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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..acd8c60 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #62818 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62818) diff --git a/old/62818-0.txt b/old/62818-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a3d8a7e..0000000 --- a/old/62818-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1987 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Armor and Arms - An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the - City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. - -Author: Thomas Temple Hoopes - -Release Date: August 2, 2020 [EBook #62818] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: _The Helmet of a Commander - Bronze, silver, and ivory. Greek, mid-VI century B.C. - From a Greek colony at Metaponto, Italy_] - - - - - ARMOR AND ARMS - - - An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the - City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. - - by - Thomas T. Hoopes - Curator of the Museum - - [Illustration: State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI century] - - St. Louis, Missouri - 1954 - - - Copyright 1954 by the City Art Museum of St. Louis, Mo. - - - - - PREFACE - - -This publication is a guide to the armor and arms in the City Art Museum -of St. Louis and, incidentally, a very elementary introduction to the -history of arms and armor in general. The major part of the Museum’s -collection, comprising the European armor and arms of the fifteenth, -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is displayed in a single armor -gallery. Other specimens are shown with the exhibition of their own -special cultures. - -The City Art Museum is, as its name implies, restricted to objects of -art, to objects which, independently of their usefulness, are more or -less beautiful by the intention of their makers. There are numerous -items in the vast range of armor and arms which do not fill this -requirement, and are purely utilitarian. The Museum possesses specimens -of some of these. As they are not considered objects of art they are not -on exhibition, but have been assembled in a special study collection -where they can be seen on application to the Curator. - -When individual specimens are illustrated, they are given, in the list -of illustrations, their identifying Museum serial numbers. If a reader -fails to find on exhibition any such specimen in which he is interested, -he has only to ask for it by this serial number at the information desk. -If its place of exhibition has been changed he will be told where to -find it; if for any reason it has been temporarily removed from -exhibition, arrangements will be made, if possible, for him to see it. - -The subject of armor and arms is neither short nor simple, and it is -quite impossible, in a publication the size of this one, to do more than -give the barest kind of outline. Many points of interest are not -discussed in detail, some technical terms are unexplained, many -fascinating items are not mentioned at all. If the subject interests -you, you will find helpful information in the books listed on page 43, -most of which will be available at any public library. If specific -questions concerning armor and arms are addressed to the Curator, City -Art Museum, Forest Park, St. Louis 5, Missouri, accompanied by a -self-addressed, stamped envelope, they will be answered as far as -practicable, but research problems cannot be undertaken. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - List of illustrations viii - The earliest arms and armor 1 - Chain mail 5 - “Gothic” armor 8 - “Maximilian” armor 9 - Armor of the late xvi century: decorated armor 10 - Late armor 16 - Questions concerning armor 18 - Middle Eastern armor 20 - Arms: striking and cutting weapons 22 - Lances and pole arms 26 - Middle Eastern edged weapons 28 - Projectile weapons: bows and crossbows 30 - Projectile weapons: firearms 32 - Bibliography 43 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Figure Acc. No. Page - - _Frontispiece_ Helmet, bronze with silver crest, 282:49 - Greek, mid-VI century B.C. - _Title Page_ State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI 173:26 - century - 1 Ceremonial axe blade (_Ch’i_), bronze, Chinese, 36:51 1 - An-yang, Shang dynasty (_ca._ 1523-_ca._ 1028 B.C.), - gift of J. Lionberger Davis - 2 Helmet, bronze, Chinese, Shang dynasty (_ca._ 283:49 2 - 1523-_ca._ 1028 B.C.) - 3 Ceremonial dagger of a shaman, bronze, Siberian 34:43 2 - steppes, _ca._ 1000 A.D. - 4 Lock of a crossbow, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty 1106:20 3 - (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), with model to show operation of - interlocking interior parts - 5 Disk, probably the central plate of a shield, 51:22 4 - bronze, Italian, from Picenum, near Ancona, VII-VI - century B.C. - 6 Figure of a warrior, bronze, Etruscan, _ca._ 500 40:51 4 - B.C. Gift of J. Lionberger Davis - 7 Ink rubbing of engraved brass plate on tomb of Sir 7 - Roger de Trumpington, a Crusader, in the church at - Trumpington, Cambridgeshire, England - 8 “Bishop’s mantle” of chain mail, German or Swiss, 87:39 7 - XVI century - 9 Salade, Gothic, German, _ca._ 1475 58:39 8 - 10 Full suit of Maximilian armor, German, _ca._ 1510 171:26 10 - 11 Breastplate, Italian, Pisan style, _ca._ 1575 170:26 11 - 12 Morion, Italian, _ca._ 1560 319:25 11 - 13 Closed helmet, German, _ca._ 1575 79:39 12 - 14 Tilting helmet, Spanish, _ca._ 1580 444:19 13 - 15 Parade shield, Italian, XVI century 47:27 14 - 16 Helmet, German, made for Hungarian or Polish market, 71:42 14 - XVI century - 17 Mitten gauntlet for left hand, English, Greenwich 80:39 14 - school, second half of XVI century - 18 Parade shield, wood, painted, Hungarian, XV century 88:42 15 - 19 Stirrups, pair, bronze gilt, French, early XVII 54:26 16 - century 55:26 - 20 Three-quarter suit of armor, South German, _ca._ 1620 172:26 17 - Drawings to illustrate methods of attaining flexibility - in plate armor: - 21 By use of leather straps 19 - 22 By use of ordinary rivets at pivot points 19 - 23 By use of rivets and slotted holes, (so-called 19 - _Almain_ or _sliding rivets_) to allow motion in two - directions - 24 Breastplate of char aina, Persian, Ispahan, XVI-XVII 34:15 20 - century - 25 Helmet, Persian, late XVI century 16:22 21 - 26 Helmet, Turkish, XV century 36:42 21 - 27 Mace, Italian, second quarter XVI century 231:23 22 - 28 Sword, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 1108:20 22 - A.D.) - 29 Group of swords, as displayed 23 - 1. State sword, German, XVI century 173:26 - 2. Two-handed landesknecht sword, Swiss, dated 1617 60:39 - 3. Swept-hilted rapier, Italian, late XVI century 430:19 - 4. Dress sword, German, Saxon, _ca._ 1620 62:39 - 5. Left-hand dagger, companion to No. 4 63:39 - 6. Cup-hilted rapier, Italian, XVII century 49:25 - 7. Left-hand dagger, Italo-Spanish, XVII century 81:39 - 8. Cup-hilted rapier, Spanish, XVII century 233:23 - 30 Hilt and guard of court sword, Italian or Spanish, 174:26 24 - XVII century - 31 Rondel dagger, Italian, XV century 82:39 25 - 32 Trousse, German, XVI century 65:39 25 - 33 Group of spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries 27 - 1. Ox-tongue pike, Austrian, Salzburg, _ca._ 1500 433:19 - 2. Hunting spear, Italian, XVI century 42:19 - 3. Partisan, Italian, XVI century 450:19 - 4. Partisan of State Guard of William V of Bavaria, 169:26 - _ca._ 1615 - 5. Partisan of State Guard of Augustus the Strong of 166:26 - Saxony, King of Poland, _ca._ 1597 - 34 Group of axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries 28 - 1. Military axe, Spanish, XVI century 43:19 - 2. Military axe, Italian, XVI century 44:19 - 3. Halberd, Swiss, XV century 67:39 - 4. Halberd, North Italian, XVI century 451:19 - 5. Halberd of State Guard of Christian II of Saxony, 167:26 - _ca._ 1590 - 6. Halberd of State Guard of the Princes of 168:26 - Liechtenstein, XVII century - 35 Two dagger-knives 29 - 1. Persian, Ispahan, XVII century 13:22 - 2. Persian, Shiraz, XVII century 14:22 - 36 Sword hilt, gold, Persian, XIII-XIV century 45:24 29 - 37 Crossbow, Flemish, XV century 41:19 30 - 38 Prodd, Italian, XVI century 69:39 30 - 39 Crossbow and cranequin, Swiss, XVII century 68:39 31 - 40 Drawing, mechanism of cranequin 31 - 41 Drawing, mechanism of crossbow lock 31 - 42 Engraving after de Gheyn, 1606: musketeer about to 31 - give fire - 43 Matchlock musket, Dutch, XVII century, and detail of 302:51 33 - its decoration. Gift of the John M. Olin Trust - 44 Wheellock gun, German, _ca._ 1550 and detail of 74:39 34 - engraved inlays after Beham - 45 Engraving by Hans Sebald Beham, (1500- _ca._ 1550) 58:14 35 - The Rape of Iole - 46 Group of hand firearms of the XVII century 37 - 1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the 76:39 - Balearic trade, by Lazari Cominaz, XVII century - 2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin 75:39 - Süssebecker (1593-1668), gunmaker to the Saxon - court, _ca._ 1635 - 3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century 73:39 - 4. Wheellock rifle, French, Épinal (Vosges), by 70:39 - Claude Thomas, 1623 - 4A,B. Pair of wheellock pistols. Companions to No. 4 71:39 - 72:39 - 5. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescia, by Lazaro 77:39 - Lazarino, XVII century - 6. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescian, by Lazarino 85:39 - Cominazzo; Giovanni Bourgognone, mid-XVII century - 47 Details of decoration of guns: 39 - 1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the 76:39 - Balearic trade, signed “Lazari Cominaz”, XVII century - 2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin 75:39 - Süssebecker (1593-1668), _ca._ 1635 - 3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century 73:39 - 48 Wheellock pistol, Italian, Brescia, _ca._ 1630 84:39 40 - 49 Flintlock powder tester, German, _ca._ 1690 24:25 40 - 50 Flintlock pistol set (two brace) with accessories, 185:42 41 - Portuguese, Lisbon, by Jacinto Xavier, 1799 - 51 Flintlock repeating pistol, French, Paris, by Derby, 43:39 42 - late XVIII century - - - - - THE EARLIEST ARMOR AND ARMS - - -Once upon a time there probably were men who had neither armor nor arms. -They did not last long, for wild animals or other men with stones or -sticks in their hands killed them and ate them up. The first men about -whom we know anything definite already had weapons of stone. Arms and, -later, armor have accompanied man throughout his history. - -The first obvious weapons were stones, roughly shaped to make them more -effective. Such are not to be found in the City Art Museum, but we do -have examples of the next type to develop, the weapons of the bronze -age. - -Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, and it was invented a very long -time ago, and in many different places. It was known in ancient Egypt, -in the Far East and in Europe. Two thousand years before Christ the -Chinese were making bronze arms and domestic and ceremonial objects of -all sorts, and were making them so beautiful that such objects are -considered proper exhibits for an art museum. We have a very fine -collection of ancient Chinese bronzes, exhibited in the Museum’s Chinese -galleries, and among them are numerous weapons. The earliest include -axes and dagger-axes (Fig. 1). These date from the Shang Dynasty, (ca. -1523-ca. 1028 B.C.) This too is the period of a bronze helmet (Fig. 2) -in the form of a hood with smooth sides which come down well over the -cheeks, while leaving the front of the face exposed. Helmets of almost -precisely this form, but made of steel, were worn in Italy in the -fifteenth century, more than two thousand years later! This helmet has a -small plume-holder at its very top, and is peculiar in having, as its -only decoration, a pair of eyes embossed in relief on the forehead. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Chinese bronze axe more than 3000 years - old, with a crouching monster in relief._] - -From the Ordos region of Siberia, where a primitive culture lasted for a -very long time, comes a particularly fine ceremonial dagger (Fig. 3) of -bronze with inlays of turquoise. From China again, dating throughout the -thousand years before Christ, come numerous bronze weapons now in the -Museum’s Study Collection, including swords, daggers, and, from about -the beginning of the Christian Era, most ingenious mechanisms for the -crossbow (Fig. 4) a weapon which was not known in Europe until many -centuries later. - -An Etruscan grave has yielded the large bronze disk of Fig. 5. On -stylistic grounds it is believed that this originated not in Etruria, -but on the other, Eastern, shore of Italy in Picenum, in the second half -of the seventh century before Christ. It was probably the central -reinforcement of a large leather shield. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 2. A bronze helmet as old as the axe in Fig. 1, - but in form closely resembling Italian steel helmets of the - fifteenth century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 3. The thin flat-bladed ceremonial bronze - dagger of a shaman or sorcerer from the steppes of Siberia._] - -But of all the specimens of antique armor and arms in this (and possibly -in any other) museum, none surpasses the helmet shown in our -frontispiece. This helmet, together with fragments of armor, a shield -rim and a spear point, all now in the Museum, was found in a tomb near -Metaponto, in Southern Italy, where once there was a Greek colony. It is -believed to date from about the middle of the sixth century B.C. The -helmet is of bronze, the upper part of the bowl formed as the neck and -head of a ram. This is surmounted by a great crest of silver, resting on -a support of ivory. The cheek pieces of the helmet have rams’ heads in -profile embossed in relief. The eyes, the horns of the main ram’s head, -the ivory crest holder and part of the silver crest are restorations, -but enough original fragments of the crest were found with the helmet to -indicate exactly how the crest was shaped. Moreover the existence of -such metallic crests is verified by a bronze statuette of similar origin -(Fig. 6). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 4. A crossbow lock two thousand years old, with - a model to show how the parts interlock. An ingenious bit of early - mechanical engineering._] - -At first glance, the helmet proclaims itself a great work of sculpture, -and proves that arms and armor can properly belong in a museum of art. -How very well this piece deserves its place here is still more apparent -on close examination. It seems incredible that so long ago a craftsman -could, without any of our modern tools, have formed from a single plate -of bronze such a deep and difficult forging as this helmet bowl. It is -equally amazing that, in a period still considered as archaic, his -artistic imagination could have produced so naturalistic yet so noble a -rendition of an animal form. The technical skill and taste of the -engraving and embossing are also noteworthy: the suggestion of locks of -hair around the forehead, the eyebrows which terminate as snakes’ heads, -the suggestions of skin texture on the rams’ heads. It is indeed one of -the world’s masterpieces of armor. - -Although the Greeks made their armor out of bronze, they did have -knowledge of iron, at least as early as the fifth century B.C. But it -was extremely difficult for them to prepare, as they had not yet -discovered efficient methods of smelting it from iron ore, so that what -little they had was very precious. It could not be spared for making -armor, but was restricted to edged weapons where a relatively small -amount of this hard new metal could be most effective. The Romans too -used iron, and as their technical skill improved they used more and more -of it. - -After the Roman empire was overwhelmed by the barbarian hordes from the -North the making of fine arms languished. It did not cease; occasionally -discoveries are made of beautifully inlaid sword pommels and shield -bosses belonging to the so-called “dark ages”. Sword blades too turn up -occasionally, skillfully constructed of many layers of alternately hard -steel and soft iron, so that they may retain a keen cutting edge yet -still be tough rather than brittle. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 5. Embossed bronze disk, probably the central - reinforcement of a leather shield, from Picenum, East-Central Italy, - second half VII century B. C._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 6. An Etruscan warrior in battle dress. Note - the rivets on the helmet crest._] - -(Steel, you will remember, is not a separate metal; it is just iron -which contains from about .5% to about 2.5%, of carbon. This gives it -the peculiar property that if it is heated to redness and quickly -cooled, it becomes much harder than before. It also becomes more -brittle. If hardened steel be heated a second time, not red hot but to a -much lower temperature, and again chilled, the hardness is reduced -somewhat, while the brittleness is reduced a great deal; the metal -becomes tough and suitable for making into tools. This second heating -and chilling is called “tempering”. Contrary to popular belief, “to -temper” steel does not mean “to make it harder”. It means “to make fully -hardened steel somewhat softer and much tougher”. If the iron has too -much or too little carbon it cannot be hardened at all; if there is too -little it is very soft and malleable and is called “wrought iron”. If -there is too much carbon it is harder than mild steel, but is very -brittle indeed; this is called “cast iron”.) - - - - - CHAIN MAIL - - -Except for the rare finds just mentioned, we know little about the armor -and arms of the period from the fall of Rome to about the twelfth -century. The paintings, drawings, and statues which have survived -suggest, but give no clear information. We have reason to believe that -armor was made of small plates of iron attached to cloth or leather -garments, or of chain mail, a fabric made of interlinked rings of iron -wire. Towards the end of this period we know that chain mail was -extensively employed, for it often appears, especially in England, on -the engraved brass plates attached to the tombs of important people of -the time (Fig. 7). The Museum has a small collection of paper -impressions of these “brasses” which are well worthy of study by anyone -interested in early armor. Some are exhibited on the walls of the armor -gallery. - -Chain mail is more interesting than it appears at first glance, and the -Museum’s specimens deserve to be looked at carefully. In the first -place, it was made of wire. Nowadays wire is so common that we think -nothing of it; it is produced by the mile with automatic machinery. But -in medieval times wire was scarce and valuable, for every bit of it had -to be made by hand. At first this was done with the hammer: a billet of -iron was pounded with a hammer held in one hand, while the other kept -the billet rotating so that its diameter became less and less until it -was small enough to be made up into links of mail. Of course, only short -bits of wire could be made in this way and the diameter was naturally -irregular. It was slow and tedious work, but the earliest mail was so -made. Later it was found that a rod of iron could be pulled by tongs -through a hole in a hardened steel plate, thus reducing its diameter and -giving it a uniform thickness. By drawing it through a number of holes -of progressively smaller diameter, the wire could be made quite thin and -entirely uniform. Then such wire could be wound in a coil around an iron -rod, and the coil then cut lengthwise with a chisel or saw giving a -large number of links all of the same size. All later chain mail was so -made. Such links were interlaced, each link with four others, to form a -fabric much like that of a lady’s mesh bag. However, if the ends of the -links were simply brought together the fabric would not be very strong. -An arrow or dagger point could easily spread open a link, and penetrate -to the wearer’s body. So all good chain mail was strengthened by having -the ends of every link overlapped, slightly flattened, and then riveted. -In that part of the world we now call “Middle East”—where the Mohammedan -and Hindu cultures flourished—the rivet was a separate piece of fine -wire. European chain mail is more of a mystery—principally because there -is so very little old European chain mail still in existence. The -probability is that a separate rivet was used as in the Eastern mail, -but that its insertion was more skillfully performed. However, some -scholars feel that European chain mail was welded or was riveted by a -swaging process, that a special tool in the form of tongs or a pair of -dies forced a small part of the lower end of the link of chain mail -through a slit in the upper end and then riveted it over. Careful -microscopical research on sections of links of mail could doubtless -solve this problems, but who wants to cut off links from a rare and -precious genuine, documented piece? As yet it may be said that no such -ingenious swaging tool has been discovered, nor have we any -unquestionably contemporary illustrations which would prove this theory. - -In places where special strength was required, as around the throat, the -rings were made of the same size but of heavier wire, which was -flattened by hammering in the neighborhood of the rivet. In this way the -overlapping of the rings became so close that not even a needle could -penetrate the fabric (Fig. 8). In other cases, unflattened rings were -used, but strands of leather were drawn through the rows, giving -additional rigidity and protection. It is believed that this practice -accounts for the appearance of what is known as “banded mail” in -numerous monuments and engraved brasses. - -Chain mail was a good protection against cuts and stabs, but it had a -number of serious disadvantages. In the first place, it was expensive. -Even the most skillful armorer could make it but slowly. The mail cape -of Fig. 8 contains about 44,235 links, each separately forged and -riveted; some complete coats of mail contain over 200,000! Forgeries of -antique chain mail are practically non-existent, for they would cost -more to make than genuine specimens, rare as they are, would be worth -today. - -Again, chain mail was very easily attacked by rust, and, once it was -rusted, was most difficult to clean. (The usual way was to put a rusted -mail shirt in a barrel with some oily sawdust and to set an apprentice -to rolling the barrel around for hour after hour.) Consequently very -little early mail is left—most of it just rusted away to nothing. It was -heavy and uncomfortable, for the whole weight hung from the shoulders. - -But its worst disadvantage lay in its flexibility. It would resist a -cut, but was of little protection against a blow. To make it of any use -in battle against heavy swords, maces, and battle axes it was necessary -to wear beneath it a very heavily padded garment which, of course, was -hot. How the Crusaders in their chain mail must have sweated in the hot -sun of the Holy Land! And how many mail-clad knights must have been -pounded to death without necessarily losing one drop of blood! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 7. An ink rubbing taken from the engraved brass - plate on the tomb of Sir Roger de Trumpington, an English knight who - died in 1289. Note the complete suit of chain mail, the - supplementary knee defenses and big pot helmet attached by a chain, - the cloth surcoat, and the shield with his punning badge of a - trumpet._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 8. Cape of chain mail, with extra wide links at - the collar, and ornamental links of brass around the lower edge._] - -To protect against blows, therefore, it became necessary to produce a -rigid protection. The primitive state of iron metallurgy did not permit -the making of more than small pieces of iron at a time. Nevertheless, -iron head coverings were already in use by the eleventh century, and -from that time on pieces of plate armor increased in size and number. -After the head defense, the most vulnerable part of a rider’s body (for -remember that only knights could afford mail, and knights fought on -horseback) was the knees. Have you ever had a really hard bump on the -kneecap, and, if you remember one, should you have liked to go on -fighting just after receiving it? The knight represented in the brass of -Fig. 7, who died in 1289, wears knee-guards, and rests his head on his -great “pot-helm”, which was normally attached to his body by a chain, so -that it could not easily be lost if he took it off to get a breath of -air. The City Art Museum has no specimens of plate armor of this early -period. - - - - - “GOTHIC” ARMOR - - - [Illustration: _Fig. 9. A helmet called a salade: made like a deep - salad bowl, with a slit to see through._] - -During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it became the fashion to -wear a long cloth garment, called a _surcoat_, over armor. Pictures and -statues of this period show armored figures only with such surcoats, and -it is, therefore, impracticable to follow the exact development of the -pieces of plate armor which were added to reinforce the chain mail. By -the beginning of the fifteenth century complete outfits of plate armor -were in use, but the earliest surviving suits of the so-called “Gothic” -armor date from about 1460. They are exceedingly rare. The City Art -Museum possesses only a gauntlet of about 1450 and a helmet (Fig. 9) -from about 1475, yet we feel lucky to have these two pieces, for -“Gothic” armor is not only rare: it is very beautiful. It was at this -period that armorers did their best work, from every standpoint. It was -best metallurgically, with inner surfaces of pure soft iron, but with -outer surfaces skillfully converted into almost glass-hard steel. It was -best functionally, for its simple clean curved lines were admirably -designed to turn a blow harmlessly aside, with no unnecessary decorative -forms to catch descending edge or point. It was best artistically (as is -usually the case with things that function perfectly), depending for -beauty on its own pure sculptural lines rather than on extraneous -ornament. - -The helmet of Fig. 9 is of a type called _salade_. It is a simple steel -hat, like that of a modern soldier, and originally had a padded lining. -Unlike the modern military helmet, however, it covers the head down to -the end of the nose; there is a narrow slit in front of the eyes which -permits surprisingly good vision while leaving the eyes quite well -protected. The lines of this helmet are clean and elegant, typical of -the “Gothic” style. This type of helmet was often worn in combination -with an upstanding guard for the lower part of the face which was -attached to the top of the neck-defense. The lower edge of the helmet -overlapped the upper edge of this face-guard; thus the entire face was -protected, yet the wearer had reasonable ventilation and could obtain -more when circumstances permitted by taking off his helmet. - - - - - “MAXIMILIAN” ARMOR - - -At the beginning of the sixteenth century the most important single -personality in Europe was probably King (later Emperor) Maximilian I of -Germany and Austria. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, he lived at a -time when versatility was one of the characteristics of an educated man, -and as sovereign he set his subjects a good example in this respect. He -wrote books on genealogy, hunting and woodsmanship, horse breeding, -architecture, and landscape gardening. He was greatly interested in arms -and armor, and frequently visited his court armorer in his workshop. It -is not surprising, therefore, that he had a great influence on the -design of armor, and that the new and sharply different fashion which -appeared at this time became known as the “Maximilian”. It was -characterized by parallel, or almost parallel, fluting, especially on -breastplate and thigh guards, by broad-toed foot guards (_sollerets_) as -compared with the long pointed toes of the Gothic period, and by -strongly roped edges of the plates. The City Art Museum has an excellent -suit of Maximilian armor (Fig. 10). The breastplate, thigh guards -(_tassets_) and main shell of the helmet illustrate the characteristic -flutings, while the sollerets are fully developed Maximilian style. The -suit was made in Nuremberg in the first quarter of the sixteenth -century, and was formerly in the armory of Prince Liechtenstein. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 10. A full suit of Maximilian armor from the - early sixteenth century._] - - - - - ARMOR OF THE LATE XVI CENTURY: DECORATED ARMOR - - -By the middle of the sixteenth century the techniques of the armorer -were fully developed. From the smelters he was able to obtain iron in -good-sized lumps, and he had learned so to weld it as to produce plates -of any desired size. He could keep it soft and malleable or could add -minute amounts of carbon and thus convert it into steel, which he could, -by heat treatment, give any desired degree of hardness. He no longer -bothered to harden the surface of his breastplate and helmets to the -glassy hardness which was the pride of the Gothic armorers, but he made -good, reasonably homogeneous mild steel which was hard enough for sword -or dagger blades, yet tough enough to avoid brittleness. He could hammer -his metal into even the most fantastic shapes, could color or gild it, -or could inlay it with precious metals. Armorers began to vie with one -another to produce magnificent and elaborate armor; many and strange -were the results. Instead of only one kind of armor, as in the past, -there were three: military, tournament and parade armor. - -In the military armor, intended for actual fighting, taste was usually -conservative. Extravagances, such as excessively wide or narrow -sollerets, over-elaborate elbow guards, or extremely large shoulder -guards, were avoided. A moderate amount of decoration was considered -quite permissible, provided it did not lessen the functionality of the -armor; such decoration most frequently was in the form of etching. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 11. A breastplate decorated with etched - ornament against a black background._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 12. A morion with etched decoration. Handsome, - but rather top-heavy._] - -Although we are accustomed to think of etching primarily in connection -with pictures on paper, the process seems to have originated with the -armorers. They would take a helmet or breastplate, paint it all over -with a heavy acid-proof varnish, scratch a design through this varnish -with a sharp needle, then place the metal in a bath of acid. The acid -would eat away the steel where the varnish had been scratched, but not -elsewhere. After the plate had been taken from the acid and the varnish -removed, the etched part would show dark against the polished surface of -the steel. This contrast could be heightened by rubbing in a little -black pigment, and the early armorers discovered that they could readily -keep a record of their work or a sample sheet to show other customers, -by simply placing a piece of paper against the etched and blackened -surface and rubbing it. The fresh black would stick to the paper, giving -a clear impression of the etched design. Masters of etching like -Rembrandt used and modern etchers still use essentially the same -process. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 13. A closed helmet with etching. Though - heavier, it is more comfortable than Fig. 12, since its weight rests - partly on the shoulders._] - -The Museum has a number of good examples of etched armor. In Fig. 11 we -see a breastplate with etched designs of military trophies and -mythological figures. Fig. 12 shows a helmet, formerly in the -collections of the Baron de Cosson and Henry G. Keasbey, of the type -called _morion_, with an exceedingly high comb and similar etched -decoration. Fig. 13 shows a typical _closed helmet_ of the mid-sixteenth -century. Like the morion, it has a high, elaborately etched comb. The -wearer’s face was protected by two plates, an upper one called the -_vizor_, which has a narrow horizontal slit for vision like the salade -described on page 9, and a lower called the _ventail_ which has holes -and vertical slits for ventilation. Both are pivoted at the ears, so -that the vizor could be raised alone or vizor and ventail together, yet -at the appearance of danger both could be snapped down into position -with a single sweep of the gauntleted hand. The etching on this helmet -shows floral arabesques and leaping stags against a background, not -blackened, but gilt. Such gilding was done by rubbing the freshly etched -surface with a mixture of gold and mercury, then heating the metal to -evaporate the mercury and leave behind the gold firmly attached to the -steel. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 14. A heavy helmet especially designed for the - tournament. The man who wore this was about as safe as armor could - make him._] - -Tournament armor, used in the toughest, most exciting sport that man has -ever invented, was worn for comparatively short periods of time, and -could, therefore, be considerably heavier than the military armor which -a man might have to wear continuously. Decoration on the armor itself -was reduced to a minimum, although elaborate trappings of cloth and -feathers were often added to it. Fig. 14 shows a helmet for use in a -form of tournament conducted according to Italian rules, in which the -contestants were separated by a fence which prevented their horses from -colliding, thus permitting unrestricted speed of attack. The helmet is -very solid and sturdy, with plain polished surfaces to deflect the -opposing lance-point. Notice the circular hollow rim at the neck. This -closed over an outward-turned rim on the throat defense (_colletin_) so -that although the helmet could be turned to either side following the -motion of the wearer’s head, it could not separate from the body armor -at the throat and leave an opening for hostile spear or sword point. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 15. A parade shield, etched and gilded. - Italian, XVI century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 16. A parade helmet, probably made in Germany - for the Hungarian or Polish market._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 17. A gauntlet of solid steel which is almost - as flexible as chamois skin._] - -Parade armor was the lightest yet the most elaborate of all. Not -intended for actual combat in either war or sport, it did not require -the fundamental functionality of the other types; the armorers were free -to follow their fancy and make the decoration as elaborate as they -pleased. All methods were used. Etching and gilding were extensive and -in addition the metal was embossed or chased in the most fanciful forms. -In addition to the flat mercury gilding, gold was applied by the -_damascene_ process, either the “true” damascene in which plates or -wires of gold (or silver) were actually inlaid into undercut grooves in -the steel much as a dentist would fill a tooth, or the “false” damascene -in which the precious metal was applied in the form of foil and rubbed -onto the steel surface which had previously been roughened by tool work -to produce innumerable tiny sharp points which could be burnished down -to hold the foil firmly in place. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 18. A painted shield for a pageant or - fancy-dress parade. Hungarian, XV century._] - -Specimens of the simpler parade armor, with etched and gilded ornament -against a background colored a warm brown, are the shield shown in Fig. -15 and the helmet of Fig. 16. A mitten-gauntlet of the second half of -the sixteenth century from the Clarence Mackay collection and formerly -from the Imperial Russian Collection in the Hermitage Museum of St. -Petersburg (Fig. 17) is an example of the work of the British Royal -Armory at Greenwich, which made numerous finely decorated suits of armor -for the nobles of the court of Queen Elizabeth. This gauntlet is a -magnificent specimen of engineering skill as applied to the design of -armor; its construction allows complete freedom to the wrist, knuckle, -and finger joints, yet keeps the hand perfectly protected in any -position. The gauntlet is decorated with an etched design of rising -eagles in interlaced medallions against a dotted background; the latter -is partly black, partly gilded. - -An entirely different type of parade armor is the shield of Fig. 18. It -is made of wood, covered on the inside with leather, on the outside with -canvas painted with a small coat of arms and a large representation of -two unarmored men in mortal combat. This shield also was formerly in the -Clarence H. Mackay collection. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 19. These stirrups are made of carved bronze, - completely gilded._] - -Another example of parade equipment in a different medium is a pair of -stirrups (Fig. 19) made of bronze and elaborately carved and gilded. -They were formerly in the Spitzer collection. - - - - - LATE ARMOR - - -As the sixteenth century drew to a close armor began to deteriorate. No -single influence was responsible. Do not think that firearms were -invented and armor was therefore suddenly made obsolete. As a matter of -fact, firearms were in use before plate armor really received general -acceptance, and firearms were in use all the time that plate armor was -being worn in Europe. But the gradual improvement in the efficiency of -firearms undoubtedly caused armor to be made heavier and heavier, and -thereby contributed greatly to its decline. For just when armor was thus -increasing in weight there developed a new school of cavalry tactics -based upon the use of lightly armed troopers on fast horses who, instead -of directly attacking the enemy, could dash around his flank and cut off -his supplies from the rear. The tendency was, therefore, to make the -armor light and very flexible, directly contrary to the need for solid, -bullet-stopping protection. Even fashion had a deteriorating effect on -armor. Fig. 20 shows a late suit of armor which has a multitude of small -plates to give extreme flexibility, and has extra wide leg protectors to -cover the extravagant wide-topped trousers which were then the vogue. -But what a clumsy suit this is compared to the Maximilian suit of Fig. -10! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 20. “Three-quarter” suit of armor for a young - German of the early XVII century._] - -During the seventeenth century armor shrank away piece by piece, much as -a tired soldier might have been tempted to discard it on a long march. -The choking face defenses vanished from the helmet. The sollerets went, -then the shin guards or _greaves_, then the thigh guards. The arm guards -were discarded, then the gauntlets. Finally the armored man was left -with only breastplate, backplate, and helmet, and even these -deteriorated in the following century into the decorative but -inefficient trappings of the cuirassier. The two world wars, with their -steel helmets and flak suits (the design of which was strongly -influenced by ancient models) have revived the use of armor, but it is a -machine-made product and, well-designed though it be, must be considered -a reproduction rather than an original work of art. - - - - - QUESTIONS CONCERNING ARMOR - - -Let us turn back to the armor of the fifteenth and early sixteenth -centuries, and consider some of the questions which naturally arise in -our minds as we contemplate these relics of the past. In the first -place, was it practical? How could men possibly wear such a mass of -metal upon their bodies and engage in long military campaigns, -interspersed with violent battles? Isn’t it true that an armored man, -once fallen, could not get up again until he was hoisted with a derrick? -No, that isn’t true. The comical scenes in the moving pictures of -frustrated knights floundering about in search of hoisting engines were -put in strictly for laughs. Armor was practical; it was worn by about -all the most important men of more than three centuries; if they had not -worn it they would not have lived long enough to become important! As a -matter of fact armor is not as heavy as one might think. A good military -suit weighs no more than the pack carried by a modern soldier, sixty -pounds or less, and is a great deal more comfortable to carry. The pack -hangs from the shoulders, but a good suit of armor, carefully made (as -all good armor had to be made) to fit the individual body of the wearer, -has its weight distributed over the entire body. The helmet rests partly -on the head and partly on the shoulders. The breast and backplates rest -partly on the shoulders and partly on the hips. The arm and leg guards -are laced to the special undergarment which had always to be worn with -armor, and each limb supports its own protection. The joints come at -exactly the right places to correspond with the natural motions of the -body, and every one of these motions is provided for. A man wearing a -properly fitting suit of armor over the correct undergarment could do -anything that a modern man can do wearing a winter overcoat, and -probably, due to his special training, a number of things that the -modern man could not. He could certainly walk, run, climb a wall, lie -down and get up quickly, and mount his horse without help. To test the -truth of these statements and the implications of the romantic novels of -the past, the writer donned a suit of armor which fitted him only -approximately, yet found himself able to perform all the actions above -mentioned and, in addition, to descend two stories on a rope, hand under -hand. - -Two particular devices aided in making such flexibility possible. Where -the body needed protection combined with motility it could be covered -with a series of narrow, overlapping steel strips, each of which was -riveted in turn to one or more leather straps, the ends of which were -fastened to the solid main defense. Then as the body was flexed the -steel strips or _lames_ would slide over one another without exposing -the body beneath them (Fig. 21). It was also possible to join a series -of lames by not more than two rivets for each pair; these would act as -pivots, allowing one lame to rotate slightly relative to the other (Fig. -22). However, if rivets were used with rather large heads with a washer -under the burred end of each, and if the holes for the rivet in one lame -were round while that in the other had the form of a slot, in addition -to the pivoting motion, a certain amount of sideways motion between the -lames would be possible (Fig. 23). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 21. The leathering of a tasset, from the - inside._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 22. The pivot rivets of a solleret._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 23. The wrist plates of a gauntlet with sliding - (Almain) rivets._] - -Who wore armor? Every man who could afford it. Armor was always very -much of a luxury. Its making required the services of consummate -craftsmen, men who were not only expert metal workers, but also skilled -draughtsmen, expert tailors, and keen students of human anatomy. -Armorers were the aristocrats of all mediaeval craftsmen, the most -highly respected and by far the best paid. It required a great deal of -their time; the completion of a full suit of armor might take a year or -more. Armor was, therefore, in the class of the modern automobile. A -wealthy monarch might have a large wardrobe of beautifully decorated -armor, as a millionaire to-day owns a fleet of expensive imported motor -cars. A simple knight would be proud to possess a single suit, plain, -but nevertheless made exactly to fit him and no other person. A minor -soldier was lucky if he could secure a simple ready-made breastplate and -helmet. - -What was the physical character of the men who wore armor? Why do the -suits seem so small? Were people smaller in those days? Yes and no. It -is true that the nature of their life tended to develop men of the -cowboy type, wiry rather than massive. Men who spend their lives on -horseback are likely to have a broad shoulder and narrow waist, strong -thigh and slender calf. It is true too that with primitive medicine and -sanitation man died young; the average age of adult males was less than -it is now. - -However the principal reason for the small average size of preserved -suits of armor lies in its inextensibility. A suit of armor cannot be -“let out”. As has been pointed out, it had to be made exactly to fit the -wearer. Men had to learn their military duties very young, they had to -have and to wear armor while they were still growing. Consequently they -usually outgrew their first suit of armor, and it was this suit, -unmarked by the scars of serious fighting, which was most likely to be -preserved. By the time a man reached his full growth his armor showed -wear and tear; when he died he was buried in it, or it was discarded -after his death as too battered to be worth keeping. The suits of armor -in the world’s collections are largely the outgrown suits of young men. - - - - - MIDDLE EASTERN ARMOR - - -In addition to the armor of Europe, consideration should be given to -that of the Middle East, of which the City Art Museum displays a number -of fine specimens in a special gallery. Armor was worn in Persia and in -India long after it had been abandoned in Europe; it is even possible -that among isolated tribes armorers may still be plying their trade. -However, as in Europe, the later work tended to deteriorate, and the -earlier an Eastern armor is, the better will it probably be. - -The Indian and Persian smiths had two specialties: Damascus steel and -damascened steel, which are often and not unnaturally confused, both -having presumably originated at Damascus. Damascene work has already -been described on page 15; both the “true” and the “false” variety were -practised throughout the Middle East. Damascus steel, on the other hand, -is a type of metal especially suitable for armor and sword blades, made -by the intimate combination, in innumerable layers, of two kinds of -metal, one extremely hard, the other soft and tough. As billets of this -composite steel were twisted, bent, and reformed, the superimposed -layers made intricate patterns like those in watered silk. Such Damascus -steel patterns can be best observed in sword and dagger blades like -those illustrated in Fig. 35, page 29. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 24. This is the breastplate of a Persian suit - of armor. The buckles are for the straps which attach the side and - back plates._] - -The Persian armorers did not follow the European custom of forging body -armor exactly to fit the wearer, but instead made the principal defense -of four rectangular plates known as _char aina_ or “the four mirrors”. -Two were worn as breast- and backplate respectively, the other two, made -concave on the upper edge, were worn at the sides, the concavity fitting -under the arm. Chain mail was always used in the East, even more -extensively than in Europe, to protect all areas of the body not covered -by the char aina or other defenses of solid plate. Fig. 24 shows a plate -of such a four-piece armor. It is made of fine Damascus steel (the -pattern is too fine to show in the photograph), and is decorated with -damascene inlay of floral arabesques in gold. This is work of the late -sixteenth or early seventeenth century, and combines adequate -functionality with oriental elegance. A Persian helmet (Fig. 25) of the -same period shows skillful forging of the fluted ornament. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 25. The chain mail which now looks rather - ragged originally hung evenly around the rim of this Persian - helmet._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 26. Although corroded, this fifteenth century - Turkish helmet demonstrates the wonderful skill of Middle Eastern - armorers._] - -But the helmet in Fig. 26, probably a century or more earlier, shows a -much greater appreciation of sculptural form. With a row of parallel -vertical flutings around its domed upper part, it resembles closely the -Maximilian armor of contemporary Europe. It is doubtful, however, if -many European smiths could have forged the minaret-like pinnacle which -terminates the dome. The helmet is decorated with damascene work of -silver in calligraphic inscriptions and arabesques. Its owner’s neck was -protected by chain mail attached around the lower edge of the helmet. -Probably because of the warmer climate, the Saracenic warriors never -adopted the closed helmet of European lands, but preferred to leave the -face exposed, or protected only by a nasal bar which was often so -arranged that it could be slid upwards and clamped. - - - - - ARMS: STRIKING AND CUTTING WEAPONS - - -Man’s first weapon was probably a club, and the simple club has always -retained a certain popularity. Even in the middle of the sixteenth -century, when arms of all kinds attained great elaboration, the mace, or -short one-handed club, was the accepted weapon of military men in holy -orders who, forbidden to shed blood, found no such prohibition against -the bloodless cracking of skulls. Fig. 27 shows such a mace, of heavy -steel, carved and gilded, a formidable though beautiful weapon. Related -arms are short-handled military axes and hammers. - -But the accepted symbol of man as a fighting creature has always been -the sword, and the sword, perhaps more than any other item of man’s -warlike panoply, has experienced the full range of his artistic and -technical initiative. Space does not here permit a discussion of the -innumerable types of swords; only a brief resumé of the general -development can be given. This is supplemented by a display of some -typical forms along one side wall of the armor gallery. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 27. A mace or one-handed club, made of steel - carved and gilded. A beautiful implement for smashing heads!_] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 28. A Chinese bronze sword from about the time - of Christ. Not very sharp, but it could still do quite a lot of - damage._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 29. Typical swords of the sixteenth-seventeenth - centuries, as displayed in the armor gallery._] - -Stone Age man could not make any true swords, for the flint and obsidian -which he had to use were too brittle to be available in large pieces. -But bronze could be cast into swords both effective and beautiful. A -number of Chinese bronze sword blades from the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 -A.D.) (Fig. 28) are available in the study collection. They are rather -short, double edged blades, adapted primarily for thrusting, but not -without cutting ability too. The Greeks and Romans used swords of rather -similar form, and also another type which tended to broaden near the -point, bringing the weight forward and adding impetus to both the thrust -and the cut. - -Mention has already been made, (p. 4), of the rare but beautiful swords -of the dark ages, made in whole or in part of laminated metal resembling -the Damascus steel of the Middle East, (cf. p. 20). Such swords were -carried by the Vikings who harried the coast of Britain and extended -their voyages even to North America. These swords had long, straight, -symmetrically double-edged blades, a short hilt, and a short crossbar -guard between blade and hilt. They were very powerful in a downward -slash, but too heavy to be manipulated easily as thrusting weapons. - -By the fifteenth century the crossbar and the hilt had become longer, -giving the weapon a better balance, but the general character of the arm -remained the same. With the longer hilt, both hands could be used, -considerably increasing the power of the weapon (Fig. 29 [1], also title -page illustration). This tendency continued in the sixteenth century -until it culminated in the enormous two-handed swords used by the -professional mercenary soldiers, or _landesknechts_ (Fig. 29 [2]). Such -swords were over five feet long, with immense drooping guards and long -leather-wrapped hilts. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 30. How many figures are carved in the solid - steel of this court sword hilt?_] - - [Illustration: Court sword hilt] - -As the sixteenth century advanced, sword blades became narrower, -lighter, and more adapted for thrusting, while guards developed rings -and curved knuckle-guards to protect the out-thrust hand (Fig. 29 [4], -[3]). The new method of fighting had definite advantages over the old -slashing system, which required the sword to be raised high, exposing -the body, before a blow could be struck, and soon the thrusting sword, -or _rapier_, was used everywhere. The system of rings which formed the -guard grew more complicated and finally coalesced into a solid metal -cup, which completely shielded the hand within it (Fig. 29 [6], [8]). -Sometimes a dagger (Fig. 29 [5], [7]) was held in the left hand to parry -the opponent’s sword blade, but eventually this was abandoned and -fencers learned to parry with the rear portion of their own blades, -before making a second thrust (_riposte_) with the point. Action grew -faster and faster, and swords lighter and more manageable, until by the -seventeenth century the customary weapon was the _court sword_, with a -short, single-handed hilt, a small flat guard often magnificently -decorated in chiselled steel, and a relatively short, light blade having -a needle-like point, and often without any sharp cutting edge at all -(Fig. 30). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 31. A rondel dagger with a silver handle._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 32. An outfit for a hunter: dagger, knife, awl, - and larding needle, all fitting into one scabbard._] - -In addition to the sword, the dagger was often used as a supplementary -weapon which could still be carried for self-protection when courtesy or -convenience made the wearing of a sword impracticable. Daggers were made -in a number of special shapes, varying with changes of fashion. In the -fifteenth century two popular forms were the _rondel dagger_ (Fig. 31) -which had guard and pommel in the form of disks, and the _kidney dagger_ -(then known by a less-printable name and worn, with the naive -exhibitionism of pre-Victorian days, directly below the belt buckle) -which had a straight, simple hilt and a short guard of ball-like form. -Italians of the sixteenth century liked the _anelace_, with its drooping -guard and short, wide, sharply tapering blade. Mention has already been -made of the left-hand daggers of the seventeenth century. The -_stiletto_, without a guard other than a short cross-bar, was also -popular at this time. Hunters and landesknechts often carried a complete -outfit of small tools in the scabbard with their dagger; such a -_trousse_ (Fig. 32) was very convenient when preparing freshly-killed -venison for the cook or when eating around a camp fire. - - - - - LANCES AND POLE ARMS - - -The chief arm of the mounted knight was the lance, a weapon having a -long and often quite heavy wooden shaft and a steel point. Near the butt -its diameter was reduced to provide a comfortable hand grip, and just in -front of this grip there was applied a _vamplate_ or conical hand guard -of steel. Behind the grip there was attached a thick iron ring called a -_graper_, which, when the lance was in use, rested against the hook or -lance-rest projecting from the right side of the knight’s breastplate. -The graper thus served as a thrust bearing, and put directly behind the -point of the lance the entire momentum of horse and rider. When such a -projectile made a direct hit upon an opponent something had to give. -Either the opponent was knocked completely off his horse, or his back -was broken, or the lance was shattered. - -Foot soldiers also employed arms with long wooden shafts, of which by -far the commonest was the _pike_, which had a very simple steel point -and butt ferrule respectively on the ends of a slender rod of wood about -fourteen feet long. This was the arm of the great bodies of mercenary -infantry which did so much of the fighting of the seventeenth century. A -company of such men, formed into a square or circle, the front rank -kneeling, the second standing, and both holding their pikes with the -butts against the ground and the points projecting outward, was almost -invulnerable to cavalry, whose horses would not charge against the -forest of pike-points. The one effective maneuver against them was for -some of the cavalry to dismount and attack swinging great two-handed -swords, which could beat down the pike points and allow the cavalry to -ride in. - -Lance and pike were simple utilitarian tools; few have survived. But -there are other pole arms, from the fifteenth century on, which offered -more opportunity to individual taste in form and decoration; a number of -these are present in the Museum’s collection. Some (Fig. 33) were -developments of the simple spear point, as for example (1) the type -called an _ox-tongue_ or (2) a boar spear provided with a toggle to -prevent a wounded animal from charging right up the shaft of the weapon -which transfixed him. In (3), now a well-developed _partisan_, the -toggle has been replaced by a projecting spur at each side of the base. -In (4) these spurs have become large and ornamental, the weapon is -decorated with etching, and has become a ceremonial object rather than a -weapon for actual fighting. (5) is a partisan of the state guard of -Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland (1697-1733), -and is even more noticeably designed for display purposes only. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 33. Spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. - Developing from a simple tool for stabbing to a decorated badge of - office._] - -Other pole arms are developments of the axe. Military axes (Fig. 34 [1], -[2]) had handles somewhat shorter than those of pikes, spears or -partisans but longer than the short-handled axes used on horseback. They -were particularly popular for use in judicial combats or “trial by -battle”. Each contestant in a law suit would swear to the truth of his -claim, and call upon God to prove its truth. The two men, armed with -such axes, would fight until one was killed or driven out of the ring. -The victor was thus proven to have told the truth, while the -unsuccessful contestant, if still alive, was executed for perjury. Such -axes, capable of defending the right, were made with special care, and -were highly valued by their surviving owners. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 34. Axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. The - earlier ones, at the left, were used in judicial duels, the later, - at the right, were held by warders of the doors of princes._] - -Axes with longer shafts were known as _halberds_, and were usually -provided with a sharpened hook at the back of the axe blade to permit a -man on foot to catch and cut the bridle rein of an attacking horseman. -Like the partisans, halberds developed from plain functional military -types, (Fig. 34 [3], [4]) of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries -respectively to highly decorated types carried as badges of authority by -the state guards of Christian II of Saxony (Fig. 34 [5]) and of the -Princes of Liechtenstein (Fig. 34 [6]) respectively. - - - - - MIDDLE EASTERN EDGED WEAPONS - - -The chief characteristic of the blades of the Middle East is the -beautiful watered pattern of the Damascus steel, discussed on page 20. -Unfortunately this pattern is too delicate to show well in reproduction, -but it may readily be observed in the actual objects, exhibited in the -gallery of Middle Eastern Art. Two knives are shown in Fig. 35, -illustrating delicate Damascene work in gold and similar ornament -carried out not by inlay of another metal, but by chiselling in low -relief. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 35. Persian dagger-knives of the seventeenth - century, equally useful as tool and as weapon, and beautiful too!_] - -Fig. 36 shows a Persian sword hilt of solid gold, from the late -thirteenth or fourteenth century. The ends of its guard are formed as -the heads of lions. It is engraved with floral arabesques and a -calligraphic inscription. The engraved lines are filled in with black -pigment (_niello_). - - [Illustration: _Fig. 36. A Persian sword hilt of solid gold, - XIII-XIV century, inscribed: “Salute to Mohammed”._] - - - - - PROJECTILE WEAPONS: BOWS AND CROSSBOWS - - -Ever since a hairy primitive first picked up a stone and threw it, man -has tried to find better and better ways to strike from a safe distance. -The devices which he has produced for this purpose have been many and -varied, yet, strangely enough, remarkable similarities often occur -between inventions of widely separated areas. In ancient Peruvian graves -have been found cord slings for hurling stones almost identical with -those used by herd boys in Palestine today, as in the time of David and -Goliath. Bronze arrowheads from prehistoric Japan are much the same as -those excavated from Roman Britain. The bow has several different -characteristic forms distributed throughout the world, but its -fundamental principle is everywhere the same. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 37 (Left). A light crossbow like this would be - used by a young man or an athletic girl. Flemish, XV century._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 38 (Below). Made a little lighter. A prodd or - bullet-shooting crossbow, probably for a lady._] - -The first projectile-throwing arm appropriate to an art museum is the -crossbow, which is simply a bow mounted on a wooden stock provided with -a catch and trigger, so that the bow could be carried ready to shoot. -This was a great convenience in hunting or war, because otherwise the -time lost in drawing the bow might give the victim opportunity to -escape. Moreover, it was soon found that the application of mechanical -devices permitted the use of a bow much stronger than any man could draw -unaided. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 39. It took a powerful man to wind and shoot - this heavy Swiss hunting crossbow, even with the cranequin to help - wind!_] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 40. If you take off the outer case, these three - parts make up the entire mechanism of the cranequin._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 41. Mechanism of a crossbow lock, complicated - but effective._] - -Fig. 37 shows a light Flemish crossbow of the fifteenth century. Its -wooden stock is inlaid with white and with green stained bone in -openwork patterns. This type of crossbow required mechanical assistance -to pull the string back to the catch which would hold it until the -moment should arrive to shoot; the instrument employed was called a -_goat’s foot_ lever. - -The crossbow of Fig. 38 is Italian work of the sixteenth century. The -bow is light enough to be pulled by the hands alone, without mechanical -assistance. It had a double string, with a little pouch attached between -the two strands, and shot small bullets, instead of arrows. The wooden -stock is beautifully carved and the metal parts are damascened with -arabesques in gold. This type of light crossbow was especially popular -with aristocratic ladies who are frequently represented shooting it in -hunting tapestries of the period. - -In Fig. 39 is shown a very powerful hunting crossbow of the seventeenth -century. The bow is of steel, two inches wide and a third of an inch -thick. The bowstring resembles a piece of heavy rope. To pull this -string, bending a steel spring as massive as this, requires a tremendous -power and an immense strength in the mechanism which will hold the -fully-drawn bow until the moment for its release. - -The pulling power is supplied by a device, also shown in the -illustration (Fig. 39) called a _cranequin_ or _cric_. It is in -mechanical respects essentially identical with a modern geared -automobile jack, although, of course, it pulls instead of lifts (Fig. -40). A force of fifty pounds applied to the handle generates on the claw -which grasps the bowstring a pull of more than two tons! Fig. 41 shows -the mechanism for holding and releasing the string. (These parts are, of -course, normally invisible, being hidden inside the wooden stock). - -Returning to the artistic aspects of the crossbow of Fig. 39, we observe -that the whole of the wooden stock is inlaid with plates of white stag -horn engraved with scenes illustrating the legend of William -Tell—certainly an appropriate decoration! The bow is quite plain except -for the addition of decorative pompoms of colored wool, but the -cranequin gear housing is elaborately etched with representations of -Biblical and mythological personages, strapwork, and interlace, much of -this unfortunately now worn away. - - - - - PROJECTILE WEAPONS: FIREARMS - - -The study of antique firearms is a fascinating one. Contrary to usual -belief, firearms are not a late invention. They were in use before -complete suits of plate armor were made, and continued in use throughout -the entire period that plate armor was worn. Many thousands of different -specimens have been classified, but all firearms before the nineteenth -century belong to one of four types. These include (1) the cannon or -hand cannon in which the charge of gunpowder was set off by direct -application of a burning slow match or hot iron held by the shooter; (2) -the matchlock in which burning slow match or tinder was held in a clamp -attached to the gun and was brought into contact with the gunpowder by a -mechanism attached to the gun and operated by the shooter; (3) the -wheellock in which fire was not carried about, but was produced by a -mechanism like that of a modern cigarette lighter: a rough wheel was -spun around in contact with a stone (not flint, but a nodular form of -iron pyrite) so that sparks were produced to set off the gunpowder; (4) -the flintlock and its variations, in which a piece usually of flint -stone held in a clamp attached to a strong spring was moved by the -spring to strike a piece of steel, and thereby generate the spark which -would set fire to the gunpowder. The Museum’s collection includes -interesting and unusual specimens of all but the first of these types. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 42. This is how a musketeer looked when he was - just getting ready to aim his gun. He has more gadgets than even a - modern infantryman._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 43. The Three Musketeers carried muskets like - this one in form, but without the elaborate inlaid decoration._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 44. Was the decoration of the gun copied from - the engraving, or the engraving from the gun?_] - -The earliest, simplest form of hand firearm, the hand cannon of the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is also the least interesting -esthetically. Consisting of a simple tube of iron, it was usually -crudely formed, and quite undecorated. Such hand cannon have much -archaeological interest, but contribute nothing to the history of art. -The first step forward in the mechanization of firearms was the -matchlock, and matchlock guns also were usually crude and strictly -utilitarian, military pieces (Fig. 42). However, a few specimens of fine -quality were made for important personages, and the Museum is fortunate -in possessing precisely such a specimen (Fig. 43), the gift of the John -M. Olin Trust. The exact date and place of its manufacture are -uncertain; it could be English but seems a bit more likely to be Dutch, -toward the middle of the seventeenth century. - -The lock is the standard seventeenth century matchlock, with the earlier -form of trigger resembling that of a crossbow. The serpentine which -holds the burning slow match moves upon pressure of the trigger in the -rearward direction, from the muzzle towards the butt, bringing the -burning slow match (a piece of rope impregnated with saltpeter) into -contact with the powder pan, the swiveling cover of which must first -have been opened by hand. After the slow match has ignited the priming -powder and fired the piece, a release of pressure on the trigger allows -a return spring to force the serpentine back to its original position. -Notice the shape of the serpentine, suggesting not so much a snake as a -double-headed dragon. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 45. Hercules carries away Iole, daughter of - Eurytus._ (_She shows no strenuous objection._)] - - Evryti regis filiam Iolam, occiso patre, aedvxit Hercvles - 15 HsB 44 - -The barrel is one-third octagon with finely forged cross mouldings at -the change of shape as well as at breach and muzzle. The rear sight is a -steel tube, beautifully formed in partly octagonal, partly fluted and -molded sections. A flash guard extends from the pan to this rear sight -to protect the shooter’s eyes against particles of burning powder from -the pan. - -It is the stock, however, which is the most remarkable feature of the -gun. This is of dark brown wood, completely covered with an elaborate -inlay of brass wire and engraved mother-of-pearl in a design of floral -scrolls issuing from vases and supporting birds and insects. A few -escutcheons are inlaid in engraved bone or white stag horn. The -elaborateness of this inlay, combined with its delicacy and taste, make -this one of the outstanding matchlock guns of the world. - -The wheellock, which for the first time freed gunners from the necessity -of carrying around with them a continuously burning coil of slow match, -was invented in the early years of the sixteenth century and retained -its popularity, in Germany at least, until the very end of the -eighteenth. It thus has had a longer period of use than any other -firearm with a discharge mechanism. The Museum’s earliest wheellock, -from about 1550 (Fig. 44), has its entire octagonal barrel and lock -magnificently decorated with damascene of floral arabesques in gold and -silver. The stock is inlaid with engraved stag horn showing hunting -scenes, Hercules’ capture of Iole (whose hand he had won by conquering -her father, Eurytus, in a shooting match), and the figures of Alexander -the Great and “Der Nero”. This gun well illustrates the close -relationship which, in this day, existed between the various arts, for -these inlaid designs are copied almost exactly from a series of -engravings by Hans Sebald Beham (1500-_ca._ 1550), examples of which are -in the City Art Museum’s print collection (Fig. 45). - -Another, rifled, specimen, from about 1635, formerly in the -Liechtenstein collection (Fig. 46 [2]) has a plain barrel, but the lock -is finely engraved with a hunting scene, while the stock (Fig. 47 [2]) -is most elaborately inlaid with fine filigrees and engraved plates of -stag horn representing mythological characters, animals, and monsters -against an architectural and arabesque background. The stock bears the -mark of Martin Süssebecker, who was born at Liegnitz in 1593, and died -in 1668 at Dresden where he was gunmaker to the court of the Electors of -Saxony. - -A light hunting rifle (Fig. 46 [3]) with a very short stock of the type -known as _tschinke_ from the fact that such guns were made at the town -of Teschen in German Silesia, dates probably from the latter part of the -seventeenth century. It has a peculiar type of wheellock of which the -mainspring and most of the other mechanism are exposed on the outside of -the lock plate. The barrel is engraved. The lock is ornamented with -openwork carving, and the stock (Fig. 47 [3]) is inlaid with -mother-of-pearl and engraved stag horn in various designs and animal -motives against a background of floral arabesques and scroll work. - -A fine Italian wheellock pistol (Fig. 48) was formerly in the collection -of H. G. Keasbey. The barrel, ornamented with raised ridges giving it an -octagonal appearance, is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”, an abbreviation of -the name of Lazarino Cominazzo, an early gunsmith of Brescia, in -northern Italy, whose work became so famous that the name was adopted by -his successors practically as a trademark. The simple but finely carved -lock and the lace-like openwork steel inlays of the stock are -characteristic of the best Brescian workmanship. The piece dates from -about 1630. - -But the finest wheellocks in the collection are a “suite” consisting of -a gun and pair of pistols (Fig. 46 [4], [4A], [4B]). These three pieces -differ slightly from one another in their decoration, but they all bear -the same signature, “Claude Thomas à Espinal 1623”, and are otherwise so -similar that there is no doubt that they were intended to go together. -All have wheellocks elaborately ornamented with carving and engraving. -The pear wood stocks are magnificently carved in the round, in openwork, -and in relief, with plants, animals, and formal ornaments. They all bear -a coat of arms which has not yet been identified. On the pistols this is -on the side of the stock opposite the lock plate, but on the gun the -coat of arms is relegated to the left rear part of the stock, while the -region opposite the lock plate is ornamented with a medallion containing -the initials “C. T.”. This, together with the extraordinary elaboration -of all three pieces, suggests that this set of guns and pistols was not, -as was usually the case, made to the order of a wealthy client, but was -rather a “masterpiece” produced by a young gunmaker exhibiting all the -skill of which he was capable to prove his worthiness to attain the -title of “master gunsmith” in the gunmakers’ guild and the right to set -up a shop of his own. The coat of arms is presumably that of the noble -patron who had supported him in the past and to whom the pieces would -eventually come, but as they were made for glory and not for pay, the -gunsmith felt quite entitled to place his own initials in a prominent -position. It should be noted that though the pistols are both -smooth-bored the gun is carefully rifled. It is interesting to speculate -about the fate of Claude Thomas. It seems improbable that so skilled a -craftsman should not have been successful in his career. Yet, this set -of three pieces is the only work of this master known up to the present -time. Perhaps he tried experimenting in mechanisms as he had already in -decoration, with the result that a magnificent technician was destroyed -in the explosion of his invention. Perhaps he succumbed to the plague or -to the fortunes of war. All we know is that he could and did make some -of the most magnificent guns in the world, and here they are! - - [Illustration: _Fig. 46. A group of masterpieces of the gunsmith’s - art, XVI-XVIII centuries._] - -A large and heavy gun (Fig. 46 [1]) with a peculiar type of early -flintlock having an exposed mainspring and known as a _miguelet_ was -probably made in Brescia for a purchaser from the Balearic Islands. The -barrel is plain; the lock (Fig. 47 [1]) and steel mountings of the -walnut stock, however, are elaborately carved in openwork and in strong -relief. Some of the details of this carving, especially that on the -trigger guard, evidence the exquisite skill characteristic of the -Brescian gunsmiths (compare the wheellock pistol mentioned above). The -general style of most of the carving, however, shows a ruggedness of -design and a love of the grotesque characteristic of Balearic Island -taste. The barrel is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”. - -Another early flintlock variation was the _snaphaunce_, a form in which -the piece of steel struck by the flint was not attached to the cover of -the pan holding the priming powder, but was entirely separate from it -and could be turned back out of the way as a safety precaution, when -immediate use of the arm was not expected. The Museum has a fine -snaphaunce pistol in the Brescian style. - -Two other pairs of pistols with normal flintlocks are excellent examples -of Brescian work. One (Fig. 46 [6]) from about 1640-1660 has barrels -with longitudinal ridging about one-third of their length and with the -full inscription “Lazarino Cominazzo”. The locks are lightly engraved to -give an impression of very shallow relief carving, and bear the -signature of “Giovanni Bourgognone in Brescia”. The walnut stocks are -ornamented with openwork steel similar to those on the wheellock pistol -above described. The other pair (Fig. 46 [5]), possibly somewhat -earlier, have barrels octagonal for about one-sixth of their length. -These bear the inscription “Lazaro Lazarino” (presumably a son of the -great Lazarino Cominazzo or of one of his namesakes). The stocks are of -walnut. The locks and the large and numerous mounts on the stock are -elaborately chiseled steel in strong relief with designs of animals, -monsters, and semi-human figures against a background of floral -arabesques. - -Not all flintlocks were on firearms. The same mechanism was used on -tinder boxes, alarm clocks, and gunpowder testers. The powder tester -(Fig. 49) was like a pistol with a friction cover closing the mouth of -the barrel. It was loaded (of course without a bullet) and fired. The -force of the explosion blew the cover away from the barrel against the -friction of a heavy spring; the distance which it moved gave an index of -the strength of the gunpowder. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 47. Details of fine gunsmithing._] - - [Illustration: _Fig. 48. This was what a gentleman carried in a - holster at his saddle-bow in mid-seventeenth century Italy._] - -Fig. 50 illustrates a very complete outfit of pistols and accessories -made at Lisbon, Portugal, by Jacinto Xavier in 1799. There are a pair of -double barreled holster pistols for rides abroad, and a pair of small -but deadly pocket pistols for self defense or card table arguments. With -these are the accessories and tools appropriate to them: powder flask, -powder measure, bullet molds, oil can, hammer, screw driver, awl, (for -cleaning the touch holes), and box for spare flints and bullets. All are -enclosed in a handsome mahogany case. - -The outfit is definitely that of a dandy, for every piece is beautifully -made and exquisitely decorated. The steel parts of the pistols are -brilliantly polished or deeply blued. The stocks are delicately inlaid -with rococo scrolls of silver wire. The oil can is a dainty hexagonal -urn. Even the hammer and screw driver deserve in their own right places -in a museum display. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 49. Not a weapon, but a device to test the - strength of gunpowder. Yet just as beautiful as though it were - deadly._] - -Students of the history of arms will delight in the holster pistols, for -these have each two barrels side by side, while a single flintlock fires -each in turn. The powder pan which catches the sparks from the flint is -divided into two parts: that on the right transmits the ignition -directly to the right hand barrel; that on the left is covered by a -slide operated by a thumb piece on the left side of the pistol. When -this slide is pulled back, a second priming charge is exposed, so that -the lock may be snapped again to fire the left hand barrel. Both barrels -may be unscrewed by means of a wrench attached to the bullet mold; they -are loaded from the breach with a slightly oversized bullet which will -not move through the barrel until the pistols are fired. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 50. A gadgeteer’s dream. The big pistols are - double barreled, and each of the little ones has three bayonets and - a corkscrew!_] - -The little pocket pistols are a gadgeteer’s dream. They have invisible -triggers, which are only exposed when the lock is cocked. Each has on -the right side a tiny triangular bayonet which springs into position at -a touch on a catch. On the left side is a strong, light, knife blade -similarly operated. Above each barrel is a second smaller knife blade -(just right for trimming a quill pen), which may be pushed forward from -a housing which conceals and protects it. And in the butt of each pistol -is hidden a small but, effective corkscrew. What more could Beau Brummel -himself desire? - -The final item for which we have space is a flintlock pistol (Fig. 51) -of the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. It bears the -signature “Derby à Paris”. Nothing seems to be known of this gunmaker; -whether he was a Frenchman with an English name or an English gunsmith -working in France must be left for future research to determine. In any -case, he was a master of his craft. The pistol is in beautiful -condition, though the blue color of the metal is a later restoration, no -doubt based on the original finish of the weapon. The barrel and lock -are finely engraved and partially gilt; the walnut stock is fitted with -a gilded butt cap and inlaid with silver wire in delicate arabesque -scrolls. Attached to the top of the barrel is a short bayonet of bright -steel; this is mounted with a spring device in such a way that the -bayonet can be folded back when not needed, but at a touch of the thumb -upon the spring catch, will fly forward and lock in position for use. - - [Illustration: _Fig. 51. A repeating flintlock pistol. A thousand of - these in one place could have changed the history of the world!_] - -The most remarkable feature of this pistol, however, is its ingenious -repeating mechanism. The type, though rare, is well known. It seems to -have been invented about one hundred years previous, toward the close of -the seventeenth century, by a Florentine gunsmith named Lorenzoni. -During the following hundred years it was extensively copied. Arms with -this type of mechanism are known bearing the signatures of Austrian, -German, French, English, and Spanish gunsmiths. Variations and -improvements show themselves from time to time, but a complete study of -the Lorenzoni type of flintlock repeater has yet to be written. Its -general principle, however, is as follows: a cylinder of brass, lying -transversely across the body of the pistol, can be rotated a half turn -by a lever. As this is done, the cylinder picks up a bullet, gunpowder, -and priming powder, and conveys them to the proper positions for firing. -Lugs on the cylinder also close the pan cover and cock the hammer. The -magazines hold supplies for eight shots, which can thus be fired with -practically the speed of the single action frontier revolver which was, -for many years, the most famous of American arms. Think what changes in -history a liberal supply of breech-loading repeating firearms of this -type might have made had it been available throughout the eighteenth -century! But unfortunately very few gunsmiths were skillful enough to do -the precise work required on an arm of this type, and all who ever lived -would not have been able to make enough of them to outfit a regiment. -Such arms were rare and costly, and only princes could afford them, but -we are fortunate that this specimen has come down to us to show what -Master Derby of Paris could do generations before the day of Colt, -Winchester, and the all-destructive Atom. - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -The books listed below will be found helpful by any readers who wish to -pursue further the study of Armor and Arms. - -1. Laking, Sir Guy Francis: “A Record of European Armour and Arms,” - 4^to, 5 Vols., London, 1920-22. - -2. Cripps-Day, Francis Henry: “A Record of Armour Sales,” 4^to, uniform - with above, London, 1925. - -3. Dean, Bashford: “Handbook of Arms and Armor,” 8^vo, New York, 1915 - (The Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1915, 1921 and later editions. - -4. Dean, Bashford: “Notes on Arms and Armor”, 8^vo, New York, (The - Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1916. - -5. Dean, Bashford: “The Collection of Arms and Armor of Rutherfurd - Stuyvesant,” 4^to, [New York] 1914. - -6. [Dean, Bashford] “A Miscellany on Arms and Armor presented to - Bashford Dean,” 4^to, New York, 1927. - -7. v. Kienbusch, Carl Otto and Grancsay, S. V.: “The Bashford Dean - Collection of Arms and Armor in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,” - 4^to, Portland, Maine, 1933. - -8. Calvert, Albert, F.: “Spanish Arms and Armour,” 8^vo, London, 1907. - -9. Stone, George C.: “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use - of Arms and Armor,” 4^to, Portland, Maine, 1934. - -10. Stöcklein, Hans: “Meister des Eisenschnittes,” 4^to, Esslingen a. - N., 1922. - -11. Egerton, The Hon. Wilbraham: “An Illustrated Handbook of Indian - Arms,” 4^to, London, 1880. - -12. Payne-Gallwey, Sir Ralph: “The Cross-Bow, Medieval and Modern, - Military and Sporting,” 4^to, London, 1903. - -13. McKee, Thomas Heron: “The Gun Book,” 8^vo, New York, 1918. - -14. Pollard, H. B. C.: “A History of Firearms,” 4^to, London, 1926. - -15. Jackson, Herbert J.: “European Hand Firearms,” 4^to, London, 1923. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - -***** This file should be named 62818-0.txt or 62818-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/8/1/62818/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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} -.fndef, p.fn { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; } -.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; } -.fnblock div.fncont { margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:0em; margin-top:1em; text-align:justify; } -.fnblock dl { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; } -.fnblock dt { text-align:justify; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Armor and Arms - An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the - City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. - -Author: Thomas Temple Hoopes - -Release Date: August 2, 2020 [EBook #62818] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Armor and Arms: the collection in the City Art Museum of St. Louis" width="500" height="758" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="imgx1"> -<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="576" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>The Helmet of a Commander -<br />Bronze, silver, and ivory. Greek, mid-VI century B.C. -<br />From a Greek colony at Metaponto, Italy</i></p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1>ARMOR AND ARMS</h1> -<p class="center">An elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the -<br />City Art Museum of St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.</p> -<p class="center">by -<br /><span class="sc">Thomas T. Hoopes</span> -<br />Curator of the Museum</p> -<div class="img" id="imgx2"> -<img src="images/p02a.jpg" alt="" width="228" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI century</p> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">St. Louis, Missouri</span> -<br />1954</p> -</div> -<p class="tbcenter">Copyright 1954 by the City Art Museum of St. Louis, Mo.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_v">v</div> -<h2><span class="small">PREFACE</span></h2> -<p>This publication is a guide to the armor and arms in the City Art -Museum of St. Louis and, incidentally, a very elementary introduction -to the history of arms and armor in general. The major part of the Museum’s -collection, comprising the European armor and arms of the fifteenth, -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is displayed in a single armor gallery. -Other specimens are shown with the exhibition of their own special cultures.</p> -<p>The City Art Museum is, as its name implies, restricted to objects of -art, to objects which, independently of their usefulness, are more or less -beautiful by the intention of their makers. There are numerous items in -the vast range of armor and arms which do not fill this requirement, and -are purely utilitarian. The Museum possesses specimens of some of these. -As they are not considered objects of art they are not on exhibition, but -have been assembled in a special study collection where they can be seen -on application to the Curator.</p> -<p>When individual specimens are illustrated, they are given, in the list -of illustrations, their identifying Museum serial numbers. If a reader fails -to find on exhibition any such specimen in which he is interested, he has -only to ask for it by this serial number at the information desk. If its place -of exhibition has been changed he will be told where to find it; if for any -reason it has been temporarily removed from exhibition, arrangements -will be made, if possible, for him to see it.</p> -<p>The subject of armor and arms is neither short nor simple, and it is -quite impossible, in a publication the size of this one, to do more than give -the barest kind of outline. Many points of interest are not discussed in -detail, some technical terms are unexplained, many fascinating items are -not mentioned at all. If the subject interests you, you will find helpful -information in the books listed on page 43, most of which will be available -at any public library. If specific questions concerning armor and arms are -addressed to the Curator, City Art Museum, Forest Park, St. Louis 5, -Missouri, accompanied by a self-addressed, stamped envelope, they will be -answered as far as practicable, but research problems cannot be undertaken.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_vii">vii</div> -<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="sc">List of illustrations</span></a> viii</dt> -<dt><a href="#c2"><span class="sc">The earliest arms and armor</span></a> 1</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3"><span class="sc">Chain mail</span></a> 5</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4"><span class="sc">“Gothic” armor</span></a> 8</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5"><span class="sc">“Maximilian” armor</span></a> 9</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6"><span class="sc">Armor of the late xvi century: decorated armor</span></a> 10</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7"><span class="sc">Late armor</span></a> 16</dt> -<dt><a href="#c8"><span class="sc">Questions concerning armor</span></a> 18</dt> -<dt><a href="#c9"><span class="sc">Middle Eastern armor</span></a> 20</dt> -<dt><a href="#c10"><span class="sc">Arms: striking and cutting weapons</span></a> 22</dt> -<dt><a href="#c11"><span class="sc">Lances and pole arms</span></a> 26</dt> -<dt><a href="#c12"><span class="sc">Middle Eastern edged weapons</span></a> 28</dt> -<dt><a href="#c13"><span class="sc">Projectile weapons: bows and crossbows</span></a> 30</dt> -<dt><a href="#c14"><span class="sc">Projectile weapons: firearms</span></a> 32</dt> -<dt><a href="#c15"><span class="sc">Bibliography</span></a> 43</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_viii">viii</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</span></h2> -<table class="center"> -<tr class="th"><th class="l" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figure</span> </th><th><span class="sc">Acc. No.</span> </th><th><span class="sc">Page</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><i>Frontispiece</i> Helmet, bronze with silver crest, Greek, mid-VI century <span class="smaller">B.C.</span> </td><td class="r">282:49</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><i>Title Page</i> State sword, German, Augsburg, XVI century </td><td class="r">173:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig1">1</a> </td><td class="l">Ceremonial axe blade (<i>Ch’i</i>), bronze, Chinese, An-yang, Shang dynasty (<i>ca.</i> 1523-<i>ca.</i> 1028 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span>), gift of J. Lionberger Davis </td><td class="r">36:51 </td><td class="r">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig2">2</a> </td><td class="l">Helmet, bronze, Chinese, Shang dynasty (<i>ca.</i> 1523-<i>ca.</i> 1028 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span>) </td><td class="r">283:49 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig3">3</a> </td><td class="l">Ceremonial dagger of a shaman, bronze, Siberian steppes, <i>ca.</i> 1000 <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> </td><td class="r">34:43 </td><td class="r">2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig4">4</a> </td><td class="l">Lock of a crossbow, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty (206 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span>-220 <span class="smaller">A.D.</span>), with model to show operation of interlocking interior parts </td><td class="r">1106:20 </td><td class="r">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig5">5</a> </td><td class="l">Disk, probably the central plate of a shield, bronze, Italian, from Picenum, near Ancona, VII-VI century <span class="smaller">B.C.</span> </td><td class="r">51:22 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig6">6</a> </td><td class="l">Figure of a warrior, bronze, Etruscan, <i>ca.</i> 500 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span> Gift of J. Lionberger Davis </td><td class="r">40:51 </td><td class="r">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig7">7</a> </td><td class="l">Ink rubbing of engraved brass plate on tomb of Sir Roger de Trumpington, a Crusader, in the church at Trumpington, Cambridgeshire, England </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig8">8</a> </td><td class="l">“Bishop’s mantle” of chain mail, German or Swiss, XVI century </td><td class="r">87:39 </td><td class="r">7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig9">9</a> </td><td class="l">Salade, Gothic, German, <i>ca.</i> 1475 </td><td class="r">58:39 </td><td class="r">8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig10">10</a> </td><td class="l">Full suit of Maximilian armor, German, <i>ca.</i> 1510 </td><td class="r">171:26 </td><td class="r">10</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig11">11</a> </td><td class="l">Breastplate, Italian, Pisan style, <i>ca.</i> 1575 </td><td class="r">170:26 </td><td class="r">11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig12">12</a> </td><td class="l">Morion, Italian, <i>ca.</i> 1560 </td><td class="r">319:25 </td><td class="r">11</td></tr> -<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4"> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig13">13</a> </td><td class="l">Closed helmet, German, <i>ca.</i> 1575 </td><td class="r">79:39 </td><td class="r">12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig14">14</a> </td><td class="l">Tilting helmet, Spanish, <i>ca.</i> 1580 </td><td class="r">444:19 </td><td class="r">13</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig15">15</a> </td><td class="l">Parade shield, Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">47:27 </td><td class="r">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig16">16</a> </td><td class="l">Helmet, German, made for Hungarian or Polish market, XVI century </td><td class="r">71:42 </td><td class="r">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig17">17</a> </td><td class="l">Mitten gauntlet for left hand, English, Greenwich school, second half of XVI century </td><td class="r">80:39 </td><td class="r">14</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig18">18</a> </td><td class="l">Parade shield, wood, painted, Hungarian, XV century </td><td class="r">88:42 </td><td class="r">15</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig19">19</a> </td><td class="l">Stirrups, pair, bronze gilt, French, early XVII century </td><td class="r">54:26<br />55:26 </td><td class="r">16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig20">20</a> </td><td class="l">Three-quarter suit of armor, South German, <i>ca.</i> 1620 </td><td class="r">172:26 </td><td class="r">17</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2" class="l">Drawings to illustrate methods of attaining flexibility in plate armor:</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig21">21</a> </td><td class="l">By use of leather straps </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig22">22</a> </td><td class="l">By use of ordinary rivets at pivot points </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig23">23</a> </td><td class="l">By use of rivets and slotted holes, (so-called <i>Almain</i> or <i>sliding rivets</i>) to allow motion in two directions </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig24">24</a> </td><td class="l">Breastplate of char aina, Persian, Ispahan, XVI-XVII century </td><td class="r">34:15 </td><td class="r">20</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig25">25</a> </td><td class="l">Helmet, Persian, late XVI century </td><td class="r">16:22 </td><td class="r">21</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig26">26</a> </td><td class="l">Helmet, Turkish, XV century </td><td class="r">36:42 </td><td class="r">21</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig27">27</a> </td><td class="l">Mace, Italian, second quarter XVI century </td><td class="r">231:23 </td><td class="r">22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig28">28</a> </td><td class="l">Sword, bronze, Chinese, Han dynasty (206 <span class="smaller">B.C.</span>-220 <span class="smaller">A.D.</span>) </td><td class="r">1108:20 </td><td class="r">22</td></tr> -<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4"> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig29">29</a> </td><td class="l">Group of swords, as displayed </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">23</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. State sword, German, XVI century </td><td class="r">173:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Two-handed landesknecht sword, Swiss, dated 1617 </td><td class="r">60:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">3. Swept-hilted rapier, Italian, late XVI century </td><td class="r">430:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">4. Dress sword, German, Saxon, <i>ca.</i> 1620 </td><td class="r">62:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">5. Left-hand dagger, companion to No. 4 </td><td class="r">63:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">6. Cup-hilted rapier, Italian, XVII century </td><td class="r">49:25</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">7. Left-hand dagger, Italo-Spanish, XVII century </td><td class="r">81:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">8. Cup-hilted rapier, Spanish, XVII century </td><td class="r">233:23</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig30">30</a> </td><td class="l">Hilt and guard of court sword, Italian or Spanish, XVII century </td><td class="r">174:26 </td><td class="r">24</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig31">31</a> </td><td class="l">Rondel dagger, Italian, XV century </td><td class="r">82:39 </td><td class="r">25</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig32">32</a> </td><td class="l">Trousse, German, XVI century </td><td class="r">65:39 </td><td class="r">25</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig33">33</a> </td><td class="l">Group of spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">27</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. Ox-tongue pike, Austrian, Salzburg, <i>ca.</i> 1500 </td><td class="r">433:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Hunting spear, Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">42:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">3. Partisan, Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">450:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">4. Partisan of State Guard of William V of Bavaria, <i>ca.</i> 1615 </td><td class="r">169:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">5. Partisan of State Guard of Augustus the Strong of Saxony, King of Poland, <i>ca.</i> 1597 </td><td class="r">166:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig34">34</a> </td><td class="l">Group of axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">28</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. Military axe, Spanish, XVI century </td><td class="r">43:19</td></tr> -<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4"> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Military axe, Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">44:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">3. Halberd, Swiss, XV century </td><td class="r">67:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">4. Halberd, North Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">451:19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">5. Halberd of State Guard of Christian II of Saxony, <i>ca.</i> 1590 </td><td class="r">167:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">6. Halberd of State Guard of the Princes of Liechtenstein, XVII century </td><td class="r">168:26</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig35">35</a> </td><td class="l">Two dagger-knives </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">29</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. Persian, Ispahan, XVII century </td><td class="r">13:22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Persian, Shiraz, XVII century </td><td class="r">14:22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig36">36</a> </td><td class="l">Sword hilt, gold, Persian, XIII-XIV century </td><td class="r">45:24 </td><td class="r">29</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig37">37</a> </td><td class="l">Crossbow, Flemish, XV century </td><td class="r">41:19 </td><td class="r">30</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig38">38</a> </td><td class="l">Prodd, Italian, XVI century </td><td class="r">69:39 </td><td class="r">30</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig39">39</a> </td><td class="l">Crossbow and cranequin, Swiss, XVII century </td><td class="r">68:39 </td><td class="r">31</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig40">40</a> </td><td class="l">Drawing, mechanism of cranequin </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">31</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig41">41</a> </td><td class="l">Drawing, mechanism of crossbow lock </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">31</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig42">42</a> </td><td class="l">Engraving after de Gheyn, 1606: musketeer about to give fire </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">31</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig43">43</a> </td><td class="l">Matchlock musket, Dutch, XVII century, and detail of its decoration. Gift of the John M. Olin Trust </td><td class="r">302:51 </td><td class="r">33</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig44">44</a> </td><td class="l">Wheellock gun, German, <i>ca.</i> 1550 and detail of engraved inlays after Beham </td><td class="r">74:39 </td><td class="r">34</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig45">45</a> </td><td class="l">Engraving by Hans Sebald Beham, (1500- <i>ca.</i> 1550) The Rape of Iole </td><td class="r">58:14 </td><td class="r">35</td></tr> -<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="4"> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig46">46</a> </td><td class="l">Group of hand firearms of the XVII century </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">37</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the Balearic trade, by Lazari Cominaz, XVII century </td><td class="r">76:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin Süssebecker (1593-1668), gunmaker to the Saxon court, <i>ca.</i> 1635 </td><td class="r">75:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century </td><td class="r">73:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">4. Wheellock rifle, French, Épinal (Vosges), by Claude Thomas, 1623 </td><td class="r">70:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">4<span class="smaller">A,B</span>. Pair of wheellock pistols. Companions to No. 4 </td><td class="r">71:39<br />72:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">5. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescia, by Lazaro Lazarino, XVII century </td><td class="r">77:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">6. Flintlock pistol, Italian, Brescian, by Lazarino Cominazzo; Giovanni Bourgognone, mid-XVII century </td><td class="r">85:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig47">47</a> </td><td class="l">Details of decoration of guns: </td><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">1. Miguelet lock gun, Italian, Brescia, for the Balearic trade, signed “Lazari Cominaz”, XVII century </td><td class="r">76:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">2. Wheellock rifle, German, Dresden, by Martin Süssebecker (1593-1668), <i>ca.</i> 1635 </td><td class="r">75:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">3. Wheellock tschinke, German-Silesian, XVII century </td><td class="r">73:39</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig48">48</a> </td><td class="l">Wheellock pistol, Italian, Brescia, <i>ca.</i> 1630 </td><td class="r">84:39 </td><td class="r">40</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig49">49</a> </td><td class="l">Flintlock powder tester, German, <i>ca.</i> 1690 </td><td class="r">24:25 </td><td class="r">40</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig50">50</a> </td><td class="l">Flintlock pistol set (two brace) with accessories, Portuguese, Lisbon, by Jacinto Xavier, 1799 </td><td class="r">185:42 </td><td class="r">41</td></tr> -<tr><td class="r"><a href="#fig51">51</a> </td><td class="l">Flintlock repeating pistol, French, Paris, by Derby, late XVIII century </td><td class="r">43:39 </td><td class="r">42</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">THE EARLIEST ARMOR AND ARMS</span></h2> -<p>Once upon a time there probably were men who had neither armor -nor arms. They did not last long, for wild animals or other men with stones -or sticks in their hands killed them and ate them up. The first men about -whom we know anything definite already had weapons of stone. Arms and, -later, armor have accompanied man throughout his history.</p> -<p>The first obvious weapons were stones, roughly shaped to make them -more effective. Such are not to be found in the City Art Museum, but we -do have examples of the next type to develop, the weapons of the bronze age.</p> -<p>Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, and it was invented a very long -time ago, and in many different places. It was known in ancient Egypt, in -the Far East and in Europe. Two thousand years before Christ the Chinese -were making bronze arms and domestic and ceremonial objects of all sorts, -and were making them so beautiful that such objects are considered proper -exhibits for an art museum. We have a very fine collection of ancient -Chinese bronzes, exhibited in the Museum’s Chinese galleries, and among -them are numerous weapons. The earliest include axes and dagger-axes -(<a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>). These date from the Shang Dynasty, (ca. 1523-ca. 1028 B.C.) This -too is the period of a bronze helmet (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2</a>) in the form of a hood with -smooth sides which come down well over the cheeks, while leaving the -front of the face exposed. Helmets of almost precisely this form, but made -of steel, were worn in Italy in the fifteenth century, more than two thousand -years later! This helmet has a small plume-holder at its very top, and -is peculiar in having, as its only decoration, a pair of eyes embossed in -relief on the forehead.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="447" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 1. A Chinese bronze axe more than 3000 years -old, with a crouching monster in relief.</i></p> -</div> -<p>From the Ordos region of Siberia, where a primitive culture lasted for -<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span> -a very long time, comes a particularly fine ceremonial dagger (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3</a>) of -bronze with inlays of turquoise. From China again, dating throughout the -thousand years before Christ, come numerous bronze weapons now in the -Museum’s Study Collection, including swords, daggers, and, from about -the beginning of the Christian Era, most ingenious mechanisms for the -crossbow (<a href="#fig4">Fig. 4</a>) a weapon which was not known in Europe until many -centuries later.</p> -<p>An Etruscan grave has yielded the large bronze disk of <a href="#fig5">Fig. 5</a>. On stylistic -grounds it is believed that this originated not in Etruria, but on the -other, Eastern, shore of Italy in Picenum, in the second half of the seventh -century before Christ. It was probably the central reinforcement of a large -leather shield.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="547" height="794" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 2. A bronze helmet as old as the axe in <a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>, but in form closely -resembling Italian steel helmets of the fifteenth century.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p04a.jpg" alt="" width="278" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 3. The thin flat-bladed ceremonial bronze dagger of a shaman -or sorcerer from the steppes of Siberia.</i></p> -</div> -<p>But of all the specimens of antique armor and arms in this (and possibly -in any other) museum, none surpasses the helmet shown in our <a href="#imgx1">frontispiece</a>. -This helmet, together with fragments of armor, a shield rim and a -spear point, all now in the Museum, was found in a tomb near Metaponto, -in Southern Italy, where once there was a Greek colony. It is believed to -<span class="pb" id="Page_3">3</span> -date from about the middle of the sixth century B.C. The helmet is of -bronze, the upper part of the bowl formed as the neck and head of a ram. -This is surmounted by a great crest of silver, resting on a support of ivory. -The cheek pieces of the helmet have rams’ heads in profile embossed in -relief. The eyes, the horns of the main ram’s head, the ivory crest holder -and part of the silver crest are restorations, but enough original fragments -of the crest were found with the helmet to indicate exactly how the crest -was shaped. Moreover the existence of such metallic crests is verified by a -bronze statuette of similar origin (<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6</a>).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p04b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 4. A crossbow lock two thousand years old, with a -model to show how the parts interlock. An ingenious bit of early mechanical engineering.</i></p> -</div> -<p>At first glance, the helmet proclaims itself a great work of sculpture, -and proves that arms and armor can properly belong in a museum of art. -How very well this piece deserves its place here is still more apparent on -close examination. It seems incredible that so long ago a craftsman could, -without any of our modern tools, have formed from a single plate of bronze -such a deep and difficult forging as this helmet bowl. It is equally amazing -that, in a period still considered as archaic, his artistic imagination could -have produced so naturalistic yet so noble a rendition of an animal form. -The technical skill and taste of the engraving and embossing are also noteworthy: -the suggestion of locks of hair around the forehead, the eyebrows -which terminate as snakes’ heads, the suggestions of skin texture on the -rams’ heads. It is indeed one of the world’s masterpieces of armor.</p> -<p>Although the Greeks made their armor out of bronze, they did have -knowledge of iron, at least as early as the fifth century B.C. But it was -extremely difficult for them to prepare, as they had not yet discovered -efficient methods of smelting it from iron ore, so that what little they had -was very precious. It could not be spared for making armor, but was -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span> -restricted to edged weapons where a relatively small amount of this hard -new metal could be most effective. The Romans too used iron, and as their -technical skill improved they used more and more of it.</p> -<p>After the Roman empire was overwhelmed by the barbarian hordes from -the North the making of fine arms languished. It did not cease; occasionally -discoveries are made of beautifully inlaid sword pommels and shield bosses -belonging to the so-called “dark ages”. Sword blades too turn up occasionally, -skillfully constructed of many layers of alternately hard steel and soft -iron, so that they may retain a keen cutting edge yet still be tough rather -than brittle.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="614" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 5. Embossed bronze disk, -probably the central reinforcement of a leather shield, from Picenum, East-Central -Italy, second half VII century B. C.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="709" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 6. An Etruscan warrior -in battle dress. Note the rivets on the helmet crest.</i></p> -</div> -<p>(Steel, you will remember, is not a separate metal; it is just iron which -contains from about .5% to about 2.5%, of carbon. This gives it the peculiar -property that if it is heated to redness and quickly cooled, it becomes much -harder than before. It also becomes more brittle. If hardened steel be -heated a second time, not red hot but to a much lower temperature, and -again chilled, the hardness is reduced somewhat, while the brittleness is -reduced a great deal; the metal becomes tough and suitable for making -into tools. This second heating and chilling is called “tempering”. Contrary -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span> -to popular belief, “to temper” steel does not mean “to make it harder”. It -means “to make fully hardened steel somewhat softer and much tougher”. -If the iron has too much or too little carbon it cannot be hardened at all; -if there is too little it is very soft and malleable and is called “wrought -iron”. If there is too much carbon it is harder than mild steel, but is very -brittle indeed; this is called “cast iron”.)</p> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">CHAIN MAIL</span></h2> -<p>Except for the rare finds just mentioned, we know little about the armor -and arms of the period from the fall of Rome to about the twelfth century. -The paintings, drawings, and statues which have survived suggest, but -give no clear information. We have reason to believe that armor was made -of small plates of iron attached to cloth or leather garments, or of chain -mail, a fabric made of interlinked rings of iron wire. Towards the end of -this period we know that chain mail was extensively employed, for it often -appears, especially in England, on the engraved brass plates attached to -the tombs of important people of the time (<a href="#fig7">Fig. 7</a>). The Museum has a small -collection of paper impressions of these “brasses” which are well worthy -of study by anyone interested in early armor. Some are exhibited on the -walls of the armor gallery.</p> -<p>Chain mail is more interesting than it appears at first glance, and the -Museum’s specimens deserve to be looked at carefully. In the first place, -it was made of wire. Nowadays wire is so common that we think nothing -of it; it is produced by the mile with automatic machinery. But in medieval -times wire was scarce and valuable, for every bit of it had to be made by -hand. At first this was done with the hammer: a billet of iron was pounded -with a hammer held in one hand, while the other kept the billet rotating so -that its diameter became less and less until it was small enough to be made -up into links of mail. Of course, only short bits of wire could be made in -this way and the diameter was naturally irregular. It was slow and tedious -work, but the earliest mail was so made. Later it was found that a rod of -iron could be pulled by tongs through a hole in a hardened steel plate, -thus reducing its diameter and giving it a uniform thickness. By drawing -it through a number of holes of progressively smaller diameter, the wire -could be made quite thin and entirely uniform. Then such wire could be -wound in a coil around an iron rod, and the coil then cut lengthwise with -a chisel or saw giving a large number of links all of the same size. All later -chain mail was so made. Such links were interlaced, each link with four -others, to form a fabric much like that of a lady’s mesh bag. However, if -the ends of the links were simply brought together the fabric would not -be very strong. An arrow or dagger point could easily spread open a link, -and penetrate to the wearer’s body. So all good chain mail was strengthened -by having the ends of every link overlapped, slightly flattened, and then -riveted. In that part of the world we now call “Middle East”—where the -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -Mohammedan and Hindu cultures flourished—the rivet was a separate -piece of fine wire. European chain mail is more of a mystery—principally -because there is so very little old European chain mail still in existence. -The probability is that a separate rivet was used as in the Eastern mail, but -that its insertion was more skillfully performed. However, some scholars -feel that European chain mail was welded or was riveted by a swaging -process, that a special tool in the form of tongs or a pair of dies forced a -small part of the lower end of the link of chain mail through a slit in the -upper end and then riveted it over. Careful microscopical research on -sections of links of mail could doubtless solve this problems, but who -wants to cut off links from a rare and precious genuine, documented piece? -As yet it may be said that no such ingenious swaging tool has been discovered, -nor have we any unquestionably contemporary illustrations which -would prove this theory.</p> -<p>In places where special strength was required, as around the throat, the -rings were made of the same size but of heavier wire, which was flattened -by hammering in the neighborhood of the rivet. In this way the overlapping -of the rings became so close that not even a needle could penetrate the -fabric (<a href="#fig8">Fig. 8</a>). In other cases, unflattened rings were used, but strands of -leather were drawn through the rows, giving additional rigidity and protection. -It is believed that this practice accounts for the appearance of -what is known as “banded mail” in numerous monuments and engraved -brasses.</p> -<p>Chain mail was a good protection against cuts and stabs, but it had a -number of serious disadvantages. In the first place, it was expensive. Even -the most skillful armorer could make it but slowly. The mail cape of <a href="#fig8">Fig. 8</a> -contains about 44,235 links, each separately forged and riveted; some -complete coats of mail contain over 200,000! Forgeries of antique chain -mail are practically non-existent, for they would cost more to make than -genuine specimens, rare as they are, would be worth today.</p> -<p>Again, chain mail was very easily attacked by rust, and, once it was -rusted, was most difficult to clean. (The usual way was to put a rusted -mail shirt in a barrel with some oily sawdust and to set an apprentice to -rolling the barrel around for hour after hour.) Consequently very little -early mail is left—most of it just rusted away to nothing. It was heavy -and uncomfortable, for the whole weight hung from the shoulders.</p> -<p>But its worst disadvantage lay in its flexibility. It would resist a cut, -but was of little protection against a blow. To make it of any use in battle -against heavy swords, maces, and battle axes it was necessary to wear -beneath it a very heavily padded garment which, of course, was hot. How -the Crusaders in their chain mail must have sweated in the hot sun of the -Holy Land! And how many mail-clad knights must have been pounded to -death without necessarily losing one drop of blood!</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="293" height="999" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 7. An ink rubbing taken from the engraved -brass plate on the tomb of Sir Roger de Trumpington, -an English knight who died in 1289. -Note the complete suit of chain mail, the supplementary -knee defenses and big pot helmet -attached by a chain, the cloth surcoat, and the -shield with his punning badge of a trumpet.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="707" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 8. Cape of chain mail, with extra wide -links at the collar, and ornamental links of -brass around the lower edge.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<p>To protect against blows, therefore, it became necessary to produce a -rigid protection. The primitive state of iron metallurgy did not permit the -making of more than small pieces of iron at a time. Nevertheless, iron head -coverings were already in use by the eleventh century, and from that time -on pieces of plate armor increased in size and number. After the head -defense, the most vulnerable part of a rider’s body (for remember that -only knights could afford mail, and knights fought on horseback) was the -knees. Have you ever had a really hard bump on the kneecap, and, if you -remember one, should you have liked to go on fighting just after receiving -it? The knight represented in the brass of <a href="#fig7">Fig. 7</a>, who died in 1289, wears -knee-guards, and rests his head on his great “pot-helm”, which was normally -attached to his body by a chain, so that it could not easily be lost if he -took it off to get a breath of air. The City Art Museum has no specimens -of plate armor of this early period.</p> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">“GOTHIC” ARMOR</span></h2> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="466" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 9. A helmet called a salade: made like a deep -salad bowl, with a slit to see through.</i></p> -</div> -<p>During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it became the fashion -to wear a long cloth garment, called a <i>surcoat</i>, over armor. Pictures and -statues of this period show armored figures only with such surcoats, and -it is, therefore, impracticable to follow the exact development of the pieces -of plate armor which were added to reinforce the chain mail. By the beginning -of the fifteenth century complete outfits of plate armor were in use, -but the earliest surviving suits of the so-called “Gothic” armor date from -about 1460. They are exceedingly rare. The City Art Museum possesses -only a gauntlet of about 1450 and a helmet (<a href="#fig9">Fig. 9</a>) from about 1475, yet -we feel lucky to have these two pieces, for “Gothic” armor is not only rare: -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -it is very beautiful. It was at this period that armorers did their best work, -from every standpoint. It was best metallurgically, with inner surfaces of -pure soft iron, but with outer surfaces skillfully converted into almost -glass-hard steel. It was best functionally, for its simple clean curved lines -were admirably designed to turn a blow harmlessly aside, with no unnecessary -decorative forms to catch descending edge or point. It was best artistically -(as is usually the case with things that function perfectly), depending -for beauty on its own pure sculptural lines rather than on extraneous -ornament.</p> -<p>The helmet of <a href="#fig9">Fig. 9</a> is of a type called <i>salade</i>. It is a simple steel hat, like -that of a modern soldier, and originally had a padded lining. Unlike the -modern military helmet, however, it covers the head down to the end of the -nose; there is a narrow slit in front of the eyes which permits surprisingly -good vision while leaving the eyes quite well protected. The lines of this -helmet are clean and elegant, typical of the “Gothic” style. This type of -helmet was often worn in combination with an upstanding guard for the -lower part of the face which was attached to the top of the neck-defense. -The lower edge of the helmet overlapped the upper edge of this face-guard; -thus the entire face was protected, yet the wearer had reasonable ventilation -and could obtain more when circumstances permitted by taking off -his helmet.</p> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">“MAXIMILIAN” ARMOR</span></h2> -<p>At the beginning of the sixteenth century the most important single -personality in Europe was probably King (later Emperor) Maximilian I -of Germany and Austria. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, he lived -at a time when versatility was one of the characteristics of an educated -man, and as sovereign he set his subjects a good example in this respect. -He wrote books on genealogy, hunting and woodsmanship, horse breeding, -architecture, and landscape gardening. He was greatly interested in arms -and armor, and frequently visited his court armorer in his workshop. It is -not surprising, therefore, that he had a great influence on the design of -armor, and that the new and sharply different fashion which appeared at -this time became known as the “Maximilian”. It was characterized by -parallel, or almost parallel, fluting, especially on breastplate and thigh guards, -by broad-toed foot guards (<i>sollerets</i>) as compared with the long -pointed toes of the Gothic period, and by strongly roped edges of the -plates. The City Art Museum has an excellent suit of Maximilian armor -(<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>). The breastplate, thigh guards (<i>tassets</i>) and main shell of the -helmet illustrate the characteristic flutings, while the sollerets are fully -developed Maximilian style. The suit was made in Nuremberg in the first -quarter of the sixteenth century, and was formerly in the armory of Prince -Liechtenstein.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="488" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 10. A full suit of Maximilian armor from -the early sixteenth century.</i></p> -</div> -<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">ARMOR OF THE LATE XVI CENTURY: DECORATED ARMOR</span></h2> -<p>By the middle of the sixteenth century the techniques of the armorer -were fully developed. From the smelters he was able to obtain iron in -good-sized lumps, and he had learned so to weld it as to produce plates of -any desired size. He could keep it soft and malleable or could add minute -amounts of carbon and thus convert it into steel, which he could, by heat -treatment, give any desired degree of hardness. He no longer bothered to -harden the surface of his breastplate and helmets to the glassy hardness -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -which was the pride of the Gothic armorers, but he made good, reasonably -homogeneous mild steel which was hard enough for sword or dagger blades, -yet tough enough to avoid brittleness. He could hammer his metal into -even the most fantastic shapes, could color or gild it, or could inlay it with -precious metals. Armorers began to vie with one another to produce magnificent -and elaborate armor; many and strange were the results. Instead -of only one kind of armor, as in the past, there were three: military, tournament -and parade armor.</p> -<p>In the military armor, intended for actual fighting, taste was usually -conservative. Extravagances, such as excessively wide or narrow sollerets, -over-elaborate elbow guards, or extremely large shoulder guards, were -avoided. A moderate amount of decoration was considered quite permissible, -provided it did not lessen the functionality of the armor; such decoration -most frequently was in the form of etching.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="494" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 11. A breastplate decorated -with etched ornament against a -black background.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p08b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="474" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 12. A morion with etched decoration. -Handsome, but rather top-heavy.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Although we are accustomed to think of etching primarily in connection -with pictures on paper, the process seems to have originated with the -armorers. They would take a helmet or breastplate, paint it all over with -a heavy acid-proof varnish, scratch a design through this varnish with a -sharp needle, then place the metal in a bath of acid. The acid would eat -away the steel where the varnish had been scratched, but not elsewhere. -After the plate had been taken from the acid and the varnish removed, the -etched part would show dark against the polished surface of the steel. This -contrast could be heightened by rubbing in a little black pigment, and the -early armorers discovered that they could readily keep a record of their -work or a sample sheet to show other customers, by simply placing a piece -of paper against the etched and blackened surface and rubbing it. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span> -fresh black would stick to the paper, giving a clear impression of the -etched design. Masters of etching like Rembrandt used and modern etchers -still use essentially the same process.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="802" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 13. A closed helmet with etching. Though heavier, it is more comfortable -than <a href="#fig12">Fig. 12</a>, since its weight rests partly on the shoulders.</i></p> -</div> -<p>The Museum has a number of good examples of etched armor. In <a href="#fig11">Fig. 11</a> -we see a breastplate with etched designs of military trophies and mythological -figures. <a href="#fig12">Fig. 12</a> shows a helmet, formerly in the collections of the -Baron de Cosson and Henry G. Keasbey, of the type called <i>morion</i>, with -an exceedingly high comb and similar etched decoration. <a href="#fig13">Fig. 13</a> shows a -typical <i>closed helmet</i> of the mid-sixteenth century. Like the morion, it has -a high, elaborately etched comb. The wearer’s face was protected by two -plates, an upper one called the <i>vizor</i>, which has a narrow horizontal slit for -vision like the salade described on <a href="#Page_9">page 9</a>, and a lower called the <i>ventail</i> -which has holes and vertical slits for ventilation. Both are pivoted at the -ears, so that the vizor could be raised alone or vizor and ventail together, -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span> -yet at the appearance of danger both could be snapped down into position -with a single sweep of the gauntleted hand. The etching on this helmet -shows floral arabesques and leaping stags against a background, not blackened, -but gilt. Such gilding was done by rubbing the freshly etched surface -with a mixture of gold and mercury, then heating the metal to evaporate -the mercury and leave behind the gold firmly attached to the steel.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="761" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 14. A heavy helmet especially designed for the tournament. -The man who wore this was about as safe as armor -could make him.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Tournament armor, used in the toughest, most exciting sport that man -has ever invented, was worn for comparatively short periods of time, and -could, therefore, be considerably heavier than the military armor which -a man might have to wear continuously. Decoration on the armor itself -was reduced to a minimum, although elaborate trappings of cloth and -feathers were often added to it. <a href="#fig14">Fig. 14</a> shows a helmet for use in a form -of tournament conducted according to Italian rules, in which the contestants -were separated by a fence which prevented their horses from -colliding, thus permitting unrestricted speed of attack. The helmet is very -solid and sturdy, with plain polished surfaces to deflect the opposing -lance-point. Notice the circular hollow rim at the neck. This closed over -an outward-turned rim on the throat defense (<i>colletin</i>) so that although -the helmet could be turned to either side following the motion of the -wearer’s head, it could not separate from the body armor at the throat and -leave an opening for hostile spear or -sword point.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="790" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 15. A parade shield, -etched and gilded. Italian, XVI century.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p10a.jpg" alt="" width="469" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 16. A parade helmet, -probably made in Germany for the -Hungarian or Polish market.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p10b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="365" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 17. A gauntlet of solid steel which is almost as flexible as chamois -skin.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<p>Parade armor was the lightest -yet the most elaborate of all. Not intended -for actual combat in either -war or sport, it did not require the -fundamental functionality of the -other types; the armorers were free -to follow their fancy and make the -decoration as elaborate as they -pleased. All methods were used. -Etching and gilding were extensive -and in addition the metal was embossed -or chased in the most fanciful -forms. In addition to the flat mercury -gilding, gold was applied by -the <i>damascene</i> process, either the -“true” damascene in which plates -or wires of gold (or silver) were -actually inlaid into undercut grooves -in the steel much as a dentist would -fill a tooth, or the “false” damascene -in which the precious metal was -applied in the form of foil and -rubbed onto the steel surface which -had previously been roughened by -tool work to produce innumerable -tiny sharp points which could be -burnished down to hold the foil -firmly in place.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p10c.jpg" alt="" width="385" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 18. A painted shield for a pageant -or fancy-dress parade. Hungarian, -XV century.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Specimens of the simpler parade -armor, with etched and gilded ornament -against a background colored -a warm brown, are the shield shown in <a href="#fig15">Fig. 15</a> and the helmet of <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>. -A mitten-gauntlet of the second half of the sixteenth century from the -Clarence Mackay collection and formerly from the Imperial Russian Collection -in the Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg (<a href="#fig17">Fig. 17</a>) is an example -of the work of the British Royal Armory at Greenwich, which made numerous -finely decorated suits of armor for the nobles of the court of Queen -Elizabeth. This gauntlet is a magnificent specimen of engineering skill as -applied to the design of armor; its construction allows complete freedom -to the wrist, knuckle, and finger joints, yet keeps the hand perfectly protected -in any position. The gauntlet is decorated with an etched design of -rising eagles in interlaced medallions against a dotted background; the -latter is partly black, partly gilded.</p> -<p>An entirely different type of parade armor is the shield of <a href="#fig18">Fig. 18</a>. It is -made of wood, covered on the inside with leather, on the outside with -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -canvas painted with a small coat of arms and a large representation of two -unarmored men in mortal combat. This shield also was formerly in the -Clarence H. Mackay collection.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="637" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 19. These stirrups are made of carved bronze, completely gilded.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Another example of parade equipment in a different medium is a pair -of stirrups (<a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a>) made of bronze and elaborately carved and gilded. -They were formerly in the Spitzer collection.</p> -<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">LATE ARMOR</span></h2> -<p>As the sixteenth century drew to a close armor began to deteriorate. -No single influence was responsible. Do not think that firearms were invented -and armor was therefore suddenly made obsolete. As a matter of -fact, firearms were in use before plate armor really received general acceptance, -and firearms were in use all the time that plate armor was being worn -in Europe. But the gradual improvement in the efficiency of firearms undoubtedly -caused armor to be made heavier and heavier, and thereby -contributed greatly to its decline. For just when armor was thus increasing -in weight there developed a new school of cavalry tactics based upon the -use of lightly armed troopers on fast horses who, instead of directly attacking -the enemy, could dash around his flank and cut off his supplies from the -rear. The tendency was, therefore, to make the armor light and very -flexible, directly contrary to the need for solid, bullet-stopping protection. -Even fashion had a deteriorating effect on armor. <a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a> shows a late suit -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -of armor which has a multitude of small plates to give extreme flexibility, -and has extra wide leg protectors to cover the extravagant wide-topped -trousers which were then the vogue. But what a clumsy suit this is compared -to the Maximilian suit of <a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>!</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p11a.jpg" alt="" width="454" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 20. “Three-quarter” suit of armor for -a young German of the early XVII century.</i></p> -</div> -<p>During the seventeenth century armor shrank away piece by piece, -much as a tired soldier might have been tempted to discard it on a long -march. The choking face defenses vanished from the helmet. The sollerets -went, then the shin guards or <i>greaves</i>, then the thigh guards. The arm -guards were discarded, then the gauntlets. Finally the armored man was -left with only breastplate, backplate, and helmet, and even these deteriorated -in the following century into the decorative but inefficient trappings -of the cuirassier. The two world wars, with their steel helmets and flak -suits (the design of which was strongly influenced by ancient models) have -revived the use of armor, but it is a machine-made product and, well-designed -though it be, must be considered a reproduction rather than an -original work of art.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">QUESTIONS CONCERNING ARMOR</span></h2> -<p>Let us turn back to the armor of the fifteenth and early sixteenth -centuries, and consider some of the questions which naturally arise in our -minds as we contemplate these relics of the past. In the first place, was it -practical? How could men possibly wear such a mass of metal upon their -bodies and engage in long military campaigns, interspersed with violent -battles? Isn’t it true that an armored man, once fallen, could not get up -again until he was hoisted with a derrick? No, that isn’t true. The comical -scenes in the moving pictures of frustrated knights floundering about in -search of hoisting engines were put in strictly for laughs. Armor was practical; -it was worn by about all the most important men of more than three -centuries; if they had not worn it they would not have lived long enough -to become important! As a matter of fact armor is not as heavy as one -might think. A good military suit weighs no more than the pack carried -by a modern soldier, sixty pounds or less, and is a great deal more comfortable -to carry. The pack hangs from the shoulders, but a good suit of armor, -carefully made (as all good armor had to be made) to fit the individual body -of the wearer, has its weight distributed over the entire body. The helmet -rests partly on the head and partly on the shoulders. The breast and backplates -rest partly on the shoulders and partly on the hips. The arm and leg -guards are laced to the special undergarment which had always to be -worn with armor, and each limb supports its own protection. The joints -come at exactly the right places to correspond with the natural motions -of the body, and every one of these motions is provided for. A man wearing -a properly fitting suit of armor over the correct undergarment could do -anything that a modern man can do wearing a winter overcoat, and probably, -due to his special training, a number of things that the modern man -could not. He could certainly walk, run, climb a wall, lie down and get up -quickly, and mount his horse without help. To test the truth of these -statements and the implications of the romantic novels of the past, the -writer donned a suit of armor which fitted him only approximately, yet -found himself able to perform all the actions above mentioned and, in addition, -to descend two stories on a rope, hand under hand.</p> -<p>Two particular devices aided in making such flexibility possible. Where -the body needed protection combined with motility it could be covered -with a series of narrow, overlapping steel strips, each of which was riveted -in turn to one or more leather straps, the ends of which were fastened to -the solid main defense. Then as the body was flexed the steel strips or -<i>lames</i> would slide over one another without exposing the body beneath -them (<a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>). It was also possible to join a series of lames by not more -than two rivets for each pair; these would act as pivots, allowing one -lame to rotate slightly relative to the other (<a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a>). However, if rivets -were used with rather large heads with a washer under the burred end of -each, and if the holes for the rivet in one lame were round while that in the -other had the form of a slot, in addition to the pivoting motion, a certain -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -amount of sideways motion between the lames would be possible (<a href="#fig23">Fig. 23</a>).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="438" height="388" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 21. The -leathering of a tasset, from -the inside.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="299" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 22. The -pivot rivets of a solleret.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p12b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="354" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 23. The wrist -plates of a gauntlet with sliding -(Almain) rivets.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Who wore armor? Every man who could afford it. Armor was always -very much of a luxury. Its making required the services of consummate -craftsmen, men who were not only expert metal workers, but also skilled -draughtsmen, expert tailors, and keen students of human anatomy. Armorers -were the aristocrats of all mediaeval craftsmen, the most highly -respected and by far the best paid. It required a great deal of their time; -the completion of a full suit of armor might take a year or more. Armor -was, therefore, in the class of the modern automobile. A wealthy monarch -might have a large wardrobe of beautifully decorated armor, as a millionaire -to-day owns a fleet of expensive imported motor cars. A simple knight -would be proud to possess a single suit, plain, but nevertheless made exactly -to fit him and no other person. A minor soldier was lucky if he could -secure a simple ready-made breastplate and helmet.</p> -<p>What was the physical character of the men who wore armor? Why do -the suits seem so small? Were people smaller in those days? Yes and no. -It is true that the nature of their life tended to develop men of the cowboy -type, wiry rather than massive. Men who spend their lives on horseback -are likely to have a broad shoulder and narrow waist, strong thigh and -slender calf. It is true too that with primitive medicine and sanitation man -died young; the average age of adult males was less than it is now.</p> -<p>However the principal reason for the small average size of preserved -suits of armor lies in its inextensibility. A suit of armor cannot be “let out”. -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -As has been pointed out, it had to be made exactly to fit the wearer. Men -had to learn their military duties very young, they had to have and to -wear armor while they were still growing. Consequently they usually outgrew -their first suit of armor, and it was this suit, unmarked by the scars -of serious fighting, which was most likely to be preserved. By the time a man -reached his full growth his armor showed wear and tear; when he died he -was buried in it, or it was discarded after his death as too battered to be -worth keeping. The suits of armor in the world’s collections are largely the -outgrown suits of young men.</p> -<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">MIDDLE EASTERN ARMOR</span></h2> -<p>In addition to the armor of Europe, consideration should be given to -that of the Middle East, of which the City Art Museum displays a number -of fine specimens in a special gallery. Armor was worn in Persia and in -India long after it had been abandoned in Europe; it is even possible that -among isolated tribes armorers may still be plying their trade. However, -as in Europe, the later work tended to deteriorate, and the earlier an Eastern -armor is, the better will it probably be.</p> -<p>The Indian and Persian smiths had two specialties: Damascus steel -and damascened steel, which are often and not unnaturally confused, both -having presumably originated at Damascus. Damascene work has already -been described on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a>; both -the “true” and the “false” variety -were practised throughout the -Middle East. Damascus steel, on -the other hand, is a type of -metal especially suitable for armor -and sword blades, made by -the intimate combination, in innumerable -layers, of two kinds -of metal, one extremely hard, the -other soft and tough. As billets of -this composite steel were twisted, -bent, and reformed, the superimposed -layers made intricate -patterns like those in watered -silk. Such Damascus steel patterns -can be best observed in -sword and dagger blades like -those illustrated in <a href="#fig35">Fig. 35</a>, -<a href="#Page_29">page 29</a>.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="472" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 24. This is the breastplate of a Persian suit of armor. The buckles -are for the straps which attach the side and back plates.</i></p> -</div> -<p>The Persian armorers did not follow the European custom of -forging body armor exactly to fit the wearer, but instead made the -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -principal defense of four rectangular plates known as <i>char aina</i> or “the four -mirrors”. Two were worn as breast- and backplate respectively, the other -two, made concave on the upper edge, were worn at the sides, the concavity -fitting under the arm. Chain mail was always used in the East, even more -extensively than in Europe, to protect all areas of the body not covered by -the char aina or other defenses of solid plate. <a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a> shows a plate of such a -four-piece armor. It is made of fine Damascus steel (the pattern is too fine -to show in the photograph), and is decorated with damascene inlay of floral -arabesques in gold. This is work of the late sixteenth or early seventeenth -century, and combines adequate functionality with oriental elegance. A -Persian helmet (<a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a>) of the same period shows skillful forging of the -fluted ornament.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/p13a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="582" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 25. The chain mail which now looks rather ragged originally -hung evenly around the rim of this Persian helmet.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/p13b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="555" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 26. Although corroded, this fifteenth century Turkish helmet -demonstrates the wonderful skill of Middle Eastern armorers.</i></p> -</div> -<p>But the helmet in <a href="#fig26">Fig. 26</a>, probably a century or more earlier, shows a -much greater appreciation of sculptural form. With a row of parallel vertical -flutings around its domed upper part, it resembles closely the Maximilian -armor of contemporary Europe. It is doubtful, however, if many European -smiths could have forged the minaret-like pinnacle which terminates the -dome. The helmet is decorated with damascene work of silver in calligraphic -inscriptions and arabesques. Its owner’s neck was protected by chain mail -attached around the lower edge of the helmet. Probably because of the -warmer climate, the Saracenic warriors never adopted the closed helmet -of European lands, but preferred to leave the face exposed, or protected -only by a nasal bar which was often so arranged that it could be slid upwards -and clamped.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">ARMS: STRIKING AND CUTTING WEAPONS</span></h2> -<p>Man’s first weapon was probably a club, and the simple club has always -retained a certain popularity. Even in the middle of the sixteenth century, -when arms of all kinds attained great elaboration, the mace, or short one-handed -club, was the accepted weapon of military men in holy orders who, -forbidden to shed blood, found no such prohibition against the bloodless -cracking of skulls. <a href="#fig27">Fig. 27</a> shows such a mace, of heavy steel, carved and -gilded, a formidable though beautiful weapon. Related arms are short-handled -military axes and hammers.</p> -<p>But the accepted symbol of man as a fighting creature has always been -the sword, and the sword, perhaps more than any other item of man’s -warlike panoply, has experienced the full range of his artistic and technical -initiative. Space does not here permit a discussion of the innumerable types -of swords; only a brief resumé of the general development can be given. -This is supplemented by a display of some typical forms along one side wall -of the armor gallery.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="261" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 27. A mace or -one-handed club, made of -steel carved and gilded. A -beautiful implement for -smashing heads!</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/p14a.jpg" alt="" width="118" height="790" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 28. A Chinese -bronze sword from about -the time of Christ. Not very -sharp, but it could still do -quite a lot of damage.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/p14b.jpg" alt="" width="610" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 29. Typical swords of the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries, as displayed in -the armor gallery.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Stone Age man could not make any true swords, for the flint and obsidian -which he had to use were too brittle to be available in large pieces. -But bronze could be cast into swords both effective and beautiful. A number -of Chinese bronze sword blades from the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 -A.D.) (<a href="#fig28">Fig. 28</a>) are available in the study collection. They are rather short, -double edged blades, adapted primarily for thrusting, but not without -cutting ability too. The Greeks and Romans used swords of rather similar -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -form, and also another type which tended to broaden near the point, bringing -the weight forward and adding impetus to both the thrust and the cut.</p> -<p>Mention has already been made, (<a href="#Page_4">p. 4</a>), of the rare but beautiful -swords of the dark ages, made in whole or in part of laminated metal -resembling the Damascus steel of the Middle East, (cf. <a href="#Page_20">p. 20</a>). Such swords -were carried by the Vikings who harried the coast of Britain and extended -their voyages even to North America. These swords had long, straight, -symmetrically double-edged blades, a short hilt, and a short crossbar -guard between blade and hilt. They were very powerful in a downward -slash, but too heavy to be manipulated easily as thrusting weapons.</p> -<p>By the fifteenth century the crossbar and the hilt had become longer, -giving the weapon a better balance, but the general character of the arm -remained the same. With the longer hilt, both hands could be used, considerably -increasing the power of the weapon (<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> [1], also <a href="#imgx2">title page</a> -illustration). This tendency continued in the sixteenth century until it -culminated in the enormous two-handed swords used by the professional -mercenary soldiers, or <i>landesknechts</i> (<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> [2]). Such swords were over -five feet long, with immense drooping guards and long leather-wrapped -hilts.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="359" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 30. How many figures are carved -in the solid steel of this court sword hilt?</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p15a.jpg" alt="Court sword hilt" width="500" height="548" /> -</div> -<p>As the sixteenth century advanced, sword blades became narrower, -lighter, and more adapted for thrusting, while guards developed rings and -curved knuckle-guards to protect the out-thrust hand (<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> [4], [3]). The -new method of fighting had definite advantages over the old slashing -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -system, which required the sword to be raised high, exposing the body, -before a blow could be struck, and soon the thrusting sword, or <i>rapier</i>, was -used everywhere. The system of rings which formed the guard grew more -complicated and finally coalesced into a solid metal cup, which completely -shielded the hand within it (<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> [6], [8]). Sometimes a dagger (<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> -[5], [7]) was held in the left hand to parry the opponent’s sword blade, -but eventually this was abandoned and fencers learned to parry with the -rear portion of their own blades, before making a second thrust (<i>riposte</i>) -with the point. Action grew faster and faster, and swords lighter and more -manageable, until by the seventeenth century the customary weapon was -the <i>court sword</i>, with a short, single-handed hilt, a small flat guard often -magnificently decorated in chiselled steel, and a relatively short, light -blade having a needle-like point, and often without any sharp cutting -edge at all (<a href="#fig30">Fig. 30</a>).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/p15b.jpg" alt="" width="126" height="802" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 31. A rondel dagger -with a silver handle.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/p15c.jpg" alt="" width="506" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 32. An outfit for a hunter: dagger, knife, -awl, and larding needle, all fitting into one -scabbard.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<p>In addition to the sword, the dagger was often used as a supplementary -weapon which could still be carried for self-protection when courtesy or -convenience made the wearing of a sword impracticable. Daggers were -made in a number of special shapes, varying with changes of fashion. In -the fifteenth century two popular forms were the <i>rondel dagger</i> (<a href="#fig31">Fig. 31</a>) -which had guard and pommel in the form of disks, and the <i>kidney dagger</i> -(then known by a less-printable name and worn, with the naive exhibitionism -of pre-Victorian days, directly below the belt buckle) which had a -straight, simple hilt and a short guard of ball-like form. Italians of the -sixteenth century liked the <i>anelace</i>, with its drooping guard and short, wide, -sharply tapering blade. Mention has already been made of the left-hand -daggers of the seventeenth century. The <i>stiletto</i>, without a guard other -than a short cross-bar, was also popular at this time. Hunters and landesknechts -often carried a complete outfit of small tools in the scabbard with -their dagger; such a <i>trousse</i> (<a href="#fig32">Fig. 32</a>) was very convenient when preparing -freshly-killed venison for the cook or when eating around a camp fire.</p> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">LANCES AND POLE ARMS</span></h2> -<p>The chief arm of the mounted knight was the lance, a weapon having -a long and often quite heavy wooden shaft and a steel point. Near the butt -its diameter was reduced to provide a comfortable hand grip, and just in -front of this grip there was applied a <i>vamplate</i> or conical hand guard of -steel. Behind the grip there was attached a thick iron ring called a <i>graper</i>, -which, when the lance was in use, rested against the hook or lance-rest projecting -from the right side of the knight’s breastplate. The graper thus -served as a thrust bearing, and put directly behind the point of the lance -the entire momentum of horse and rider. When such a projectile made a -direct hit upon an opponent something had to give. Either the opponent -was knocked completely off his horse, or his back was broken, or the lance -was shattered.</p> -<p>Foot soldiers also employed arms with long wooden shafts, of which -by far the commonest was the <i>pike</i>, which had a very simple steel point -and butt ferrule respectively on the ends of a slender rod of wood about -fourteen feet long. This was the arm of the great bodies of mercenary -infantry which did so much of the fighting of the seventeenth century. A -company of such men, formed into a square or circle, the front rank kneeling, -the second standing, and both holding their pikes with the butts against -the ground and the points projecting outward, was almost invulnerable to -cavalry, whose horses would not charge against the forest of pike-points. -The one effective maneuver against them was for some of the cavalry to -dismount and attack swinging great two-handed swords, which could beat -down the pike points and allow the cavalry to ride in.</p> -<p>Lance and pike were simple utilitarian tools; few have survived. But -there are other pole arms, from the fifteenth century on, which offered -<span class="pb" id="Page_27">27</span> -more opportunity to individual taste in form and decoration; a number -of these are present in the Museum’s collection. Some (<a href="#fig33">Fig. 33</a>) were developments -of the simple spear point, as for example (1) the type called an -<i>ox-tongue</i> or (2) a boar spear provided with a toggle to prevent a wounded -animal from charging right up the shaft of the weapon which transfixed -him. In (3), now a well-developed <i>partisan</i>, the toggle has been replaced -by a projecting spur at each side of the base. In (4) these spurs have become -large and ornamental, the weapon is decorated with etching, and has become -a ceremonial object rather than a weapon for actual fighting. (5) is -a partisan of the state guard of Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony -and King of Poland (1697-1733), and is even more noticeably designed for -display purposes only.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig33"> -<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="822" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 33. Spear-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. -Developing from a simple tool for stabbing to a decorated -badge of office.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Other pole arms are developments of the axe. Military axes (<a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a> [1], -[2]) had handles somewhat shorter than those of pikes, spears or partisans -but longer than the short-handled axes used on horseback. They were -particularly popular for use in judicial combats or “trial by battle”. Each -contestant in a law suit would swear to the truth of his claim, and call upon -God to prove its truth. The two men, armed with such axes, would fight -until one was killed or driven out of the ring. The victor was thus proven -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -to have told the truth, while the unsuccessful contestant, if still alive, was -executed for perjury. Such axes, capable of defending the right, were made -with special care, and were highly valued by their surviving owners.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig34"> -<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="626" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 34. Axe-type pole arms, XV-XVII centuries. The earlier ones, at the -left, were used in judicial duels, the later, at the right, were held by warders -of the doors of princes.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Axes with longer shafts were known as <i>halberds</i>, and were usually provided -with a sharpened hook at the back of the axe blade to permit a man -on foot to catch and cut the bridle rein of an attacking horseman. Like -the partisans, halberds developed from plain functional military types, -(<a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a> [3], [4]) of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively to -highly decorated types carried as badges of authority by the state guards -of Christian II of Saxony (<a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a> [5]) and of the Princes of Liechtenstein -(<a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a> [6]) respectively.</p> -<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">MIDDLE EASTERN EDGED WEAPONS</span></h2> -<p>The chief characteristic of the blades of the Middle East is the beautiful -watered pattern of the Damascus steel, discussed on <a href="#Page_20">page 20</a>. Unfortunately -this pattern is too delicate to show well in reproduction, but it may -readily be observed in the actual objects, exhibited in the gallery of Middle -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -Eastern Art. Two knives are shown in <a href="#fig35">Fig. 35</a>, illustrating delicate Damascene -work in gold and similar ornament carried out not by inlay of another -metal, but by chiselling in low relief.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig35"> -<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="366" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 35. Persian dagger-knives of the seventeenth century, equally useful as -tool and as weapon, and beautiful too!</i></p> -</div> -<p><a href="#fig36">Fig. 36</a> shows a Persian sword hilt of solid gold, from the late thirteenth -or fourteenth century. The ends of its guard are formed as the heads of -lions. It is engraved with floral arabesques and a calligraphic inscription. -The engraved lines are filled in with black pigment (<i>niello</i>).</p> -<div class="img" id="fig36"> -<img src="images/p17b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="568" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 36. A Persian sword hilt of solid gold, XIII-XIV -century, inscribed: “Salute to Mohammed”.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">PROJECTILE WEAPONS: BOWS AND CROSSBOWS</span></h2> -<p>Ever since a hairy primitive first picked up a stone and threw it, man -has tried to find better and better ways to strike from a safe distance. The -devices which he has produced for this purpose have been many and varied, -yet, strangely enough, remarkable similarities often occur between inventions -of widely separated areas. In ancient Peruvian graves have been -found cord slings for hurling stones almost identical with those used by -herd boys in Palestine today, as in the time of David and Goliath. Bronze -arrowheads from prehistoric Japan are much the same as those excavated -from Roman Britain. The bow has several different characteristic forms -distributed throughout the world, but its fundamental principle is everywhere -the same.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig37"> -<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="357" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 37 (Left). A light crossbow -like this would be used by -a young man or an athletic -girl. Flemish, XV century.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig38"> -<img src="images/p18a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="479" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 38 (Below). Made a little -lighter. A prodd or bullet-shooting -crossbow, probably -for a lady.</i></p> -</div> -<p>The first projectile-throwing arm appropriate to an art museum is the -crossbow, which is simply a bow mounted on a wooden stock provided with -a catch and trigger, so that the bow could be carried ready to shoot. This -was a great convenience in hunting or war, because otherwise the time lost -in drawing the bow might give the victim opportunity to escape. Moreover, -it was soon found that the application of mechanical devices permitted -the use of a bow much stronger than any man could draw unaided.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<div class="img" id="fig39"> -<img src="images/p18d.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="624" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 39. It took a -powerful man to wind and shoot this -heavy Swiss hunting crossbow, even -with the cranequin to help wind!</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig40"> -<img src="images/p18e.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="479" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 40. If you take off the -outer case, these three parts make up -the entire mechanism of the cranequin.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig41"> -<img src="images/p18f.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="408" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 41. Mechanism of a -crossbow lock, complicated but effective.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<p><a href="#fig37">Fig. 37</a> shows a light Flemish crossbow of the fifteenth century. Its -wooden stock is inlaid with white and with green stained bone in openwork -patterns. This type of crossbow required mechanical assistance to pull the -string back to the catch which would hold it until the moment should -arrive to shoot; the instrument employed was called a <i>goat’s foot</i> lever.</p> -<p>The crossbow of <a href="#fig38">Fig. 38</a> is Italian work of the sixteenth century. The -bow is light enough to be pulled by the hands alone, without mechanical -assistance. It had a double string, with a little pouch attached between -the two strands, and shot small bullets, instead of arrows. The wooden -stock is beautifully carved and the metal parts are damascened with arabesques -in gold. This type of light crossbow was especially popular with -aristocratic ladies who are frequently represented shooting it in hunting -tapestries of the period.</p> -<p>In <a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a> is shown a very powerful hunting crossbow of the seventeenth -century. The bow is of steel, two inches wide and a third of an inch -thick. The bowstring resembles a piece of heavy rope. To pull this string, -bending a steel spring as massive as this, requires a tremendous power and -an immense strength in the mechanism which will hold the fully-drawn -bow until the moment for its release.</p> -<p>The pulling power is supplied by a device, also shown in the illustration -(<a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a>) called a <i>cranequin</i> or <i>cric</i>. It is in mechanical respects essentially -identical with a modern geared automobile jack, although, of course, -it pulls instead of lifts (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40</a>). A force of fifty pounds applied to the handle -generates on the claw which grasps the bowstring a pull of more than two -tons! <a href="#fig41">Fig. 41</a> shows the mechanism for holding and releasing the string. -(These parts are, of course, normally invisible, being hidden inside the -wooden stock).</p> -<p>Returning to the artistic aspects of the crossbow of <a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a>, we observe -that the whole of the wooden stock is inlaid with plates of white stag horn -engraved with scenes illustrating the legend of William Tell—certainly -an appropriate decoration! The bow is quite plain except for the addition -of decorative pompoms of colored wool, but the cranequin gear housing is -elaborately etched with representations of Biblical and mythological personages, -strapwork, and interlace, much of this unfortunately now worn -away.</p> -<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">PROJECTILE WEAPONS: FIREARMS</span></h2> -<p>The study of antique firearms is a fascinating one. Contrary to usual -belief, firearms are not a late invention. They were in use before complete -suits of plate armor were made, and continued in use throughout the entire -period that plate armor was worn. Many thousands of different specimens -have been classified, but all firearms before the nineteenth century belong -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -to one of four types. These include -(1) the cannon or hand cannon in -which the charge of gunpowder was -set off by direct application of a -burning slow match or hot iron held -by the shooter; (2) the matchlock -in which burning slow match or -tinder was held in a clamp attached -to the gun and was brought into -contact with the gunpowder by a -mechanism attached to the gun and -operated by the shooter; (3) the -wheellock in which fire was not -carried about, but was produced by -a mechanism like that of a modern -cigarette lighter: a rough wheel was -spun around in contact with a stone -(not flint, but a nodular form of iron -pyrite) so that sparks were produced -to set off the gunpowder; (4) the -flintlock and its variations, in which -a piece usually of flint stone held in a -clamp attached to a strong spring -was moved by the spring to strike a -piece of steel, and thereby generate -the spark which would set fire to the gunpowder. The Museum’s collection -includes interesting and unusual specimens of all but the first of these -types.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig42"> -<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="405" height="601" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 42. This is how a musketeer -looked when he was just getting ready -to aim his gun. He has more gadgets -than even a modern infantryman.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig43"> -<img src="images/p19a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="459" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 43. The Three Musketeers carried muskets like this one in form, but -without the elaborate inlaid decoration.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<div class="img" id="fig44"> -<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="481" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 44. Was the decoration of the gun copied from the engraving, or the -engraving from the gun?</i></p> -</div> -<p>The earliest, simplest form of hand firearm, the hand cannon of the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is also the least interesting esthetically. -Consisting of a simple tube of iron, it was usually crudely formed, and quite -undecorated. Such hand cannon have much archaeological interest, but -contribute nothing to the history of art. The first step forward in the -mechanization of firearms was the matchlock, and matchlock guns also -were usually crude and strictly utilitarian, military pieces (<a href="#fig42">Fig. 42</a>). However, -a few specimens of fine quality were made for important personages, -and the Museum is fortunate in possessing precisely such a specimen -(<a href="#fig43">Fig. 43</a>), the gift of the John M. Olin Trust. The exact date and place of its -manufacture are uncertain; it could be English but seems a bit more likely -to be Dutch, toward the middle of the seventeenth century.</p> -<p>The lock is the standard seventeenth century matchlock, with the -earlier form of trigger resembling that of a crossbow. The serpentine which -holds the burning slow match moves upon pressure of the trigger in the -rearward direction, from the muzzle towards the butt, bringing the burning -slow match (a piece of rope impregnated with saltpeter) into contact -with the powder pan, the swiveling cover of which must first have been -opened by hand. After the slow match has ignited the priming powder and -fired the piece, a release of pressure on the trigger allows a return spring -to force the serpentine back to its original position. Notice the shape of -the serpentine, suggesting not so much a snake as a double-headed dragon.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<div class="img" id="fig45"> -<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="400" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 45. Hercules carries away Iole, daughter of -Eurytus.</i> (<i>She shows no strenuous objection.</i>)</p> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Evryti regis filiam Iolam, occiso patre, aedvxit Hercvles</span> -<br />15 HsB 44</p> -<p>The barrel is one-third octagon with finely forged cross mouldings at -the change of shape as well as at breach and muzzle. The rear sight is a -steel tube, beautifully formed in partly octagonal, partly fluted and molded -sections. A flash guard extends from the pan to this rear sight to protect -the shooter’s eyes against particles of burning powder from the pan.</p> -<p>It is the stock, however, which is the most remarkable feature of the -gun. This is of dark brown wood, completely covered with an elaborate -inlay of brass wire and engraved mother-of-pearl in a design of floral -scrolls issuing from vases and supporting birds and insects. A few escutcheons -are inlaid in engraved bone or white stag horn. The elaborateness -of this inlay, combined with its delicacy and taste, make this one of the -outstanding matchlock guns of the world.</p> -<p>The wheellock, which for the first time freed gunners from the necessity -of carrying around with them a continuously burning coil of slow match, -was invented in the early years of the sixteenth century and retained its -popularity, in Germany at least, until the very end of the eighteenth. It -thus has had a longer period of use than any other firearm with a discharge -mechanism. The Museum’s earliest wheellock, from about 1550 (<a href="#fig44">Fig. 44</a>), -has its entire octagonal barrel and lock magnificently decorated with damascene -of floral arabesques in gold and silver. The stock is inlaid with engraved -stag horn showing hunting scenes, Hercules’ capture of Iole (whose -hand he had won by conquering her father, Eurytus, in a shooting match), -and the figures of Alexander the Great and “Der Nero”. This gun well -illustrates the close relationship which, in this day, existed between the -various arts, for these inlaid designs are copied almost exactly from a -series of engravings by Hans Sebald Beham (1500-<i>ca.</i> 1550), examples of -which are in the City Art Museum’s print collection (<a href="#fig45">Fig. 45</a>).</p> -<p>Another, rifled, specimen, from about 1635, formerly in the Liechtenstein -collection (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [2]) has a plain barrel, but the lock is finely engraved -with a hunting scene, while the stock (<a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> [2]) is most elaborately inlaid -<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span> -with fine filigrees and engraved plates of stag horn representing mythological -characters, animals, and monsters against an architectural and arabesque -background. The stock bears the mark of Martin Süssebecker, -who was born at Liegnitz in 1593, and died in 1668 at Dresden where he -was gunmaker to the court of the Electors of Saxony.</p> -<p>A light hunting rifle (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [3]) with a very short stock of the type -known as <i>tschinke</i> from the fact that such guns were made at the town of -Teschen in German Silesia, dates probably from the latter part of the -seventeenth century. It has a peculiar type of wheellock of which the mainspring -and most of the other mechanism are exposed on the outside of -the lock plate. The barrel is engraved. The lock is ornamented with openwork -carving, and the stock (<a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> [3]) is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and -engraved stag horn in various designs and animal motives against a background -of floral arabesques and scroll work.</p> -<p>A fine Italian wheellock pistol (<a href="#fig48">Fig. 48</a>) was formerly in the collection -of H. G. Keasbey. The barrel, ornamented with raised ridges giving it an -octagonal appearance, is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”, an abbreviation of -the name of Lazarino Cominazzo, an early gunsmith of Brescia, in northern -Italy, whose work became so famous that the name was adopted by his -successors practically as a trademark. The simple but finely carved lock -and the lace-like openwork steel inlays of the stock are characteristic of -the best Brescian workmanship. The piece dates from about 1630.</p> -<p>But the finest wheellocks in the collection are a “suite” consisting of a -gun and pair of pistols (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [4], [4<span class="smaller">A</span>], [4<span class="smaller">B</span>]). These three pieces differ -slightly from one another in their decoration, but they all bear the same -signature, “Claude Thomas à Espinal 1623”, and are otherwise so similar -that there is no doubt that they were intended to go together. All have -wheellocks elaborately ornamented with carving and engraving. The pear -wood stocks are magnificently carved in the round, in openwork, and in -relief, with plants, animals, and formal ornaments. They all bear a coat of -arms which has not yet been identified. On the pistols this is on the side of -the stock opposite the lock plate, but on the gun the coat of arms is relegated -to the left rear part of the stock, while the region opposite the lock -plate is ornamented with a medallion containing the initials “C. T.”. This, -together with the extraordinary elaboration of all three pieces, suggests that -this set of guns and pistols was not, as was usually the case, made to the -order of a wealthy client, but was rather a “masterpiece” produced by a -young gunmaker exhibiting all the skill of which he was capable to prove -his worthiness to attain the title of “master gunsmith” in the gunmakers’ -guild and the right to set up a shop of his own. The coat of arms is presumably -that of the noble patron who had supported him in the past and to -whom the pieces would eventually come, but as they were made for glory -and not for pay, the gunsmith felt quite entitled to place his own initials in a -prominent position. It should be noted that though the pistols are both -smooth-bored the gun is carefully rifled. It is interesting to speculate about -the fate of Claude Thomas. It seems improbable that so skilled a craftsman -should not have been successful in his career. Yet, this set of three -pieces is the only work of this master known up to the present time. Perhaps -he tried experimenting in mechanisms as he had already in decoration, -with the result that a magnificent technician was destroyed in the explosion -of his invention. Perhaps he succumbed to the plague or to the fortunes of -war. All we know is that he could and did make some of the most magnificent -guns in the world, and here they are!</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<div class="img" id="fig46"> -<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="1005" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 46. A group of masterpieces of the gunsmith’s art, XVI-XVIII -centuries.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div> -<p>A large and heavy gun (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [1]) with a peculiar type of early flintlock -having an exposed mainspring and known as a <i>miguelet</i> was probably -made in Brescia for a purchaser from the Balearic Islands. The barrel is -plain; the lock (<a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> [1]) and steel mountings of the walnut stock, however, -are elaborately carved in openwork and in strong relief. Some of the -details of this carving, especially that on the trigger guard, evidence the -exquisite skill characteristic of the Brescian gunsmiths (compare the wheellock -pistol mentioned above). The general style of most of the carving, -however, shows a ruggedness of design and a love of the grotesque characteristic -of Balearic Island taste. The barrel is inscribed “Lazari Cominaz”.</p> -<p>Another early flintlock variation was the <i>snaphaunce</i>, a form in which -the piece of steel struck by the flint was not attached to the cover of the -pan holding the priming powder, but was entirely separate from it and -could be turned back out of the way as a safety precaution, when immediate -use of the arm was not expected. The Museum has a fine snaphaunce -pistol in the Brescian style.</p> -<p>Two other pairs of pistols with normal flintlocks are excellent examples -of Brescian work. One (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [6]) from about 1640-1660 has barrels with -longitudinal ridging about one-third of their length and with the full inscription -“Lazarino Cominazzo”. The locks are lightly engraved to give -an impression of very shallow relief carving, and bear the signature of -“Giovanni Bourgognone in Brescia”. The walnut stocks are ornamented -with openwork steel similar to those on the wheellock pistol above described. -The other pair (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> [5]), possibly somewhat earlier, have barrels -octagonal for about one-sixth of their length. These bear the inscription -“Lazaro Lazarino” (presumably a son of the great Lazarino Cominazzo -or of one of his namesakes). The stocks are of walnut. The locks and the -large and numerous mounts on the stock are elaborately chiseled steel in -strong relief with designs of animals, monsters, and semi-human figures -against a background of floral arabesques.</p> -<p>Not all flintlocks were on firearms. The same mechanism was used on -tinder boxes, alarm clocks, and gunpowder testers. The powder tester -(<a href="#fig49">Fig. 49</a>) was like a pistol with a friction cover closing the mouth of the -barrel. It was loaded (of course without a bullet) and fired. The force of -the explosion blew the cover away from the barrel against the friction of a -heavy spring; the distance which it moved gave an index of the strength -of the gunpowder.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<div class="img" id="fig47"> -<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="705" height="1199" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 47. Details of fine gunsmithing.</i></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<div class="img" id="fig48"> -<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="215" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 48. This was what a gentleman carried in a holster at his saddle-bow -in mid-seventeenth century Italy.</i></p> -</div> -<p><a href="#fig50">Fig. 50</a> illustrates a very complete outfit of pistols and accessories made -at Lisbon, Portugal, by Jacinto Xavier in 1799. There are a pair of double barreled -holster pistols for rides abroad, and a pair of small but deadly -pocket pistols for self defense or card table arguments. With these are the -accessories and tools appropriate to them: powder flask, powder measure, -bullet molds, oil can, hammer, screw driver, awl, (for cleaning the touch -holes), and box for spare flints and bullets. All are enclosed in a handsome -mahogany case.</p> -<p>The outfit is definitely that of a dandy, for every piece is beautifully -made and exquisitely decorated. The steel parts of the pistols are brilliantly -polished or deeply blued. The stocks are delicately inlaid with rococo scrolls -of silver wire. The oil can is a dainty hexagonal urn. Even the hammer and -screw driver deserve in their own right places in a museum display.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig49"> -<img src="images/p23a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="349" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 49. Not a weapon, but a device to test the strength of gunpowder. -Yet just as beautiful as though it were deadly.</i></p> -</div> -<p>Students of the history of arms will delight in the holster pistols, for -these have each two barrels side by side, while a single flintlock fires each -in turn. The powder pan which catches the sparks from the flint is divided -into two parts: that on the right transmits the ignition directly to the right -hand barrel; that on the left is covered by a slide operated by a thumb -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span> -piece on the left side of the pistol. When this slide is pulled back, a second -priming charge is exposed, so that the lock may be snapped again to fire -the left hand barrel. Both barrels may be unscrewed by means of a wrench -attached to the bullet mold; they are loaded from the breach with a slightly -oversized bullet which will not move through the barrel until the pistols -are fired.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig50"> -<img src="images/p23b.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="624" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 50. A gadgeteer’s dream. The big pistols are double barreled, and -each of the little ones has three bayonets and a corkscrew!</i></p> -</div> -<p>The little pocket pistols are a gadgeteer’s dream. They have invisible -triggers, which are only exposed when the lock is cocked. Each has on the -right side a tiny triangular bayonet which springs into position at a touch -on a catch. On the left side is a strong, light, knife blade similarly operated. -Above each barrel is a second smaller knife blade (just right for trimming -a quill pen), which may be pushed forward from a housing which conceals -and protects it. And in the butt of each pistol is hidden a small but, effective -corkscrew. What more could Beau Brummel himself desire?</p> -<p>The final item for which we have space is a flintlock pistol (<a href="#fig51">Fig. 51</a>) of -the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. It bears the signature -“Derby à Paris”. Nothing seems to be known of this gunmaker; whether -he was a Frenchman with an English name or an English gunsmith working -in France must be left for future research to determine. In any case, he -was a master of his craft. The pistol is in beautiful condition, though the -blue color of the metal is a later restoration, no doubt based on the original -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span> -finish of the weapon. The barrel and lock are finely engraved and partially -gilt; the walnut stock is fitted with a gilded butt cap and inlaid with silver -wire in delicate arabesque scrolls. Attached to the top of the barrel is a -short bayonet of bright steel; this is mounted with a spring device in such -a way that the bayonet can be folded back when not needed, but at a touch -of the thumb upon the spring catch, will fly forward and lock in position -for use.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig51"> -<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="289" /> -<p class="pcap"><i>Fig. 51. A repeating flintlock pistol. A thousand of these in -one place could have changed the history of the world!</i></p> -</div> -<p>The most remarkable feature of this pistol, however, is its ingenious -repeating mechanism. The type, though rare, is well known. It seems to -have been invented about one hundred years previous, toward the close -of the seventeenth century, by a Florentine gunsmith named Lorenzoni. -During the following hundred years it was extensively copied. Arms with -this type of mechanism are known bearing the signatures of Austrian, -German, French, English, and Spanish gunsmiths. Variations and improvements -show themselves from time to time, but a complete study of -the Lorenzoni type of flintlock repeater has yet to be written. Its general -principle, however, is as follows: a cylinder of brass, lying transversely -across the body of the pistol, can be rotated a half turn by a lever. As this -is done, the cylinder picks up a bullet, gunpowder, and priming powder, -and conveys them to the proper positions for firing. Lugs on the cylinder -also close the pan cover and cock the hammer. The magazines hold supplies -for eight shots, which can thus be fired with practically the speed of the -single action frontier revolver which was, for many years, the most famous -of American arms. Think what changes in history a liberal supply of -breech-loading repeating firearms of this type might have made had it -been available throughout the eighteenth century! But unfortunately very -few gunsmiths were skillful enough to do the precise work required on an -arm of this type, and all who ever lived would not have been able to make -enough of them to outfit a regiment. Such arms were rare and costly, and -only princes could afford them, but we are fortunate that this specimen -has come down to us to show what Master Derby of Paris could do generations -before the day of Colt, Winchester, and the all-destructive Atom.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div> -<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h2> -<p>The books listed below will be found helpful by any readers who wish -to pursue further the study of Armor and Arms.</p> -<p class="revint">1. Laking, Sir Guy Francis: “A Record of European Armour and Arms,” -4<sup>to</sup>, 5 Vols., London, 1920-22.</p> -<p class="revint">2. Cripps-Day, Francis Henry: “A Record of Armour Sales,” 4<sup>to</sup>, uniform -with above, London, 1925.</p> -<p class="revint">3. Dean, Bashford: “Handbook of Arms and Armor,” 8<sup>vo</sup>, New York, 1915 -(The Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1915, 1921 and later editions.</p> -<p class="revint">4. Dean, Bashford: “Notes on Arms and Armor”, 8<sup>vo</sup>, New York, (The -Metropolitan Museum of Art), 1916.</p> -<p class="revint">5. Dean, Bashford: “The Collection of Arms and Armor of Rutherfurd -Stuyvesant,” 4<sup>to</sup>, [New York] 1914.</p> -<p class="revint">6. [Dean, Bashford] “A Miscellany on Arms and Armor presented to -Bashford Dean,” 4<sup>to</sup>, New York, 1927.</p> -<p class="revint">7. v. Kienbusch, Carl Otto and Grancsay, S. V.: “The Bashford Dean -Collection of Arms and Armor in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,” -4<sup>to</sup>, Portland, Maine, 1933.</p> -<p class="revint">8. Calvert, Albert, F.: “Spanish Arms and Armour,” 8<sup>vo</sup>, London, 1907.</p> -<p class="revint">9. Stone, George C.: “A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and -Use of Arms and Armor,” 4<sup>to</sup>, Portland, Maine, 1934.</p> -<p class="revint">10. Stöcklein, Hans: “Meister des Eisenschnittes,” 4<sup>to</sup>, Esslingen a. N., -1922.</p> -<p class="revint">11. Egerton, The Hon. Wilbraham: “An Illustrated Handbook of Indian -Arms,” 4<sup>to</sup>, London, 1880.</p> -<p class="revint">12. Payne-Gallwey, Sir Ralph: “The Cross-Bow, Medieval and Modern, -Military and Sporting,” 4<sup>to</sup>, London, 1903.</p> -<p class="revint">13. McKee, Thomas Heron: “The Gun Book,” 8<sup>vo</sup>, New York, 1918.</p> -<p class="revint">14. Pollard, H. B. C.: “A History of Firearms,” 4<sup>to</sup>, London, 1926.</p> -<p class="revint">15. Jackson, Herbert J.: “European Hand Firearms,” 4<sup>to</sup>, London, 1923.</p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in <i>italics</i> is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armor and Arms, by Thomas Temple Hoopes - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMOR AND ARMS *** - -***** This file should be named 62818-h.htm or 62818-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/8/1/62818/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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