neutral seaborne - commerce from the mouth of the Elbe to the extremity of the French - coast. Napoleon answered this measure by his Berlin Decree, which was - issued in that city on the 21st of November 1806, and declared the - British Islands to be in a state of blockade. All English merchandise - was to be confiscated, as well as all ships which had touched either - at a British port or at a port in the British Colonies. He followed - up this measure by the Milan Decree of the 17th of December 1807, by - which he declared that any ship of any country which had touched at a - British port was liable to be seized and treated as prize. The entry - of Russia into the scheme of the Continental Blockade would, Napoleon - hoped, entirely ruin the English trade. But, in reality, it did nothing - of the sort. English commerce was as active and enterprising as ever, - and the risks it encountered in running the Continental Blockade only - increased the profits of the English merchants. The real sufferers were - the inhabitants of the Continent, who had to pay enhanced prices for - such articles of prime necessity as sugar. Napoleon’s expectation that - the carrying trade of the world would desert England and fall into the - hands of France and her allies was not fulfilled, because the English - war fleets remained complete masters of the sea, and effectually - prevented the rise of any other commercial power. The result of the - Continental Blockade was therefore the impoverishment of the allies - of France and their consequent hatred of Napoleon, while it increased - rather than diminished the commercial prosperity of England.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bombardment of Copenhagen. Sept. 1807.</div> - - <p>The English ministers were not afraid of Napoleon’s Continental - Blockade. But his occupation of Northern Germany made them fear that - his next step would be to seize the Danish fleet as the Directory had - in former days appropriated the Dutch fleet. Secret stipulations were - indeed made at Tilsit, by virtue of which the Danish fleet was to be - seized by France. Information of this scheme was given to the English - ministers, and a secret expedition was planned to prevent its being - carried into effect. Denmark was a neutral nation, and had given no - pretext for war to either France or England. But Denmark was a weak - nation and unable to defend itself. Under these circumstances the - English struck first. A powerful expedition anchored before Copenhagen - in September 1807; the city was bombarded; the small Danish army - was defeated at Kioge by a division under the command of Sir Arthur - Wellesley; and the whole Danish fleet was appropriated or destroyed by - England. By this rapid blow one of Napoleon’s most cherished schemes - came to nought, and his hope of getting another serviceable navy - effectually extinguished.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">French Invasion of Portugal. 1807.</div> - - <p>The two most faithful allies of England were the small kingdoms of - Portugal and Sweden. The Russians were left to deal with the latter; - Napoleon resolved to attack the former himself. The French Emperor, - like the Directory before him, insisted on regarding Portugal as an - outlying province of England, and, indeed, there was some ground for - this view, as owing to the Methuen Treaty the relations between the two - countries were very close. Yet the Prince Regent of Portugal in 1806 - had declined to declare himself the open ally of England, and insisted - on the maintenance of his position of neutrality. Nevertheless, - Napoleon resolved to ruin Portugal because the Prince Regent declined - to become a party to the Continental Blockade. He at first resolved to - act with Spain as he had done in 1801, and on the 29th of October 1807 - the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, by which it was agreed that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> - the combined armies of France and Spain should conquer Portugal. The - little kingdom was then to be divided into three parts; the northern - provinces were to be given to the King of Etruria in exchange for - his dominions in Italy which Napoleon desired to annex; the southern - districts were to be formed into an independent kingdom for Godoy, - the Prince of the Peace, the lover of the Queen of Spain, and the - most powerful man in that kingdom; and the central portion was to be - temporarily held by France. In pursuance of this secret treaty a French - army under General Junot marched rapidly across the Peninsula, and - on the news that it was close to Lisbon, the Prince Regent, with his - mother, the mad queen, Maria <span class="smcap">I.</span>, and his two sons sailed for - Brazil with an English squadron. Hardly had the Regent left the Tagus - when Junot entered Lisbon on the 20th of November 1807. The French were - favourably received in Portugal. The Portuguese resented the departure - of the Prince Regent; democratic principles had made considerable - progress; and no idea was entertained that there was a secret design to - dismember the kingdom. Junot had little difficulty in occupying almost - the whole of Portugal; he sent the picked troops of the Portuguese - army under the name of the Portuguese Legion to join the Grand Army - in Germany; and he promised a Constitution to the country. On the 1st - of February 1808 he issued a proclamation that the House of Braganza - had ceased to reign, and after the fortresses had been surrendered he - proceeded to administer Portugal as a conquered country.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Sweden.</div> - - <p>Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span> of Sweden, who had taken the power into his own - hands from his uncle the Regent Duke of Sudermania and had married - the sister-in-law of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, in 1797, had - inherited the hatred for France, which had been, after 1789, one of the - guiding principles of his father, Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> He had been - the ready ally of England in all the coalitions against both the French - Directory and Napoleon, and after the rupture of the Peace of Amiens - in 1803, he became the key-stone of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> Anglo-Russian alliance. In - 1805 he promised to place himself at the head of an English, Russian, - and Swedish army which was to invade Hanover, and occupy Holland; but - he failed to set sail on the appointed day, and caused the expedition - to lead to no result. Nevertheless, he remained faithful to England, - and at the time of the Treaty of Tilsit refused to abandon the English - alliance. As has been already said, Swedish Pomerania was occupied by - a division of the Grand Army, under Marshal Brune, and Sweden never - recovered the ancient conquest of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1808, on the - obstinate refusal of the Swedish King to accede to the Continental - Blockade, the Emperor Alexander, as had been agreed at Tilsit, invaded - Finland. England was ready to assist Sweden, and a powerful army, under - Sir John Moore, was sent to Stockholm. At this crisis the King showed - signs of insanity. The English expedition retired, and at the beginning - of 1809 Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span> was dethroned.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Rearrangement of Europe.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Holland.</div> - - <p>After he had made himself Emperor, and still more after his victories - over Austria and Prussia and his alliance with Russia, Napoleon - began to assure his power on the Continent by establishing vassal - kings in the neighbourhood of France. Just as the French Directory - had surrounded the French Republic with smaller republics governed - after its own model, so Napoleon surrounded his frontiers with - subject kingdoms. The Batavian, the Cisalpine, and the Parthenopean - Republics were succeeded by the kingdoms of Holland and of Naples - and the vice-royalty of Italy. The form of the Batavian Republic - had altered with every change in the Constitution of France. From a - democratic Republic in the time of the Convention it had become a - Directory and a Consulate, and in 1805, after the French Empire had - been established, it received a new Constitution. By this arrangement - Count Schimmelpenninck, a distinguished Dutch statesman, was appointed - Grand Pensionary for life, but in June 1806 he was induced to resign, - and Louis Bonaparte, the favourite brother<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> of the French Emperor, - was made King of Holland. The Dutch people had no objection to these - changes. The introduction of the French system of administration - consolidated the country from a group of federal states into a united - nation. Its trade prospered, though it lost its fleet at Camperdown - in 1797, and in the Texel in 1799, and it became more wealthy than - ever, in spite of the conquest of all its colonies by England, by the - close communication established with Paris and the abolition of the - vexatious transit-duties in Belgium. Louis Bonaparte, the first King of - Holland, showed himself a sagacious monarch. He caused the Civil Code - to be introduced into his dominions in the place of the old cumbrous - system of Dutch law. He encouraged literature and art, and he moved - the capital from the Hague to Amsterdam. But the introduction of the - Continental Blockade caused profound discontent. The Dutch merchants - were ruined by its rigorous application; riots took place in many - districts; and since Napoleon found the Continental Blockade was being - evaded he caused French troops to enter Holland and occupy the mouths - of the rivers. Louis Bonaparte protested against this conduct, and in - 1810 he resigned the crown which his brother had given him.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Italy.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Rome.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Naples.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Illyria.</div> - - <p>It has been said that when Napoleon made himself Emperor he likewise - assumed the title of King of Italy, and that he did not undertake the - government, but conferred it upon his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais, - as Viceroy. The original Kingdom of Italy only comprehended the - dominions of the Cisalpine Republic,—that is to say, Lombardy, the - Duchies of Modena and Parma, and the former Papal Legations of Bologna - and Ferrara. By the Treaty of Pressburg in 1806 the Kingdom of Italy - was increased by the addition of Venice and of the former Venetian - territories on the mainland. Genoa, Lucca, Piedmont, and Tuscany, - were, however, directly administered by France, and the city of Rome - and the Campagna was added to the French Empire in the year 1810. - In the south<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> of the Italian peninsula Naples was erected into an - independent kingdom, which was intended to include the island of - Sicily. This kingdom was conferred upon the elder brother of Napoleon, - Joseph Bonaparte, on the 30th of March 1806. Joseph, like King Louis - of Holland, tried to act as a good king. He formed an able ministry, - consisting almost entirely of Neapolitans, and containing but two - Frenchmen,—Miot de Melito, Minister of War, and Saliceti, Minister - of Police. He introduced good laws, and made efforts to put down the - brigandage which ravaged the southern districts of his kingdom. The - island of Sicily meanwhile resisted all the attempts of the French. - It acknowledged the rule of Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, who - had retired to Palermo, and it was garrisoned by an English army. This - army kept Joseph in perpetual embarrassment. The English encouraged the - brigands of Calabria, and in the summer of 1806 they made a descent - upon the mainland, and on the 3d of July the English general, Sir John - Stuart, defeated the French general Reynier at Maida. This victory, - however, was followed by the capitulation of Gaeta on the 18th of - July, after which event the French army in Calabria was strengthened - to such an extent that the English were unable to do more than defend - Sicily. The internal administration of Joseph Bonaparte deserves every - praise; he abolished feudalism; he endeavoured to introduce honesty and - uprightness in the collection of the taxes; he declared the equality of - all citizens before the law; and by the suppression of many monasteries - he improved the finances of the country and largely increased the - number of peasant proprietors. Lastly, must be noticed the Illyrian - provinces of Dalmatia and Istria, which had been ceded by the Treaty - of Pressburg. They were directly administered by General Marmont, who - reported to Napoleon himself and not to the Viceroy of Italy. After - the Treaty of Tilsit they were augmented by the Ionian Islands, and - Napoleon kept a powerful army in this quarter to threaten<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> the Turks. - It is probable, indeed, that he dreamt of restoring the independence of - Greece, and his Illyrian army was well placed for carrying out such a - project.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s Reorganisation of Germany.</div> - - <p>In his rearrangement of the states of Germany and of the balance - of power in Central Europe, Napoleon, like the Directory, followed - out the traditional policy of Richelieu and Mazarin. He held it to - be an advantage for France that there should be a number of small - German states between the Rhine and the hereditary dominions of - the House of Austria, but he considered that the very small size - of the states maintained by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 made - them inadequate buffers. He, therefore, enlarged the Western German - states and endeavoured to unite their interests with those of France. - The reconstitution of Germany after the Peace of Lunéville in 1803 - destroyed the old Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon worked on the same - lines, and his measures have had almost the same permanence as the - arrangements of 1803. The changes took place gradually in accordance - with the Treaties of Pressburg and of Tilsit, but their final results - may be considered as a whole.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Bavaria.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Würtemberg.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Baden.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Westphalia.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Grand Duchy of Berg.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Saxony.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Smaller States.</div> - - <p>Maximilian Joseph, the Elector of Bavaria, had, by hereditary right, - united the Electorates of the Palatinate and of Bavaria with the Duchy - of Deux-Ponts. He had been educated at the Court of Versailles, but - nevertheless he approved of the doctrines of the French Revolution and - became one of the earliest allies of Napoleon. The arrangements after - the Treaty of Lunéville, which had deprived him of the Palatinate and - of the Duchy of Deux-Ponts, had given him a powerful and concentrated - state. By the Treaty of Pressburg he received in addition the Tyrol - and the cities of Nuremberg and Ratisbon with the title of King. In - 1809 he further received the Principality of Salzburg, which made his - kingdom one of the most powerful in Germany. Possessing the whole of - the upper valley of the Danube, and the valleys of its affluents, - Bavaria formed a strong frontier state against Austria, and to the - north marched with the kingdom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> of Saxony. King Maximilian Joseph - felt that he owed his power to the French Emperor, and to seal the - friendship he gave his daughter, the Princess Augusta, in marriage - to Napoleon’s step-son, the Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais. On the - western frontier of Bavaria, in order to check that state if it became - too powerful, Napoleon erected the smaller kingdom of Würtemberg. - Frederick, Duke of Würtemberg, like Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, - had shown himself ready to recognise the authority of the French - Republic and of Napoleon. He had received considerable additions to his - territories with the title of Elector in 1803, and after the Treaty of - Pressburg he received the whole of Austrian Suabia except the Breisgau - and Ortenau with the title of King. He, too, like the first King of - Bavaria, entered into a personal alliance with Napoleon, and gave his - daughter, the Princess Catherine, in marriage to Jerome Bonaparte, - King of Westphalia. The third south German state which deserves notice - is Baden, whose Duke, Charles Frederick, was made an Elector in 1803, - and in 1805 received the title of Grand Duke with the greater part - of Ortenau and the Breisgau from Austrian Suabia. He, too, formed a - family alliance with Napoleon by the marriage of his heir to Stéphanie - de Beauharnais, Napoleon’s step-daughter. The kingdom of Westphalia, - which was formed by Napoleon for his brother Jerome after the Treaty - of Tilsit, was an entirely new creation, not an enlargement of a - former German state like Bavaria and Würtemberg. It consisted of the - Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the Prussian territories on the left of - the Elbe, including the bishoprics of Paderborn and Hildesheim, the - Old Mark of Brandenburg, etc., the Duchy of Brunswick, a portion of - Hanover, and other scattered districts. It thus contained the greater - part of the valleys of the Ems, the Weser, and the Oder, but it did not - reach the sea, and its only important fortress was Magdeburg. Jerome, - who was appointed its first king, was not such a capable monarch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> as - his brothers Joseph and Louis, but he formed an able ministry, of which - the most conspicuous members were Siméon, the famous French jurist, - as Minister of Justice, and the historian, Johann Müller as Minister - of Public Instruction. The Westphalian people did not amalgamate so - thoroughly as Napoleon had expected; but this was not the fault of - Jerome’s ministry, which abolished feudalism, introduced the Civil - Code, and regularised the administration. The Grand Duchy of Berg, - which he granted to his brother-in-law Murat in 1806, was another - creation of Napoleon. It was formed out of the Duchy of Berg ceded by - Bavaria, the County of the Mark and the Bishopric of Münster, detached - from Prussia, and of the Duchy of Nassau. It formed a compact little - state of a million inhabitants, commanding part of the course of the - Rhine, with its capital at Düsseldorf. The key-stone of Napoleon’s - policy in Eastern Germany was Saxony. The Elector of that state had - taken part with the Prussians in the campaign of Jena, but Napoleon - nevertheless calculated that the ruler of Saxony, placed as he was - between Prussia and Austria, must naturally be an ally of France. He, - therefore, in spite of his behaviour in 1806, gave the Elector of - Saxony the title of King and the Circle of Lower Lusatia. After the - Treaty of Tilsit Napoleon did yet more for the King of Saxony, whom he - created likewise Grand Duke of Warsaw. Of the smaller states of Germany - maintained by Napoleon, the most important was Hesse-Darmstadt which - separated the kingdom of Westphalia from the Grand Duchy of Berg. As - a faithful ally of Napoleon, the Landgrave Louis <span class="smcap">X.</span> received - some accessions of territory with the title of Grand Duke. The fourth - Grand Duchy after Baden, Berg, and Hesse-Darmstadt, was the Grand - Duchy of Frankfort. This was conferred upon the Archbishop, Charles - de Dalberg. This prelate had been coadjutor to the Archbishop-Elector - of Mayence in the time of the Revolution. He had succeeded to the - Archbishopric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> in 1802, and in 1803, on the reorganisation of Germany, - was the only ecclesiastical elector retained. He was then given the - Bishopric of Ratisbon, and when that was transferred to Bavaria, was - granted instead the Principalities of Fulda and Hanau and the territory - of Aschaffenburg. The last Grand Duchy was that of Würtzburg, which - was conferred on the Archduke Ferdinand, the former Grand Duke of - Tuscany, in exchange for the Principality of Salzburg given to Bavaria - in 1809. These territorial changes were supplemented by a wholesale - destruction of the very small states. The Knights of the Empire lost - their sovereign rights; all the petty dukes and princes whose territory - was enclosed in the larger states which have been mentioned, were also - mediatised, that is to say, while retaining their rights as lords - and their titles, they lost their immediate sovereignty and became a - sort of privileged aristocracy. This measure, which supplemented the - arrangements of 1803, finally destroyed the ancient system of Germany. - The little courts with but few exceptions disappeared, and Germany - became a collection of powerful states instead of a congeries of feudal - principalities.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Confederation of the Rhine.</div> - - <p>Napoleon endeavoured to concentrate the power of the German princes as - a whole by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, of which he - was officially recognised as Protector. The original Confederation of - the Rhine established in July 1805, consisted of only fifteen princes, - but after Tilsit it comprised thirty-two. The Arch-Chancellor of the - new confederation was Charles de Dalberg, the Grand Duke of Frankfort, - the only ecclesiastic who was acknowledged as a member. It comprised in - all the four kingdoms of Bavaria, Würtemberg, Westphalia, and Saxony, - the five grand duchies and twenty-three principalities. Its policy was - conducted by a Diet sitting at Frankfort composed of two colleges,—the - College of Kings and the College of Princes. The Confederation of - the Rhine, which was mainly situated between the Rhine and the Elbe, - contained a population of twenty million Germans, and was bound by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> - treaty to contribute a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers to the - armies of Napoleon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Poland.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Grand Duchy of Warsaw.</div> - - <p>In no respect did Napoleon prove how thoroughly his idea of - re-establishing the ancient Empires of the East and the West had taken - possession of his imagination than in his treatment of Poland. In order - to please the Emperor Alexander he did not insist upon re-establishing - Polish independence. Not only did he neither dare nor wish to deprive - Russia of her Polish provinces, but at Tilsit he even ceded to - Alexander the two Polish circles of Salkief and Tloczow. But though he - dared not establish a powerful independent Poland for fear of offending - Russia, he nevertheless formed, in 1807, a small Polish state under the - name of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. By this half measure he failed to - satisfy the Poles, who had looked to him to be the restorer of Polish - independence, and at the same time offended the Emperor Alexander, who - disliked the creation of a Polish state of any size or under any form. - The Grand Duchy of Warsaw eventually contained the whole of Prussian - and the greater part of Austrian Poland, and was placed under the rule - of the King of Saxony as Grand Duke of Warsaw, just as in former days - the Electors of Saxony had been Kings of Poland. In this half-and-half - policy with regard to Poland was to be found the greatest peril to the - newly-formed alliance between Alexander and Napoleon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Conference at Erfurt. Sept. 1808.</div> - - <p>For more than a year the alliance between Russia and France, between - Alexander and Napoleon, remained the most important fact of European - polity; but causes of dissension soon arose. On the one hand, - Alexander resented the existence of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and - felt that his subjects had cause to grumble at the sufferings they - endured owing to the Continental Blockade; on the other, there were - not wanting signs that Napoleon’s power had reached its height, and - was now about to decline. The first symptoms of this decline were his - quarrel with the Pope and his intervention in the affairs of Spain. - The first blows struck at his military<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> superiority were the defeat - of the French troops in Portugal by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimeiro - and the capitulation of General Dupont to the Spaniards. The Treaty - of Tilsit marked the true zenith of Napoleon’s power; but in spite of - the misfortunes he suffered in 1808, and his wanton intervention in - the affairs of Spain, he still seemed the greatest monarch in Europe. - Feeling his prestige somewhat affected, and fearing the effect upon the - mind of his imaginative ally, Napoleon, trusting in the magnetism of - his presence and his conversation, had recourse to a personal interview - with Alexander at Erfurt in September 1808. There the two masters of - Europe discussed the state of affairs; Napoleon soothed Alexander’s - discontent, and again promised him the Danubian provinces. But the - full confidence which had been established at Tilsit was not restored - at Erfurt. Alexander, in spite of his admiration for the person of - Napoleon, felt distrustful of his policy, and Napoleon deceived himself - when he thought he had regained his ascendency over the mind of the - Russian Emperor. The interviews between the two Emperors formed the - important political side of the Congress of Erfurt; but the features - which dazzled Europe were the grand <i>fêtes</i>, the pit full of kings - which listened to Talma, the great French actor, and the obsequiousness - of the high-born German princes to one who, a few years before but a - general of the French Republic, was now master of Europe.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_IX"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> - <h2>CHAPTER IX<br /><span class="large">1808–1812</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Napoleon’s two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the - Congress of Erfurt—England sends an army to Portugal—Campaign - of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra—The Revolution in - Spain—Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain—Victory of Medina del - Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen—Napoleon in Spain—Sir - John Moore’s advance—Battle of Corunna—The Resurrection - of Austria—Ministry of Stadion—Campaign of Wagram—Treaty - of Vienna—Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Talavera—Expedition to Walcheren—Napoleon and the - Pope—Annexation of Rome—Revolution in Sweden—Revolution in - Turkey—Treaty of Bucharest—Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s - dominions—Internal Organisation of his Empire—The new - Nobility—Internal reforms—Law—Finance—Education—Extension - of these reforms through Europe—Disappearance of - Serfdom—Religious Toleration—Reorganisation of - Prussia—Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst—Revival of - German National feeling—Marriage of Napoleon to the - Archduchess Marie Louise—Birth of the King of Rome—Steady - opposition of England to Napoleon—Policies of Canning and - Castlereagh—Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula—Signs - of the decline of Napoleon’s power between 1808 and 1812.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> Treaty of Tilsit marked the greatest height of Napoleon’s power in - Europe; at the Congress of Erfurt he seemed, indeed, to be as powerful - as at Tilsit; but during the interval he had experienced two serious - mishaps. The first of which was caused by the fact that England, which - had hitherto fought the French upon the sea, and had met with only - slight success in purely military expeditions, began in 1808 a serious - effort to break the tradition of the invincibility of the French army.</p> - - <p>The last important campaign upon the Continent in which an English - army had taken part, was in 1793–1795. Since that time many English - expeditions had been despatched to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> carry out isolated plans; some of - these expeditions had been crowned with success, such as Abercromby’s - and Hutchinson’s reconquest of Egypt in 1801, and Stuart’s brilliant - little campaign of Maida in 1806; others had been egregious failures, - notably the Duke of York’s campaign in Holland in 1799, and Lord - Cathcart’s landing in Hanover in 1805. Confident in their naval - superiority, the English Ministers, ever since 1795, had paid more - attention to the military occupation of islands than to the despatch - of armies to the mainland. Acting on this policy, the English had - conquered the French West Indies in 1793 and 1795, and again proceeded - in 1809 to reoccupy those which had been restored to France at the - Peace of Amiens. When Spain declared herself the ally of France, - England occupied her chief West Indian possession, the Island of - Trinidad; when the subjection of Holland to France became manifest, - England conquered the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, and again after the - Treaty of Amiens, in 1805. Nor did the English ministers neglect the - more distant possessions of her various enemies. Ceylon and Java were - taken from the Dutch in 1796 and 1807 respectively; the Mauritius was - conquered from France in 1809, and an unsuccessful attempt was made - to conquer Spanish South America, Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, in - 1806. But England did not confine her policy of attacking islands to - distant seas; she also established herself firmly in the Mediterranean. - In 1797 Minorca was taken, in 1801 Malta, and eventually in 1805 an - English army, as has been said, garrisoned Sicily. The policy of - Fox was identical with that of Pitt, and favoured small, detached - expeditions; some of these were failures, like the expedition to South - America in 1806, and that to Egypt in 1808, but others attained their - end. Now, however, a new policy began to make way. Instead of isolated - expeditions and the occupation of islands which could be defended - by the English fleets, it was resolved once more, as in 1793, to - disembark a powerful English army on the Continent, and to try military - conclusions with the French.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Vimeiro, 1808.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Convention of Cintra. 30th August 1803.</div> - - <p>In order that England should act effectively on the Continent, it was - necessary that her army should have a friendly base of operations. - The failure of the expedition to Bergen in 1799, and of many similar - expeditions, proved that it was impossible to expect complete success - when the disembarking army had to fight from the moment of its landing, - and had to secure its communications with the sea. An opportunity was - afforded for obtaining such a base of operations as was necessary, by - an insurrection breaking out in Portugal against the French invaders. - It has been said that General Junot occupied the whole of Portugal - without much difficulty, except the northern and southern provinces, - which were held by Spanish armies. Junot partitioned out the country - into military governments under French generals, whose oppressive - behaviour exasperated the people. After the outbreak of the revolution - against the French in Spain, the Spanish forces in Portugal retired, - and Oporto at once declared itself independent of France, and elected a - Junta of Government, headed by the Bishop. Isolated risings took place - all over the country. Many French officers and soldiers were murdered, - and the insurgents were punished with the most rigorous cruelty. The - Junta of Oporto was, however, unable to make head against Junot, for - the best regular troops of the Portuguese army had been despatched - to join the Grand Army in Germany. The Junta had therefore to depend - upon undisciplined militia, and feeling the impossibility of combating - the French regular troops in the field, applied for help to England. - This gave the English ministers their opportunity. A force which had - been collected at Cork, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir - Arthur Wellesley, for an expedition to South America, was ordered - instead to proceed to Portugal. He was joined by some other troops, and - disembarked at the mouth of the Mondego river. He marched southwards - towards Lisbon, and defeated a French division at Roriça on the 17th of - August 1808. After receiving further reinforcements, he was attacked by - Junot at Vimeiro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> on the 21st of August, and won a decisive victory. - On the field of battle Wellesley was superseded by Sir Harry Burrard, - and he in his turn by Sir Hew Dalrymple. Instead of following up the - victory, the latter general concluded the Convention of Cintra, by - which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal. From a military point of view - this was a poor sequel to the victory of Vimeiro; from a political - point of view it was a signal success. Portugal was freed from the - French as speedily as she had been conquered by them, and England - thus secured a friendly base of operations. The three generals were - all recalled, and Sir John Moore took command of the English army. A - Council of Regency was established, and an English officer, General - Beresford, was sent to organise a Portuguese army, partly under the - command of English officers, and wholly paid by the English Government.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Revolution in Spain, 1808.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain. 6th June 1808.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Capitulation of Baylen. 20th July 1808.</div> - - <p>The loss of Portugal was the first serious reverse which Napoleon had - met with from a trained and disciplined army. But at the same time - he was made to feel the difficulty of overcoming even an unorganised - national rising, with the very best of troops. It has been mentioned - that the King of Spain and the Queen’s favourite, Godoy, were partners - to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which arranged for the dismemberment - of Portugal. Spain had been the consistent ally of France ever since - the Treaty of Basle in 1795, and in the cause of France had lost not - only the islands of Minorca and Trinidad, but two gallant fleets in - the naval battles of Cape St. Vincent and Trafalgar. Nevertheless, - Napoleon deliberately determined to dethrone his faithful ally Charles - <span class="smcap">IV.</span> It is said that after the expulsion of the Bourbons from - Naples, Godoy had made overtures for joining the coalition against - France, but after the victory of Jena the Court of Madrid, if it had - ever thought of opposing the will of Napoleon, became more obsequious - than ever. Court intrigues gave the French Emperor the opportunity he - desired for interfering with the affairs of Spain. The heir to the - throne, Ferdinand, Prince of the Asturias, hated his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> mother’s lover, - Godoy, and for sharing in a plot against the favourite was thrown into - prison. He appealed for help to Napoleon, and Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, - his father, on his side also appealed to the French emperor. Napoleon - began to move his troops across the Pyrenees, and a French army under - the command of Murat approached Madrid. The King of Spain was rumoured - to be about to follow the example of the Prince Regent of Portugal, and - to leave the country. The population of Madrid rose in insurrection - and maltreated Godoy, who fell into their hands. Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> - then abdicated in favour of his son, who proceeded to France to - obtain the support of Napoleon. Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> and his Queen - followed Ferdinand, and when the Spanish royal family was assembled - at Bayonne, Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span> was induced to cede the crown of - Spain to Napoleon, who conferred it on his brother Joseph Bonaparte, - King of Naples, on the 6th of June 1808. But it was one thing to - proclaim Joseph King of Spain and the Indies; it was another to place - him in power. The patriotism of the Spanish people was stirred to its - depths, and the Spaniards declined to accept a new monarch supported - by French troops. In every quarter insurrections broke out and juntos - were formed. Appeals were made to England for help, and money, arms, - ammunition and English officers were disembarked at all the chief - ports of Spain. In the month of May the mob of Madrid drove out the - French soldiers of Murat, who had to retire behind the Ebro. But mobs - and undisciplined militia can never stand against regular troops. - Marshal Bessières defeated the best Spanish army under the command of - General Cuesta at Medina del Rio Seco on the 14th of July 1808, and on - the 20th of July Joseph entered Madrid. Before his arrival at his new - capital, flying columns had been sent in every direction, and one of - these on its way to Cadiz met with a serious disaster. This was the - famous Capitulation of Baylen. The French division of General Dupont - was surrounded at that place and forced to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> capitulate. By the terms of - the Capitulation, Dupont engaged that not only the soldiers under his - immediate command, but also that two fresh divisions which were coming - up should surrender. The Capitulation of Baylen deprived Napoleon of - the services of 18,000 men, but the loss of prestige could not be - estimated by numbers. The Spanish insurgents were greatly encouraged - and rose in every quarter; a guerilla warfare was begun, which was - in the end more fatal to the French army than regular defeats, and - Napoleon had for the first time to fight a nation in arms. This was - an exact reversal of the situation of affairs in the wars of the - French Revolution; at that time it was the French nation in arms which - defeated the disciplined soldiers of the Continental monarchs; now - it was the Spanish nation in arms which counteracted the schemes of - Napoleon. It is almost impossible to estimate the losses experienced - by the French during the war in the Iberian Peninsula; the defeats - inflicted on them by the Anglo-Portuguese army accounted for but a - small portion of this loss; it was the harassing duty of maintaining - garrisons in every town and almost in every posting-house which - exhausted the French army.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon in Spain.</div> - - <p>It need hardly be said that Napoleon was far from expecting such - disasters as the Capitulation of Baylen and the Convention of Cintra. - He had been so accustomed to victory that he could not understand - the change in his affairs. He looked upon these two events as having - only a temporary importance, and proceeded to the Congress at Erfurt - with a light heart. Though checked in Spain, he was none the less the - master in Germany, and the monarchs of Central Europe did not know - that he had reached his zenith and was about to decline. The Emperor - Alexander alone seems to have had some suspicion of the truth, for - he entered into fresh relations with England by means of the strong - English party at his Court, which was headed by the Empress-mother. As - soon as the Congress of Erfurt was over, Napoleon proceeded to Spain - in person, accompanied by his Guard and his most experienced troops, - and surrounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> by his most famous generals. After the Capitulation - of Baylen, Joseph Bonaparte had left Madrid, and with the bulk of - the French army had retreated behind the Ebro. He was there joined - by Napoleon, who had under his command no less than 135,000 men. He - rapidly advanced upon Madrid; Marshal Soult defeated the Spanish Army - of the Centre at Burgos on the 10th of November; Marshal Victor the - Spanish Army of the Left at Espinosa on the 11th of November; and - Marshal Lannes the Army of the Right at Tudela on the 3d of November. - In spite of the snow, the Emperor in person forced the pass of the - Somo Sierra, and on the 13th of December received the capitulation - of Madrid. The victories of his lieutenants and his own rapid and - successful advance on the capital, convinced Napoleon that the - difficulties of the Spanish war had been exaggerated, and the result - of this impression was that he neglected in after years to strengthen - his armies in Spain sufficiently, and attributed all failures to the - incompetence of his generals, instead of to the obstinate tenacity of - his opponents.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Sir John Moore’s advance.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Corunna. Jan. 16, 1809.</div> - - <p>After occupying Madrid, the Emperor next determined to turn his - strength against the English forces in the Peninsula. Sir John Moore, - who was in command of the English army in Portugal, could not believe - that the Spanish armies were too weak to face the French; but when he - heard that Napoleon was at Madrid, he resolved to make a diversion - in order to prevent him from conquering Andalusia, and to give time - for the Junta of Seville to organise the defence of that province. - Leaving a small division to protect Portugal under Sir John Cradock, - Moore, with the bulk of the English army, invaded north-west Spain and - advanced as far as Salamanca and Toro. Napoleon, as Moore had expected, - put off the invasion of Andalusia and turned against the English. Moore - having thus effected his purpose, then fell back into Galicia. In the - midst of most terrible weather he effected one of the most famous - retreats in history, turning occasionally to face his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> pursuers, and - fighting several brilliant rear-guard actions. Napoleon conducted the - pursuit in person for some time, but hearing that Austria was preparing - for war, he handed over the command to Soult and suddenly returned - to France. Soult did not come up with the English army until it had - reached Corunna, and was waiting there to embark. A battle was fought - to protect the embarkation of the English, in which Sir John Moore was - killed, and Soult, whose losses during the rapid pursuit had been very - great, turned southwards to occupy Oporto.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Austria. 1805–1809.</div> - - <p>The Treaty of Pressburg had made a very painful impression, not only - upon the mind of Francis <span class="smcap">I.</span> of Austria, but also on the - Austrian people. The indignation aroused by the cession of Dalmatia - and the loss of Venice, which had been given to the House of Austria - as compensation for the Milanese, had exasperated the Austrian - people. But, on the other hand, the Hungarians were inclined, like - the Poles, to look to Napoleon as the possible restorer of their - national independence. The policy of the Emperor Francis had been - to treat the Hungarians, whom he had placed under the rule of his - brother, the Archduke Joseph, as semi-independent, and to make as - little change as possible in the Hungarian Constitution. He regarded - his German provinces as the really important portion of his dominions, - and gave them his undivided attention. After the Treaty of Pressburg, - the Emperor dismissed his chancellor and prime minister Cobenzl, - and replaced him by Count Philip Stadion. The new Chancellor was a - thorough German, though descended from a Grisons family, and the - main point of his policy was to rouse the patriotism of the Germans - as a nationality against the French. In fact, from 1805 until the - outbreak of war in 1809, Stadion endeavoured to arouse the national - spirit which afterwards made Germany successful in the final war of - liberation against Napoleon. He circulated patriotic literature, and - formulated the idea of German unity, which he saw must take the place - of the extinct notion of the Holy Roman Empire.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> He was successful - in rousing the German popular feeling to the greatest height in the - German provinces of Austria; but the time was not yet ripe for the - expression of a similar sentiment throughout the whole of Germany. The - weight of the Continental Blockade was not experienced in its fullest - form until after 1809. And the patriotic feeling which was to have so - full a development could not be stirred up in a moment. But in the - German territories of Austria Stadion was completely successful. The - Emperor Francis himself was a thorough German, and during the progress - which he made through his states in 1808, with his beautiful second - wife, the Empress Ludovica, a princess of Modena, roused the utmost - enthusiasm. Ever since the Peace of Pressburg the Archduke Charles, - as Commander-in-Chief, had been organising the military power of - Austria; regiments of volunteers were formed in Vienna and all the - large cities; and the militia for the first time were disciplined - and trained for offensive war, and not maintained merely for the - preservation of the peace. While the smaller princes of Germany were - obsequiously doing honour to Napoleon at Erfurt, the Emperor of Austria - was preparing for war. The successful insurrection of the Spaniards, - and the Capitulation of Baylen, encouraged Stadion in his belief that - if a national feeling could be roused against the French domination, - it would be as successful in Germany as in Spain. The English Ministry - encouraged the attitude of the Austrian Emperor, and promised not only - large subsidies if an Austrian army would take the field, but also - that a powerful diversion should be made in the Netherlands by an - English army. Napoleon heard of this disposition of Austria in 1808, - but at first paid very little heed to it. During his winter campaign - in the Peninsula, however, it became obvious that the Austrians were - in a hurry to come to conclusions with him, and he therefore hastened - back from Spain to make his preparations for this new war, instead of - pursuing the English to Corunna.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Wagram. 1809.</div> - - <p>From both the political and the military point of view,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> Napoleon was - justified in believing in 1809 that he had little to fear from the - intervention of Austria. The South German princes, like the Kings of - Bavaria and Würtemberg, had been too much favoured by him to desire to - oppose him, and willingly sent their contingents to serve in his ranks. - From the population of his new creation, the kingdom of Westphalia, he - looked for assistance, not opposition, and what remained of Prussia was - occupied by French armies. The Emperor Alexander of Russia, still under - the glamour of the interview at Erfurt, and the grand promises for the - division of the world repeated to him there, showed no inclination to - assist Austria. Indeed, the feeling of opposition between Austria and - Russia, which had shown itself in 1799 and 1800, had been augmented - by the unfortunate campaign of Austerlitz. Each ally blamed the other - for that disaster; the Austrian officers openly declared that they - hated a Russian more than a Frenchman, and the Russians reciprocated - this feeling. Austria’s only ally, therefore, was England. From a - military point of view, the Austrian army had not yet been sufficiently - reorganised, in spite of the efforts of Stadion and the Archduke - Charles, to make a successful resistance to the French; but, as the - event of the campaign showed, it was able to make a better stand than - it had ever made before.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Aspern. 21st and 22nd May 1809.</div> - - <p>In April 1809 the Archduke Charles, amid the greatest enthusiasm of - the Austrian people, issued a manifesto to the German race, and at the - head of 170,000 men advanced into Bavaria. At the same time another - army, under the Archduke John, invaded Italy. At that moment Napoleon - had only two <i>corps d’armée</i> in Southern Germany, one under the command - of Marshal Davout at Ratisbon, and the other under Marshal Masséna - at Augsburg. The Archduke Charles intended to get between the two - marshals and defeat them separately. But Napoleon arrived in person, - with some of the finest troops he had been employing in Spain, before - the Archduke could complete his operations. On the 20th of April he - defeated the Austrian left at Abensberg, and on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> 22d he routed - the Austrian right under the Archduke in person at Eckmühl. In the - five days’ fighting, which included these battles, the Austrians lost - 7000 men in killed and wounded, and 23,000 prisoners. In the result it - was the Austrians, not the French, who were cut in two, and Napoleon - rapidly followed the Austrian left to Vienna. The capital surrendered - on the 12th of May, and Napoleon then resolved to cross the Danube and - attack the main body of the Austrian army under the Archduke Charles. - He attempted to pass the river at the point where is situated midway - the island of Lobau. When the greater part of his army had reached the - island he pushed across to the other bank, and on the 21st and 22nd of - May stormed the villages of Aspern and Essling. But on the evening of - the second fight he found it necessary to withdraw into the island of - Lobau, for his bridges of boats which connected the island with the - right bank of the river had been swept away, and his ammunition had - fallen short. The Tyrolese, too, had risen under Hofer, and Napoleon’s - position was most critical. Nevertheless he determined not to retreat; - the island of Lobau became an entrenched camp; stronger bridges were - thrown from it to the right bank of the Danube; and reinforcements were - summoned from different quarters.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Wagram. 6th July 1809.</div> - - <p>The most important of these reinforcements were supplied by the French - Army of Italy, which reached Napoleon in the island of Lobau on the - 2nd of July. This army was commanded by the Viceroy of Italy, Eugène - de Beauharnais, whose military adviser and principal subordinate was - General Macdonald. The Viceroy had, before Macdonald reached him, been - checked at Sacilio by the Archduke John, but after Macdonald’s arrival - he pushed on rapidly. A decisive victory, which prevented the Archduke - John from pursuing, was won over the Hungarians at Raab on the 14th of - June, after which Eugène de Beauharnais was enabled safely to join the - Emperor in the island of Lobau. With his army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> thus increased, Napoleon - crossed to the left bank of the Danube on the morning of the 5th of - July, at the head of 180,000 men, many of whom were Westphalians, - Bavarians, and Italians. On the following day he completely defeated - the Archduke Charles at the battle of Wagram, at which the Austrians - lost more than 30,000 men. Though defeated, the Austrian army was not - disgraced, and Napoleon himself said, when blamed for not following - up his victory, ‘If I had had my veterans of Austerlitz I should have - carried out a manœuvre which, with my present troops, I dare not - execute.’ Had the Archduke John come up in time and placed himself - under his brother’s command, the battle might have had a different - result, and as it was, the Austrian Emperor need not have considered - himself forced to conclude peace.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Vienna. 14th October 1809.</div> - - <p>The Emperor Francis, however, did not dare to risk the further event - of war, and on the 14th of October 1809 he signed the Treaty of - Vienna. By this treaty Austria ceded Trieste, Carniola, Istria, and - a large part of Croatia to Napoleon, who added them to Dalmatia, - which he had acquired at the Treaty of Pressburg, and made out of - them the Government of the Illyrian Provinces. Francis also abandoned - the Tyrolese, and ceded the greater part of Salzburg to the King of - Bavaria, whose army, along with the Saxon contingent under Bernadotte, - had played a great part in winning the victory of Wagram. He had to - give up the whole of Western Galicia; the greater part of this province - was added to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but certain districts were - ceded to the Emperor Alexander, who in reply to the demands of Napoleon - had despatched an army to act in that quarter against the Austrians. - This action had still further incensed the Emperor of Austria against - the Emperor of Russia, while it did not satisfy Napoleon, who - complained that the Russians had not acted with sufficient vigour, - and had been waiting to hear the result of the main campaign in - the neighbourhood of Vienna. In Austria itself the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> important - result of the war was the retirement of Count Philip Stadion, who was - succeeded as Chancellor of State by Count Metternich.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Peninsular War. 1809.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Talavera. 28th July 1809.</div> - - <p>During the campaign of Wagram the French armies left in Spain had been - continuing their operations. Before the actual outbreak of war with - Austria, Saragossa had been captured on the 21st of February 1809, - after an obstinate siege, which proved to the French the mettle of - their new opponents. The most important operations had been carried - out in three quarters of the Peninsula. In Arragon and Catalonia, - General Gouvion-Saint-Cyr acted with considerable skill in a campaign - of which the main feature was the reduction of small fortresses, and - his successor, General Suchet, steadily pursued the same policy. Both - of these generals invariably defeated any Spanish army which met them - in the field. From Madrid King Joseph had acted in two different - directions. Marshal Moncey took Valencia; Marshal Victor defeated the - Spanish army of the South, which was under the command of Cuesta, at - Medellin; and General Sebastiani approached the frontiers of Andalusia. - But in Portugal the French had again to meet the English, who had in - the previous year defeated them at Vimeiro, and drawn them away to - Corunna. After the departure of Sir John Moore’s army, Marshal Soult - had invaded Portugal from the north and occupied Oporto. There is no - doubt that if he had acted boldly he might have captured Lisbon, which - was only guarded by a feeble division under Sir John Cradock. But Soult - wasted his time in intriguing, it is said, for the throne of Portugal, - until the English Ministry had time to reinforce Cradock, and to - send Sir Arthur Wellesley to command the army in Portugal. Wellesley - speedily dislodged Soult from Oporto, and drove his army in disorder - back into Galicia. He then, following the example of Moore, invaded - Spain, in the expectation of saving Andalusia. He met the French - army in Spain, under the command of Marshal Victor, at Talavera. He - repulsed the French<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> attack on his position on the 28th of July, and - had he been efficiently assisted by the Spaniards under Cuesta he might - have won a great victory. As it was, his success prevented the French - from invading Portugal, but it was not sufficiently decisive to save - Andalusia. The French army was reorganised; the Spaniards were routed - at the battle of Ocana, on the 12th of November, and the whole of the - fertile province of Andalusia, with the exception of Gibraltar and - Cadiz, fell into the hands of the French.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Expedition to Walcheren. 1809.</div> - - <p>Unfortunately the English Ministers failed to understand immediately - the greatness of the opportunity given to them by Napoleon’s behaviour - in the Peninsula, and instead of concentrating all their military - strength for the support of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who was made Viscount - Wellington for his victory of Talavera, they despatched one of the - finest armies that ever left England on the Walcheren Expedition. They - had promised to assist the Emperor of Austria by making a diversion in - the north of Europe. The object of this diversion was Antwerp, on which - city Napoleon was spending vast sums of money in the hope of making it - the commercial rival of London. This expedition, which was placed under - the command of the Earl of Chatham, the elder brother of the younger - Pitt, never reached Antwerp. It was landed in the island of Walcheren, - and took Flushing in August 1809. It met no French army worthy of - the name, but was destroyed as a fighting machine by the pestilences - and fevers of the unhealthy island in which it was quartered. The - expedition took place too late to be of any service to Austria, for the - English army did not disembark until a month after the battle of Wagram - had been fought, and in the want of energy with which it was conducted, - it may almost be classed with the disastrous expedition to Bergen in - 1799. At sea, however, the English fleet maintained its pre-eminence. - In this year Guadeloupe, Martinique, and the Mauritius were conquered, - and an attempt was made to burn the French fleet in the Basque Roads by - Lord Cochrane, which might have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> been completely successful if he had - not been thwarted by the admiral in command, Lord Gambier.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon and the Pope.</div> - - <p>It has been said that one of the measures by which Napoleon secured - his ascendency over the minds of the French people was the conclusion - of the Concordat by which the schism which had divided the French - Church was closed. He had at the commencement of his tenure of power - treated the new Pope, Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, with much respect, and the - Pope had in return made the Emperor’s uncle, Fesch, a Cardinal, and had - come to Paris to crown him Emperor. But troubles soon arose between - Napoleon and Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> The Emperor proclaimed himself the - successor of Charlemagne, and wished to restrict the Pope entirely - to spiritual affairs. The terms of the Concordat were not thoroughly - carried out. The Pope would not give Napoleon the supreme authority - over the French bishops, which he desired, and His Holiness looked on - the transformation of the priesthood in France from an independent - body into salaried officials with extreme disfavour. On the Pope’s - return to Rome in 1805, he requested that the French troops should - evacuate the whole of the former States of the Church. Napoleon did not - comply with this request, and not satisfied with ordaining the cession - of the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara to the Kingdom of Italy, he - occupied Ancona, and confiscated the principalities of Ponte Corvo - and Benevento, which he bestowed on Bernadotte and Talleyrand. The - declaration of the Continental Blockade increased the dissatisfaction - of the Pope, who declined to obey it, as he also did a further order in - 1806 to expel from Rome all English, Russian, Swedish, and Sardinian - subjects. After some months of perpetual bickering Napoleon directed - General Miollis to occupy Rome on the 2nd of February 1808. Pius - <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, in the cause of peace, dismissed Cardinal Consalvi, - his Secretary of State, but he could not satisfy the demands of the - Emperor, and on the 17th of May 1809 the States of the Church in Italy - were declared united to the French Empire, and Rome was officially - decreed to be the Second City of that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> Empire. Exasperated by this open - insult, Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> excommunicated the French Emperor. Napoleon, - who was at that time in his camp in the island of Lobau, ordered that - the Pope should be removed from Rome. He was arrested by General Radet - on the 6th of July, the day of the victory of Wagram, and forcibly - removed to Savona, near Genoa, where he was kept as a State prisoner. - Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> in his exile consistently protested against the - usurpations of Napoleon, and refused from this time to give canonical - institution to the bishops nominated by the Emperor. In 1811 Napoleon - attempted to put ecclesiastical affairs in France on a new footing, and - summoned a national council or synod of bishops to meet at Paris. But - the Pope refused to negotiate with the synod, and he was accordingly - removed to Fontainebleau in 1812. While there Napoleon pretended - that His Holiness agreed to a new and revised Concordat which was - promulgated as a law on the 13th of February 1813. Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> - always denied that he had given his consent to the new arrangement, - which would have deprived him of his most valued prerogatives, and - stated that he had always regarded himself as a prisoner since his - removal from Rome. By his conduct towards the Pope Napoleon committed - a great mistake. He lost the support of the faithful body of Catholics - in France whom he had conciliated in 1801, and he gave a pretext for - his enemies to declare him the enemy of religion. The Caesarism which - had infected his imagination after his great victories in 1806 and 1807 - appeared in his behaviour towards Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> as well as in his - intervention with the affairs of Spain.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Revolution in Sweden. 1809.</div> - - <p>The year 1809, which witnessed the campaign of Wagram and the overthrow - of the Pope, was also signalised by a revolution in Sweden, which was - followed by very important results. It has been said that Gustavus - <span class="smcap">IV.</span> remained faithful to the coalition against Napoleon even - after the Peace of Tilsit. By that peace it was arranged that the - Emperor of Russia should annex Finland. This was carried out in 1808, - after a very weak opposition on the part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> of the Swedes, and in the - same year Swedish Pomerania was occupied by the French. In spite of - these losses the King of Sweden declared war against Denmark, and - then quarrelled with the general of the English army sent to his - assistance. For this conduct, which seemed conclusive as to the loss - of sanity by the King, the Swedes resolved to dethrone him. At the - commencement of 1809 the Baron Adlersparre, the commander-in-chief of - the army sent to invade Norway, concluded a secret armistice with the - Danes, and marched on Stockholm. On the 13th of March 1809 the King was - arrested, and on the 29th he was forced to sign a deed of abdication. - This act was ratified by the States of Sweden on the 10th of May, and - the King’s uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was elected King as Charles - <span class="smcap">XIII.</span> A new constitution of an aristocratic type, restoring - the power of the Swedish nobles which had been severely curtailed by - Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, was promulgated, and on the 18th of January - 1810 the States elected as heir to the throne, since the new King had - no sons, the Prince Christian of Holstein-Augustenberg. This young - prince died in May of the same year, and the question then arose as to - his successor. There was no possible prince of the reigning family, - and the king was old and in bad health. It happened that in 1806 the - Swedish officers employed in Hanover had made the acquaintance of - Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded in that quarter, and it was suggested - that he should be elected as Prince Royal. This choice was dictated by - a hope that it would please the French Emperor, for Bernadotte was not - only one of his most distinguished marshals, but was connected with - his family, for both he and Joseph Bonaparte had married daughters - of Monsieur Clary, a tradesman of Marseilles. Bernadotte received - the consent of Napoleon; on the 19th of October 1810 he abjured - Catholicism; and on the 5th of November he was elected Prince Royal by - the Swedish Diet. He was at once charged with the direction of foreign - affairs and with the reorganisation of the Swedish army, and he played - an important part in the overthrow of the French Emperor.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Turkey.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Bucharest. 28th May 1812.</div> - - <p>With Sweden and Poland, Turkey had for a long time been considered - as the third barrier against the advance of Russia. Bonaparte, like - earlier French statesmen, had held this view, but after the Peace - of Tilsit he expressed himself as ready and willing to abandon all - three countries to the encroachments of Russia. The loss of Finland - and Pomerania had reduced Sweden to a minor state; the Grand Duchy of - Warsaw was a poor substitute for the Kingdom of Poland, and it is now - necessary to observe the effects upon Turkey of her abandonment by - France. The Sultan, Selim <span class="smcap">III.</span>, had been thrown into a close - alliance with England by Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt when he was - but a general of the French Republic, and still more by his daring - march into Syria. When he became First Consul, Napoleon endeavoured to - destroy the unfavourable opinion entertained of him at Constantinople, - and sent thither as his ambassador one of the ablest of the French - diplomatists, General Sebastiani, who managed to ingratiate himself - with the Porte. The English monopoly of the commerce of the Levant - was displeasing to the Porte, and Pitt failed to induce the Sultan to - enter into the coalition against France in 1805. In 1807 an English - fleet under Sir John Duckworth was sent to compel the Sultan to give - up his friendship with the French. After forcing the passage of the - Dardanelles, it had to retire without achieving its object, and - suffered great loss while sailing down the Straits. This behaviour of - England threw the Turks entirely on the side of France. French officers - were employed to reorganise the Turkish army, and a regular militia was - established. Sultan Selim was a monarch in advance of his times, and - endeavoured to introduce certain reforms, but he roused against him - both the Muhammadan Ulemas and the Janissaries. The former disliked his - civil reforms, the latter his establishment of the militia. Selim was - dethroned, and replaced by Mustapha <span class="smcap">IV.</span> on the 21st of July - 1807. But the reign of Mustapha was but of short duration. The Pasha - of Rustchuk marched to Constantinople, and when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> he found that the - Sultan Selim had been assassinated, he dethroned Mustapha and placed - his nephew, Mahmoud <span class="smcap">II.</span>, on the throne of Turkey. The first - event of the new reign was a violent battle between the Janissaries and - the freshly organised militia in the streets of Constantinople, after - which Mahmoud executed his own brother and most of his relations, and - established himself firmly on the throne. The new Sultan, who was a - man of extraordinary vigour, was at once attacked by the Russians, as - had been arranged by the Treaty of Tilsit. Napoleon had pointed out - to Alexander that he could easily annex the Danubian principalities, - and he hoped that the Turks would afford enough occupation to the - Russian army to prevent it from interfering with his projects in - Europe. The Russian attack on Turkey was followed by a treaty of peace - between England and the Porte, in spite of the efforts of the French - diplomatists; but the English, as usual, considered it enough to - send subsidies in money without supplying troops. In 1809 the Turks - were defeated at Braila and Silistria, and by the close of 1810 the - Russian army under the command of Prince Bagration occupied the whole - of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia. In 1811 the Russian general - Kutuzov crossed the Danube, and occupied both Silistria and Shumla, - and the way was opened to Constantinople. But, fortunately for the - existence of the Turkish power, Napoleon in 1812 was preparing to - invade Russia; the efforts of the French diplomatists to induce the - Sultan Mahmoud to continue the war were fruitless; the Porte said that - it had too often proved the worthlessness of the French offers of - help, and on the 28th of May 1812 a treaty of peace was signed between - Russia and Turkey at Bucharest. By this treaty the Turks ceded part of - Bessarabia and Moldavia to Russia, and acknowledged the Principality - of Servia, but its chief importance in European history is that it - relieved the Emperor Alexander from an important enemy at a moment of - crisis, and allowed him to turn all his strength against the French - invaders.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Greatest Extension of Napoleon’s Empire. 1809–1812.</div> - - <p>The period from 1809 to 1812, that is, from the Peace of Vienna to - the invasion of Russia, witnessed the greatest extension of the - dominions of Napoleon. But this enormous increase of territory did not - strengthen France; new difficulties appeared with each fresh advance; - and although in 1811 the boundaries of the French power were far more - distended than they were in 1808, the Empire was not so strong. By his - annexations Napoleon abandoned the principle which he had formerly - set before himself. He had declared that the natural boundaries of - France were the Rhine and the Alps, and every annexation beyond those - natural limits was a distinct act of defiance to Europe. From 1806 - to 1808 his policy was to surround France with a belt of subject - kingdoms; by his annexations from 1809 to 1812 his borders touched - those of the great Continental powers. In the north Napoleon accepted - the abdication of his brother Louis, who had protested against the - measures taken for maintaining the Continental Blockade, and on the - 9th of July 1810 he declared Holland an integral part of the Empire. - Holland was divided into eight departments, and lost its existence as - an independent nation. Then in pursuance of the Continental Blockade, - Napoleon, on the 13th of December 1810, annexed the districts in North - Germany from the borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser. By - this step he united the whole coast-line from Friesland to Denmark, - and hoped to close entirely the English trade with North Germany. - The districts annexed were the Duchy of Oldenburg, the sea-coast of - Hanover, the territories of the Princes of Salm and Aremberg, and - the free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. These districts were - divided into four departments, the Ems-Supérieur, the Lippe, the - Bouches-du-Weser, and the Bouches-de-l’Elbe, with their capitals at - Osnabrück, Münster, Bremen, and Hamburg. These annexations showed - what persistent opposition Napoleon met in Germany to the Continental - Blockade, when his own brother Louis could not maintain it in Holland, - and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> was afraid to trust the coast-line of Westphalia to his - brother Jerome. Turning further south, Napoleon in 1810 annexed the - Valais, which he had declared independent of Switzerland, under the - name of the Department of the Simplon. In Italy the most flagrant - breach of the former French system was committed. When the kingdom - of Italy was formed in 1805, the Emperor had kept Piedmont under his - own control in order to command both sides of the Alps, and in 1810 - he preferred to amalgamate the Ligurian Republic, Parma, the Kingdom - of Etruria, and the States of the Church with his directly-governed - departments in Piedmont, rather than to unite them to the Kingdom of - Italy. These districts were divided into nine departments, and it is - curious to notice such cities as Rome, Genoa, Parma, Florence, Siena, - and Leghorn as capitals of French departments. In all, the French - Empire at its greatest consisted of one hundred and thirty departments - directly administered from Paris, excluding from consideration the - Illyrian provinces and the Ionian Islands, which were not treated as - departments. Mention has already been made of the subject kingdoms, - and it is only to be noted here that Murat, the famous cavalry general - and brother-in-law of Napoleon, was made King of Naples when Joseph - Bonaparte was promoted to the throne of Spain, and that the infant - son of Louis Bonaparte, the former King of Holland, received Murat’s - Grand Duchy of Berg. Napoleon also made his favourite sister, Elisa, - Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca and Piombino; his second - sister, Pauline, Duchess of Guastalla; and his Chief of the Staff and - most trusted subordinate, Marshal Berthier, independent Prince of - Neufchâtel.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Organisation of the Empire.</div> - - <p>The administration of this vast empire was purely bureaucratic. - Napoleon endeavoured to establish a hierarchy of civil officials, who - should be as completely under his direct control as the officers of - his army. He ruled the Empire like a general. Implicit obedience to - orders was the only means to promotion in his civil, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> well as in his - military, organisation. He delighted in insisting on this comparison. - The Legion of Honour was not a military order, but was conferred with - equal freedom on civil officials, and in all matters the Emperor’s - will could be consulted and was supreme. No subjects were too minute - for his supervision. He reorganised the ancient theatrical company of - the Comédie Française with the same attention to detail as a matter - of State administration. The development of a bureaucracy dependent - on absolutism was in curious contrast to the Constitution of 1791, - and the theories which had prevailed at the beginning of the French - Revolution. Freedom of petition, freedom of the press, individual - liberty, representative institutions, and all the liberties won by the - French people were entirely abolished. The censorship of the press was - re-established, and carried out with more rigour than it had been even - under the Bourbon monarchy. All manuscripts had to be revised before - being sent to the printer, and perfectly innocent allusions, which - might be interpreted into applying condemnation of the existing order - of things, brought upon their authors immediate imprisonment, and the - destruction of their books. Individual liberty ceased to exist; for the - Emperor exiled and imprisoned at his will. The secret police, which - had been organised by Fouché, exercised a minute inquisition into the - most private affairs, and a crowd of spies kept the Emperor informed - of every current of opinion in Paris and throughout the Empire. The - arbitrariness of his government was greatly due to his sensitiveness to - public opinion, and it is narrated that during his enforced residence - in the island of Lobau he was far more exercised in mind by his spies’ - reports of the conversations on the subject in the Faubourg St. Germain - than by the movements of the Austrians. Representative institutions - had been practically superseded by the Constitution of the Year - <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>, but the last vestige of a power which could criticise - the Emperor’s will, the Tribunate, was suppressed in 1808. The Senate - became merely a dignified body to congratulate the Emperor on his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> - victories, and the Legislative Body registered, without murmuring, all - his decrees. It is a curious fact that, in 1811, Napoleon imitated the - most arbitrary measure of the Committee of Public Safety, and, when the - price of corn rose, he fixed a maximum price for its sale in Paris.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Hereditary Principle.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s Aristocracy.</div> - - <p>Next to his own absolutism Napoleon believed in the principle of - heredity. He showed this primarily in the treatment of his own family. - He not only brought his mother to Paris, and under the title of Madame - Mère endowed her with a large income, but bestowed on his brothers - and sisters, in spite of the marked incapacity of many of them, the - most important posts. The kingdoms given to Joseph, Louis, and Jerome - Bonaparte were accompanied by the intimation that they were to rule - subject to his will, and he exercised an autocratic power over all the - members of his family. For instance, he insisted that Jerome should - divorce his wife, an American lady named Patterson, because his own - consent had not been obtained, and forced him to marry a Würtemberg - princess. His own lack of children greatly grieved him, and he made - various arrangements as to his successor. At one time it was thought - he would nominate his step-son, Eugène de Beauharnais; at another he - selected an infant son of his brother Louis to be his heir, and had him - baptized by the Pope just after his own coronation in 1805; and when - the infant died, he issued a decree, arranging the succession among - his brothers and their children in order of seniority. He created his - brothers, sisters, and step-children Princes of the Empire, and gave - them honorary seats in the Senate and Council of State, and he insisted - upon his wife Josephine surrounding herself with all the pomp of a - monarchical Court. The desire of creating a Court which should outshine - that of the Bourbons caused Napoleon to bid high for the support of - the ancient noble families of France. By bestowing large incomes, - rapid promotion, and repeated favours he was able to get men and women - bearing the oldest names in France to accept office as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> chamberlains - and lords and ladies-in-waiting, while many scions of former sovereign - families in Germany and the Netherlands did not hesitate to request - admission to such Court offices. But he did not trust solely to the old - nobility to form the splendour of his Court; he always suspected that - they were sneering at him, and endeavoured to counterbalance them by - creating a new nobility. This new nobility was formed entirely from the - men who did him good service, whether in military or civil departments. - By the side of his marshals, most of whom he created dukes, he ranked - his chief diplomatists and ministers, and the example was followed into - inferior ranks. Good service as the <i>préfet</i> of a department led to a - barony as certainly as gallant service in the field at the head of a - regiment, and former members of the Convention, who, as Deputies on - Mission, had exerted unlimited authority, were content to accept the - title of Chevalier of the Empire, the lowest in his new peerage. The - peerage of the Empire was strictly hereditary, though in many instances - the Emperor assumed the right exercised by former kings of granting - permission to adopt an heir. But the new peerage was purely ornamental; - it conferred no political power whatever. Napoleon never dreamt of - creating a House of Lords; he only conceived the notion of balancing - the influence of the old aristocracy by the creation of one dependent - entirely on himself. In his desire to maintain the dignity of his new - nobles, he granted many of them large incomes and vast estates; his - marshals were encouraged to live in the most extravagant fashion by - the repeated payment of their debts; and the grant of a peerage was in - many cases accompanied by what he called a <i>dotation</i>, which supplied - an income sufficient to maintain the dignity. Some of these ‘dotations’ - were of princely magnificence. They were largely situated in Italy - and Poland, and were intended to make the new possessors independent - barons, like the famous paladins of Charlemagne. Among the most - important of these grants, after the Principality of Neufchâtel, which - was a semi-independent <span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>sovereignty, may be noted the Principalities - of Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Parma, Piacenza, and Gaeta, which were - conferred upon Talleyrand, Bernadotte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, and Gaudin. - By these means Napoleon hoped to keep his subordinates faithful to him, - while their influence on opinion would rival that exercised by the old - nobility.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Internal Reforms. Law.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Finance.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Education.</div> - - <p>But while wielding an undisputed absolutism, Napoleon looked on his - position in a spirit similar to that of the benevolent despots of the - eighteenth century. Though he would do nothing by the people, he was - ready to do much for them. In the path of legal reform he followed up - the measure taken by the formation of the Civil Code. He had plenty of - learned jurists to carry out his instructions, and the Civil Code was - succeeded, in 1806, by the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure, in - 1808 by the Commercial Code, and finally by the Penal Code. These great - codes form an epoch in the legal history of Europe, and have earned - for Napoleon the title of the modern Justinian, though they were only - carried out by his directions, and based on the principles laid down, - and the work done, by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention. - Their great advantage was their simplicity and universality, which - checked the tedious delays inherent in all systems of common or - uncodified law. In jurisdiction Napoleon also followed the example of - the statesmen of the Revolution. He encouraged rapidity in procedure - and in the execution of judgments, and he greatly extended the powers - of the commercial tribunals in which practical men of business had - a voice. In financial matters, as in his legal reforms, Napoleon’s - great aim was to attain simplicity, and he reduced the loss in the - passage of taxes from the taxpayer to the Treasury to a minimum. His - creation of the Bank of France has been mentioned, and by its side - he established the Caisse d’Amortissement, which consisted of the - pecuniary guarantees of all the collectors of the taxes merged into one - fund. These guarantees formed an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> important sum of money for immediate - use as well as a valuable security. Napoleon further managed to pay off - that portion of the debt left to him by the Republic, which represented - the sums due for the suppression of the old courts of judicature, - etc. With regard to the ordinary debt, he preserved Cambon’s great - creation of the Grand Livre, which enabled every creditor to become - a fund-holder, while the Emperor knew the exact extent of the public - debt. The Emperor’s first steps towards the formation of a national - system of education have been described, but it was not until after - the campaign of Wagram that the system was completed. In 1806 he had - organised the Imperial University, but it did not take its final form - until 1811. This university was not a university in the English sense. - It consisted of the chief professors and teachers, and was intended - to include all the professors and teachers throughout France. It was - placed under the superintendence of a Grand Master, a celebrated man - of letters, Fontanes, and its duty was to superintend the whole course - of higher education. In the Emperor’s own words, he wished to create - a teaching profession organised like the judicial or the military - profession, of which all the professors scattered throughout the - country might feel themselves an integral part. In 1808 he granted the - university an income of 400,000 livres, in addition to the fees, etc., - and declared in favour of the irremovability of its members. To recruit - this new teaching profession, Napoleon established the Normal School of - Paris for the instruction of those who desired to become professors or - teachers.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Extension of the system to Germany.</div> - - <p>These great reforms in law, in finance, and in education outlasted - Napoleon’s reconstitution of Europe. Their effect spread far beyond the - actual limits of France. As a direct result of the French Revolution - serfdom disappeared in Switzerland, in Belgium, and in Northern Italy. - Napoleon carried on the work further to the east. In the Kingdom of - Westphalia, and in all the states of Germany which he created or - enlarged, serfdom was entirely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> abolished. The feudal system was - suppressed wherever the influence of the French extended. Maximilian - Joseph, King of Bavaria, and his minister, Montgelas, carried out the - principles of the French Revolution by abolishing the privileges of - the nobility and the clergy. In every direction the French codes were - either adopted or imitated; the course of justice was made simple and - cheap; education was organised; and the economical rules of the French - administration introduced. In more distant countries the same reforms - were carried out. By the constitution of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw - the Polish serfs, perhaps the most miserable of all serfs, were freed - from their bondage, and absolute equality before the law decreed. In - Naples Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, and in Spain Joseph Bonaparte by - himself, carried out the same great reforms; and though the reaction - after 1815 tended to replace matters on their former footing, it proved - to be impossible to restore the old evils in their entirety. Not - less admirable was Napoleon’s vindication of the great principle of - religious toleration. In Catholic states such as Bavaria Protestants - received the priceless boon of religious liberty; in Protestant states - like Saxony it was the Catholics who profited by the broad-mindedness - of the French Emperor; and in every country the Jews were relieved - from the degrading position in which they had been kept. In military - organisation the reforms which had made the French army master of the - world were introduced by Napoleon. With the disappearance of the petty - German states disappeared also the feudal armies. Conscription may, - indeed, appear a heavy burden on a state, but in Germany, at any rate, - it created for the first time national armies to take the place of the - ill-disciplined mercenaries who had hitherto been hired by the petty - princes.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Organisation of Prussia.</div> - - <p>The most curious feature in the creation of a new Germany, which was - the result of Napoleon’s reforms as much as of his victories, was - the formation of new Prussia. In Germany proper, that is, in Germany - between the Rhine and the Elbe, reforms were introduced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> under French - supervision, if not always by French agents. In Prussia the reforms - came on the initiative of a great minister. The speedy overthrow of - the famed Prussian army in the campaign of Jena convinced Prussian - statesmen of the necessity for sweeping changes. By the Treaty of - Tilsit Prussia was shorn of all the acquisitions in Central Germany - which she had received as the price of her consistent neutrality, and - was thrust behind the Elbe. On the other side she lost her Polish - provinces. Even the small Prussia thus left was occupied by French - troops, and was forced to pay a war contribution of a hundred and forty - millions as well as to maintain an army of 42,000 men for the service - of Napoleon. It would seem that Prussia was to be driven back into the - position of a second-rate state, but at this juncture Frederick William - <span class="smcap">III.</span> summoned to his ministry two remarkable men—the Freiherr - vom Stein, a Knight of the Holy Roman Empire and a native of Nassau, - and Scharnhorst, a Hanoverian officer. Neither of these men were - Prussians, but they were both enthusiastic Germans. They believed that - Prussia would yet form the key-stone on which German emancipation from - the power of Napoleon could be reared. They understood that Prussia - must be entirely reconstituted, and that an old-fashioned Prussia could - neither combat Napoleon nor lead the new Germany which he had created. - Stein, therefore, as Minister of the Interior, adapted the reforms - of the French Revolution and of Napoleon to Prussia. He established - equality before the law by the abolition of serfdom, he suppressed the - territorial privileges of the nobility, and he gave permission to the - bourgeois and the peasants to purchase land. He encouraged municipal - life by introducing a system of election to municipal offices, and, - as far as he could, abolished the social privileges of the nobility. - Scharnhorst, as War Minister, reorganised the Prussian army on the - French model. He changed it from an entity independent of the people - into a national army. Since Prussia was only permitted to maintain an - army of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> 42,000 men, he arranged that as many as possible should obtain - a military training by passing through the ranks for a short period. He - went further than Napoleon. He did not adopt a system of conscription - by which a portion of the population designed by lot should enter - the ranks, but insisted that every citizen was bound to military - service. Between 1807 and 1810, and the system was continued after his - retirement until 1813, Scharnhorst passed a large proportion of the - youth of Prussia through the ranks of the army, and thus formed—what - Napoleon so greatly needed at the crisis of his career—an effective - reserve. It is interesting to observe that it was in the country most - maltreated by Napoleon that the French reforms were most successfully - initiated. Napoleon perceived the danger, and in 1808 he insisted on - the dismissal of Stein, and in 1810 on that of Scharnhorst.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The revival of German national feeling.</div> - - <p>It is a curious sequel to the benefits conferred upon Germany by - Napoleon directly and by the influence of French principles that their - result was to rouse in Germany, for the first time for many centuries, - a truly national feeling. This was caused chiefly by the suppression of - the Holy Roman Empire, and its being replaced by states large enough - to arouse national patriotism; but it was partly due also to a sense - of national degradation inspired by the presence of French armies, and - to the fact that the benefits conferred were the gift of a foreign - sovereign and not the result of national progress. A universal feeling - of opposition to the French grew up in the hearts of the German people. - The individualist doctrines, which found favour in the eighteenth - century and reached their highest expression in philosophers and poets, - such as Herder and Goethe, gave way to a new national sentiment, - inspired by a new school of poets and political thinkers represented - by Körner and Arndt, by Jahn and Friedrich von Gentz. The new spirit - was mainly developed among the German youth. Secret societies and - clubs were formed to obtain by force the freedom of Germany from the - French, and the dissatisfied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> souls forgot the benefits they had - received individually in their resentment at their being granted by - France. Austria under the administration of Count Philip Stadion, who - was largely inspired by Gentz, endeavoured, in 1809, to take advantage - of the revival of German national feeling. But Austria was universally - considered as a foreign power whose military prowess was derived from - Hungary, and the Emperor Francis in taking the new title of Emperor of - Austria gave countenance to this idea. The House of Hapsburg was not - regarded as thoroughly German; it was looked on as a foreign dynasty, - whose dominions were mainly inhabited by non-German races; its loyalty - to the Roman Catholic religion caused it to be suspected by the - Protestants; it was blamed for the disorganisation of past centuries; - and contemned for its repeated defeats by the French and its selfish - policy at the time of the treaties of Campo-Formio and Lunéville.</p> - - <p>Prussia, on the other hand, though, like Austria, it was not a truly - German state, seemed fitted by history and tradition to embody the - idea of German nationality. Even after the defeat of Jena, Frederick - the Great and his victory over the French at Rossbach were recalled as - distinctively German glories, and the eyes of patriotic Germans were - turned to the diminished power of Prussia as the natural lever for - the creation of a free Germany. The administrative system of Prussia - and its strongly concentrated political theory of the essential unity - of the State, as opposed to the new French idea of the omnipotence - of the people, which was condemned in German eyes as having led to - the absolutism of an adventurer, had always exercised a peculiar - fascination over the best intellects of Germany. It was by means of - statesmen of foreign birth that Prussia was reorganised and prepared - to cope successfully with the power of Napoleon. Stein and Hardenberg, - Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, York and Lombard were none of them native - Prussians; yet they were all in turn attracted into the Prussian - service, and were instrumental in bringing about her resurrection as - a German power. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> war of 1809 first showed Napoleon that he was - soon to have a national feeling to deal with in Germany as well as in - Spain. While Napoleon was in the neighbourhood of Vienna a Prussian - lieutenant of the name of Katt attempted to seize Magdeburg; a Prussian - major named Schill pillaged the arsenal and treasury of the Duke of - Anhalt, who had often expressed his outspoken admiration for the - French Emperor, and invaded Saxony; and the fourth son of the Duke of - Brunswick, the heir to the duchy which had been absorbed in the kingdom - of Westphalia, raised his Black Legion, which he termed the Army of - Vengeance, and carried on a partisan war. Even the person of Napoleon - was not safe in Germany. A lad named Staps was shot for imagining an - attack on his life at Schönbrunn in 1809, and many other conspiracies - were discovered by the French police. Napoleon despised this ebullition - of popular feeling in Germany, just as he did in Spain, and the - measures which he took against it, such as arbitrary arrests, and the - shooting of the bookseller Palm, only exasperated the new national - patriotism.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Marriage of Napoleon with Marie Louise, 2nd April 1810.</div> - - <p>The Emperor, as has been said, was a great believer in the hereditary - idea, and his not having children to succeed him was more than a - personal, it was a political subject of grief to him. The campaign - of Wagram had raised him to the height of his power, and he wished - to establish his dynasty on a firm foundation. It was therefore for - personal, for political, and for European motives, that he resolved - on his return from Vienna in 1809 to divorce his wife, the Empress - Josephine. It was from no dislike for his wife, but from a stern - conviction of political necessity that he took this step. He insisted, - that Josephine should preserve her title of Empress, he granted her - Malmaison as her palace, with a large income, and he continued his - favours to his step-children, Eugène de Beauharnais, and Hortense, the - wife of his brother Louis Bonaparte. On the 15th of December 1809 the - divorce was pronounced on the ground that the religious marriage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> - which had taken place on the day before his coronation as Emperor, was - not valid because of the absence of witnesses. The Emperor’s first - intention was to wed a Russian grand duchess. He was still enamoured - of his idea of dividing the world with the Emperor Alexander, and - considered that a relationship with that monarch would best ensure - his power. But the Emperor Alexander was beginning to throw off his - infatuation for Napoleon. He now perceived, that in the alliance he had - made, he gave more than he got, and various causes of discontent were - sedulously fomented by his Court and his family. It was further the - custom of the Russian Court for the mothers to have the chief choice - in the disposing of their daughters’ hands. Now the Empress-mother - was a princess of the House of Würtemburg, and had imbibed a profound - hatred for the French Emperor. She persuaded her son to throw various - delays in the path of the Emperor’s desires without actually rejecting - his offer. Under these circumstances, Napoleon abruptly changed his - mind, and at the suggestion, it is said, of Prince Schwartzenberg, - the Austrian ambassador at Paris, demanded the hand of an Austrian - archduchess. The Emperor Francis thought it necessary to yield, and - on the 2nd of April 1810, the marriage took place between the French - Emperor and the young Archduchess Marie Louise. The ceremony was - of the utmost magnificence, and a new Court was formed for the new - Empress, which contained many French nobles who had refused to wait - on Josephine. On the 20th of March 1811, a son was born to the French - Emperor who was created in his cradle King of Rome, and this birth was - regarded by Napoleon as finally cementing his power, both in France and - in Europe.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Peninsular War, 1810–1812.</div> - - <p>During the period from the Treaty of Vienna in 1809 to the invasion - of Russia in 1812, Napoleon had but one declared enemy. The English - Ministers, despite the overthrow of Austria and Prussia, and the - alliance between France and Russia, persisted in opposing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> France. - Just as Pitt and Grenville could not believe in the stability of the - various French revolutionary governments, and therefore maintained - the impossibility of concluding permanent peace with France, so their - successors, Wellesley and Castlereagh, also declined to believe in - the stability of Napoleon’s Empire, and argued that no permanent - peace could be made with him. It is just possible, that while Fox - was in office in 1806, a peace might have been concluded, but the - succession of his victories had inspired Napoleon with a belief in his - own invincibility, and he had no idea of negotiating on any basis but - the complete recognition of his reconstitution of Europe. Finding it - impossible to break the naval power of England, he endeavoured to ruin - her commerce by the Continental Blockade, with the result of increasing - England’s prosperity, and turning the people of the Continent against - him.</p> - - <p>Two methods of carrying on the war were supported by Castlereagh and - Canning, who were Secretaries of State in the Portland administration - from 1807 to 1809. Canning believed in rousing the national feeling of - invaded states against the universal conqueror, and for this purpose - sent large sums of money to Spain; Castlereagh, on the other hand, - thought that as France could no longer meet England at sea, England - must meet France on the land. This was the theory which lay at the - bottom of the despatch of the first Portuguese and of the Walcheren - Expeditions, and in spite of the failure of the latter, it has since - been recognised as a correct theory. The victory of Wellington at - Talavera, though it had but little actual result on the course of the - war in Spain, kept Portugal free from French invasion during the year - 1809. But it did more, it inspired the English governing class with - the belief that they had at last discovered the right way of fighting - Napoleon, and that they had also found a general. Lord Wellesley, - the elder brother of Wellington, who was Foreign Secretary from 1809 - to 1812, supported the new system with all his might, and under his - encouragement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> Wellington slowly formed the Anglo-Portuguese army by - a series of campaigns into a magnificent fighting machine, which, - though smaller in numbers than the Grand Army of France, equalled it in - discipline and military efficiency.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1810.</div> - - <p>Napoleon, after his successes in 1808, despised the Spanish levies - and the English army. He therefore declined to go in person to the - Peninsula, and sent his greatest marshal, Masséna, to drive the English - out of Portugal. A plan of campaign was formed, by which Masséna was to - penetrate Portugal from the north-east, while Soult was to advance from - Andalusia in the south-east. The two marshals were to meet at Lisbon. - Fortunately for Wellington, not only did Soult not agree with Masséna, - but the latter marshal found it impossible to control his subordinates, - Ney, Junot, and Reynier. Masséna nevertheless marched in the summer of - 1810, and Wellington had to fall back before him. On September 27th, - Masséna was repulsed in an attack upon the Anglo-Portuguese position at - Busaco, but the English general felt it necessary to retreat further, - to the lines which he had fortified in the neighbourhood of Lisbon, - which are known as the lines of Torres Vedras. As Wellington retired, - the Portuguese devastated their country, and when Masséna came to a - halt in front of the lines of Torres Vedras, he found it most difficult - to maintain himself on account of the scarcity of provisions. Soult - did not come to his help as he had expected, but only advanced as far - as the city of Badajoz, which he captured. Throughout the winter of - 1810–11, Masséna remained in front of Wellington, but, in spite of - reinforcements, he was unable to attack the Anglo-Portuguese lines, and - in the spring of 1811, had to retreat into Spain.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of 1811.</div> - - <p>Wellington then divided his army; with one portion he followed Masséna, - and laid siege to Almeida, the other he despatched under Marshal - Beresford to form the siege of Badajoz. In the south of Spain, the - only city which held for the Junta was Cadiz, which was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> defended by - an Anglo-Spanish army. Marshal Victor was in charge of the besieging - force, which was defeated at Barrosa on the 5th of March 1811. In - spite of this diversion, Wellington had to meet fresh advances by the - main armies of Soult and Masséna. On the 5th of May 1811, he repulsed - Masséna at Fuentes de Onor after a hard-fought battle, which Masséna - might have won had he been properly supported by Marshal Bessières. In - the south, Soult was repulsed by Beresford at the battle of Albuera - on May 16th. After having thus once more freed Portugal from French - invasions, Wellington laid siege successively to Ciudad Rodrigo and - Badajoz. Though these border fortresses remained in French hands, - the valour of the Anglo-Portuguese army surprised Napoleon, who - recalled Masséna in disgrace. But in the east of Spain his generals - met with some success. Suchet in 1810 and 1811 reduced Arragon and - Valencia, took many fortresses, and destroyed the Spanish army in - that quarter, under the command of General Blake, at the battle of - Albufera. Throughout central Spain, though no regular Spanish armies - took the field, the French were harassed by the Spanish guerillas. - These patriotic brigands destroyed the morale of the French troops in - Spain and sapped the strength of Napoleon. All the benefits conferred - by Joseph Bonaparte, the abolition of feudalism and of the Inquisition, - religious tolerance and good laws, counted for nothing. The Spaniards - would receive no benefits from a French monarch imposed on them by - Napoleon, and it was in Spain that Napoleon first felt the effect of a - national opposition, which was at a later date in Russia and in Germany - to destroy his power.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Conclusion.</div> - - <p>The period from the Conference of Erfurt to the invasion of Russia - seemed to mark the height of Napoleon’s power, but during it are to - be perceived the symptoms of the changes which led to his fall. At - Erfurt, Alexander of Russia was still his firm ally. His power was - bounded by subject kingdoms, and divided by them from the great states - of Europe. In France he was still regarded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> as the restorer of order - and the supporter of religion. By 1812 the situation had changed. The - Emperor Alexander was no longer his admirer and faithful ally. The - vast extension of the Empire had weakened his power, and the French - people were beginning to discover how dearly they were paying in the - sacrifice of their individual liberty for the glory of one man. His - wanton interference in Spain had raised a new force against him in the - shape of the resistance of a nation, and had afforded the English an - opportunity to meet him on land. In Germany, too, a national spirit - was rising, and Prussia, which he had maltreated, was reorganised, and - ready to set itself at the head of Germany. But there was one cause yet - more significant which was developed during this period—the character - of his soldiers was altered. The Grand Army, which had consisted of - veterans trained in the wars of the Revolution, had wasted away at - Austerlitz and Jena, Eylau and Friedland, and in the Spanish campaigns. - At Wagram he felt how different were the men under his command, and was - forced to depend largely on foreign contingents, of whose fidelity he - could not be certain; and he was to find in 1812 that the conscripts of - the Empire, though full of military ardour and desirous of rivalling - the fame of their predecessors, had not the physical strength, the - solidity, and the experience of the veterans who had made him Emperor - of the French and Master of Europe.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_X"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> - <h2>CHAPTER X<br /><span class="large">1812–1814</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">Causes of Growing Disagreement between Alexander and - Napoleon—Intervention of Castlereagh and Bernadotte—The - Attitude and Internal Policy of Prussia—Invasion of Russia - by Napoleon—Battle of Borodino—Retreat of the French - from Russia—Campaign of 1812 in the Peninsula—Battle of - Salamanca—Policy of Bernadotte—Prussia declares War—First - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Armistice of Pleswitz—Convention - of Reichenbach—Congress of Prague—Austria declares War—Second - Campaign of 1813 in Saxony—Battle of Dresden—Treaty of - Töplitz—Battle of Leipzig—General Insurrection of Germany - against Napoleon—Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula—Battle - of Vittoria—Wellington’s Invasion of France—Negotiations - for Peace—Proposals of Frankfort—The Allies invade - France—Napoleon’s first Defensive Campaign of 1814—Other - Movements against Napoleon—Bernadotte—Holland—Battle of - Orthez—Italy—Congress of Châtillon—Attitude of France towards - Napoleon—Treaty of Chaumont—Napoleon’s Second Defensive - Campaign of 1814—Occupation of Paris by the Allies—The - Policy of Talleyrand—The Provisional Government—Alexander’s - Speech to the French Senate—Napoleon declared to be no - longer Emperor—Abdication of Napoleon—Provisional Treaty of - Paris—Battle of Toulouse—Arrival of Louis <span class="smcap">xviii.</span>, - and his Assumption of the Throne of France—First Treaty of Paris.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Gradual disagreement between Alexander and Napoleon.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">The</span> causes of the disagreement between Napoleon and the Emperor - Alexander dated back to the Treaty of Tilsit. At that time, though - personally full of enthusiasm for the French conqueror, Alexander - looked with suspicion on the formation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw - as a possible first step towards the restoration of Poland. Napoleon - pointed out to him that he could obtain compensation in the direction - of Sweden and of Turkey—a suggestion which led to the conquest of - Finland and eventually of Bessarabia. Though Alexander carried out - the projects proposed to him, he continued to resent the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> creation of - the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and still more the maintenance of French - troops in that quarter. At the Congress of Erfurt Napoleon to some - degree allayed the suspicions of his ally, but on his return to Russia - there can be no doubt that Alexander looked upon himself as duped and - badly treated. The war of 1809 widened the breach. Napoleon complained - that the Russian troops promised for his assistance had not acted with - vigour, and Alexander regarded with open discontent the cession of part - of Austrian Galicia to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. The dethronement of - the Duke of Oldenburg, who had married Alexander’s favourite sister, - the Grand Duchess Catherine, and the absorption of his Duchy into - the French Empire, in 1810, was another and more personal cause of - disagreement. The delay in granting a Russian grand duchess to him - in marriage was looked on by Napoleon as a personal slight, and his - interference in Spain appeared to the Russian Emperor a sign that - Napoleon could maltreat even his most faithful ally. The carrying - out of the Continental Blockade embittered the situation. Napoleon - complained that the Russians did not adhere loyally to the arrangement - for the exclusion of English commerce. Alexander on his side complained - that his country was being ruined by the blockade, while the French - Emperor granted many licences to Frenchmen to trade with England.</p> - - <p>To these political reasons must be added the personal characters of - the two emperors. Napoleon, though he had spoken at Tilsit of dividing - Europe between France and Russia, began, as his power increased, to - devise schemes for securing the Empire of Europe for himself and the - exclusion of Russia from any share. Instead of restoring the Empires - of the East and West, Napoleon arrogated to himself the position of - ruler of Europe, and spoke of thrusting Russia back into Asia. In these - views he was encouraged by many of those surrounding him. His marshals, - finding no profits to be got from Spain, looked forward to enriching - themselves in Russia. His statesmen, either from motives of their own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> - or to please his personal wishes, declared that France could not be - safe until Russia was crushed. Alexander on his side was surrounded by - bitter enemies of Napoleon. His ministers never wearied of emphasizing - the ruin caused to Russia by the Continental Blockade. The King of - Prussia, whom he had made his personal friend, pleaded for the complete - restoration of his dominions. His family, and especially his mother, - regarded Napoleon as the enemy of the human race; English agents were - perpetually inciting the Russians to declare for commercial freedom; - and three of the most accomplished and most able statesmen in Europe - constantly urged him to war with France, namely, Stein, whom Napoleon - had ordered the King of Prussia to dismiss; Pozzo di Borgo, a Corsican, - who had known Napoleon in his youth, and who hated him as a personal - enemy; and Nesselrode, a skilled diplomatist and an intimate friend of - Metternich.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Policy of Castlereagh.</div> - - <p>These various causes, both political and personal, might not then - have led to war had it not been for the direct intervention of the - English by means of the new Prince Royal of Sweden, Bernadotte. Lord - Castlereagh, in January 1812, returned to office. He advocated the - carrying on of the war against Napoleon, not only by reinforcing - Wellington in the Peninsula, but by subsidizing the monarchs of the - Continent. He therefore despatched three diplomatists to the three - chief courts of the Continent, to endeavour to form a fresh coalition - against Napoleon. These were his brother, Sir Charles Stewart, - ambassador to Berlin, Lord Aberdeen to Vienna, and Lord Cathcart to - St. Petersburg. Lord Cathcart was a distinguished military officer, - and strenuously urged Alexander to declare war, and he brought with - him several English officers to assist in reorganizing the Russian - army, of whom the best known is Sir Robert Wilson. But it was rather - through Sweden than directly that Castlereagh influenced the Emperor - Alexander. Bernadotte, on being elected Prince Royal, had applied to - Sweden the Continental Blockade against England, but he soon perceived<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> - how ruinous that policy was to his new country, and inclined to make - some arrangement with England. Being unable to break with Napoleon - by himself, Bernadotte acted as the intermediary between England and - Russia, and in April 1812 signed a secret treaty with Alexander at - Abo, by which Sweden renounced all claims on Finland on condition - that Russia should promise Norway in its stead. Both England and - Russia approved of this scheme. Frederick <span class="smcap">VI.</span> of Denmark, - who had succeeded his father, Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, in 1808, had, - after the capture of the Danish fleet in 1807, formed a most intimate - alliance with Napoleon, and Alexander at Abo held out to Bernadotte, - not only a hope that he might have the whole of Denmark as a result - of successful war against the French, but even an expectation that - he might eventually receive the throne of France as a reward for his - services. Not less important than the English intervention in Sweden - was the effect of English influence in Turkey; for it was through - English mediation that the Treaty of Bucharest was signed in May 1812, - which allowed the Emperor of Russia to concentrate all his military - power against Napoleon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Prussia. The Ministry of Hardenberg.</div> - - <p>Between France and Russia there remained, however, Austria, Poland, and - Prussia. Though Napoleon’s direct domain extended to Lübeck along the - coast, he had not ventured to annex Germany proper, which lies between - the Elbe and the Rhine, or to accept the title of German Emperor, in - addition to that of the Emperor of the French and King of Italy, as - had been suggested by the Prince Primate, Dalberg. Yet Germany proper, - owing to his creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Kingdom - of Westphalia, was so thoroughly under his influence that, from a - military point of view, it might be regarded as part of his Empire. - Austria, Poland, and Prussia were, however, more independent, and his - first effort, when he decided to attack Russia, was to secure their - active co-operation. The Emperor Francis, since the campaign of Wagram, - had abandoned the idea of resistance. He feared and disliked the - Russians;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> Napoleon was his son-in-law, and he did not intend to oppose - his wishes. He therefore promised willingly enough that an Austrian - army should invade Russia to the south of the direct French invasion. - In the Grand Duchy of Warsaw the Poles cared little for their Grand - Duke, the King of Saxony; they looked to Napoleon for the restoration - of their complete independence, and delighted in the thought of - striking a blow at their old foes, the Russians. In Prussia the - position was more complicated. Reduced as the kingdom was, the reforms - of Stein and Scharnhorst had created a national feeling, which could - not as yet be utilised in attacks on the French soldiers who occupied - the Prussian fortresses. Stein himself had been driven from Prussia by - Napoleon’s orders, but a successor, Hardenberg, completed his work. It - is significant that when Hardenberg was reappointed State Chancellor in - 1810, he did not undertake the Foreign Office, as he had done in 1806, - but the ministries of the Finance and the Interior. It was Hardenberg - who in 1810 made the nobles subject to taxation, and brought Stein’s - promised Representative Assemblies into partial use; who, on 23rd - January 1811, suppressed the Teutonic Order, and made its possessions - part of the national domain; and who, on 11th September 1811, achieved - the logical result of Stein’s edict abolishing serfdom by granting - the peasants power to become absolute proprietors of two-thirds of - their holdings on surrendering the other third to the lords in full - recognition of all feudal dues and servitudes.</p> - - <p>Hardenberg’s most ardent coadjutor was William von Humboldt. As Stein - and Hardenberg had done the work of the French Revolution in Prussia - by abolishing feudalism and securing equality before the law, so - William von Humboldt established a national system of education in - many respects similar to Napoleon’s creation in France, and reformed - the whole department of public instruction. At the head of the system - was founded the University of Berlin. Prussia had deeply felt the loss - of the University of Halle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> when that city was separated from Prussia - by the Treaty of Tilsit. Königsberg, though made famous by Kant, was - too distant from the centre of the reduced kingdom to fill its place, - and the new national spirit was concentrated in the new University of - Berlin. Learned men came from all parts of Germany. Savigny, Fichte, - Wolf, Buttmann, Boeckh, Schleiermacher, and Niebuhr all enrolled - themselves as professors; and Germany, not merely Prussia, found a - worthy representative in the world of thought.</p> - - <p>In the resurrection of Prussia King Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> - merely acquiesced in the reforms of Stein and Hardenberg. But his - former leaning to neutrality had given place to a desire for revenge - on the French. In July 1810 he lost his patriotic wife, Queen Louise, - and her death only exasperated his feelings. Nevertheless, he refused - to declare himself on the side of Russia in 1812. The Emperor Alexander - announced his policy of allowing the French to invade, and his - intention of thus drawing Napoleon far from his base, and Frederick - William felt that he was not strong enough to openly oppose the French - Emperor. He was even constrained by the occupation of his fortresses - to go further, and, on 24th February 1812, he signed an offensive and - defensive alliance with Napoleon. By this treaty Prussia was not only - to feed the French armies passing through her dominions to invade - Russia, but to send an army of 30,000 men to act with them. Alexander - was not displeased by this behaviour. He knew that Prussia could not - help itself; he felt a sincere friendship for the hapless king; he - understood that beneath the surface, not only Prussia, but all Germany - was boiling with indignation against the French; and in 1812, when war - was at hand, he summoned the inspirer of German national feeling, the - great Prussian minister, Stein, from his exile in Austria to become his - adviser and coadjutor in his German policy.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Invasion of Russia. May 1812.</div> - - <p>Without any actual declaration of war, Russia entered into negotiations - with England, and Napoleon assembled a vast army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> on the banks of the - Vistula. In May 1812 he entered Germany to take the command, and at - Dresden had interviews with the King of Prussia and the Emperor of - Austria. Of the 325,000 men with whom he crossed the river Niémen and - invaded Russia only 155,000 were French; the remainder were foreign - contingents. He detached to his left Marshal Macdonald, with the - Prussian contingent and some Westphalians and Poles, to attack Riga and - advance on St. Petersburg, with the hope of joining Bernadotte and the - Swedes; he was supported on his right by the Austrian subsidiary force, - and with the centre of his army he advanced in person into Lithuania. - That province being occupied, Napoleon crossed the Dnieper, and on the - 18th of August he took Smolensk, in spite of the efforts of a Russian - army of 80,000 men to cover the city. On his extreme right the Austrian - army, under Prince Schwartzenberg, was checked by the arrival of the - Russian army, set free by the Peace of Bucharest. The Russian generals, - Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, in the centre, steadily retreated.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Borodino. 7th Sept. 1812.</div> - - <p>This military policy soon reduced the efficiency and numbers of the - French army; for it was drawn further from its base into a barren - country, in which it was harassed by peasants and guerillas, and it - was necessary to leave large divisions to protect the communications. - The Emperor Alexander had approved of this policy, and as the Russian - army retired the people abandoned their villages, as the Portuguese had - done during the invasion of Masséna in 1810. But the Russian soldiers - grumbled at this politic retreat, and the Emperor Alexander resolved - to strike one blow for his capital. Barclay de Tolly was replaced by - Kutuzov, and the Russian army suddenly halted on the banks of the - Mosková. On the 7th of September a most terrible battle was fought - there, which is known as the battle of Borodino. The Russians are said - to have lost 50,000 men, including General Bagration, and it is certain - that the French lost more than 30,000. Nevertheless, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> French loss - was proportionately the most; for Napoleon was far away from any - reinforcements, whereas the Russians were fighting in their fatherland. - On the 14th of September the French army occupied Moscow. On the - 16th, either by accident or on purpose, fire broke out in the Russian - capital. It raged for three days and three nights, and more than - three-fifths of the city was utterly destroyed. The Emperor Alexander - then entered into negotiations with Napoleon, and, whether he intended - it or not, he kept the French Emperor from moving until too late for - his safety. It was not until the 15th of October that Napoleon saw that - negotiating was waste of time, and started from Moscow. The winter was - an early one. Snow fell heavily. When Smolensk was reached, it was - found that all the provisions stored there had been destroyed. The - retreating army, now in a state of disorganisation, was hunted through - the country, not only by the Russian soldiers, but by the peasantry - returning to their homes. Marshal Ney covered the retreat, and won - on this occasion his title of ‘the bravest of the brave.’ Napoleon, - on being informed that a conspiracy against him, headed by General - Malet, had been discovered in Paris, left the retreating army early in - December. After his departure the cold increased. The retreat became - a rout; Murat, who succeeded to the command, could not keep the army - together; and but very few of the 155,000 Frenchmen who had invaded - Russia recrossed the river Niémen.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in the Peninsula. 1812.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Salamanca. 22d July 1812.</div> - - <p>While Napoleon was wrecking one army in Russia, Wellington was - defeating another French army in Spain. Marmont, who had succeeded - Masséna, failed to prevent the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo in January, - or that of Badajoz in April, and after a long course of intricate - manœuvres, gave Wellington the opportunity to attack and defeat him - at the battle of Salamanca, July 22, 1812. The victory was complete. - Joseph Bonaparte evacuated Madrid, and withdrawing all his troops from - Andalusia fell back behind the Ebro. Wellington occupied Madrid on - August 12, and then with his main army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> advanced on Burgos. Burgos, - however, resisted all his assaults. The Anglo-Portuguese army had to - retire once more into Portugal, and Joseph Bonaparte for the last - time returned to his capital. While this campaign was being fought - Lord William Bentinck, who commanded the English garrison in Sicily, - was requested to send troops to the eastern coast of Spain to effect - a diversion. But the operations were badly combined; Sir John Murray - was driven from before Tarragona; and at a subsequent date Lord - William Bentinck himself failed to make an impression on Suchet’s army - at Alicante. The victory of Salamanca was a proof of the insecure - foundation on which the throne of Joseph Bonaparte rested. Owing to it - alone he had to leave Madrid, and evacuate the whole of southern Spain; - the military policy of the English ministers was justified; and though - Salamanca cannot be compared with the disasters in Russia, it yet had - its effect in showing the increasing weakness of the French military - power.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Prussia declares war. 16th March 1813.</div> - - <p>The retreat of the French and their passage of the Niémen enabled - Prussia to throw off the mask of alliance with France. The Prussian - contingent, amounting to 18,000 men, had been placed under the command - of Marshal Macdonald, and was occupied in the siege of Riga. Napoleon - had hoped that this detached army upon his left would be joined by - Bernadotte at the head of the Swedes. But Bernadotte, as has been seen, - had forgotten his French nationality in accepting the position of heir - to the Swedish throne. His first idea was to make himself popular in - Sweden by securing the conquest of Norway to take the place of Finland, - and behind it lay the hope of possibly succeeding Napoleon himself. - In his original communications with the Emperor Alexander, he had - demanded the assistance of a Russian army for the conquest of Norway - as the price of his adhesion to the coalition against Napoleon. When - Alexander would not make a definite promise, Bernadotte applied to his - former sovereign in June 1812, and promised to assist in the French - invasion of Russia, if Napoleon would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> guarantee to him the possession - of Norway. But the French Emperor would make no compact with his former - marshal, and hoped that he would lend his assistance to the occupation - of St. Petersburg in return for vague promises. Bernadotte therefore - remained neutral, and Macdonald, without the expected help from Sweden, - could get no further than Riga. The retreat of the main French army - from Moscow made it necessary for Macdonald likewise to fall back, and - in the course of his retreat the Prussian contingent, under the command - of General York, deserted, and that general signed the Convention of - Tauroggen, on 30th December 1812, by which he abandoned France without - definitely declaring himself upon the side of Russia. Macdonald, with - his Westphalians and Poles, managed to leave Russia in safety, and - to join the remnants of the main army. But the desertion of York was - a symptom of what was to follow. Stein summoned the Estates of East - Prussia at Königsberg; the Prussians rose <i>en masse</i>, and the French - army, pursued by the Russian troops and these new enemies, retreated - behind the Vistula.</p> - - <p>Frederick William of Prussia at last threw off the mask, and, on the - 7th of February 1813, he called out the reserve which had been formed - by the skilful military policy of Scharnhorst, and ordered the Landwehr - and the Landsturm to join the colours; on 27th February he signed the - Treaty of Kalisch with Russia, promising alliance; on 16th March he - declared war against France; and he joined the headquarters of his - friend Alexander, and lived in his company until the termination of the - war. Prussian enthusiasm grew to its height; the reserves fell in from - every city and district, and the broken French army, which was now left - under the command of Eugène de Beauharnais, retreated first behind the - Oder and then behind the Elbe, leaving powerful garrisons in Dantzic, - Stettin, and the chief Prussian fortresses. The Russians of the army - of the right pursued vigorously, and after driving the French from - Berlin, the Russian generals, Chernishev and Tetterborn, took Hamburg. - The resurrection of Prussia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> and the rapid retreat of the French caused - Bernadotte to declare himself openly on the side of the allies, and he - crossed the Baltic and entered Germany at the head of a Swedish army of - 12,000 men. The King of Prussia’s declaration of war with France was - received with enthusiasm. Two separate Prussian armies were formed, - the first under Bülow to act with the Swedes, and the Russian army of - the right, and to defend Berlin, the other under Blücher in Silesia to - co-operate with the second invading army of the left from Russia. The - command in chief of this latter army was, after the death of Kutuzov in - May, conferred on Barclay de Tolly, while Wittgenstein commanded the - Russian contingent.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">First Campaign of 1813.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Armistice of Pleswitz. 3d June 1813.</div> - - <p>In the spring of 1813 Napoleon started for Germany to face the new - coalition. His Westphalian, Bavarian, and Saxon allies were still true - to him and increased their contingents. He called to his assistance the - old soldiers who were employed in the garrisons of Holland and Northern - Germany, and he raised a large number of fresh conscripts, who, in - spite of their youth and inexperience, were at once directed upon - Germany. At the head of 250,000 men, eventually increased to 300,000, - he invaded Saxony. He defeated Wittgenstein at Lutzen or Gross Görschen - on the 2d of May, at which battle his friend, Marshal Bessières was - killed, and Scharnhorst was mortally wounded, and reoccupied Saxony. He - defeated the whole of the allied army of Silesia at Bautzen on the 20th - of May, and established his headquarters at Dresden. Meanwhile Vandamme - had recaptured Hamburg, and, after placing it in a state of defence, - joined the Emperor in Saxony. After these vigorous blows both sides - desired a rest, and on the 3d of June the Armistice of Pleswitz was - signed, and it was agreed that a congress should be held at Prague to - consider if terms of peace could not be arranged. The important point - to be decided at Prague was the position to be adopted by Austria; and - both sides prepared to offer a high price for her active assistance, - for her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> intervention would probably settle the result of the war. - Napoleon trusted that his father-in-law, the Emperor Francis, would - not abandon him, and counted upon the assistance of an Austrian army. - He relied also upon the hereditary hatred of Austria for Prussia, and - promised his father-in-law, as the price of his active assistance, - not only the restoration of the Illyrian provinces, but of the whole - of Silesia, which Frederick the Great had torn from Maria Theresa. - Napoleon was even sanguine enough to count upon the former friendship - which the Emperor Alexander had felt for him, and he hoped that the - invasion of Russia would be forgiven if he guaranteed the possession - of the whole of Poland. The country which would be sacrificed by these - arrangements was Prussia. Napoleon projected the entire extinction of - the Prussian kingdom, and suggested that the kingdom of Westphalia - should be extended to the Oder. That he should venture to offer such - terms showed how entirely Napoleon misunderstood his position. The - Emperor Francis, although his daughter was Napoleon’s wife, could not - forget the humiliations that Austria had undergone, and allowed his - feelings as an Austrian to outweigh his sentiments as a father. The - Emperor Alexander had been entirely cured by the invasion of Russia of - his former infatuation, and now distrusted the French Emperor as much - as he had formerly believed in him; he had struck up an intimacy with - the King of Prussia, and had promised him his restoration to the whole - of his dominions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Convention of Reichenbach. 17th June 1813.</div> - - <p>Meanwhile the rulers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia signed a treaty at - Reichenbach on 17th June 1813, by which Austria assumed the position - of a mediator and promised to declare war against France, if the - conditions of peace, which she should offer, were rejected. In return - for this attitude, Austria was given a free hand to negotiate with - the South German States, and the idea of rousing a national German - feeling against France, which was strongly advocated by Stein, was - abandoned. Metternich had no liking for the national idea; it seemed - to him to bear the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> imprint of the spirit of the French Revolution, - and could only end in disaster to Austria. The rising of Prussia had - indeed been a success, but if it spread through Germany, it might - end in a united Germany with Prussia at its head, and the consequent - depreciation of the Austrian power. The example of Spain, which Stein - and patriotic Germans pointed to, seemed to cut in two ways; if, on - the one hand, it had raised a people in arms against Napoleon, on the - other it had encouraged revolutionary ideas. Both the Emperor Alexander - and King Frederick William felt the weight of these arguments, and the - conception of the war changed from a national uprising to a coalition - of the usual type. Under these circumstances, Napoleon’s propositions - were ignored, and proposals were made to him on the other hand that he - should be content with the natural limits of France, namely, the Rhine - and the Alps; that he should restore the Bourbons to Spain and the - independence of Holland; that he should abandon his position as head of - the Confederation of the Rhine and allow the Pope to return to Rome. - Murat was to remain at Naples, and Jerome on the throne of Westphalia, - and the terms offered were by no means unfavourable to France, though - perhaps hardly justified by the military position of the allies. - Metternich, who perceived that Austria held the key to the position, - brought these terms to Napoleon’s headquarters at Dresden, and informed - the Emperor that if they were not accepted, Austria would join the - coalition against him.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Austria declares war.</div> - - <p>Napoleon refused with scorn; Castlereagh, through the English - ambassador, Lord Aberdeen, promised large subsidies to Austria; and - on the 1st of August 1813, the Emperor of Austria promised definitely - to join the allies with 200,000 men if Napoleon refused to accept the - terms offered to him. The Congress met at Prague. Caulaincourt, the - French plenipotentiary, stated that he had no power to accept the terms - offered by Francis, and Austria, on the 12th of August, declared war - against France. On the 14th of August, when it was too late, Napoleon - declared his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> acceptance of the terms, and received the answer that the - whole matter must be referred to the allied monarchs. War in fact was - inevitable, and the Armistice of Pleswitz was at an end.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Second Campaign of 1813 in Germany.</div> - - <p>The intervention of Austria not only deprived Napoleon of an expected - ally, but endangered his military position in Saxony, as a strong - Austrian army was being concentrated in Bohemia under the command of - Prince Charles von Schwartzenberg. Nevertheless the French Emperor - refused to retire, and prepared at the head of 300,000 men to make face - against the allies in spite of their great superiority in number. The - plan of campaign of the allies was drawn up by Moreau, who had been - induced to leave America and give the advantage of his advice to the - Czar of Russia. There was also upon the staff of the Russian army one - of the ablest strategists in Europe who, like Moreau, had formerly - been an officer in the French army, General Jomini. The plan was to - direct an army from the north, of Prussians, Russians and Swedes, under - Bülow, Chernishev, and Bernadotte, an army from the east of Russians, - called the Army of Poland, which was being formed under Benningsen, - an army from Silesia, of Prussians under Blücher, and Russians under - Wittgenstein, and finally an army of Austrians under Schwartzenberg, - assisted by the Russian main army of Barclay de Tolly, and the Russian - Imperial Guard under the Grand Duke Constantine, upon Dresden. But - Napoleon with his accustomed rapidity of action determined to strike - first, and he detached three corps under Oudinot, Macdonald and - Vandamme, against Bernadotte, Blücher, and Schwartzenberg; Benningsen - was too far in the rear to be dangerous. Oudinot and Macdonald were - defeated by Bernadotte and Blücher at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach - respectively, on the 23d and 25th of August, and Schwartzenberg, - instead of waiting for the other armies, attacked the French centre at - Dresden. On the 26th and 27th of August a terrible battle was fought, - in which Moreau was mortally wounded. Napoleon was successful, but he - suffered severe losses which he was unable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> to repair. Three days later - he received the news that Vandamme’s army, which had penetrated into - Bohemia to cut off Schwartzenberg’s communications, had been forced to - capitulate at Kulm to the Russians under Barclay de Tolly. The battle - of Dresden proved to the allies that it was impossible for one of their - armies to overthrow Napoleon unassisted, and they therefore recurred to - their original plan. Napoleon once more endeavoured to break from his - defensive position and struck at Berlin; but Marshal Ney was defeated - by Bernadotte and Bülow at Dennewitz, on 6th September, and he had - to wait while the ring formed round him. The Emperor’s losses during - the first part of this campaign had been immense. He had lost over - 10,000 men by the capitulation of Kulm; his young soldiers had been - decimated at the Katzbach and Dennewitz; and the troops of the German - contingents deserted <i>en masse</i>. In fact when the operations of the - allies were completed and their armies had concentrated around Leipzig, - to which place he had withdrawn, he had not more than 160,000 men, - whose confidence was shaken by repeated defeats, to oppose to more than - double that number.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Töplitz. 19th Sept. 1813.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Leipzig. 16th-19th October 1813.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Hanau.</div> - - <p>After the battle of Dresden, the army of Schwartzenberg retired into - Bohemia, and the allied monarchs determined to define their position - as to the future. The enormous armies they were concentrating made - them feel sure of success, if they held together. On 9th September the - important Treaty of Töplitz was signed. By this treaty it was agreed - that Prussia and Austria should be restored as nearly as possible to - the limits they had held in 1805, that the Confederation of the Rhine - should be dissolved, and that entire independence should be granted - to the states of southern and western Germany. This decision overcame - the lingering hesitation of the south German monarchs, who had feared - retaliation from the allies for their consistent adhesion to Napoleon. - Of these states, Bavaria was the chief, and on 8th October the Treaty - of Ried was signed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> between Austria and Bavaria, by which Bavaria - promised the aid of 36,000 men in return for complete indemnity and the - recognition of complete sovereignty in her dominions. Then the allies - in their full strength attacked Napoleon. For three days, from the 16th - to the 19th of October, the terrible battle of Leipzig was fought. The - result was a foregone conclusion, and even without the desertion of the - Saxons in the course of the battle, the ruin of the French army was - certain. Napoleon’s forces were not only defeated, they were destroyed, - and in the utmost disorder the routed French divisions fled in a state - of disorganisation across Germany. At this moment Maximilian Joseph - of Bavaria, whom Napoleon had made a king, declared against him as - he had promised, and not only withdrew the Bavarian contingent, but - endeavoured to check the French retreat. At the battle of Hanau on - October the 30th, however, the remnant of the French army broke through - the Bavarians, and it eventually found safety behind the Rhine.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Insurrection of Germany against Napoleon 1813.</div> - - <p>The battle of Leipzig was followed by a general rising throughout - central Europe against the French. The secret societies which had - been formed to promote the idea of the freedom of Germany acted in - every direction. Many isolated regiments of the French army were - cut off and the French garrisons in the various German cities were - closely besieged. The benefits which had been conferred by French - administration were forgotten and the people thought only of the - humiliation of the French occupation. Nor was this spirit confined - to Germany. The Dutch rose in rebellion, and declared in all the - chief cities of Holland for the Prince of Orange. That prince at once - left England and set himself at the head of the insurgents, and Lord - Castlereagh a few months later sent to his assistance an English - force under the command of Sir Thomas Graham to reduce the few Dutch - fortresses still occupied by French garrisons. In Italy also an almost - universal insurrection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> broke out against the French domination. Lord - William Bentinck, who commanded the English army which occupied Sicily, - sailed to Genoa with a powerful force and encouraged the insurgents - in that quarter. Meanwhile an Austrian army under General Hiller - invaded Italy from the north-east and defeated Eugène de Beauharnais - at Valsarno on the 26th of October. Against this unanimity of national - opposition Napoleon could make but little headway; the French people - were tired of the conscription; they had not approved of the invasion - of Russia; and were indisposed at the moment of crisis to support the - Emperor.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign in the Peninsula 1813.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Vittoria. 21st June.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Wellington invades France. Oct. 1813.</div> - - <p>While the French armies were suffering the succession of disasters - which expelled them from Germany, a similar series of catastrophes - occurred in Spain. Wellington broke up from his quarters in the summer - of 1813, and marching in a north-easterly direction attempted to - cut off all communication between France and Madrid. This movement - completely overthrew the French domination in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte - with all the troops he could collect fled from Madrid. He was unable to - defend himself behind the Ebro as in 1812, for the positions on that - river had been skilfully turned. Wellington eventually came up with - the French army at Vittoria. There Marshal Jourdan, who commanded for - King Joseph, endeavoured to resist, but he was completely defeated by - the Anglo-Portuguese army on the 21st of June 1813. This victory drove - the French back into France, for Suchet was likewise obliged to abandon - his conquests in Valencia, and to retire into the mountains of Arragon - and Catalonia. The victory in the field was followed as in Germany - by a burst of national enthusiasm. The Spanish guerillas destroyed - every isolated French post, and even managed to place some serviceable - divisions at the disposition of Wellington. The English general took up - a position on the French frontier between Pampeluna and San Sebastian, - blockading the former and besieging the latter place. To face him Soult - was sent to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> south-west of France to defend the frontier. On the - 31st of August San Sebastian was stormed; Pampeluna speedily fell; - and Wellington was able to establish a new base of operations, and to - invade France. On the 10th of November the Anglo-Portuguese army drove - Soult from his positions on the Nivelle, and after the battles of the - Nive or Saint Pierre from the 9th to the 13th of December Wellington - invested Bayonne.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Negotiations for Peace.</div> - - <p>These repeated disasters in different quarters induced Napoleon to - consider the advisability of concluding a peace. He was now only too - ready to accept the terms offered to him at the Congress of Prague. - The allies were by no means so united as they seemed. The Austrian - Minister Metternich, in particular, was not desirous of destroying the - power of France. England had no wish to come to any conclusion which - should disproportionately increase the strength of Russia, and the aim - of all the allied monarchs was to allow France to develop in her own - way as long as she withdrew her pretensions to interfere in Europe. - Metternich’s proposals, in November 1813, were that France should - preserve her natural limits of the Rhine and the Alps, but should - restore all former rulers in Holland, Italy, and Spain. Napoleon gave - evidence of his desire for peace at this period by the dismissal of - his Foreign Secretary, Maret, Duc de Bassano, and the appointment of - Caulaincourt, Duc de Vicenza, who was known to be in favour of peace - and was also a personal friend of the Emperor Alexander, at whose Court - he had been ambassador during the palmy days of the alliance between - France and Russia. The terms of peace offered by Metternich, which - are known as the Proposals of Frankfort, at which city the allied - monarchs were residing, were confided to M. de Saint-Aignan, a French - diplomatist who had been taken prisoner during the advance of the - allies and who was the brother-in-law of Caulaincourt. The proposals - were definitely acceded to by Lord Aberdeen on the part of England and - by Hardenberg on the part of Prussia. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> favourable nature of them - was dictated by the fear entertained by the allied monarchs that France - would rise in her might as she had done in 1793 if her borders were - invaded. For this reason the allies remained for some weeks upon the - right bank of the Rhine, concentrating their forces and hesitating to - advance. Napoleon, however, could not understand that he was beaten. - Instead of replying at once to the Proposals of Frankfort, which were - dated the 9th of November, it was not until late in December that he - instructed Caulaincourt to go to the allied quarters and discuss them. - His instructions to Caulaincourt showed how little he appreciated the - position of affairs. He demanded that, in addition to the natural - limits of France, he should hold the cities of Wesel, Cassel opposite - Mayence, and Kehl opposite Strasbourg on the right bank of the Rhine, - which fairly signified that he did not abandon his projects on Germany. - He further demanded that a kingdom should be formed for his brother - Jerome in Germany, and for Eugène de Beauharnais in Italy. Before these - counter-propositions reached the headquarters of the allied monarchs, - they had resolved to invade France, and the opportunity was gone for - ever for France to attain her natural limits under the sanction of - Europe.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Invasion of France 1814. First Campaign.</div> - - <p>The attitude of the allies, as indicated in the Proposals of Frankfort, - was mainly dictated by Metternich, who did not desire to see his - Emperor’s son-in-law dethroned or to see France greatly weakened. - But the Emperor Alexander and his friend, the King of Prussia, soon - repented of the assent they had given to Metternich’s ideas. Alexander - desired to invade France as a reply to the invasion of Russia in 1812, - and hoped to occupy Paris as Napoleon had occupied Moscow. The King - of Prussia, and still more his generals and ministers, had felt most - keenly the humiliating condition to which Prussia had been degraded, - and desired to wreak their vengeance on France. It was therefore agreed - that since the Proposals of Frankfort had not been promptly accepted, - the result of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> successful invasion of France should be the return of - that country into the limits she possessed at the beginning of the wars - of the Revolution. The attitude of Russia and Prussia was that adopted - by England. Lord Castlereagh heard with dismay, that it was intended - to allow France the limits of the Rhine, for by that concession she - would hold Belgium and Antwerp, which it had been the consistent policy - of all English Ministers for many generations to keep independent of - France. The barrier treaties of former days, and the wars against Louis - <span class="smcap">XIV.</span> had been sustained for the purpose of keeping France - out of the Belgian Netherlands, and the English cabinet resolved to - continue this classic policy. For this purpose, Lord Castlereagh was in - person despatched to the headquarters of the allied monarchs, with the - greatest powers ever granted to a British statesman. He was given ‘full - powers to negotiate and conclude of his own authority, and without - further consultation with the government, all conventions or treaties, - either for the prosecution of war or for the restoration of peace.’<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - - <p>Lord Castlereagh sailed from Harwich on the 31st of December 1813, on - which day Blücher with the main Prussian army, known as the Army of - Silesia, crossed the Rhine in three columns at Coblentz, Mannheim, and - Mayence. Blücher was supported by three Russian <i>corps d’armée</i>, but - it was further south that the main Russian army in conjunction with - the Austrians invaded France under the command of Schwartzenberg. It - was not without some difficulty that the Emperor Alexander was induced - to consent to the violation of the neutrality of Switzerland. But the - military arguments put forward by his generals overcame his scruples. - By marching through Switzerland, Schwartzenberg’s army was enabled to - turn the mountains of the Jura, and to leave the French fortresses - on the Rhine, behind him. This invasion on two distinct lines gave - Napoleon the opportunity <span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span>of carrying out one of the military manœuvres - of which he was most fond. He concentrated between the two invading - armies a force of between 50,000 and 70,000 men. This was a terrible - falling off from the vast armies with which he had invaded Russia in - 1812, and fought the allies in Saxony in 1813; it was a falling off not - only in numbers, but in military efficiency, for with the exception - of the remnant of the Guard, he had only under his command some - regiments of conscripts and national guards untrained to war. At this - period Napoleon bitterly repented the mistake he had made, in leaving - over 150,000 veteran soldiers as garrisons in the various fortresses - in Europe. The presence of these men would very likely have turned - the scale. He had left, for instance, 12,000 men in Hamburg under - the command of Marshal Davout, 16,000 in Magdeburg, 8000 in Dantzic, - and large garrisons in other distant cities, such as Stettin. These - fortresses were blockaded by local militia; their occupation did not - withdraw many regular troops from the allied armies, while it fatally - weakened the resources of France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s Victories in France. 1814.</div> - - <p>Nevertheless, with his boy conscripts and his Guard, Napoleon fought - one of his greatest campaigns. Blücher foolishly scattered his troops, - after his entry into Champagne. Napoleon quickly took advantage of - his mistake. He cut up division after division of Blücher’s army - at Brienne, Champaubert, Montmirail, and Vauchamps, between the - 29th of January and the 14th of February, and then turning against - Schwartzenberg, who had also scattered his forces, he defeated a - Russian division at Nangis, and an Austrian division at Montereau - on the 17th and 18th of February. These rapid blows startled and - disconcerted the allies. Blücher’s army was practically destroyed; - Schwartzenberg fell back, and asked for an armistice; and proposals - were made for the evacuation of France. It was only the constancy of - the Emperor Alexander and the determination of Lord Castlereagh which - induced the allies to persist. Two <i>corps d’armée</i>, one of Prussians - under Bülow, the other of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> Russians under Wintzingerode, were on - Lord Castlereagh’s sole authority detached from Bernadotte’s army - and ordered to reinforce Blücher. Meanwhile, Alexander insisted that - Schwartzenberg should concentrate instead of retiring. In reality, - Napoleon’s successes were more fatal to himself than to the allies, - for they induced him to break off the negotiations at the Congress of - Châtillon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Other movements against Napoleon. 1814.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Bernadotte.</div> - - <p>While the first campaign of 1814 was being fought out in France, the - movement against Napoleon was becoming general. Bernadotte had after - the victory of Leipzig been placed in command of the army in northern - Germany. Full of the idea which had been suggested to him by the - Emperor Alexander in 1812, that he might succeed Napoleon on the throne - of France, Bernadotte did not wish to appear before his own countrymen - in the light of an invader. He had occupied himself for some weeks - after the battle of Leipzig with blockading Davout in Hamburg, and - fighting the Danes in Holstein. Even if he could not obtain the throne - of France, he was quite resolved to win Norway, and for this purpose - he attacked the Danes, and after some fighting, compelled Frederick - <span class="smcap">VI.</span> of Denmark to sign the Treaty of Kiel on 14th January - 1814, by which Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish - Pomerania. Bernadotte even went so far as to negotiate with Davout, to - whom he promised a free passage to France with all his troops as the - price of the surrender of Hamburg. But the Emperor Alexander would not - submit to this, and Bernadotte was imperiously ordered only to leave a - blockading force before Hamburg, and to advance to the French frontier.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Holland.</div> - - <p>It was at this juncture that Bernadotte was deprived of his two finest - <i>corps d’armée</i>, which were ordered up to the assistance of Blücher. - But in addition to the danger threatened by Bernadotte’s army, Napoleon - also met with serious opposition in the Netherlands. The Dutch people - declared for the Prince of Orange, and Holland was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> quickly lost. - A force under the command of the Prince marched into Belgium, and - besieged Antwerp, which was defended by the former member of the - Committee of Public Safety, Carnot, who, though neglected by Napoleon - in the days of his greatness, had come to the help of France in the - time of her distress. To assist the Prince an English division under - Sir Thomas Graham had, as has been said, been despatched to Holland. - Graham failed to take Bergen-op-Zoom on the 20th of February, but - his presence in the Netherlands not only encouraged the Dutch, but - prevented Napoleon from obtaining help from that quarter.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Augereau.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Wellington wins battle of Orthez. 27th February</div> - - <p>In the south, Marshal Augereau, whom the Emperor had placed in - command at Lyons, was, as he himself said, no longer the Augereau of - Castiglione. He had been directed to make a diversion against the - Austrian left as it entered France with some conscripts and troops - drawn from the former Army of Spain, but he remained inactive, and his - operations were of no assistance to the Emperor. In the south-west - corner of France, Soult was unable to do more than make head against - Wellington and the Anglo-Portuguese army. After the battles of the Nive - or of Saint Pierre, Bayonne was completely invested, and Wellington, - leaving the left of his army to carry on the siege, marched eastwards - against Soult. That marshal had been weakened by the detachments - he had been ordered to send to Augereau, and to Napoleon himself. - Nevertheless, he made a gallant stand at Orthez on the 27th of - February, but was defeated and forced to fall back further into France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Italy.</div> - - <p>In Italy the Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais, who in the retreat from - Russia had given evidence that he was a general of the very first - order, offered a gallant resistance to the Austrians under General - Hiller. But the defection of the King of Bavaria, his father-in-law, - opened the passes of the Tyrol to the Austrians, and Eugène de - Beauharnais was then compelled to retreat. At the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> commencement of - 1814, Metternich entered into negotiations with Murat, the King of - Naples. Through the influence of his wife, Caroline Murat, sister of - Napoleon, with whom Metternich had been in most intimate relations - when he was ambassador at Paris, Murat, in the hope of preserving - his kingdom, issued a violent proclamation against his benefactor, - Napoleon, and advanced to the banks of the Po, at the head of a - Neapolitan army of 80,000 men. This movement caused Eugène de - Beauharnais, whose fidelity to his stepfather shines out in bright - contrast to the treachery of Murat, to fall back still further. He - defeated the Austrians under Marshal Bellegarde on the Mincio on the - 8th of February, but was unable to follow up his success owing to the - position of Murat. In his rear, Lord William Bentinck had landed at - Genoa and issued a proclamation promising independence to that city, - and the support of England in securing the independence and unity of - Italy. Napoleon at one time thought of calling Eugène de Beauharnais to - his side, but his rapid victories over the isolated <i>corps d’armée</i> of - the allies in February caused him to abandon this wise project.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Congress of Châtillon. 3d Feb.-19th March 1814.</div> - - <p>It has been said that one effect of Napoleon’s victories was to break - up the Congress of Châtillon. It had been suggested that a congress - should meet at Mannheim at the time of the Proposals of Frankfort, but - Napoleon’s delay prevented it from assembling until after the invasion - of France was an accomplished fact. The success of this invasion - altered the attitude of the allies towards France. They saw that the - French nation was not going to arise in its might as it had done in - 1793. They heard through sure hands that the people were almost in open - rebellion against the Emperor. The Legislative Body had dared to oppose - his wishes. Everywhere the conscription was evaded, and there was a - muttered feeling throughout France that the country had had enough of - war and that it was time that the blood-tax on the French youth should - cease. Even the army itself was beginning to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> despair. The Emperor had - lost his prestige in Russia and at Leipzig. His soldiers were not the - veterans of his former wars; his generals and his marshals began to - murmur and to fear that a war <i>à outrance</i> would end in their personal - ruin. Under these circumstances the Congress of Châtillon met on the 3d - of February 1814. The French plenipotentiary was Caulaincourt, the most - upright of Napoleon’s statesmen. The other powers nominated, not their - chief ministers, Metternich, Nesselrode, Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, - although they were all at headquarters, but subordinate diplomatists, - namely, Count Philip Stadion, the predecessor of Metternich, for - Austria, William von Humboldt for Prussia, Razumovski for Russia, and - Lord Cathcart, Lord Aberdeen, and Sir Charles Stewart for England.</p> - - <p>At Châtillon very different conditions from the Proposals of Frankfort - were offered. The main stipulation was that France should return to - her limits before the Revolution. England haughtily declared that the - naval question with regard to the rights of neutrals was not to be - mentioned, and everything was made subject to the great question of - the French limits. Caulaincourt disputed the proposals on the ground - that it was unfair that France should be reduced to the limits she had - held in 1789 while the other powers had been so vastly increased by - the rearrangement of Germany and the partition of Poland. Nevertheless - he was most anxious that Napoleon should accept these proposals. He - granted that they were worse than the Proposals of Frankfort, but - argued that if the war continued they were likely to be worse still. - Napoleon, however, looked upon the Congress as an opportunity for - gaining time. He believed that by his military successes he would avert - the disasters which threatened him, and on the day of the battle of - Montereau, the 18th of February, he wrote that he was only willing - to agree to a peace on the basis of the Frankfort Proposals, and in - his own handwriting he added to his despatch to Caulaincourt, ‘Sign - nothing.’<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> It <span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>is worthy of note that in the Proposals of Châtillon - nothing was said about Napoleon himself. The Emperor Francis assumed - that his son-in-law would remain upon the throne of France, and Lord - Castlereagh expressed no view to the contrary. But the English Minister - was absolutely determined not to yield to Napoleon’s demand for the - natural limits of France. England was the paymaster of the coalition, - and Castlereagh having just promised £10,000,000 to pay the military - expenses of 1814 felt that he had the right to insist on his demand. - Napoleon in after years declared that his persistence in retaining - Belgium was the reason for his refusal to accede to the Proposals of - Châtillon. ‘Antwerp,’ he said to Las Cases, ‘was to me a province in - itself; it was the principal cause of my exile to Saint Helena, for - it was the required cession of that fortress which made me refuse the - terms offered at Châtillon. If they would have left it to me peace - would have been concluded.’<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Metternich wrote to Caulaincourt - pressing the acceptance of the Proposals of Châtillon, but Napoleon - obstinately refused, and the Congress had practically failed by the - beginning of March, though it did not actually break up until the 19th - of that month.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Attitude of France towards Napoleon.</div> - - <p>The fact that the French nation did not rise in arms against the - invaders has been mentioned as the primary cause for the difference - between the terms offered at Frankfort and at Châtillon. Nothing proves - more completely how thoroughly Napoleon had extinguished the spirit of - the Revolution than the lukewarmness with which his call to arms was - received in 1814. In 1793 the invasion of France had caused a frenzy of - patriotism. The people had submitted to the Reign of Terror, because - it meant a strong government which could expel the English, Prussians, - and Austrians. France was at that time hemmed in by difficulties - infinitely greater than those which she had to face in 1814. Then - she had no great general. In 1814 she possessed one of the greatest - generals <span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>the world has ever seen. In 1793 she was torn by civil war - in La Vendée and by brigands in every sparsely populated district. In - 1814 she had enjoyed fifteen years of internal tranquillity. In 1793 - her finances were utterly disordered, her industries were destroyed, - and the whole country a prey to anarchy. In 1814 she had been for years - the chief nation in Europe, and the wealth of other countries had - been drained to enrich her. But the difference was that in 1793 and - the succeeding years the French people felt that they were fighting - to ward off the interference of foreign nations in their internal - affairs, whereas in 1814 they were called on to defend the power of - a single man who had infringed the rights and the freedom of other - nations. By his bureaucratic system Napoleon had crushed out the power - of popular initiative which had been the strength of the Republic; by - his suppression of individual liberty he had made the majority of the - French people disaffected to his Empire.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Exhaustion of France.</div> - - <p>There must be considered also the exhaustion of actual physical - resources. In the campaigns of 1812 and 1813, it is estimated that - nearly 750,000 Frenchmen were either killed, wounded, or taken - prisoner. Before that time the Grand Army had been slowly destroyed - on many a field of battle, and there simply were not sufficient men - of military instinct and physical strength to fill the ranks. In - 1813 Napoleon enrolled the conscripts whose turn would have come in - 1815—mere boys of sixteen, who had melted away after the battle of - Leipzig—and the men he called to the ranks in 1814 were those who had - been passed over by the conscription in previous years, and were too - long inured to civil life to be willing to serve as soldiers.</p> - - <p>To the feeling that resistance to the invaders was not a national - duty, must be added a general indisposition to support the Empire. The - opinions which had found vent during the French Revolution had not been - extinguished by the Empire; they had only been suppressed; and all - the educated part of the nation was united in desiring representative - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>institutions so as to exercise a share in directing the policy of the - government. This opinion showed itself in the Legislative Body which - was summoned in December 1813. Napoleon had announced that his cause - was the cause of France; but in return the leaders of the Legislative - Body only begged him to make peace. A paragraph was inserted in the - report of the Legislative Body upon the Proposals of Frankfort, which - contains the following words: ‘It belongs to the Government according - to the Constitution to propose the most effectual means to repel the - enemy and secure peace. These means will only be effectual if the - French people are convinced that their blood will be shed only to - defend the country and our protective laws. It appears, therefore, - indispensable that at the same time that His Majesty shall propose - the most prompt and efficacious measures for the safety of the State, - the Government should be besought to maintain the entire and constant - execution of the laws which guarantee to the French people the rights - of liberty, security, and property, and to the nation the complete - enjoyment of its political rights. That guarantee appears the most - effectual means for restoring to the French people the energy necessary - for their defence in the present crisis.’ Napoleon was much irritated - by this attack on his arbitrary authority, and although this paragraph - was expunged from the report by 254 votes to 223 he nevertheless - dissolved the Legislative Body in a rage.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Bourbons.</div> - - <p>Neither at the Congress of Châtillon nor in the Legislative Body was - a single word said about restoring the Bourbons. They had lost all - credit during their exile. The French people did not want them. The - allied powers did not care about them. By Lord Castlereagh’s orders - Wellington received the Duc d’Angoulême, son of the Comte d’Artois, in - his camp in the south of France, but he distinctly refused to recognise - him in any way whatever. The English general went further and issued - a proclamation in which he declared that the war was being waged for - security to Europe, not for a change of dynasty in France, and that no - interference was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> either intended or would be permitted in the free - decision of the French people with regard to their internal government. - When the Duc d’Angoulême was favourably received in Bordeaux and the - Mayor of that city hoisted the white flag, Wellington wrote to the - Bourbon prince defining his attitude and censuring the assertion in the - Duke’s proclamation, that he was supported by England.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Chaumont. 1st March 1814.</div> - - <p>In spite of his real weakness Napoleon was so infatuated by his - successes in February 1814 that, as has been said, the Congress came to - an end, but he was not far wrong in his estimation of the effect of his - victories upon the allied monarchs. So profoundly was Schwartzenberg - terrified by the destruction of Blücher’s army and the victories of - Nangis and Montereau that he wished to retreat from France. Differences - between the powers at this juncture threatened to break up the - coalition, and it was only the determination of Lord Castlereagh that - kept them together. The English minister on the 1st of March 1814 - concluded the secret Treaty of Chaumont. By this treaty the relations - of the allied monarchs to each other on several points were defined, - and though many fresh causes of dissension arose at a later date, it - was the Treaty of Chaumont which kept the powers together until the - overthrow of Napoleon, and which laid the basis of the final settlement - at Vienna. By this treaty the four great powers, England, Russia, - Austria and Prussia, bound themselves, if France refused to return - within her ancient limits, to form an offensive and defensive alliance. - Each member of the coalition was to maintain 150,000 men in the field, - and England bound herself, in addition to paying her own contingent - and maintaining her navy, to contribute a subsidy of £5,000,000 a year - to be divided equally amongst the other three contracting parties. - As England by this arrangement offered more than twice as much as - any other country, Castlereagh practically became the master of the - coalition. After peace was concluded each of the powers was to furnish - a contingent of 60,000 men if any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> one of them were attacked. The - resettlement of Europe was to be arranged on the following bases: that - the German Empire should be restored as a federal union; that Holland - and Belgium should be united into a monarchy under the House of Orange; - that Spain should be restored to its ancient sovereign; that Italy - should be divided into independent states; and that Switzerland should - be guaranteed as independent and neutral by all the great powers.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s Second Campaign in France. March 1814.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Paris. 30th March 1814.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Occupation of Paris by the Allies.</div> - - <p>The result of the Treaty of Chaumont was to stiffen the attitude of - the allies in France. All thought of retreat was abandoned and both - the Austrians under Schwartzenberg, and the Army of Silesia under - Blücher recommenced their advance upon Paris. Napoleon pursued the - tactics which had been crowned with success in the month of February, - and prepared to strike at each of the invading armies in turn. His - first movement as before was against Blücher. The Army of Silesia - had been reduced by the actions of Champaubert, Montmirail, etc., - from 60,000 to 30,000 men, but it was now increased to more than its - former number by the arrival of Saint Priest’s Russians and of the - two corps of Bülow and Wintzingerode which had been detached from - Bernadotte by Lord Castlereagh. Napoleon was not aware of the extent - of these reinforcements, and he therefore with his army of barely - 30,000 men ventured to attack Blücher. On the 7th and 9th of March, - the severe actions of Craonne and Laon were fought. Neither side won - victories, but Napoleon failed to repeat his former successes, which - was tantamount to a defeat. After the battle of Laon both Blücher and - Napoleon reviewed the armies at their disposal, and the disparity of - their strength is shown by the fact that whereas Blücher reviewed - 109,000 men, Napoleon found that including all reinforcements, he had - but 46,000. Having failed to check the Prussians, Napoleon turned to - attack Schwartzenberg’s army. On the 20th of March he fought an action - at Arcis-sur-Aube, in which the Russians repulsed the French attack. - The Emperor then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> resolved on a final effort. He determined to attack - the lines of communication of the invaders, and marched towards the - Vosges Mountains. But the invaders were in too strong force to be - terrified by this manœuvre. A few divisions only were left to watch - him, and the main armies continued their advance on Paris. On March - the 30th, Schwartzenberg and Blücher arrived in front of the French - capital. They had under their command about 200,000 men, whereas - Marshals Marmont and Mortier, who had been charged with the defence of - Paris, could not get under arms more than 28,000 including the National - Guard. In spite of this enormous difference of strength the two - marshals took up a position and prepared to defend Paris. But after the - most obstinate resistance the allies carried the French position after - ten hours’ fighting on the 30th of March, and on the following day - the Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia entered Paris. Napoleon - rapidly followed the allied army, but the occupation of Paris was fatal - to his cause. He was ready to continue the war, but his marshals were - not. On the 4th of April Ney, Macdonald, Oudinot, and Lefebvre had an - interview with the Emperor, and told him that the army would fight no - more. Napoleon was obliged to give heed to their remonstrances, and he - sent Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt to make what arrangements might - be possible with the allied monarchs.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Provisional Government at Paris.</div> - - <p>On entering Paris the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William - proceeded at once to the residence of Talleyrand. That astute - statesman quickly decided upon a definite policy. He understood that - the allies had hitherto treated with Napoleon, and that they were not - favourably disposed to the Bourbons. He knew that the French nation - did not desire the return of the former dynasty. But he felt that the - only method which would enable France to take up a logical position - on the Continent was by the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. If - Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> were accepted as King of France, it would be a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> - contradiction in terms to their professed belief in hereditary rights, - and their hatred for the results of the Revolution, for the allied - monarchs to attack the unity of France. For this reason Talleyrand - persuaded Alexander that it would be inadmissible either to accept the - government of the Empress Marie Louise in the name of her son, the King - of Rome, or still less to recognise Alexander’s candidate, Bernadotte. - In his own words to the Emperor: ‘Any attempt to create a Regency or to - appoint Bernadotte is a mere intrigue; nothing remains but Bonaparte or - the Bourbons.’ Alexander then declared that he would no longer treat - with Napoleon, and Talleyrand as Vice-Arch-Chancellor of the Empire - summoned the Senate to meet upon the 1st of April.</p> - - <p>The Senate at once elected a Provisional Government consisting of - Talleyrand as President and the Comte de Bournonville, former War - Minister of the Republic, the Comte de Jaucourt, a former leader of - the Legislative Assembly, the Abbé de Montesquiou, a former leader of - the Constituent Assembly, and the Duc de Dalberg, nephew of the Prince - Primate of Germany. The Senate then resolved that, whatever government - should be adopted, the sale of the national and ecclesiastical estates - in the days of the Revolution should be ratified, the liberty of - worship and of the press established, and a general amnesty declared. - On the following day the Emperor Alexander addressed the Senate. He - said: ‘It is neither ambition nor the love of conquest which has - led me hither; my armies have only entered France to repel unjust - aggressions. Your Emperor carried war into the heart of my dominions - when I only wished for peace. I am a friend of the French People; I - impute their faults to their chief alone; I am here with the most - friendly intentions; I wish only to protect your deliberations. You - are charged with one of the most glorious missions which generous men - can discharge,—that of securing the happiness of a great people, in - giving France institutions, at once strong and liberal, with which she - cannot dispense in the advanced state of civilisation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> to which she has - attained.’ Alexander in conclusion, as a sign of his goodwill, declared - that he would release the 150,000 French prisoners of war then in - Russia.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Abdication of Napoleon. 6th April 1814.</div> - - <p>That evening the Senate solemnly declared Napoleon to be no longer - Emperor, and formed a Provisional Ministry, including Comte Beugnot, - Minister of the Interior, Baron Louis, Minister of Finance, and General - Dupont, who had been disgraced for the Capitulation of Baylen, Minister - for War. Matters had reached this stage when Napoleon’s emissaries - Ney, Macdonald, and Caulaincourt, arrived at the headquarters of the - allied monarchs. These faithful adherents proposed that Napoleon - should abdicate in favour of his infant son. This offer, which would - have been gladly received some days before, was now rejected, owing - to the influence of Talleyrand, and on April the 6th, when Napoleon - received the news of this rejection, he unconditionally abdicated - at Fontainebleau. This step was made necessary by the fact that the - faithful marshals could not even speak in the name of the whole army on - behalf of Napoleon. Marshal Marmont, who had distinguished himself in - the great battle before Paris, had made separate terms for himself and - placed his army at the disposal of the allies. The desertion of Marmont - deprived Napoleon of the greater part of the forces on which he relied, - and rendered his unconditional abdication necessary.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Provisional Treaty of Paris. 11th April 1814.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Battle of Toulouse. 10th April 1814.</div> - - <p>The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the arrival of Lord - Castlereagh in Paris. The English minister had since the breaking up of - the Congress of Châtillon remained at the headquarters of the Emperor - of Austria at Dijon. It was there that he had entered into intimate - relations with Metternich, relations which were to lead to most - important results. On the 11th of April 1814, the Provisional Treaty - of Paris was signed. It was essentially a treaty between the Emperor - Napoleon, through his plenipotentiaries, and the allied monarchs. - It was not a treaty with France, for Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></span> had not - arrived from England, or been recognised as king, and the Provisional - Government could only enter into provisional arrangements. By this - treaty, which was signed by Caulaincourt, Macdonald, Ney, Metternich, - Nesselrode, Hardenberg, and Castlereagh, Napoleon renounced for himself - and his descendants the Empire of France and the Kingdom of Italy. He - was, however, to retain the title of Emperor; the island of Elba was - erected into an independent principality for him, and an income of - £180,000 a year was granted to him. The duchies of Parma and Piacenza - were secured in full sovereignty to the Empress Marie Louise, and after - her decease to the King of Rome, and the divorced Empress Josephine was - given an annuity of £40,000 a year. On the day before this treaty was - signed, April 10th, 1814, the Battle of Toulouse was fought. Wellington - after his victory of Orthez had rapidly followed Soult into the heart - of Southern France. When he attacked the French positions in front of - Toulouse, he was ignorant of the great events which had been passing at - Paris and at Fontainebleau, and it was only after his entrance into the - city that he perceived the white cockade was being worn.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Arrival of Louis XVIII.</div> - - <p>On the 20th of April 1814, Napoleon bade farewell to the Guard at - Fontainebleau, and started for Elba, and on the 24th his successor, - Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, who had not entered France since his escape - in 1791, landed at Calais. The new King was eminently fitted by his - natural character, which had been matured by his long exile, for a - constitutional monarch, but unfortunately he was surrounded by men who - had shared his exile, and who did not share his placable disposition. - On the 2d of May, when he had reached the neighbourhood of Paris, Louis - <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> published what is known as the Declaration of St. Ouen. - In this declaration, he promised a constitution to the French people, - which should provide among other things for a representative government - with two chambers, complete liberty of worship and the press,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> the - right of the representatives to grant taxation, the inviolability of - all property, including national and ecclesiastical estates, which had - been sold during the Revolution, the responsibility of the ministers, - irremoveability of the judges, and complete equality before the law. - On the following day, he entered Paris amid general rejoicings, for - the French people had forgotten their grievances of olden time in the - memory of their more recent sufferings in the latter years of Napoleon. - He was not in any way treated with by the Provisional Government; his - return was tacitly accepted as inevitable; and he returned to the - Tuileries as of divine right, without any bargain being made with him.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">First Treaty of Paris. 30th May 1814.</div> - - <p>The first important duty which fell to Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> was - the signature of a definitive treaty of peace with the allies. The - evacuation of French territory by the invaders had been arranged with - the Provisional Government on the 23d of April, and the foreign troops - were already beginning to retire. By the definitive Treaty of Paris, - which was negotiated by Talleyrand on behalf of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, - it was agreed that France should return to her limits of 1792. By - this arrangement, the early annexations of the Revolution before the - outbreak of war were secured to France. These additions included - Avignon and the County of the Venaissin, which had formerly belonged - to the Pope, and several districts in Alsace, of which the most - noteworthy were the Principality of Montbéliard formerly the property - of the King of Würtemberg, and the Republic of Mulhouse. France also - received Chambéry, and part of Savoy, with certain rectifications of - the frontier in the neighbourhood of Geneva, and on the north-eastern - border. All the former French colonies, except the islands of the - Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, were restored to France. With - regard to other countries, it was agreed, as had been laid down in the - Treaty of Chaumont, that Germany was to become a Confederacy instead of - an Empire, that Holland and Belgium were to be united, that Italy was - to be divided into independent states,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> and that the independence of - Switzerland was to be guaranteed by all the great powers. At the same - time that this treaty was signed, a secret treaty was agreed to between - the four invading powers, without consulting France. This secret treaty - dealt largely with the future apportionment of the territories on the - left bank of the Rhine which had been administered by France ever since - 1794. It was roughly agreed that these provinces should be annexed to - Prussia, and it was further laid down, that Austria should possess the - whole of Lombardy, and that Genoa should be united to Sardinia. The - details of this arrangement, and the many other questions which were - certain to arise were adjourned, and it was settled that they should be - considered at a great congress which was to meet at Vienna.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Conclusion.</div> - - <p>The two nations which had done the most to overthrow the excessive - power of Napoleon were England and Russia, and the two men most - conspicuously concerned were the Emperor Alexander and Lord - Castlereagh. The two rival German powers, Austria and Prussia, - naturally inclined to different sides. Prussia was the declared ally of - Russia; the Emperor Alexander and the King Frederick William had formed - one of the romantic personal friendships which Alexander loved; and - the Russian and Prussian ministers were in perfect accord in desiring - to punish France and her allies, and to aggrandise themselves. Austria - on the other hand naturally inclined to support England. Both feared - the increasing preponderance of Russia; both felt that enough had - been done in deposing Napoleon, and did not desire to wreak vengeance - on France; both were inclined to be moderate in their demands. This - rivalry between Russia with Prussia, and Austria with England had - appeared in its incipient stages before the Treaty of Chaumont, and it - was to rise to its height during the Congress of Vienna. The return of - the Bourbons to France was to have an important result on the rivalry - between the allies, and it is a significant proof of the inherent - power of France, and of the greatness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> of the ascendency which she had - won, that she was enabled at Vienna to act the most decisive part. The - overthrow of Napoleon had not really weakened France; she had lost her - natural territorial limits of the Rhine and the Alps which she might - have obtained but for the stubbornness of Napoleon; nevertheless, she - was still strong enough to be feared, and in the day of her greatest - disaster she was able to exert a greater influence in the affairs of - Europe than she had ever done since the time of Louis <span class="smcap">xiv.</span></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="CHAPTER_XI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> - <h2>CHAPTER XI<br /><span class="large">1814–1815</span></h2> - </div> - <div class="subhead">The Congress of Vienna—Monarchs and Diplomatists - present—History of the Congress—Treaty between France, - Austria, and England—The Questions of Saxony and - Poland—The German Confederation—Disposition of the - provinces on the left bank of the Rhine—Mayence and - Luxembourg—Reconstitution of Switzerland—Rearrangements - in Italy—Questions of Murat, Genoa, and the Empress Marie - Louise—Sweden—Denmark—Spain—Portugal—England’s share - of the spoil—The Questions of the Slave Trade and the - Navigation of Rivers—Close of the Congress—Preparations - against Napoleon—The first reign of Louis <span class="smcap">xviii.</span> - in France—Napoleon’s return from Elba—The Hundred - Days—The Campaign of Waterloo—Occupation of Paris—Second - Treaty of Paris—Napoleon sent to Saint Helena—The Holy - Alliance—Return of Louis <span class="smcap">xviii.</span>—Government of the - Second Restoration—The Chambre Introuvable—Reaction in - Spain and Naples—Territorial Results of the Congress of - Vienna—The Principle of Nationality—Permanent Results of the - French Revolution in Europe—The Problem of harmonising the - Principles of Individual and Political Liberty with that of Nationality.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Congress of Vienna.</div> - - <p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">On</span> the 1st of November 1814 the diplomatists who were to resettle - Europe as arranged by the definitive Treaty of Paris met at Vienna. - But many of the monarchs most concerned felt that they could not - give their entire confidence to any diplomatist, however faithful or - distinguished, and they therefore came to Vienna in person to support - their views. The final decision of disputes obviously lay in the hands - of the four powers which by their union had conquered Napoleon. These - four powers solemnly agreed to act in harmony and to prepare all - questions privately, and then lay them before the Congress. In fact - they intended to impose their will upon the smaller states of Europe - just as Napoleon had done. That they did not succeed and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> their - concert was broken was due to the extraordinary ability of Talleyrand, - the first French plenipotentiary. The history of the Congress is the - history of Talleyrand’s skilful diplomacy, and the resettlement of - Europe which it effected was therefore largely the work of France.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Monarchs and Diplomatists present.</div> - - <p>The Emperor Francis of Austria acted as host to his illustrious - guests. The royalties present were the Emperor Alexander of Russia, - with his Empress, the Grand Duke Constantine, and his sisters, the - Grand Duchesses Marie of Saxe-Weimar and Catherine of Oldenburg; the - King of Prussia with his nephew Prince William; the King and Queen of - Bavaria, the King and Crown Prince of Würtemburg, the King of Denmark, - the Prince of Orange, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Saxe-Weimar, and - Hesse-Cassel, the Dukes of Brunswick, Nassau, and Saxe-Coburg. The King - of Saxony was a prisoner of war and absent.</p> - - <p>The plenipotentiaries of Russia were Count Razumovski, Count von - Stackelberg, and Count Nesselrode, who were assisted by Stein, the - former Prussian minister, and one of Alexander’s most trusted advisers, - by Pozzo di Borgo, the Corsican, now appointed Russian ambassador to - Paris, by Count Capo d’Istria, the future President of Greece, by - Prince Adam Czartoryski, one of the most patriotic Poles, and by some - of the most famous Russian Generals, such as Chernishev and Wolkonski. - The Austrian plenipotentiaries were Prince Metternich, the State - Chancellor, the Baron von Wessenberg-Ampfingen, and Friedrich von - Gentz, who was appointed to act as Secretary to the Congress.</p> - - <p>England was represented by Lord Castlereagh, Lord Cathcart, Lord - Clancarty, and Lord Stewart, Castlereagh’s brother, who as Sir Charles - Stewart had played so great a part in the negotiations in 1813, and who - had been created a peer for his services. The English plenipotentiaries - were also aided by Count von Hardenberg, and Count von Münster, - who were deputed to represent Hanoverian interests. The Prussian - plenipotentiaries were Prince von Hardenberg, the State<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> Chancellor, - and William von Humboldt, who in military matters were advised by - General von Knesebeck. The French representatives, whose part was to be - so important, were Talleyrand, Prince of Benevento, the Duc de Dalberg, - nephew of the Prince Primate, the Marquis de la Tour du Pin, and the - Comte Alexis de Noailles. These were the representatives of the great - powers. Among the representatives of the lesser powers may be noted - from the importance of their action, Cardinal Consalvi, who represented - the Pope, the Count of Labrador for Spain, Count Palmella for Portugal, - Count Bernstorf for Denmark, Count Löwenhielm for Sweden, the Marquis - de Saint-Marsan for Sardinia, the Duke di Campo-Chiaro for Murat, - King of Naples, Ruffo, for Ferdinand King of the Two Sicilies, Prince - von Wrede for Bavaria, Count Wintzingerode for Würtemburg, and Count - von Schulemburg for Saxony. In addition to these plenipotentiaries - representing powers of the first and second rank, were innumerable - representatives of petty principalities, deputies for the free cities - of Germany, and even agents for petty German princes mediatised by - Napoleon in 1806.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">History of the Congress.</div> - - <p>When Talleyrand with the French legation arrived in Vienna he found, - as has been said, that the four great powers had formed a close union - in order to control the Congress. His first step therefore was to set - France forth as the champion of the second-rate states of Europe. The - Count of Labrador, the Spanish representative, strongly resented the - conduct of the great powers in pretending to arrange matters, as they - called it, for the Congress. Talleyrand skilfully made use of Labrador, - and through him and Palmella, Bernstorf and Löwenhielm managed to upset - the preconcerted ideas of the four allies, and insisted on every matter - being brought before the Congress as a whole, and being prepared by - small committees specially selected for that purpose. His next step - was to sow dissension amongst the great powers. As the champion of the - smaller states he had already made France of considerable importance, - and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> then claimed that she too had a right to be treated as a - great power and not as an enemy. His argument was that Europe had - fought Napoleon and not France; that Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> was the - legitimate monarch of France; and that any disrespect shown to him - or his ambassadors would recoil on the heads of all other legitimate - monarchs. He claimed that France had as much right to make her voice - heard in the resettlement of Europe as any other country, because the - allied monarchs had distinctly recognised that she was only to be - thrust back into her former limits and not to be expunged from the map - of Europe. Having made his claim good on the right of the legitimacy of - his master to speak for France as a great power equal in all respects - to the others, he proceeded to sow dissension among the representatives - of the four allied monarchs. This was not a difficult thing to do, for - the seeds of dissension had long existed. The difference he introduced - was that in speaking as a fifth great power, and as the champion of the - smaller states, France became the arbiter in the chief questions before - the Congress.</p> - - <p>The division between the great powers was caused by the desire of - Russia and Prussia for the aggrandisement of their territories. The - Emperor Alexander wished to receive the whole of Poland. His idea, - which was inspired by his friend, Prince Adam Czartoryski, was to - form Poland into an independent kingdom ruled, however, by himself as - Emperor of Russia. The Poles were to have a new Constitution based - on that propounded in 1791, and the Czar of Russia was to be also - King of Poland, just as in former days the Electors of Saxony had - been Kings of Poland, but he was to be an hereditary, not an elected, - sovereign. To form once more a united Poland, Austria and Prussia were - to surrender their gains in the three partitions of Poland. Austria - was to receive compensation for her loss of Galicia in Italy; Prussia - was to be compensated for the loss of Prussian Poland by receiving - the whole of Saxony. As it had been already arranged that Prussia was - to receive the bulk of the Rhenish territory on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> the left bank of the - Rhine in addition to her great extensions of 1803, the result would be - to make Prussia by far the greatest power in Germany. Talleyrand was - acute enough to perceive that Lord Castlereagh did not approve of the - extension of the influence of Russia, and that Metternich was equally - indisposed to allow Prussia to obtain such a wholesale aggrandisement. - Saxony had been the faithful ally of France to the very last, and - Talleyrand felt that it would be an indelible stain on the French name - if it were thus sacrificed. He was cordially supported in this view by - his new master, for though the King of Saxony had been the faithful - ally of Napoleon, Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> did not forget that his own - mother was a Saxon princess. Working, therefore, on the feelings of - Castlereagh and Metternich, he induced England and Austria to declare - against the scheme of Russia and Prussia.</p> - - <p>The Emperor Alexander and Frederick William blustered loudly; they - declared that they were in actual military possession of Poland and of - Saxony, and that they would hold those states by force of arms against - all comers. In answer, Talleyrand, Castlereagh, and Metternich signed - a treaty of mutual alliance between France, England, and Austria, on - the 3d of January 1815. By this secret treaty the three powers bound - themselves to resist by arms the schemes of Russia and Prussia, and - in the face of their determined opposition the Emperor Alexander gave - way. Immediately Napoleon returned from Elba he found the draft treaty - between the three powers on the table of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> and at - once sent it to Alexander. That monarch, confronted with the danger - threatened by Napoleon’s landing in France, contented himself with - showing the draft to Metternich and then threw it in the fire. The - whole of this strange story is of the utmost interest; it proves not - only the ability of Talleyrand, but the inherent strength of France. - It is most significant that within a few months after the occupation - of Paris by the allies for the first time France should again be - recognised as a great power, and form the main factor in breaking up - the cohesion of the alliance, which had been formed against her.</p> - - <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p> - - <div class="sidenote">Secret Treaty of 3d Jan. 1815</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Treaty of Ghent. Dec. 24, 1814.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Settlement of Saxony.</div> - - <p>The result of Talleyrand’s skilful policy was thus to unite England, - Austria, and France, supported by many of the secondary states, such - as Bavaria and Spain, against the pretensions of Prussia and Russia. - Powerful armies were immediately set on foot. France in particular - raised her military forces from 130,000 to 200,000 men, and her new - army was in every way superior to that with which Napoleon had fought - his defensive campaigns in 1814, for it contained the veteran soldiers - who had been blockaded in the distant fortresses or had been prisoners - of war. England too was enabled to make adequate preparations, for on - December the 24th, 1814, a treaty had been signed at Ghent between the - United States and England which put an end to the war which had been - proceeding ever since 1812 on account of England’s naval pretensions. - Bavaria also promised to put in the field 30,000 men for every 100,000 - supplied by Austria. Although the secret treaty of January 3d was not - divulged until after the return of Napoleon from Elba, the determined - attitude of the opposition caused the Emperor Alexander to give way. - It was decided that instead of the whole of Saxony, Prussia should - only receive the district of Lusatia, together with the towns of - Torgau and Wittenberg; a territory which embraced half the area of - Saxony and one-third of its population. The King of Saxony, who had - been treated as a prisoner of war, and whom the Emperor of Russia had - even threatened to send to Siberia, was released from captivity, and - induced by the Duke of Wellington, who succeeded Lord Castlereagh as - English plenipotentiary in February 1815, to agree to these terms. - The salvation of Saxony was a matter of great gratification to Louis - <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, who remembered that though the king had been the - faithful ally of Napoleon, he was also his own near relative.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Settlement of Poland.</div> - - <p>Since Prussia was obliged to give up her claim to the whole of Saxony, - Russia also had to withdraw from her scheme of uniting the whole of - Poland. Nevertheless, Russia retained the lion’s share of the Grand - Duchy of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> Warsaw; in 1774 her frontier had reached the Dwina and the - Dnieper; in 1793 she obtained half of Lithuania as far as Wilna; in - 1795 she annexed the rest of Lithuania and touched the Niémen and the - Bug; in 1809 Napoleon had granted her the territory containing the - sources of the Bug; and now in 1815 her borders crossed the Vistula, - and by the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including that - city, penetrated for some distance between Eastern Prussia and Galicia. - Prussia received back its share of the two first partitions of Poland, - with the addition of the province of Posen and the city of Thorn, but - lost Warsaw and its share in the last partition; while Austria received - Cracow, which was to be administered as a free city. Alexander was - deeply disappointed by the frustration of his Polish schemes, but he - nevertheless kept his promise to Prince Adam Czartoryski and granted a - representative constitution and a measure of independence to Russian - Poland.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Germanic Confederation.</div> - - <p>Though the great diplomatic struggle arose over the combined question - of Saxony and Poland, the most important work of the Congress was - not confined to it alone. Committees were appointed to make new - arrangements for Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and to settle other - miscellaneous questions. Of these committees the most important was - that which reorganised Germany. It had been arranged by the secret - articles of the Treaty of Paris that a Germanic Confederation should - take the place of the Holy Roman Empire. The example of Napoleon and - his institution of the Confederation of the Rhine was followed and - developed. Instead of the hundreds of small states which had existed - at the commencement of the French Revolution, Germany, apart from - Austria and Prussia, was organised into only thirty-eight states. These - were the four kingdoms of Hanover, Bavaria, Würtemburg, and Saxony; - the seven grand duchies of Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, - Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; - the nine duchies of Nassau, Brunswick, Saxe-Gotha,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> Saxe-Coburg, - Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, - and Anhalt-Köthen; eleven principalities, two of Schwartzburg, two of - Hohenzollern, two of Lippe, two of Reuss, Hesse-Homburg, Liechtenstein, - and Waldeck, and the four free cities of Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, - and Lübeck. The number of thirty-eight was made up by the duchies of - Holstein and Lauenburg, belonging to the King of Denmark, and the grand - duchy of Luxembourg, granted to the King of the Netherlands. In its - organisation the Germanic Confederation resembled the Confederation - of the Rhine. The Diet of the Confederation was to be always presided - over by Austria and was to consist of two Chambers. The Ordinary - Assembly was composed of seventeen members, one for each of the larger - states, one for the free cities combined, one for Brunswick, one for - Nassau, one for the four duchies of Saxony united, one for the three - duchies of Anhalt united, and one for the smaller principalities. This - Assembly was to sit permanently at Frankfort and to settle all ordinary - matters. In addition there was to be a General Assembly to be summoned - intermittently for important subjects, consisting of sixty-nine - members returned by the different states in proportion to their size - and population. Each state was to be supreme in internal matters, but - private wars against each other were forbidden as well as external wars - by individual states on powers outside the limits of the Confederacy. - In the territorial arrangements of the new Confederation, the most - important point is the disappearance of all ecclesiastical states. The - Prince-Primacy, which Napoleon had established in his Confederation of - the Rhine, was not maintained, and Dalberg, who had filled that office - throughout the Empire, was restricted to his ecclesiastical functions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Territorial arrangements on the Rhine.</div> - - <p>The most difficult problem to be decided was the final disposition of - the districts on the left bank of the Rhine, which had been ruled by - France ever since 1794. It had been settled by the secret articles at - Paris that these dominions should be used for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> establishment of - strong powers upon the borders of France. The main difficulty was as - to the disposition of the important border fortresses of Mayence and - Luxembourg. Prussia laid claim to both these places, but was strongly - resisted by Austria, France, and the smaller states of Germany. It was - eventually resolved that Prussia should receive the northern territory - on the left bank of the Rhine, stretching from Elten to Coblentz, and - including Cologne, Trèves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. In compensation for - the Tyrol and Salzburg, which she was forced to return to Austria, and - in recognition of her former sovereignty in the Palatinate, Bavaria - was granted a district from the Prussian borders to Alsace, including - Mayence, which was designated Rhenish Bavaria. Finally, Luxembourg was - formed into a grand duchy, and given as a German state to the House - of Orange. It was not united to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, - which was formed out of Holland and Belgium, but was to retain its - independence under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands. The - union of the provinces of the Netherlands was one of the favourite - schemes of England, and was carried into effect in spite of the - well-known feeling of opposition between the Catholic provinces of - Belgium and the Protestant provinces of Holland.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Switzerland.</div> - - <p>As in its reorganisation of Germany, so in the settlement of - Switzerland, the Congress of Vienna followed the example set by - Napoleon. The Emperor had quite given up the idea which had fascinated - the French Directory of forming Switzerland into a Republic, one - and indivisible. He had yielded to the wishes of the Swiss people - themselves, and organised them on the basis of a confederation of - independent cantons. The Congress of Vienna continued Napoleon’s - policy of forbidding the existence of subject cantons in spite of - the protests of the Canton of Berne. Napoleon’s cantons of Argau, - Thurgau, Saint-Gall, the Grisons, the Ticino, and the Pays de Vaud were - maintained, but the number of the cantons was raised from nineteen to - twenty-two by the formation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> of the three new cantons of Geneva, the - Valais, and Neufchâtel, which had formed part of the French Empire. - The Canton of Berne received in reply to its importunities the greater - part of the former Bishopric of Basle. The Swiss Confederation as - thus constituted was placed under the guarantee of the great powers - and declared neutral for ever. The Helvetic Constitution, which was - promulgated by a Federal Act dated the 7th of April 1815, was not quite - so liberal as Napoleon’s Constitution. Greater independence was secured - in that the constitutions of the separate cantons and organic reforms - in them had not to be submitted to the Federal Diet. The prohibition - against internal custom houses was removed. The presidency of the - Diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne alternately, and the - Helvetic Diet became a Congress of Delegates like the Germanic Diet - rather than a Legislative Assembly. It is to be noted that in spite of - the declaration of the Congress of Vienna, Prussia refused to renounce - her claims on her former territory of Neufchâtel, the independence of - which as a Swiss canton was not recognised by her until 1857.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Italy.</div> - - <p>The resettlement of Italy presented more than one special problem. The - most difficult of these to solve was caused by the engagements entered - into by the allies with Murat in 1814. Talleyrand, on behalf of the - King of France, insisted on the dethronement and expulsion of Murat, - while Metternich from friendship for Caroline Murat wished to retain - him in his kingdom. The Emperor Alexander, whoever prided himself on - his fidelity to his engagements, wished to protect Murat, and had - at Vienna struck up a warm friendship with Eugène de Beauharnais, - Napoleon’s Viceroy of Italy. Murat, ungrateful though he was personally - toward Napoleon, had yet imbibed his master’s ideas in favour of the - unity and independence of Italy. During the campaign of 1814, he had - led his army to the banks of the Po, and he persisted in remaining - there after the Congress of Vienna had met. But the diplomatists at - Vienna had no wish to accept the great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> idea of Italian unity. Murat’s - aspirations in this direction were most annoying to them, and it was - with real pleasure that they heard after the landing of Napoleon from - Elba that Murat had by an indiscreet proclamation given them an excuse - for an open declaration of war. The Duke di Campo-Chiaro, Murat’s - representative at Vienna, had kept him informed of the differences - between the allied powers, and an indiscreet note asking whether he was - to be considered as at peace or at war with the House of Bourbon gave - the plenipotentiaries their opportunity. War was immediately declared - against him; an Austrian army defeated him at Tolentino on the 3d - of May 1815, and he was forced to fly from Italy. The acceptance of - Murat’s ambassador, who spoke in his name as King of the Two Sicilies, - made it difficult for the Congress to know how to treat with Ruffo - who had been sent as ambassador by Ferdinand, the Bourbon King of the - Two Sicilies, who had maintained his power in the island of Sicily - through the presence of the English garrison. Acting on the ground - of legitimacy, it was difficult to reject Ferdinand’s claims, which - were warmly supported by France and Spain, but Murat’s ill-considered - behaviour solved the difficulty, and after his defeat Ferdinand was - recognised as King of the Two Sicilies. Murat, later in the year, - landed in his former dominions, but he was taken prisoner and promptly - shot.</p> - - <p>Another Italian question which presented considerable difficulty was - the disposal of Genoa and the surrounding territory. When Lord William - Bentinck occupied that city, he had in the name of England promised - it independence and even hinted at the unity of Italy. Castlereagh - unfortunately felt it to be his duty to disavow Bentinck’s declaration, - and Genoa was united to Piedmont as part of the kingdom of Sardinia. - The third difficult question was the creation of a state for the - Empress Marie Louise. An independent sovereignty had been promised to - her. She was naturally supported by her father, the Emperor Francis - of Austria, and was ably represented at Vienna by her future husband, - Count<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> Neipperg. It was eventually resolved that she should receive the - duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but the succession was not - secured to her son, the King of Rome, but was granted to the rightful - heir, the King of Etruria, who, until the succession fell in, was to - rule at Lucca. The other arrangements in Italy were comparatively - simple. Austria received the whole of Venetia and Lombardy, in the - place of Mantua and the Milanese, which she had possessed before 1789. - The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the principality of Piombino, was - restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, the uncle of the Emperor Francis - of Austria, with the eventual succession to the Duchy of Lucca. The - Pope received back his dominions including the Legations of Bologna and - Ferrara, and Duke Francis, the grandson of Hercules <span class="smcap">III.</span>, was - recognised as Duke of Modena, to which duchy he would have succeeded - had not Napoleon absorbed it in his kingdom of Italy.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Other States.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Sweden.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Denmark.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Spain.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Portugal.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">England.</div> - - <p>The arrangements with regard to the other states of Europe made at - the Congress of Vienna were comparatively unimportant, and did not - present the same difficult problems as the resettlement of Germany, - Switzerland, and Italy. Norway in spite of its disinclination was - definitely ceded to Sweden, but Bernadotte had to restore to France the - West-Indian island of Guadeloupe, which had been handed over to him - by England in 1813, as part of the price of his alliance. Denmark had - by the Treaty of Kiel with Bernadotte been promised Swedish Pomerania - in the place of Norway. This promise was not carried out. Denmark - like Saxony had been too faithful an ally of Napoleon not to be made - to suffer. Swedish Pomerania was given to Prussia, and Denmark only - received the small Duchy of Lauenburg. By these arrangements both - Sweden and Denmark were greatly weakened, and the Scandinavian States, - by the loss of Finland and Pomerania, surrendered to their powerful - neighbours, Prussia and Russia, the command of the Baltic Sea. Spain, - owing to the ability of the Count of Labrador,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> and the support of - Talleyrand, not only lost nothing except the island of Trinidad, which - had been conquered by England, but was allowed to retain the district - round Olivenza, which had been ceded to her by Portugal in 1801. The - desertion of Portugal by England in this particular is the chief blot - on Lord Castlereagh’s policy at Vienna. The Portuguese army had fought - gallantly with Wellington, and there was no reason why she should have - been forced to consent to the definite cession of Olivenza to Spain - when other countries were winning back their former borders. Portugal - was also made to surrender French Guiana and Cayenne to France. - England, though she had borne the chief pecuniary stress of the war - and had been more instrumental than any other power in overthrowing - Napoleon, received less compensation than any other country. She kept - Malta, thus settling the question which led to the rupture of the - Peace of Amiens; she received Heligoland, which was ceded to her by - Denmark, as commanding the mouth of the Elbe; and she was also granted - the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, which enabled her to close - the Adriatic. Among colonial possessions England took from France the - Mauritius, Tobago, and Saint Lucia, but she returned Martinique and the - Isle of Bourbon, and forced Sweden and Portugal to restore Guadeloupe - and French Guiana. With regard to Holland, England retained Ceylon and - the Cape of Good Hope, but she restored Java, Curaçao, and the other - Dutch possessions. In the West Indies also, she retained, as has been - said, the former Spanish island of Trinidad.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Slave Trade.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">The Navigation of Rivers.</div> - - <p>One reason for Castlereagh’s moderation at Vienna is to be found - in the pressure that was exerted upon him in England to secure the - abolition of the slave trade. It is a curious fact that while the - English plenipotentiary was taking such an important share in the - resettlement of Europe, the English people were mainly interested in - the question of the slave trade. The great changes which were leading - to new combinations in Europe, the aggrandisement of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> Prussia, the - reconstitution of Germany, the extension of Austria, all passed without - notice, but meetings, in Lord Castlereagh’s own words, were held in - nearly every village to insist upon his exerting his authority to - abolish the trade in negro slaves. Castlereagh therefore lent his - best efforts, in obedience to his constituents, to this end. The - other ambassadors could not understand why he troubled so much about - what seemed to them a trivial matter. They suspected a deep design, - and thought that the reason of England’s humanity was that her West - Indian colonies were well stocked with negroes, whereas the islands - she was restoring were empty of them. The plenipotentiaries of other - powers possessing colonies in the tropics therefore refused to comply - with Castlereagh’s request and it was eventually settled that the - slave trade should be abolished by France after five, and by Spain - after eight years. Castlereagh had to be content with this concession, - but to satisfy his English constituents he got a declaration condemning - the slave trade assented to by all the powers at the Congress. Another - point of great importance which was settled at the Congress of Vienna - was with regard to the navigation of rivers which flow through more - than one state. It had been the custom for all the petty sovereigns to - impose such heavy tolls on river traffic that such rivers as the Rhine - were made practically useless for commerce. This question was discussed - by a committee at the Congress, and a code for the international - regulation of rivers was drawn up and generally agreed to.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Close of the Congress of Vienna. June 1815.</div> - - <p>These matters took long to discuss, and might have taken longer had - not the news arrived at the beginning of March 1815 that Napoleon had - left Elba and become once more undisputed ruler of France. In the month - of February the Duke of Wellington had succeeded Lord Castlereagh as - English representative at Vienna, for the latter nobleman had to return - to London to take his place in Parliament. At the news of the striking - event of Napoleon’s being once more at the head of a French army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> all - jealousies at Vienna ceased for the time. The Duke of Wellington was - taken into consultation by the allied monarchs, and it was resolved - to carry into effect the provisions of the Treaty of Chaumont. The - great armies which had been prepared for a struggle amongst themselves - were now turned by the allies against France. A treaty of alliance - was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, - on the 25th of March 1815, by which those powers promised to furnish - 180,000 men each for the prosecution of war, and stipulated that - none of them should lay down arms until the power of Napoleon was - completely destroyed. It was arranged that three armies should invade - France, the first of 250,000 Austrians, Russians, and Bavarians under - Schwartzenberg across the Upper Rhine, the second of 150,000 Prussians - under Blücher across the Lower Rhine, and the third of 150,000 English, - Hanoverians and Dutch from the Netherlands. Subsidies to the extent of - £11,000,000 were promised by England to the allies. These arrangements - made, the allied monarchs and their ministers left Vienna. But the - final general Act of the Congress was not drawn up and signed until the - 8th of June 1815, ten days before the battle of Waterloo.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The First Reign of Louis XVIII.</div> - - <p>It has been said that the allied armies after the abdication of - Napoleon at Fontainebleau had retired and left France to the rule of - Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> That King on returning to France had made most - liberal promises in the declaration known as the Declaration of Saint - Ouen. These principles were embodied in a Charter, which was granted on - the 4th of June 1814. By this Charter representative institutions and - entire individual liberty were promised, and also the maintenance of - the administrative creations of the Empire. Under the new Constitution - there were to be two chambers, the one of hereditary peers, the other - of elected representatives. The promises of the Charter were very fair, - and had they been duly carried out, France might have been entirely - contented, but unfortunately for himself Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span></span> had not - learned experience in his exile. In spite of the Charter he regarded - himself as a ruler by right divine. <i>Emigrés</i>, even <i>émigrés</i> who had - borne arms against France and consistently abused their fatherland, - were promoted to the highest offices in the State. The King surrounded - himself with reactionary courtiers, and what was worse with reactionary - ministers. The favour shown to returned <i>émigrés</i>, the haughty attitude - of the Princes of the blood, and the violent proclamations of the - returned bishops and clergy made the people of France fear that the - promises made in the Charter were but a sham, and that the next step - would be that the estates of the Church and of the Crown which had been - sold during the Revolution would be resumed. The feeling of distrust - was universal. The rule of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> had been accepted - only as a guarantee of peace. It was never popular, and the former - subordinates of Napoleon began to regret the Imperial <i>régime</i>. If - this was the feeling among the civil population, it was still more - keenly felt in the army. Prisoners of war, and the blockaded garrisons, - who had returned to France, felt sure that Napoleon’s defeat in 1814 - had been but accidental and wished to try conclusions once more with - Europe. In all ranks a desire was expressed to wipe out the disgrace of - the occupation of Paris by the allies.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon’s return from Elba. March, 1815.</div> - - <p>On the 1st of March 1815, Napoleon, who had been informed of the - universal feeling in France, landed in the Gulf of San Juan, and began - the short reign which is known as the Hundred Days. He was accompanied - by the 800 men of the Guard whom he had been allowed to have at Elba, - and was received with the utmost enthusiasm by all classes. His journey - through France was a triumphal procession. The King’s brother, the - Comte d’Artois, vainly attempted to organise resistance at Lyons. - Marshal Ney, who had promised to arrest his patron, joined him with the - army under his command on the 17th of March, and on the 20th Napoleon - re-entered Paris and took up his quarters at the Tuileries. Louis - <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> had fled on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> news of Ney’s defection, and escaping - from France took shelter at Ghent. Napoleon had learnt bitter lessons - from his misfortunes. He declared that he would grant full and complete - individual liberty, and also the freedom of the press, and on the 23d - of April he promulgated what he called the Additional Act consecrating - these principles. He felt his error in depending too entirely upon his - bureaucracy, and he appealed on the ground of patriotism to the men - of the Revolution whom he had in the days of his power carefully kept - from office. These men rallied round him, and he appointed their most - noteworthy representative, Carnot, his Minister of the Interior. He - declared his acceptance of the two chambers ordained by the Charter, - and most of the peers created by Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> took the oath of - allegiance once again to Napoleon.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Campaign of Waterloo. June 1815.</div> - - <p>After rousing national enthusiasm by appeals to patriotism and by - the liberal provisions of the Additional Act, Napoleon organised - his army, and in his favourite fashion decided to strike before any - invasion of France took place. Of the three armies prepared for the - invasion the one nearest within reach was that commanded by the Duke - of Wellington. That General on leaving Vienna had been placed at the - head of a miscellaneous force of English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and - Belgians. He greatly regretted the absence of most of his veterans of - the Peninsula who were still in America, and complained of the number - of raw troops under his command. He agreed to act in harmony with the - Prussians under Blücher, who brought his army into the Netherlands. - Napoleon determined to strike before Wellington and Blücher had united. - He crossed the frontier at the head of 130,000 men, and by his skilful - and rapid movements practically surprised the allied generals. On the - 16th of June 1815, he defeated Blücher at Ligny, while Ney with his - left fought a drawn battle with the English advanced divisions at - Quatre Bras. By these engagements the English and Prussian armies were - separated. Napoleon then resolved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> to attack the English with the bulk - of his army, and detached Marshal Grouchy to pursue the Prussians. - Blücher, however, promised to come to Wellington’s assistance if the - English were attacked, and Wellington relying on this promise took up - his position at Waterloo. On the 18th of June the battle of Waterloo - was fought. The English army held its position in spite of repeated and - furious attacks, until Blücher came up on the French right. Unable to - continue the struggle against two foes, the French army was obliged to - give way, and after the repulse of the Guard, which might have covered - his retreat, Napoleon recognised that he was completely routed. He fled - to Paris, and on the 22d of June he abdicated in favour of his son, the - King of Rome. He nominated an executive commission of government, and - then went on board ship in the hope of escaping to America. In this - project he failed, and on 15th July he surrendered to Captain Maitland - on board H.M.S. <i>Bellerophon</i>. The army of Wellington and Blücher - pursued the defeated foe, but the rout had been too complete for the - French to make another stand. Cambrai the only place that attempted to - resist was easily taken, and on the 3d of July Wellington and Blücher - reoccupied Paris. Meanwhile the grand army of Schwartzenberg had also - invaded France, and the country was once more in the possession of the - allies.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Second Treaty of Paris. 20th Nov. 1815.</div> - - <p>The terms of the second Treaty of Paris proved that the allied monarchs - understood the difference between the opposition made by France - to Europe in 1814 and 1815. In 1814 the Treaty of Paris which was - then concluded was, if not particularly liberal to France, at least - perfectly just. The allied monarchs and their ministers had appreciated - the fact that in 1814 they were fighting Napoleon and not France. The - campaign of 1815 had been of a different character. The French nation - and not merely the French army had given proof of their attachment both - to the Empire and to Napoleon’s person. It was therefore considered - necessary, not only to impose harsher terms upon France, but to exact - securities for the future.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> Several schemes were proposed, of which one - was to detach Alsace, Lorraine, and French Flanders, if not the whole - of Picardy, and to reduce the limits of France to what they were before - the conquests of Louis <span class="smcap">XIV.</span> This scheme, which was earnestly - supported by Prussia, who hoped to get the lion’s share of the - districts taken from France, was warmly opposed by Austria and England. - The latter power was not to be bribed by the proposed extension of - the frontier of its new creation, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And - the former objected entirely to any increase of the power of Prussia. - Lord Castlereagh in his opposition to these extravagant suggestions - of Prussia was supported by the Emperor Alexander and his minister, - Nesselrode, and eventually it was agreed that France should be - reduced to its exact limits of 1789. This meant that France lost all - the cessions made to it in 1814, except Avignon and the Venaissin. - Chambéry and the part of Savoy then granted to France were restored - to the King of Sardinia; the districts in the neighbourhood of Geneva - were also returned to that canton, and the fortress of Huningen on the - borders of Switzerland was ordered to be dismantled; and the various - rectifications of the frontier on the eastern and north-eastern borders - were no longer sanctioned. A war contribution of 700,000,000 francs was - laid upon France, in addition to which she was to maintain, at the cost - of 250,000,000 francs a year, an army of 150,000 men in the possession - of her chief frontier fortresses for a period of five years.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Napoleon sent to St. Helena.</div> - - <p>These were the most important conditions of peace contained in the - second Treaty of Paris, which was signed on 20th of November 1815. But - what France felt more bitterly than pecuniary contributions, or even - the loss of territory, was the decision of the allied powers that the - numerous pictures and works of art, which had been accumulated in Paris - during the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, should be returned to - their former owners. The Prussians were not satisfied with this, they - wished to punish Paris more severely. Blücher was only prevented by - the intervention of Lord Castlereagh and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> the Duke of Wellington from - exacting a contribution of a 110,000,000 francs from the inhabitants of - Paris alone. The Prussians even made preparations to blow up the Bridge - of Jena, whose name perpetuated their greatest military humiliation, - and were only prevented from their purpose by the expressed - determination of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> to stand upon the bridge and be - blown up with it if they persisted, and Blücher had to be satisfied - with the alteration of the name of the bridge from the Bridge of Jena - to the Bridge of the Military School. The question of the disposition - of the person of Napoleon was one of some difficulty. He reached Torbay - on board the <i>Bellerophon</i> on the 24th of July 1815, and the English - Ministers did not know what to do with their illustrious prisoner. They - dared not trust him in any part of Europe or America from which he - could repeat his expedition from Elba. Blücher loudly declared that he - ought to be shot at Vincennes like the Duc d’Enghien, but the English - Government thought it would be sufficient to confine him on an isolated - island. For this purpose they borrowed the island of Saint Helena from - the East India Company, and on the 8th of August, Napoleon set sail for - his place of exile on board H.M.S. <i>Northumberland</i>.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Holy Alliance. Sept. 1815</div> - - <p>A month after the departure of Napoleon for St. Helena, the Emperor - Alexander, the Emperor Francis, and King Frederick William signed the - treaty which is known as the Holy Alliance. By this treaty it was - declared that the Christian religion was the sole base of government, - and the contracting monarchs promised to aid each other on all - occasions like brothers, and to recommend to their peoples the exercise - of the duties of the Christian religion. Lord Castlereagh declined - on behalf of the Prince Regent to join the Holy Alliance, but on the - 28th of November 1815, after the signature of the Peace of Paris, he - agreed to an alliance that should include all the four powers, of which - the aims were to keep from the throne of France either Napoleon or - any relation of his, to combine together for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> security of their - separate states, and the general tranquillity of Europe, and to hold at - fixed dates congresses for the settlement of disputed questions.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Second Restoration of Louis XVIII. July 1815.</div> - - <p>The second restoration of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> differed from the first - as the second Treaty of Paris differed from its predecessor. After - the events of the Hundred Days, the Bourbon King could no more delude - himself with the idea that he was welcome to the people of France. - He owed his seat upon the throne only to the absence of Napoleon and - the presence of the allied armies in France, and he prepared on this - occasion to punish those who had deserted him. He refused to grant an - amnesty, and on the 24th of July 1815, he proscribed fifty-seven of - the leading men in France, of whom nineteen were ordered to be tried - by court-martial, and thirty-eight were banished. The most illustrious - of the victims who perished under this proscription was Marshal Ney, - who was shot at Paris on the 7th of December, after being condemned to - death by the Chamber of Peers. This procedure was rendered necessary - because it would have been difficult to find a court-martial to condemn - the bravest of the French marshals. Marshal Moncey, who was nominated - to preside over such a court-martial, refused in an eloquent letter - which caused him to be sent to prison for three months. Far worse than - these executions was the result of the outbreak of brigandage in the - south of France. Under the pretext of being Royalists, the Companies - of Jehu, which had ravaged the south of France in the days of the - Thermidorians and of the Directory, again set to work. Political, - religious, and personal passions excited to massacre. Pillage and - murder were rife throughout the south of France, and among the victims - who were slain in this White Terror of 1815 were Marshal Brune, and - Generals Ramel and Lagarde. Special courts were formed by a law - voted on the 12th of December 1815, to punish political offences. - These provost’s courts were as severe and almost as unjust as the - revolutionary tribunals in the provinces during the Reign of Terror, - and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> many hundreds of executions took place. Finally, in January 1816, - what was ironically called a Law of Amnesty was passed. This law, from - the list of its exceptions, was practically a gigantic proscription. - Among others, all surviving members of the Convention who had voted for - the death of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> were exiled if they had in any way - accepted the authority of Napoleon during the Hundred Days, which most - of them had done. Under this Law of Amnesty most of the great statesmen - who had been concerned in the government of France since 1793 were - driven into exile. Conspicuous among them were Carnot, Merlin of Douai, - Sieyès, Cambacérès, and David, the greatest painter of his time.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Government of the Second Restoration.</div> - - <p>Restored for a second time to the throne of France, Louis - <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> declined to take warning from the result of his - former policy. He again showered his favours on returned <i>émigrés</i>, - and pursued a thoroughly reactionary policy. As soon as he was firmly - seated at the Tuileries, with the Prussians and the English encamped - round Paris, he dismissed Talleyrand and Fouché from office and formed - a new and strongly Royalist ministry under the presidency of the Duc - de Richelieu, who had spent the last twenty years of his life in - exile as one of the chief administrators of Russia. The king avowed - his intention of keeping the promises he made in the Charter of 1814, - but those promises were carried out in such a way as to make them - absolutely illusory. He took advantage of the general adhesion given - to Napoleon on his return from Elba to exclude from the Upper Chamber - or House of Peers most of the leading men in France, leaving the - majority entirely in the hands of former <i>émigrés</i>, and of men who by - the excess of their royalism wished to palliate their offence in not - having emigrated. The Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, even - exceeded the House of Peers in its violent royalism. The deputies, - chiefly elected under the direct pressure of threats of vengeance, - were ready to adopt any reactionary measure suggested to them. - Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> gave this Assembly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> the name of the ‘Chambre - Introuvable,’ which he intended as a compliment, but which has survived - as a term of derision. Among the first laws voted were the suspension - of individual liberty, and of the liberty of the press, and the request - was then made that the King, in his goodness, would revise fourteen - articles of the Charter which were too liberal. But even this chamber, - aided by the presence of foreign armies, could not make France revert - to the condition in which it had been before 1789. A hint of the - resumption of ecclesiastical or national domains would have set the - whole country in an uproar, and the Chamber had to be satisfied with - voting a large sum of money out of the ordinary taxes as compensation - to the <i>émigrés</i> for their sufferings in exile.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Reaction in Spain.</div> - - <div class="sidenote">Naples.</div> - - <p>The spirit of reaction went much further in Spain than in France. - Ferdinand <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, on returning to his capital in May 1814, - issued a proclamation attacking the Cortes, which had done so much to - recover the country from the hands of the French. In his own words: - ‘A Cortes convoked in a manner never before known in Spain has been - profiting by my captivity in France, and has usurped my rights by - imposing on my people an anarchical and seditious Constitution based on - the democratic principles of the French Revolution.’ The King of Spain - then proceeded to annul by his own absolute authority everything that - had been done during his absence. He re-established the Inquisition, - and proscribed and condemned to death all who had taken part in - reforming the institutions of Spain, whether under the authority of - Joseph Bonaparte or under that of the National Cortes. Many hundreds, - if not thousands, of Spanish patriots were put to death in a vain - attempt of Ferdinand <span class="smcap">VII.</span> to restore things as they had been - in former days. The attempt to carry out a complete reaction resulted - in utter failure. Insurrections broke out in all directions, and the - Spanish colonies in South America took advantage of the troubles in the - fatherland to strike a blow for their own freedom. It is satisfactory - to be able to state that the head of the third reigning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> branch of the - House of Bourbon behaved with more moderation and wisdom than Ferdinand - <span class="smcap">VII.</span> of Spain or Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> of France. Ferdinand - <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, King of the Two Sicilies, returned to his capital at - Naples in June 1815. He can hardly be blamed for ordering the execution - of Murat whom he had always regarded as a usurper, and it is greatly - to his credit that he made some endeavour to retain the excellent - administration on the French system which had been established by - Joseph Bonaparte and Murat.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Results of the Congress of Vienna.</div> - - <p>The final overthrow of Napoleon and his exile to St. Helena allowed the - new system for the government of Europe as laid down by the Congress - of Vienna to be tried. That system may be roughly designated as the - system of the Great Powers. Before 1789, certain states, such as - France and England and Spain, were, from fortuitous circumstances, or - the course of their history, larger, more united, and therefore more - fitted for war, than others, but the greater part of the Continent - was split up into small, and in the case of Germany, into very small - states. Several of these small states, such as Sweden and Holland, - had at different times exercised a very considerable influence, and - the policy of Frederick the Great had added another to them, in the - military state of Prussia. At the Congress of Vienna the tendency - was to diminish the number and power of the secondary states, and to - destroy minute sovereignties. Sweden and Denmark were relegated to the - rank of third-rate powers; the petty principalities of Germany were - built up into third-rate states. Austria and Prussia were established - as great powers, but the increase of their territory brought with it - dissimilar results. Prussia became the preponderant state of Germany, - while Austria, whose Imperial House had so long held the position - of Holy Roman Emperor, became less German, and now depended for its - strength on its Italian, Magyar, and Slavonic provinces. The irruption - of Russia into the European comity of nations was another significant - feature. By its annexation of the greater part of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> the Grand Duchy of - Warsaw, Russia thrust itself between Prussia and Austria territorially, - while its leading share in the overthrow of Napoleon made its place as - a European power unassailable. It may be doubted if the policy of Peter - the Great and the Empress Catherine was thus carried out. The tendency - of those rulers was to make the Baltic and the Black Sea Russian lakes, - and to build up an Empire of the East; affairs in Central Europe only - interested them in so far as they prevented interference with their - Eastern designs, and did not lead to the erection of powerful states on - the Russian border.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">The Principle of Nationality.</div> - - <p>Nothing is more remarkable in the settlement of Europe by the Congress - of Vienna than the entire neglect of the principle of nationality. Yet - it was the sentiment of national patriotism which had enabled France to - repulse Europe in arms, and had trained the soldiers with whom Napoleon - had given the law to the Continent and had overthrown the mercenary - armies of his opponents. It was the principle of nationality which had - crippled Napoleon’s finest armies in Spain, and which had produced - his expulsion from Russia. It was the feeling of intense national - patriotism which had made the Prussian army of 1813, and enabled - Prussia after its deepest humiliation to take rank as a first-class - power. But the diplomatists at Vienna treated the idea as without - force. They had not learnt the great lesson of the French Revolution, - that the first result of rousing a national consciousness of political - liberty is to create a spirit of national patriotism. The Congress of - Vienna trampled such notions under foot. The partition of Poland was - consecrated by Europe; Italy was placed under foreign rulers; Belgium - and Holland, in spite of the hereditary opposition of centuries, were - united under one king. The territories on the left bank of the Rhine, - which were happy under French rule, and had been an integral part of - France for twenty years, were roughly torn away, and divided between - Prussia, Bavaria, and the House of Orange, under the fancied necessity, - induced by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> exploded notion of maintaining the balance of power in - Europe, of building up a bulwark against France. Such short-sighted - policy was certain to be undone. Holland and Belgium separated; Italy - became united; Poland maintained the consciousness of her national - unity, and has more than once endeavoured to regain her independence; - France has never ceased to yearn after her ‘natural’ frontier, - the Rhine; the states of Germany have developed a national German - patriotism which has led to the creation of the modern German Empire. - This feeling of conscious nationality was the result of the French - Revolution and the wars of Napoleon; its existence is the strength of - England, France, Russia, and Germany, its absence is the weakness of - Austria. In so far as the spirit of nationality was neglected at the - Congress of Vienna, its work was but temporary; in its resurrection, - which has filled the history of the present century, the work of the - French Revolution has been permanent.</p> - - <div class="sidenote">Permanent results of the French Revolution.</div> - - <p>But after all, the growth of the spirit of nationality is only a - secondary result of the French Revolution upon Europe; it did not - arise in France until foreign powers attempted to interfere with the - development of the French people after their own fashion; it did not - arise in Europe until Napoleon began to interfere with the development - of other nations. The primary results of the French Revolution,—the - recognition of individual liberty, which implied the abolition of - serfdom and of social privileges; the establishment of political - liberty, which implied the abolition of despots, however benevolent, - and of political privileges; the maintenance of the doctrine of the - sovereignty of the people, which implied the right of the people, - through their representatives, to govern themselves,—have also survived - the Congress of Vienna. When Europe tried to interfere, the French - people sacrificed these great gains to the spirit of nationality, - and bowed before the despotism of the Committee of Public Safety and - of Napoleon; they have since regained them. The French taught these - principles to the rest of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span> Europe, and the history of Europe since 1815 - has been the history of their growth side by side with the idea of - nationality. How the two, liberty and nationality, can be preserved in - harmony is the great problem of the future; the history of Europe from - 1789 to 1815 affords many examples of the difficulty of the problem and - of the dangers which beset its solution.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDICES"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> - <h2>APPENDICES</h2> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_I"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> - <h3>APPENDIX I.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">The Rulers and Ministers of the Great Powers of Europe, 1789–1815.</div> - - <div class="center">(<i>Capitals indicate Rulers; small capitals, Chief Ministers; and - italics, Foreign Ministers.</i></div> - - <table class="small mt1" summary="The Rulers and Ministers of the Great Powers of Europe, 1789–1815."> - <tbody> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl br bb"> </th> - <th class="bt br bb">Holy Roman Empire;<br />after 1805, Austria.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Great Britain.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">France.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Prussia.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Russia.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Spain.</th> - <th class="bt br bb"> </th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1789.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">JOSEPH II. (Emperor since 1765; ruler of Austria since 1780).<br /> - <span class="smcap">Kaunitz</span> (since 1756).<br /><i>Philip Cobenzl</i> (since 1780).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">GEORGE III. (since 1760).<br /><span class="smcap">William Pitt</span> - (since Dec. 1783).<br /><i>Duke of Leeds</i> (since Dec. 1783).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">LOUIS XVI. (since 1774).<br /><i>Comte de Montmorin</i> (since 1787).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (since 1786).<br /><i>Hertzberg</i> (since 1756).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">CATHERINE II. (since 1762).<br /><i>Ostermann</i> (since 1775).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">CHARLES IV. (since Dec. 1788).<br /><span class="smcap">Florida Blanca</span> (since 1773).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1789.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1790.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">LEOPOLD II. (Feb.).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1790.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1791.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Lord Grenville</i> (June).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>A. de Valdec de Lessart</i> (Nov.).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Schulemburg</i> (May).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1791.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1792.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">FRANCIS II. (March).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">REPUBLIC (Sept.)<br /><i>Dumouriez</i> (March).<br /><i>Chambonas</i> (June).<br /> - <i>Bigot de Ste. Croix</i> (Aug.)<br /><i>Lebrun Tondu</i> (Aug.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Haugwitz</span> (Oct.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Aranda</span> (July).<br /><span class="smcap">Godoy</span> (Nov.).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1792.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1793.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Deforgues</i> (June).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1793.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1794.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Colloredo</span><br /><i>Thugut</i> (June).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">(Ministry abolished—April ’94-Oct. ’95).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1794.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1795.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">DIRECTORY (Oct.)<br /><i>Delacroix</i> (Nov.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1795.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1796.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">PAUL I. (Nov.)<br /><span class="smcap">Ostermann.</span> <i>Panine.</i></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1796.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1797.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Louis Cobenzl</i> (April).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Talleyrand</i> (July).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (Nov.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1797.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1798.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Saavedra</i> (March).<br /><i>Urquijo</i> (August).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1798.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1799.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Thugut</i> (Jan.)<br /><i>Lehrbach</i> (Oct.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">CONSULATE (Nov.)<br /><i>Reinhardt</i> (July).<br /><i>Talleyrand</i> (Nov.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1799.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1800.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Godoy</span> (Dec.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1800.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1801.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Louis Cobenzl</span></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Henry Addington</span> (March).<br /><i>Lord Hawkesbury</i> (March).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">ALEXANDER I. (Mar.)<br /><span class="smcap">Panine.</span><br /><i>Kotchoubey.</i></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1801.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1802.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Voronzov.</span></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1802.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1803.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1803.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1804.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">William Pitt</span> (May).<br /><i>Lord Harrowby</i> 〃</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Hardenberg</span> (Aug.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Adam</i> <i>Czartoryski</i> (May).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1804.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1805.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Lord Mulgrave</i> (Jan.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">NAPOLEON, Emperor.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1805.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1806.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Philip Stadion</span></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Lord Grenville</span> (Feb.)<br /><i>Charles James Fox</i> (Feb.)<br /> - <i>Viscount Howick</i> (Sept.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Haugwitz</span> (Feb.)<br /><span class="smcap">Hardenberg</span> (Nov.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Baron Budberg</i> (Aug.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1806.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1807.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Duke of Portland</span> (March).<br /><i>George Canning</i> (March).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Champagny</i> (Aug.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Stein</span> (July).<br /><i>Goltz</i> (July).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Roumianzov</i> (Sept.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1807.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">JOSEPH BONAPARTE. <span class="smcap">Azanza.</span></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1808.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Metternich</span></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Spencer Perceval</span> (Dec.)<br /><i>Lord Bathurst</i> (Oct.)<br /><i>Lord Wellesley</i> (Dec.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1809.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1810.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Hardenberg</span> (July).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><span class="smcap">Roumianzov.</span><br /><i>Nesselrode.</i></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1810.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1811.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Maret</i> (April).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1811.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1812.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Lord Castlereagh</i> (March).<br /><span class="smcap">Earl of Liverpool</span> (June).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1812.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br">1813.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Caulaincourt</i> (Nov.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1813.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br bb">1814.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">LOUIS XVIII.<br /><i>Talleyrand</i> (April).</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">FERDINAND VII.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">1814.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_II"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> - <h3>APPENDIX II.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">The Rulers of the Second-rate Powers of Europe, 1789–1815.</div> - - <table class="small mt1" summary="The Rulers of the Second-rate Powers of Europe, 1789–1815."> - <tbody> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl br bb"> </th> - <th class="bt br bb">Sweden.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Denmark.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Turkey.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Portugal.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Sardinia.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">The Two Sicilies.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Bavaria.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Würtemburg.</th> - <th class="bt br bb"> </th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1789</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> (Since 1771.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Christian <span class="smcap">vii.</span> (Since 1766.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Abdul Hamid. (Since 1774.)<br />Selim <span class="smcap">iii.</span> (April.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Maria <span class="smcap">i.</span> (Since 1777.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">iii.</span> (Since 1773.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Ferdinand <span class="smcap">iv.</span> (Since 1759.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Charles Theodore. (Since 1777.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Charles Eugène. (Since 1735.)</td> - <td class="br">1789</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1790</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1790</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1791</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Gustavus <span class="smcap">iv.</span> (March.)</td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br"></td> - <td class="br">1791</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1792</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1792</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1793</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1793</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1794</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1794</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1795</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">Frederick Eugène. (Oct.)</td> - <td class="br">1795</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1796</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Charles Emmanuel <span class="smcap">iv.</span> (Oct.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1796</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1797</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Frederick <span class="smcap">i.</span> (Dec.)</td> - <td class="br">1797</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1798</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1798</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1799</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Prince John, Regent</i>.</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Maximilian Joseph.</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1799</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1800</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1800</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1801</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1801</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1802</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Victor Emmanuel <span class="smcap">i.</span> (June.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1802</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1803</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1803</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1804</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br bt bb">Naples.</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1804</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1805</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1805</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1806</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Joseph Bonaparte. (March.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1806</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1807</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Mustapha <span class="smcap">iv.</span> (May.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1807</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1808</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Frederick <span class="smcap">vi.</span> (March.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Mahmoud <span class="smcap">ii.</span> (July.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Joachim Murat. (August.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1808</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1809</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Charles <span class="smcap">xiii.</span> (May.)</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1809</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1810</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"><i>Bernadotte, Prince Royal (Aug.)</i></td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1810</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1811</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1811</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1812</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1812</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1813</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1813</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br">1814</td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Ferdinand <span class="smcap">iv.</span></td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br"> </td> - <td class="br">1814</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="bl br bb">1815</td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb">1815</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_III"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> - <h3>APPENDIX III.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">The Family of Napoleon.</div> - - <div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_368-9.jpg" width="700" height="395" alt="" /> - <div class="larger-version"> - [<a href="images/i_368-9_big.jpg">See larger version</a>] - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_IV"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> - <h3>APPENDIX IV.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">Napoleon’s Marshals.</div> - - <table class="small mt1" summary="Napoleon’s Marshals"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl br bb">Names.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Born.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">General of Brigade.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">General of Division.</th> - <th class="bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Marshal.</span></th> - <th class="bt br bb">Titles.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Notes.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Berthier</span> Louis Alexandre.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 Nov. 1753</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">22 May 1792 (Maréchal de Camp)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 June 1795</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">19 May 1804</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Prince-Duke of Neufchâtel 15 March 1806; Prince of Wagram 31 Dec. 1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; committed suicide or was murdered at Bamberg 1 June 1815.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Murat</span>, Joachim.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 March 1767</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 May 1796</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 July 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Prince 1 Feb. 1805; Grand Duke of Berg 15 March 1806; King of Naples 1 Aug. 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Shot at Pizzo in Italy 13 Oct. 1815.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Moncey</span>, Bon Adrien Jeannot.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">31 July 1754</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">18 Feb. 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 June 1794</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Conegliano 2 July 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides 1833–42; died at Paris 20 April 1842.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Jourdan</span>, Jean Baptiste.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">29 April 1762</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">27 May 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">30 July 1793</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 1 March 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814 and 1819; Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides 1830–33; died at Paris 23 Nov. 1833.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Masséna</span>, André.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">6 May 1756</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">22 Aug. 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 Dec. 1793</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Rivoli 24 April 1808; of Essling 31 Jan. 1810.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Died at Paris 4 April 1817.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Augereau</span>, Charles Pierre François.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">21 Oct. 1757</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 Dec. 1793</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Castiglione 26 April 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; died at La Houssaye 12 June 1816.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Bernadotte</span>, Jean Baptiste Jules.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">26 Jan. 1763</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">26 June 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">22 Oct. 1794</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Prince of Ponte Corvo 5 June 1806; Crown Prince of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">King of Sweden 5 Feb. 1818; died at Stockholm 8 March 1844.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Soult</span>, Jean de Dieu Nicolas.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">29 March 1769</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">11 Oct. 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">21 April 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Dalmatia 29 June 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Minister for War Dec. 1814-March 1815; Peer of France June 1815; exiled 1815–19; Peer of France 1827; - Minister for War 1830–34, 1840–45; Marshal-General 1847; died at Saint Amans 26 Nov. 1851.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Brune</span>, Guillaume Marie Anne.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 May 1763</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">17 Aug. 1797</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 1 March 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 2 June 1815; murdered at Avignon 2 Aug. 1815.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Lannes</span>, Jean.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">11 April 1769</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">17 March 1797</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 May 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Montebello 15 June 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Mortally wounded at the battle of Aspern; died at Vienna 31 May 1809.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Mortier</span>, Adolphe Édouard Casimir Joseph.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 Feb. 1768</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">23 Feb. 1799</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 Sept. 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Treviso 2 July 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814 and 1819; Ambassador to Russia 1830–31; - Chancellor of the Legion of Honour 1831; Minister for War 1834–35; - killed by the explosion of an infernal machine at Paris 28 July 1835.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 <span class="smcap">Ney</span>, Michel.Jan. 1769</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1 Aug. 1796</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">28 March 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Elchingen, 5 May 1808; Prince of the Moskowa 25 March 1813.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; shot at Paris 7 Dec. 1815.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Davout</span>, Louis Nicolas.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 May 1770</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">24 Sept. 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">3 July 1800</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Auerstädt 2 July 1808; Prince of Eckmühl 28 Nov. 1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Minister for War 1815; Peer of France at Paris 1 June 1823.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Bessières</span>, Jean Baptiste.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">6 Aug. 1768</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">18 July 1800</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 Sept. 1802</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Istria 28 May 1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Killed at Lutzen 1 May 1813.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Kellermann</span>, François Christophe.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">28 May 1735</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 March 1788 (Maréchal de Camp)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">19 March 1792 (Lieut.-General)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 1 March 1808; Duke of Valmy 2 May 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; died at Paris 13 Sept. 1820.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Lefebvre</span>, François Joseph.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">15 Oct. 1755</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">2 Dec. 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 Jan. 1794</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 1 March 1808; Duke of Dantzic 10 Sept. 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died at Paris 14 Sept. 1820.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Pérignon</span>, Dominique Catherine de.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">31 May 1754</td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 Dec. 1793</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 6 Sept. 1811.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; created a Marquis 1817; died at Paris 25 Dec. 1818.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Sérurier</span>, Jean Mathieu Philibert.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">8 Dec. 1742</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">22 Aug. 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 June 1795</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 1 March 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides, 1804–15; Peer of France 1814; died at Paris 21 Dec. 1819.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Victor</span>, Victor Claude Perrin, <i>called</i>.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">7 Dec. 1764</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 Dec. 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 March 1797</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 July 1807</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Belluno 10 Sept. 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1815; Minister of War 1821–23; died at Paris 1 March 1841.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Macdonald</span>, Jacques Étienne Joseph Alexandre.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">17 Nov. 1765</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">26 Aug. 1793</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">28 Nov. 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">12 July 1809</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Taranto 9 Dec. 1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the Legion of Honour 1815–31; died at Courcelles 7 Sept. 1840.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Oudinot</span>, Nicolas Charles.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 April 1767</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">14 June 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">12 April 1799</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 2 July 1808; Duke of Reggio 14 April 1810.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; Chancellor of the Legion of Honour 1839–47; Governor - of the Hôtel des Invalides 1842–47; died at Paris 13 Sept 1847.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Marmont</span>, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 July 1774</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 June 1798</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 Sept. 1800</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Duke of Ragusa 28 June 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; Ambassador to Russia 1826–28; died at Venice 22 July 1852.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Suchet</span>, Louis Gabriel.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">2 March 1770</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">23 March 1798</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 July 1799</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">8 July 1811</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 24 June 1808; Duke of Albufera 3 Jan. 1813.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814 and 1819; died near Marseilles 3 Jan. 1826.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Gouvion-Saint-Cyr</span>, Laurent.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">13 April 1764</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 June 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">2 Sept. 1794</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">27 Aug. 1812</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Count 3 May 1808.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Peer of France 1814; Minister for War July-Sept. 1815, 1817–19; created a - Marquis 1819; died at Hyères 17 March 1830.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br"><span class="smcap">Poniatowski</span>, Joseph, Prince.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">7 May 1762</td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Oct. 1813</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>....</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Drowned in the Elster at the battle of Leipzig 19 Oct. 1813</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl1 bl br bb"><span class="smcap">Grouchy</span>, Emmanuel de.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">23 Oct. 1766</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">7 Sept. 1792</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">13 June 1795</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">17 Apr. 1815</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">Count 28 Jan. 1809.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br bb">Exiled 1815–20; restored as Marshal 1831; died 29 May 1847.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_V"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> - <h3>APPENDIX V.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">Napoleon’s Ministers during the Consulate and Empire 1799–1814.</div> - - <table class="small mt1" summary="Napoleon’s Ministers"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <th class="bt bl br bb"> </th> - <th class="bt br bb">Foreign Affairs.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Interior.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Finances.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">War.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Marine.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Justice.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Police.</th> - <th class="bt br bb">Public Worship.</th> - <th class="bt br bb"> </th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1799.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 Nov. Charles Maurice de <span class="smcap">Talleyrand-Périgord</span>. - (Prince of Benevento 5 June 1806.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">12 Nov. Pierre Simon <span class="smcap">Laplace</span>. (Count 24 April 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 Nov. Martin Michel Charles <span class="smcap">Gaudin</span>. - (Count 26 April 1808; Duke of Gaeta 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 Nov. Louis Alexandre <span class="smcap">Berthier</span>.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">24 Nov. Pierre Alexandre Laurent <span class="smcap">Forfait</span>.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">19 July. Jean Jacques Régis <span class="smcap">Cambacéres</span>. - (Duke of Parma 24 April 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 July. Joseph <span class="smcap">Fouché</span>.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="vat br">1799.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc3 bl br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 Dec. Lucien <span class="smcap">Bonaparte</span>.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">25 Dec. André Joseph <span class="smcap">Abrial</span>. (Count 26 April 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1800.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">12 April. Lazare Nicolas Marguerite <span class="smcap">Carnot</span>.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="vat br">1800.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc3 bl br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">6 Nov. Jean Antoine <span class="smcap">Chaptal</span>. (Count 26 April 1808; Count of Chanteloup 25 March 1810.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">8 Oct. Louis Alexandre <span class="smcap">Berthier</span>. - (Prince of Neufchâtel 13 March 1806; Prince of Wagram 31 Dec. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1801.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1 Oct. Denis <span class="smcap">Decrès</span> (Count June 1808; Duke 28 April 1813.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="vat br">1801.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1802.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">15 Sept. Claude Ambroise <span class="smcap">Regnier</span>. - (Count 24 April 1808; Duke of Massa 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">15 Sept. (<i>Ministry abolished.</i>)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="vat br">1802.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1803.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="tdl1 br"> </td> - <td class="vat br">1803.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1804.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1 Aug. Jean Baptiste Nompère de <span class="smcap">Champagny</span>.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">10 July. Joseph <span class="smcap">Fouché</span>. (Count 24 April 1808; Duke of Otranto 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">July. Jean Étienne Marie <span class="smcap">Portalis</span>.</td> - <td class="vat br">1804.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1805.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1805.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1806.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1806.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1807.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">8 Aug. Jean Baptiste Nompère de <span class="smcap">Champagny</span>. - (Count 24 April 1808; Duke of Cadore 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 Aug. Emmanuel <span class="smcap">Cretet</span>. (Count of Champmol 26 April 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">9 Aug. Henrí Jacques Guillaume <span class="smcap">Clarke</span>. - (Count of Hunebourg 24 April 1808; Duke of Feltre 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 vat br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">Aug. Félix Julíen Jean <span class="smcap">Bigot de Préameneu</span>. (Count 24 April 1808.)</td> - <td class="vat br">1807.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1808.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1808.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1809.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">1 Oct. Jean Pierre Bachasson de <span class="smcap">Montalivet</span>. (Comte 27 Nov. 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1809.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1810.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdl1 br">June 8. Anne Jean Marie René <span class="smcap">Savary</span>. (Duke of Rovigo 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1810.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1811.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">17 April. Hugues Bernard <span class="smcap">Maret</span>. (Count 3 May 1809; - Duke of Bassano 15 Aug. 1809.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1811.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1812.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1812.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br">1813.</td> - <td class="tdl1 br">20 Nov. Armand Augustin Louis <span class="smcap">Caulaincourt</span>. - (Duke of Vicenza 7 June 1808.)</td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br">1813.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="vat bl br bb">1814.</td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="tdc3 br bb"><div>〃</div></td> - <td class="vat br bb">1814.</td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="APPENDIX_VI"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> - <h3>APPENDIX VI.</h3> - </div> - - <div class="center smcap">Concordance of the Republican and Gregorian Calendars.</div> - - <div class="center">(Extracted from Stephens’ <i>History of the French Revolution</i>, vol. ii. - (Longmans and Co.))</div> - - <table class="small mt1" summary="Concordance of the Republican and Gregorian Calendars"> - <tbody> - <tr> - <th class="pl1 bt bl br bb"> </th> - <th class="pl1 pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year II.</span><br />1793–1794.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year III.</span><br />1794–1795.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year IV.</span><br />1795–1796.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year V.</span><br />1796–1797.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year VI.</span><br />1797–1798.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year VII.</span><br />1798–1799.</th> - <th class="pl1 bt br bb"><span class="smcap">Year VIII.</span><br />1799–1800.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Vendémiaire,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 September 1793.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 September 1794.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">23 September 1795.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 September 1796.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 September 1797.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 September 1798.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">23 September 1799.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 3 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 3 October.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">13 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">13 October.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Brumaire,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">23 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 October.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">23 October.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 November.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 November.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Frimaire,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 November.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 November.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 2 December.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">12 December.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Nivôse,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">22 December.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 January 1796.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 December.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 January 1800.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 January 1794.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 January 1795.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 January 1797.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 January 1798.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 January 1799.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 January.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Pluviôse,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 January.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 January.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 January.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 February.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Ventôse,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 February.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 February.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 1 March.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">11 March.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Germinal,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">21 March.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">31 March.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 April.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Floréal,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 April.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 April.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">10 May.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Prairial,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">20 May.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">30 May.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 June.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Messidor,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 June.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 June.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 9 July.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Thermidor,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">19 July.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">29 July.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 8 August.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br"> 1 Fructidor,</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">18 August.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">11 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - <td class="pl1 br">28 August.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">21 〃</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 br"> 7 September.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">1st Complementary Day,<br />or ‘Sans-Culottide,’</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">17 September.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br">5th Complementary Day,<br />or ‘Sans-Culottide,’</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 vab br">21 September.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="pl1 bl br bb">6th Complementary Day,<br />or ‘Sans-Culottide.’</td> - <td class="pl1 tdc br bb"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="pl1 vab br bb">22 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 tdc br bb"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="pl1 tdc br bb"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="pl1 tdc br bb"><div>..</div></td> - <td class="pl1 vab br bb">22 September.</td> - <td class="pl1 tdc br bb"><div>..</div></td> - </tr> - </tbody> - </table> - - <div class="center mt1"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>Each month in the Republican Calendar consisted of - <i>thirty</i> days.</div> - - <hr class="page" /> - - <div class="chapter"> - <h2 class="nobreak" id="MAPS">MAPS.</h2> - </div> - - <div class="center mb3"> - Map 1. Europe in 1789.<br /> - 〃 2. Europe in 1803.<br /> - 〃 3. Europe in 1810.<br /> - 〃 4. Europe in 1815. - </div> - - <hr class="short" /> - - <p class="mt3">These maps are intended to show the limits of the principal states of - Europe at the beginning of 1789, after the rearrangement in 1803, at - the height of Napoleon’s power in 1810, and according to the settlement - made by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.</p> - - <p>The same colouring has been preserved through the series of maps in - order that the boundaries of each country may be compared at these - different dates.</p> - - <p>The red line in Map 1 marks the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire.</p> - - <p>The area in Germany left uncoloured—in all four maps—was occupied by - various states too small in size to be indicated by colours.</p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="figcenter illow600" id="i488"> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">EUROPE in 1789.</span></div> - <img src="images/i_488.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" /> - <div class="attribl">Period VII.</div> - <div class="attribr">John Bartholomew & Co., Edin<sup>r</sup>.</div> - <div class="small clear mt2"><b><i>The Red line marks the limits of the Holy Roman Empire.</i></b></div> - <div class="larger-version"> - [<a href="images/i_488_big.jpg">See larger version</a>] - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="figcenter illow600" id="i490"> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">EUROPE in 1803.</span></div> - <img src="images/i_490.jpg" width="600" height="478" alt="" /> - <div class="attribl">Period VII.</div> - <div class="attribr">John Bartholomew & Co., Edin<sup>r</sup>.</div> - <div class="larger-version"> - [<a href="images/i_490_big.jpg">See larger version</a>] - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="figcenter illow600" id="i492"> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">EUROPE in 1810.</span></div> - <img src="images/i_492.jpg" width="600" height="479" alt="" /> - <div class="attribl">Period VII.</div> - <div class="attribr">John Bartholomew & Co., Edin<sup>r</sup>.</div> - <div class="larger-version"> - [<a href="images/i_492_big.jpg">See larger version</a>] - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="figcenter illow600" id="i494"> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">EUROPE in 1815.</span></div> - <img src="images/i_494.jpg" width="600" height="474" alt="" /> - <div class="attribl">Period VII.</div> - <div class="attribr">John Bartholomew & Co., Edin<sup>r</sup>.</div> - <div class="larger-version"> - [<a href="images/i_494_big.jpg">See larger version</a>] - </div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="chapter" id="INDEX"> - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> - <h3>INDEX</h3> - </div> - - <p>The dates given in brackets are those of the birth and death of the - person indexed; where only the date of death is known it is preceded by a ♰.</p> - - <p>Full names and titles are given.</p> - - <p>Proper names commencing with ‘da,’ ‘de,’ ‘d’,’ are indexed under the - succeeding initial letter.</p> - - <ul class="index"> - <li class="ifrst">Abdul Hamid (1725–89), Sultan of Turkey, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abensberg, battle of (20 April 1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abercromby, Sir Ralph, English general (1735–1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aberdeen, George Gordon, Earl of, English diplomatist (1784–1860), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abo, treaty of (April 1812), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aboukir Bay, French fleet defeated in, by Nelson (1 August 1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abrantes, Duke of. <i>See</i> Junot.</li> - - <li class="indx">Abrial, André Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1750–1828), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Acre, siege of (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Acton, Joseph, Neapolitan statesman (1737–1808), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Adda, the, Bonaparte forces the passage of, at Lodi (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Suvórov, at Cassano (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English statesman (1757–1844), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Additional Act, the, declared by Napoleon (23 April 1815), <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Adige, the, Italy up to, ceded to Austria by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by treaty of Lunéville (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Austrian positions on, turned by Macdonald (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Adlersparre, George, Baron, Swedish general (1760–1837), <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aix-la-Chapelle, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Albuera, battle of (16 May 1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Albufera, battle of (26 Dec. 1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Suchet.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aldenhoven, battle of (2 Oct. 1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alessandria, fortress built at, by Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alexander <span class="smcap">i.</span>, Emperor of Russia (1777–1825), attitude at his accession, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins coalition against France, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Austerlitz, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Eylau and Friedland, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">interview with Napoleon at Tilsit, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquers Finland, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">acquisitions in Poland, and dislike of Grand Duchy of Warsaw, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">interview with Napoleon at Erfurt, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conduct in 1809, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">war with Turkey, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Bucharest, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses a sister to Napoleon, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">causes of dissension with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_299">299–301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Abo with Bernadotte, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">summons Stein to his Court, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy of retreat before Napoleon (1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fights battle of Borodino, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">negotiates with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms friendship with Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Prussia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">distrust of Napoleon, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">agrees to Proposals of Frankfort, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">desires to invade France, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to retreat, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">enters Paris, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">influenced by Talleyrand, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">speech to the French Senate, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">greatness of his share in overthrowing Napoleon, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his desire for the whole of Poland, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forced to give way, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gave constitution to Poland, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">protected Murat and Eugène de Beauharnais, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty against Napoleon (1815), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposes partition of France, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins the Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alicante, Bentinck repulsed at (1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alkmaar, Convention of (18 Oct. 1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Almeida, siege of (1811), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alps, French reach the summit of Mont Cenis (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Suvórov crosses (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Macdonald (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alsace, rights of the Princes of the Empire in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">proposals of Mirabeau and Merlin, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">letter of Leopold on, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>conclusion</i> of the Diet of the Empire on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Würmser, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recovered by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">proposal to detach from France (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Altdorf, Suvórov reaches (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Altenkirchen, battle of (20 Sept. 1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alton, Richard, Count d’, Austrian general (1732–90), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alvensleben, Philip Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman (1745–1802), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Alvinzi (Alvinczy), Joseph, Austrian general (1735–1810), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">America, South, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— United States of. <i>See</i> United States.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Ami du Peuple,</i> Marat’s journal, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Amiens, treaty of (1802), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Amnesty, general, decreed by the Convention (1795), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— law of, promulgated (1815), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ancients, Council of. <i>See</i> Council.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ancona, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Angoulême, Maria Thérèse Charlotte, Duchess of, daughter of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> (1778–1851), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Louis Antoine, Duke of, son of the Comte d’Artois (1775–1844), <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anhalt, the Dukes of, Princes of the Empire (1789), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anhalt-Köthen, Louis, Duke of (1761–1819), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anhalt-Zerbst, the Empress Catherine, a princess of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ankarström, John James, Swedish officer (1761–1792), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anselme, Jacques Bernard Modeste d’, French general (1740–1812), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Anspach, Napoleon violates Prussian neutrality by marching through (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Antwerp, riot against the Austrians suppressed at (1788), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abandoned to the Belgian patriots (1789), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s buildings at, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Carnot’s defence of (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its retention cause of Napoleon’s fall, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aoust, Eustache, Comte d’, French general (1764–94), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Appenzell, democratic canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aranda, Don Pedro Pablo Abaracay Bolea, Count of, Spanish statesman (1718–99), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Archbishop-Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arcis-sur-Aube battle of (20 March 1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arcola, battle of (16 Nov. 1796), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aremberg, Louis Engelbert, Duke of (1750–1820), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prosper Louis, Duke of (1785–1863), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Argau, canton of Switzerland, formed by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised by Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aristocracy, Napoleon’s, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Armistices: Cherasco (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foligno (1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Giurgevo (1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>; Pleswitz (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arndt, Ernest Maurice, German poet (1769–1862), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arragon, Suchet’s campaigns in, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Arras, atrocities of Le Bon at (1794), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Artois, Charles Philippe, Comte d’, younger brother of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, afterwards King Charles <span class="smcap">X.</span> of France (1757–1836), <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aschaffenburg, principality of, granted to the Elector of Mayence, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aspern or Essling, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Assignats issued in France, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their effect, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aubert-Dubayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal, French general (1759–1797), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Auckland, William Eden, Lord, English diplomatist (1744–1814), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Auerstädt, battle of (14 Oct. 1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Davout.</li> - - <li class="indx">Augereau, Charles Pierre François, Duke of Castiglione, French general (1757–1816), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Augsburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, a free city of the Empire (1789), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Moreau (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">maintained as a free city (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Masséna’s headquarters (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Augusta, Princess, of Bavaria married to Eugène de Beauharnais, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Augustus, Prince, of Prussia (1779–1843), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Aulic Council, the, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Austerlitz, battle of (2 Dec. 1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Austria, position in 1789, <a href="#Page_17">14–17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">influence in the Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtained cessions by the treaty of Sistova (1791), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">got nothing in the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">received Cracow, etc. at third partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">received Venice for Lombardy by treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and by treaty of Lunéville (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtained Trent and Brixen, but lost much influence in the resettlement of Germany (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed into an empire (1805), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lost Venice, Istria, the Tyrol, etc. by treaty of Pressburg (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lost Trieste, Galicia, Salzburg, etc. by treaty of Vienna (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Congress of Vienna (1814) got back Cracow, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, and Lombardy and Venetia, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Leopold <span class="smcap">II.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Austrian Netherlands. <i>See</i> Belgium.</li> - - <li class="indx">Auvergne, movement against the Convention in (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Avignon, city of, wishes to join France (1790), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">secured to France by first treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and by second treaty of Paris (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Babeuf, François Noël (Gracchus), French socialist (1764–97), <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Badajoz, treaty of (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Soult (1810), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Wellington (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baden, condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made an electorate (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">increased by the secularisations (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a grand duchy (1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">received Ortenau and the Breisgau (1809), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1808), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Charles Frederick, Charles Louis Frederick.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bagration, Peter, Prince, Russian general (1762–1812), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French statesman (1736–93), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baird, Sir David, English general (1757–1829), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ball, Sir Alexander John, English admiral (1759–1809), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baltic Sea, effort to exclude English commerce from, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">command of, given to Russia and Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bamberg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bank of France, founded by Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bantry Bay, French expedition to (1796), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barbé-Marbois, François, Comte de, French statesman (1745–1837), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince, Russian general (1755–1818), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barentin, Charles Louis François de</li> - <li class="isub2">Paule de, French minister (1738–1819), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barère, Bertrand, French orator (1755–1841), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph</li> - <li class="isub2">Marie, French politician (1761–93), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barras, Paul François Jean Nicolas,</li> - <li class="isub2">Comte de, French statesman (1755–1829), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">nominates Bonaparte to command the armyof Italy, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his attitude as a Director, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">co-operates in <i>coup d’état</i> of Fructidor 1797, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">only original Director left (July 1799), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">resigns (Nov. 1799), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barrosa, battle of (5 March 1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bartenstein, treaty of (April 1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Barthélemy, François, Marquis de,</li> - <li class="isub2">French diplomatist (1747–1830), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Basire, Claude, French politician (1764–94), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Basle, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical</li> - <li class="isub2">prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">with fiefs in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, part ceded to Baden (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part to canton of Berne (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— treaties of (1795), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Basque Roads, affair in the (1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bassano, Duke of. <i>See</i> Maret.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bastille, capture of the (14 July 1789), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Batavian Republic founded (1795), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">imitates the French constitutions, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">turned into the kingdom of Holland (1806), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Battles: Abensberg (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Albuera (1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Albufera (1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aldenhoven (1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Alexandria (1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Altenkirchen (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Arcis-sur-Aube (1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Arcola (1796), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Aspern (Essling) (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Auerstädt (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Austerlitz (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Barrosa (1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bautzen (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bergen (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Biberach (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Borodino (1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Braila (1809), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Brienne (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Burgos (1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Busaco (1810), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cairo (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Caldiero (1796), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Caldiero (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Camperdown (1797), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cassano (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Castiglione (1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ceva (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Champaubert (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Copenhagen (1801), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Corunna (1809), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Craonne (1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dego (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dennewitz (1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dresden (1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dubienka (1792), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Eckmühl (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Elchingen (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Engen (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Espinosa (1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Essling (Aspern) (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ettlingen (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Eylau (1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Famars (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Figueras (1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">First of June (1794), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Fleurus (1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foksany (1788), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Friedland (1807), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Fuentes de Onor (1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Geisberg (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Genola (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Giurgevo (1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Gross-Beeren (1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Gross-Gorschen (Lützen) (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hanau (1813), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Heliopolis (1800), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hohenlinden (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hondschoten (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Jemmappes (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Jena (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Kaiserslautern (1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Katzbach (1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Kioge (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Laon (1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Leipzig (1813), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ligny (1815), <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Loano (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lodi (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lützen (Gross-Gorschen) (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Maciejowice (1794), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Magnano (1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Maida (1806), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Marengo (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Matchin (1791), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Medellin (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Medina del Rio Seco (1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Millesimo (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Mincio (1814), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mœskirchen (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mondovi (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Montebello (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Montenotte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Montereau (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Montmirail (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mount Tabor (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Nangis (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Neerwinden (1793), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Neumarkt (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Nile (Aboukir Bay) (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Nive (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Nivelle (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Novi (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ocana (1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Orthez (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pacy-sur-Eure (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Pyramids (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Quatre Bras (1815), <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Raab (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Raclawice (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Rivoli (1797), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Roliça (1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Rymnik (1788), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Sacilio (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">St. Vincent (1797), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Salamanca (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Saorgio (1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Silistria (1809), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Stockach (1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Svenska Sound (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Talavera (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tobac (1788), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tolentino (1815), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Toulouse (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Trafalgar (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Trebbia (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tudela (1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Unzmarkt (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Valmy (1792), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Valsarno (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vauchamps (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vimeiro (1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vittoria (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Wagram (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Waterloo (1815), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Wattignies (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Zielence (1792), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Zurich (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bautzen, battle of (20 May 1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bavaria, the Emperor Joseph’s designs on, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its Elector also Elector Palatine, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Moreau (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of Pfaffenhofen, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promised to Austria by Bonaparte (1797), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Moreau (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">increased by the secularisations (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the Austrians (1805), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives the Tyrol and becomes a kingdom (1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Salzburg (1809), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the Austrians (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">great internal reforms, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Mayence for the Tyrol (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. <i>See</i> Charles Theodore, Maximilian Joseph.</li> - - <li class="indx">Baylen, capitulation of (1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bayonne besieged by the English (1813, 1814), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beauharnais, Eugène de, step-son of Napoleon (1781–1824), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de, Austrian general (1725–1820), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beccaria, Cæsar Bonesana, Marquis de, Italian philosopher (1738–94), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Belgium, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in (1788), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his apparent success, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">armed resistance in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolition of Belgian liberties, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Austrians driven from (1789), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Belgian Republic formed (Jan. 1790), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle between the Van der Nootists and Vonckists, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquered by the Austrians (Dec. 1790), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the French under Dumouriez (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to the French Republic, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rises against the French (1793), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dumouriez driven from (1793), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquered by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">organised as part of the French Republic, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cession to France agreed to by Austria at Leoben, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and at Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">organised into nine French departments, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">England insists on its separation from France, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the Prince of Orange (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon refuses to give up, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">united with Holland into the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Belgrade, taken by the Austrians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bellegarde, Henri, Comte de, Austrian general (1755–1831), on the Mincio (1814), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Belluno, Duke of. <i>See</i> Victor.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bender, city of, taken by the Russians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Blaise Colombeau, Baron, Austrian general (1713–98), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Benevento, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Talleyrand made prince of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Benezech, Pierre, French administrator (1745–1802), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus, Count, Russian general (1745–1826), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bentinck, Lord William Charles Cavendish, English general (1774–1839), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, English general (1770–1856), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Berg, grand duchy of, created for Murat (1806), its extent, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conferred on son of Louis Bonaparte (1808), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bergen, battles of (19 Sept. and 2 Oct. 1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bergen-op-Zoom, English repulsed from (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Berlin, occupied by Napoleon (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">decree issued at (1807), <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">University of, founded, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the French driven from (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules, Prince of Ponte Corvo (1806), Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), King Charles <span class="smcap">XIV.</span> of Sweden (1818), (1764–1844), French ambassador to Austria (1798), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">insulted at Vienna, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Minister of War (1799), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by the Russians (1807), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commanded the Saxons at Wagram (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prince of Ponte Corvo, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elected Prince Royal of Sweden (1810), <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Abo with Emperor Alexander (1812), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intrigues with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded Germany (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wins battle of Gross-Beeren, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and of Dennewitz, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated the Danes and exchanged Pomerania for Norway (1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rejected for throne of France, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">got Norway, but had to give up Guadeloupe (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of Napoleon’s marshals, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bernard, Great St., Bonaparte crosses (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Little St., French reach the summit of (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Saintes, Adrien Antoine, French politician (1750–1819), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Berne, chief oligarchical canton of Switzerland in 1789, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupies Geneva (1792), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French (1798), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vaud and Argau separated from (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtained part of the Bishopric of Basle (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bernis, François Joachim de Pierre, Cardinal de, French statesman (1715–94), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bernstorf, Count Andrew, Danish statesman (1735–97), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Count Christian, Danish statesman (1769–1835), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Neufchâtel and Wagram, French general (1753–1815), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— de Sauvigny, Louis Bénigne François, French administrator (1742–89), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bessarabia, conquered by the Russians under Potemkin (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">under Bagration (1810), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of, ceded to Russia by treaty of Bucharest, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bessières, Jean Baptiste, Duke of Istria, French general (1768–1813), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Beugnot, Jacques Claude, Comte, French administrator (1761–1835), <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Biberach, battle of (9 May 1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bidassoa, the passage of, forced by the Spaniards (1739), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bigot de Préameneu, Félix Julien Jean, Comte, French jurist (1747–1825), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bilbao, taken by the French (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Billaud-Varenne, Jacques Nicolas, French statesman (1756–1819), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duc de, French general (1747–93), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bischofswerder, Hans Rudolf, Baron von, Prussian statesman (♰1803), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bishops, the Prince of Germany, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Black Legion of Brunswick raised, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Blake, Joachim, Spanish general (♰1827), defeated at Albufera (1811), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Blücher, Gebhard Lebrecht von, Prince of Wahlstatt, Prussian general (1742–1819), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Boeckh, Augustus, German scholar (1785–1861), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bohemia, opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the reforms suspended, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pacified by Leopold, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Boissy-d’Anglas, François Antoine, Comte, French statesman (1756–1826), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bologna, belonged to the Pope, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to the Pope (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bonaparte, Caroline, Queen of Naples. <i>See</i> Caroline.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bonaparte, Elisa (1777–1820), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Jerome (1784–1860), King of Westphalia. <i>See</i> Jerome.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Joseph (1768–1844), <a href="#Page_239">239</a> (1806), <a href="#Page_255">255</a>. <i>See</i> Joseph.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Louis (1778–1846), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>. <i>See</i> Louis.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Lucien (1775–1840), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Napoleon (1769–1821) at the siege of Toulon (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">brings up artillery for the defence of the Convention (1795), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the insurgents of Vendémiaire, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appointed to the command of the army of Italy (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the Sardinians, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquers Lombardy, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes armistice with the Pope, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the Austrians at Castiglione, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, at Arcola and Rivoli, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades the Tyrol and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposed the Clichians, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sends Augereau to Paris to help the Directors, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commands army of the Interior, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes Malta and invades Egypt (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign in Syria (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">returns to France, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">provisional First Consul, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">First Consul, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">internal policy, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms the Bank of France and Code Civil, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">foreign policy, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wins battle of Marengo and conquers Italy, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">First Consul of the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his Spanish policy, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">concludes the treaty of Amiens (1802), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reorganises Switzerland, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes Concordat with the Pope, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms the prefectures, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">educational reforms, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">First Consul for life (1802), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">arrests the English in France and occupies Hanover (1803), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">execution of the Duc d’Enghien (1804), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Emperor of the French (1804), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>. <i>See</i> Napoleon.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Pauline, Princess Borghese (1780–1825), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bonn, the university of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bonnier-d’Alco, Ange Elisabeth Louis Antoine, French politician (1749–1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bordeaux, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Borodino, battle of (7 Sept. 1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bosnia, invaded by the Austrians (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bouillé, François Claude Amour, Marquis de, French general (1739–1800), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Boulogne, Napoleon’s camp at (1804–5), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bourbon, Isle of (Réunion), restored to France (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bourdon, Léonard Jean Joseph, French politician (1758–1816), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bourdon de Vatry, Marc Antoine, French administrator (1761–1828), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bourges, federalist army proposed to be formed at (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bournonville, Pierre de Riel, Comte de, French general (1752–1821), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brabant, Constitution of, abolished by the Emperor Joseph (1789), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Braila, battle of (1810), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Branicki, Francis Xavier, Polish statesman (♰1819), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. <i>See</i> Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, Pope.</li> - - <li class="indx">Breda, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Breisgau, the, granted to the Duke of Modena (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">to the Grand Duke of Baden (1805), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bremen, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained its independence (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of the four free cities of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brescia formed part of the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brest, blockaded by English fleet, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French fleet at, unable to break the blockade (1805), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brienne, battle of (29th Jan. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brigandage rife in France under the Directory, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">put down by the Consulate, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rife in Calabria, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brissot, Jean Pierre, French politician (1754–1793), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brissotin section of the Girondin party in the Convention, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brittany, opposition to the Convention in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pacified by Hoche, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brixen, bishopric of, united to Austria (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Broglie, Victor François, Duc de, French general (1718–1804), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bruges, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bruix, Eustache, French admiral (1759–1805), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brumaire, <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th (1799), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general (1763–1815), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Brunswick, Duchy of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia (1806), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brunswick-Lüneburg, Duke of. <i>See</i> Charles William Ferdinand.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brunswick-Oels, Duke of. <i>See</i> Frederick William.</li> - - <li class="indx">Brussels, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bucharest, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Bülow, Frederick William von, Prussian general (1755–1816), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">detached to join Blücher in France (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Burgos, battle of (10 Nov. 1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Wellington fails to take (1812), and retreats from, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Burke, Edmund, English orator (1730–97), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Burrard, Sir Harry, English general (1755–1815), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Busaco, battle of (27 Sept. 1810), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buttmann, Philip Charles, German scholar (1764–1829), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buzot, François Nicolas Léonard, French politician (1760–94), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Buzotins, a section of the Girondins, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Cabarrus, François, Spanish statesman (1752–1810), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cadiz, besieged by the French (1810–12), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cadore, Duke of. <i>See</i> Champagny.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cadoudal, Georges, Chouan leader (1771–1804), <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caen, army organised by the Girondins against the Convention at (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caillard, Antoine Bernard, French diplomatist (1737–1807), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cairo, taken by Bonaparte (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Mamelukes defeated at (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the English (1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caisse d’amortissement founded, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Calabria, brigandage in, encouraged by the English, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Calder, Sir Robert, English admiral (1745–1818), his action (1805), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caldiero, battle of (12 Nov. 1796), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (30 Oct. 1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis, Duke of Parma, French statesman (1753–1824), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cambon, Joseph, French statesman (1754–1820), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cambrai, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Camperdown, battle of (11 Oct. 1797), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Campo-Chiaro, Duke of, Neapolitan statesman, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Campo-Formio, treaty of (17 Oct. 1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Campomanes, Don Pedro Rodriguez, Count of, Spanish statesman (1723–1802), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Canning, George, English statesman (1770–1827), <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cantons of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope taken by the English (1805), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained by them (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Capitulations: of Ulm (1805), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Baylen (1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of Kulm (1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Capo d’Istria, John, Count, Greek statesman (1776–1831), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carniola ceded to Napoleon (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French statesman (1753–1823), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caroline, Marie, Queen of the Two Sicilies (1752–1814), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Murat, Queen of Naples (1782–1839), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1756–1794), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cassano, battle of (27 April 1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Castiglione, battle of (15 Aug. 1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Augereau.</li> - - <li class="indx">Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, English statesman (1769–1822), his views on the way to carry on the war with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">returns to office (1812), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy to form a fresh coalition, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">efforts to get Austria to join (1813), <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sends expedition to Holland, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sent with full powers to France (1814), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">persists in the war and calls up reinforcements for Blücher, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposition to the retention of Belgium by France, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">friendship with Metternich, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of the two men who did most to overthrow Napoleon, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">English representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty with France and Austria against Russia and Prussia, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">disavows Bentinck’s Italian proclamation, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gets the Slave Trade condemned, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">succeeded by Wellington at Vienna, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposes Prussia’s schemes for punishing France (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to join the Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Catalonia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cathcart, William Schaw, Lord, English general (1755–1843), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Catherine <span class="smcap">ii.</span>, Empress of Russia (1729–96) a benevolent despot, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attitude to other Powers of Europe (1789), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">alliance with Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">extension of Russia under, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">policy in Poland, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">internal policy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">war with the Turks (1789–90), <a href="#Page_43">43–45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">with the Swedes (1789–90), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deprived of the Austrian alliance by Leopold, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with Sweden at Verela (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">with the Turks at Jassy (1792), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attitude towards the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs second partition of Poland, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">asserts she is fighting Jacobinism in Poland, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">extinguishes independence of Poland, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives the Comte d’Artois, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death (1796), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Catherine, Grand Duchess of Oldenburg, Queen of Würtemburg (1788–1819), <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Princess, of Würtemburg (1783–1835), marries Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1807), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cattaro, mouths of the river, ceded by Russia to France at Tilsit (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, Duke of Vicenza, French statesman (1772–1827), <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cayenne restored to France (1814), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ceva, battle of (16 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ceylon, taken by the English (1796), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained in 1815, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chabot, François, French politician (1759–94), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chalier, Marie Joseph, French politician (1747–93), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chambéry, annexed to France (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to King of Sardinia (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Chambre Introuvable’ (1815), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Champagny, Jean Baptiste Nompère de, Duke of Cadore, French statesman (1756–1834), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Champaubert, battle of (10 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Champ de Mars, Paris, massacre of (17 July 1791), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Championnet, Jean Etienne, French general (1762–1800), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chaptal, Jean Antoine, Comte, French administrator (1756–1832), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Charles <span class="smcap">III.</span>, King of Spain (1716–88), benevolent despot, his reforms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commenced his career as a reforming monarch at Naples, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, King of Spain (1748–1819), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">XIII.</span>, King of Sweden, formerly Duke of Sudermania (1748–1818), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">II.</span>, King of Etruria (1799–1863), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Charles Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Weimar (1757–1828), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Emmanuel <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, King of Sardinia (1751–1819), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg, (1728–93), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach (1728–1811), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Louis Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden (1786–1816), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Theodore, Elector of Bavaria and Elector Palatine (1729–99), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prussian general (1735–1806), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Archduke, Austrian general (1771–1847), elected Grand Duke of Belgium (1790), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commands the Austrian army in Germany (1796), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">repulses Jourdan and Moreau, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">effect of his success, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commands Austrian army in the Tyrol (1797), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by Bonaparte, and signs Preliminaries of Leoben, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats Jourdan (1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and advances to the Rhine, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forced to retreat, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign against Moreau (1800), superseded, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Italy (1805), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Caldiero, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reorganises Austrian army, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Bavaria (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Eckmühl, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fights battle of Aspern, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Wagram, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Charter, the, of <a href="#Page_4">4</a> June 1814, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chatham, John Pitt, Earl of, English general (1756–1820), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Châtillon, Congress of (1814), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French politician (1763–94), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chaumont, treaty of (1 March 1814), <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chauvelin, François Bernard, Marquis de, French politician (1766–1832), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cherasco, armistice of (28 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chernishev, Alexander, Count, Russian general, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chestret, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Chiaramonti, Gregorio Barnaba Luigi. <i>See</i> Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, Pope.</li> - - <li class="indx">Choczim, taken by the Austrians and Russians (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Choiseul, Etienne François, Duc de, French statesman (1719–85), made the ‘Pacte de Famille’ with Spain, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Christian <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, King of Denmark (1749–1808), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cintra, Convention of (30 Aug. 1808), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Circles, the executive divisions of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ciudad Rodrigo, taken by Wellington (Jan. 1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clancarty, Richard Trench, Earl of, English diplomatist (1767–1837), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, Duke of Feltre, French general (1765–1818), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clavière, Etienne, French politician (1735–93), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Archbishop-Elector of Trèves in 1789, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clementine Museum at Rome reorganised by Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clerfayt, François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Comte de, Austrian general (1733–98), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Clichian party, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Club, Cordeliers. <i>See</i> Cordeliers.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— de Clichy, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Jacobin. <i>See</i> Jacobin.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of 1789, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cobenzl, Count Louis, Austrian statesman (1753–1808), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Count Philip, Austrian statesman (1741–1810), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Coblentz, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Coburg, Frederick Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Prince of, Austrian general (1737–1815), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cochon de Lapparent, Charles, French administrator (1749–1825), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cochrane, Thomas, Lord, Earl of Dundonald, English admiral (1775–1860), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Code, Civil, bases of, laid by the Convention, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte’s commission to draw up, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Codes of law promulgated by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Colli, Louis Leonard Gaspard Venance, Baron, Sardinian general (1760–1811), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Colloredo, Count Jerome, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Collot-d’Herbois, Jean Marie, French politician (1750–96), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cologne, Archbishop of, an Elector in the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— archbishopric of, excellently ruled in 1789, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in France, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Committee of General Defence, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of General Security, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Mercy, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Public Safety, the first chosen (April 1793), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its work, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formation of the Great, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">growth of its power, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its system of government—the Reign of Terror, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its instruments—the Committee of General Security, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the deputies on mission, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">laws of the Suspects and the Maximum, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Revolutionary Tribunal, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its power organised, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its success, 139–<a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposition to, 141–<a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrows the Hébertists, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Dantonists, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its triumphs on land, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">failure at sea, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Robespierre’s position in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">renewed by a quarter monthly after Robespierre’s fall, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its supremacy maintained, but its system changed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">filled by members of the Plain, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Commune of Paris overthrows the monarchy (Aug. 1792), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its energy, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">insists on expulsion of the Girondins (June 1793), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes Hébertist and opposes the Committee of Public Safety, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes Robespierrist, and is decimated by the Convention, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conclusum of the Empire, how arrived at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Concordat between the Pope and Bonaparte (1802), <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Condé, taken by the Austrians (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Condé, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de, French general (1736–1818), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Condillac, Etienne-Bonnot, Abbé de, French philosopher (1715–80), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conegliano, Duke of. <i>See</i> Moncey.</li> - - <li class="indx">Confederation, Germanic. <i>See</i> Germanic.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of the Rhine. <i>See</i> Rhine.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Switzerland. <i>See</i> Switzerland.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Targovitsa, asks Catherine to intervene in Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conferences:</li> - <li class="isub2">Erfurt (1808), <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pilnitz (1791), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Reichenbach, (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tilsit (1807), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Congresses:</li> - <li class="isub2">Châtillon (1814), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Hague (1799), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prague (1813), <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Rastadt (1798), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Sistova (1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_336">336–350</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Consalvi, Hercules, Cardinal, Italian statesman (1757–1824), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conscription, established in France (1798), <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Germany, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Constance, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, merged in Grand Duchy of Baden (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, taken by Massena (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Constantine, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor Alexander (1779–1831), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Constantinople, great riot at (1807), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Constituent Assembly:</li> - <li class="isub2">the Tiers Etat declares itself the National Assembly (June 1789), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">oath of the Tennis Court, and Séance Royale, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">session of <a href="#Page_4">4</a> August, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes the Constitution of 1791, 68–<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">authority passed to, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">discredited the executive, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dissolved (1791), <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Constitution, the French, of 1791, 68–<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revised, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">completed, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">compared with the Polish of 1791, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its local arrangements confirmed by the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, of 1793, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span> (1795), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span> (1799), <a href="#Page_212">212–214</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Consulate, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Legislature, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, of the Empire (1805), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, promised by the Charter (1814), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the Polish, of 1791, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abrogated, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Consulate, the, in France, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Consuls, the (1799–1804), Bonaparte, Cambacérès, Le Brun, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the Provisional (1799), Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger Ducos, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Continental Blockade against England, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Convention, National, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Conventions: Alexandria (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Alkmaar (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cintra (1808), <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Leoben (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tauroggen (1812), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Copenhagen, battle of (2 April 1801), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by the English (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cordeliers Club at Paris, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Corfu, occupied by the French (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Ionian Islands.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis, English general (1738–1805), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Corsica, ceded to France by Genoa (1768), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the English (1793), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abandoned by them (1796), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Corunna, battle of (16 Jan. 1809), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Corvée</i>, or forced labour, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Council of Ancients, established in France (1795), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Council of Five Hundred, established in France (1795), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of State, established in France under the Consulate (1799), <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Court, Napoleon’s, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Couthon, Georges Auguste, French politician (1756–94), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cracow, university of, reorganised, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Kosciuszko raises standard of Polish independence at (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joined to Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Austria as a free city (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cradock, Sir John Francis, Lord Howden, English general (1762–1839), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Craonne, battle of (7 March 1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Croatia ceded to Napoleon (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Cuesta, Don Gregorio Garcia de la, Spanish general (1740–1812), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Curaçao, restored to Holland by England (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Custine, Adam Philippe, Comte de, French general (1740–93), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Czartoryski, Prince Adam George, Polish statesman (1770–1865), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Dalberg, Charles Theodore de, German prelate (1744–1817), Co-adjutor-Archbishop-Elector of Mayence in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained as Arch-Chancellor of the Empire with new territory (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">received Fulda and Hanau and became Prince Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">suggested that Napoleon should be Emperor of Germany, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lost his territorial sovereignty (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Emeric Joseph, Duc de, French statesman (1773–1833), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dalmatia, belonged to Venice in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Austria (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Illyrian Provinces.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Soult.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford, English general (1750–1830), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Danton, George Jacques, French statesman (1759–94), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dantzic promised to Prussia by the treaty of Warsaw, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Poles refuse to surrender, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged and taken by the French (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French garrison left in 1812, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged (1812–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Lefebvre.</li> - - <li class="indx">Danubian Principalities, the, promised to Alexander by Napoleon (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dardanelles, the, forced by an English fleet (1807), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Daru, Pierre Antoine Noël Bruno, Comte, French administrator (1767–1829), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Daunou, Pierre Claude François, French politician (1761–1840), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dauphiné, influence of the Assembly in (1788), on the elections to the States-General in France, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">David, Jacques Louis, French painter (1748–1825), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Davout, Louis Nicolas, Duke of Auerstädt, Prince of Eckmühl, French general (1770–1823), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Debry, Jean Antoine, French politician (1760–1834), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of Saint Ouen (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Decrès, Denis, Duke, French admiral (1761–1820), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Defermon, Joseph, Comte, French administrator (1756–1831), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dego, battle of (15 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Delacroix, Charles, French politician (1740–1805), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Demarcation, line of, protecting Northern Germany, agreed to at treaty of Basle between France and Prussia (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its effect on the position of Prussia, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">proposal to extend (1796), <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">violated by the occupation of Hanover (1804), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">this violation leads Prussia to prepare for war, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Denmark, under Russian influence in 1789, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its prosperity and reforms, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the king a member of the Holy Roman Empire as Duke of Holstein, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacks Sweden (1788), but forced to make peace, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">remains neutral during the general war with France, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins League of the North and is attacked by England (1801), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Copenhagen bombarded and the Danish fleet seized by England (1807), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Sweden declares war against (1808), <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a faithful ally of Napoleon, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Bernadotte and forced to exchange Norway for Swedish Pomerania (1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gets the Duchy of Lauenburg for Swedish Pomerania (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cedes Heligoland to England (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dennewitz, battle of (6 Sept. 1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Deputies of the Convention sent on mission, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">put down the Girondin movement, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">an instrument of the Reign of Terror; their work—in the provinces, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">with the armies, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Desaix, Louis Charles Antoine, French general (1768–1800), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Desmoulins, Camille, French politician (1762–94), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Despots, the benevolent, of the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Emperor Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Empress Catherine of Russia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Charles <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Spain, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Leopold of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ferdinand of Parma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Frederick the Great of Prussia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Sweden, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Charles Theodore of Bavaria and Charles Frederick of Baden, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), duchy of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in France (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Diderot, Denis, French philosopher (1713–84), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Diet, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichstag), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Diet, the, of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the, of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dignitaries, the Grand, of Napoleon’s Empire, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dillon, Arthur, French general (1750–94), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Theobald, French general (1743–92), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Directors, the, of the French Republic (1795–99): elected Oct. 1795, Barras, Carnot, Letourneur, Revellière-Lépeaux, Reubell, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">May 1797, Barthélémy succeeds Letourneur, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Sept. 1797, François de Neufchâteau and Merlin of Douai succeed Barthélémy and Carnot, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">May 1798, Treilhard succeeds François de Neufchâteau, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">May 1799, Sieyès succeeds Reubell, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">June 1799, Ducos, Gohier, and Moulin succeed Merlin of Douai, Revellière-Lépeaux, and Treilhard, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Directory, the, its functions as established by the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">foreign policy left to Reubell, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">military affairs to Carnot, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its internal policy, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle with the Clichians, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>coup d’état</i> of Fructidor 1797, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">interferes in the elections of 1798 to the Legislature, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its weakness (1799), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle with the Legislature (1799), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished 18 Brumaire (1799), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dombrowski, John Henry, Polish general (1755–1818), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Dotations,’ <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dresden, battle of (27 Aug. 1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1763–1824), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dubienka, battle of (17 July 1792), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dubitza taken by the Austrians (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dubois-Crancé, Edmond Louis Alexis, French politician (1747–1814), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, English admiral (1747–1817), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ducos, Roger, French politician (1754–1816), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dugommier, Jean François Coquille, French general (1721–94), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dumont, André, French politician (1764–1836), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dumouriez, Charles François, French general (1739–1823), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Duncan, Adam, Viscount, English admiral (1731–1804), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dunkirk besieged by the Duke of (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">relieved by Houchard, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Duodecimo duchies’ of Germany in 1789, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Duphot, Léonard, French general (1770–97), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dupont de l’Étang, Pierre, Comte, French general (1765–1838), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Dufort, Amédee Bretagne Malo, Comte de, French courtier (1770–1836), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Duroc, Géraud Christophe Michel, Duke of Friuli, French general (1772–1813), <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Düsseldorf, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Ecclesiastical princes of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their states secularised (1803), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eckmühl, battle of (22 April 1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince of. <i>See</i> Davout.</li> - - <li class="indx">Education, national system established before 1789 in Spain, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Tuscany, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Parma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Baden, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attempted in Poland, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reforms in, attempted by the Convention in France, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte’s scheme of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s system of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">established in Prussia by Humboldt, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Egypt, conquered by Bonaparte (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his administration of, and reconquest (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French expelled from, by the English (1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">failure of English expedition to (1808), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ehrenbreitstein, fortress, taken by Marceau (1795), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elba, declared a French island, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to Napoleon (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his escape from (1815), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elchingen, battle of (20 Oct. 1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Ney.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elections, the, to the States-General in France (1789), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Electors, the eight, of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the ten established in 1803, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elizabeth, Madame, sister of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> (1764–94), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elliot, Hugh, English diplomatist (1752–1830), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elsinore, batteries at, passed by the English fleet (1801), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elten, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and again (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Elwangen, the Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Emigrés</i>, Belgian, strong measures taken against (1789), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— French, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Condé.</li> - - <li class="indx">Emperor of the French, Napoleon declares himself (1804), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to be Emperor of Germany, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Holy Roman, position of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span> abandons the title of (1804), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Leopold <span class="smcap">II.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Empire, Holy Roman, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33–36</a>, 79–<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225–227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Napoleon’s, its establishment, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Grand Dignitaries of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">institutions and administrative system, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">greatest extension of (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Engen, battle of (3 May 1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d’ (1722–1804), shot at Vincennes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">England, condition of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Member of the Triple Alliance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">alliance with Portugal, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">looks favourably on the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the affair of Nootka Sound, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Emperor Leopold appeals to, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attitude towards the French Republic, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">France declares war against (1793), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">paymaster of the coalition against France, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupies Toulon, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and Corsica, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">withdrew subsidies from Prussia, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">national feeling in, against France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">supported the French <i>émigrés</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">did not wish for peace with France, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Spain declares war against, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attempts at peace, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">blockades and defeats the Dutch fleet, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes Minorca and Malta, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms the second coalition, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte attacks her commerce through the Neutral League of the North, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">drives the French out of Egypt, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Peace of Amiens, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recommencement of the war with France, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s project of invading, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms the third coalition, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Continental Blockade against and its effect, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">seizes the Danish fleet, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">decides to actively intervene on the Continent, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">hitherto contented with taking colonies and detached expeditions, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sends an army to Portugal, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promises subsidies to Austria (1809), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Walcheren Expedition, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Castlereagh’s and Canning’s theories, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms fresh coalition, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">greatness of her share in overthrowing Napoleon, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">colonial gains made at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">insists on abolition of the Slave Trade, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to join the Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>. <i>See</i> Castlereagh, Pitt.</li> - - <li class="indx">Erfurt, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— conference at (1808), <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Erthal, Baron Francis Louis of, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg and Würtzburg in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Baron Frederick Charles of, Archbishop-Elector of Mayence and Prince-Bishop of Worms in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Espinosa, battle of (11 Nov. 1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Essen, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Essling or Aspern, battle of (21, 22 May 1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince of. <i>See</i> Massena.</li> - - <li class="indx">Esterhazy, Nicholas Joseph, Prince (1714–90), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Etruria, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>. <i>See</i> Louis.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ettlingen, battle of (June 1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eugène de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy. <i>See</i> Beauharnais.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ewart, Joseph, English diplomatist (1760–92), English representative at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Eylau, battle of (8 Feb. 1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Fabry, M., elected burgomaster of Liége (1789), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Famars, battle of (24 May 1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Faypoult, Guillaume Charles, French administrator (1752–1817), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Felino, Marquis of. <i>See</i> Tillot.</li> - - <li class="indx">Feltre, Duke of. <i>See</i> Clarke.</li> - - <li class="indx">Féraud, Jean, French politician (1764–1795), killed in rising of <a href="#Page_1">1</a> Prairial, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ferdinand <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, King of Spain (1784–1833), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, King of the Two Sicilies (1751–1825), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Grand Duke of Tuscany, second son of the Emperor Leopold (1769–1824), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of Parma and Piacenza, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa (1754–1806), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ferrara, Legation of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the kingdom of Italy (1805), <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to the Pope (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ferrari, Raphael di, Doge of Genoa in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fersen, Axel, Count (1759–1810), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fesch, Joseph, uncle of Napoleon (1763–1839), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Feudalism, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fichte, John Theophilus, German philosopher (1762–1814), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Figueras, battle of (20 Nov. 1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Filangieri, Gaetano, Neapolitan political writer (1752–88), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Finance, Napoleon’s system of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Finland, belonged to Sweden (1789), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaigns of Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> in 1788, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">(1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the Emperor Alexander (1808), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Russia by Bernadotte in exchange for Norway (1812), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Firmian, Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1716–82), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fitzherbert, Alleyne, Lord St. Helens, English diplomatist (1753–1839), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Five Hundred, Council of. <i>See</i> Council.</li> - - <li class="indx">Flanders, the Estates of, declare their independence of Austria (1789), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Flesselles, Jacques de, French administrator (1721–89), <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fleurus, battle of (26 June 1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Florence, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Tuscany.</li> - - <li class="indx">Florida Blanca, Joseph Monino, Count of, Spanish statesman (1728–1809), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Flushing taken by the English (1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Foksany, battle of (31 July 1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Foligno, armistice of, between the Pope and Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fontainebleau, treaty of (1808), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> taken to, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon abdicates at (1814), <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fontanes, Louis de, French writer (1757–1821), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Forfait, Pierre Alexandre Laurent, French administrator (1752–1807), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, French politician (1763–1820), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Foullon de Doué, Joseph François, French administrator (1715–89), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fox, Charles James, English statesman (1749–1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">France, serfdom and feudalism practically extinct, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">why the Revolution broke out, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">position in 1789>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elections to the States-General (1789), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">result of the capture of the Bastille in (July 1789), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">divided into departments, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">state of, in 1791, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">effect of the flight to Varennes on, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wishes for war, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exasperated by Brunswick’s proclamation, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded (1792), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">(1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposition to the Convention (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">submits to the Reign of Terror, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes a vast arsenal, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">after the victory of Fleurus rejects the Terror, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">detests the Convention because of the Terror (1795), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">but would not rise against it, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">internal peace established (1796), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">state of (1796), <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">acquiesced in the <i>coup d’état</i> of Fructidor (1797), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">state of (1798), weary of politics, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">welcomed Bonaparte’s return (1799), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pacified under the Consulate, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">organisation into prefectures, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">popularity of Bonaparte in (1802), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">enthusiastically welcomes the Empire, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conduct to the Pope damaged Napoleon’s popularity in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s autocratic rule in, abolition of individual liberty and representative institutions, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">indisposed to support Napoleon (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">would not rise to defend France in 1814 as in 1793, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">weary of the military policy of Napoleon and physically exhausted, <a href="#Page_324">324–326</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reduced to its limits of 1792, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">distrusts Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">welcomes Napoleon back (1815), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">difference of its attitude in 1814 and 1815, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reduced to its limits of 1789, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reactionary government of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Francis <span class="smcap">ii.</span>, Holy Roman Emperor, <span class="smcap">i.</span> Emperor of Austria (1768–1835), succeeded his father Leopold (1792), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elected and crowned Emperor, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">war with France, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">loses Belgium, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">regarded himself as duped by being left out of second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes Thugut his Foreign Minister, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his armies invade France, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">repulsed, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Cracow and rest of Galicia at final partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">change in his attitude towards France, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exchanges French prisoners for Madame Royale, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appealed to his people’s patriotism against Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Convention of Leoben (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">again prepares for war with France (1798), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">was more afraid of Russia than France, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Lunéville and dismisses Thugut (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares himself Emperor of Austria (1804), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms coalition with Russia and England, and invades Italy and Bavaria (1805), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Pressburg, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">prepares for a fresh war, and tries to rouse a national German spirit, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Italy and Bavaria (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Vienna, and dismisses Stadion, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appoints Metternich State Chancellor, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gives his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Russia as Napoleon’s ally (1812), <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attempts to mediate between Napoleon and the allies, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares war against Napoleon (1813), <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">does not want to overthrow Napoleon (1814), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inclined to side with England against Russia and Prussia, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives the allied monarchs at Vienna (1814), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs secret treaty with England and France (3 Jan. 1815), <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtains the duchy of Parma for his daughter Marie Louise, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins the Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">greatly weakened actually if not territorially by the great war, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Francis <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, of Este, grandson of Hercules <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Duke of Modena (1779–1846), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince, of Prussia, (1797), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">François de Neufchâteau, Nicolas, Comte, French politician (1750–1828), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Franconia invaded by Jourdan (1796), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frankenberg, Cardinal, Archbishop of Malines, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frankfort-on-the-Main, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Leopold crowned Emperor at (1790), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Francis crowned Emperor at (1792), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">held to ransom by Custine (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Jourdan (1796), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">maintained as a free city (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Proposals of (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">maintained as a free city and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frankfort, Grand Duchy of, created (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frederick <span class="smcap">II.</span>, King of Prussia, ‘the Great’ (1712–86), typical benevolent despot, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">decay of Prussia after his reign, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposed Austrian scheme of exchanging Belgium for Bavaria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Joseph’s admiration for, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">suggested the partition of Poland, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, King of Denmark (1768–1839), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">I.</span>, Duke, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1754–1816), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Augustus <span class="smcap">I.</span>, Elector, afterwards King, of Saxony (1750–1827), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Eugène, Duke of Würtemburg (♰1797), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, King of Prussia (1744–97), his character and policy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intrigues with the Turks against Austria, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">encourages the Belgian patriots, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupies Liége, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sends help to the Belgians, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty with the Poles, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intrigues against Austria, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes Convention of Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">won over by Leopold, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Declaration of Pilnitz with Leopold, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and treaty with Leopold, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to break with Austria, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">directed the policy of the Emperor Francis (1792), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">orders retreat from France, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Poland and signs second partition (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes Haugwitz his minister, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">driven from Warsaw (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Warsaw in final partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">yields to the anti-Austrian party at his Court, and becomes slack in the war against France, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Basle with France (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to make alliance with France (1796), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs secret supplement to the treaty of Basle, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span>, King of Prussia (1770–1840), accession (1797), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">insists on strict neutrality, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attitude in 1799, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">admires Bonaparte, but refuses to make alliance with him, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his territorial accessions (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">persists in his neutrality, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inclines to war (1805), <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">utterly defeated by Napoleon at Jena, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Bartenstein with Russia, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">spared by Napoleon on the intercession of Alexander, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">summoned Stein and Scharnhorst to office, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forced to dismiss Stein, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obliged to sign alliance with Napoleon (1812), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">calls out the Landwehr and declares war against Napoleon (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">desires to be revenged on France, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">enters Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his intimacy with the Emperor Alexander, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">present at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">desires the whole of Saxony, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gets a portion only, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">with part of Poland, but not Warsaw, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and Rhenish Prussia, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins the Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Oels (1771–1815), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire in 1789, their College in the Diet, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reduced to six (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reduced to four (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Freisingen, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fréjus, Napoleon landed at, on his return from Egypt (1799), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">French philosophers of the 18th century contrasted with the German, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fréron, Louis Stanislas, French politician (1765–1802), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fribourg, canton of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Friedland, battle of (14 June 1807), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Friuli, Duke of. <i>See</i> Duroc.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fructidor, <i>coup d’état</i> of 18th (4th Sept. 1797), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fuentes de Onor, battle of (5 May 1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Fulda, bishopric of (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Gaeta, siege and capture by the French (1806), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Gaudin.</li> - - <li class="indx">Galicia, Western, obtained by Austria at third partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Austria (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gambier, James, Lord, English admiral (1756–1833), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de, French politician (1750–93), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gaudin, Martin Michel Charles, Duke of Gaeta, French statesman (1756–1844), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Geisberg, battle of the (26 Dec. 1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Geneva, its condition as an independent republic in 1789, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the Bernese troops (1792), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">united to France, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Genoa, its position in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed into the Liguria Republic (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged by the Austrians (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the English (1814), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his proclamation at, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">united to the kingdom of Sardinia (1815), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Genola, battle of (4 Nov. 1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gensonné, Armand, French politician (1758–93), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gentz, Friedrich von, German statesman (1764–1832), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">George <span class="smcap">III.</span>, King of England (1738–1820), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Germanic Confederation formed (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Germany, condition of, in 1789, <a href="#Page_33">33–40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">spread of revolutionary ideas in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">resettlement of (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225–227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s rearrangement of (1806), <a href="#Page_257">257–261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Stadion’s attempt to rouse a national spirit in, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reforms made in, under French influence, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">growth of a national spirit against the French in, <a href="#Page_291">291–295</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">national rising in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">resettled at Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, Würtemburg.</li> - - <li class="indx">German literary movement at Weimar, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">German philosophers of the 18th century compared with the French, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Germinal, Riot of the 12th (1 April 1795), in Paris, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ghent, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Girondins, French political party, in the Legislative Assembly, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in favour of war, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their sections in the Convention, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked the Mountain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views on the King’s trial, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle with the Mountain, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrown (2 June 1793), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attempt to raise the provinces of France against the Convention, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the leaders guillotined, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recall of the survivors to the Convention (1795), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">they obtain power, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Giurgevo, battle of (8 July 1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">armistice of (19 Sept. 1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Glarus, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gnesen, province of, ceded to Prussia at second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Goa, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gobel, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French bishop (1727–94), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Godoy, Don Manuel de, Prince of the Peace, Spanish statesman (1767–1851), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet (1749–1832), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gohier, Louis Jerome, French politician (1746–1830), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Goltz, Bernhard William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1730–95), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Göttingen, university of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, Laurent, French general (1764–1830), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Graham, Sir Thomas, Lord Lynedoch, English general (1751–1843), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grand Elector, proposed by Sieyès in 1799 but rejected by Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grand Livre, Cambon’s creation of, continued by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Greece, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grégoire, Henri, French politician (1750–1831), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grenelle, plot to attack the camp of (1796), <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grenville, Thomas, English diplomatist (1755–1846), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman (1759–1834), Pitt’s foreign secretary (1790–1801), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grisons, republic of the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the Archduke Charles (1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Suvórov in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Macdonald invades (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed into a canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and retained by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Grodno, Diet of (24 Sept. 1793), second partition of Poland agreed to at, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gross-Beeren, battle of (23 Aug. 1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gross-Gorschen (Lützen), battle of (2 May 1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de, French general (1766–1847), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Guadeloupe, French West India island, conquered by the English, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to France by treaty of Amiens (1802), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquered by the English (1810), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">returned to France by Sweden (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Guadet, Marguerite Élie, French politician (1758–94), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Guastalla, duchy of, granted to Pauline Bonaparte by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted with Parma to the Empress Marie Louise (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Guerilla warfare against the French in Spain, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Guiana, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, King of Sweden (1746–92), a benevolent despot of the 18th century, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his <i>coup d’état</i> of 1772 and reforms, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Russian Finland (1788), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with Denmark (1789), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrows the power of the nobility, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sympathy with Marie Antoinette, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by the Russians (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Verela with the Empress Catherine (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">proposes to rescue the French royal family, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">murdered, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, King of Sweden (1778–1837), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Hague, the, the Stadtholder driven from (1787), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">congress at (1790), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital moved from, to Amsterdam by Louis Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hainault, Estates of, suppressed by the Emperor Joseph (1789), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hamburg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">English trade removed from Amsterdam to, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained its independence (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the Russians (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recovered by Vandamme, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defended by Davout (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a free city of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hanau granted to Dalberg, Grand Duke of Frankfort (1806), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (30 Oct. 1813), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hanover, Electorate of, independently administered under the King of England, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">bishopric of Osnabrück merged in (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French under Mortier (1803), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promised to Prussia and offered to England by Napoleon (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of, merged in kingdom of Westphalia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and part annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hanriot, François, French politician (1761–94), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hardenberg, Charles Augustus, Count afterwards Prince von, Prussian statesman (1750–1822), negotiated treaty of Basle (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposed alliance with France (1796), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">became Minister for Foreign Affairs (1803), <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and State Chancellor (1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">completes the work of Stein (1809), <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">accedes to the Proposals of Frankfort (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prussian Plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— William, Count von, Hanoverian statesman (1754–1826), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Harris, Sir James, Earl of Malmesbury. <i>See</i> Malmesbury.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hassan Pasha, Turkish admiral, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hatry, Jacques Maurice, French general (1740–1802), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Haugwitz, Christian Henry Charles, Count von, Prussian statesman, (1752–1832) a partisan of France and enemy of Austria, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appointed Foreign Minister (1792), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in favour of peace with the French Republic, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">but against an alliance (1796), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">advocated a compromise, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dismissed as too friendly to France (1803), <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of Schönbrunn (1805), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">finally dismissed (1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hébert, Jacques René, French politician (1755–94), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hébertists, the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Heidelberg ceded to Baden, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Heligoland, ceded by Denmark to England (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Heliopolis, battle of (20 March 1800), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Helvetian Republic founded (1798), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">replaced by the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Henry, Prince, of Prussia (1726–1802), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hérault-Séchelles, Marie Jean, French politician (1760–94), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hercules <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Duke of Modena (1727–1803), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Herder, Johann Gottfried, German philosopher (1744–1803), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Herford, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hermann, Russian general, defeated at Bergen (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hertzberg, Ewald Frederick, Count von, Prussian statesman (1725–1795), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hesse-Cassel, its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made an electorate (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">increased in size, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the kingdom of Westphalia, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> William <span class="smcap">IX.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Hesse-Darmstadt, increased in size (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a Grand Duchy (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Louis <span class="smcap">X.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Hesse-Homburg, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hildesheim, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hildesheim, bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hiller, John, Baron von, Austrian general (1754–1819), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hoche, Lazare, French general (1768–97), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hoensbroeck, Count Cæsar Constantine Francis de, Prince-Bishop of Liége, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hofer, Andrew, Tyrolese patriot (1767–1810), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hohenlinden, battle of (3 Dec. 1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, Prince of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hohenlohe-Kirchberg, Prince of, Austrian general, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hohenzollern, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Holland [the United Netherlands], a member of the Triple Alliance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">position in 1789, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revolution in (1787) <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">put down by Prussia, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">designs of Dumouriez on, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">France declares war against (1793), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">failure of Dumouriez to invade (1793), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by Pichegru (1794–95), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">organised as the Batavian Republic, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">effect of its conquest on England, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Delacroix sent as ambassador to, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hoche’s scheme of invading England from, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its fleet destroyed at Camperdown (1797), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by English and Russians (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its changes of government, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Louis Bonaparte, King of (1806), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">colonies taken by England, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rises against the French (1813–14), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joined to Belgium as the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— kingdom of, formed for Louis Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his administration (1806–1810), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Holstein, duchy of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Holstein-Gottorp, Prince Peter of, Prince-Bishop of Lübeck in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Holy Alliance, the, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hondschoten, battle of (7 Sept. 1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hood, Samuel, Lord, English admiral (1724–1816), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Houchard, Jean Nicolas, French general (1740–93), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Howe, Richard, Earl, English admiral (1725–99), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Humbert, Jean Joseph Amable, French general (1755–1823), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Humboldt, William, Baron von, Prussian statesman (1767–1835), <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hundred Days, the (March-June 1815), 351–<a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hungary, opposition to the Emperor Joseph’s reforms in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolition of serfdom, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Joseph’s dying concessions to, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">policy of the Emperor Leopold in, <a href="#Page_90">90–92</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">looked with favour on Napoleon, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Huningen, fortress to be dismantled by second treaty of Paris (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Hutchinson, John, Lord, afterwards Earl of Donoughmore, English general (1757–1832), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Igelström, Joseph, Count, Russian general (♰1817), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Illyrian Provinces, Napoleon’s, formed (1805), ruled by Marmont, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Ionian islands added to (1807), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">increased (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Austria (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Income tax imposed in France (1800), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">India, Bonaparte’s projects on (1798), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Emperor Paul’s plans for invading, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Infernal Columns’ despatched to La Vendée, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Infernal Machine,’ plot of the (1800), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Inquisition, the Holy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ionian Islands belonged to Venice in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to France (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the Russians (1798), <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">added to the Illyrian Provinces, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to England (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ireland, Hoche’s expedition to (1796), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Humbert’s (1798), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Iron crown of Italy assumed by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ismail, besieged by the Russians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stormed (1790), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Istria ceded to Austria (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Bessières.</li> - - <li class="indx">Italian unity, idea of, in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promised by Bentinck (1813), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defended by Murat (1814), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Italy, condition of, in 1789, <a href="#Page_22">22–27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte’s arrangements in North, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the French (1798–99), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">kingdom of, Napoleon’s, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rises against Napoleon (1813–14), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">settlement of, at Vienna (1815), 345–<a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Genoa, Lombardy, Lucca, Modena, Naples, Parma, Rome, Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, Venice.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Jablonowski, Ladislas, Polish statesman (1769–1802), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jachvill, Prince, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jacobin Club, growth of its importance in France, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">debates on the war question in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hébertists expelled from (1793), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the headquarters of Robespierre’s party, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">closed (1794), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jaffa taken by Bonaparte (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jahn, Frederick Louis, German publicist (1778–1852), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Janissaries, the, dethrone the Sultan Selim <span class="smcap">III.</span> (1807), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fight the new militia in Constantinople, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Janssens, John William, Dutch general (1762–1835), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jassy, treaty of (9 Jan. 1792), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jaucourt, Arnail François, Marquis de, French statesman (1757–1852), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Java, taken by the English (1811), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Holland (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Javogues, Claude, French politician (1759–96), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jeanbon or Jean Bon (André) called Saint-André. <i>See</i> Saint-André.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jehu, companies of, ravage the south of France in 1796, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in 1815, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jemmappes, battle of (6 Nov. 1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jena, university of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (14 Oct. 1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (1784–1860), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jervis, Sir John, Earl St. Vincent, English admiral (1734–1823), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jesuits expelled from Spain by Aranda, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Portugal by Pombal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">from Naples by Tanucci, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jeunesse Dorée or Fréronienne, important political part played by, in Paris (1794–95), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jews, toleration to, insisted on by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">John <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, King of Portugal (1769–1826), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Archduke, seventh son of the Emperor Leopold (1782–1863), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jomini, Henri, Baron, French general (1779–1862), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Emperor (1741–90), typical benevolent despot of the 18th century, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">preferred Russia to France, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">position in 1789, <a href="#Page_14">14–17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">internal policy, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolition of serfdom, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">foreign policy, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">German policy, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">alliance with Russia, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacks the Turks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Pope’s visit to, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by the Turks (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">prophecy in Jan. 1789, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">policy in Belgium, <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death and character, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">why he failed, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">comparison between, and Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoleon (1768–1844), King of Naples (1806), his good administration, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">King of Spain (1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his reforms, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">driven from Madrid (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">returned, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">finally retired from Madrid, defeated at Vittoria (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Joseph, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1776–1847), <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Josephine, the Empress, first wife of Napoleon (1763–1814), <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine, French general (1769–99), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French general (1762–1833), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Journalists, rise of their importance in Paris (1789), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish statesman (1744–1811), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Joyeuse Entrée or Constitution of Brabant, abrogated by the Emperor Joseph (1789), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Junot, Andoche, Duke of Abrantes, French general (1771–1813), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Kaiserslautern, battle of (19 Aug. 1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kalisch, ceded to Prussia in second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of (27 Feb. 1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kalkreuth, Frederick Adolphus, Count von, Prussian general (1737–1818), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724–1804), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Katt, Lieutenant, Prussian officer, attacked Magdeburg (1809), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Katzbach, battle of the (25 Aug. 1813), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kaunitz, Wenceslas, Prince von, Austrian statesman (1711–94), made the treaty of 1756 with France, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at the Congress of Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wrote the despatch and letter which led to war with France, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">practically succeeded by Thugut (1792), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Keller, Dorotheus Louis Christopher, Count, Prussian statesman (1757–1827), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kellermann, François Christophe, Duke of Valmy, French general (1735–1820), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— François Étienne, French general (1770–1835), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kempten, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kiel, treaty of (14 Jan. 1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kioge, Danes defeated at, by the English (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Klagenfurt, Joubert joins Bonaparte at (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kléber, Jean Baptiste, French general (1753–1800), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Knesebeck, Charles Frederick, Baron von, Prussian general (1768–1844), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Knights of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deprived of their sovereign rights by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kolichev, Nicholas, Russian diplomatist (♰1813), <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kollontai, Hugh, Polish statesman (1752–1812), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Königsberg, Estates of East Prussia summoned at, by Stein (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Körner, Charles Theodore, German poet (1791–1813), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Korsakov, Alexander Rymski, Russian general (1753–1840), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kosciuszko, Thaddeus, Polish patriot (1746–1817), defeated by Suvórov at Dubienka (1792), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">raises standard of Polish independence at Cracow, and takes Warsaw (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by the Russians, wounded and taken prisoner at Maciejowice (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">welcomed in Paris, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kray, Paul, Baron, Austrian general (1735–1804), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kulm, capitulation of (1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Kutuzov, Michael Larivonovitch Golenitchev, Prince, Russian general (1745–1813), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Labrador, Pedro Gomez Ravelo, Count of, Spanish statesman (1775–1850), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lacuée de Cessac, Gérard Jean, Comte, French administrator (1752–1841), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, French general (1757–1834), leads the minority of the nobility in the States-General to join the Tiers État (June 1789), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">commandant of the National Guard of Paris, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">brings Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> to Paris (6 Oct. 1789), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">got Mirabeau’s proposition on ministers rejected, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">most influential man in France (1790), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fires on the people (17 July 1791), on the Champ de Mars, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">placed in command of an army on the frontier (1792), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">offers to help the king (July 1792), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deserts, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lagarde, Marie Jacques Martin, French general (♰1815), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">La Harpe, Frederick Cæsar de, Swiss statesman (1754–1838), <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">La Marck, Auguste Marie Raymond, Comte de (1753–1833), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lambesc, Charles Eugène de Lorraine, Prince de, French officer (1751–1825), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lambrechts, Charles Joseph Mathieu, Comte, French politician (1753–1823), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lameth, Alexandre Theodore Victor, Vicomte de, French politician (1760–1829), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lampredi, Giovanni Maria, Italian jurist (1732–93), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Landau, siege of, relieved by Pichegru (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lanjunais, Jean Denis, Comte, French politician (1753–1827), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello, French general (1769–1809), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Laon, battle of (9 March 1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">La Place, Pierre Simon, French astronomer (1749–1827), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">La Tour du Pin Gouvernet, Frédéric, Marquis de, French diplomatist (1750–1837), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lauenburg, Duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation, granted to the King of Denmark (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">League of the Princes, formed by Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joined by the Archbishop-Elector of Mayence, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">La Bon, Ghislain Joseph François, French politician (1765–95), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Le Brun, Charles François, Duke of Piacenza, French statesman (1739–1824), <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lebrun Tondu, Pierre Henri Hélène, French politician (1763–93), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Le Chapelier, Isaac Gui René, French politician (1754–94), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leclerc, Victor Emmanuel, French general (1772–1802), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lecourbe, Claude Joseph, Comte, French general (1760–1815), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leeds, Francis Godolphin Osborne, Duke of, English statesman (1751–99), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lefebvre, François Joseph, Duke of Dantzic, French general (1755–1820), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Legations, the. <i>See</i> Bologna, Ferrara.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leghorn, its prosperity promoted by the Grand Duke Leopold, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Legion of Honour, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Legislative Assembly, the, in France (1791–92), <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Body, the (Corps Législatif), <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Legislature, the French, under the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">III</span>. <i>See</i> Council of Ancients, Council of Five Hundred.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the French, under the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII</span>. <i>See</i> Legislative Body, Senate, Tribunate.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leiningen, the Prince of, one of chief princes holding fiefs of the Empire in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leipzig, battle of (16–19 Oct. 1813), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lenoir-Laroche, Jean Jacques, French administrator (1749–1825), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leoben, the Preliminaries of, signed 17th April 1797, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">arrangements of, followed in the treaty of Campo-Formio, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leopold <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Emperor (1747–92), typical benevolent despot of the 18th century, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">considered the French the enemies of Austria, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his administration as Grand Duke of Tuscany (1765–90), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">implored by Marie Antoinette to interfere in France, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">succeeds Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span> (1790), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his internal policy, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">position of Austria, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appeals to England against Prussia, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Convention of Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes armistice with the Turks, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and treaty of Sistova (1791), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">elected and crowned Emperor, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">letter to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> on the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy towards Hungary, 90–<a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crowned King of Hungary, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquers Belgium (1790), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupies Liége, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his position in 1791, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promises to intervene in France, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">issues Manifesto of Padua, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Declaration of Pilnitz, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his letter and despatch to Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes an alliance with Prussia against France, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death (1 March 1792), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Leopold, Archduke, fourth son of the Emperor Leopold (1774–94), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Le Quesnoy, besieged by the Austrians (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lessart, Antoine de Valdec de, French statesman (1742–92), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Letourneur, Charles Louis François Honoré, French statesman (1751–1817), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Letourneux, Pierre, French administrator (1761–1805), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">‘Liberum Veto,’ the, in Poland, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished by Polish Constitution of 1791, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lichtenstein, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Liége, revolution in (Aug. 1789), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the Prussians (1790), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Austrians (1791), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Dumouriez (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de, Austrian general (1734–1814), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ligny, battle of (16 June 1815), <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ligurian Republic founded by Bonaparte (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Doge appointed by France (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to Napoleon’s Empire, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lille, besieged by the Austrians (1792), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conference at (1797), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Limburg, occupied by the Austrians under Bender (1790), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Count Augustus of, Prince-Bishop of Spires in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Limon, Geoffroi, Marquis de, French <i>émigrés</i> (♰1799), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lindet, Jean Baptiste Robert, French statesman (1743–1825), <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lippe, two principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lisbon, occupied by the French under Junot (1807), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lithuania, conquered by Napoleon (1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">absorbed in Russia, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Llanos, Don Juan Gomez, minister of the Duke of Parma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Loano, battle of (24 Nov. 1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lobau, Napoleon in the island of (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Locke, John, English philosopher (1632–1704), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lodi, battle of (10 May 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lombardy, belonged to Austria in 1789, its good administration, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the Austrians (1799), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reconquered by Bonaparte (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed part of the kingdom of Italy (1805), <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Austria (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Loménie de Brienne, Étienne Charles, Cardinal de, French statesman (1727–1794), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Longwy, taken by the Prussians (27 Aug. 1792), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Loudon, Gideon Ernest, Count, Austrian general (1716–90), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louis <span class="smcap">XV.</span>, King of France (1710–1774), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">XVI.</span>, King of France (1754–93), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">XVII.</span>, <i>de jure</i> King of France (1785–95), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, King of France (1755–1824), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356–358</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">I.</span>, King of Etruria (1773–1803), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Bonaparte, King of Holland (1777–1846), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">X.</span>, Landgrave, afterwards Grand Duke, of Hesse-Darmstadt (1753–1830), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Philippe, Duke of Orleans, afterwards King of the French (1773–1850), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Louis Dominique, Baron, French statesman (1755–1837), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louisa, Queen of Prussia (1776–1810), <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France (1801), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sold by Napoleon to the United States, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Loustalot, Elysée, French journalist (1762–90), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louvain, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louverture, Toussaint (1743–1803), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Louvet, Jean Baptiste, French politician (1760–97), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Löwenhielm, Gustavus Charles Frederick, Count von, Swedish diplomatist (1771–1856), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lübeck, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained its independence (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">as a free city member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lucca, Republic of, in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Elisa Bonaparte, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a Grand Duchy for the King of Etruria with reversion to Tuscany (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lucchesini, Jerome, Prussian diplomatist (1752–1825), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lucerne, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of the three meeting-places of the Helvetian Diet (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lückner, Nicolas, Baron, French general (1722–94), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ludovica, the Empress, third wife of the Emperor Francis <span class="smcap">II.</span> (1772–1816), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lunéville, treaty of (9 Feb. 1801), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lusatia, annexed to Saxony (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lützen (Gross-Gorschen), battle of (2 May 1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Luxembourg, the Austrians retreat to, from Belgium (1789), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made into a Grand Duchy (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and given to the King of the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lynedoch, Sir Thomas Graham, Lord. <i>See</i> Graham.</li> - - <li class="indx">Lyons rises in insurrection against the Convention (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Macdonald, Jacques Étienne Joseph Alexandre, Duke of Taranto, French general (1765–1840), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maciejowice, battle of (12 Oct. 1794), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mack, Charles, Baron, Austrian general (1752–1828), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mackintosh, Sir James, English statesman (1765–1832), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Madame Royale. <i>See</i> Angoulême, Duchess of.</li> - - <li class="indx">Madeira, occupied by the English (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maestricht, besieged by Miranda (1793), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Kléber (1794), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Magdeburg formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Katt’s attack on, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French garrison in, besieged (1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Magnano, battle of (5 April 1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mahmoud <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Sultan of Turkey (1785–1839), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maida, battle of (4 July 1806), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maillard, Stanislas, French politician (1763–94), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maillebois, Yves Marie Desmarets, Comte de, French general (1715–1791), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maitland, Sir Frederick Lewis, English captain (1779–1839), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Malet, Claude François, French general (1754–1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Malines, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1788), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abandoned to the Belgian patriots, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Malmaison, château of, settled on the Empress Josephine, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Malmesbury, Sir James Harris, Earl of, English diplomatist (1746–1820), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Malta, taken by Bonaparte (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the English (1800), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Emperor Paul Grand Master of the Knights of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a cause of the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">England refuses to surrender, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to England at the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mamelukes defeated by Bonaparte at the battle of the Pyramids (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at the battle of Cairo (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Manifesto of Padua issued by the Emperor Leopold (5 July 1791), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mannheim, university of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Pichegru (1795), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Baden (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mantua, Leopold’s interview with Durfort at, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged by Bonaparte (1796–97), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged by Suvórov (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marat, Jean Paul, French statesman (1744–93), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marceau, François Séverin Desgraviers, French general (1769–96), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">killed at Altenkirchen (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marengo, battle of (14 June 1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maret, Hugues Bernard, Duke of Bassano, French statesman (1763–1839), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maria <span class="smcap">I.</span>, Queen of Portugal (1734–1816), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Beatrice of Este, heiress of Modena, married to the Archduke Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Theresa, the Empress (1717–80), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marie, Grand Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, sister of the Emperor Alexander, present at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Amélie, Duchess of Parma, daughter of Maria Theresa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Antoinette, Queen of France, daughter of Maria Theresa (1755–93), disliked in France as an Austrian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposes Necker, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">urges Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> to oppose the Assembly, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wishes her brother Leopold to interfere in France, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">unpopularity increased by Prussian intrigues, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">admiration of Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> of Sweden for, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">demands Leopold’s aid, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">escapes to Varennes, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reveals French plan of campaign to Austria, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ordered to be sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal for trial, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">guillotined, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Caroline, Queen of the Two Sicilies, daughter of Maria Theresa. <i>See</i> Caroline.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Louise, the Empress, Napoleon’s second wife (1791–1847), <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— —— Queen of Spain (1754–1819), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marmont, Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa, French general (1774–1852), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marseillaise, the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marseilles opposes the Convention (1793), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Marshals, Napoleon’s, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">list of, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Martinique, French West India island, taken by the English, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to France (1802), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">again taken by the English (1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to France (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Massa, Duke of. <i>See</i> Regnier.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Principality of, merged in the Duchy of Modena, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Massacres in the prisons of Paris (Sept. 1792), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Masséna, André, Duke of Rivoli, Prince of Essling, French general (1758–1817), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Matchin, battle of (9 July 1791), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maubeuge besieged by the Austrians (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mauprat, M. de, reforming minister in Parma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mauritius, the island of the, taken by the English (1809), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to England by the first Treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maximilian, Archduke, third son of Maria Theresa, Elector-Archbishop of Cologne in 1789, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Joseph, Elector, afterwards King, of Bavaria (1770–1825), his power increased by the secularisations (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Swabia and the Tyrol and takes the title of king (1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Salzburg (1809), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">marries a daughter to Eugène de Beauharnais, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sends troops to serve under Napoleon at Wagram, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Treaty of Ried against Napoleon (8 Oct. 1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacks Napoleon and is defeated at Hanau, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opens the passes through the Tyrol into Italy to the Austrians, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">agrees to support Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Germanic Confederation, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gives up the Tyrol and Salzburg to Austria, and receives Rhenish Bavaria (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Maximum, Law of the, in France, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">an instrument of the Terror, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished by the Thermidorians, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">temporarily imposed by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mayence, the Archbishop-Elector of, Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, and President of the College of Prince, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— archbishopric-electorate of, condition in 1789>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in France (1801), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Bavaria (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, taken by the French under Custine (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Prussians after a long siege (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged by Kléber in vain (1795), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the French under Hatry (1797), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Bavaria (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mecklenburg, the duchies of, their backward state in 1789, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made grand duchies and members of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Medellin, battle of (28 March 1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Medina del Rio Seco, battle of (14 July 1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Melas, Michael Baron von, Austrian general (1730–1806), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Menou, Jacques François, Baron de, French general (1750–1810), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude, Comte de, Austrian diplomatist (1722–94), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Merlin [de Douai], Philippe Antoine, Comte, French statesman (1754–1838), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— [de Thionville], Antoine Christophe, French politician (1762–1833), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Methuen Treaty, its effect on Portugal, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Metternich, Clement Wenceslas Lothaire, Count, afterwards Prince, von, Austrian statesman (1773–1859), becomes State Chancellor of Austria (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposes Stein’s idea of rousing the national spirit of Germany against Napoleon, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">brings terms agreed on at Reichenbach to Napoleon at Dresden (1813), <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lays down the Proposals of Frankfort, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intrigues with Murat, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">presses terms offered at Châtillon, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes intimate with Castlereagh, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs Provisional Treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Austrian representative at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty of alliance with England and France against Russia and Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Middle classes in Europe in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Milan, university of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">meeting of Lombard delegates at, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Suvórov (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Bonaparte (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon crowned King of Italy at (1805), <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">issues Decree of, establishing the Continental Blockade against England (1808), <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Milanese, the. <i>See</i> Lombardy.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miles, William Augustus, English diplomatist (1754–1817), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Millesimo, battle of (13 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mincio, battle of the (8 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ministers of the French Directory, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the Consulate, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the Empire, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Minorca taken by the English (1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Minsk, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miollis, Sextius Alexandre François, Comte, French general (1759–1829), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miot de Melito, André François, Comte, French administrator (1762–1841), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de, French statesman (1749–1791), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mirabeau, Victor Riqueti, Marquis de, French economist (1715–89), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Miranda, Don Francisco, French general (1750–1816), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mirandola, principality of, united with Modena in 1789, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mittau, Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> settled at, by the Emperor Paul (1797), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ordered to leave (1802), <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Modena, duchy of, condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of the Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the kingdom of Italy, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to Ferdinand <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moeskirch, battle of (5 May 1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moldavia, conquered by the Austrians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Russians (1810), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of, ceded to Russia (1812), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Möllendorf, Richard Joachim Heinrich, Count von, Prussian general (1725–1816), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moncey, Bon Adrien Jeannot de, Duke of Conegliano, French general (1754–1842), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Mondovi, battle of (22 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Monge, Gaspard, Comte, French mathematician (1746–1818), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montbéliard, ceded by Würtermburg to France, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the department of the Doubs, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">secured to France by the first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mont-Blanc, Savoy organised as the French department of the, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Cenis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montebello, battle of (4 June 1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Lannes.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montenotte, battle of (12 April 1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montereau, battle of (18 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, French philosopher (1689–1755), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montesquiou-Fézensac, Anne Pierre, Marquis de, French general (1739–98), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— —— François Nicolas, Abbé-Duc de, French politician (1757–1832), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Monte Video, English expedition to (1806), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montgelas, Maximilian Joseph Garnerin, Comte de, Bavarian statesman (1759–1838), <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montluçon, Bonaparte’s treaty with the Vendéan leaders at (1800), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montmirail, battle of (11 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Montmorin-Saint-Hérem, Armand Marc, Comte de, French statesman (1745–92), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mont-Terrible, department of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moore, Sir John, English general (1761–1809), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moreau, Jean Victor, French general (1761–1813), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moreaux, Jean René, French general (1758–95), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Morkov, Arcadius Ivanovitch, Count, Russian diplomatist, (♰1827), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mortier, Adolphe Edouard Casimir Joseph, Duke of Treviso, French general (1768–1835), <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moscow, occupied by Napoleon (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moskowa, Prince of the. <i>See</i> Ney.</li> - - <li class="indx">Moulin, Jean François Auguste, French general (1752–1810), <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mounier, Jean Joseph, French statesman (1758–1806), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mountain, the French political party, germs in the Jacobin Club (1792), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the party in the Convention, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by the Girondins, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle with the Girondins, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">as a party ceases to exist (1795), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mount Tabor, battle of (16 April 1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mulhouse, Republic of, merged in the Haut-Rhin, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">secured to France (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Müller, Jacques Léonard, Baron, French general (1749–1824), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Johann von, German historian (1752–1809), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Munich, taken by the French under Moreau (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Münster, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, part of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of, annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Ernest Frederick, Count von, Hanoverian diplomatist (1766–1841), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Murat, Joachim, Grand Duke of Berg, King of Naples, French general (1771–1815), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Murbach, the Abbot of, one of the chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Murray, Sir John, English general (♰1827), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Musæus, John Charles Augustus, German author (1735–87), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mustapha <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, Sultan of Turkey (1779–1808), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Mysticism in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Namur, riots against Joseph’s reforms at (1789), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nancy, Bouillé suppresses a military mutiny at (Aug. 1790), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nangis, battle of (17 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nantes, Carrier’s atrocities at (1793), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Naples, reforms of Tanucci in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French (1798), and the Parthenopean Republic founded, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">evacuated by the French (1799), and the revenge of Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by Napoleon (1804), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Joseph Bonaparte’s rule in, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Murat king of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ferdinand returns to (1814), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">behaves moderately, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Napoleon (1769–1821), crowned Emperor, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his Court, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his ministers, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the camp at Boulogne, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">organises the Grand Army, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wins the battle of Austerlitz, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crushes Prussia at Jena, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the Russians at Eylau and Friedland, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">holds interview with Alexander at Tilsit, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Continental Blockade against England, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his rearrangement of Europe, <a href="#Page_254">254–257</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his Polish policy, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Conference at Erfurt, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes his brother King of Spain, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes Madrid, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the Austrians (1809), 272–<a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">quarrel with the Pope, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">greatest extension of his Empire (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his administration, <a href="#Page_283">283–285</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">belief in heredity, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">aristocracy, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reforms, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">divorces Josephine, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">marries Marie Louise, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his differences with Alexander, 299–<a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades Russia (1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his retreat, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">first campaign of 1813 in Saxony, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses the terms offered him by the allies, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">second campaign of 1813 in Saxony, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Leipzig, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">first defensive campaign of 1814 in France, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rejects the terms offered by the allies at Châtillon, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">second defensive campaign of 1814 in France, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abdicates, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">leaves Elba and returns to France (1815), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Waterloo, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sent to St. Helena, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Bonaparte.</li> - - <li class="indx">Napoleon, King of Rome, birth of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted succession to Parma by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">but not by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Narbonne-Lara, Comte Louis de, French politician (1755–1813), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nassau, duchy of, increased in 1803, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the Grand Duchy of Berg (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nassau-Siegen, Prince Charles Henry Nicholas Otho of, Russian admiral (1745–1809), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">National Assembly. <i>See</i> Constituent Assembly.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Guards formed in Paris, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">throughout France, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nationality, the principle of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">extinct in 18th-century Germany, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made the French successful and the Poles fail, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">roused against Napoleon in Spain, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in Germany, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rejected by the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Natural limits of France, the Rhine and the Alps, claimed at Basle (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">demanded by the Directory, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised secretly by Prussia, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Preliminaries of Leoben, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Treaty of Campo-Formio, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Treaty of Lunéville, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abandoned by Napoleon’s annexations, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">offered by the allies at Dresden, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at Frankfort, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposed by Castlereagh, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Necker, Jacques, French statesman (1732–1804), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Neipperg, Albert Adam, Count (1774–1829), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nelson, Horatio, Viscount, English admiral (1758–1805), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nesselrode, Charles Robert, Count, Russian statesman (1780–1863), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Netherlands, Austrian. <i>See</i> Belgium.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— The Protestant, or the United Provinces. <i>See</i> Holland.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Kingdom of the, formed (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Neufchâtel, belonged to Prussia in 1789, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Berthier created Prince-Duke of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a Canton of Switzerland (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Neumarkt, battle of (20 March 1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Neutral League of the North, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ney, Michel, Duke of Elchingen, Prince of the Moskowa, French general (1769–1815), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Nice, port of, improved by Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the French (1792), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formally ceded to France, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formed into a department, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Sardinia (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Niebuhr, Barthold George, German historian (1776–1831), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nile, battle of the (1 Aug. 1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nimeguen, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nive, battle of the (9–13 Dec. 1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nivelle, battle of the (10 Nov. 1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Noailles, Comte Alexis de, French diplomatist (1783–1835), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nobility, the European, in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nootka Sound, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nore, mutiny at the, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Normal School of Paris, founded by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Normandy, the rising in, against the Convention, suppressed, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Norway, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Novi (Bosnia) taken by Loudon (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— (Italy), battle of (15 Aug. 1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Noyades at Nantes, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Nuremberg, a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retained its independence (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to Bavaria (1806), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June 1789), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ocana, battle of (12 Nov. 1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ochakov (Oczakoff), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oldenburg, duchy of (1815), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Olivenza ceded by Portugal to Spain (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">left to Spain by the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oporto, rising against the French at (1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Soult, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recaptured by Wellesley (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Orange, Prince of. <i>See</i> William <span class="smcap">V.</span>, William <span class="smcap">VI.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of (1747–93), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Orsova besieged by the Austrians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the Prince of Coburg (1789), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Austria (1791), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ortenau given to Baden (1807), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Orthez, battle of (27 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Osnabrück, the Duke of York bishop of, in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in Hanover (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ostend taken by the Belgian patriots (1789), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Otranto, Duke of. <i>See</i> Fouché.</li> - - <li class="indx">Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, Duke of Reggio, French general (1767–1847), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, Italian scholar (1710–85), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pacte de Famille, the, between France and Spain, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pacy, the Norman insurgents against the Convention defeated at (13 July 1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Paderborn, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the kingdom of Westphalia (1807), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Padua, Manifesto of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pahlen, Peter, Count von der, Russian general (♰1826), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palestine, conquered by Bonaparte (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palm, John Philip, German bookseller (♰1806), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Palmella, Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, Count, afterwards Duke, of, Portuguese statesman (1786–1850), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pampeluna besieged and taken by Wellington (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot (1726–1807), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Papacy, the, its temporal power in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Paris, takes part in the Revolution, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">riot of 12 July (1789), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the taking of the Bastille, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the King brought to (6 Oct. 1789), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">keeps the King prisoner in the Tuileries, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">massacre of 17 July (1791), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades the Tuileries (20 June 1792), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes the Tuileries (10 Aug. 1792), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">massacres in (Sept. 1792), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">people of, refuse to support Robespierre, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fights against the Convention, 13 Vendémiaire, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">welcomes the Empire, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (1814), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the allies, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">provisional treaty of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">return of Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> to, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">first treaty of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">return of Napoleon to (1815), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reoccupied by the allies, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">second treaty of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Parker, Sir Hyde, English admiral (1739–1807), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Parma, city of, capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Cambacérès.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— and Piacenza, Duchess of. <i>See</i> Marie Louise.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— ——, Duke of. <i>See</i> Ferdinand, Louis.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— ——, duchies of, well governed in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exchanged for kingdom of Etruria (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to Marie Louise by the Provisional Treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Parthenopean Republic, founded (1798), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrown (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Passau, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1801), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Paul, Emperor, of Russia (1754–1801), his accession (1796), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inclines to war with France, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares war against France (1798), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">withdraws his troops from the Continent, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">quarrels with Austria and England, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with France, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">admiration for Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">schemes for an invasion of India, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms Neutral League of the North, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">assassinated, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pavia, the university of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Peace, Prince of the. <i>See</i> Godoy.</li> - - <li class="indx">Peltier, Jean Gabriel, French journalist (1765–1825), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Peninsular War: campaign of 1808, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1809, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1810, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1811, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1812, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1813, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Père Duchesne</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pérignon, Dominique Catherine, Comte, French general (1754–1818), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Pesth, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pétiet, Claude, French administrator (1749–1805), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pétion, Jérome, French politician (1753–94), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pfaffenhofen, treaty of (1796), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Philosophers, the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Piacenza, Duchy of. <i>See</i> Parma.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Le Brun.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pichegru, Charles, French general (1761–1804), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Piedmont, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">left to Victor Amadeus (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French under Joubert (1798), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the Austrians (1799), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by Bonaparte (1800), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to France (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pigot, Sir Henry, English general (1752–1840), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pilnitz, Conference between the Emperor Leopold and King Frederick William at (1791), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Declaration of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its effect on France, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pisa, the university of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pitt, William, English statesman (1759–1806), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, Giovanni Angelo Braschi, Pope (1717–99), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, Gregorio Barnabé Luigi Chiaramonti, Pope (1742–1834), <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Plain, deputies of the Centre in the Convention called the, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pleswitz, armistice of (3 June 1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Plettenberg, the Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Münster in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pléville de Peley, Georges René, French admiral (1726–1805), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Podolia, province of, taken by Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Poland, its extinction impending in 1789, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Catherine’s policy in the first partition of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prussia’s share of, and aims on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of Warsaw with Prussia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">refuses to surrender Thorn and Dantzic (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attempts at reform, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Constitution of 1791, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the Russians (1792), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by the Prussians (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">second partition of (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">causes of the failure of the attempt at constitutional reform, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">insurrection in (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">victory of the Russians, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">final partition and extinction of Polish independence (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">comparison between French and Polish revolutions, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">looked favourably on by the Directory, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s campaign in 1807, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s Polish policy, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">serfdom abolished in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Emperor Alexander’s ideas on (1814), <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">final rearrangement of (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Police, Ministry of General, established in France (1796), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished under the Consulate, but restored under the Empire, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Polignac, Armand Jules Marie Heraclius, Comte, afterwards Duc de, French politician (1771–1847), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Polish Legion formed for the service of France (1797), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pombal, Sebastian José de Carvalho-Mello, Marquis of, Portuguese statesman (1699–1782), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pomerania, Prussian, its backward state in 1789, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Swedish, possession of, gave the King of Sweden a voice in the Diet of the Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French under Brune (1808), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exchanged for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de (1721–64), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Poniatowski, Joseph, Prince, Polish patriot, French general (1762–1813), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">—— Stanislas, King of Poland (1732–98), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ponte Corvo, principality of, belonged to the Pope in 1789, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bernadotte made Prince of (1806), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pontine marshes drained by Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Popes. <i>See</i> Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Porentruy, district of, merged in the department of the Haut-Rhin, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Portalis, Jean Etienne Marie, French statesman (1745–1807), <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Portugal, its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares war against the French Republic (1793), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">England comes to the help of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by Spain, and forced to cede Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s schemes against, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">to be divided by treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the French, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rises in insurrection against the French, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">English army sent to, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">freed from the French by the Convention of Cintra, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the French under Masséna (1810), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their repulse (1811), <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deserted by Castlereagh at the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Portuguese Legion, formed by Junot, for the service of France, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Posen, province of, taken by Prussia in the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given back to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch, Prince, Russian statesman (1736–1791), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Potocki, Stanislas Felix, Polish statesman (1745–1805), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Potsdam, treaty of (3 Nov. 1805), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pozzo di Borgo, Charles Andrew, Count, Russian diplomatist (1764–1842), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Praga, suburb of Warsaw, stormed by Suvórov (4 Nov. 1794), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prague, congress of (1813), <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prairial, the insurrection of 1st, in Paris (1795), <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prefectures, Bonaparte’s establishment of, in France, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Preliminaries of Leoben signed (17 April 1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pressburg, treaty of (26 Dec. 1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prieur [of the Côte-d’Or], Claude Antoine, French statesman (1763–1832), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— [of the Marne], Pierre Louis, French statesman (1760–1827), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prince-Bishops of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Profession de Foi du Vicaire Savoyard</i>, Rousseau’s, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Proposals of Frankfort (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Provera, John Nicholas, Baron, Austrian general (1747–1801), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Prussia, administrative decay in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">serfdom in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a member of the Triple Alliance, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">condition in 1789, 28–<a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">policy of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">intervention in Holland (1787), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">influence in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">position of, in 1789, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">anti-Austrian policy, 84–<a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">alliance with Austria against France (1792), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its share in the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the third partition of Poland (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">more anti-Austrian than anti-French, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes treaty of Basle with the French Republic (1795), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes protector of North Germany, by the conclusion of the line of demarcation, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its great increase in importance by the secularisations of 1803, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">neutrality violated by the French (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">advantages obtained by its policy of neutrality, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">desires to fight France, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crushed at Jena, and occupied by the French, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">deprived of its Rhenish Westphalian and Polish provinces (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reorganisation of, under Stein and Scharnhorst, <a href="#Page_289">289–291</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">becomes the recognised leader of the revived German national spirit, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Stein’s reforms completed by Hardenberg, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">foundation of the University of Berlin, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obliged to allow Napoleon to traverse it, and to send him a contingent (1812), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rises against the French, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives part of Saxony (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and part of Prussian Poland, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtains large Rhenish province, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gets Swedish Pomerania, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">as a result of the period becomes the preponderant German power, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Frederick William <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Frederick William <span class="smcap">III.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Public Safety, Committee of. <i>See</i> Committee.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pyramids, battle of the (21 July 1798), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Pyrenees, campaigns in the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Quatre Bras, battle of (16 June 1815), <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quedlinburg, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quiberon Bay, defeat of the French <i>émigrés</i> at (June 1794), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Quinette, Nicolas Marie, Baron, French administrator (1762–1821), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Raab, battle of (14 June 1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rabaut de Saint-Étienne, Jean Paul, French politician (1743–93), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Raclawice, battle of (4 April 1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Radet, Étienne, Baron, French general (1762–1825), <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ragusa, Duke of. <i>See</i> Marmont.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ramel, Jean Pierre, French general (1768–1815), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— de Nogaret, Jacques, French politician (1760–1819), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rapinat, Jacques, French administrator (1750–1818), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rasomovski, Andrew, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian diplomatist (1751–1836), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rastadt, Congress at, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ratisbon, bishopric of, granted to the Elector of Mayence (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">to the King of Bavaria (1805), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, where the Imperial Diet met, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reason, the Worship of, in Paris, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by Danton and Robespierre, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Receivers-general of taxes, their establishment under the Consulate, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reden, Baron, Dutch diplomatist (♰1799), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Regency, Portuguese, formed (1808), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reggio, duchy of, belonged to the Duke of Modena in 1789, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the Cisalpine Republic (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Oudinot.</li> - - <li class="indx">Regnier, Claude Ambroise, Duke of Massa, French statesman (1736–1814), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reichenbach, conference, Congress and convention of (June 1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of (17 June 1813), <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reichskammergericht. <i>See</i> Tribunal, Imperial.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reichstag. <i>See</i> Diet, Imperial.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reign of Terror in France. <i>See</i> Terror.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reinhard, Charles Frédéric, Comte, French diplomatist (1761–1837), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Renier, Paolo (♰1789), Doge of Venice in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Repnin, Nicholas Vassilievitch, Prince, Russian general (1734–1801), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Retreats, famous military: Moreau’s, from Bavaria (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Moore’s, from Salamanca (1808–09), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon’s, from Moscow (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reubell, Jean François, French statesman (1747–1807), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Réunion, island of (Isle of Bourbon), restored to France (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reuss, the principalities of, states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reuss, Prince Anton von (1738–96), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Réveillon, Jean (1796), sack of his house at Paris (June 1789), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Revellière-Lépeaux, Louis Marie de la, French statesman (1753–1824), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Revolution, the reasons why it began in France, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> France.</li> - - <li class="indx">Revolutionary Propaganda, decreed by the Convention (18 Nov. 1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its effect on the character of the war, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the decree repealed (16 May 1793), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">idea adopted by the Hébertists, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">formally abandoned by the Thermidorian Committee of Public Safety, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Tribunal. <i>See</i> Tribunal.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Révolutions de Paris</i>, important journal edited by Loustalot, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Reynier, Jean Louis Ebenezer, Comte, French general (1771–1814), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rhine, the, declared the natural boundary of France, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crossed by Moreau (1796), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Moreau (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Blücher (1813), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Confederation of the, formed by Napoleon (1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its members, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">replaced by the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ricci, Scipio de, Bishop of Pistoia, Italian statesman (1741–1810), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Sophie Septimanie du Plessis, Duc de, French statesman (1766–1822), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ried, treaty of (8 Oct. 1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Riga, besieged by the French under Macdonald (1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rivers, stipulations on the navigation of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rivière, Charles François de Riffardeau, Marquis, afterwards Duc de, French <i>émigré</i> (1763–1827), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rivoli, battle of (14 Jan. 1797), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Masséna.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roberjot, Claude, French politician (1753–99), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore de, French statesman (1758–1794), opposes intervention of France on behalf of Spain (1790), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">moves motion preventing election of deputies of the Constituent to the Legislative Assembly, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">opposes war with Austria, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a leader in the Convention, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by Louvet, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">views on the King’s trial, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his struggle with the Girondins, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Committee of Public Safety, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his position and character, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacks the Hébertists, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">establishes the Worship of the Supreme Being, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrown in Thermidor (1794), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">guillotined, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de, French general (1725–1807), <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rödt, Baron of, Prince-Bishop of Constance in 1789, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roggenbach, Baron Joseph Sigismund of, Prince-Bishop of Basle in 1789 (♰1794), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roland de la Platière, Jean Marie, French administrator (1734–93), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Manon Jeanne, Madame (1754–93), her salon, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roliça, battle of (17 Aug. 1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Romagna, the, part of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roman Empire, the Holy. <i>See</i> Empire.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roman Republic, the, established (1798), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">overthrown (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rome, administration of the Popes at, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by French troops (1798), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">evacuated by them, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declared the second city of the Empire, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to the Pope (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rosas, taken by the French (3 Feb. 1795), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Genevese philosopher (1712–78), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Roussillon, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ruffo, Alvaro, Commander, afterwards Prince, Neapolitan diplomatist (♰1825), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rügen, island of, belonged to Sweden in 1789, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Pomerania, Swedish.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count, Bavarian statesman (1753–1814), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Russia, condition and growth of, under Catherine, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the Swedes (1788–90), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtains increase of territory by the treaty of Jassy (1792), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">her share in the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in the third partition (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">accession of Paul, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">her intervention in the war with France and its results, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">disapproves of war with England, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">murder of Paul (1801), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">trade of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">joins the coalition against Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated at Eylau, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and Friedland, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">results, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cessions made to, by the treaty of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">grumbles at the Continental Blockade, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attitude towards Austria (1809), <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexes Finland, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its cessions from the Turks in 1812, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">incited by England to war with France, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Napoleon (1812), <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">drives out the French, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its share in the overthrow of Napoleon, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its annexations from Poland (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a result of the period its taking a prominent place in European polity, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Alexander, Catherine, Paul.</li> - - <li class="indx">Russian Armament, the (1788), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Rymnik, battle of the (12 Aug. 1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Sacilio, battle of (16 April 1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Safety, Public, Committee of. <i>See</i> Committee.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Aignan, Paul Hippolyte de Beauvilliers, Marquis de, French diplomatist (1782–1831), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-André, André Jeanbon, <i>called</i>, French administrator (1749–1813), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Bernard, the Great, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Bernard, the Little, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Claude, abbey of, in the Jura, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Cloud, the Councils removed to from Paris, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte’s <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire (1799) at, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion de. <i>See</i> Gouvion.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Gall, the canton of, created by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Gothard, Suvórov’s passage of the (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Helena, Napoleon deported to (1815), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Helens, Alleyne Fitzherbert, Lord. <i>See</i> Fitzherbert.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Just, Louis Léon Antoine Florelle de, French politician (1767–94), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Lucia, island of, ceded to France (1783), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to England by the first treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Marsan, Filippo Antonio Maria Asinari, Marquis de, Italian diplomatist (1761–1828), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Ouen, Declaration of (2 May 1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Petersburg, threatened by the Swedes (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint Priest, Guillaume Emmanuel Guignard, Comte de, French <i>émigré</i>, Russian general (1776–1814), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Vincent, battle of (14 Feb. 1797), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saint-Vincent, Sir John Jervis, Earl. <i>See</i> Jervis.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salamanca, Moore’s advance to (1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (22 July 1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saliceti, Christophe, French politician (1757–1809), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salkief, circle of, in Poland, ceded to Russia (1807), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salm, petty German principalities (1789), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">territories in Germany annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Salm, Constantine Alexander, Prince of (1762–1828), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salomon, Gabriel René, French politician (♰1792), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salzburg, the Archbishop of, alternate president of the College of Princes in 1789, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Salzburg, archbishopric of, made into an electorate for the Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Bavaria (1809), <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Austria (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">San Domingo, Bonaparte’s attempt to reconquer (1802), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Ildefonso, treaty of (19 Aug. 1796), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Sebastian, threatened by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the French (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stormed by Wellington (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saorgio, battle of (29 April 1794), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saragossa, siege of (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sardinia, kingdom of, condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacked by the French (1792), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">subsidised by England, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Victor Emmanuel <span class="smcap">I.</span>, with the addition of Genoa, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">got back Savoy (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Charles Emmanuel <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, Victor Emmanuel <span class="smcap">I.</span>, <i>also</i> Nice, Piedmont, Savoy.</li> - - <li class="indx">Savigny, Frederick Charles von, German jurist (1779–1861), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Savona, Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VII.</span> imprisoned at, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Savoy, part of the kingdom of Sardinia in 1789, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the French (1792), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to France, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded by the King of Sardinia (1797), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made into the department of Mont-Blanc, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">left to France (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to the King of Sardinia (1815), <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saxe-Coburg, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— —— Saalfeld, Prince Francis Josias of. <i>See</i> Coburg, Prince of.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Gotha, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Hildburghausen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Meiningen, duchy of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saxe-Teschen, Duke Albert of, Austrian general (1738–1822), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saxe-Weimar, duchy of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a Grand Duchy and a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Charles Augustus.</li> - - <li class="indx">Saxony, electorate of, its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Lower Lusatia, and made a kingdom (1806), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Schill (1809), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Napoleon (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">proposition to merge it in Prussia rejected (1814), <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part of, ceded to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Frederick Augustus.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schaffhausen, Thurgau, separated from the canton of, by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Scharnhorst, Gerard David von, Prussian general (1755–1813), reorganised the Prussian army, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">mortally wounded at Lützen, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Scheldt, navigation of the, declared free by the National Convention, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schérer, Barthélemy Louis Joseph, French general (1747–1804), <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schill, Friedrich, Prussian officer (1773–1809), <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich, German poet (1759–1805), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schimmelpenninck, Roger John, Count, Dutch statesman (1761–1825), <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schleiermacher, Ernst Friedrich, German philosopher (1779–1834), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schlieffen, Friedrich von, Prussian general (♰1791), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schönbrunn, treaty of (15 Feb. 1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schönfeld, Wilhelm Christoph von, Prussian general (♰1797), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schulenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, Count von, Prussian statesman (1730–1802), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— —— Albert, Count von, Saxon diplomatist (1772–1853), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schulz, pastor of Gielsdorf, the case of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schwartzberg, two principalities of, recognised as states of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schwartzenberg, Prince Charles Philip von, Austrian general (1771–1820), <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Schweitz, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Séance Royale, held by Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> (23 June 1789), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sebastiani, François Horace Bastien, Comte, French general (1772–1851), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Secularisation of the ecclesiastical states of the Empire proposed by France, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">agreed to at Lunéville (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its tendency, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">carried out (1803), and its effects, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Security, General, Committee of. <i>See</i> Committee.</li> - - <li class="indx">Selim <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Sultan of the Ottoman Turks (1761–1808), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Senate of France, established by the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>, its functions, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given power to dissolve the Tribunate and Legislative Body (1803), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">offers the title of Emperor to Napoleon (1804), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its position under the Empire, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appoints a Provisional Government (1814), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares Napoleon dethroned, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Serfdom in Europe in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished in Hungary by Joseph <span class="smcap">II.</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Russian peasant partly protected from, by his village organisation, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">prevalent in Prussia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished in Denmark (1788), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished in Baden (1783), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its existence a cause of the failure of the Poles to maintain their independence, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">disappeared from Central Europe under the influence of the French Revolution and Napoleon, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">abolished in Prussia by Stein, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its general abolition a permanent result of the period, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sérurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, French general (1742–1819), App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Servan, Joseph, French general (1741–1808), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Servia, conquered by the Austrians under Loudon (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>; independence recognised by the Turks (1812), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Shumla, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sicily, not much affected by Tanucci’s reforms, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">held by the English for Ferdinand <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount. <i>See</i> Addington.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sieges: Acre (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Alessandria (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Alexandria (1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Almeida (1811), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Antwerp (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Badajoz (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bayonne (1814), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bender (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Burgos(1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cadiz (1810–12), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cairo (1801), <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Condé (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dantzic (1806–7), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dantzic (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Dunkirk (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Gaeta (1807), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Genoa (1799–1800), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Giurgevo (1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hamburg (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ismail (1789–90), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Landau (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Le Quesnoy (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lille (1792), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lyons (1793), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Magdeburg (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mantua (1796–97), <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mantua (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Maubeuge (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mayence (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mayence (1795), <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mayence (1797), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ochakov (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Orsova (1789–90), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pampeluna (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Riga (1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">San Sebastian (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Saragossa (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Stettin (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tarragona (1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Toulon (1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Valenciennes (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Warsaw (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Siena, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph, Comte, French statesman (1748–1836), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Silesia, the Prussian Army of, formed under Blücher (1813), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated the French at the Katzbach, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">crosses the Rhine, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cut to pieces by Napoleon, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Silistria, taken by Kutuzov (1811), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Siméon, Joseph Jerome, Comte, French administrator (1749–1842), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sistova, congress of (1790–91), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of (4 Aug. 1791), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Slave trade, the Negro, condemned by the Congress of Vienna at the demand of Castlereagh (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Smith, Sir William Sidney, English admiral (1764–1840), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Smolensk, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Socialism opposed even by the Hébertists, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Soleure, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Soltikov, Ivan, Count, Russian general (1736–1805), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Somo Sierra, Napoleon forces the pass of the (1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sotin de la Coindière, Pierre, French administrator (1764–1810), Minister of Police (1797), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Soult, Nicolas Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dalmatia, French general (1769–1851), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sovereignty of the people, the doctrine of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Spain, allied to France by the Pacte de Famille, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the reforms of Aranda, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">demands the help of France against England in the Nootka Sound affair (1790), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares war against France (1793), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">subsidised by England, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades France, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by the French (1794), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the French (1795), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">weary of the war with France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with France at Basle (1795), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes alliance with France at San Ildefonso, and attacks England, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">fleet defeated off Cape St. Vincent (1797), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonaparte’s communications with, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">attacks Portugal, and gets Olivenza by the treaty of Badajoz (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cedes Louisiana to France, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">agrees at Fontainebleau for the partition of Portugal, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">course of politics in, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon makes Joseph Bonaparte king of (1808), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Spanish people rise against the French, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon in Spain, 268–<a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the guerilla war against the French, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">evacuated by the French (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">lost Trinidad, but kept Olivenza at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reactionary policy of Ferdinand <span class="smcap">VII.</span> in (1815), <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Charles <span class="smcap">IV.</span>, Ferdinand <span class="smcap">VII.</span>, Joseph, Peninsular War.</li> - - <li class="indx">Spanish Armament, the (1790), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Spielmann, Anton, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (♰1738–1813), Austrian representative at Reichenbach (1790), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Spires, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and one of the Princes holding largest fiefs in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine merged in Baden (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, taken by Custine (1792), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Splügen pass, forced by Macdonald (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stäblo, Abbot of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stackelberg, Gustavus, Count von, Russian diplomatist (♰1825), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stadion, John Philip Charles Joseph, Count, Austrian statesman (1763–1824), tried to rouse Germany against Napoleon, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">succeeded by Metternich (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">inspired by Gentz, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Austrian plenipotentiary at Châtillon (1814), <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Staps, Friedrich (1792–1809), schemed to assassinate Napoleon, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">State, doctrine of the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">States of the Church. <i>See</i> Papal States.</li> - - <li class="indx">States-General of France, summoned (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a financial expedient, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the elections to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">struggle between the Orders, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares itself the National Assembly, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Constituent Assembly.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stein, Henry Frederick Charles, Freiherr von, Prussian statesman (1757–1831), a Knight of the Empire, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his reforms in Prussia, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dismissed by Napoleon’s orders, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pressed Alexander to war with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his work completed by Hardenberg, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at the Russian headquarters (1812), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">summoned the Estates of Prussia at Königsberg, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his idea of rousing a German national spirit abandoned by the allied monarchs (1813), <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">present at the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stéphanie Tascher de la Pagerie (1789–1860), married to the Hereditary Grand Duke of Baden (1806), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stettin, French garrison left in (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged (1813–14), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stewart, Hon. Sir Charles, afterwards Lord, English general and diplomatist (1778–1854), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Robert, Viscount Castlereagh. <i>See</i> Castlereagh.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stockach, battle of (25 March 1799), <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stralsund, taken by the French (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Strasbourg, Archbishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of chief Princes of the Empire in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— archbishopric of, the portion on the right bank of the Rhine ceded to Baden (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stuart, Hon. Sir Charles, English general (1753–1801), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Sir John, English general (1762–1810), <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Stuttgart, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Suchet, Louis Gabriel, Duke of Albufera, French general (1770–1826), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#APPENDIX_IV">App. iv.</a></li> - - <li class="indx">Sudermania, Duke of. <i>See</i> Charles <span class="smcap">XIII.</span>, King of Sweden.</li> - - <li class="indx">Supreme Being, Worship of the, established by Robespierre (1794), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Suspects, Law of the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Suvórov, Alexander Vassilivitch, Count, afterwards Prince, Russian general (1729–1800), gallantry at the siege of Ochákov (1788), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the Turks at Foksany and the Rymnik (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">stormed Ismail, and served at Matchin (1790–91), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated the Poles at Zielence and Dubienka (1792), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated Kosciuszko at Maciejowice, and took Warsaw (1794), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the French at Cassano and the Trebbia, and conquers Northern Italy (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats Joubert at Novi, and crosses the Alps, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">repulsed by the French, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">accuses the Austrians of causing his failure, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Svenska Sound, battle of (9 July 1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Swabia, part ceded to Bavaria, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">part to Würtemburg, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Sweden, its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">at war with Russia and Denmark, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with the Danes (1789), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the <i>coup d’état</i> of Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span> (1789), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">peace with Russia, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">death of Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">neutral in the war against France, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">loses Pomerania and Finland, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revolution in, and dethronement of Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span> (1809), <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bernadotte elected Prince Royal (1810), <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exchanges Pomerania for Norway by the treaty of Kiel (1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cession of Norway confirmed by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Bernadotte, Charles <span class="smcap">XIII.</span>, Gustavus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, Gustavus <span class="smcap">IV.</span> - </li> - - <li class="indx">Switzerland, its condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its neutrality in the war against France, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">headquarters of French diplomacy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and of the <i>émigrés</i> diplomacy, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revolution of 1798, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the French and the Helvetian Republic formed, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Masséna’s campaign in (1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reorganised by Bonaparte as the Confederation of Switzerland (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">neutrality of, violated by the allies (1814), <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">independence and neutrality guaranteed by the treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reorganised, and given a fresh constitution by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Syria, Bonaparte’s campaign in (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Tagliamento, Bonaparte forces the passage of the (16 March 1797), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Talavera, battle of (27 July 1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Bishop of Autun, afterwards Prince of Benevento, French statesman (1754–1838), consecrates the Constitutional bishops in France (1790), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">appointed Foreign Minister (1797), and advocated the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Fructidor, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">resigned (1799), <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">advised Bonaparte to the <i>coup d’état</i> of 18 Brumaire, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foreign Minister under the Consulate, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Grand Chamberlain of the Empire, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Foreign Minister under the Empire, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">created Prince of Benevento, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">President of the Provisional Government of France, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">gets the Bourbons accepted, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">negotiates the first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his masterly attitude, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs treaty with Austria and England against Russia and Prussia (3 Jan. 1815), <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dismissed by Louis <span class="smcap">XVIII.</span> (1815), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tallien, Jean Lambert, French politician (1769–1820), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Talma, François Joseph, French actor (1763–1826), <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tanucci, Bernardo, Marquis, Italian statesman (1698–1783), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Taranto, Duke of. <i>See</i> Macdonald.</li> - - <li class="indx">Targovitsa, Confederation of, asks Catherine’s aid to overthrow the Polish Constitution of 1791, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tarragona, English failure before (1812), <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tauroggen, convention of (1812), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Temeswar, the Banat of, invaded by the Turks (1788), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tennis Court, Oath of the (20 June 1789), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Terror, the Reign of, weapons of, forged, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Robespierre deemed the author of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the system of, <a href="#Page_135">135–138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the deputies on mission, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revolutionary tribunal, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Terror in the provinces, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">excused by France because of the success of the Committee of Public Safety against the foreign foes, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Danton believed it too stringent, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">rose to its height (June-July 1794), <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">system abandoned, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the White, in France (1815), <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tetterborn, Baron von, Russian general (♰1836), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Teutonic Order, the, suppressed by Hardenberg in Prussia, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Texel, Dutch fleet in the, captured by French hussars (1795), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">blockaded by the English fleet, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated in the battle of Camperdown (1797), <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">captured by the English (1799), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Theo-philanthropy, new religion started in France, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thermidor, overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thermidorians, rule of the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154–157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">their foreign policy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford. <i>See</i> Rumford.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thorn, promised to Prussia by the Poles (1790), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">but not surrendered (1791), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">obtained by Prussia at the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thouret, Jacques Guillaume, French politician (1746–94), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thugut, Franz Maria, Baron, Austrian statesman (1734–1818), becomes Austrian Foreign Minister, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his policy, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">in favour of continuing the war with France, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">delayed the treaty of Campo-Formio as long as he could, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">retired from office, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thurgau, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thuriot de la Rozière, Jacques Alexis, French politician (1758–1829), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Thurn and Taxis, Prince of, as Imperial Commissary, summoned the Diet of the Empire (1792), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ticino, canton of, formed by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tiers État, Order of the, in the States-General, its struggle with the privileged Orders, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares itself the National Assembly, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tillot, Guillaume Léon du, Marquis of Felino, Italian statesman (1711–1774), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tilsit, the meeting of Napoleon and Alexander at, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the treaty of (7 July 1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tirlemont, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Titles abolished in France by the Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tloczow, circle of, ceded to Russia (1807), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tobac, battle of (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tobago, ceded by England to France (1783), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to England by the treaty of Paris (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">cession recognised by the Congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tolentino, treaty of (19 Feb. 1797), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (3 May 1815), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toleration, Napoleon insists on religious, in Europe, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Töplitz, treaty of (9 Sept. 1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Torgau ceded by Saxony to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Torres Vedras, Masséna repulsed from the lines of (1810), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tortona, fortress of, built by Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toulon, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Toulouse, battle of (10 April 1814), <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trafalgar, battle of (21 Oct. 1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trautmannsdorf, Count Albert von, Austrian statesman (1749–1817), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Treaties: Amiens (1802), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Badajoz (1801), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bartenstein (1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Basle (1795), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bucharest (1812), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Chaumont (1814), <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Fontainebleau (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ghent (1814), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Jassy (1792), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Kalisch (1813), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Kiel (1814), <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Lunéville (1801), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Paris, Provisional (1814), <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Paris, First (1814), <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Paris, Second (1815), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pfaffenhofen (1796), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Potsdam (1805), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pressburg (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Reichenbach (1813), <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Ried (1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">San Ildefonso (1796), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Schönbrunn (1806), <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 3 Jan. 1815, secret, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of 1756, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Sistova (1791), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tilsit (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Tolentino (1797), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Töplitz (1813), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Verela (1790), 95–<a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Versailles (1783), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vienna (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Warsaw (1790), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trebbia, battle of the (17–19 June 1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Treilhard, Jean Baptiste, Comte, French statesman (1742–1810), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trent, Macdonald joined by Brune at (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— bishopric of, granted to Austria (1803), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trèves, the Archbishop of, an Elector in 1789, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of the chief Princes of the Empire, with fiefs in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">electorate abolished (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, taken by the French (1795), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">capital of a French department, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— electorate of, well governed in 1789, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the French under Moreaux (1795), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Prussia (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Treviso, Duke of. <i>See</i> Mortier.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tribunal, the Imperial, of the Holy Roman Empire (Reichskammergericht), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the Revolutionary, of Paris, established (March 1793), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its powers and effect, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its system of work, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its powers increased (June 1794), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">condemns Carrier, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tribunate, formed by the Constitution of the Year <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>, its functions, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">reduced to fifty members (1805), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">suppressed (1808), <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trieste ceded to Napoleon (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Trinidad, island of, taken by the English (1797), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to England by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Triple Alliance, the, of England, Holland, and Prussia, formed 1788, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tronchet, François Denis, French jurist (1726–1806), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Truguet, Laurent Jean François, Comte, French admiral (1752–1839), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tudela, battle of (23 Nov. 1808), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tuileries, Palace at Paris, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Turin, observatory at, built by Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">threatened by Bonaparte (1796), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Suvórov (1799), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Turkey, travelling to decay, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Joseph declares war against, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1788 against the Russians and Austrians, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">accession of Sultan Selim (1789), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1789, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Prussia negotiates with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1790 against the Austrians, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of Sistova (1791), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1790–91 against the Russians, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of Jassy (1792), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">looked with favour on the French Revolution, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeated by Bonaparte in Syria and Egypt (1799), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">French army in Illyria to threaten, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its general policy (1796–1807), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">revolution in, and accession of Mahmoud (1807–08), <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">war with Russia (1809–12), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of Bucharest (1812), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Abdul Hamid, Mahmoud, Mustapha, Selim.</li> - - <li class="indx">Turreau, Louis Marie, Baron, French general (1756–1816), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tuscany, its prosperity under the Grand Duke Leopold, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">declares war against France (1793), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">makes peace with France, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by the French (1799), <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">evacuated by them, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to the Grand Duke Ferdinand (1800), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made into the kingdom of Etruria (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed to Napoleon’s Empire (1808), <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Elisa Bonaparte, Grand Duchess of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Ferdinand (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Ferdinand <span class="smcap">II.</span>, Leopold.</li> - - <li class="indx">Two Sicilies, kingdom of the. <i>See</i> Naples.</li> - - <li class="indx">Tyrol, the opposition to Joseph’s reforms in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Joseph suspends his edicts, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">pacified by Leopold (1790), <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Bonaparte (1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">by Macdonald (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Bavaria (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Hofer’s insurrection in (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored to Austria by Bavaria (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Ulm, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">United States of America, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Universities: Berlin, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bonn, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Cracow, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Göttingen, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Jena, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Mannheim, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Milan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Parma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pavia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Pisa, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Siena, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">University of France founded by Napoleon, its constitution, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Unterwalden, canton of Switzerland maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Unzmarkt, battle of (22 March 1797), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Uri, a canton of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Vadier, Marc Guillaume Alexis, French politician (1736–1828), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valais, the, declared an independent Republic (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">annexed by Napoleon (1810), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a canton of Switzerland by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valence, Pope Pius <span class="smcap">VI.</span> dies at (1798), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valencia, taken by Moncey (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valenciennes, taken by the English and Austrians (1793), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valmy, battle of (20 Sept. 1792), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Duke of. <i>See</i> Kellermann.</li> - - <li class="indx">Valsarno, battle of (26 Oct. 1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vancouver Island, the affair of Nootka Sound (1790), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the Spaniards claim, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vandamme, Dominique René, Comte, French general (1770–1830), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Van der Mersch, John Andrew, Belgian general (1734–92), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Van der Noot, Henry Charles Nicholas, Belgian statesman (1735–1827), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vandernootists or Statists, Belgian political party, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Van der Spiegel, John, Baron, Dutch statesman, Grand Pensionary of Holland, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Varennes, the flight of Louis <span class="smcap">XVI.</span> and Marie Antoinette from Paris (June 1791), stopped at, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vauchamps, battle of (14 Feb. 1814), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vaud, Pays de, revolts against Berne (1798), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made an independent canton of Switzerland by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recognised by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Venaissin, the county of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vendée, La, the insurrection in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vendémiaire, the insurrection of 13th (5 Oct. 1795), in Paris, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Venice, condition of the Republic in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">remained neutral in the war against the French Republic, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">promised to Austria in exchange for Lombardy at Leoben, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Bonaparte (1797), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded the Ionian Islands to France, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Campo-Formio (1797), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conclave met at (1799), <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Brune (1800), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Austria by the Treaty of Lunéville (1801), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to the kingdom of Italy by the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">granted to Austria by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Verdun, taken by the Prussians (1792), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Verela, treaty of (14 Aug. 1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vergniaud, Pierre Victurnien, French politician (1753–93), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Verona, belonged to Venice in 1789, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">punished by Bonaparte for the murder of French soldiers (1796), <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Schérer attacked at, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Versailles, the States-General meets at (May 1789), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by the women of Paris (5 Oct. 1789), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the treaty of (1783), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Veto, the question of the, in the Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vicenza, Duke of. <i>See</i> Caulaincourt.</li> - - <li class="indx">Victor Amadeus <span class="smcap">III.</span>, King of Sardinia (1726–96), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Emmanuel <span class="smcap">I.</span>, King of Sardinia (1759–1824), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Victor Claude Perrin, <i>called</i>, French general (1764–1841), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, App. iv.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vienna, the inscription on the Emperor Joseph’s statue at, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Bernadotte insulted at (1798), <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">the French approach (1801), <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and (1809), <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">treaty of (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">and (1815), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— the Congress of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx"><i>Vieux Cordelier</i>, the, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Villeneuve, Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste Silvestre de, French admiral (1763–1806), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vimeiro, battle of (21 Aug. 1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vins, Charles, Baron de, Austrian general (♰1794), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Virtue, Reign of, Robespierre’s belief in a, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Visconti, Ennius Quirinus, Italian antiquary (1751–1818), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vittoria, taken by the French (1795), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">battle of (21 June 1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Volhynia, province of, ceded to Russia at the second partition of Poland (1793), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Volta, Alessandro, Italian man of science (1745–1827), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Voltaire, François Marie, Arouet de, French philosopher (1694–1778), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vonck, Francis, Belgian politician (1752–1797), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vonckists, Belgian political party, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Vyborg, the Swedish fleet blockaded in the Gulf of (1790), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Wagram, battle of (6 July 1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Walcheren, the English expedition to (1809), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Waldeck, principality of, a state of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince Christian Augustus of, Austrian general (1744–98), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wallachia, invaded by the Austrians (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">conquered by the Russians (1810), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Warsaw, treaty made at, between the Poles and Prussia (29 March 1790), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">occupied by Kosciuszko (1794), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">besieged by the Prussians, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by the Russians, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">ceded to Prussia (1795), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Napoleon enters (1807), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">given to Russia by the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, founded by Napoleon (1807), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">Western Galicia ceded to, by Austria (1809), <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">dissolved (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Waterloo, battle of (18 June 1815), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Watteville, Nicholas Rodolphe de, Swiss statesman (1760–1832), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wattignies, battle of (16 Oct. 1793), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Weimar, headquarters of the German literary movement, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Saxe-Weimar.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wellesley, Hon. Sir Arthur, Duke of Wellington. <i>See</i> Wellington.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Richard, Marquis, English statesman (1760–1842), <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, English general (1769–1852), defeated the Danish army at Kioge (1807), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">sent to Portugal (1808), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the French at Roliça and Vimeiro, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recalled, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">again sent to Portugal (1809), <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes Oporto, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats the French at Talavera, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">forms the Anglo-Portuguese army, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1810, 1811, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">campaign of 1812 and victory of Salamanca, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wins battle of Vittoria (1813), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invades France, and wins battles of the Nivelle and the Nive (1813), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">wins battle of Orthez (1814), <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">his attitude towards the Duc d’Angoulême, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats Soult at Toulouse, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">succeeds Castlereagh as English plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">signs the treaty of Vienna, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">takes command of the allied armies in Belgium, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Werden, abbey of, merged in Prussia (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wessenberg-Ampfingen, Johann Philip, Baron von, Austrian diplomatist (1773–1858), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">West India Islands, the French, taken by the English, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored at the Peace of Amiens (1802), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">recaptured (1809), <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">restored except Saint Lucia and Tobago (1815), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Westphalia, kingdom of, formed by Napoleon (1807), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">its limits, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">administration, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">member of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wetzlar, seat of the Imperial Tribunal of the Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Hoche (1796), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">merged in the electorate of Mayence (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">White Terror in France in 1815, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wickham, William, English diplomatist (1768–1845), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Widdin, the Pasha of, defeated at Foksany (1789), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wieland, Christoph Martin, German poet (1733–1813), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">William <span class="smcap">V.</span>, Prince of Orange, and Stadtholder of the United Netherlands (1748–1806), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">VI.</span>, Prince of Orange, and <span class="smcap">I.</span> King of the Netherlands (1772–1843), <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince Royal, afterwards King, of Würtemburg (1781–1864), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— <span class="smcap">IX.</span>, Landgrave, afterwards Elector and Grand Duke of Hesse-Cassel (1743–1821), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a Grand Duke and member of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— Prince, of Prussia, afterwards German Emperor (1797–1888), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wilson, Sir Robert Thomas, English general (1777–1849), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wintzingerode, Ferdinand, Baron, Russian general (1770–1818), <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wissembourg, lines of, stormed by the Austrians (1793), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wittenberg, ceded to Prussia by Saxony (1815), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wittgenstein, Louis Adolphus Peter, Prince of Sayn-, Russian general (1769–1843), <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wolf, Frederick Augustus, German scholar (1759–1824), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wolkonski, Nicholas, Prince Repnin-, Russian general (1778–1845), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Worms, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">one of the chief princes in Alsace, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, headquarters of Condé’s army of French <i>émigrés</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">taken by Custine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Worship of Reason at Paris (1793), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— of the Supreme Being, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Wrede, Charles Philip, Prince von, Bavarian general (1767–1838), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Würmser, Dagobert Sigismund, Count, Austrian general (1724–97), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Würtemburg, duchy of, condition in 1789, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Moreau (1796), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made an electorate (1803), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives extension of territory, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">invaded by Napoleon (1805), <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made a kingdom (1806), <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">receives Austrian Swabia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">state of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">of the Germanic Confederation (1815), <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - <li class="isub2"><i>See</i> Charles Eugène, Frederick, Frederick Eugène.</li> - - <li class="indx">Würtzburg, Bishop of, an ecclesiastical Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Würtzburg, bishopric of, merged in Bavaria (1803), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">exchanged for Salzburg (1809), and made a Grand Duchy, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">a state of the Confederation of the Rhine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— city of, taken by Jourdan (1796), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - - <li class="ifrst">York, Frederick, Duke of, English general (1763–1827), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— von Wartenburg, John David Louis, Count, Prussian general (1759–1830), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - - - <li class="ifrst">Zettin, taken by the Austrians (1790), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zielence, battle of (18 June 1792), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zubov, Prince Plato, Russian statesman (1767–1822), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zug, canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zurich, battle of (26 Sept. 1799), <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">—— canton of Switzerland, maintained by Bonaparte (1803), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> - <li class="isub2">made one of the presiding cantons of the Helvetian Diet (1815), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - - <li class="indx">Zweibrücken. <i>See</i> Deux-Ponts.</li> - </ul> - - <hr class="page" /> - - <div class="footnotes"> - <div class="footheader"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> <i>Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana.</i> By the Ritter von - Arneth: Vienna, 1872.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Vehse’s <i>Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy - of Austria</i>, English translation. London, 1856, vol. ii. p. 305.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> <i>Memoirs of the Court Aristocracy and Diplomacy of - Austria</i>, by E. Vehse, translated by Franz Demmler. London: 1856, vol. ii. p. 334.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> <i>L’Europe et la Révolution Française</i>, by Albert Sorel, - vol. ii. p. 50.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> <i>A History of the French Revolution</i>, by H. Morse - Stephens. Vol. i., chapter i. gives a detailed account of the method of election.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> On Mirabeau’s proposed Ministries, see <i>A History of the - French Revolution</i>, by H. Morse Stephens, vol. i., pp. 246 and 247.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Sorel, <i>L’Europe et la Révolution Française</i>, vol. ii. p. 69.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Sorel, <i>L’Europe et la Révolution Française</i>, vol. ii. p. - 194, footnote.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Coxe’s <i>Hist. of House of Austria</i>, ed. 1847, vol. iii. p. - 552, footnote.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> <i>Preussen und Frankreich von 1795 bis 1807: Diplomatische - Correspondenzen.</i> Ed. by P. Bailleu, vol. i. p. 41.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Bailleu, <i>op. cit.</i> vol. i. p. 48.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Alison’s <i>Lives of Lord Castlereagh, and Sir Charles - Stewart</i>, vol. ii p. 241.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Fain, <i>Manuscrit de l’An</i> 1813, pp. 297, 298.</div> - - <div class="footnote"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Las Cases, <i>Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène</i>, vol. vii. pp. 56, 57.</div> - </div> - - <hr class="page" /> - - <div class="center"><i>Crown 8vo. One Volume. 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O. Wakeman, which is well worthy to stand - side by side with its predecessors.... Mr. Wakeman’s book is a sound, - able, and useful one, which will alike give help to the student, and - attract the cultivated general reader.’—<b>Manchester Guardian.</b></p> - - <hr class="page" /> - <div class="center mt1"><i>In Eight Volumes. Crown 8vo. With Maps and Plans.</i></div> - - <div class="center xlarge"><b>PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY</b></div> - - <div class="center mt1">General Editor—ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A.,<br /> - Student of Christ Church, Oxford.</div> - - <p>The object of this series is to present in separate Volumes a - comprehensive and trustworthy account of the general development - of European History, and to deal fully and carefully with the more - prominent events in each century.</p> - - <p>The Volumes embody the results of the latest investigations, and - contain references to and notes upon original and other sources of - information.</p> - - <p>It is believed that no such attempt to place the History of Europe in - a comprehensive, detailed, and readable form before the English Public - has yet been made, and it is hoped that the Series will form a valuable - continuous History of Mediæval and Modern Europe.</p> - - <div class="hang"><b>Period I.—The Dark Ages.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 476–918.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">C. W. C. Oman, M.A.</span>, Fellow of All Souls College, - Oxford. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> <span class="rightfloat">[<i>Already published.</i></span></div> - - <div class="hang mt1 clear"><b>Period II.—The Empire and the Papacy.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 918–1272.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">T. F. Tout, M.A.</span>, Professor of History at - Victoria University, Manchester.</div> - - <div class="hang mt1"><b>Period III.—The End of the Middle Ages.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1272–1494.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">R. Lodge, M.A.</span>, Professor of History at - the University of Glasgow.</div> - - <div class="hang mt1"><b>Period IV.—Europe in the 16th Century.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1494–1598.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">A. H. Johnson, M.A.</span>, Historical Lecturer - to Merton, Trinity, and University Colleges, Oxford.</div> - - <div class="hang mt1"><b>Period V.—The Ascendancy of France.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1598–1715.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">H. O. Wakeman, M.A.</span>, Fellow of All Souls - College, and Tutor of Keble College, Oxford. 6<i>s.</i> <span class="rightfloat">[<i>Already published.</i></span></div> - - <div class="hang mt1 clear"><b>Period VI.—The Balance of Power.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1715–1789.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">A. Hassall, M.A.</span>, Student of Christ - Church, Oxford. <span class="rightfloat">[<i>In the press.</i></span></div> - - <div class="hang mt1 clear"><b>Period VII.—Revolutionary Europe.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1789–1815.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">H. Morse Stephens, M.A.</span>, Balliol - College, Oxford. 6<i>s.</i> <span class="rightfloat">[<i>Already published.</i></span></div> - - <div class="hang mt1 clear"><b>Period VIII.—Modern Europe.</b> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1815–1878.<br /> - By <span class="smcap">G. W. Prothero</span>, Litt. D., Professor of History at the - University of Edinburgh.</div> - - <div class="transnote mt10"> - <div class="large center mb2"><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></div> - <ul class="spaced"> - <li>Blank pages have been removed.</li> - <li>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.</li> - <li>Advertisements have been moved to the back.</li> - <li>Some spelling and hyphenation variations have been made consistent.</li> - </ul> - </div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815, by -H. 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