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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #62827 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62827)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II.,
-No. 4, August, 1890, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 4, August, 1890
-
-Author: Various
-
-Release Date: August 2, 2020 [EBook #62827]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, AUGUST 1890 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-Vol. II. No. 4.
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.
-
-
-
-
-PUBLISHED BY THE
-
-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY,
-
-WASHINGTON, D. C.
-
-
-Price, 50 Cents.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-Korea and the Koreans: Ensign J. B. Bernadou, U. S. N.
-    (Illustrated with three maps.)
-
-The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain--its history and object: Josiah
-  Pierce, Jr.
-
-Geographic Nomenclature: Herbert G. Ogden, Gustave Herrle, Marcus
-  Baker and A. H. Thompson
-
-
-APPENDIX: Rules for the Orthography of Geographic Names: Contributed
-  by G. Herrle.
-
-    British System
-
-    French System
-
-    German System
-
-    Alphabets: Russian-English
-               English-Russian
-
-
-  Published, AUGUST, 1890.
-
-
-
-
-PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.
-
-
-
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.
-
-Vol. II. 1890. No. 4.
-
-
-
-
-KOREA AND THE KOREANS.
-
-BY J. B. BERNADOU.
-
-(Abstract of lecture, with the addition of some new material.)
-
-
-The Koreans are to be noted among nations for the possession of two
-very different vehicles for the expression of thought, which they put
-to nearly parallel uses for general needs of communication: a simple
-and very perfect alphabet, and a complex system of hieroglyphics. The
-alphabet they owe to the Buddhist priests, missionaries, who took the
-idea of letters from their sacred books, and developed the Korean
-symbols for the writing of tracts and prayers; the hieroglyphics came
-from the mother country and civilizer, China.
-
-The needs of a simpler mode of writing for the intelligent,
-non-literary classes of Japan, had led in that country to a similar
-development; but there progress stopped at a syllabary, and the
-alphabetic stage was not reached.
-
-Until within the past few years the development of accurate maps and
-charts of Korea has been retarded, partly from a lack of reliable
-information concerning Korean proper names, and partly from the
-absence of systematic surveys of the coast. Very recently, however,
-the difficulties of map making have been considerably lessened through
-the efforts of students of the Korean language, who have developed
-exact systems of transliteration, by the application of which the
-sounds of Korean proper names may be correctly expressed in our own
-letters. At the present day it would seem possible, therefore, to fix,
-by common consent, upon a general, systematic orthography for Korean
-proper names, to be used upon the charts prepared by all those nations
-employing Roman letters; and this without serious danger of clashing
-with previously developed national systems, or having to undo much
-work done by others.
-
-The system of transliteration developed by Mr. E. M. Satow, of the
-British Diplomatic Service, which has been put to practical use by
-that gentleman in his work entitled "List of Korean Geographical
-Names," would seem well adapted to meet future needs. It gives a
-simple series of equivalents for Korean sounds, and is remarkably free
-from diacritical marks. Mr. Satow's system has recently been employed
-by English and German authors, while efforts to extend its application
-would seem to have met thus far with no opposition.
-
-The French system of transliteration, which antedates the one above
-referred to, was developed by the French Roman Catholic Missionaries
-in Korea, and has been employed by them in their admirable works the
-"Grammaire Coréenne" and the "Dictionnaire Coréen," by far the most
-important yet prepared upon the language, and the first given to the
-outer world. The missionaries aimed at reproducing native speech, and
-to this end faithfully copied symbols representing shades of sound
-that are not to be appreciated by the foreign ear, and which in fact
-are often neglected in conversation by the Koreans of the present
-day--for the Ön-mun, or native alphabet, has long since lost its
-purely phonetic character. The simplicity of the French system is
-marred, therefore, by the use of a multiplicity of letters, which,
-appearing in the form of aggregations of consonants or of vowels, are
-more apt to mislead than to guide.
-
-Inasmuch as the proper names upon native maps, which are invariably
-written in the Chinese, may be correctly rendered into English,
-whereas attempts at the systematic transliteration of Chinese
-characters have generally failed, it may be well to allude to the
-points of difference in the two cases. The possibility of the
-transliteration of Korean depends upon the following: (1) that the
-Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters is independent of the pitch
-of the voice or _tone_; (2) that the native alphabet is especially
-constructed with a view to the easy reproduction of the Korean
-pronunciation of the same; (3) that the Korean pronunciation of these
-characters is quite uniform throughout the whole extent of the
-country; (4) that the Korean equivalents may be readily transliterated
-into English. All that is necessary, therefore, in fixing a geographic
-name is to have it written correctly in Chinese and in the Ön-mun.
-From the latter the English equivalent may be readily obtained. The
-need of the Chinese form arises from the fact that but few of the
-natives spell correctly, while many of them write Chinese well; so
-that it becomes necessary to refer both writings to some authority, by
-whom the native spelling may be verified.
-
-Wide spread as is the use of the Chinese nomenclature, it is none the
-less evident that the system is an artificial one, and that its
-employment must end somewhere. In those parts of the country that are
-the least explored, and where educational facilities are wanting, in
-the mountain fastnesses of the north, and among the many islands of
-the Yellow Sea, important geographic names occur that possess no
-Chinese equivalents: native words capable of being written only in the
-Ön-mun and which derive their origin from local peculiarities. To
-ascertain these correctly the services of an educated Korean are
-required; and it may be added here that no surveying party on the
-Korean coast should be without the services of a native guide, capable
-of speaking a few words of English. Such a man may be picked up at an
-open port. He would be useful in many ways: in preventing the
-destruction of signals from superstitious motives by the natives; in
-ascertaining from fishermen the existence of dangers in the intricate
-coast waters; in marking the position of towns and villages not to be
-seen from their sea approaches; and in securing supplies of fresh
-provisions.
-
-The preliminary study of the geography of an eastern country
-necessitates the comparative examination of data gathered from widely
-different sources: the early partial surveys of the coasts by
-mariners, and the rough maps made by the natives themselves. Inasmuch
-as large sections of the Korean coasts are as yet hardly examined, and
-since it is only within the last few years that foreigners have been
-allowed to penetrate into the interior, it follows that no accurate
-map of the land exists. In selecting bases for future developments it
-becomes necessary, therefore, to examine the various approximate
-representations, and to determine which of them is best adapted to aid
-the work in hand.
-
-Many writers upon Korea seem prone to attribute the mapping of the
-country to the result of explorations and observations made by
-foreigners. I believe this assumption to be erroneous and think it can
-be readily proven that, although the Koreans may have known
-practically nothing of the outside world up to the time of the
-treaties, some twenty years ago, they had, nevertheless, long before
-this formed an excellent idea of the configuration of their own
-country. The first important work accomplished by outsiders was the
-survey of the common boundary of Korea and China by the Jesuits,
-acting under the orders of the Chinese Emperor Kang-hsi, in the year
-1709. Severity of climate and roughness of country prevented the party
-from making more than a preliminary examination of the districts that
-they passed through, but a few fair determinations of latitude and
-approximations to longitude were obtained, and the general direction
-of the boundary determined. With the aid of these data, supplemented
-by information from native sources, a map was constructed, in which
-the Korean peninsula was connected with the general system of the
-world's coördinates and proper names were given in our own alphabetic
-characters. This map, which forms the basis of most of the
-representations of Korea in use at the present day, shows its origin
-in the transliteration of proper names in accordance with the Mandarin
-Chinese and not the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters
-employed to represent them.
-
-The information from Korean sources which the missionaries must have
-utilized in completing their work was doubtless attained by them in
-the form of native maps. Of these there are several good ones in use
-at the present day, two of which would seem especially worthy of
-notice: (1) the large map of twenty sheets dividing the peninsula into
-sections by parallel lines drawn from east to west, and (2) a map
-giving the country in eight sheets, by provinces. The key to the
-latter, showing the entire kingdom, as well as one of the expanded
-sheets showing the Kyöngsang province in the southeast, and the
-Nakdong river, the most important stream of the land, are appended to
-this paper, and will serve to indicate the progress independently
-attained by the Koreans in the art of map making. These plates have
-been reproduced from a copy of an original now in the possession of
-Mgr. J. G. Blanc, the French Missionary Bishop of Korea, to whom it
-served as an accurate guide at the time of his perilous entry into the
-country, fifteen years ago, during a period of severe persecutions.
-
-[Illustration: KOREA.]
-
-[Illustration: Province of KYÖNG-SANG-DO]
-
-The preface of the Korean geographer, which is written in Chinese upon
-one of the sheets, is of interest, as it illustrates the object of the
-work, enumerates the classes of data utilized and alludes to
-difficulties contended with. I therefore quote it here.
-
-"The geographies of my country are quite numerous, but all maps are
-influenced to a certain extent by the limit of the paper employed in
-their construction, and so distances are very incorrectly given. Thus
-ten or more ri (Korean unit of distance--about 2/5-mile) are sometimes
-represented as two or three hundred ri; while sometimes two or three
-hundred ri are represented as two or three. The bearings given are
-also incorrect. Such a map offers great disadvantages to people who
-attempt to learn about their country. Therefore I have taken all care
-in constructing this one, both as to direction and distances of
-places, as well as to the situations of mountains and rivers. For
-distances I have made a scale in which one hundred ri are taken as one
-ja (Korean foot), and ten ri as one poun (Korean inch, ten to the
-foot). I have laid off distances in all directions from the capital,
-so that the general shape and position of the eight provinces are
-correctly represented. The islands, however, are only placed in
-direction with reference to the provinces to which they belong,
-without regard to actual distances. Where mountain ranges and rivers
-are represented as boundaries, they are necessarily repeated upon the
-sheets of adjoining provinces. In the measurement of distances one ja
-represents one hundred ri in level places, and from one hundred and
-twenty to one hundred and thirty ri where the mountains are high."
-
-The assumption that the unit of scale represents an increased distance
-in mountainous regions is a peculiarity of Chinese as well as of
-Korean maps. Travelers who employ either are obliged in estimating
-days' journeys to consider the character of the country ahead before
-applying the unit of measurement.
-
-An examination of the various conventional features of Plate I and II
-will afford much information concerning the official subdivision of
-the country for governmental purposes, and will serve to indicate the
-facilities of communication that exist in a country where there are no
-railroads, and where almost every important route extends in a
-direction normal to that of the flow of the greater number of rivers.
-The eight provinces of the kingdom are exhibited upon Plate I as
-groups of towns, each group being displayed upon the original in a
-different color, all of which, as shades of various intensities, are
-fairly well reproduced upon the photo-lithographs. Each town is
-denoted by a circle of very exaggerated dimensions, large enough to
-allow its name to be written in Chinese characters in the enclosed
-area. The apparent multiplicity of characters upon the present map is
-due to the fact that all names are given in the native Ön-mun, as well
-as in the Chinese. The employment of the former is unusual and in the
-present case was resorted to at my own instance, in order to render
-the map more generally useful to foreigners. Each town is the seat of
-government of an officer who is subordinate to a provincial governor.
-The strength of any portion of Korea may therefore be reckoned in the
-native way as so many "cities," by the word "city," being understood
-both the seat of government and the adjacent lands over which the
-governor holds sway. The walled towns, which are quite uniform in type
-throughout the whole extent of the country, deserve especial mention.
-They are represented on the map as circles with serrated edges, and a
-glance at the provincial sheets will show that they are quite
-numerous, each province possessing from six to twenty of them. The
-number is greatest along the coast of the Yellow Sea and to the
-southward, facing Japan.
-
-As secondary fortifications may be mentioned the San-söng, or mountain
-walls, as they are called, built at the least accessible points of the
-interior ranges, generally in proximity to some thickly settled
-district. The more ancient are relics of the feudal period, when Korea
-was governed by petty princes each with his castle upon a rock; the
-more modern, witnesses of the Japanese invasion of two hundred years
-ago, when they were either pillaged by the enemy or else held by the
-people as places of refuge. A number of the San-söng are marked upon
-the present map; those of lesser importance are omitted.
-
-Not the least curious among Korean institutions is the system of
-communication maintained at the present time. At the yok, or post
-stations, represented on the map by diminutive circles, are kept
-numbers of the small active native horses, well fed and in good
-condition, attended by staffs of native couriers who are ready to
-receive orders from the station-master and spring into saddle upon a
-moment's notice. The service is well patronized and the couriers
-frequently employed, partly at the instance of the government, who
-desire to promote the efficiency of the system, and partly owing to
-the general accumulation of private needs of various kinds. A letter
-or parcel is thus rapidly transmitted from relay to relay, moving
-onward by day and night--except in certain mountainous districts of
-the north, where the fear of the tiger prevents night travel. Supplies
-of fruit and game for the royal table are forwarded in this manner to
-the capital from the most distant parts of the kingdom.
-
-The pong-wa, or signal-fire stations, are indicated upon the map by
-small squares placed at the summit of the mountains. They are
-especially numerous in the coast districts, where their sites are
-chosen with great care, in such manner that the fires that are lighted
-at each station at night-fall may be observed at some advanced point
-of the interior, whence a single fire may be again flashed on, to form
-a member of a more extended group. And so the lights proceed,
-re-collected and re-forwarded until the final combinations are
-gathered into a final group at the capital, to show that all is well
-throughout the kingdom.
-
-The faint network of lines extending over the whole country, as shown
-in the map of the southeastern province, represents the chief public
-highways, upon the determination of whose length and relative bearing
-the development of the map is based. In general, roads in Korea are
-well maintained, and during the greater part of the year are in fair
-condition. It would be found impossible to take a wheeled vehicle of
-any kind over them, however; for such use they are not intended,
-travel in Korea being performed afoot, or with the aid of horse or
-sedan. During the summer rains the streams rise rapidly; the waters
-pour down from the mountains, each rivulet becomes a torrent and the
-bridges are swept away. When the floods subside the local authorities
-compel the peasants to turn out in force and make the necessary
-repairs; delays of travel are thus reduced to a minimum.
-
-Korea is preëminently a mountainous country. With the exception of the
-alluvial plains at the mouths of the rivers, low ranges of mountains
-with narrow intervening valleys are found everywhere, and are
-characteristic. The main chain, forming the back-bone of the
-peninsula, is not clearly defined, as it is formed principally by the
-overlappings and intersections of minor chains, so that it is quite
-irregular as to direction, but a glance at the sources of the rivers,
-considered with reference to the intervening line of water-sheds,
-shows that it springs from the mountains of Siberia at the north,
-follows for some distance the line of the eastern coast and then
-strikes inland, trending to the southward and westward until it
-reaches the shores of the Yellow Sea. The loftiest ranges, therefore,
-are in the northern and eastern provinces. At the centre of the
-northern boundary is Paik-du-san, the "white-headed mountain," in
-whose slopes rise the Yalu, Tuman, and Songari rivers, the two former
-defining the western and eastern sections of the frontier, the latter
-a tributary of the Amur, an important stream of southern Siberia.
-According to Messrs. James, Younghusband, and Fulford, of the British
-Indian and Consular services, who visited it in May, 1886, Paik-du-san
-is "a recently extinct volcano with a lovely pellucid lake filling the
-bottom of the crater, surmounted by a serrated edge of peaks rising
-about 650 feet above the surface of the water. The height of the
-loftiest of these was found to be about 7,525 feet above the level of
-the sea."
-
-Besides the rivers of the frontier are others of the interior that
-deserve a passing mention. The mountainous nature of the country, as
-well as its proximity to the sea, implies the existence of numerous
-secondary water courses, but these as a rule are insignificant in size
-and so shallow as to permit of navigation only throughout limited
-portions of their extent. Among the larger streams that lie wholly
-within the country is the Taidong, flowing through Phyöng-an-do, the
-northwestern province, rising in the central ranges of the peninsula
-and flowing into the Yellow Sea. During the greater part of the year
-it is navigable as far as the city of Phyöngyang for native craft of
-the largest size. In midsummer its waters rise rapidly during a short
-rainy season; then quickly subside, the river resuming its former
-limits. To this sudden shoaling may be attributed the loss of the
-schooner Sherman, captured by the Koreans in 1871, the vessel going
-aground without warning at a place where a few hours before abundant
-water had been found.
-
-The Han, the river of the capital, lies about one hundred miles to the
-southward of the Taidong, and flows westwardly in a nearly parallel
-direction thereto, from the central ranges of the peninsula into the
-Yellow Sea. Its many branches join in a common estuary near the centre
-of the Yellow Sea coast, and their collective drainage area comprises
-a large portion of central Korea. Still farther to the southward is
-the Keum, traversing a fertile rice-growing country, while at the
-extreme south is the Nakdong. The latter is one of the most important
-streams of Korea, and the facilities that it affords for communication
-and interchange have done much towards rendering the district through
-which it flows one of the most fertile and prosperous of the land.
-
-The coasts of Korea are forbidding to the mariner and seem well
-adapted for the preservation of the seclusion that it has been so long
-the national policy to maintain. On the east, facing Japan, unbroken
-lines of steep hills, void of harbors, bend abruptly into the deep
-waters of the Japan Sea. To the westward countless outlying islands
-extend seaward many miles, liberally interspersed with rocks and
-shoals, between which eddy swift streams of tide-water. The terrors of
-the Maelstrom would find their counterpart in many a Korean whirlpool,
-which, forming in the vicinity of some submerged ledge, will cause a
-large vessel to heel suddenly well over, and will swing her many
-points off her course in a way to make the stoutest hearted captain
-tremble for the safety of his charge.
-
-The climate of Korea exhibits wide ranges of temperatures and
-hygroscopic conditions. In the northeast province, Ham-kiung-do, the
-winter is as rigorous as that of Nova Scotia; at the extreme south, on
-the island of Quelpaert, it somewhat resembles that of Louisiana. The
-warmth of Quelpaert is due to the proximity of the Kura-siwo, or Black
-Stream of Japan, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific, part of which is here
-turned into a cul-de-sac, from which it escapes with difficulty. One
-result of this is the creation of a stormy region near the island,
-where the mariner may at all times look for a hard blow. A
-characteristic feature of Yellow Sea coasts are the Chang-ma, or
-mid-summer rains, which set in with fair regularity in July and during
-their month's duration resemble in phenomena and general effects the
-periodic rains of the tropics. The winters, in all but the southern
-parts of the country, are long and severe and set in with great
-suddenness. As an illustration of the rapidity of this change I
-remember that on one occasion I was ferried across the Han river near
-the capital at a time when the only indication of cold weather was a
-film of ice along the river banks, and that within forty-eight hours
-afterwards I rode back across the river ice on horseback, over the
-line of the former ferry.
-
-Careful meteorologic records have now been kept at the open ports for
-more than five years; at Che-mul-po, on the Yellow Sea (the seaport of
-the capital, Söul); at Fusan, to the south; and at Gensan, to the
-northeast. Stations are needed on the Yellow Sea coast farther to the
-northward, at the extreme northeast, at points in the interior, and
-especially on the island of Cheju, or Quelpaert, whose weather reports
-may some day prove as valuable to the Japanese as those from Bermuda
-would now be to the navigator of the western waters of the Atlantic.
-All the above mentioned places are easily accessible and doubtless
-soon will receive attention. In fact, to the navigator of these
-regions this island of Quelpaert is almost of the importance that
-Hatteras is to the navigator of our own coast.
-
-As an important factor of Korea's future prosperity, and one that will
-enter largely into the determination of her future position among the
-nations of the east, may be mentioned her mineral resources. These yet
-remain in an almost undeveloped condition. The most easily accessible
-deposits and out-croppings, which are worked by the natives in
-primitive ways, afford evidence of an abundant and varied supply of
-the useful ores and minerals widely distributed throughout the whole
-extent of the land. Many localities, moreover, are well known to the
-people for their especial products. Thus the Phyöngyang province, in
-the northwest, facing China, possesses abundant deposits of coal,
-iron, and lime. Samples of this coal, which is but little used by the
-people, were collected several years ago from twelve different
-localities, and I remember that some of the Phyöngyang gatherings were
-tested on board the U. S. S. Alert, but were found to have suffered so
-greatly from exposure to the weather as to be comparatively valueless,
-even for experimental purposes. Limestone is common in this district,
-and in the town of Phyöngyang I have noticed the use of caustic lime
-in the streets as a disinfectant. The iron produced at Yöngpyön, fifty
-miles to the northward of this city, which is reduced in the native
-way with charcoal, is remarkable for its malleability and purity.
-Inasmuch as all these deposits are of very great extent and lie near
-the sea coast, and in proximity to waters easily navigable by larger
-craft, it may be assumed as probable that the time will soon arrive
-when the iron of Korea will largely supply the ship-yards and machine
-shops of northern China. Silver is found in at least four localities;
-copper is worked in paying quantities in two; galena is widely
-distributed; and zincblende has been found near the capital. Sulphur
-is said to occur in Kyöng-sang-do; no ore of mercury is known to the
-Koreans, who import their supplies of the metal and its preparations
-from China.
-
-At the time of the opening of Korea by treaty, 1870-80, an impression
-seems to have prevailed quite generally that the country was extremely
-rich in gold, that great quantities of the precious metals were soon
-to be exported, or that mines of great richness would be found and
-worked. The years that have elapsed since this date have partly served
-to prove the fallacy of these assumptions, yet the doubt is not yet
-fully removed. Gold is now known to occur in many places in moderate
-quantities: in alluvial deposits, from which it may be washed by
-simple mechanical process, and in quartz veins, from which it is
-extracted in small quantities by crude and laborious methods of
-rock-pulverizing and washing. A small constant demand for the metal
-has always existed, for jewelry and gilding--the latter quite a common
-decorative process, which up to the present seems to have required the
-use of pure gold even for the crudest applications. The mines remain
-for the greater part unworked, however, for three reasons: (1) the
-native dislike for altering the geomantic conditions of any locality
-by digging holes in the ground; (2) the laws forbidding the search for
-the metal, for gold mining in Korea is a government monopoly; (3) the
-inability of the peasants to find a market for the gold that they
-surreptitiously work. There has always existed a chance of disposing
-of it by crossing the border into China, and there has probably long
-been a small steady export in this way; and a port has been opened
-near the capital where reside Chinese and Japanese merchants who must
-find a way of converting the Korean copper cash into some medium of
-exchange easily negotiable abroad, and who for this purpose have been
-known to purchase gold from the Koreans at a considerable premium. I
-have examined a number of specimens of Korean gold which had been
-brought to Che-mul-po and had passed into the hands of foreign
-merchants there. In several cases I found small pieces of quartz
-clinging to flat laminated grains of the metal of considerable size.
-
-In answer to inquiries that I made from time to time during a
-residence of more than a year in Korea I was told by the Koreans of a
-number of localities where gold was supposed to be abundant. I have
-endeavored to show these collectively upon a small map (Fig. III)
-giving the Korean names of the towns and districts with their English
-equivalents and the names of the provinces of the kingdom in which the
-places are situated. I was told repeatedly that the metal was most
-plentiful at Tan-chhön, in the Ham-kiung province. Concerning this
-locality our Korean geographer says, "at Ma-un, west of Tan-chhön,
-much gold is found. The mountains there are lofty and precipitous."
-
-[Illustration: Fig. III]
-
-
-
-
-THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN--ITS HISTORY AND OBJECT.
-
-BY JOSIAH PIERCE, JR.
-
-
-I. THE INSTITUTION OF NATIONAL SURVEYS.
-
-The earliest surveys were not laid down as maps but consisted of
-catalogues of property which are called "terriers;" of these the
-Domesday Book is the earliest extant. Had the art of surveying been
-properly understood at the time of the Norman conquest there would
-probably have been a Saxon cadastre along with the Domesday Book,
-which was ordered by William the Conquerer in the year 1085.
-
-"After this had the king a very large meeting, and a very deep
-consultation with his council about this land, how it was occupied,
-and by what sort of men. Then sent he his men all over England, into
-each shire, commissioning them to find out 'how many hundreds of hides
-were in the shire; what land the king himself had, and what stock upon
-the land, or what dues he ought to have by the year from the shire.'
-Also he commissioned them to record in writing, 'How much land his
-archbishops had, and his diocesan bishops, and his abbots, and his
-earls; and though I may be prolix and tedious, what and how much each
-man had, who was the occupier of land in England, either in money or
-in stock, and how much money it was worth.' So very narrowly indeed
-did he commission them to trace it out, that there was not a single
-hide nor a yard of land (the fourth part of an acre), nay, moreover,
-(it is shameful to tell, though he thought it no shame to do it) not
-even an ox, a cow, or a swine was there left, that was not set down in
-his writ, and all the recorded particulars were afterwards brought to
-him."--_Saxon Chronicle, by Ingram_.
-
-The publication of the Domesday Book was ordered first by George III.
-in 1767, and completed in 1783. After the discovery of the art of
-photozincography it was reproduced "in facsimile" in 1864-5, under the
-direction of Lieut.-Gen'l. Sir Henry James, then director of the
-Ordnance Survey.
-
-Little change (in the art of mensuration or surveying) seems to have
-been made until the early part of the 17th century when simple
-boundary line maps accompanied the terriers of the surveys made in
-Ireland in 1634, by order of Lord Stafford, then viceroy. Great
-improvements were introduced about that time in Sweden by Gustavus
-Adolphus, which must have become known to Cromwell, for in 1654, the
-"Down Survey," as it was called, comprised maps of the townlands, and
-baronies over two-thirds of the surface of Ireland, that is,
-comprehending about 20,000,000 of English acres.
-
-It may not be uninteresting or irrelevant to bestow a few remarks upon
-the development and methods of surveying in the seventeenth century,
-many of which have descended with little modification to the present
-day.
-
-When man first conceived the idea of owning real property the art of
-geometry or surveying became a necessity. Interest in other worlds
-than our own, and the measurement of time, led to the development of
-the science of astronomy, and of graduated instruments for measuring
-angles. Many of the most refined modern instruments are but slight
-modifications of original Arabian models, and the practice of linear
-surveying, or the subdivision of land into triangles, and geometrical
-figures, whose area could be computed, has been carried on without
-modification for centuries.
-
-The greatest development took place after the introduction of
-artillery in the methods and instruments used for trigonometrical
-surveying or range-finding. Every principle which is to-day known and
-applied in the construction and use of modern trigonometrical
-surveying instruments can be traced in a modified form to the
-construction and application of the instruments of the sixteenth and
-seventeenth centuries.
-
-In the practice of artillery, the first important question is the
-distance or range of the enemy. As in war it was clearly impossible to
-obtain the same by direct linear measurement, instruments were devised
-for measuring the range trigonometrically, all based on the
-calculation of a single triangle, the base and two angles of which
-could be measured. These instruments were simply modified to the
-extent of furnishing in the instrument itself a constant base or angle
-so that only one or at most two measurements were necessary.
-
-The one instrument that has received the greatest development in the
-modern type is the quadrant, a simple graduated arc from whose center
-was suspended a plumb-line, or which carried a movable arm with raised
-sights for measuring horizontal or inclined angles. This arm has
-retained the name alhidada derived from the Arabic.
-
-Such was the trigonometrical instrument used by the earliest
-navigators and astronomers for determining latitudes, and by surveyors
-and artillerists for finding ranges.
-
-In the latter part of the 16th century Thomas Digges, surveyor and
-author, conceived the idea of combining two such graduated arcs in one
-instrument, the one placed horizontally and the other in a vertical
-plane, the whole supported on a rigid stand or tripod, and he called
-the same his _Theodolitus_, which is said by DeMorgan to have been the
-origin of the name of the modern instrument.
-
-In the earliest books in the practice of artillery and of surveying,
-the crescent of the dreaded Moor appears in the woodcuts illustrating
-range finding or trigonometrical surveying generally floating over the
-tower of some captured castle or town, which it is desired to bombard.
-This clearly demonstrated that the chief use of trigonometrical
-instruments was for military purposes.
-
-Among the instruments of surveying of this period which became
-practically obsolete in England in the present century, but which is
-most widely used elsewhere, is the plane-table, unquestionably one of
-the earliest instruments invented for measuring or recording angles.
-
-At the period 1570, when the Germans claim that it was invented by
-Pretorius, a professor of the University of Nuremburg, it was
-unquestionably in use in England, and it is mentioned by Thomas
-Digges, in his _Pantometria_, published in 1590, as a platting
-instrument for such as are ignorant of arithmetical calculations. On
-the relative merits of the theodolite and plane table authorities
-still differ.
-
-Throughout Europe great activity in the development of the practical
-applications of geometry soon followed the exchange of ideas brought
-about by the introduction of printing.
-
-Side by side with the important geographical discoveries of the age
-came the minor improvements in scientific instruments which rendered
-national surveys and geodetic operations possible at a later period.
-
-With trifling modifications the instruments devised by Durer, Newton,
-and Gallileo are in common use to-day.
-
-Gradual improvements can be traced in the application of surveying to
-military and civil purposes, to mapping the campaigns of Louis XIV.
-and Marlborough, and laying down the forfeited estates in Ireland by
-William III., until in 1729 the first national survey on a large
-scale, for public and private purposes, was commenced in Savoy and
-Piedmont by Victor Amadie II., whereon nine years were occupied.
-
-The method of large surveys obtained the name of Cadastre (Terrier
-map). It was suggested for France in 1763, but was only commenced in
-that country in 1793. The exact derivation and meaning of the French
-term "cadastre" are not free from dispute. Some authorities refer it
-to the verb "cadrer" to square or correspond with, all objects on a
-large scale, plan, or cadastre being shown in their true position and
-proportions, whereas in a mere topographical map similar accuracy is
-impossible, and certain features must need be exaggerated for the sake
-of distinctness.
-
-The _Dictionaire des Dictionaires_ on the other hand derives
-_cadastre_ (formerly capdastre) from the mediæval-Latin word
-capitastrum (from caput "head," because formerly people were taxed,
-and afterwards property) and defines it as "a public register,
-containing the quantity and value of landed property, names of owners,
-etc., and which serves for the assessment of the tax on property in
-proportion to its revenue."
-
-In the _Recueil des Lois et Instructions sur les contributions
-directes_, the _cadastre_ is defined as "a plan from which the area of
-land may be computed, and from which its revenue may be valued."
-
-This, there is no doubt, is the sense in which the word is used on the
-Continent, while in England it is taken as denoting generally a survey
-on a large scale.
-
-It was not until long after the organization of the Ordnance Survey
-that it became a cadastral survey. Its organization at first was
-distinctly for military purposes, and the extension of its operations
-to cover all national needs only attained after years of discussion,
-and struggle for existence.
-
-The credit of originating and carrying into execution the first
-tangible project for a systematic topographical survey of part of the
-kingdom is divided between two engineer officers, both at the time
-holding distinguished positions on the staff of the British army. The
-idea would seem to have followed close upon the sanguinary termination
-at Culloden of the "forty-five" rebellion, by which the fate of the
-house of Stuart was decided, in the reign of George the Second.
-
-It was doubtless the outcome of that unhappy rising for it
-contemplated a general map of the Scottish highlands, precisely those
-parts of the country in which the heart and soul of the
-insurrectionary movement had all along centered. The difficulties of
-moving troops through these wild mountain districts, and without any
-clear knowledge of the passes connecting the glens and fastnesses, or
-of the correct distances intervening, would have been enormously
-lessened by the possession of good maps.
-
-The survey of this wild and inaccessible region was undertaken in 1747
-by Lieutenant-General Watson, an engineer, ably assisted by William
-Roy, who afterwards played a distinguished part in the earlier
-geodetic work of the Ordnance Survey.
-
-The map, at first intended to be confined to the Highlands only, was
-at last extended to the Lowlands and thus made general in what related
-to the mainland of Scotland, the islands (except some lesser ones near
-the coast), not having been surveyed.
-
-It is spoken of by Lieutenant-Colonel White, in his excellent book on
-the Ordnance Survey, as a "piece of work which appears to have been
-excellently carried out as far as it went, qualified by the remark of
-Roy that owing to the comparative inferiority of the instruments used
-and the inadequacy of the annual grants provided for the survey it is
-rather to be considered as a magnificent military sketch than a very
-accurate map of the country."
-
-The survey of Scotland was interrupted by the breaking out in 1755 of
-another of England's intermittent wars with France, that which gained
-her Canada, and the work was never completed.
-
-"On the conclusion of the peace of 1763," writes General Roy, "it came
-for the first time under the consideration of government to make a
-general survey of the whole island at the public cost." But, for
-reasons not assigned, the twelve years' interval of peace before the
-outbreak in 1775 of the American War of Independence was allowed to
-pass away without anything being done. There the matter remained in
-abeyance until, after renewed hostilities with France and Spain, peace
-was negotiated in 1783.
-
-The trigonometrical survey of Great Britain may be said to have been
-begun one hundred and six years ago.
-
-Astronomers of that day were desirous that the difference of longitude
-between the Greenwich and Paris observatories should be ascertained by
-trigonometrical measurement; and under the auspices of the king and of
-the Royal Society, General Roy, R. E., in April, 1784, began the task
-by the measurement of a base line on Hounslow Heath which was to serve
-as the starting point of a series of triangles to be extended to Dover
-and across the channel.
-
-This work was carried out, a connection with the French triangulation
-being established in 1786.
-
-Soon after this the government decided on having a general survey made
-of the entire kingdom, on the scale of one inch to one mile for
-military purposes, and General Roy's triangulation in the southeastern
-counties became the basis of the Great Triangulation, which was
-gradually extended over the whole of the British Isles and finished in
-1853.
-
-The one-inch survey was carried northward through England and Wales
-under the successive superintendence of artillery and engineer
-officers, and by 1824 had reached the southern borders of Yorkshire
-and Lincolnshire.
-
-At this time it became necessary that a survey of Ireland should be
-made on a large scale as a basis for general land valuation. On the
-recommendation of Colonel Colby, then director, the scale of six
-inches to one mile was agreed upon; the work in England was suspended
-and the force transferred to Ireland.
-
-It appears from a report of Colonel Colby, in 1840, that the purposes
-for which the English and Irish surveys were designed were gradually
-developed and not all originally known.
-
-The principal triangulation, on which the survey of South Britain had
-been based, was partly designed for astronomical purposes, and partly
-for a map on small scale.
-
-The detail plans were commenced by officers of the Royal Engineers,
-partly for the purpose of practicing them in military drawing, and
-partly for the purpose of making plans for the use of the Ordnance.
-
-The publication of some parts of this map on the scale of one inch to
-one mile created a desire among the public to possess better maps than
-had formerly existed.
-
-This led to the employment of civilian surveyors to advance the
-progress of the map, and it was found necessary at great additional
-expense, to revise and correct these contract plans.
-
-The work did not possess the accuracy demanded by the admiralty in
-forming the basis of their coast surveys for the Geological Survey or
-the civil engineers. As a military map its publication during war was
-suspended, and its continuance became a matter of doubt in time of
-peace.
-
-At one time the gentlemen of Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire proposed to
-the government to proceed with the map of their district out of its
-regular turn, upon condition of their becoming subscribers for a
-certain number of copies. These gentlemen partly wished for the map
-for their use in hunting, and partly for the improvement of the
-country in marking out the drainage of the fens.
-
-Prejudices existed, which could be traced back to the Norman conquest
-and Domesday Survey--against the right of a surveyor to enter a
-private estate, and in the early contract plans for the English maps
-the surveyors neglected the survey of the lesser streams, to obviate
-the inconvenience of trespassing and to save themselves trouble.
-
-These were some of the causes of delay, expense and insufficiency
-which had operated against the earlier surveys.
-
-The survey of Ireland began in 1825 under far more favorable
-circumstances than the Ordnance map of England and Wales. The
-triangulation commenced from a more accurate baseline than any
-preceding triangulation, and was designed to serve as a basis for any
-future survey in any scale, however large.
-
-The House of Commons passed an act defining its principal object,
-prescribing a legal mode for ascertaining the boundaries which were to
-be surveyed, granting the surveyors power to enter lands for the
-purposes of the survey, and preventing the removal of the objects
-used.
-
-The earlier methods of military surveying were abandoned, and new
-instruments and a system were devised for its execution.
-
-It is important to note that the organization of the Irish survey
-marked an important epoch in the history of the Ordnance Survey, viz:
-its change from a topographic to a cadastral survey.
-
-In Ireland, subordinate to the parishes, there is an internal division
-of smaller denomination called townlands, which are very frequently,
-but not uniformly, conterminous with property.
-
-The townland was the lowest unit of taxation for country purposes, of
-an average size of 200 or 300 acres, and originally the map was to be
-simply a topographic map, containing the boundaries of the townlands,
-the roads, the streams and the houses, with a view to the valuation of
-Ireland for the county assessment. The six inch was considered to be
-the smallest scale that could be available for that purpose.
-
-There was no intention in the original Irish survey to insert the
-fields, but when the valuation began, it was found by the valuators
-that additional minuteness was necessary to enable them to subdivide
-the townlands into the qualities of lands of which they consisted, and
-more especially that the boundary between the cultivated and
-uncultivated portions ought to be inserted on the maps with great
-accuracy.
-
-This rendered necessary a very extensive revision which was undertaken
-in 1830, and it became a survey by fields instead of townlands.
-
-This was clearly a wide and most important departure from the original
-intention of the six inch survey in Ireland, and it is not to be
-doubted that General Colby, who would not trust to paper measurements
-for the areas of entire townlands, would have adopted at the very
-outset, for his manuscript plans of these minute subdivisions, a scale
-much larger than that of six inches to one mile.
-
-The engraving of the six inch survey appears to have resulted from a
-demand for six copies of one sheet for valuation purposes when it was
-found that it would be as cheap to engrave it as to make that number
-of copies.
-
-So valuable did the six inch map of Ireland prove for many purposes
-over and above that for which it had been originally designed, that,
-in 1840, when the Irish survey was completed, and that of England
-resumed, the Government gave their consent to the adoption of the same
-scale for the unsurveyed parts of Great Britain.
-
-By 1851, Yorkshire, Lancashire, the Isle of Lewis, and several
-counties in the south of Scotland were finished on the six inch scale.
-
-Then began that long controversy which has been well termed the
-"battle of the scales" and which for eleven or twelve years retarded
-the progress of the survey and led to a large waste of public money.
-
-During the time that the Ordnance Surveyors were engaged in making
-their six inch map of Lancashire and Yorkshire they were called upon
-and employed to make, at the expense of the land owners, twenty-three
-plans of parishes and townships on the scale of twenty-six and 2/3
-inches to one mile for tithe commutation.
-
-It was even found that the plan of London, made for the Metropolitan
-Commissioners of Sewers, on the scale of sixty inches or five feet to
-one mile was inapplicable to house drainage within the area.
-
-Between 1851 and 1852 no fewer than three select committees and one
-royal commission deliberated on the scale for the survey, and fourteen
-blue books were presented to Parliament.
-
-The main point of the controversy was whether the six inch or some
-larger scale was best fitted for the national map. A host of persons
-eminent in science were consulted on the subject, and a great
-diversity of opinion was found to exist, the weight of evidence,
-however, inclining by a majority of four to one, to a scale of from 20
-to 26-2/3 inches to a mile.
-
-In 1853 a statistical conference held at Brussels and attended by
-twenty-six delegates from the chief States of Europe considered the
-question of national maps or cadastres, and pronounced unanimously in
-favor of a scale of 1/2500th of nature equivalent to about 25-1/3
-inches to a mile, recommending at the same time that the cadastre on
-this scale should be accompanied by a more general map on the scale of
-1/10,000 equivalent to about six 1/3 inches to a mile, and thus very
-nearly corresponding to the six inch scale of the Ordnance Survey.
-
-The scale finally adopted of 1/2500, on which the whole of England has
-at last been surveyed, is one which corresponds with that adopted for
-the national maps and plans of the chief countries for Europe. Lastly
-it possessed the incidental advantage that a square acre is to all
-practical intents represented on the plans by a square inch.
-
-Among the many public purposes which the national map was expected to
-subserve are the following: the valuation of property for the
-equitable adjustment of taxation and assessment; the sale and transfer
-of land and the registration of title; railway and other civil
-engineering work, such as the construction of roads and canals, large
-sanitary and drainage schemes, military engineering works,
-hydrographical, geological and mineral surveys; the reclamation and
-improvement of waste lands, and of land from the sea; transactions
-affecting land as between landlord and tenant; statistical surveys,
-the setting out and adjustment of parochial and other public
-boundaries and so forth.
-
-It has been amply proved on the best evidence that a map, with levels,
-on a scale of something like twenty-five inches to one mile is the
-smallest which can properly fulfill all these requirements.
-
-In the organization and equipment of the Ordnance Survey, as it exists
-to-day, no pains are spared to secure the utmost precision and economy
-in its methods of field work and publication.
-
-After more than a century of development and the completion of the
-cadastral map, let it not be supposed that its mission is at an end,
-for it is proposed to make a complete revision of all the cadastral
-work at least once every twenty years.
-
-This is rendered necessary by the constant changes in property
-boundaries, and the growth of population--which may be gathered from
-the fact that the city of London increases in population at the rate
-of about 50,000 a year, and that eighty or more miles of new streets
-are added in the same time.
-
-
-II.
-
-The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain as it exists to-day is a
-remarkable Publishing Bureau, from whose presses are given the most
-elaborate and accurate series of maps which any country possesses.
-
-Maps not alone confined to the representation of the physical features
-of the country, but containing every detail of interest or value for
-civil or military purposes.
-
-It has justly gained the commendation of the French that it is "a work
-without precedent, and should be taken as a model by all civilized
-nations."
-
-The principal scales of publication adopted by the Ordnance Survey
-are: (1) A general map on the scale of one mile to one inch. (2)
-County plans on the scale of six inches to one mile. (3) Cadastral or
-Parish plans for the whole country on the scale of 1/2500 or about
-25-1/3 inches to one mile, on which one square inch on the plan
-represents an area of one acre. (4) For towns of over 4000 inhabitants
-a scale of 1/500 of actual length on the ground or 10-56/100 feet to
-one mile.
-
-On the latter scale the city of London with its environs could not be
-well shown on a sheet of paper less than 300 feet long by 200 wide.
-
-When the facts are taken into consideration, that the Ordnance Survey
-is a cadastral one, in other words, that one of its many objects is
-the measurement and definition of all existing boundaries, political,
-municipal, parochial or private, and a survey and valuation of
-property for assessments, that its maps are accepted in courts of law
-as authoritative on such questions, then the problem of the scales of
-publication is the most important one to be considered.
-
-As an illustration of the relation of the scale of a map to the amount
-of detail, which can well be represented on it without confusion,
-assume for a moment that an observer is stationed in a balloon, which
-can be raised or lowered or placed at any desired height above the
-ground, and in addition that he is provided with a horizontal screen
-on which he is able to trace the details of the landscape below. The
-eye of the observer well represents the lens of a camera, and the
-screen the focussing plate. Therefore to produce a perfect image or
-map of the ground below it will be necessary to assume that all parts
-are stationary, balloon, plate and eye. For convenience assume that
-the eye remains over the centre of the screen at a distance of two
-feet. At a height of four miles above the ground the scale of the
-image on the screen would be exactly six inches to one mile, or a
-reproduction of the popular county map, on which every detail of
-importance such as houses, roads, paths, and fences is shown, and the
-smallest scale on which any attempt is made to preserve the relative
-proportions of such details.
-
-On such a scale the 1/100th part of an inch represents a distance of
-very nearly nine feet on the ground and consequently however accurate
-the map might be in its projection, as an image showing the relative
-positions of all objects of importance on the ground, the scale is
-clearly too small for the measurement of areas for valuation purposes,
-and it is but a reproduction of the larger cadastral map.
-
-Again assume that the balloon is stationed at a height of twenty-four
-miles above the ground, and that the observer places his eye at the
-same distance of two feet above the screen and attempts to construct a
-map from the image on the screen, which is now reproduced at a scale
-of one mile to one inch, or the exact scale of the general map. It
-needs but little imagination to foretell that houses would be mere
-specks, roads, faint lines, and forests, masses of color, in other
-words, that it would be more instructive to consult the general map,
-on which all details are magnified to be clearly visible and
-topographic features brought out with great distinctness than to
-attempt to trace with unaided eye, from the image of objects at a
-distance of twenty-four miles, the course of streams or roads through
-forest or moor, or to judge of the relative elevations or modeling of
-the ground from the values of light and shade. Without an intimate
-local knowledge of the county there would be nothing to indicate the
-name or boundaries of villages, or estates or the political and other
-subdivisions of the land, which are most clearly indicated on the map,
-in unmistakable styles of lettering.
-
-Another and more serious problem which would be lessened as the
-balloon receded from the earth would be the distortion in perspective
-produced by the irregularities of the surface. The higher points being
-nearer the balloon would appear in the image on larger scale than the
-lower, and only in the case of a perfectly level country, would it be
-possible to produce a map without distortion by the method proposed,
-and then only for a limited area.
-
-As the balloon receded, the relative differences of elevation would
-bear a smaller and smaller proportion or ratio to the distance, in
-other words, the distortion would grow less until at an infinite
-distance it might be neglected.
-
-We might conceive that the observer was stationed at an infinitely
-great distance, and provided with a series of magnifying lenses of
-suitable powers to produce maps of any desired scale, yet, beyond a
-limited area, he would still be confronted with the problem of
-eliminating the distortion produced by the curvature of the earth.
-
-Such is the conception of an accurate map which is an attempt to
-produce on a plain surface or sheet of paper, a horizontal projection
-of objects on the ground, which will show the relative positions of
-every detail on any desired scale with as little distortion as
-possible, and on which distances may be measured in any direction, and
-areas computed with a degree of accuracy only limited by the scale.
-
-When a survey of a small area is made, such as an estate or parish,
-which bears but a small proportion in area to the surface of the
-earth, curvature is neglected, distortion due to this cause being
-imperceptible, but in the survey of a large country it is of primary
-importance.
-
-Returning to the conception of an observer stationed at an infinite
-distance his position with reference to the new general one-inch map
-of England and Wales would be in the plane of a meridian passing
-through Delamere in Cheshire, and the published quarter sheets would
-be a series of rectangles each 18 miles by 12 miles, containing an
-area of 216 square miles whose edges were parallel to, and at right
-angles to the central meridian.
-
-Those of Scotland and Ireland have for each country a central meridian
-and projection.
-
-In viewing the county maps of six inches to one mile and larger
-scales, it would be necessary to assume that the observer was
-stationed over the center of each county except that, where two or
-three counties lie so well north and south of one another, the same
-meridian serves for more than one.
-
-In the reproduction by photography of the maps on the scale of one
-mile to one inch from those of larger scale, these facts, that
-different planes of projection are used for the latter, have to be
-taken into consideration.
-
-In countries of larger areas than England it is more customary to
-assume a central meridian for each sheet, in other words, the observer
-would be stationed in the zenith of the center of each sheet and would
-sketch but a limited area. The successive planes of projection,
-represented by the maps, would resemble the facets of a diamond, and
-it would be impossible to combine with any degree of precision a large
-number together in one plane surface. On the other hand, the whole of
-the one-inch series of England and Wales of Scotland or Ireland
-register perfectly, and the distortion due to curvature cannot be
-great, as the combined area of the three countries bears but a small
-ratio to the whole surface of the globe.
-
-Attention has been called to the fact that viewed from a balloon in
-ordinary sunlight the minor features of topography become flattened
-and indistinct.
-
-If, therefore, we regard a sheet of the one-inch map held at a
-distance of two feet from the eye as the picture of a country seen at
-the distance of twenty-four miles, we see that details, that would be
-invisible from above, are brought out with great distinctness on the
-map and every detail of topography is shown in bold relief. In other
-words the map is a diagram rather than a picture.
-
-In the representation of relief on the one inch series, two systems
-are common, contours and hachures. Contours represent the successive
-shore lines which water at rest would form in following the modelling
-of the ground at successive stages or elevations. If now we assume
-that the water, having reached the highest point, is allowed to
-retreat steadily to sea level the paths which the particles of water
-would take from all points of the surface are those which the engraver
-would endeavor to reproduce in the shade lines of a hachured map. In
-addition he would adopt an arbitrary scale of shade increasing with
-the steepness of the slopes, from white on a horizontal surface to
-dead black on slopes of forty-five degrees, or greater, to produce the
-effect of a model of the surface illuminated from above.
-
-In the Irish maps this effect is bolder and more artistic, an
-illumination from the northeast quarter having been carried out. The
-shade lines still preserve the paths of particles of water in motion
-on the surface, the color values being deeper on the eastern and
-southern slopes, shadows have even been projected across valleys and
-horizontal surfaces are in half tone, producing much the same effect
-as the illumination of the country at sunset in midsummer.
-
-The Irish maps exhibited are considered the finest specimens of
-careful hill shading and will bear critical examination. For
-comparison with these, other topographic maps are exhibited of many
-scales and countries.
-
-So far attention has simply been drawn to a few of the problems of
-map-making, which are, briefly:
-
-1st. The reproduction on a finite scale on a plain surface, of the
-natural features of the terrain, with all the artificial boundaries
-and objects added by man, so far as the scale permits.
-
-2d. The extension of such a series of maps to cover a large area of
-country still carried out with as little distortion as possible.
-
-3d. The reproduction of such maps on suitable scales to meet all
-demands.
-
-If the conception is still carried out that the map, at a distance of
-two feet, is but the image of the ground viewed from above, then the
-cadastral map of England, from which areas of fields and estates are
-measured for valuation purposes, would represent a view of the country
-from above at a range of 5,000 feet or nearly one mile, and a town
-plan, an image at 1,000 feet or a possible view from a series of
-Eiffel towers.
-
-This suggestion of an observer stationed in a balloon will not have
-been valueless if it draws attention to the fact that vastly more
-information is given on the map than it would be possible for any
-single observer to discover from an elevated station with an
-unobstructed view, the map being the compilation of the results of
-hundreds of observations by many workers, and that its scale and the
-amount and character of the detail shown have been specially designed
-to meet definite ends.
-
-It is beyond the limits of the paper to enter into the theory or
-practice of surveying, or to say more than a few words of the delicate
-and refined operations necessary in carrying out the geodetic or
-trigonometrical work of a national survey which binds together the
-many parts to make a complete whole.
-
-The principal triangulation of the British Isles was begun in 1784 and
-finished in 1852. Two magnificent 3-feet theodolites made by Ramsden,
-one for the Royal Society, the other for the Master General of the
-Ordnance, an 18-inch theodolite also by Ramsden, and 2-feet theodolite
-by Troughton and Simms were used in these observations.
-
-In the principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland there are
-218 stations, at 16 of which there are no observations, the number of
-observed bearings is 1554--and the number of equations of condition,
-920.
-
-In order to avoid the solution of this enormous number of equations,
-containing 920 unknown quantities, the network covering the kingdom
-was divided into a number of blocks, each presenting a not
-unmanageable number of equations of condition. These calculations, all
-in duplicate, were completed in two years and a half, an average of
-eight computers being employed. Many of the sides of the principal or
-primary triangulation are of great length, 66 of them exceeding 80
-miles, while 11 measure more than 100 miles, the longest being 111
-miles, that from Sea Fell to Sheir Donard. So great, however, had been
-the accuracy of the observers' work, that the average amount of
-correction of the observed angles was no more than 0".6, and the
-measured length of the Salisbury base differed from its length as
-computed from the Irish Base, 350 miles distant, by a difference of
-only five inches.
-
-The secondary triangulation interpolates points at shorter distances
-apart ranging down to five miles, the observations being made with
-theodolites of 12-inch circle. These triangles again are broken up
-into smaller ones of sides from one to two miles in length, for the
-use of the surveyor who is to follow and measure between the stations
-with the chain; and a further subdivision of the trigonal spaces is
-made in towns to points about 10 chains apart, where the survey is to
-be made on the very large special scale. In the two last cases, 7 inch
-instruments suffice for the measurement of the angles.
-
-
-LEVELLING.
-
-From 1839 to 1855, lines of initial levelling extending all over
-England, Scotland and Ireland were run, and the observed altitudes of
-the bench marks were reduced by the method of least squares.
-
-In England and Scotland, these levels are based on the Ordnance Datum
-at Liverpool, which is approximately the mean tide level of that
-place; in Ireland, they are based on the low water level at Dublin,
-which is about 8 feet below the mean level round the coast of Ireland.
-
-The detail levelling is carried out contemporaneously with the
-progress of the cadastral survey. Starting from the marks on the
-initial series, lines are run along nearly all the turnpikes and
-parish roads, and bench marks cut at intervals of about a quarter of a
-mile.
-
-The whole of the bench marks of the initial levelling are shown in
-position on the 25-inch manuscript plans, and their heights given to
-the nearest tenth of a foot. Surface heights, to the nearest foot are
-also marked on the plans, at frequent intervals between the bench
-marks.
-
-
-CONTOURING.
-
-Contrary to the custom in other countries, the contours of the English
-survey have all been surveyed and levelled on the ground, checked by
-the numerous bench marks, the standard of accuracy demanded in
-levelling being two-tenths of a foot.
-
-Owing to the expense of the process, about $1.25 per lineal mile, only
-the 100 foot contours have been surveyed, except where greater detail
-is required for military purposes, which information is not furnished
-to the public.
-
-
-HILL SHADING.
-
-The hill features for the one inch maps are first sketched in the
-field by the military method of slopes and sketch contours or proof
-impressions of the contoured sheet.
-
-Finished drawings from the field sketches are then made on cardboard
-impressions from the one inch outline plates, and finished as guides
-for the engraver to work by.
-
-Beautiful and delicate in finish as is all the work of the copperplate
-engravers on the Ordnance Survey, there is perhaps no branch in which
-they so peculiarly excel as in their delineation of hills on the one
-inch maps.
-
-
-III.
-
-It is impossible in the limits of a single paper to attempt to
-describe the methods and processes of publication which are carried at
-the headquarters of the Ordnance Survey at Southampton.
-
-Carefully prepared treatises on the subject have been written by
-officers engaged in the work, and for clear and concise description
-none are better than the series of articles by Captain H. Sankey,
-R. E., published in _Engineering_, in 1888.
-
-There are two points of great interest in connection with the Ordnance
-Survey which cannot be neglected. The one its military organization,
-and the other the economy of its methods of publication.
-
-Of its military organization, which has continued since the first
-surveys were made for military purposes, it may be said that the
-conservative precision of its methods of field work are best adapted
-for military control and discipline. Under the successive
-superintendence of highly educated officers of the Royal Engineer
-Corps, whose patriotic efforts have been to secure efficiency and
-economy in the service, the country has greatly profited.
-
-Many of the improvements and inventions that have made possible the
-publication of maps of all scales at the lowest possible cost, are the
-results of experiments made by these officers.
-
-It should not be forgotten in addition that as a branch of the War
-Office and the Publishing Department of the Intelligence Branch,
-military supervision is essential. Its offices are therefore not open
-for public inspection except on proper introduction.
-
-The author had the rare privilege of spending three months at the
-Southampton office in 1888, through the introduction of the director
-of the Geological Survey, and the request of our recent minister in
-London, Mr. Phelps.
-
-Nothing could have exceeded the courtesy and hospitality of the
-director of the survey, Sir Charles W. Wilson, and the officers in
-charge of the various departments, not alone in granting the necessary
-authority to inspect every branch of the work, but in lending personal
-aid and men for that purpose.
-
-Great interest was also expressed in the topographic surveys of this
-country which differ so essentially from the Ordnance Survey. In the
-former, field work and methods are directly adapted to the scale of
-publication; in the latter, the largest scale of publication governs
-the operations of the survey, and the smaller scales are reduced by
-photography, with a gradual elimination of unnecessary details from
-the larger to the smaller scales until finally the topographic map of
-the country, on the scale of one mile to one inch is produced, which
-possesses an accuracy and character that could be obtained by no other
-method.
-
-To illustrate this important subject there are exhibited a series of
-experimental and complete maps and diagrams which will well repay
-careful examination. They were prepared and collected at the Ordnance
-Survey at Southampton expressly for this purpose and with the kind
-permission of the present director, Colonel Sir Charles W. Wilson,
-R. E., C. B.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The author desires to state that many of the paragraphs of the paper,
-particularly those relating to the history of the Ordnance Survey,
-have been extracted from the following works and reports on the
-subject:
-
-1. The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, by Lieut.-Col. P.
-Pinkerton White, R. E.
-
-2. The Ordnance Survey of the Kingdom, by Capt. H. S. Palmer, R. E.
-
-3. Methods and processes adopted for the production of the maps of the
-Ordnance Survey, by Lieut.-Genl. Sir Henry James, R. E., F. R. S.
-
-4. Reports of Col. Colby and others in the Blue Books presented to
-Parliament--1850-1860.
-
-
-
-
-GEOGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE.
-
-REMARKS BY HERBERT G. OGDEN, GUSTAVE HERRLE, MARCUS BAKER, AND A. H.
-THOMPSON.
-
-
-MR. OGDEN: It was expected that Professor Mendenhall would be with us
-this evening to address the society on the subject of Geographic
-Nomenclature but he is unavoidably absent, having been called to
-Philadelphia, and has requested me to represent him, and present to
-you an apology for his absence.
-
-Professor Mendenhall has been greatly interested in this question
-since he assumed charge of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Questions of
-orthography and nomenclature have been before him almost constantly,
-and the variety of views elicited in response to his inquiries
-confirmed him in the opinion that the subject is of serious import. He
-has had, of necessity, to decide a great many cases for publications
-which were being made: finally a long list relating to Alaska came
-from the Hydrographic office, which led to a discussion and the
-suggestion that a board should be formed consisting of representatives
-from the different departments and bureaus in Washington that were
-interested in this matter, and that were issuing maps, charts and
-other publications requiring geographic names. It is too true that the
-different bureaus are now using the same names spelled in different
-ways, sometimes different names for the same place, and the same name
-for different places; indeed, the confusion is so great you may even
-read publications relating to the same locality and at first not
-realize the fact.
-
-The object that Professor Mendenhall had in view in organizing a board
-was to secure harmony; that all might come together; and that when a
-question arose between different bureaus it might be referred to this
-board to settle, with the concurrence of all. Such a board would also
-secure stability, as no bureau would undertake to make changes in
-names that have been accepted, as may now be the case when a bureau
-falls under new management, or the determination of the questions is
-referred to new officers without experience. This board, as proposed,
-was to be formed by representatives from the Hydrographic Office,
-Smithsonian Institution, War Department, Geological Survey, Coast and
-Geodetic Survey, Light-house Board, The National Geographic Society,
-Post Office Department, and the General Land Office. All these bureaus
-or departments gave their assent except the Post Office Department and
-the General Land Office; but we may hope that these departments will
-eventually be represented, when the practical usefulness of the board
-has been demonstrated by its decisions.
-
-There are three, perhaps four classes of cases that cause the most
-trouble in geographic names. In the first class, those cases where we
-are certain of the name itself--that is, we agree in the
-pronunciation, but disagree in the orthography; in the second class,
-where there is no question as to the orthography, but where there is a
-question as to what name should be used--that is, several names are
-given to the same point, to the same body of water, or to the same
-island; in the third class, where there is no question as to the name
-or the orthography, but a question as to the place to which the name
-applies--that is, there is no dispute as to the name, but it is
-applied to different places; this class is sometimes modified by
-questions as to the geographical limits to which a name applies--that
-is to say, the area to be indicated by the name; for instance, some
-body of water or a range of mountains, and may be designated a fourth
-class.
-
-To cite a few instances of these classes: we have the question of
-Wood's "Hole" and Wood's "Holl;" for many years it was called Wood's
-Hole, recently it would seem to be the conclusion that it should be
-called Wood's Holl; we formerly had "Hurl" Gate, and now "Hell" Gate;
-"Princess" Bay was at one time spelled "Prince's" Bay, the error
-arising, doubtless, from the pronunciation; we also have "Body's"
-Island or "Bodies" Island; we have a peculiar case on the North
-Carolina coast, "Pamplico" Sound has generally been used, now we have
-"Pamlico" Sound, legalized by the State legislature; on the coast of
-Virginia we have the case of "Metomkin," which has frequently been
-written "Metompkin" and "Matomkin;" in California we have Point
-Conception, whether it should be spelled with the "c," or with the
-"t," in the last syllable; we also have "Point Boneta" or "Bonita;"
-should Yaquina be spelled with one "n" or two ("nn"); Coos Bay, with
-"k" or "c." This name, I understand, is sometimes pronounced "Co-os,"
-as though it had two syllables; if the spelling of this name was
-governed by the rules of the Royal Geographical Society the "K" would
-be used for the hard "C," but "Coos" has been adopted by the State
-legislature and will probably be retained. One of the most singular
-perversions is found in "Bering Sea;" the explorer wrote his name
-"Bering," and yet we find it is customary, almost everywhere, to spell
-it "Behring."
-
-In the second class of cases, where we have different names for the
-same place, we may cite Bangs Island, at the entrance to Portland
-harbor; an effort was made not long ago to change this name on the
-Coast Survey charts to Cushing's Island, the evidence was so strong
-that an order was issued to effect the change, when the supporters of
-"Bangs" produced additional evidence and secured the retention of that
-name. On the coast of Florida we had two Saint Joseph's Bays, and a
-comparatively modern name, "Anclote Anchorage," was presented to take
-the place of a part of one of them, which led to designating the rest
-of the bay "Saint Joseph's Sound," Sound being more appropriate for
-the locality. We have also some notable instances on the Pacific
-coast, as "Cape Orford" or "Blanco;" "Cape Gregory" or "Arago;" "South
-Farallon" or "Southeast Farallon;" and in Alaska there are instances
-too numerous to mention.
-
-In the third class of cases, the locality to which the name applies,
-we may cite "Isle-au-Haut" Bay and "East Penobscot" Bay, on the coast
-of Maine; "Hempstead" Bay, on the coast of Long Island, a bay which is
-almost filled with small islands, rendering it most difficult to
-satisfactorily define the limits; "Chincoteague" Bay, on the Jersey
-coast, is an instance of growth; it was at one time called
-"Assateague," and although "Assateague" was retained for many years as
-applicable to the upper part of the bay, it has finally been
-restricted to a very small cove in Assateague Island. On the Pacific
-coast there are a great many instances, possibly one of the most
-difficult relates to the limits of Admiralty Inlet, how far it extends
-into Puget sound? Again, to the northward, is what for years has been
-called "Washington" Sound, an effort is being made to change it to
-"Possession" Sound, the latter name, I believe, was once applied to a
-portion of the area; perhaps we shall eventually see both names on the
-chart. The difficulty of defining the limits to which a name applies
-may be experienced in dealing with "Hampton Roads," or "Tybee Roads;"
-apparently simple problems, but who will undertake to define the exact
-limits of these famous roadsteads?
-
-These questions, even when stated in their simplest form, are
-oftentimes very complex, for several of the general classes I have
-referred to may be included in one question, and when we attempt to
-determine that which is best they become very perplexing. In seeking
-advice we are met with a variety of views; some will maintain that we
-should take the nick-names given by the fishermen; some prefer names
-that have been recognized independent of nick-names; some will abhor
-corruptions, while others prefer the corruptions, if expressive and in
-general use. The experts are very prone to hunting up the root, or, if
-necessary, to constructing one, and throwing out everything that will
-not conform with it. The fact that our country was settled by French,
-Spanish, and English, and that many names are derived from the Indian
-dialects, also causes peculiar difficulties in treating some sections.
-The rules of the Royal Geographical Society can be a great help, so
-far as they are applicable; they seem to have been used in the modern
-spelling of "Dakota"--for the man-of-war we had of this name some
-years ago, it was spelled "Dacotah," but in the name of the States
-recently admitted to the Union, "k" has been substituted for the hard
-"c" and the final "h" has been dropped. There is also great
-disagreement as to the propriety of the use of the possessive case;
-some will not admit it at all, others would like to drop the
-apostrophe and retain the "s" in certain cases for euphony: this is a
-question that requires special consideration in each case, as the
-omission of the possessive will sometime give the name a descriptive
-meaning not at all applicable to the locality or feature. The
-propriety of personal names is also questioned by many, and may lead
-to continued discussion in Alaskan nomenclature, where explorers and
-surveyors have been so liberal in bestowing new names on the same
-places. It would seem to be a good rule in selecting a new name to
-follow the old Indian custom of describing the place. An opportunity
-for an expressive nomenclature seems to have been lost in the
-north-west in transferring so many of our eastern names, instead of
-selecting new names from the rich native vocabularies.
-
-As different bureaus may be governed by different principles, and may
-not even be consistent in their own rulings, through new principles
-that may come in by the frequent change of personnel, it has
-heretofore been impracticable to secure uniformity, and disputed
-questions have been carried along for years. The board that has been
-organized is in the direction of developing uniformity in the practice
-of all. It is no easy task, but if guided by a generous spirit,
-willing to yield a little here and there, its object may be
-successfully accomplished.
-
-We cannot foresee to what extent the board will be called upon. It has
-not power to take the initiative; but we hope its rulings will prove
-acceptable; that it may establish a reputation that will be recognized
-by the people as well as by the departments interested in its
-organization; and that eventually rules may be recommended for the
-nomenclature of our own country that may be an acceptable guide in the
-determination of new names, as well as in the interpretation of those
-now in question.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-MR. HERRLE: Any one conversant with the state of geographic
-nomenclature of a large part of the world cannot fail to appreciate
-the difficulties in the way of the establishment of a comprehensive
-and uniform system of writing geographic names, that would be
-acceptable to all nations using the Roman alphabet in their
-literature. But while some advance towards international uniformity
-has been made within the last five years, we are still very far from
-it; we may, however, at least rejoice in the prospect of the general
-acceptance of a uniform system in geographic orthography by all
-writing the English language.
-
-I refer to the action of the British Hydrographic Office and of the
-Royal Geographical Society in 1885, when they adopted certain _main_
-principles to guide the orthography of geographic names, and thereby
-took an important and far-reaching step in the line of a reform which
-had already been too long delayed.
-
-In France a reform in geographic nomenclature had been earnestly
-agitated by Édouard de Luze since 1880, and soon after the publication
-of the system adopted by the Royal Geographical Society, the Société
-de Géographie appointed a commission which, in 1886, reported a system
-for the guidance of French geographers.
-
-In Germany, we also find individual attempts made (Egli, Kirchhoff,
-Ewald and others) to bring system into the orthography and
-pronunciation of geographic names, primarily with a view to secure
-uniformity in text books and in the teaching of geography in schools.
-
-No doubt influenced by the action of the British and French geographic
-societies the Imperial German Hydrographic office in 1888 also
-established rules for guidance in its future publications.
-
-We thus see three of the principal nations of Europe inaugurate a
-reform, the beneficial effects of which will not, however, become
-apparent until a sufficient time has elapsed, that is, until the
-British, French and Germans have had time to apply the rules in their
-publications, and particularly in the construction of new and in the
-correction of old charts. No reform of this nature can be carried
-through by the stroke of a pen, but a generation's life-time will be
-required to accomplish it.
-
-The adopted rules which lay down a general phonetic principle only
-require, of course, perfection in details, so as to furnish an
-unerring guide in the treatment of names belonging to special
-languages.
-
-If we compare the British, French and German systems, we can clearly
-see a gravitation towards uniformity in the spelling of foreign
-geographic names that are not originally written in the Roman
-alphabet. Each of the three systems contains important concessions to
-the others; the British, by adopting the continental vowel system, and
-the French and German, by representing certain phonetic values
-differently from the old way, so as to approach the British system. In
-the French system, this is particularly the case in regard to the
-letters _ou_, _c_, _ch_, _g_, _q_, _th_, _tch_, _w_ and _y_, and in
-the German system in regard to the letters _c_, _j_, _q_, _ch_, _sh_
-and _y_.
-
-There is very little doubt that English and French geographers will
-readily adopt the systems set up by their foremost geographic
-societies; but whether scientific Germany will be willing to follow in
-the wake of its Hydrographic Office, we will probably learn after the
-next meeting of the German Geographic Congress.
-
-If we compare the British, French and German systems further, we find
-also a perfect agreement in the treatment of the geographic names of
-those nations that use the Roman alphabet in their literature, they
-differing only as to exceptions from the rules of old forms of names,
-which, through long usage, are held almost sacred. The spirit of
-conservatism tends to retard every reform, and this one makes no
-exception from the rule. It is, however, to be regretted that neither
-the British, nor the French, nor the Germans have set any fixed limit
-to permissible exceptions, leaving, apparently, everybody to decide
-for himself what is meant by "long usage."
-
-If a radical departure from past usage is perhaps too objectionable to
-many, this much could be done at present to greatly reduce the list of
-exceptions, leaving it to the future to smooth over the remaining
-cases: let all names which are now written but slightly different from
-their national form and which are easily recognized in the latter
-form, be corrected, and extirpate all gross corruptions. Also lessen
-the number of exceptions in those foreign names which are readily
-understood when written in accordance with the adopted phonetic rules:
-as Kalkutta for Calcutta, Mekka for Mecca, Kutch for Cutch, Selebes
-for Celebes, Bonni for Bonny, etc.
-
-Another notable agreement in the British, French and German
-Hydrographic Office systems is found in their declarations in regard
-to diacritical marks in the writing of foreign geographic names. The
-British say that a system which would attempt to represent the more
-delicate inflections of sound and accent would become so complicated
-as to defeat itself. They therefore recommend only the use of the
-acute accent to denote the syllable on which stress should be laid.
-The German Hydrographic Office has adopted the same view. The French
-Commission in its deliberations expressed decided opposition to the
-adoption of Lepsius' or any similar system, and finally adopted
-besides the "_tilde_" and "_créma_," only the accent "_circonflex_"
-and the "_apostrophe_," signs of which the two last are ordinarily
-employed in the writing of the French language. "In our country," the
-French commission says, "a native of the Normandy and one of the
-Provence do not employ exactly the same sounds in pronouncing, for
-instance, Marseille, Enghien, or Montrichard, and, in foreign lands,
-we find still greater diversity in this respect." Therefore, we should
-use diacritical marks with the greatest economy, and only when they
-are indispensable.
-
-It is of course not to be expected that a certain school of
-geographers, who are in favor of the strict application to geographic
-names of a simplified form of Lepsius' standard alphabet, will
-acquiesce in this view, but it is to be hoped that all practical
-minded geographers will agree to reserve the extended use of
-diacritical alphabets for purely linguistic literature only.
-
-In the meanwhile, the United States has not been idle, and the
-Hydrographer, Captain Henry F. Picking, U. S. N., has taken the
-initiative by the appointment of a board to consider and report a
-system of orthography for foreign geographic names for guidance in the
-compilation of the Hydrographic Office charts, sailing directions and
-notices to mariners, which as we know cover all parts of the world.
-
-The Hydrographic Office, by its daily experience with the subject
-matter, is thus peculiarly fitted to inaugurate a reform, and it is
-hoped that the board, profiting by what the British, French and
-Germans have already done, will report rules, that may become
-generally satisfactory to American geographers.
-
-In our own country the territory of Alaska needs special attention in
-regard to settling the orthography of its geographic names of Russian
-origin. Russian names have always been more or less of a bugbear in
-geographic literature, since so great a number of them appear in
-different forms. The difficulties of transcribing Russian names so as
-to reproduce the correct pronunciation are well enough understood. In
-the first place the Russian alphabet contains 36 letters, of which 12
-are vowels and diphthongs, 3 are semi-vowels, and the balance,
-consonants. In this alphabet, there are 12 elements which have no
-exact equivalents in the English alphabet, and, on the other hand,
-there are 4 English sounds (_j_, _w_, _x_ and _h_) not represented in
-the Russian alphabet. Hence, whatever system is employed, we can only
-hope to give the pronunciation approximately. Many of the Russian
-names found to-day in English and American maps and publications show,
-by the way in which they are rendered, an utter absence of knowledge
-of the grammatical construction of Russian on the part of those who
-originally transcribed them. There are few other languages in which
-case and gender play such an important part in the terminal
-inflections of proper names as in this great Slavonic idiom. Any one
-not conversant with the Russian declensions should not, therefore,
-attempt to transcribe Russian geographic names into English, as he
-will be sure to blunder. On Russian maps, for instance; Behring Strait
-reads, "Beringov Proliv;" Behring Sea, "Beringovo More;" Kamchatka
-Bay, "Zaliv Kamchatkii;" Herald Island, "Ostrova Gheralda;" etc.
-
-By the by, I cannot exactly understand why the spelling of the name of
-_Behring_ should, within the last few years, have been changed on
-American and English maps to _Bering_. The navigator of this name,
-_Veit Behring_, was a native of Germany, in the service of Russia, and
-it is safe to say that his name contained the letter _h_. Naturally,
-in transcribing his name into Russian, the _h_ had to drop out, as
-that letter is missing in the Russian alphabet.
-
-The excellent system of transcribing Russian names into English,
-published in a recent number of _Nature_[1] having already been
-accepted by English and American representatives of various scientific
-institutions, it is greatly to be desired that English and American
-geographic societies should express their views of it at an early day.
-The system is easily brought in harmony with the general principles
-adopted by the Royal Geographical Society, by a simple declaration in
-regard to the diacritical marks by which, mainly for the purpose of
-facilitating correct re-transliteration of Russian names, the vowels
-_i_, _i_ [with macron], _i_ [with breve], _e_ and _é_ and the silent
-semi-vowels are sought to be distinguished in the written names. For
-the benefit of those unacquainted with the system of transliterating
-Russian, published in _Nature_, it is reprinted at the close of this
-paper.
-
-[Footnote 1: February 27, 1890.]
-
-A few words more in regard to the treatment of the Russian geographic
-names found in Alaska. This territory will in the course of time
-contain a large English-speaking population, and its geographic names
-of Russian and Eskimo origin should, in a certain sense, no longer be
-classed by us under the category of foreign names.
-
-The future official orthography of Alaska might, therefore, be treated
-liberally, that is to say, complicated spelling following from a
-strict transliteration might be simplified to a certain extent, as has
-been done with the spelling of many aboriginal Indian names.
-
-Of the geographic nomenclature of Asiatic countries none has become so
-rapidly well known as that of the Japan Archipelago, and we can
-already now class Japan among the countries having an official
-geographic nomenclature in Roman character.
-
-Within less than twenty years, the wonderfully progressive Japanese
-have established a geographic service for the survey of their domain,
-and a hydrographic service for the survey of their coasts and
-navigable waters. They have now published several hundreds of nautical
-charts, which are as good and practical as any published by other
-nations.
-
-On those Japanese charts, which are based exclusively on their own
-surveys, the names are printed in the signs of the '_Kana_' with the
-transliteration of the name in Roman character added. It is this
-feature which has materially helped us to a better and correct
-knowledge of their geographic names. Within the last few years the
-_Romaji-Kwai_[2] has made immense progress, and I understand that the
-society's system forms already part of the instruction in a number of
-schools in Japan. Hence, we may look forward to the day when Japanese
-books printed in Roman characters will supersede, to a large extent,
-the books in the signs of the '_Kana_.'
-
-[Footnote 2: Society for the introduction of the Roman character for
-writing the Japanese language.]
-
-One of the best authorities for writing and pronouncing the names of
-the districts, cities, towns and villages of Japan is a very recent
-publication[3] by our honored countryman, Mr. W. N. Whitney,
-interpreter at the U. S. Legation at Tokyo, who compiled this
-admirable book with great care and labor from the official records of
-the Japanese empire. It not only contains the names in the original
-Japanese print, but what is of chief value to us, also the
-transcription, in accordance with the _Romaji-Kwai_ system. We cannot
-do better, at present, than to follow this book in determining the
-orthography of geographic names in Japan.
-
-[Footnote 3: A concise Dictionary of the principal _roads_,
-_chief-towns_ and _villages_ of Japan, with _populations_,
-_post-offices_, &c.; together with Lists of _Ken_, _Kori_, and
-_Railways_. By W. N. Whitney, M.D., Interpreter of the U. S. Legation,
-Tokyo.]
-
-In not so satisfactory a state as the orthography of Japanese
-geographic names is that of the countries adjacent to Japan.
-Considering that Asiatic names have been transcribed phonetically by
-explorers and surveyors of different nationalities, at different
-periods of time, and who were often but little, or not at all,
-acquainted with the languages they had to deal with, it is not
-surprising that many of the names we find on the charts should have
-been written utterly wrong. That such was the case on even
-comparatively recent surveys is, for instance, illustrated by the
-change in the nomenclature on the French plan of Cape Koan Lan, in the
-Gulf of Tongking (Plan No. 3721). In this French survey of 1878 the
-same names on the editions of 1879 and 1886, respectively, are
-rendered thus:
-
-       1879.              1886.
-  Cap Cua-Lam.      Cap Koan Lang.
-  Ile Capuitao.     Cai-puï-tao.
-  Ile Soum-La-Too.  Siong-Lai-Tao.
-  Ile Laito-San.    Lai-Tao.
-  Ile Foum-Lung.    Ile Fong Wong.
-
-Such differences in spelling, and examples of pleonasm, as are
-indicated by these names, are found on the charts of all nations, but,
-under the beneficial working of the systems adopted by the British,
-French and Germans, similar errors are rapidly being corrected, and
-progress is being made towards international uniformity in the
-spelling of all geographic names.
-
-Owing to the number of languages and alphabets in use in the Indian
-empire, the orthography of its geographic names has for a long time
-been in controversy. As we see from the "British System," the Royal
-Geographical Society has decided to spell Indian names in accordance
-with "Hunters' Imperial Gazetteer of India," a decision which, in view
-of the fact that the spelling in the Gazetteer is not always in
-harmony with the adopted rules, is to be regretted. But we can at the
-same time understand the difficulties of the situation, and appreciate
-the strong love of the British for old forms and long usage. The
-differences between the system and the Gazetteer are, however, not
-radical, since the continental vowel system is followed; still, it
-would be just as easy to write Kalkutta, Kutch, etc., for Calcutta,
-Cutch, etc., as it is to write Korea for Corea, and thus be consistent
-with the rules.
-
-Geographic names in Malay and its branches we know mainly through
-Dutch, British and Spanish surveyors, and their status may be judged
-from the prefatory remarks in Maxwell's grammar of Malay, published in
-1882, wherein he says, that the spelling of Malay words in the native
-character is hardly yet fixed, though the Perso-Arabic alphabet has
-been in use since the 13th century, and that those _follow but a vain
-shadow_ who seek to prescribe exact modes of spelling words, regarding
-which even native authorities are not agreed, and of which the
-pronunciation may vary according to locality.
-
-On the charts published by the Batavian Hydrographic Office, the Malay
-names are rendered in accordance with the Dutch phonetic system of
-transliteration (only that the sound of _g_ is always hard) and as
-this differs from the British phonetic system in several particulars,
-it is clear that certain corrections must be applied to the spelling
-of "_Dutch_" Malay names to facilitate the approximately correct
-pronunciation of such names by English speaking peoples. But a source
-of trouble is the seeming uncertainty of the Batavian geographers
-themselves in regard to the orthography of many names, since it is a
-frequent occurrence to find the same names variously rendered on
-charts, or in sailing directions issued at short intervals of time.
-
-We can see, from what has been said above, that chances for
-disagreement in the rendering of geographic names, originating in
-countries that do not use the Roman alphabet for their literature, are
-numerous, and hence, the occurrence of errors in the application of a
-new system should not be too harshly condemned; nor would the culprits
-deserve to be dealt with according to the law laid down by the
-municipal council of the good old Swiss town of Küssnacht, which not
-very long ago issued a decree that the final _t_ in the name of their
-town should be dropped in all official communications, and that any
-local official failing to obey this decree should be fined.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-MR. BAKER: In the preparation of a map, the last things to go on are
-the names. If the map covers a region of country long known or thickly
-settled most of its features already have names. But comparison of
-several maps of, or writings about, a region almost invariably reveals
-confusion, contradictions and errors in the names. The same feature
-often bears different names on different maps. The same name has
-various spellings, and the names on the map may in their turn not
-agree with local usage. Examples of this confusion abound everywhere,
-and are a source of constant perplexity to the geographer.
-
-The names are often misapplied. The name of one cape or mountain peak
-through accident, carelessness, ignorance, or by intent is often found
-attached to some other cape or mountain peak. A small feature's name
-may be extended to cover much more than that to which it fittingly
-belongs; or a name rightly applicable to a large tract may be wrongly
-restricted to a small one. In the hands of the map-maker geographic
-names may be regarded as labels loosely attached and easily misplaced.
-Handled by many writers, both careful and careless, these labels
-become misplaced or lost; and in replacing these misplaced labels or
-in restoring lost ones much confusion and many errors arise. The
-newspaper writer writing hurriedly, the magazine writer without hurry,
-or the book writer working deliberately, each in turn finds that the
-investigation of questions relating to geographic names carries him
-away from his subject. If a question arises respecting a
-non-geographic term the dictionary can be appealed to and, right or
-wrong, followed without discredit. But with many or most of the
-questions about geographic names, in the United States at least, we
-have no adequate dictionary or "authority" to appeal to. As a
-consequence in most cases the writer takes indifferently what is
-nearest to mind or hand and thus produces new varieties in names,
-variants upon old ones or quite new ones. Such names are called
-corrupt until usage and familiarity removes the stigma and the
-corrupted name having grown respectable is adopted.
-
-A foreign name may be transliterated by one writer and translated by
-another. This course gives rise to two or more forms. The absence of
-uniform usage in transliterating, causes diversity in one case, and in
-the other as several translations are possible, and mistakes probable,
-various forms arise.
-
-The progress of all science is intimately associated with questions of
-nomenclature. Modern progress in biologic science dates from the
-adoption of the binomial system, and it is not too much to expect that
-progress in geographic science will similarly be found to be
-intimately associated with a study of geographic names and the
-principles which should control in their adoption and use.
-
-The object aimed at in these notes is to draw attention to the
-importance of the subject and to arouse discussion; the purpose of the
-discussion being to ascertain if there be not certain guiding
-principles which may serve to aid in solving the numerous and
-perplexing questions relating to geographic nomenclature.
-
-What is a geographic name? Without attempting a categorical answer to
-this question I would say that geographic names seem to me to bear a
-strong resemblance to the names used in biology. They are generic and
-specific. To designate any specific geographic feature we usually use
-two words, _one_ a descriptive term, such as river, island, lake, pond
-or mountain, and the _other_, a specific name indicating what
-particular pond, lake, or mountain is designated. The term Mississippi
-River is a compound name, in which river may be regarded as a part of
-a proper name. It is the name of a genus, whereas the term Mississippi
-is the specific designation. Of course it will happen in geographic
-names, as in biologic, that certain features or objects become so well
-known that a single name, either the generic or the specific will be
-used by itself to designate the object. We speak of Maine without
-prefixing the generic term "State of," the specific name being
-sufficiently characteristic. On the other hand here in Washington
-references to "the Avenue" meaning Pennsylvania Avenue are familiar to
-all. In this case the generic term is used for particular
-specification. These exceptional usages, however, do not appear to me
-to invalidate the general principle that the designation of geographic
-features consists in general of a specific and of a generic name.
-
-The origin of generic terms has been much studied. The origin of
-specific names has been studied but little and the present notes
-relate chiefly to this class. Specific names may be said to have two
-distinct origins, _first_, those of formal origin where the name has
-been given _pro forma_ and published in a book or map relating to the
-region by its discoverer, or by the earliest explorers. This covers
-the case for a small body of names. _Second_, there is a very large
-body of names which appear to have arisen without such formal origin,
-and to have, as it were, grown up by common consent in the usage of
-the people of the region.
-
-That which it seems profitable to discuss here, and now, is the
-principles which should be adopted and followed in the selection of
-the names which are to go upon the map; principles which will enable
-one to discriminate when usage is divided, between that which should
-be adopted and that which should be rejected. To make this clear, a
-few instances of the peculiar questions which arise may be cited, and
-then some of the guiding principles stated which it might be possible
-to adopt and to follow.
-
-The river which flows along the western edge of New York City is
-locally known as the North River. Shall this be called the North
-River, or Hudson River, or Hudson's River? And if this geographic name
-is printed in the text of a book, will you print river with a capital
-letter or a small letter? It must be borne in mind that this question
-is asked not for the purpose of immediate or categorical answer, but
-for the purpose of eliciting thought and discussion upon the
-principles which should control the answer.
-
-In 1793 Vancouver entered and mapped Port Townsend, which he formally
-named Port Townshend. At the present time the city situated upon that
-harbor, as well as the harbor itself, is universally known as Port
-Townsend, the "_h_" in the original being omitted. This is a clear and
-specific case, where the name formally applied by the original
-explorer is now modified in its orthography by usage. What form of the
-name shall be adopted? The former or original name or the present
-modified name? And if the original name is to be adopted, shall we
-proceed similarly in all cases and go back to the original form?
-
-In the case of names which have undergone transformations through
-ignorance or through usage, shall an attempt be made to restore the
-original orthography? Take the case in Missouri of the stream called
-Bois Brule, or burnt wood, and which has become in the usage of the
-residents in that part of the world Bob Ruly, and is so spelled in the
-local publications, and so pronounced in the local usage.
-
-When Champlain sailed along the heel of Cape Cod and discovered the
-extensive shoals which vex the navigation in those waters, he put upon
-his chart the statement _mal barre_, and a number of later maps
-applied this name to the southernmost point of the heel of Cape Cod as
-Malabar, and so it stood for 100 years or more as Malabar and may even
-be found upon some current publications. In the Coast Survey
-publications it is uniformly called Monomoy.
-
-Again on the north shore of Martha's Vineyard is a place formerly
-known by the Indian word Kiphiggon. On the modern maps this place is
-called Cape Higgon. Shall we in this case adopt the practice of the
-purists and restore the earlier form? In this same locality are four
-small harbors, called by the sailors _Holes_; namely Holmes' Hole,
-Wood's Hole, Robinson's Hole, and Quick's Hole. In current usage,
-except among seamen, Holmes' Hole has disappeared and been replaced by
-Vineyard Haven. Wood's hole has been converted into Wood's Holl,
-though still pronounced hole; while Robinson and Quick still remain
-holes. In this case shall we attempt to be consistent, or in other
-words to be uniform?
-
-In the vicinity of New Haven there is a hill occupied many years ago
-by Coast Survey parties, and called in their records Rabbit Rock.
-Surveying parties last year in searching for this station inquired
-diligently in the vicinity and failed to find any information
-respecting it for some time. The place, however, is well known to all
-the people for many miles around as Peter's Rock, and this name
-appears on the county atlas of New Haven, published in 1856. I suppose
-the name Rabbit Rock has found earlier publication on Coast Survey
-charts or in its reports, though I have not verified this supposition.
-But assuming that it has been so published, shall we now call that
-hill Rabbit Rock or Peter's Rock?
-
-Allegany County, New York, is spelled Allegany. A post office in
-Sierra County, California, is spelled Alleghany; the city of Allegheny
-near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, is spelled Allegheny. Shall these names
-be allowed to stand unchanged, or should an attempt be made to reduce
-them all to one form?
-
-In the last century, the place we now know as Sitka was known to the
-English as Norfolk Sound, to the French as Tchinkitane Bay, and to the
-Russians as New Archangel. The earliest of these names being Norfolk
-Sound. Is there any doubt in this case as to the advisability of
-retaining the name Sitka?
-
-The great sea between Northeastern Asia and Northwestern America, at
-one time known as the Sea of Kamchatka, and now known as Bering Sea,
-has been variously written Bhering Sea, Behring Sea, Beering Sea,
-Bering Sea, as well as all these forms with the addition of the
-apostrophe "s." I will not ask what is the correct name, as the
-question in this form seems to imply that there is a correct form, and
-all other forms are erroneous. The question should rather be, what
-form is it advisable to adopt with the view, let us hope, of securing
-its general adoption?
-
-And this leads up to the question of possessives generally in specific
-geographic names. Many specific geographic names have the possessive
-form, while many others do not. Is it advisable to attempt to secure
-uniformity of usage in this regard? I will frankly avow my own
-conviction which has resulted from more or less consideration and
-study of the matter to be, that the use of the possessive form should
-be discouraged and abandoned as far as practicable. While it seems to
-me unwise to lay down a hard and fast rule, yet there are a very large
-number of cases in which the possessive form may be dropped to
-advantage and without, I think, arousing any general opposition to the
-practice. When the theory held that the King owned all, and geographic
-features were named for the royal family or for the nobility, the
-possessive form was very frequently used indicating possession or
-ownership, and this in cases where such possessive form has now
-disappeared from the maps. Why should not the possessive form be used
-to denote possession only? A pond, a hill, a swamp, lying on Smith's
-land may be properly designated as it often is, as Smith's pond,
-Smith's hill, etc. But nobody would think of saying Madison's Place,
-or Washington's Monument. There appears to be a certain principle
-involved. Those particular features which are of a public character,
-such as states, counties, towns, streets, parks, etc., which are named
-for individuals are almost universally named without the possessive
-form. And this commends itself as a reasonable practice. Without,
-therefore, cutting off possessives from all names where usage has now
-fixed them with considerable firmness, there yet remains a
-considerable body of geographic names in which the possessive form
-remains, but which are not strongly intrenched in public usage. In
-such cases it seems to me we may advantageously drop the possessive
-form. Let us say Donner Lake, not Donner's Lake, Hudson Bay, not
-Hudson's Bay, James Bay, not James' Bay, Baffin Bay, not Baffin's Bay,
-etc., etc.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-MR. THOMPSON: I hardly know how I came to be brought into this
-discussion. The Secretary caught me in his net unawares and
-unprepared. I do not propose to trespass long on your time, nor do I
-suppose I shall add anything to a philosophical discussion of
-geographic nomenclature. I only wish to call your attention to a few
-principles that obviously should be followed in the selection of new
-geographic names and to show some absurdities and difficulties which
-are liable to occur if the sentiment in favor of Indian nomenclature
-is allowed full liberty. A geographic name should be short, euphonic,
-pronounced as spelled, and have a meaning or express some sentiment to
-help fix it in the memory. Especially should these principles govern
-when we consider that in childhood, in our school-days, we obtain by
-far the greater portion of our geographic knowledge.
-
-The old Spanish explorers followed these rules largely in their
-geographic nomenclature, and although "Saint" and "Sierra" occur with
-alarming frequency, there is always some reason for the appellation;
-either they saw a line of peaks cut the horizon or the christening
-occurred on the natal day of the holy martyr. "Rio Dolores" and "Las
-Animas" are certainly better than "Sorrow Creek" or "Soul Wash," and
-even "Purgatoire"--though the Colorado cow-boy corrupts it into
-"Picket Wire"--is better than "Cottonwood Creek."
-
-Some Indian names are very expressive, characterizing topographic
-features. In northern Arizona is a steep volcanic neck or needle, its
-sharp sides rising in one step twelve hundred feet above the
-surrounding country. From the base of this pinnacle, two long lava
-dykes stretch on either hand in a gentle curve across the mesa. The
-resemblance to the spreading wings of a bird is striking, and the
-Navajo Indian calls the rock "A-ga-thla"--the "Flying Bird." A name
-well worthy, it seems to me, of being placed on the maps of that
-region, as it is on the one I hold in my hand. But on the same map,
-close along side, is "Te-ze-ba-a-kit Lake," a barbarous
-appellation--unspellable, unpronounceable and unlovely. Nor can I say
-less in denunciation of "Zilh-le-ji-ni Mesa"--a name that needs
-intimate acquaintance with wigwam smoke and Navajo gutturals to handle
-lingually. But what shall we say of "Boo-koo-dot-klish Cañon;" the
-Navajo name for what the white man calls with better propriety, it
-seems to me, for our maps, "Bluestone Wash." "To-go-hol-tas-e Spring"
-could hardly be worse in English. And here is "Sa-hot-soid-be-azh-e
-Cañon" (pronounce it as you please or can) sandwiched between "Gothic
-Wash" and "Gypsum Valley"--one hardly knows which to prefer, Indian or
-English.
-
-"Cañon del Muerto"--the Cañon of the Dead--so named from the discovery
-of mummified or rather dessicated Indian bodies in its cliffs--seems
-very appropriate, but its brother cañon--"Cañon de Chelly," pronounced
-Cañon de Shay, will be neither spoken nor written correctly.
-
-On this same map are shown two small mesas, crowned with forests and
-standing beautiful and symmetric in the landscape. They attract
-attention at once and the Indian, with a fine sense of
-appropriateness, names them "Son-sa-la"--the "Twin Stars"; another
-name well worthy of being retained. Some patriotic American has named
-the deep gorge separating the "Stars" "Washington Pass," a good
-example of the right name in a wrong place.
-
-The sense of broad humor that often characterizes the Indian leads him
-to sometimes give the inquirer a name expressive of contempt or
-bearing a meaning hardly translatable to ears polite--"Nic-doit-so-e
-Peak" is an example--and I confess, with considerable humiliation,
-that I was the victim in this case.
-
-I present these instances, Mr. Chairman, to emphasize the necessity of
-adopting some guiding principles to aid us in the selection of
-geographic names.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX.
-
-
-
-
-RULES FOR THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES.
-
-CONTRIBUTED BY MR. HERRLE.
-
-_British System_--_French System_--_German System_--_Alphabets_,
-_Russian-English_; _English-Russian_.
-
-
-BRITISH SYSTEM.
-
-_Rules adopted in 1885, by the Royal Geographical Society at London,
-for the Orthography of Native Names of Places._
-
-Taking into consideration the present want of a system of geographical
-orthography, and the consequent confusion and variety that exist in
-the mode of spelling in English maps, the Council of the Royal
-Geographical Society have adopted the following rules for such
-geographical names as are not, in the countries to which they belong,
-written in the Roman character. These rules are identical with those
-adopted for the Admiralty charts, and will henceforth be used in all
-publications of the Society.
-
-1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in
-countries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch,
-etc., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.
-
-2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in
-languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by
-long usage familiar to English readers: thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes,
-Mecca, etc., will be retained in their present form.
-
-3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as
-the basis of the spelling.
-
-4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A system
-which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflections of
-sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself.
-Those who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name
-must learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and
-peculiarities.
-
-5. The broad features of the system are that vowels are pronounced as
-in Italian and consonants as in English.
-
-6. One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which
-stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names
-are entirely altered by the misplacement of this "stress."
-
-7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together, each one
-is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes
-scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in _ai_, _au_,
-_ei_.
-
-8. Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer.
-
-The amplification of the rules is given below:--
-
-  ---------+-----------------------------+----------------------------
-  Letters. | Pronunciation and Remarks.  | Examples.
-  ---------+-----------------------------+----------------------------
-     a     | _ah_, _a_ as in _father_    | Java, Banána, Somáli, Bari.
-     e     | _eh_, _e_ as in _benefit_   | Tel-el-Kebír, Oléleh, Yezo,
-           |                             |   Medina, Levúka, Peru.
-     i     | English _e_; _i_ as in      |
-           |   _ravine_; the sound of    |
-           |   _ee_ in _beet_. Thus, not |
-           |   _Feejee_, but             | Fiji, Hindi.
-     o     | _o_ as in _mote_            | Tokio.
-     u     | long _u_ as in _flute_; the |
-           |   sound of _oo_ in _boot_.  |
-           |   Thus, not _Zooloo_, but   | Zulu, Sumatra.
-           | All vowels are shortened in | Yarra, Tanna, Mecca, Jidda,
-           |   sound by doubling the     |   Bonny.
-           |   following consonant.      |
-           | Doubling of a vowel is only | Nuulúa, Oosima.
-           |   necessary where there is  |
-           |   a distinct repetition of  |
-           |   the single sound.         |
-    ai     | English _i_ as in _ice_     | Shanghai.
-    au     | _ow_ as in _how_. Thus, not |
-           |   _Foochow_, but            | Fuchau.
-    ao     | is slightly different from  | Macao.
-           |   above                     |
-    ei     | is the sound of the two     | Beirút, Beilúl.
-           |   Italian vowels, but is    |
-           |   frequently slurred over,  |
-           |   when it is scarcely to be |
-           |   distinguished from _ey_   |
-           |   in the English _they_.    |
-     b     | English _b_.                |
-     c     | is always soft, but is so   | Celebes.
-           |   nearly the sound of _s_   |
-           |   that it should be seldom  |
-           |   used. If _Celebes_ were   |
-           |   not already recognized it |
-           |   would be written          |
-           |   _Selebes_.                |
-    ch     | is always soft as in        | Chingchin.
-           |    _church_                 |
-     d     | English _d_.                |
-     f     | English _f_. _ph_ should    |
-           |   not be used for the sound |
-           |   of _f_. Thus, not         |
-           |   _Haiphong_, but           | Haifong, Nafa.
-     g     | is always hard. (Soft _g_   | Galápagos.
-           |   is given by _j_)          |
-     h     | is always pronounced when   |
-           |   inserted.                 |
-     j     | English _j_. _Dj_ should    | Japan, Jinchuen.
-           |   never be put for this     |
-           |   sound.                    |
-     k     | English _k_. It should      |
-           |   always be put for the     |
-           |   hard _c_. Thus, not       |
-           |   _Corea_, but              | Korea.
-    kh     | The Oriental guttural       | Khan.
-    gh     | is another guttural, as in  |
-           |   the Turkish               | Dagh, Ghazi.
-     l     | As in English.              |
-     m     | As in English.              |
-     n     | As in English.              |
-    ng     | has two separate sounds,    |
-           |   the one hard as in the    |
-           |   English word _finger_,    |
-           |   the other as in _singer_. |
-           |   As these two sounds are   |
-           |   rarely employed in the    |
-           |   same locality, no attempt |
-           |   is made to distinguish    |
-           |   between them.             |
-     p     | As in English.              |
-     q     | should never be employed;   |
-           |   _qu_ is given as _kw_     | Kwangtung.
-     r     | As in English.              |
-     s     | As in English.              |
-     t     | As in English.              |
-     v     | As in English.              |
-     w     | As in English.              | Sawákin.
-     x     | As in English.              |
-     y     | is always a consonant, as   | Kikúyu.
-           |   in _yard_, and therefore  |
-           |   should never be used as a |
-           |   terminal, _i_ or _e_      |
-           |   being substituted. Thus,  |
-           |   not _Mikindány_, but      | Mikindáni.
-           |   not _Kwaly_, but          | Kwale.
-     z     | English _z_.                | Zulu.
-           | Accents should not          | Tongatábu, Galápagos,
-           |   generally be used, but    |   Paláwan, Saráwak.
-           |   where there is a very     |
-           |   decided emphatic syllable |
-           |   or stress, which affects  |
-           |   the sound of the word, it |
-           |   should be marked by an    |
-           |   _acute_ accent.           |
-  ---------+-----------------------------+----------------------------
-
-
-FRENCH SYSTEM.
-
-_Rules adopted in April, 1886, by the Société de Géographie at Paris,
-for the orthography of native names of places._
-
-The geographic names in countries in which the Roman character is
-employed in writing (which includes the néo-Latin, Germanic, and
-Scandinavian languages) shall be written in the orthography of the
-country to which they belong.
-
-The following rules apply solely to geographic names in countries
-without a written language, and to geographic names in countries where
-another than the Roman character is employed in writing.
-
-Names of places for which the orthography, through long usage, has
-become consecrated shall, however, be excepted from the rules.
-Examples: La Mecque, Naples, Calcutta.
-
-The rules in detail are:
-
-1. The vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, and _o_ are pronounced as in French,
-Spanish, Italian, and German. The letter _e_ shall never be mute.
-
-2. The French sound of _u_ shall be represented by _u_ with a _tréma_
-like the German _ü_.
-
-3. The French sound _ou_ shall be represented by _u_, as in Italian,
-Spanish, and German.
-
-4. The French sound _eu_ shall be represented by the character _oe_
-[ligated] and be pronounced as in _oeil_.
-
-5. The lengthening of a vowel sound shall be indicated by the '_accent
-circonflexe_' (^), and the shortening by an '_apostrophe_' (').
-
-6. The consonants _b_, _d_, _f_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _p_, _q_,
-_r_, _t_, _v_, and _z_ are pronounced as in French.
-
-7. _g_ and _s_ have always the hard French sound, as in _gamelle_,
-_sirop_.
-
-8. The sound represented in France by _ch_ shall be written _sh_.
-Examples: _Kashgar_, _Shérif_.
-
-9. _Kh_ represents the strong and _gh_ the soft Arabic guttural.
-
-10. _Th_ shall represent the articulation in the English word _path_
-(Greek theta), and _dh_ the sound of _th_ in the English word _those_
-(Greek delta).
-
-11. Unless the letter _h_ is employed to modify the sound of the
-letter preceding it, it shall always be aspirated; it should,
-therefore, never have an apostrophe in names beginning with it.
-
-12. The _i_ semi-vowel shall be represented by an y, pronounced as in
-_yole_.
-
-13. The semi-vowel _w_ is to be pronounced as in the English word
-_Williams_.
-
-14. The double sounds _dj_, _tch_, _ts_ shall be written with the
-letters which represent the sounds of which they are composed.
-Example: _Matshim_.
-
-15. The _ñ_, n with a _tilde_, is to be pronounced like _gn_ in
-_seigneur_.
-
-16. The letters _x_, _c_, and _q_ are not to be employed as
-duplicates, but the letter q may serve to represent the Arabian _qaf_,
-and the _aïn_ could be represented by a double dot.
-
-The idea is to indicate, by means of the characters above given as
-near as possible the local pronunciation without attempting a complete
-reproduction of all sounds heard.
-
-
-GERMAN SYSTEM.
-
-_Rules adopted in 1888 by the Imperial German Hydrographic Office, for
-the orthography and pronunciation of foreign geographic names._
-
-The names from nations who use the Roman or German alphabet are to be
-rendered in the native form, excepting such for which a German
-orthography has been generally adopted, as Kopenhagen, Neapel, Genna,
-etc. Other foreign names which are generally known and whose
-orthography has been generally adopted, as Zanzibar, not _Sansibar_;
-Zulu, not _Sulu_, will not be changed.
-
-The letters are pronounced as follows:
-
-  a, as _a_ in _Vater_.
-
-  å, between _a_ and _o_ (_Åland's Inseln_).
-
-  e, as in _Eden_.
-
-  i, as in _Ida_.
-
-  o, as in _Brot_.
-
-  u, as in _nur_.
-
-  ä, (æ, Ae) retain their German sounds.
-
-  ö, (oe, Oe) retain their German sounds.
-
-  ü, (ue, Ue) retain their German sounds.
-
-  ai, as in _Kaiser_.
-
-  au, as in _auch_.
-
-  ao, not quite as _one_ sound.
-
-  ei, as in _Ei_.
-
-  b, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x and z retain their
-      German sounds.
-
-  f, retains its German sound; also for _ph_, but the latter will not
-      be used.
-
-  c, always soft (as _z_). For the sound of _k_, _c_ is not to be
-      used.
-
-  j [with umlaut], for the English _j_ (_dj_).
-
-  q, will not be used; it is replaced by _k_; respectively by _ku_.
-
-  ch, as _tsch_.
-
-  sh, as _sch_.
-
-  y, is only used for the consonantal sound, not for _i_.
-
-  gh, oriental guttural sound (_Dagh_, _Ghazi_).
-
-  kh, oriental guttural sound (_Khan_).
-
-  v, is always soft; not to be used to give the sound of _f_.
-
-When a vowel is to be pronounced clear and open the following
-consonant will be doubled: (_Tanna_, _Mekka_, _Bonny_). To lengthen a
-vowel sound, it will not be doubled, but if the vowel is repeated each
-will be pronounced separately (_Nuuluha_, _Oosima_).
-
-But one accent (') will be used to indicate if particularly necessary,
-that is, in exceptional cases, the syllable on which stress is to be
-laid (_Matupí_).
-
-
-
-
-RUSSIAN-ENGLISH.
-
-[Illustration: table of conversion of Russian letters to English
-letters]
-
-
-ENGLISH-RUSSIAN.
-
-[Illustration: table of conversion of English letters to Russian
-letters]
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-II., No. 4, August, 1890, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, AUGUST 1890 ***
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II.,
-No. 4, August, 1890, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. II., No. 4, August, 1890
-
-Author: Various
-
-Release Date: August 2, 2020 [EBook #62827]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, AUGUST 1890 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-<p><a href="#chap1">Korea and the Koreans</a>: Ensign J. B. Bernadou, U. S. N.<br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Illustrated with three maps.)</p>
-
-<p><a href="#chap2">The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain&mdash;its history and
-object</a>: Josiah Pierce, Jr.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#chap3">Geographic Nomenclature</a>: Herbert G. Ogden, Gustave Herrle, Marcus
-Baker and A. H. Thompson</p>
-
-<p>A<small>PPENDIX</small>: <a href="#chap4">Rules for the Orthography of Geographic
-Names</a>: Contributed by G. Herrle.</p>
-
-<blockquote><a href="#chap5">British System</a></blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><a href="#chap6">French System</a></blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><a href="#chap7">German System</a></blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>Alphabets: <a href="#chap8">Russian-English</a><br>
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#chap9">English-Russian</a></blockquote>
-
-<p>Published, A<small>UGUST</small>, 1890.</p>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<center><small><small>PRESS OF TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE &amp; TAYLOR, NEW HAVEN, CONN.</small></small></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h4>THE</h4>
-<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2>
-<hr>
-<center>Vol. II.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-1890.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;No. 4.</center>
-<hr>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap1"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>KOREA AND THE KOREANS.</h3>
-
-<center>B<small>Y</small> J. B. B<small>ERNADOU</small>.<br>
-<br>
-<small>(Abstract of lecture, with the addition of some new material.)</small></center>
-<br>
-
-<p>The Koreans are to be noted among nations for the possession of two
-very different vehicles for the expression of thought, which they put
-to nearly parallel uses for general needs of communication: a simple
-and very perfect alphabet, and a complex system of hieroglyphics. The
-alphabet they owe to the Buddhist priests, missionaries, who took the
-idea of letters from their sacred books, and developed the Korean
-symbols for the writing of tracts and prayers; the hieroglyphics came
-from the mother country and civilizer, China.</p>
-
-<p>The needs of a simpler mode of writing for the intelligent,
-non-literary classes of Japan, had led in that country to a similar
-development; but there progress stopped at a syllabary, and the
-alphabetic stage was not reached.</p>
-
-<p>Until within the past few years the development of accurate maps and
-charts of Korea has been retarded, partly from a lack of reliable
-information concerning Korean proper names, and partly from the
-absence of systematic surveys of the coast. Very recently, however,
-the difficulties of map making have been considerably lessened through
-the efforts of students of the Korean language, who have developed
-exact systems of transliteration, by the application of which the
-sounds of Korean proper names may be correctly expressed in our own
-letters. At the present day it would seem possible, therefore, to fix,
-by common consent, upon a general, systematic orthography for Korean
-proper names, to be used upon the charts prepared by all those nations
-employing Roman letters; and this without serious danger of clashing
-with previously developed national systems, or having to undo much
-work done by others.</p>
-
-<p>The system of transliteration developed by Mr. E. M. Satow, of the
-British Diplomatic Service, which has been put to practical use by
-that gentleman in his work entitled "List of Korean Geographical
-Names," would seem well adapted to meet future needs. It gives a
-simple series of equivalents for Korean sounds, and is remarkably free
-from diacritical marks. Mr. Satow's system has recently been employed
-by English and German authors, while efforts to extend its application
-would seem to have met thus far with no opposition.</p>
-
-<p>The French system of transliteration, which antedates the one above
-referred to, was developed by the French Roman Catholic Missionaries
-in Korea, and has been employed by them in their admirable works the
-"Grammaire Coréenne" and the "Dictionnaire Coréen," by far the most
-important yet prepared upon the language, and the first given to the
-outer world. The missionaries aimed at reproducing native speech, and
-to this end faithfully copied symbols representing shades of sound
-that are not to be appreciated by the foreign ear, and which in fact
-are often neglected in conversation by the Koreans of the present
-day&mdash;for the Ön-mun, or native alphabet, has long since lost its
-purely phonetic character. The simplicity of the French system is
-marred, therefore, by the use of a multiplicity of letters, which,
-appearing in the form of aggregations of consonants or of vowels, are
-more apt to mislead than to guide.</p>
-
-<p>Inasmuch as the proper names upon native maps, which are invariably
-written in the Chinese, may be correctly rendered into English,
-whereas attempts at the systematic transliteration of Chinese
-characters have generally failed, it may be well to allude to the
-points of difference in the two cases. The possibility of the
-transliteration of Korean depends upon the following: (1) that the
-Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters is independent of the pitch
-of the voice or <i>tone;</i> (2) that the native alphabet is especially
-constructed with a view to the easy reproduction of the Korean
-pronunciation of the same; (3) that the Korean pronunciation of these
-characters is quite uniform throughout the whole extent of the
-country; (4) that the Korean equivalents may be readily transliterated
-into English. All that is necessary, therefore, in fixing a geographic
-name is to have it written correctly in Chinese and in the Ön-mun.
-From the latter the English equivalent may be readily obtained. The
-need of the Chinese form arises from the fact that but few of the
-natives spell correctly, while many of them write Chinese well; so
-that it becomes necessary to refer both writings to some authority, by
-whom the native spelling may be verified.</p>
-
-<p>Wide spread as is the use of the Chinese nomenclature, it is none the
-less evident that the system is an artificial one, and that its
-employment must end somewhere. In those parts of the country that are
-the least explored, and where educational facilities are wanting, in
-the mountain fastnesses of the north, and among the many islands of
-the Yellow Sea, important geographic names occur that possess no
-Chinese equivalents: native words capable of being written only in the
-Ön-mun and which derive their origin from local peculiarities. To
-ascertain these correctly the services of an educated Korean are
-required; and it may be added here that no surveying party on the
-Korean coast should be without the services of a native guide, capable
-of speaking a few words of English. Such a man may be picked up at an
-open port. He would be useful in many ways: in preventing the
-destruction of signals from superstitious motives by the natives; in
-ascertaining from fishermen the existence of dangers in the intricate
-coast waters; in marking the position of towns and villages not to be
-seen from their sea approaches; and in securing supplies of fresh provisions.</p>
-
-<p>The preliminary study of the geography of an eastern country
-necessitates the comparative examination of data gathered from widely
-different sources: the early partial surveys of the coasts by
-mariners, and the rough maps made by the natives themselves. Inasmuch
-as large sections of the Korean coasts are as yet hardly examined, and
-since it is only within the last few years that foreigners have been
-allowed to penetrate into the interior, it follows that no accurate
-map of the land exists. In selecting bases for future developments it
-becomes necessary, therefore, to examine the various approximate
-representations, and to determine which of them is best adapted to aid
-the work in hand.</p>
-
-<p>Many writers upon Korea seem prone to attribute the mapping of the
-country to the result of explorations and observations made by
-foreigners. I believe this assumption to be erroneous and think it can
-be readily proven that, although the Koreans may have known
-practically nothing of the outside world up to the time of the
-treaties, some twenty years ago, they had, nevertheless, long before
-this formed an excellent idea of the configuration of their own
-country. The first important work accomplished by outsiders was the
-survey of the common boundary of Korea and China by the Jesuits,
-acting under the orders of the Chinese Emperor Kang-hsi, in the year
-1709. Severity of climate and roughness of country prevented the party
-from making more than a preliminary examination of the districts that
-they passed through, but a few fair determinations of latitude and
-approximations to longitude were obtained, and the general direction
-of the boundary determined. With the aid of these data, supplemented
-by information from native sources, a map was constructed, in which
-the Korean peninsula was connected with the general system of the
-world's coördinates and proper names were given in our own alphabetic
-characters. This map, which forms the basis of most of the
-representations of Korea in use at the present day, shows its origin
-in the transliteration of proper names in accordance with the Mandarin
-Chinese and not the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese characters
-employed to represent them.</p>
-
-<p>The information from Korean sources which the missionaries must have
-utilized in completing their work was doubtless attained by them in
-the form of native maps. Of these there are several good ones in use
-at the present day, two of which would seem especially worthy of
-notice: (1) the large map of twenty sheets dividing the peninsula into
-sections by parallel lines drawn from east to west, and (2) a map
-giving the country in eight sheets, by provinces. The key to the
-latter, showing the entire kingdom, as well as one of the expanded
-sheets showing the Kyöngsang province in the southeast, and the
-Nakdong river, the most important stream of the land, are appended to
-this paper, and will serve to indicate the progress independently
-attained by the Koreans in the art of map making. These plates have
-been reproduced from a copy of an original now in the possession of
-Mgr. J. G. Blanc, the French Missionary Bishop of Korea, to whom it
-served as an accurate guide at the time of his perilous entry into the
-country, fifteen years ago, during a period of severe persecutions.</p>
-
-<center><img src="images/01.jpg" alt="Korea"></center>
-<br>
-<center><img src="images/02.jpg" alt="Province of KYÖNG-SANG-DO"></center>
-
-<p>The preface of the Korean geographer, which is written in Chinese upon
-one of the sheets, is of interest, as it illustrates the object of the
-work, enumerates the classes of data utilized and alludes to
-difficulties contended with. I therefore quote it here.</p>
-
-<blockquote>"The geographies of my country are quite numerous, but all maps are
-influenced to a certain extent by the limit of the paper employed in
-their construction, and so distances are very incorrectly given. Thus
-ten or more ri (Korean unit of distance&mdash;about
-<small><sup>2</sup></small>/<small><small>5</small></small>-mile) are sometimes
-represented as two or three hundred ri; while sometimes two or three
-hundred ri are represented as two or three. The bearings given are
-also incorrect. Such a map offers great disadvantages to people who
-attempt to learn about their country. Therefore I have taken all care
-in constructing this one, both as to direction and distances of
-places, as well as to the situations of mountains and rivers. For
-distances I have made a scale in which one hundred ri are taken as one
-ja (Korean foot), and ten ri as one poun (Korean inch, ten to the
-foot). I have laid off distances in all directions from the capital,
-so that the general shape and position of the eight provinces are
-correctly represented. The islands, however, are only placed in
-direction with reference to the provinces to which they belong,
-without regard to actual distances. Where mountain ranges and rivers
-are represented as boundaries, they are necessarily repeated upon the
-sheets of adjoining provinces. In the measurement of distances one ja
-represents one hundred ri in level places, and from one hundred and
-twenty to one hundred and thirty ri where the mountains are high."</blockquote>
-
-<p>The assumption that the unit of scale represents an increased distance
-in mountainous regions is a peculiarity of Chinese as well as of
-Korean maps. Travelers who employ either are obliged in estimating
-days' journeys to consider the character of the country ahead before
-applying the unit of measurement.</p>
-
-<p>An examination of the various conventional features of Plate I and II
-will afford much information concerning the official subdivision of
-the country for governmental purposes, and will serve to indicate the
-facilities of communication that exist in a country where there are no
-railroads, and where almost every important route extends in a
-direction normal to that of the flow of the greater number of rivers.
-The eight provinces of the kingdom are exhibited upon Plate I as
-groups of towns, each group being displayed upon the original in a
-different color, all of which, as shades of various intensities, are
-fairly well reproduced upon the photo-lithographs. Each town is
-denoted by a circle of very exaggerated dimensions, large enough to
-allow its name to be written in Chinese characters in the enclosed
-area. The apparent multiplicity of characters upon the present map is
-due to the fact that all names are given in the native Ön-mun, as well
-as in the Chinese. The employment of the former is unusual and in the
-present case was resorted to at my own instance, in order to render
-the map more generally useful to foreigners. Each town is the seat of
-government of an officer who is subordinate to a provincial governor.
-The strength of any portion of Korea may therefore be reckoned in the
-native way as so many "cities," by the word "city," being understood
-both the seat of government and the adjacent lands over which the
-governor holds sway. The walled towns, which are quite uniform in type
-throughout the whole extent of the country, deserve especial mention.
-They are represented on the map as circles with serrated edges, and a
-glance at the provincial sheets will show that they are quite
-numerous, each province possessing from six to twenty of them. The
-number is greatest along the coast of the Yellow Sea and to the
-southward, facing Japan.</p>
-
-<p>As secondary fortifications may be mentioned the San-söng, or mountain
-walls, as they are called, built at the least accessible points of the
-interior ranges, generally in proximity to some thickly settled
-district. The more ancient are relics of the feudal period, when Korea
-was governed by petty princes each with his castle upon a rock; the
-more modern, witnesses of the Japanese invasion of two hundred years
-ago, when they were either pillaged by the enemy or else held by the
-people as places of refuge. A number of the San-söng are marked upon
-the present map; those of lesser importance are omitted.</p>
-
-<p>Not the least curious among Korean institutions is the system of
-communication maintained at the present time. At the yok, or post
-stations, represented on the map by diminutive circles, are kept
-numbers of the small active native horses, well fed and in good
-condition, attended by staffs of native couriers who are ready to
-receive orders from the station-master and spring into saddle upon a
-moment's notice. The service is well patronized and the couriers
-frequently employed, partly at the instance of the government, who
-desire to promote the efficiency of the system, and partly owing to
-the general accumulation of private needs of various kinds. A letter
-or parcel is thus rapidly transmitted from relay to relay, moving
-onward by day and night&mdash;except in certain mountainous districts of
-the north, where the fear of the tiger prevents night travel. Supplies
-of fruit and game for the royal table are forwarded in this manner to
-the capital from the most distant parts of the kingdom.</p>
-
-<p>The pong-wa, or signal-fire stations, are indicated upon the map by
-small squares placed at the summit of the mountains. They are
-especially numerous in the coast districts, where their sites are
-chosen with great care, in such manner that the fires that are lighted
-at each station at night-fall may be observed at some advanced point
-of the interior, whence a single fire may be again flashed on, to form
-a member of a more extended group. And so the lights proceed,
-re-collected and re-forwarded until the final combinations are
-gathered into a final group at the capital, to show that all is well
-throughout the kingdom.</p>
-
-<p>The faint network of lines extending over the whole country, as shown
-in the map of the southeastern province, represents the chief public
-highways, upon the determination of whose length and relative bearing
-the development of the map is based. In general, roads in Korea are
-well maintained, and during the greater part of the year are in fair
-condition. It would be found impossible to take a wheeled vehicle of
-any kind over them, however; for such use they are not intended,
-travel in Korea being performed afoot, or with the aid of horse or
-sedan. During the summer rains the streams rise rapidly; the waters
-pour down from the mountains, each rivulet becomes a torrent and the
-bridges are swept away. When the floods subside the local authorities
-compel the peasants to turn out in force and make the necessary
-repairs; delays of travel are thus reduced to a minimum.</p>
-
-<p>Korea is preëminently a mountainous country. With the exception of the
-alluvial plains at the mouths of the rivers, low ranges of mountains
-with narrow intervening valleys are found everywhere, and are
-characteristic. The main chain, forming the back-bone of the
-peninsula, is not clearly defined, as it is formed principally by the
-overlappings and intersections of minor chains, so that it is quite
-irregular as to direction, but a glance at the sources of the rivers,
-considered with reference to the intervening line of water-sheds,
-shows that it springs from the mountains of Siberia at the north,
-follows for some distance the line of the eastern coast and then
-strikes inland, trending to the southward and westward until it
-reaches the shores of the Yellow Sea. The loftiest ranges, therefore,
-are in the northern and eastern provinces. At the centre of the
-northern boundary is Paik-du-san, the "white-headed mountain," in
-whose slopes rise the Yalu, Tuman, and Songari rivers, the two former
-defining the western and eastern sections of the frontier, the latter
-a tributary of the Amur, an important stream of southern Siberia.
-According to Messrs. James, Younghusband, and Fulford, of the British
-Indian and Consular services, who visited it in May, 1886, Paik-du-san
-is "a recently extinct volcano with a lovely pellucid lake filling the
-bottom of the crater, surmounted by a serrated edge of peaks rising
-about 650 feet above the surface of the water. The height of the
-loftiest of these was found to be about 7,525 feet above the level of
-the sea."</p>
-
-<p>Besides the rivers of the frontier are others of the interior that
-deserve a passing mention. The mountainous nature of the country, as
-well as its proximity to the sea, implies the existence of numerous
-secondary water courses, but these as a rule are insignificant in size
-and so shallow as to permit of navigation only throughout limited
-portions of their extent. Among the larger streams that lie wholly
-within the country is the Taidong, flowing through Phyöng-an-do, the
-northwestern province, rising in the central ranges of the peninsula
-and flowing into the Yellow Sea. During the greater part of the year
-it is navigable as far as the city of Phyöngyang for native craft of
-the largest size. In midsummer its waters rise rapidly during a short
-rainy season; then quickly subside, the river resuming its former
-limits. To this sudden shoaling may be attributed the loss of the
-schooner Sherman, captured by the Koreans in 1871, the vessel going
-aground without warning at a place where a few hours before abundant
-water had been found.</p>
-
-<p>The Han, the river of the capital, lies about one hundred miles to the
-southward of the Taidong, and flows westwardly in a nearly parallel
-direction thereto, from the central ranges of the peninsula into the
-Yellow Sea. Its many branches join in a common estuary near the centre
-of the Yellow Sea coast, and their collective drainage area comprises
-a large portion of central Korea. Still farther to the southward is
-the Keum, traversing a fertile rice-growing country, while at the
-extreme south is the Nakdong. The latter is one of the most important
-streams of Korea, and the facilities that it affords for communication
-and interchange have done much towards rendering the district through
-which it flows one of the most fertile and prosperous of the land.</p>
-
-<p>The coasts of Korea are forbidding to the mariner and seem well
-adapted for the preservation of the seclusion that it has been so long
-the national policy to maintain. On the east, facing Japan, unbroken
-lines of steep hills, void of harbors, bend abruptly into the deep
-waters of the Japan Sea. To the westward countless outlying islands
-extend seaward many miles, liberally interspersed with rocks and
-shoals, between which eddy swift streams of tide-water. The terrors of
-the Maelstrom would find their counterpart in many a Korean whirlpool,
-which, forming in the vicinity of some submerged ledge, will cause a
-large vessel to heel suddenly well over, and will swing her many
-points off her course in a way to make the stoutest hearted captain
-tremble for the safety of his charge.</p>
-
-<p>The climate of Korea exhibits wide ranges of temperatures and
-hygroscopic conditions. In the northeast province, Ham-kiung-do, the
-winter is as rigorous as that of Nova Scotia; at the extreme south, on
-the island of Quelpaert, it somewhat resembles that of Louisiana. The
-warmth of Quelpaert is due to the proximity of the Kura-siwo, or Black
-Stream of Japan, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific, part of which is here
-turned into a cul-de-sac, from which it escapes with difficulty. One
-result of this is the creation of a stormy region near the island,
-where the mariner may at all times look for a hard blow. A
-characteristic feature of Yellow Sea coasts are the Chang-ma, or
-mid-summer rains, which set in with fair regularity in July and during
-their month's duration resemble in phenomena and general effects the
-periodic rains of the tropics. The winters, in all but the southern
-parts of the country, are long and severe and set in with great
-suddenness. As an illustration of the rapidity of this change I
-remember that on one occasion I was ferried across the Han river near
-the capital at a time when the only indication of cold weather was a
-film of ice along the river banks, and that within forty-eight hours
-afterwards I rode back across the river ice on horseback, over the
-line of the former ferry.</p>
-
-<p>Careful meteorologic records have now been kept at the open ports for
-more than five years; at Che-mul-po, on the Yellow Sea (the seaport of
-the capital, Söul); at Fusan, to the south; and at Gensan, to the
-northeast. Stations are needed on the Yellow Sea coast farther to the
-northward, at the extreme northeast, at points in the interior, and
-especially on the island of Cheju, or Quelpaert, whose weather reports
-may some day prove as valuable to the Japanese as those from Bermuda
-would now be to the navigator of the western waters of the Atlantic.
-All the above mentioned places are easily accessible and doubtless
-soon will receive attention. In fact, to the navigator of these
-regions this island of Quelpaert is almost of the importance that
-Hatteras is to the navigator of our own coast.</p>
-
-<p>As an important factor of Korea's future prosperity, and one that will
-enter largely into the determination of her future position among the
-nations of the east, may be mentioned her mineral resources. These yet
-remain in an almost undeveloped condition. The most easily accessible
-deposits and out-croppings, which are worked by the natives in
-primitive ways, afford evidence of an abundant and varied supply of
-the useful ores and minerals widely distributed throughout the whole
-extent of the land. Many localities, moreover, are well known to the
-people for their especial products. Thus the Phyöngyang province, in
-the northwest, facing China, possesses abundant deposits of coal,
-iron, and lime. Samples of this coal, which is but little used by the
-people, were collected several years ago from twelve different
-localities, and I remember that some of the Phyöngyang gatherings were
-tested on board the U. S. S. Alert, but were found to have suffered so
-greatly from exposure to the weather as to be comparatively valueless,
-even for experimental purposes. Limestone is common in this district,
-and in the town of Phyöngyang I have noticed the use of caustic lime
-in the streets as a disinfectant. The iron produced at Yöngpyön, fifty
-miles to the northward of this city, which is reduced in the native
-way with charcoal, is remarkable for its malleability and purity.
-Inasmuch as all these deposits are of very great extent and lie near
-the sea coast, and in proximity to waters easily navigable by larger
-craft, it may be assumed as probable that the time will soon arrive
-when the iron of Korea will largely supply the ship-yards and machine
-shops of northern China. Silver is found in at least four localities;
-copper is worked in paying quantities in two; galena is widely
-distributed; and zincblende has been found near the capital. Sulphur
-is said to occur in Kyöng-sang-do; no ore of mercury is known to the
-Koreans, who import their supplies of the metal and its preparations
-from China.</p>
-
-<p>At the time of the opening of Korea by treaty, 1870&ndash;80, an impression
-seems to have prevailed quite generally that the country was extremely
-rich in gold, that great quantities of the precious metals were soon
-to be exported, or that mines of great richness would be found and
-worked. The years that have elapsed since this date have partly served
-to prove the fallacy of these assumptions, yet the doubt is not yet
-fully removed. Gold is now known to occur in many places in moderate
-quantities: in alluvial deposits, from which it may be washed by
-simple mechanical process, and in quartz veins, from which it is
-extracted in small quantities by crude and laborious methods of
-rock-pulverizing and washing. A small constant demand for the metal
-has always existed, for jewelry and gilding&mdash;the latter quite a common
-decorative process, which up to the present seems to have required the
-use of pure gold even for the crudest applications. The mines remain
-for the greater part unworked, however, for three reasons: (1) the
-native dislike for altering the geomantic conditions of any locality
-by digging holes in the ground; (2) the laws forbidding the search for
-the metal, for gold mining in Korea is a government monopoly; (3) the
-inability of the peasants to find a market for the gold that they
-surreptitiously work. There has always existed a chance of disposing
-of it by crossing the border into China, and there has probably long
-been a small steady export in this way; and a port has been opened
-near the capital where reside Chinese and Japanese merchants who must
-find a way of converting the Korean copper cash into some medium of
-exchange easily negotiable abroad, and who for this purpose have been
-known to purchase gold from the Koreans at a considerable premium. I
-have examined a number of specimens of Korean gold which had been
-brought to Che-mul-po and had passed into the hands of foreign
-merchants there. In several cases I found small pieces of quartz
-clinging to flat laminated grains of the metal of considerable size.</p>
-
-<p>In answer to inquiries that I made from time to time during a
-residence of more than a year in Korea I was told by the Koreans of a
-number of localities where gold was supposed to be abundant. I have
-endeavored to show these collectively upon a small map (Fig. III)
-giving the Korean names of the towns and districts with their English
-equivalents and the names of the provinces of the kingdom in which the
-places are situated. I was told repeatedly that the metal was most
-plentiful at Tan-chhön, in the Ham-kiung province. Concerning this
-locality our Korean geographer says, "at Ma-un, west of Tan-chhön,
-much gold is found. The mountains there are lofty and precipitous."</p>
-
-<center><img src="images/03.jpg" alt="Gold mines of Korea"></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap2"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>THE ORDNANCE SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN&mdash;ITS HISTORY AND OBJECT.</h3>
-
-<center>B<small>Y</small> J<small>OSIAH</small> P<small>IERCE</small>, J<small>R</small>.</center>
-<br>
-
-<h4>I. T<small>HE</small> I<small>NSTITUTION OF</small> N<small>ATIONAL</small>
-S<small>URVEYS</small>.</h4>
-
-<p>The earliest surveys were not laid down as maps but consisted of
-catalogues of property which are called "terriers;" of these the
-Domesday Book is the earliest extant. Had the art of surveying been
-properly understood at the time of the Norman conquest there would
-probably have been a Saxon cadastre along with the Domesday Book,
-which was ordered by William the Conquerer in the year 1085.</p>
-
-<blockquote>"After this had the king a very large meeting, and a very deep
-consultation with his council about this land, how it was occupied,
-and by what sort of men. Then sent he his men all over England, into
-each shire, commissioning them to find out 'how many hundreds of hides
-were in the shire; what land the king himself had, and what stock upon
-the land, or what dues he ought to have by the year from the shire.'
-Also he commissioned them to record in writing, 'How much land his
-archbishops had, and his diocesan bishops, and his abbots, and his
-earls; and though I may be prolix and tedious, what and how much each
-man had, who was the occupier of land in England, either in money or
-in stock, and how much money it was worth.' So very narrowly indeed
-did he commission them to trace it out, that there was not a single
-hide nor a yard of land (the fourth part of an acre), nay, moreover,
-(it is shameful to tell, though he thought it no shame to do it) not
-even an ox, a cow, or a swine was there left, that was not set down in
-his writ, and all the recorded particulars were afterwards brought to
-him."&mdash;<i>Saxon Chronicle, by Ingram</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<p>The publication of the Domesday Book was ordered first by George III.
-in 1767, and completed in 1783. After the discovery of the art of
-photozincography it was reproduced "in facsimile" in 1864&ndash;5, under the
-direction of Lieut.-Gen'l. Sir Henry James, then director of the
-Ordnance Survey.</p>
-
-<p>Little change (in the art of mensuration or surveying) seems to have
-been made until the early part of the 17th century when simple
-boundary line maps accompanied the terriers of the surveys made in
-Ireland in 1634, by order of Lord Stafford, then viceroy. Great
-improvements were introduced about that time in Sweden by Gustavus
-Adolphus, which must have become known to Cromwell, for in 1654, the
-"Down Survey," as it was called, comprised maps of the townlands, and
-baronies over two-thirds of the surface of Ireland, that is,
-comprehending about 20,000,000 of English acres.</p>
-
-<p>It may not be uninteresting or irrelevant to bestow a few remarks upon
-the development and methods of surveying in the seventeenth century,
-many of which have descended with little modification to the present day.</p>
-
-<p>When man first conceived the idea of owning real property the art of
-geometry or surveying became a necessity. Interest in other worlds
-than our own, and the measurement of time, led to the development of
-the science of astronomy, and of graduated instruments for measuring
-angles. Many of the most refined modern instruments are but slight
-modifications of original Arabian models, and the practice of linear
-surveying, or the subdivision of land into triangles, and geometrical
-figures, whose area could be computed, has been carried on without
-modification for centuries.</p>
-
-<p>The greatest development took place after the introduction of
-artillery in the methods and instruments used for trigonometrical
-surveying or range-finding. Every principle which is to-day known and
-applied in the construction and use of modern trigonometrical
-surveying instruments can be traced in a modified form to the
-construction and application of the instruments of the sixteenth and
-seventeenth centuries.</p>
-
-<p>In the practice of artillery, the first important question is the
-distance or range of the enemy. As in war it was clearly impossible to
-obtain the same by direct linear measurement, instruments were devised
-for measuring the range trigonometrically, all based on the
-calculation of a single triangle, the base and two angles of which
-could be measured. These instruments were simply modified to the
-extent of furnishing in the instrument itself a constant base or angle
-so that only one or at most two measurements were necessary.</p>
-
-<p>The one instrument that has received the greatest development in the
-modern type is the quadrant, a simple graduated arc from whose center
-was suspended a plumb-line, or which carried a movable arm with raised
-sights for measuring horizontal or inclined angles. This arm has
-retained the name alhidada derived from the Arabic.</p>
-
-<p>Such was the trigonometrical instrument used by the earliest
-navigators and astronomers for determining latitudes, and by surveyors
-and artillerists for finding ranges.</p>
-
-<p>In the latter part of the 16th century Thomas Digges, surveyor and
-author, conceived the idea of combining two such graduated arcs in one
-instrument, the one placed horizontally and the other in a vertical
-plane, the whole supported on a rigid stand or tripod, and he called
-the same his <i>Theodolitus</i>, which is said by DeMorgan to have been the
-origin of the name of the modern instrument.</p>
-
-<p>In the earliest books in the practice of artillery and of surveying,
-the crescent of the dreaded Moor appears in the woodcuts illustrating
-range finding or trigonometrical surveying generally floating over the
-tower of some captured castle or town, which it is desired to bombard.
-This clearly demonstrated that the chief use of trigonometrical
-instruments was for military purposes.</p>
-
-<p>Among the instruments of surveying of this period which became
-practically obsolete in England in the present century, but which is
-most widely used elsewhere, is the plane-table, unquestionably one of
-the earliest instruments invented for measuring or recording angles.</p>
-
-<p>At the period 1570, when the Germans claim that it was invented by
-Pretorius, a professor of the University of Nuremburg, it was
-unquestionably in use in England, and it is mentioned by Thomas
-Digges, in his <i>Pantometria</i>, published in 1590, as a platting
-instrument for such as are ignorant of arithmetical calculations. On
-the relative merits of the theodolite and plane table authorities
-still differ.</p>
-
-<p>Throughout Europe great activity in the development of the practical
-applications of geometry soon followed the exchange of ideas brought
-about by the introduction of printing.</p>
-
-<p>Side by side with the important geographical discoveries of the age
-came the minor improvements in scientific instruments which rendered
-national surveys and geodetic operations possible at a later period.</p>
-
-<p>With trifling modifications the instruments devised by Durer, Newton,
-and Gallileo are in common use to-day.</p>
-
-<p>Gradual improvements can be traced in the application of surveying to
-military and civil purposes, to mapping the campaigns of Louis XIV.
-and Marlborough, and laying down the forfeited estates in Ireland by
-William III., until in 1729 the first national survey on a large
-scale, for public and private purposes, was commenced in Savoy and
-Piedmont by Victor Amadie II., whereon nine years were occupied.</p>
-
-<p>The method of large surveys obtained the name of Cadastre (Terrier
-map). It was suggested for France in 1763, but was only commenced in
-that country in 1793. The exact derivation and meaning of the French
-term "cadastre" are not free from dispute. Some authorities refer it
-to the verb "cadrer" to square or correspond with, all objects on a
-large scale, plan, or cadastre being shown in their true position and
-proportions, whereas in a mere topographical map similar accuracy is
-impossible, and certain features must need be exaggerated for the sake
-of distinctness.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Dictionaire des Dictionaires</i> on the other hand derives
-<i>cadastre</i> (formerly capdastre) from the mediæval-Latin word
-capitastrum (from caput "head," because formerly people were taxed,
-and afterwards property) and defines it as "a public register,
-containing the quantity and value of landed property, names of owners,
-etc., and which serves for the assessment of the tax on property in
-proportion to its revenue."</p>
-
-<p>In the <i>Recueil des Lois et Instructions sur les contributions
-directes</i>, the <i>cadastre</i> is defined as "a plan from which the area of
-land may be computed, and from which its revenue may be valued."</p>
-
-<p>This, there is no doubt, is the sense in which the word is used on the
-Continent, while in England it is taken as denoting generally a survey
-on a large scale.</p>
-
-<p>It was not until long after the organization of the Ordnance Survey
-that it became a cadastral survey. Its organization at first was
-distinctly for military purposes, and the extension of its operations
-to cover all national needs only attained after years of discussion,
-and struggle for existence.</p>
-
-<p>The credit of originating and carrying into execution the first
-tangible project for a systematic topographical survey of part of the
-kingdom is divided between two engineer officers, both at the time
-holding distinguished positions on the staff of the British army. The
-idea would seem to have followed close upon the sanguinary termination
-at Culloden of the "forty-five" rebellion, by which the fate of the
-house of Stuart was decided, in the reign of George the Second.</p>
-
-<p>It was doubtless the outcome of that unhappy rising for it
-contemplated a general map of the Scottish highlands, precisely those
-parts of the country in which the heart and soul of the
-insurrectionary movement had all along centered. The difficulties of
-moving troops through these wild mountain districts, and without any
-clear knowledge of the passes connecting the glens and fastnesses, or
-of the correct distances intervening, would have been enormously
-lessened by the possession of good maps.</p>
-
-<p>The survey of this wild and inaccessible region was undertaken in 1747
-by Lieutenant-General Watson, an engineer, ably assisted by William
-Roy, who afterwards played a distinguished part in the earlier
-geodetic work of the Ordnance Survey.</p>
-
-<p>The map, at first intended to be confined to the Highlands only, was
-at last extended to the Lowlands and thus made general in what related
-to the mainland of Scotland, the islands (except some lesser ones near
-the coast), not having been surveyed.</p>
-
-<p>It is spoken of by Lieutenant-Colonel White, in his excellent book on
-the Ordnance Survey, as a "piece of work which appears to have been
-excellently carried out as far as it went, qualified by the remark of
-Roy that owing to the comparative inferiority of the instruments used
-and the inadequacy of the annual grants provided for the survey it is
-rather to be considered as a magnificent military sketch than a very
-accurate map of the country."</p>
-
-<p>The survey of Scotland was interrupted by the breaking out in 1755 of
-another of England's intermittent wars with France, that which gained
-her Canada, and the work was never completed.</p>
-
-<p>"On the conclusion of the peace of 1763," writes General Roy, "it came
-for the first time under the consideration of government to make a
-general survey of the whole island at the public cost." But, for
-reasons not assigned, the twelve years' interval of peace before the
-outbreak in 1775 of the American War of Independence was allowed to
-pass away without anything being done. There the matter remained in
-abeyance until, after renewed hostilities with France and Spain, peace
-was negotiated in 1783.</p>
-
-<p>The trigonometrical survey of Great Britain may be said to have been
-begun one hundred and six years ago.</p>
-
-<p>Astronomers of that day were desirous that the difference of longitude
-between the Greenwich and Paris observatories should be ascertained by
-trigonometrical measurement; and under the auspices of the king and of
-the Royal Society, General Roy, R. E., in April, 1784, began the task
-by the measurement of a base line on Hounslow Heath which was to serve
-as the starting point of a series of triangles to be extended to Dover
-and across the channel.</p>
-
-<p>This work was carried out, a connection with the French triangulation
-being established in 1786.</p>
-
-<p>Soon after this the government decided on having a general survey made
-of the entire kingdom, on the scale of one inch to one mile for
-military purposes, and General Roy's triangulation in the southeastern
-counties became the basis of the Great Triangulation, which was
-gradually extended over the whole of the British Isles and finished in 1853.</p>
-
-<p>The one-inch survey was carried northward through England and Wales
-under the successive superintendence of artillery and engineer
-officers, and by 1824 had reached the southern borders of Yorkshire
-and Lincolnshire.</p>
-
-<p>At this time it became necessary that a survey of Ireland should be
-made on a large scale as a basis for general land valuation. On the
-recommendation of Colonel Colby, then director, the scale of six
-inches to one mile was agreed upon; the work in England was suspended
-and the force transferred to Ireland.</p>
-
-<p>It appears from a report of Colonel Colby, in 1840, that the purposes
-for which the English and Irish surveys were designed were gradually
-developed and not all originally known.</p>
-
-<p>The principal triangulation, on which the survey of South Britain had
-been based, was partly designed for astronomical purposes, and partly
-for a map on small scale.</p>
-
-<p>The detail plans were commenced by officers of the Royal Engineers,
-partly for the purpose of practicing them in military drawing, and
-partly for the purpose of making plans for the use of the Ordnance.</p>
-
-<p>The publication of some parts of this map on the scale of one inch to
-one mile created a desire among the public to possess better maps than
-had formerly existed.</p>
-
-<p>This led to the employment of civilian surveyors to advance the
-progress of the map, and it was found necessary at great additional
-expense, to revise and correct these contract plans.</p>
-
-<p>The work did not possess the accuracy demanded by the admiralty in
-forming the basis of their coast surveys for the Geological Survey or
-the civil engineers. As a military map its publication during war was
-suspended, and its continuance became a matter of doubt in time of peace.</p>
-
-<p>At one time the gentlemen of Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire proposed to
-the government to proceed with the map of their district out of its
-regular turn, upon condition of their becoming subscribers for a
-certain number of copies. These gentlemen partly wished for the map
-for their use in hunting, and partly for the improvement of the
-country in marking out the drainage of the fens.</p>
-
-<p>Prejudices existed, which could be traced back to the Norman conquest
-and Domesday Survey&mdash;against the right of a surveyor to enter a
-private estate, and in the early contract plans for the English maps
-the surveyors neglected the survey of the lesser streams, to obviate
-the inconvenience of trespassing and to save themselves trouble.</p>
-
-<p>These were some of the causes of delay, expense and insufficiency
-which had operated against the earlier surveys.</p>
-
-<p>The survey of Ireland began in 1825 under far more favorable
-circumstances than the Ordnance map of England and Wales. The
-triangulation commenced from a more accurate baseline than any
-preceding triangulation, and was designed to serve as a basis for any
-future survey in any scale, however large.</p>
-
-<p>The House of Commons passed an act defining its principal object,
-prescribing a legal mode for ascertaining the boundaries which were to
-be surveyed, granting the surveyors power to enter lands for the
-purposes of the survey, and preventing the removal of the objects
-used.</p>
-
-<p>The earlier methods of military surveying were abandoned, and new
-instruments and a system were devised for its execution.</p>
-
-<p>It is important to note that the organization of the Irish survey
-marked an important epoch in the history of the Ordnance Survey, viz:
-its change from a topographic to a cadastral survey.</p>
-
-<p>In Ireland, subordinate to the parishes, there is an internal division
-of smaller denomination called townlands, which are very frequently,
-but not uniformly, conterminous with property.</p>
-
-<p>The townland was the lowest unit of taxation for country purposes, of
-an average size of 200 or 300 acres, and originally the map was to be
-simply a topographic map, containing the boundaries of the townlands,
-the roads, the streams and the houses, with a view to the valuation of
-Ireland for the county assessment. The six inch was considered to be
-the smallest scale that could be available for that purpose.</p>
-
-<p>There was no intention in the original Irish survey to insert the
-fields, but when the valuation began, it was found by the valuators
-that additional minuteness was necessary to enable them to subdivide
-the townlands into the qualities of lands of which they consisted, and
-more especially that the boundary between the cultivated and
-uncultivated portions ought to be inserted on the maps with great accuracy.</p>
-
-<p>This rendered necessary a very extensive revision which was undertaken
-in 1830, and it became a survey by fields instead of townlands.</p>
-
-<p>This was clearly a wide and most important departure from the original
-intention of the six inch survey in Ireland, and it is not to be
-doubted that General Colby, who would not trust to paper measurements
-for the areas of entire townlands, would have adopted at the very
-outset, for his manuscript plans of these minute subdivisions, a scale
-much larger than that of six inches to one mile.</p>
-
-<p>The engraving of the six inch survey appears to have resulted from a
-demand for six copies of one sheet for valuation purposes when it was
-found that it would be as cheap to engrave it as to make that number
-of copies.</p>
-
-<p>So valuable did the six inch map of Ireland prove for many purposes
-over and above that for which it had been originally designed, that,
-in 1840, when the Irish survey was completed, and that of England
-resumed, the Government gave their consent to the adoption of the same
-scale for the unsurveyed parts of Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>By 1851, Yorkshire, Lancashire, the Isle of Lewis, and several
-counties in the south of Scotland were finished on the six inch scale.</p>
-
-<p>Then began that long controversy which has been well termed the
-"battle of the scales" and which for eleven or twelve years retarded
-the progress of the survey and led to a large waste of public money.</p>
-
-<p>During the time that the Ordnance Surveyors were engaged in making
-their six inch map of Lancashire and Yorkshire they were called upon
-and employed to make, at the expense of the land owners, twenty-three
-plans of parishes and townships on the scale of twenty-six and
-<small><sup>2</sup></small>/<small><small>3</small></small>
-inches to one mile for tithe commutation.</p>
-
-<p>It was even found that the plan of London, made for the Metropolitan
-Commissioners of Sewers, on the scale of sixty inches or five feet to
-one mile was inapplicable to house drainage within the area.</p>
-
-<p>Between 1851 and 1852 no fewer than three select committees and one
-royal commission deliberated on the scale for the survey, and fourteen
-blue books were presented to Parliament.</p>
-
-<p>The main point of the controversy was whether the six inch or some
-larger scale was best fitted for the national map. A host of persons
-eminent in science were consulted on the subject, and a great
-diversity of opinion was found to exist, the weight of evidence,
-however, inclining by a majority of four to one, to a scale of from 20
-to 26<small><sup>2</sup></small>/<small><small>3</small></small> inches to a mile.</p>
-
-<p>In 1853 a statistical conference held at Brussels and attended by
-twenty-six delegates from the chief States of Europe considered the
-question of national maps or cadastres, and pronounced unanimously in
-favor of a scale of <small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>2500th</small></small>
-of nature equivalent to about 25<small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>3</small></small>
-inches to a mile, recommending at the same time that the cadastre on
-this scale should be accompanied by a more general map on the scale of
-<small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>10,000</small></small> equivalent to about
-six <small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>3</small></small> inches to a mile, and thus very
-nearly corresponding to the six inch scale of the Ordnance Survey.</p>
-
-<p>The scale finally adopted of <small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>2500</small></small>, on which the whole of England has
-at last been surveyed, is one which corresponds with that adopted for
-the national maps and plans of the chief countries for Europe. Lastly
-it possessed the incidental advantage that a square acre is to all
-practical intents represented on the plans by a square inch.</p>
-
-<p>Among the many public purposes which the national map was expected to
-subserve are the following: the valuation of property for the
-equitable adjustment of taxation and assessment; the sale and transfer
-of land and the registration of title; railway and other civil
-engineering work, such as the construction of roads and canals, large
-sanitary and drainage schemes, military engineering works,
-hydrographical, geological and mineral surveys; the reclamation and
-improvement of waste lands, and of land from the sea; transactions
-affecting land as between landlord and tenant; statistical surveys,
-the setting out and adjustment of parochial and other public
-boundaries and so forth.</p>
-
-<p>It has been amply proved on the best evidence that a map, with levels,
-on a scale of something like twenty-five inches to one mile is the
-smallest which can properly fulfill all these requirements.</p>
-
-<p>In the organization and equipment of the Ordnance Survey, as it exists
-to-day, no pains are spared to secure the utmost precision and economy
-in its methods of field work and publication.</p>
-
-<p>After more than a century of development and the completion of the
-cadastral map, let it not be supposed that its mission is at an end,
-for it is proposed to make a complete revision of all the cadastral
-work at least once every twenty years.</p>
-
-<p>This is rendered necessary by the constant changes in property
-boundaries, and the growth of population&mdash;which may be gathered from
-the fact that the city of London increases in population at the rate
-of about 50,000 a year, and that eighty or more miles of new streets
-are added in the same time.</p>
-<br>
-
-<h4>II.</h4>
-
-<p>The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain as it exists to-day is a
-remarkable Publishing Bureau, from whose presses are given the most
-elaborate and accurate series of maps which any country possesses.</p>
-
-<p>Maps not alone confined to the representation of the physical features
-of the country, but containing every detail of interest or value for
-civil or military purposes.</p>
-
-<p>It has justly gained the commendation of the French that it is "a work
-without precedent, and should be taken as a model by all civilized nations."</p>
-
-<p>The principal scales of publication adopted by the Ordnance Survey
-are: (1) A general map on the scale of one mile to one inch. (2)
-County plans on the scale of six inches to one mile. (3) Cadastral or
-Parish plans for the whole country on the scale of
-<small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>2500</small></small> or about
-25<small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>3</small></small> inches to one mile, on which one square inch on the plan
-represents an area of one acre. (4) For towns of over 4000 inhabitants
-a scale of <small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>500</small></small> of
-actual length on the ground or 10<small><sup>56</sup></small>/<small><small>100</small></small> feet to
-one mile.</p>
-
-<p>On the latter scale the city of London with its environs could not be
-well shown on a sheet of paper less than 300 feet long by 200 wide.</p>
-
-<p>When the facts are taken into consideration, that the Ordnance Survey
-is a cadastral one, in other words, that one of its many objects is
-the measurement and definition of all existing boundaries, political,
-municipal, parochial or private, and a survey and valuation of
-property for assessments, that its maps are accepted in courts of law
-as authoritative on such questions, then the problem of the scales of
-publication is the most important one to be considered.</p>
-
-<p>As an illustration of the relation of the scale of a map to the amount
-of detail, which can well be represented on it without confusion,
-assume for a moment that an observer is stationed in a balloon, which
-can be raised or lowered or placed at any desired height above the
-ground, and in addition that he is provided with a horizontal screen
-on which he is able to trace the details of the landscape below. The
-eye of the observer well represents the lens of a camera, and the
-screen the focussing plate. Therefore to produce a perfect image or
-map of the ground below it will be necessary to assume that all parts
-are stationary, balloon, plate and eye. For convenience assume that
-the eye remains over the centre of the screen at a distance of two
-feet. At a height of four miles above the ground the scale of the
-image on the screen would be exactly six inches to one mile, or a
-reproduction of the popular county map, on which every detail of
-importance such as houses, roads, paths, and fences is shown, and the
-smallest scale on which any attempt is made to preserve the relative
-proportions of such details.</p>
-
-<p>On such a scale the <small><sup>1</sup></small>/<small><small>100th</small></small> part of an inch represents a distance of
-very nearly nine feet on the ground and consequently however accurate
-the map might be in its projection, as an image showing the relative
-positions of all objects of importance on the ground, the scale is
-clearly too small for the measurement of areas for valuation purposes,
-and it is but a reproduction of the larger cadastral map.</p>
-
-<p>Again assume that the balloon is stationed at a height of twenty-four
-miles above the ground, and that the observer places his eye at the
-same distance of two feet above the screen and attempts to construct a
-map from the image on the screen, which is now reproduced at a scale
-of one mile to one inch, or the exact scale of the general map. It
-needs but little imagination to foretell that houses would be mere
-specks, roads, faint lines, and forests, masses of color, in other
-words, that it would be more instructive to consult the general map,
-on which all details are magnified to be clearly visible and
-topographic features brought out with great distinctness than to
-attempt to trace with unaided eye, from the image of objects at a
-distance of twenty-four miles, the course of streams or roads through
-forest or moor, or to judge of the relative elevations or modeling of
-the ground from the values of light and shade. Without an intimate
-local knowledge of the county there would be nothing to indicate the
-name or boundaries of villages, or estates or the political and other
-subdivisions of the land, which are most clearly indicated on the map,
-in unmistakable styles of lettering.</p>
-
-<p>Another and more serious problem which would be lessened as the
-balloon receded from the earth would be the distortion in perspective
-produced by the irregularities of the surface. The higher points being
-nearer the balloon would appear in the image on larger scale than the
-lower, and only in the case of a perfectly level country, would it be
-possible to produce a map without distortion by the method proposed,
-and then only for a limited area.</p>
-
-<p>As the balloon receded, the relative differences of elevation would
-bear a smaller and smaller proportion or ratio to the distance, in
-other words, the distortion would grow less until at an infinite
-distance it might be neglected.</p>
-
-<p>We might conceive that the observer was stationed at an infinitely
-great distance, and provided with a series of magnifying lenses of
-suitable powers to produce maps of any desired scale, yet, beyond a
-limited area, he would still be confronted with the problem of
-eliminating the distortion produced by the curvature of the earth.</p>
-
-<p>Such is the conception of an accurate map which is an attempt to
-produce on a plain surface or sheet of paper, a horizontal projection
-of objects on the ground, which will show the relative positions of
-every detail on any desired scale with as little distortion as
-possible, and on which distances may be measured in any direction, and
-areas computed with a degree of accuracy only limited by the scale.</p>
-
-<p>When a survey of a small area is made, such as an estate or parish,
-which bears but a small proportion in area to the surface of the
-earth, curvature is neglected, distortion due to this cause being
-imperceptible, but in the survey of a large country it is of primary
-importance.</p>
-
-<p>Returning to the conception of an observer stationed at an infinite
-distance his position with reference to the new general one-inch map
-of England and Wales would be in the plane of a meridian passing
-through Delamere in Cheshire, and the published quarter sheets would
-be a series of rectangles each 18 miles by 12 miles, containing an
-area of 216 square miles whose edges were parallel to, and at right
-angles to the central meridian.</p>
-
-<p>Those of Scotland and Ireland have for each country a central meridian
-and projection.</p>
-
-<p>In viewing the county maps of six inches to one mile and larger
-scales, it would be necessary to assume that the observer was
-stationed over the center of each county except that, where two or
-three counties lie so well north and south of one another, the same
-meridian serves for more than one.</p>
-
-<p>In the reproduction by photography of the maps on the scale of one
-mile to one inch from those of larger scale, these facts, that
-different planes of projection are used for the latter, have to be
-taken into consideration.</p>
-
-<p>In countries of larger areas than England it is more customary to
-assume a central meridian for each sheet, in other words, the observer
-would be stationed in the zenith of the center of each sheet and would
-sketch but a limited area. The successive planes of projection,
-represented by the maps, would resemble the facets of a diamond, and
-it would be impossible to combine with any degree of precision a large
-number together in one plane surface. On the other hand, the whole of
-the one-inch series of England and Wales of Scotland or Ireland
-register perfectly, and the distortion due to curvature cannot be
-great, as the combined area of the three countries bears but a small
-ratio to the whole surface of the globe.</p>
-
-<p>Attention has been called to the fact that viewed from a balloon in
-ordinary sunlight the minor features of topography become flattened
-and indistinct.</p>
-
-<p>If, therefore, we regard a sheet of the one-inch map held at a
-distance of two feet from the eye as the picture of a country seen at
-the distance of twenty-four miles, we see that details, that would be
-invisible from above, are brought out with great distinctness on the
-map and every detail of topography is shown in bold relief. In other
-words the map is a diagram rather than a picture.</p>
-
-<p>In the representation of relief on the one inch series, two systems
-are common, contours and hachures. Contours represent the successive
-shore lines which water at rest would form in following the modelling
-of the ground at successive stages or elevations. If now we assume
-that the water, having reached the highest point, is allowed to
-retreat steadily to sea level the paths which the particles of water
-would take from all points of the surface are those which the engraver
-would endeavor to reproduce in the shade lines of a hachured map. In
-addition he would adopt an arbitrary scale of shade increasing with
-the steepness of the slopes, from white on a horizontal surface to
-dead black on slopes of forty-five degrees, or greater, to produce the
-effect of a model of the surface illuminated from above.</p>
-
-<p>In the Irish maps this effect is bolder and more artistic, an
-illumination from the northeast quarter having been carried out. The
-shade lines still preserve the paths of particles of water in motion
-on the surface, the color values being deeper on the eastern and
-southern slopes, shadows have even been projected across valleys and
-horizontal surfaces are in half tone, producing much the same effect
-as the illumination of the country at sunset in midsummer.</p>
-
-<p>The Irish maps exhibited are considered the finest specimens of
-careful hill shading and will bear critical examination. For
-comparison with these, other topographic maps are exhibited of many
-scales and countries.</p>
-
-<p>So far attention has simply been drawn to a few of the problems of
-map-making, which are, briefly:</p>
-
-<blockquote>1st. The reproduction on a finite scale on a plain surface, of the
-natural features of the terrain, with all the artificial boundaries
-and objects added by man, so far as the scale permits.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>2d. The extension of such a series of maps to cover a large area of
-country still carried out with as little distortion as possible.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>3d. The reproduction of such maps on suitable scales to meet all
-demands.</blockquote>
-
-<p>If the conception is still carried out that the map, at a distance of
-two feet, is but the image of the ground viewed from above, then the
-cadastral map of England, from which areas of fields and estates are
-measured for valuation purposes, would represent a view of the country
-from above at a range of 5,000 feet or nearly one mile, and a town
-plan, an image at 1,000 feet or a possible view from a series of
-Eiffel towers.</p>
-
-<p>This suggestion of an observer stationed in a balloon will not have
-been valueless if it draws attention to the fact that vastly more
-information is given on the map than it would be possible for any
-single observer to discover from an elevated station with an
-unobstructed view, the map being the compilation of the results of
-hundreds of observations by many workers, and that its scale and the
-amount and character of the detail shown have been specially designed
-to meet definite ends.</p>
-
-<p>It is beyond the limits of the paper to enter into the theory or
-practice of surveying, or to say more than a few words of the delicate
-and refined operations necessary in carrying out the geodetic or
-trigonometrical work of a national survey which binds together the
-many parts to make a complete whole.</p>
-
-<p>The principal triangulation of the British Isles was begun in 1784 and
-finished in 1852. Two magnificent 3-feet theodolites made by Ramsden,
-one for the Royal Society, the other for the Master General of the
-Ordnance, an 18-inch theodolite also by Ramsden, and 2-feet theodolite
-by Troughton and Simms were used in these observations.</p>
-
-<p>In the principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland there are
-218 stations, at 16 of which there are no observations, the number of
-observed bearings is 1554&mdash;and the number of equations of condition, 920.</p>
-
-<p>In order to avoid the solution of this enormous number of equations,
-containing 920 unknown quantities, the network covering the kingdom
-was divided into a number of blocks, each presenting a not
-unmanageable number of equations of condition. These calculations, all
-in duplicate, were completed in two years and a half, an average of
-eight computers being employed. Many of the sides of the principal or
-primary triangulation are of great length, 66 of them exceeding 80
-miles, while 11 measure more than 100 miles, the longest being 111
-miles, that from Sea Fell to Sheir Donard. So great, however, had been
-the accuracy of the observers' work, that the average amount of
-correction of the observed angles was no more than 0".6, and the
-measured length of the Salisbury base differed from its length as
-computed from the Irish Base, 350 miles distant, by a difference of
-only five inches.</p>
-
-<p>The secondary triangulation interpolates points at shorter distances
-apart ranging down to five miles, the observations being made with
-theodolites of 12-inch circle. These triangles again are broken up
-into smaller ones of sides from one to two miles in length, for the
-use of the surveyor who is to follow and measure between the stations
-with the chain; and a further subdivision of the trigonal spaces is
-made in towns to points about 10 chains apart, where the survey is to
-be made on the very large special scale. In the two last cases, 7 inch
-instruments suffice for the measurement of the angles.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>L<small>EVELLING</small>.</center>
-
-<p>From 1839 to 1855, lines of initial levelling extending all over
-England, Scotland and Ireland were run, and the observed altitudes of
-the bench marks were reduced by the method of least squares.</p>
-
-<p>In England and Scotland, these levels are based on the Ordnance Datum
-at Liverpool, which is approximately the mean tide level of that
-place; in Ireland, they are based on the low water level at Dublin,
-which is about 8 feet below the mean level round the coast of Ireland.</p>
-
-<p>The detail levelling is carried out contemporaneously with the
-progress of the cadastral survey. Starting from the marks on the
-initial series, lines are run along nearly all the turnpikes and
-parish roads, and bench marks cut at intervals of about a quarter of a mile.</p>
-
-<p>The whole of the bench marks of the initial levelling are shown in
-position on the 25-inch manuscript plans, and their heights given to
-the nearest tenth of a foot. Surface heights, to the nearest foot are
-also marked on the plans, at frequent intervals between the bench marks.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>C<small>ONTOURING</small>.</center>
-
-<p>Contrary to the custom in other countries, the contours of the English
-survey have all been surveyed and levelled on the ground, checked by
-the numerous bench marks, the standard of accuracy demanded in
-levelling being two-tenths of a foot.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to the expense of the process, about $1.25 per lineal mile, only
-the 100 foot contours have been surveyed, except where greater detail
-is required for military purposes, which information is not furnished
-to the public.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>H<small>ILL</small> S<small>HADING</small>.</center>
-
-<p>The hill features for the one inch maps are first sketched in the
-field by the military method of slopes and sketch contours or proof
-impressions of the contoured sheet.</p>
-
-<p>Finished drawings from the field sketches are then made on cardboard
-impressions from the one inch outline plates, and finished as guides
-for the engraver to work by.</p>
-
-<p>Beautiful and delicate in finish as is all the work of the copperplate
-engravers on the Ordnance Survey, there is perhaps no branch in which
-they so peculiarly excel as in their delineation of hills on the one
-inch maps.</p>
-<br>
-
-<h4>III.</h4>
-
-<p>It is impossible in the limits of a single paper to attempt to
-describe the methods and processes of publication which are carried at
-the headquarters of the Ordnance Survey at Southampton.</p>
-
-<p>Carefully prepared treatises on the subject have been written by
-officers engaged in the work, and for clear and concise description
-none are better than the series of articles by Captain H. Sankey,
-R. E., published in <i>Engineering</i>, in 1888.</p>
-
-<p>There are two points of great interest in connection with the Ordnance
-Survey which cannot be neglected. The one its military organization,
-and the other the economy of its methods of publication.</p>
-
-<p>Of its military organization, which has continued since the first
-surveys were made for military purposes, it may be said that the
-conservative precision of its methods of field work are best adapted
-for military control and discipline. Under the successive
-superintendence of highly educated officers of the Royal Engineer
-Corps, whose patriotic efforts have been to secure efficiency and
-economy in the service, the country has greatly profited.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the improvements and inventions that have made possible the
-publication of maps of all scales at the lowest possible cost, are the
-results of experiments made by these officers.</p>
-
-<p>It should not be forgotten in addition that as a branch of the War
-Office and the Publishing Department of the Intelligence Branch,
-military supervision is essential. Its offices are therefore not open
-for public inspection except on proper introduction.</p>
-
-<p>The author had the rare privilege of spending three months at the
-Southampton office in 1888, through the introduction of the director
-of the Geological Survey, and the request of our recent minister in
-London, Mr. Phelps.</p>
-
-<p>Nothing could have exceeded the courtesy and hospitality of the
-director of the survey, Sir Charles W. Wilson, and the officers in
-charge of the various departments, not alone in granting the necessary
-authority to inspect every branch of the work, but in lending personal
-aid and men for that purpose.</p>
-
-<p>Great interest was also expressed in the topographic surveys of this
-country which differ so essentially from the Ordnance Survey. In the
-former, field work and methods are directly adapted to the scale of
-publication; in the latter, the largest scale of publication governs
-the operations of the survey, and the smaller scales are reduced by
-photography, with a gradual elimination of unnecessary details from
-the larger to the smaller scales until finally the topographic map of
-the country, on the scale of one mile to one inch is produced, which
-possesses an accuracy and character that could be obtained by no other method.</p>
-
-<p>To illustrate this important subject there are exhibited a series of
-experimental and complete maps and diagrams which will well repay
-careful examination. They were prepared and collected at the Ordnance
-Survey at Southampton expressly for this purpose and with the kind
-permission of the present director, Colonel Sir Charles W. Wilson,
-R. E., C. B.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>The author desires to state that many of the paragraphs of the paper,
-particularly those relating to the history of the Ordnance Survey,
-have been extracted from the following works and reports on the
-subject:</p>
-
-<blockquote>1. The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, by Lieut.-Col. P.
-Pinkerton White, R. E.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>2. The Ordnance Survey of the Kingdom, by Capt. H. S. Palmer, R. E.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>3. Methods and processes adopted for the production of the maps of the
-Ordnance Survey, by Lieut.-Genl. Sir Henry James, R. E., F. R. S.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>4. Reports of Col. Colby and others in the Blue Books presented to
-Parliament&mdash;1850&ndash;1860.</blockquote>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap3"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>GEOGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE.</h3>
-
-<center>R<small>EMARKS BY</small> H<small>ERBERT</small> G. O<small>GDEN</small>,
-G<small>USTAVE</small> H<small>ERRLE</small>, M<small>ARCUS</small>
-B<small>AKER</small>, <small>AND</small> A. H. T<small>HOMPSON</small>.</center>
-<br>
-
-<p>M<small>R</small>. O<small>GDEN</small>: It was expected that
-Professor Mendenhall would be with us
-this evening to address the society on the subject of Geographic
-Nomenclature but he is unavoidably absent, having been called to
-Philadelphia, and has requested me to represent him, and present to
-you an apology for his absence.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Mendenhall has been greatly interested in this question
-since he assumed charge of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Questions of
-orthography and nomenclature have been before him almost constantly,
-and the variety of views elicited in response to his inquiries
-confirmed him in the opinion that the subject is of serious import. He
-has had, of necessity, to decide a great many cases for publications
-which were being made: finally a long list relating to Alaska came
-from the Hydrographic office, which led to a discussion and the
-suggestion that a board should be formed consisting of representatives
-from the different departments and bureaus in Washington that were
-interested in this matter, and that were issuing maps, charts and
-other publications requiring geographic names. It is too true that the
-different bureaus are now using the same names spelled in different
-ways, sometimes different names for the same place, and the same name
-for different places; indeed, the confusion is so great you may even
-read publications relating to the same locality and at first not
-realize the fact.</p>
-
-<p>The object that Professor Mendenhall had in view in organizing a board
-was to secure harmony; that all might come together; and that when a
-question arose between different bureaus it might be referred to this
-board to settle, with the concurrence of all. Such a board would also
-secure stability, as no bureau would undertake to make changes in
-names that have been accepted, as may now be the case when a bureau
-falls under new management, or the determination of the questions is
-referred to new officers without experience. This board, as proposed,
-was to be formed by representatives from the Hydrographic Office,
-Smithsonian Institution, War Department, Geological Survey, Coast and
-Geodetic Survey, Light-house Board, The National Geographic Society,
-Post Office Department, and the General Land Office. All these bureaus
-or departments gave their assent except the Post Office Department and
-the General Land Office; but we may hope that these departments will
-eventually be represented, when the practical usefulness of the board
-has been demonstrated by its decisions.</p>
-
-<p>There are three, perhaps four classes of cases that cause the most
-trouble in geographic names. In the first class, those cases where we
-are certain of the name itself&mdash;that is, we agree in the
-pronunciation, but disagree in the orthography; in the second class,
-where there is no question as to the orthography, but where there is a
-question as to what name should be used&mdash;that is, several names are
-given to the same point, to the same body of water, or to the same
-island; in the third class, where there is no question as to the name
-or the orthography, but a question as to the place to which the name
-applies&mdash;that is, there is no dispute as to the name, but it is
-applied to different places; this class is sometimes modified by
-questions as to the geographical limits to which a name applies&mdash;that
-is to say, the area to be indicated by the name; for instance, some
-body of water or a range of mountains, and may be designated a fourth class.</p>
-
-<p>To cite a few instances of these classes: we have the question of
-Wood's "Hole" and Wood's "Holl;" for many years it was called Wood's
-Hole, recently it would seem to be the conclusion that it should be
-called Wood's Holl; we formerly had "Hurl" Gate, and now "Hell" Gate;
-"Princess" Bay was at one time spelled "Prince's" Bay, the error
-arising, doubtless, from the pronunciation; we also have "Body's"
-Island or "Bodies" Island; we have a peculiar case on the North
-Carolina coast, "Pamplico" Sound has generally been used, now we have
-"Pamlico" Sound, legalized by the State legislature; on the coast of
-Virginia we have the case of "Metomkin," which has frequently been
-written "Metompkin" and "Matomkin;" in California we have Point
-Conception, whether it should be spelled with the "c," or with the
-"t," in the last syllable; we also have "Point Boneta" or "Bonita;"
-should Yaquina be spelled with one "n" or two ("nn"); Coos Bay, with
-"k" or "c." This name, I understand, is sometimes pronounced "Co-os,"
-as though it had two syllables; if the spelling of this name was
-governed by the rules of the Royal Geographical Society the "K" would
-be used for the hard "C," but "Coos" has been adopted by the State
-legislature and will probably be retained. One of the most singular
-perversions is found in "Bering Sea;" the explorer wrote his name
-"Bering," and yet we find it is customary, almost everywhere, to spell
-it "Behring."</p>
-
-<p>In the second class of cases, where we have different names for the
-same place, we may cite Bangs Island, at the entrance to Portland
-harbor; an effort was made not long ago to change this name on the
-Coast Survey charts to Cushing's Island, the evidence was so strong
-that an order was issued to effect the change, when the supporters of
-"Bangs" produced additional evidence and secured the retention of that
-name. On the coast of Florida we had two Saint Joseph's Bays, and a
-comparatively modern name, "Anclote Anchorage," was presented to take
-the place of a part of one of them, which led to designating the rest
-of the bay "Saint Joseph's Sound," Sound being more appropriate for
-the locality. We have also some notable instances on the Pacific
-coast, as "Cape Orford" or "Blanco;" "Cape Gregory" or "Arago;" "South
-Farallon" or "Southeast Farallon;" and in Alaska there are instances
-too numerous to mention.</p>
-
-<p>In the third class of cases, the locality to which the name applies,
-we may cite "Isle-au-Haut" Bay and "East Penobscot" Bay, on the coast
-of Maine; "Hempstead" Bay, on the coast of Long Island, a bay which is
-almost filled with small islands, rendering it most difficult to
-satisfactorily define the limits; "Chincoteague" Bay, on the Jersey
-coast, is an instance of growth; it was at one time called
-"Assateague," and although "Assateague" was retained for many years as
-applicable to the upper part of the bay, it has finally been
-restricted to a very small cove in Assateague Island. On the Pacific
-coast there are a great many instances, possibly one of the most
-difficult relates to the limits of Admiralty Inlet, how far it extends
-into Puget sound? Again, to the northward, is what for years has been
-called "Washington" Sound, an effort is being made to change it to
-"Possession" Sound, the latter name, I believe, was once applied to a
-portion of the area; perhaps we shall eventually see both names on the
-chart. The difficulty of defining the limits to which a name applies
-may be experienced in dealing with "Hampton Roads," or "Tybee Roads;"
-apparently simple problems, but who will undertake to define the exact
-limits of these famous roadsteads?</p>
-
-<p>These questions, even when stated in their simplest form, are
-oftentimes very complex, for several of the general classes I have
-referred to may be included in one question, and when we attempt to
-determine that which is best they become very perplexing. In seeking
-advice we are met with a variety of views; some will maintain that we
-should take the nick-names given by the fishermen; some prefer names
-that have been recognized independent of nick-names; some will abhor
-corruptions, while others prefer the corruptions, if expressive and in
-general use. The experts are very prone to hunting up the root, or, if
-necessary, to constructing one, and throwing out everything that will
-not conform with it. The fact that our country was settled by French,
-Spanish, and English, and that many names are derived from the Indian
-dialects, also causes peculiar difficulties in treating some sections.
-The rules of the Royal Geographical Society can be a great help, so
-far as they are applicable; they seem to have been used in the modern
-spelling of "Dakota"&mdash;for the man-of-war we had of this name some
-years ago, it was spelled "Dacotah," but in the name of the States
-recently admitted to the Union, "k" has been substituted for the hard
-"c" and the final "h" has been dropped. There is also great
-disagreement as to the propriety of the use of the possessive case;
-some will not admit it at all, others would like to drop the
-apostrophe and retain the "s" in certain cases for euphony: this is a
-question that requires special consideration in each case, as the
-omission of the possessive will sometime give the name a descriptive
-meaning not at all applicable to the locality or feature. The
-propriety of personal names is also questioned by many, and may lead
-to continued discussion in Alaskan nomenclature, where explorers and
-surveyors have been so liberal in bestowing new names on the same
-places. It would seem to be a good rule in selecting a new name to
-follow the old Indian custom of describing the place. An opportunity
-for an expressive nomenclature seems to have been lost in the
-north-west in transferring so many of our eastern names, instead of
-selecting new names from the rich native vocabularies.</p>
-
-<p>As different bureaus may be governed by different principles, and may
-not even be consistent in their own rulings, through new principles
-that may come in by the frequent change of personnel, it has
-heretofore been impracticable to secure uniformity, and disputed
-questions have been carried along for years. The board that has been
-organized is in the direction of developing uniformity in the practice
-of all. It is no easy task, but if guided by a generous spirit,
-willing to yield a little here and there, its object may be
-successfully accomplished.</p>
-
-<p>We cannot foresee to what extent the board will be called upon. It has
-not power to take the initiative; but we hope its rulings will prove
-acceptable; that it may establish a reputation that will be recognized
-by the people as well as by the departments interested in its
-organization; and that eventually rules may be recommended for the
-nomenclature of our own country that may be an acceptable guide in the
-determination of new names, as well as in the interpretation of those
-now in question.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>M<small>R</small>. H<small>ERRLE</small>: Any one conversant with the state of geographic
-nomenclature of a large part of the world cannot fail to appreciate
-the difficulties in the way of the establishment of a comprehensive
-and uniform system of writing geographic names, that would be
-acceptable to all nations using the Roman alphabet in their
-literature. But while some advance towards international uniformity
-has been made within the last five years, we are still very far from
-it; we may, however, at least rejoice in the prospect of the general
-acceptance of a uniform system in geographic orthography by all
-writing the English language.</p>
-
-<p>I refer to the action of the British Hydrographic Office and of the
-Royal Geographical Society in 1885, when they adopted certain <i>main</i>
-principles to guide the orthography of geographic names, and thereby
-took an important and far-reaching step in the line of a reform which
-had already been too long delayed.</p>
-
-<p>In France a reform in geographic nomenclature had been earnestly
-agitated by Édouard de Luze since 1880, and soon after the publication
-of the system adopted by the Royal Geographical Society, the Société
-de Géographie appointed a commission which, in 1886, reported a system
-for the guidance of French geographers.</p>
-
-<p>In Germany, we also find individual attempts made (Egli, Kirchhoff,
-Ewald and others) to bring system into the orthography and
-pronunciation of geographic names, primarily with a view to secure
-uniformity in text books and in the teaching of geography in schools.</p>
-
-<p>No doubt influenced by the action of the British and French geographic
-societies the Imperial German Hydrographic office in 1888 also
-established rules for guidance in its future publications.</p>
-
-<p>We thus see three of the principal nations of Europe inaugurate a
-reform, the beneficial effects of which will not, however, become
-apparent until a sufficient time has elapsed, that is, until the
-British, French and Germans have had time to apply the rules in their
-publications, and particularly in the construction of new and in the
-correction of old charts. No reform of this nature can be carried
-through by the stroke of a pen, but a generation's life-time will be
-required to accomplish it.</p>
-
-<p>The adopted rules which lay down a general phonetic principle only
-require, of course, perfection in details, so as to furnish an
-unerring guide in the treatment of names belonging to special
-languages.</p>
-
-<p>If we compare the British, French and German systems, we can clearly
-see a gravitation towards uniformity in the spelling of foreign
-geographic names that are not originally written in the Roman
-alphabet. Each of the three systems contains important concessions to
-the others; the British, by adopting the continental vowel system, and
-the French and German, by representing certain phonetic values
-differently from the old way, so as to approach the British system. In
-the French system, this is particularly the case in regard to the
-letters <i>ou</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>ch</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>tch</i>, <i>w</i> and <i>y</i>, and in
-the German system in regard to the letters <i>c</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>ch</i>, <i>sh</i>
-and <i>y</i>.</p>
-
-<p>There is very little doubt that English and French geographers will
-readily adopt the systems set up by their foremost geographic
-societies; but whether scientific Germany will be willing to follow in
-the wake of its Hydrographic Office, we will probably learn after the
-next meeting of the German Geographic Congress.</p>
-
-<p>If we compare the British, French and German systems further, we find
-also a perfect agreement in the treatment of the geographic names of
-those nations that use the Roman alphabet in their literature, they
-differing only as to exceptions from the rules of old forms of names,
-which, through long usage, are held almost sacred. The spirit of
-conservatism tends to retard every reform, and this one makes no
-exception from the rule. It is, however, to be regretted that neither
-the British, nor the French, nor the Germans have set any fixed limit
-to permissible exceptions, leaving, apparently, everybody to decide
-for himself what is meant by "long usage."</p>
-
-<p>If a radical departure from past usage is perhaps too objectionable to
-many, this much could be done at present to greatly reduce the list of
-exceptions, leaving it to the future to smooth over the remaining
-cases: let all names which are now written but slightly different from
-their national form and which are easily recognized in the latter
-form, be corrected, and extirpate all gross corruptions. Also lessen
-the number of exceptions in those foreign names which are readily
-understood when written in accordance with the adopted phonetic rules:
-as Kalkutta for Calcutta, Mekka for Mecca, Kutch for Cutch, Selebes
-for Celebes, Bonni for Bonny, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Another notable agreement in the British, French and German
-Hydrographic Office systems is found in their declarations in regard
-to diacritical marks in the writing of foreign geographic names. The
-British say that a system which would attempt to represent the more
-delicate inflections of sound and accent would become so complicated
-as to defeat itself. They therefore recommend only the use of the
-acute accent to denote the syllable on which stress should be laid.
-The German Hydrographic Office has adopted the same view. The French
-Commission in its deliberations expressed decided opposition to the
-adoption of Lepsius' or any similar system, and finally adopted
-besides the "<i>tilde</i>" and "<i>créma</i>," only the accent "<i>circonflex</i>"
-and the "<i>apostrophe</i>," signs of which the two last are ordinarily
-employed in the writing of the French language. "In our country," the
-French commission says, "a native of the Normandy and one of the
-Provence do not employ exactly the same sounds in pronouncing, for
-instance, Marseille, Enghien, or Montrichard, and, in foreign lands,
-we find still greater diversity in this respect." Therefore, we should
-use diacritical marks with the greatest economy, and only when they
-are indispensable.</p>
-
-<p>It is of course not to be expected that a certain school of
-geographers, who are in favor of the strict application to geographic
-names of a simplified form of Lepsius' standard alphabet, will
-acquiesce in this view, but it is to be hoped that all practical
-minded geographers will agree to reserve the extended use of
-diacritical alphabets for purely linguistic literature only.</p>
-
-<p>In the meanwhile, the United States has not been idle, and the
-Hydrographer, Captain Henry F. Picking, U. S. N., has taken the
-initiative by the appointment of a board to consider and report a
-system of orthography for foreign geographic names for guidance in the
-compilation of the Hydrographic Office charts, sailing directions and
-notices to mariners, which as we know cover all parts of the world.</p>
-
-<p>The Hydrographic Office, by its daily experience with the subject
-matter, is thus peculiarly fitted to inaugurate a reform, and it is
-hoped that the board, profiting by what the British, French and
-Germans have already done, will report rules, that may become
-generally satisfactory to American geographers.</p>
-
-<p>In our own country the territory of Alaska needs special attention in
-regard to settling the orthography of its geographic names of Russian
-origin. Russian names have always been more or less of a bugbear in
-geographic literature, since so great a number of them appear in
-different forms. The difficulties of transcribing Russian names so as
-to reproduce the correct pronunciation are well enough understood. In
-the first place the Russian alphabet contains 36 letters, of which 12
-are vowels and diphthongs, 3 are semi-vowels, and the balance,
-consonants. In this alphabet, there are 12 elements which have no
-exact equivalents in the English alphabet, and, on the other hand,
-there are 4 English sounds (<i>j</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>x</i> and <i>h</i>) not represented in
-the Russian alphabet. Hence, whatever system is employed, we can only
-hope to give the pronunciation approximately. Many of the Russian
-names found to-day in English and American maps and publications show,
-by the way in which they are rendered, an utter absence of knowledge
-of the grammatical construction of Russian on the part of those who
-originally transcribed them. There are few other languages in which
-case and gender play such an important part in the terminal
-inflections of proper names as in this great Slavonic idiom. Any one
-not conversant with the Russian declensions should not, therefore,
-attempt to transcribe Russian geographic names into English, as he
-will be sure to blunder. On Russian maps, for instance; Behring Strait
-reads, "Beringov Proliv;" Behring Sea, "Beringovo More;" Kamchatka
-Bay, "Zaliv Kamchatkii;" Herald Island, "Ostrova Gheralda;" etc.</p>
-
-<p>By the by, I cannot exactly understand why the spelling of the name of
-<i>Behring</i> should, within the last few years, have been changed on
-American and English maps to <i>Bering</i>. The navigator of this name,
-<i>Veit Behring</i>, was a native of Germany, in the service of Russia, and
-it is safe to say that his name contained the letter <i>h</i>. Naturally,
-in transcribing his name into Russian, the <i>h</i> had to drop out, as
-that letter is missing in the Russian alphabet.</p>
-
-<p>The excellent system of transcribing Russian names into English,
-published in a recent number of
-<i>Nature</i><small><small><sup>1</sup></small></small> having already been
-accepted by English and American representatives of various scientific
-institutions, it is greatly to be desired that English and American
-geographic societies should express their views of it at an early day.
-The system is easily brought in harmony with the general principles
-adopted by the Royal Geographical Society, by a simple declaration in
-regard to the diacritical marks by which, mainly for the purpose of
-facilitating correct re-transliteration of Russian names, the vowels
-<i>i</i>, <i>i</i> [with macron], <i>i</i> [with breve], <i>e</i> and <i>é</i> and the silent
-semi-vowels are sought to be distinguished in the written names. For
-the benefit of those unacquainted with the system of transliterating
-Russian, published in <i>Nature</i>, it is reprinted at the close of this paper.</p>
-
-<blockquote><small><small><sup>1</sup></small> February 27, 1890.</small></blockquote>
-
-<p>A few words more in regard to the treatment of the Russian geographic
-names found in Alaska. This territory will in the course of time
-contain a large English-speaking population, and its geographic names
-of Russian and Eskimo origin should, in a certain sense, no longer be
-classed by us under the category of foreign names.</p>
-
-<p>The future official orthography of Alaska might, therefore, be treated
-liberally, that is to say, complicated spelling following from a
-strict transliteration might be simplified to a certain extent, as has
-been done with the spelling of many aboriginal Indian names.</p>
-
-<p>Of the geographic nomenclature of Asiatic countries none has become so
-rapidly well known as that of the Japan Archipelago, and we can
-already now class Japan among the countries having an official
-geographic nomenclature in Roman character.</p>
-
-<p>Within less than twenty years, the wonderfully progressive Japanese
-have established a geographic service for the survey of their domain,
-and a hydrographic service for the survey of their coasts and
-navigable waters. They have now published several hundreds of nautical
-charts, which are as good and practical as any published by other
-nations.</p>
-
-<p>On those Japanese charts, which are based exclusively on their own
-surveys, the names are printed in the signs of the '<i>Kana</i>' with the
-transliteration of the name in Roman character added. It is this
-feature which has materially helped us to a better and correct
-knowledge of their geographic names. Within the last few years the
-<i>Romaji-Kwai</i><small><small><sup>2</sup></small></small> has made
-immense progress, and I understand that the
-society's system forms already part of the instruction in a number of
-schools in Japan. Hence, we may look forward to the day when Japanese
-books printed in Roman characters will supersede, to a large extent,
-the books in the signs of the '<i>Kana</i>.'</p>
-
-<blockquote><small><small><sup>2</sup></small> Society for the introduction of the Roman character for
-writing the Japanese language.</small></blockquote>
-
-<p>One of the best authorities for writing and pronouncing the names of
-the districts, cities, towns and villages of Japan is a very recent
-publication<small><small><sup>3</sup></small></small> by our honored
-countryman, Mr. W. N. Whitney,
-interpreter at the U. S. Legation at Tokyo, who compiled this
-admirable book with great care and labor from the official records of
-the Japanese empire. It not only contains the names in the original
-Japanese print, but what is of chief value to us, also the
-transcription, in accordance with the <i>Romaji-Kwai</i> system. We cannot
-do better, at present, than to follow this book in determining the
-orthography of geographic names in Japan.</p>
-
-<blockquote><small><small><sup>3</sup></small> A concise Dictionary of the principal <i>roads</i>,
-<i>chief-towns</i> and <i>villages</i> of Japan, with <i>populations</i>,
-<i>post-offices</i>, &amp;c.; together with Lists of <i>Ken</i>, <i>Kori</i>, and
-<i>Railways</i>. By W. N. Whitney, M.D., Interpreter of the U. S. Legation,
-Tokyo.</small></blockquote>
-
-<p>In not so satisfactory a state as the orthography of Japanese
-geographic names is that of the countries adjacent to Japan.
-Considering that Asiatic names have been transcribed phonetically by
-explorers and surveyors of different nationalities, at different
-periods of time, and who were often but little, or not at all,
-acquainted with the languages they had to deal with, it is not
-surprising that many of the names we find on the charts should have
-been written utterly wrong. That such was the case on even
-comparatively recent surveys is, for instance, illustrated by the
-change in the nomenclature on the French plan of Cape Koan Lan, in the
-Gulf of Tongking (Plan No. 3721). In this French survey of 1878 the
-same names on the editions of 1879 and 1886, respectively, are
-rendered thus:</p>
-
-<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Name changes">
-	<tr>
-		<td align="center">1879.</td>
-		<td align="center">1886.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Cap Cua-Lam.</td>
-		<td>Cap Koan Lang.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Ile Capuitao.</td>
-		<td>Cai-puï-tao.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Ile Soum-La-Too.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-		<td>Siong-Lai-Tao.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Ile Laito-San.</td>
-		<td>Lai-Tao.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td>Ile Foum-Lung.</td>
-		<td>Ile Fong Wong.</td>
-	</tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>Such differences in spelling, and examples of pleonasm, as are
-indicated by these names, are found on the charts of all nations, but,
-under the beneficial working of the systems adopted by the British,
-French and Germans, similar errors are rapidly being corrected, and
-progress is being made towards international uniformity in the
-spelling of all geographic names.</p>
-
-<p>Owing to the number of languages and alphabets in use in the Indian
-empire, the orthography of its geographic names has for a long time
-been in controversy. As we see from the "British System," the Royal
-Geographical Society has decided to spell Indian names in accordance
-with "Hunters' Imperial Gazetteer of India," a decision which, in view
-of the fact that the spelling in the Gazetteer is not always in
-harmony with the adopted rules, is to be regretted. But we can at the
-same time understand the difficulties of the situation, and appreciate
-the strong love of the British for old forms and long usage. The
-differences between the system and the Gazetteer are, however, not
-radical, since the continental vowel system is followed; still, it
-would be just as easy to write Kalkutta, Kutch, etc., for Calcutta,
-Cutch, etc., as it is to write Korea for Corea, and thus be consistent
-with the rules.</p>
-
-<p>Geographic names in Malay and its branches we know mainly through
-Dutch, British and Spanish surveyors, and their status may be judged
-from the prefatory remarks in Maxwell's grammar of Malay, published in
-1882, wherein he says, that the spelling of Malay words in the native
-character is hardly yet fixed, though the Perso-Arabic alphabet has
-been in use since the 13th century, and that those <i>follow but a vain
-shadow</i> who seek to prescribe exact modes of spelling words, regarding
-which even native authorities are not agreed, and of which the
-pronunciation may vary according to locality.</p>
-
-<p>On the charts published by the Batavian Hydrographic Office, the Malay
-names are rendered in accordance with the Dutch phonetic system of
-transliteration (only that the sound of <i>g</i> is always hard) and as
-this differs from the British phonetic system in several particulars,
-it is clear that certain corrections must be applied to the spelling
-of "<i>Dutch</i>" Malay names to facilitate the approximately correct
-pronunciation of such names by English speaking peoples. But a source
-of trouble is the seeming uncertainty of the Batavian geographers
-themselves in regard to the orthography of many names, since it is a
-frequent occurrence to find the same names variously rendered on
-charts, or in sailing directions issued at short intervals of time.</p>
-
-<p>We can see, from what has been said above, that chances for
-disagreement in the rendering of geographic names, originating in
-countries that do not use the Roman alphabet for their literature, are
-numerous, and hence, the occurrence of errors in the application of a
-new system should not be too harshly condemned; nor would the culprits
-deserve to be dealt with according to the law laid down by the
-municipal council of the good old Swiss town of Küssnacht, which not
-very long ago issued a decree that the final <i>t</i> in the name of their
-town should be dropped in all official communications, and that any
-local official failing to obey this decree should be fined.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>M<small>R</small>. B<small>AKER</small>: In the preparation of a map, the last things to go on are
-the names. If the map covers a region of country long known or thickly
-settled most of its features already have names. But comparison of
-several maps of, or writings about, a region almost invariably reveals
-confusion, contradictions and errors in the names. The same feature
-often bears different names on different maps. The same name has
-various spellings, and the names on the map may in their turn not
-agree with local usage. Examples of this confusion abound everywhere,
-and are a source of constant perplexity to the geographer.</p>
-
-<p>The names are often misapplied. The name of one cape or mountain peak
-through accident, carelessness, ignorance, or by intent is often found
-attached to some other cape or mountain peak. A small feature's name
-may be extended to cover much more than that to which it fittingly
-belongs; or a name rightly applicable to a large tract may be wrongly
-restricted to a small one. In the hands of the map-maker geographic
-names may be regarded as labels loosely attached and easily misplaced.
-Handled by many writers, both careful and careless, these labels
-become misplaced or lost; and in replacing these misplaced labels or
-in restoring lost ones much confusion and many errors arise. The
-newspaper writer writing hurriedly, the magazine writer without hurry,
-or the book writer working deliberately, each in turn finds that the
-investigation of questions relating to geographic names carries him
-away from his subject. If a question arises respecting a
-non-geographic term the dictionary can be appealed to and, right or
-wrong, followed without discredit. But with many or most of the
-questions about geographic names, in the United States at least, we
-have no adequate dictionary or "authority" to appeal to. As a
-consequence in most cases the writer takes indifferently what is
-nearest to mind or hand and thus produces new varieties in names,
-variants upon old ones or quite new ones. Such names are called
-corrupt until usage and familiarity removes the stigma and the
-corrupted name having grown respectable is adopted.</p>
-
-<p>A foreign name may be transliterated by one writer and translated by
-another. This course gives rise to two or more forms. The absence of
-uniform usage in transliterating, causes diversity in one case, and in
-the other as several translations are possible, and mistakes probable,
-various forms arise.</p>
-
-<p>The progress of all science is intimately associated with questions of
-nomenclature. Modern progress in biologic science dates from the
-adoption of the binomial system, and it is not too much to expect that
-progress in geographic science will similarly be found to be
-intimately associated with a study of geographic names and the
-principles which should control in their adoption and use.</p>
-
-<p>The object aimed at in these notes is to draw attention to the
-importance of the subject and to arouse discussion; the purpose of the
-discussion being to ascertain if there be not certain guiding
-principles which may serve to aid in solving the numerous and
-perplexing questions relating to geographic nomenclature.</p>
-
-<p>What is a geographic name? Without attempting a categorical answer to
-this question I would say that geographic names seem to me to bear a
-strong resemblance to the names used in biology. They are generic and
-specific. To designate any specific geographic feature we usually use
-two words, <i>one</i> a descriptive term, such as river, island, lake, pond
-or mountain, and the <i>other</i>, a specific name indicating what
-particular pond, lake, or mountain is designated. The term Mississippi
-River is a compound name, in which river may be regarded as a part of
-a proper name. It is the name of a genus, whereas the term Mississippi
-is the specific designation. Of course it will happen in geographic
-names, as in biologic, that certain features or objects become so well
-known that a single name, either the generic or the specific will be
-used by itself to designate the object. We speak of Maine without
-prefixing the generic term "State of," the specific name being
-sufficiently characteristic. On the other hand here in Washington
-references to "the Avenue" meaning Pennsylvania Avenue are familiar to
-all. In this case the generic term is used for particular
-specification. These exceptional usages, however, do not appear to me
-to invalidate the general principle that the designation of geographic
-features consists in general of a specific and of a generic name.</p>
-
-<p>The origin of generic terms has been much studied. The origin of
-specific names has been studied but little and the present notes
-relate chiefly to this class. Specific names may be said to have two
-distinct origins, <i>first</i>, those of formal origin where the name has
-been given <i>pro forma</i> and published in a book or map relating to the
-region by its discoverer, or by the earliest explorers. This covers
-the case for a small body of names. <i>Second</i>, there is a very large
-body of names which appear to have arisen without such formal origin,
-and to have, as it were, grown up by common consent in the usage of
-the people of the region.</p>
-
-<p>That which it seems profitable to discuss here, and now, is the
-principles which should be adopted and followed in the selection of
-the names which are to go upon the map; principles which will enable
-one to discriminate when usage is divided, between that which should
-be adopted and that which should be rejected. To make this clear, a
-few instances of the peculiar questions which arise may be cited, and
-then some of the guiding principles stated which it might be possible
-to adopt and to follow.</p>
-
-<p>The river which flows along the western edge of New York City is
-locally known as the North River. Shall this be called the North
-River, or Hudson River, or Hudson's River? And if this geographic name
-is printed in the text of a book, will you print river with a capital
-letter or a small letter? It must be borne in mind that this question
-is asked not for the purpose of immediate or categorical answer, but
-for the purpose of eliciting thought and discussion upon the
-principles which should control the answer.</p>
-
-<p>In 1793 Vancouver entered and mapped Port Townsend, which he formally
-named Port Townshend. At the present time the city situated upon that
-harbor, as well as the harbor itself, is universally known as Port
-Townsend, the "<i>h</i>" in the original being omitted. This is a clear and
-specific case, where the name formally applied by the original
-explorer is now modified in its orthography by usage. What form of the
-name shall be adopted? The former or original name or the present
-modified name? And if the original name is to be adopted, shall we
-proceed similarly in all cases and go back to the original form?</p>
-
-<p>In the case of names which have undergone transformations through
-ignorance or through usage, shall an attempt be made to restore the
-original orthography? Take the case in Missouri of the stream called
-Bois Brule, or burnt wood, and which has become in the usage of the
-residents in that part of the world Bob Ruly, and is so spelled in the
-local publications, and so pronounced in the local usage.</p>
-
-<p>When Champlain sailed along the heel of Cape Cod and discovered the
-extensive shoals which vex the navigation in those waters, he put upon
-his chart the statement <i>mal barre</i>, and a number of later maps
-applied this name to the southernmost point of the heel of Cape Cod as
-Malabar, and so it stood for 100 years or more as Malabar and may even
-be found upon some current publications. In the Coast Survey
-publications it is uniformly called Monomoy.</p>
-
-<p>Again on the north shore of Martha's Vineyard is a place formerly
-known by the Indian word Kiphiggon. On the modern maps this place is
-called Cape Higgon. Shall we in this case adopt the practice of the
-purists and restore the earlier form? In this same locality are four
-small harbors, called by the sailors <i>Holes;</i> namely Holmes' Hole,
-Wood's Hole, Robinson's Hole, and Quick's Hole. In current usage,
-except among seamen, Holmes' Hole has disappeared and been replaced by
-Vineyard Haven. Wood's hole has been converted into Wood's Holl,
-though still pronounced hole; while Robinson and Quick still remain
-holes. In this case shall we attempt to be consistent, or in other
-words to be uniform?</p>
-
-<p>In the vicinity of New Haven there is a hill occupied many years ago
-by Coast Survey parties, and called in their records Rabbit Rock.
-Surveying parties last year in searching for this station inquired
-diligently in the vicinity and failed to find any information
-respecting it for some time. The place, however, is well known to all
-the people for many miles around as Peter's Rock, and this name
-appears on the county atlas of New Haven, published in 1856. I suppose
-the name Rabbit Rock has found earlier publication on Coast Survey
-charts or in its reports, though I have not verified this supposition.
-But assuming that it has been so published, shall we now call that
-hill Rabbit Rock or Peter's Rock?</p>
-
-<p>Allegany County, New York, is spelled Allegany. A post office in
-Sierra County, California, is spelled Alleghany; the city of Allegheny
-near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, is spelled Allegheny. Shall these names
-be allowed to stand unchanged, or should an attempt be made to reduce
-them all to one form?</p>
-
-<p>In the last century, the place we now know as Sitka was known to the
-English as Norfolk Sound, to the French as Tchinkitane Bay, and to the
-Russians as New Archangel. The earliest of these names being Norfolk
-Sound. Is there any doubt in this case as to the advisability of
-retaining the name Sitka?</p>
-
-<p>The great sea between Northeastern Asia and Northwestern America, at
-one time known as the Sea of Kamchatka, and now known as Bering Sea,
-has been variously written Bhering Sea, Behring Sea, Beering Sea,
-Bering Sea, as well as all these forms with the addition of the
-apostrophe "s." I will not ask what is the correct name, as the
-question in this form seems to imply that there is a correct form, and
-all other forms are erroneous. The question should rather be, what
-form is it advisable to adopt with the view, let us hope, of securing
-its general adoption?</p>
-
-<p>And this leads up to the question of possessives generally in specific
-geographic names. Many specific geographic names have the possessive
-form, while many others do not. Is it advisable to attempt to secure
-uniformity of usage in this regard? I will frankly avow my own
-conviction which has resulted from more or less consideration and
-study of the matter to be, that the use of the possessive form should
-be discouraged and abandoned as far as practicable. While it seems to
-me unwise to lay down a hard and fast rule, yet there are a very large
-number of cases in which the possessive form may be dropped to
-advantage and without, I think, arousing any general opposition to the
-practice. When the theory held that the King owned all, and geographic
-features were named for the royal family or for the nobility, the
-possessive form was very frequently used indicating possession or
-ownership, and this in cases where such possessive form has now
-disappeared from the maps. Why should not the possessive form be used
-to denote possession only? A pond, a hill, a swamp, lying on Smith's
-land may be properly designated as it often is, as Smith's pond,
-Smith's hill, etc. But nobody would think of saying Madison's Place,
-or Washington's Monument. There appears to be a certain principle
-involved. Those particular features which are of a public character,
-such as states, counties, towns, streets, parks, etc., which are named
-for individuals are almost universally named without the possessive
-form. And this commends itself as a reasonable practice. Without,
-therefore, cutting off possessives from all names where usage has now
-fixed them with considerable firmness, there yet remains a
-considerable body of geographic names in which the possessive form
-remains, but which are not strongly intrenched in public usage. In
-such cases it seems to me we may advantageously drop the possessive
-form. Let us say Donner Lake, not Donner's Lake, Hudson Bay, not
-Hudson's Bay, James Bay, not James' Bay, Baffin Bay, not Baffin's Bay,
-etc., etc.</p>
-<br>
-
-<p>M<small>R</small>. T<small>HOMPSON</small>: I hardly know how I came to be brought into this
-discussion. The Secretary caught me in his net unawares and
-unprepared. I do not propose to trespass long on your time, nor do I
-suppose I shall add anything to a philosophical discussion of
-geographic nomenclature. I only wish to call your attention to a few
-principles that obviously should be followed in the selection of new
-geographic names and to show some absurdities and difficulties which
-are liable to occur if the sentiment in favor of Indian nomenclature
-is allowed full liberty. A geographic name should be short, euphonic,
-pronounced as spelled, and have a meaning or express some sentiment to
-help fix it in the memory. Especially should these principles govern
-when we consider that in childhood, in our school-days, we obtain by
-far the greater portion of our geographic knowledge.</p>
-
-<p>The old Spanish explorers followed these rules largely in their
-geographic nomenclature, and although "Saint" and "Sierra" occur with
-alarming frequency, there is always some reason for the appellation;
-either they saw a line of peaks cut the horizon or the christening
-occurred on the natal day of the holy martyr. "Rio Dolores" and "Las
-Animas" are certainly better than "Sorrow Creek" or "Soul Wash," and
-even "Purgatoire"&mdash;though the Colorado cow-boy corrupts it into
-"Picket Wire"&mdash;is better than "Cottonwood Creek."</p>
-
-<p>Some Indian names are very expressive, characterizing topographic
-features. In northern Arizona is a steep volcanic neck or needle, its
-sharp sides rising in one step twelve hundred feet above the
-surrounding country. From the base of this pinnacle, two long lava
-dykes stretch on either hand in a gentle curve across the mesa. The
-resemblance to the spreading wings of a bird is striking, and the
-Navajo Indian calls the rock "A-ga-thla"&mdash;the "Flying Bird." A name
-well worthy, it seems to me, of being placed on the maps of that
-region, as it is on the one I hold in my hand. But on the same map,
-close along side, is "Te-ze-ba-a-kit Lake," a barbarous
-appellation&mdash;unspellable, unpronounceable and unlovely. Nor can I say
-less in denunciation of "Zilh-le-ji-ni Mesa"&mdash;a name that needs
-intimate acquaintance with wigwam smoke and Navajo gutturals to handle
-lingually. But what shall we say of "Boo-koo-dot-klish Cañon;" the
-Navajo name for what the white man calls with better propriety, it
-seems to me, for our maps, "Bluestone Wash." "To-go-hol-tas-e Spring"
-could hardly be worse in English. And here is "Sa-hot-soid-be-azh-e
-Cañon" (pronounce it as you please or can) sandwiched between "Gothic
-Wash" and "Gypsum Valley"&mdash;one hardly knows which to prefer, Indian or English.</p>
-
-<p>"Cañon del Muerto"&mdash;the Cañon of the Dead&mdash;so named from the discovery
-of mummified or rather dessicated Indian bodies in its cliffs&mdash;seems
-very appropriate, but its brother cañon&mdash;"Cañon de Chelly," pronounced
-Cañon de Shay, will be neither spoken nor written correctly.</p>
-
-<p>On this same map are shown two small mesas, crowned with forests and
-standing beautiful and symmetric in the landscape. They attract
-attention at once and the Indian, with a fine sense of
-appropriateness, names them "Son-sa-la"&mdash;the "Twin Stars"; another
-name well worthy of being retained. Some patriotic American has named
-the deep gorge separating the "Stars" "Washington Pass," a good
-example of the right name in a wrong place.</p>
-
-<p>The sense of broad humor that often characterizes the Indian leads him
-to sometimes give the inquirer a name expressive of contempt or
-bearing a meaning hardly translatable to ears polite&mdash;"Nic-doit-so-e
-Peak" is an example&mdash;and I confess, with considerable humiliation,
-that I was the victim in this case.</p>
-
-<p>I present these instances, Mr. Chairman, to emphasize the necessity of
-adopting some guiding principles to aid us in the selection of
-geographic names.</p>
-<br>
-<br><a name="chap4"></a>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>APPENDIX.</h3>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h4>R<small>ULES FOR THE</small> O<small>RTHOGRAPHY OF</small> G<small>EOGRAPHIC</small> N<small>AMES</small>.</h4>
-
-<center>C<small>ONTRIBUTED BY</small> M<small>R</small>. H<small>ERRLE</small>.<br>
-<br>
-<small><i>British System</i>&mdash;<i>French System</i>&mdash;<i>German System</i>&mdash;<i>Alphabets</i>,
-<i>Russian-English;</i> <i>English-Russian</i>.</small></center>
-<br><a name="chap5"></a>
-<br>
-<h5>B<small>RITISH</small> S<small>YSTEM</small>.</h5>
-<center><small><i>Rules adopted in 1885, by the Royal Geographical Society at London,
-for the Orthography of Native Names of Places.</i></small></center>
-
-<p>Taking into consideration the present want of a system of geographical
-orthography, and the consequent confusion and variety that exist in
-the mode of spelling in English maps, the Council of the Royal
-Geographical Society have adopted the following rules for such
-geographical names as are not, in the countries to which they belong,
-written in the Roman character. These rules are identical with those
-adopted for the Admiralty charts, and will henceforth be used in all
-publications of the Society.</p>
-
-<blockquote>1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in
-countries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch,
-etc., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in
-languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by
-long usage familiar to English readers: thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes,
-Mecca, etc., will be retained in their present form.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as
-the basis of the spelling.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>4. An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A system
-which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflections of
-sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself.
-Those who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name
-must learn it on the spot by a study of local accent and
-peculiarities.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>5. The broad features of the system are that vowels are pronounced as
-in Italian and consonants as in English.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>6. One accent only is used, the acute, to denote the syllable on which
-stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names
-are entirely altered by the misplacement of this "stress."</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together, each one
-is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes
-scarcely to be distinguished from a single sound, as in <i>ai</i>, <i>au</i>,
-<i>ei</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>8. Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter's Gazetteer.</blockquote>
-
-<p>The amplification of the rules is given below:&mdash;</p>
-
-<table align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" summary="Name changes">
-	<tr>
-		<td align="center"><small>Letters.</small></td>
-		<td align="center"><small>Pronunciation and Remarks.</small></td>
-		<td align="center"><small>Examples.</small></td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">a</td>
-		<td valign="top"><i>ah</i>, <i>a</i> as in <i>father</i></td>
-		<td valign="top">Java, Banána, Somáli, Bari.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">e</td>
-		<td valign="top"><i>eh</i>, <i>e</i> as in <i>benefit</i></td>
-		<td valign="top">Tel-el-Kebír, Oléleh, Yezo, Medina, Levúka, Peru.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">i</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>e;</i> <i>i</i> as in <i>ravine;</i> the sound of
-			<i>ee</i> in <i>beet</i>. Thus, not <i>Feejee</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Fiji, Hindi.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">o</td>
-		<td valign="top"><i>o</i> as in <i>mote</i></td>
-		<td valign="top">Tokio.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">u</td>
-		<td valign="top">long <i>u</i> as in <i>flute;</i> the sound of <i>oo</i> in
-			<i>boot</i>. Thus, not <i>Zooloo</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Zulu, Sumatra.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td valign="top">All vowels are shortened in sound by doubling the following
-			consonant.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Yarra, Tanna, Mecca, Jidda, Bonny.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td valign="top">Doubling of a vowel is only necessary where there is
-			a distinct repetition of the single sound.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Nuulúa, Oosima.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">ai</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>i</i> as in <i>ice</i></td>
-		<td valign="top">Shanghai.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">au</td>
-		<td valign="top"><i>ow</i> as in <i>how</i>. Thus, not <i>Foochow</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Fuchau.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">ao</td>
-		<td valign="top">is slightly different from above</td>
-		<td valign="top">Macao.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">ei</td>
-		<td valign="top">is the sound of the two Italian vowels, but is frequently
-			slurred over, when it is scarcely to be distinguished from
-			<i>ey</i> in the English <i>they</i>.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Beirút, Beilúl.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">b</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>b</i>.</td>
-		<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">c</td>
-		<td valign="top">is always soft, but is so nearly the sound of <i>s</i>
-			that it should be seldom used. If <i>Celebes</i> were
-			not already recognized it would be written <i>Selebes</i>.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Celebes.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">ch</td>
-		<td valign="top">is always soft as in <i>church</i></td>
-		<td valign="top">Chingchin.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">d</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>d</i>.</td>
-		<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">f</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>f</i>. <i>ph</i> should not be used for the
-			sound of <i>f</i>. Thus, not <i>Haiphong</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Haifong, Nafa.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">g</td>
-		<td valign="top">is always hard. (Soft <i>g</i> is given by <i>j</i>)</td>
-		<td valign="top">Galápagos.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">h</td>
-		<td valign="top">is always pronounced when inserted.</td>
-		<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">j</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>j</i>. <i>Dj</i> should never be put for this sound.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Japan, Jinchuen.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">k</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>k</i>. It should always be put for the
-			hard <i>c</i>. Thus, not <i>Corea</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Korea.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">kh</td>
-		<td valign="top">The Oriental guttural</td>
-		<td valign="top">Khan.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">gh</td>
-		<td valign="top">is another guttural, as in the Turkish</td>
-		<td valign="top">Dagh, Ghazi.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">l<br>m<br>n</td>
-		<td>As in English.</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">ng</td>
-		<td valign="top">has two separate sounds, the one hard as in the
-			English word <i>finger</i>, the other as in <i>singer</i>.
-			As these two sounds are rarely employed in the same locality,
-			no attempt is made to distinguish between them.</td>
-		<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">p</td>
-		<td valign="top">As in English.</td>
-		<td valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">q</td>
-		<td valign="top">should never be employed; <i>qu</i> is given as <i>kw</i></td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Kwangtung.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">r<br>s<br>t<br>v</td>
-		<td>As in English.</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">w</td>
-		<td valign="top">As in English.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Sawákin.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">x</td>
-		<td>As in English.</td>
-		<td>&nbsp;</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">y</td>
-		<td valign="top">is always a consonant, as in <i>yard</i>, and therefore
-			should never be used as a terminal, <i>i</i> or <i>e</i>
-			being substituted.<br>Thus, not <i>Mikindány</i>, but<br>not <i>Kwaly</i>, but</td>
-		<td valign="bottom">Kikúyu.<br><br>Mikindáni.<br>Kwale.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">z</td>
-		<td valign="top">English <i>z</i>.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Zulu.</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td valign="top" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-		<td valign="top">Accents should not generally be used, but where there is a
-			very decided emphatic syllable or stress, which affects the sound of
-			the word, it should be marked by an <i>acute</i> accent.</td>
-		<td valign="top">Tongatábu, Galápagos, Paláwan, Saráwak.</td>
-	</tr>
-</table>
-<br><a name="chap6"></a>
-<br>
-<h5>F<small>RENCH</small> S<small>YSTEM</small>.</h5>
-
-<center><small><i>Rules adopted in April, 1886, by the Société de Géographie at Paris,
-for the orthography of native names of places.</i></small></center>
-
-<p>The geographic names in countries in which the Roman character is
-employed in writing (which includes the néo-Latin, Germanic, and
-Scandinavian languages) shall be written in the orthography of the
-country to which they belong.</p>
-
-<p>The following rules apply solely to geographic names in countries
-without a written language, and to geographic names in countries where
-another than the Roman character is employed in writing.</p>
-
-<p>Names of places for which the orthography, through long usage, has
-become consecrated shall, however, be excepted from the rules.
-Examples: La Mecque, Naples, Calcutta.</p>
-
-<p>The rules in detail are:</p>
-
-<blockquote>1. The vowels <i>a</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>o</i> are pronounced as in French,
-Spanish, Italian, and German. The letter <i>e</i> shall never be mute.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>2. The French sound of <i>u</i> shall be represented by <i>u</i> with a <i>tréma</i>
-like the German <i>ü</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>3. The French sound <i>ou</i> shall be represented by <i>u</i>, as in Italian,
-Spanish, and German.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>4. The French sound <i>eu</i> shall be represented by the character <i>oe</i>
-[ligated] and be pronounced as in <i>oeil</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>5. The lengthening of a vowel sound shall be indicated by the '<i>accent
-circonflexe</i>' (^), and the shortening by an '<i>apostrophe</i>' (').</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>6. The consonants <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>,
-<i>r</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>v</i>, and <i>z</i> are pronounced as in French.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>7. <i>g</i> and <i>s</i> have always the hard French sound, as in <i>gamelle</i>,
-<i>sirop</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>8. The sound represented in France by <i>ch</i> shall be written <i>sh</i>.
-Examples: <i>Kashgar</i>, <i>Shérif</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>9. <i>Kh</i> represents the strong and <i>gh</i> the soft Arabic guttural.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>10. <i>Th</i> shall represent the articulation in the English word <i>path</i>
-(Greek theta), and <i>dh</i> the sound of <i>th</i> in the English word <i>those</i>
-(Greek delta).</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>11. Unless the letter <i>h</i> is employed to modify the sound of the
-letter preceding it, it shall always be aspirated; it should,
-therefore, never have an apostrophe in names beginning with it.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>12. The <i>i</i> semi-vowel shall be represented by an y, pronounced as in
-<i>yole</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>13. The semi-vowel <i>w</i> is to be pronounced as in the English word
-<i>Williams</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>14. The double sounds <i>dj</i>, <i>tch</i>, <i>ts</i> shall be written with the
-letters which represent the sounds of which they are composed.
-Example: <i>Matshim</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>15. The <i>ñ</i>, n with a <i>tilde</i>, is to be pronounced like <i>gn</i> in
-<i>seigneur</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<blockquote>16. The letters <i>x</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>q</i> are not to be employed as
-duplicates, but the letter q may serve to represent the Arabian <i>qaf</i>,
-and the <i>aïn</i> could be represented by a double dot.</blockquote>
-
-<p>The idea is to indicate, by means of the characters above given as
-near as possible the local pronunciation without attempting a complete
-reproduction of all sounds heard.</p>
-<a name="chap7"></a>
-<br>
-<h5>G<small>ERMAN</small> S<small>YSTEM</small>.</h5>
-
-<center><small><i>Rules adopted in 1888 by the Imperial German Hydrographic
-Office, for the orthography and pronunciation of foreign geographic names.</i></small></center>
-
-<p>The names from nations who use the Roman or German alphabet are to be
-rendered in the native form, excepting such for which a German
-orthography has been generally adopted, as Kopenhagen, Neapel, Genna,
-etc. Other foreign names which are generally known and whose
-orthography has been generally adopted, as Zanzibar, not <i>Sansibar;</i>
-Zulu, not <i>Sulu</i>, will not be changed.</p>
-
-<p>The letters are pronounced as follows:</p>
-
-<blockquote>a, as <i>a</i> in <i>Vater</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>å, between <i>a</i> and <i>o</i> (<i>Åland's Inseln</i>).</blockquote>
-<blockquote>e, as in <i>Eden</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>i, as in <i>Ida</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>o, as in <i>Brot</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>u, as in <i>nur</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ä, (æ, Ae) retain their German sounds.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ö, (oe, Oe) retain their German sounds.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ü, (ue, Ue) retain their German sounds.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ai, as in <i>Kaiser</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>au, as in <i>auch</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ao, not quite as <i>one</i> sound.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ei, as in <i>Ei</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>b, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x and z retain their
-German sounds.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>f, retains its German sound; also for <i>ph</i>, but the latter will not
-be used.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>c, always soft (as <i>z</i>). For the sound of <i>k</i>, <i>c</i> is not to be
-used.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>j [with umlaut], for the English <i>j</i> (<i>dj</i>).</blockquote>
-<blockquote>q, will not be used; it is replaced by <i>k;</i> respectively by <i>ku</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>ch, as <i>tsch</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>sh, as <i>sch</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>y, is only used for the consonantal sound, not for <i>i</i>.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>gh, oriental guttural sound (<i>Dagh</i>, <i>Ghazi</i>).</blockquote>
-<blockquote>kh, oriental guttural sound (<i>Khan</i>).</blockquote>
-<blockquote>v, is always soft; not to be used to give the sound of <i>f</i>.</blockquote>
-
-<p>When a vowel is to be pronounced clear and open the following
-consonant will be doubled: (<i>Tanna</i>, <i>Mekka</i>, <i>Bonny</i>). To lengthen a
-vowel sound, it will not be doubled, but if the vowel is repeated each
-will be pronounced separately (<i>Nuuluha</i>, <i>Oosima</i>).</p>
-
-<p>But one accent (') will be used to indicate if particularly necessary,
-that is, in exceptional cases, the syllable on which stress is to be
-laid (<i>Matupí</i>).</p>
-<br><a name="chap8"></a>
-<br>
-<center><img src="images/04.jpg" alt="Russian to English"></center>
-<br><a name="chap9"></a>
-<br>
-<center><img src="images/05.jpg" alt="English to Russian"></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-II., No. 4, August, 1890, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, AUGUST 1890 ***
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