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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #63012 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63012)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891
-
-Author: Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-Release Date: August 22, 2020 [EBook #63012]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, MARCH 28, 1891 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-VOL. III. PP. 1-30, PL. 1, MARCH 28, 1891
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
-
-
-
-
-SOUTH AMERICA
-
-ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT
-
-GARDINER G. HUBBARD
-
-
-
-
-WASHINGTON
-
-PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
-
-Price, 25 Cents.
-
-
-{1}
-
-
-VOL. III, PP 1-30, PL 1., MARCH 28, 1891.
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
-
-
-
-
-SOUTH AMERICA.
-
-ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
-
-GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
-
-(_Presented to the Society December 19, 1890._)
-
-
-Two years ago I selected for my annual address _Africa, or the Dark
-Continent_; last year _Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts_; this
-year I have chosen _South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas_.
-
-[Illustration: VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1. SOUTH AMERICA. From the
-International Cylopedia, by permission of Dodd, Mead & Company.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention
-to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of
-government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly
-on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North
-America and South America should be more closely united, for the one
-is the complement of the other.
-
-The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of
-mountains--next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,--its great
-valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan
-to the Caribbean sea.
-
-
-THE MOUNTAINS.
-
-The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a
-northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence
-continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called
-the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, {2}
-Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are
-connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In
-Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest
-elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central
-America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean.
-Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the
-eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of
-South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and
-Cauca rivers.
-
-The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the
-western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the
-eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through
-the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaņa of Bolivia, Peru
-and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a
-broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen
-thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into
-salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.
-
-Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern
-side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to
-the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in
-eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are
-fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow
-and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of
-mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a
-single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption
-at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the
-most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of
-fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so
-without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted
-in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000
-lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over
-four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal
-wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower
-Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was
-felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.
-
-A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the
-valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run
-southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque
-to the Rio de la Plata.
-
-
-{3} RIVER SYSTEMS.
-
-A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the
-equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes
-the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near
-Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds
-blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil
-surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the
-vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land;
-but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder
-winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras,
-all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers
-for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the
-world.
-
-In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers--the
-Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata--rise. The mountain ranges north and
-south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser
-valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow,
-watering three-fourths of South America.
-
-
-_The Orinoco_.
-
-The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the
-Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred
-miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful
-falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.
-
-The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled
-forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless
-prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses.
-Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle
-of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great
-variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous
-serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of
-vegetation.
-
-
-_The Amazon_.
-
-The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles
-wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the
-Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty
-river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and
-then more gradually to the ocean, {4} where it is only 150 miles wide.
-Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is
-very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably
-considerably less.
-
-The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are
-raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and
-silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The
-flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually
-narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon
-cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run
-parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming
-large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found
-on all its larger tributaries.
-
-Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a
-bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles
-and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.
-
-In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of
-its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow
-raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun
-crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its
-course, and the branches that have their source in the east and
-northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The
-flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising
-its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the
-flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of
-navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable,
-forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the
-Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the
-flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.
-
-The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as
-distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of
-Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there
-is but little difference between the species.
-
-The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for
-1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that
-of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults
-which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual
-mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees
-which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom
-and bear fruit all the year round.
-
-{5} Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the
-south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira,
-its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the
-king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width
-or depth.
-
-This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial
-current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight
-course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to
-the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly
-tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the
-Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the
-naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of
-floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among
-these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the
-last I saw of the Amazon."
-
-
-_The Rio de la Plata_.
-
-The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is
-formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from
-the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and
-widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than
-all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are
-fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil,
-within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on
-the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise
-only 125 miles from the Pacific.
-
-Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba,
-and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.
-
-
-_The San Francisco_.
-
-The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro
-and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains,
-then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the
-Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of
-Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many
-falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.
-
-
-{6} GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
-
-In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people,
-soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe
-there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the
-several states.
-
-In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural
-boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different
-states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are
-watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the
-Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile,
-but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by
-negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is
-inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal
-Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa.
-Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the
-prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.
-
-Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America.
-They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety
-of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the
-coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on
-the mountains.
-
-In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are
-several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts,
-sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from
-becoming densely inhabited.
-
-On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and
-less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there
-is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends
-from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current
-runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the
-land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their
-scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not
-a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run
-from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their
-narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands
-of the plain.
-
-In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called
-Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.
-
-The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be {7}
-found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat
-starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a
-thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco
-into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to
-the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil
-and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one
-of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the
-ocean.
-
-The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through
-the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan.
-Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part
-of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The
-pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the
-prairies run from east to west.
-
-The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in
-the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.
-
-
-THE ABORIGINES.
-
-The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the
-natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their
-language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each
-other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious
-beliefs generally similar.
-
-In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages,
-and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as
-many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe
-and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type
-than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the
-substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes
-a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word.
-
-The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to
-cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are
-thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm
-(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish
-and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except
-the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The
-tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle.
-
-Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise
-at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From {8} the
-trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of
-Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with
-moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and
-clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life.
-
-The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the
-negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to
-the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and
-the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are
-common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also
-to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the
-negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the
-continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods
-of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built
-substantially on the same plan.
-
-From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South
-America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on
-further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage
-of civilization than to identity of race.
-
-
-THE INCAS OF PERU.
-
-In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road
-ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate
-valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and
-then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South
-America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in
-height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet.
-This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of
-which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height.
-
-On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South
-America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual
-monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected,
-we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence.
-The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed
-before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of
-Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind
-and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded
-condition of {9} the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac
-and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities,
-to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship
-of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and
-wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found
-an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or
-twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended
-through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred
-tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their
-dominion.
-
-The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili
-northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand
-miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the
-Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a
-stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant
-warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed
-fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion.
-
-The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful
-valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley
-would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a
-perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of
-immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and
-culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of
-laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we
-reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama,
-which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for
-transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these
-buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids
-of Egypt are not more wonderful.
-
-Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting
-different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the
-Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed
-the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country.
-All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were
-erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's
-journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom
-had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty
-to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to
-the {10} next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the
-couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In
-this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made.
-
-These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe,
-and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better
-than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained.
-One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms
-forming three sides of a court.
-
-The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the
-products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast,
-perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical
-vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and
-while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is
-budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains
-is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of
-temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced
-in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the
-forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the
-evening, cool and delicious.
-
-On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from
-which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and
-barren.
-
-The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the
-people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike,
-some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and
-were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges
-and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The
-conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the
-Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects.
-
-The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the
-most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was
-not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it
-would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant."
-
-The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia.
-One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests
-of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to
-cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their
-own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to
-their number. Every newly {11} married couple received a stated
-portion which was increased as the family increased.
-
-Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two
-feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together,
-from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe.
-The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas,
-though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes.
-
-The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order
-than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were
-in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that
-traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were
-contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty,
-although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although
-they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition
-nor strong love of country.
-
-When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the
-other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them
-made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but
-they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small
-force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants
-of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land--a
-mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the
-conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever
-since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas.
-
-There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population
-consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed
-Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized
-than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are
-poorer.
-
-
-DISCOVERY OF THE AMAZON.
-
-Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending
-them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were
-explored downward from their sources to the ocean.
-
-Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of
-Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious
-stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded.
-He determined to follow the little {12} stream which, rising in the
-Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find
-the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish
-horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves.
-
-The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a
-river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the
-slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the
-open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into
-the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more
-dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley,
-for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo.
-Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became
-scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually
-diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves.
-
-The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they
-would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said,
-flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was
-abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to
-build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with
-food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber;
-the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was
-used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for
-oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European
-vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew
-broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until
-it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw
-before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the
-Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the
-Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and
-the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done?
-Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The
-journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to
-explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was
-faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed
-down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other
-rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north,
-more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew
-so broad that they could not see from one side to the other. {13}
-Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main
-stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went,
-till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they
-sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad,
-where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the
-story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they
-passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous
-tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine
-women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men
-into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away
-the male children and training the girls to become amazons and
-warriors.
-
-Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a
-new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before
-reaching the river.
-
-Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made
-their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as
-Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but
-found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive,
-and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations
-being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after
-their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the
-skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed
-to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of
-spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred
-and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left.
-
-Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships,
-length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in
-the annals of American discovery.
-
-
-GUIANA.
-
-Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin
-race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to
-his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own
-country was at peace.
-
-Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful
-stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco,
-surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were
-carried by English navigators to Great Britain, {14} with legends of a
-prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then
-powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic
-golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some
-from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city
-was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose
-bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles
-dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they
-told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to
-exchange their jewels for jews-harps.
-
-Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his
-queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold
-mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in
-Christendom--"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels
-and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe."
-
-In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of
-Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the
-Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and
-sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden
-city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed
-surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the
-Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the
-Indians to swear fealty to his queen.
-
-Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order
-to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He
-sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and
-sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too
-feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis
-returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of
-the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought
-reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and
-emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth
-of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know
-then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed
-himself.
-
-Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards
-demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after
-his first expedition, on the ground that in time of {15} peace Raleigh
-had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth
-had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana
-became an English colony.
-
-The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been
-found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical
-rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of
-Peru.
-
-
-POPULATION OF SOUTH AMERICA.
-
-As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same
-time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they
-can be considered as a whole.
-
-The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and
-sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the
-western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana,
-by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated,
-carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and
-exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the
-Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil,
-religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central
-America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one
-hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day
-they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country.
-Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great
-endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure,
-expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they
-plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed
-into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed.
-
-The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they
-brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians,
-and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their
-ancestors without the virtues of either.
-
-A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten
-to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the
-Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements,
-excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast.
-
-Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian
-population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population; {16}
-and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian,
-Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one
-hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and
-foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at
-the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In
-Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and
-sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there
-are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of
-that valley.
-
-Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is
-inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence
-of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and
-the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the
-Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The
-natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the
-Spaniards discovered America.
-
-The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they
-leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians,
-retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When
-the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the
-present century, republics were established, but they were republics
-only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for
-self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of
-dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a
-long rule, for their power and position were sought by others.
-Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic
-stage.
-
-A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system,
-was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder
-being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than
-80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima,
-the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them;
-they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one
-man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only
-interested in robbing her.
-
-Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions,
-says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it
-would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and
-tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no
-permanent policy, in any Spanish {17} country. The hope for the future
-is that the English, German, and French population will increase and
-become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an
-active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration
-of the government.
-
-Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French,
-Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner
-groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and
-restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and
-bankers.
-
-Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe
-to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America,
-stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around
-Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run
-direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and
-the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American
-steamers trading to South America.
-
-
-BRAZIL.
-
-We have given a general description of South America, but three
-countries--Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru--require further
-notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying
-three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that
-was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it
-is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru,
-illustrates the political and financial phases through which the
-Spanish republics have passed.
-
-The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the
-world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and
-undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined
-to the trees above and the waters below.
-
-The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the
-climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the
-vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montaņa district,
-where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there
-are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both
-animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the
-montaņa district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and
-where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the
-valley of the Amazon or that of the {18} montaņa. As in Africa, so
-here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley
-selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to
-England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air
-and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached.
-
-Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon,
-is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where
-rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of
-rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and
-instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the
-valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but
-without extremes of heat and cold.
-
-Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the
-sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent.
-of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to
-Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old
-world.
-
-Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has
-been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics.
-Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally
-successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of
-whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves.
-Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country;
-the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from
-early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was
-passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the
-planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee
-and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which
-caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined
-the insurgents in establishing the Republic.
-
-The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the
-Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that
-Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has
-been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into
-two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense
-domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to
-travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to
-Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance
-is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer {19} through the
-Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although
-the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of
-intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and
-the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country
-back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be
-opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown
-and soon become impassable.
-
-Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and
-run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of
-Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian
-government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels
-carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber,
-Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest.
-
-Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers,
-and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi
-carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than
-the Amazon in a year.
-
-
-THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
-
-The history of South American republics is illustrated in the
-Argentine republic.
-
-It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes,
-and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern
-Terra del Fuego.
-
-The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part,
-semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is
-generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the
-land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The
-soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting
-in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel
-and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of
-the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or
-four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a
-dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all
-plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting
-verdure.
-
-Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or
-American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the {20}
-pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it
-for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon
-be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American
-prairie.
-
-The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our
-prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder.
-Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to
-the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the
-plains.
-
-The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one
-locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon,
-wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich
-and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are
-called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare
-exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to
-attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug
-an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to
-the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids--and
-fewer Indians.
-
-The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by
-overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of
-thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually
-passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old
-world have settled in the country as farmers and planters.
-
-The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never
-been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The
-gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its
-rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish
-states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or
-dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces
-had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay,
-formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in
-the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887.
-
-For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then
-the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was
-arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces
-prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres.
-Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics
-of Uruguay and Paraguay.
-
-{21} Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and
-foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must
-be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000
-of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating
-mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a
-currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes
-were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We
-are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and
-that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists
-in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price
-of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of
-pashas at Galata."
-
-Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different
-directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard
-to its population or business.
-
-A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between
-the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed
-by a carriage of any kind.
-
-The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired.
-Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money
-from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have
-been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated
-that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the
-last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the
-same period has been twice as great as that of the United States.
-Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or
-leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a
-year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the
-provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were
-readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay
-for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on
-depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a
-valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank,
-for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were
-issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required,
-more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was
-increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand
-four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of
-two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per
-cent.
-
-{22} In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general
-prostration ensued.
-
-It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the
-accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is
-greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any
-other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is
-to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy.
-
-
-PERU.
-
-A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural
-harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a
-plateau, and still another range of mountains--this is Peru.
-
-In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers,
-to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds.
-
-Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in
-the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and
-desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams
-running now through deep caņons and then through rich, fertile valleys
-steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever
-broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montaņa is reached,
-only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have
-become rivers, navigable to the ocean.
-
-The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that
-breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or
-from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has
-contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great
-deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and
-silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual
-revenue of $20,000,000.
-
-The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower,
-all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the
-mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and
-tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a
-bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth--such is Peru.
-
-To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars
-were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever
-finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads
-were built by the government, the others by private parties.
-
-{23} The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made
-Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war
-with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the
-loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her
-guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much
-less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus
-bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default
-and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by
-Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the
-bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in
-consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru,
-receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of
-lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a
-government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of
-Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly
-average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway
-system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres
-for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000
-acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the
-navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the
-Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000
-tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000
-tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their
-part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads,
-and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an
-estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations
-to a limited amount.
-
-This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a
-bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and
-cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of
-prosperity.
-
-
-TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES.
-
-It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to
-and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only
-four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally
-owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are
-Englishmen or Germans; that {24} many of the mines, cattle ranches,
-coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident
-foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products
-is the United States, although this country sells few of its
-manufactures and products to South America.
-
-The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English
-dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are
-sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are
-sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the
-money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English
-therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South
-America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight
-from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods,
-and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to
-Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two
-countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other
-wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean
-sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and
-we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America,
-where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber,
-cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here,
-therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a
-trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred
-United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than
-twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per
-cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war
-came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied
-a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our
-manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we
-refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell
-off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American
-ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to
-England, Germany and France.
-
-It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot,
-without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete
-with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a
-waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the
-cheaper we can manufacture, and we can {25} surely find a large and
-new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the
-experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and
-protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our
-merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South
-America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show
-the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America
-that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other
-directions, we must ultimately succeed.
-
-It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the
-South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and
-manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and
-prosperous commerce will be established between North America and
-South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities
-to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America.
-By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market
-for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its
-vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the
-large cities of South America.
-
-
-RAILROADS.
-
-We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the
-little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the
-Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world,
-ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which
-in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They
-were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and
-Cordilleras.
-
-The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length,
-starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an
-elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and
-the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the
-navigable waters of the Amazon.
-
-Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo,
-Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on
-the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road
-from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water
-that the only supply for {26} the engines and stations is by an iron
-pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an
-elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast.
-
-Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from
-Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes
-through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above
-the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two
-hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or
-below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean.
-
-From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the
-mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these
-runs westwardly toward Bolivia.
-
-Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a
-road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at
-Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the
-Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the
-Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro.
-
-There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the
-Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in
-the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in
-operation.
-
-A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the
-Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the
-Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian,
-and ultimately with the Argentine roads.
-
-The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where
-there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from
-Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the
-Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here,
-near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern
-Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of
-the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down
-that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above
-tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador
-to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From
-Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its
-southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the
-montaņa {27} and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles,
-to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch
-will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco.
-
-This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the
-Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining
-region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines
-are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been
-thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals
-have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and
-treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain;
-where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive.
-This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these
-mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and
-lucrative traffic.
-
-Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many
-of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from
-communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many
-branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of
-navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is
-claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would
-find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para.
-
-There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the
-Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the
-stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the
-cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the
-valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though
-it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes
-through the montaņa district, which is generally high, healthy and
-fertile.
-
-This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an
-immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but
-it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers,
-and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are
-not numerous.
-
-The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate,
-but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily
-be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must {28} cross the
-numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between
-the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material
-for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo
-to another, says:
-
-"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is
-legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then
-descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on
-the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the
-Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the
-low arcade of foliage."
-
-Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon
-and montaņa country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para
-than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would
-be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to
-all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up
-the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a
-second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of
-the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad.
-
-At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the
-operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government
-subsidies to build and operate it.
-
-Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that
-the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important
-element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via
-Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and
-developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the
-railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither
-opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume
-that it will not suffice in the future.
-
-
-CONCLUSION.
-
-In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America.
-Buckle says:
-
-"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he
-is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is
-surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never
-been able to make head against them.
-
-"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the
-contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and
-{29} the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this
-unequal struggle, has been unable to advance.
-
-"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where
-vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by
-the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the
-profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that
-accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible."
-
-Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the
-Amazon, closes his book as follows:
-
-"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its
-social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can
-reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the
-inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone
-that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition
-of man's beautiful heritage, the earth."
-
-_Washington, January, 1891_.
-
-{30}
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
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-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891
-
-Author: Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-Release Date: August 22, 2020 [EBook #63012]
-
-Language: English
-
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-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, MARCH 28, 1891 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
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-
-</pre>
-
-<center><img src="images/img-cover.jpg" alt="cover"></center>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"><small><small>[p. 1]</small></small></a></span>
-<center><small>V<small>OL</small>. III, PP 1&ndash;30, PL 1
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-M<small>ARCH</small> 28, 1891.</small></center>
-<h4>THE</h4>
-<h2>NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.</h2>
-<hr>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<br>
-<h3>SOUTH AMERICA.</h3>
-
-<h5>A<small>NNUAL</small> A<small>DDRESS BY THE</small> P<small>RESIDENT</small>,</h5>
-
-<h4>GARDINER G. HUBBARD.</h4>
-
-<center>(<i>Presented to the Society December 19, 1890.</i>)</center>
-<br>
-<hr align="center" width="25%">
-<br>
-<p>Two years ago I selected for my annual address <i>Africa, or the Dark
-Continent;</i> last year <i>Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts;</i> this
-year I have chosen <i>South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas</i>.</p>
-
-<a name="PL1"></a>
-<table align="center" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" summary="Plate 1">
-	<tr>
-		<td width="723" align="center">
-			<small>NAT GEOG. MAG.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
-			VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1.</small>
-		</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td width="723">
-			<img src="images/01.jpg" alt="South America">
-		</td>
-	</tr>
-	<tr>
-		<td width="723" align="center">
-			<small>From the International Cylopedia, by permission of
-			Dodd, Mead &amp; Company.</small>
-		</td>
-	</tr>
-</table>
-<br><br>
-
-<p>The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention
-to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of
-government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly
-on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North
-America and South America should be more closely united, for the one
-is the complement of the other.</p>
-
-<p>The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of
-mountains&mdash;next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,&mdash;its great
-valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan
-to the Caribbean sea.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>T<small>HE</small> M<small>OUNTAINS</small>.</center>
-
-<p>The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a
-northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence
-continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called
-the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"><small><small>[p. 2]</small></small></a></span>
-Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are
-connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In
-Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest
-elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central
-America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean.
-Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the
-eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of
-South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and
-Cauca rivers.</p>
-
-<p>The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the
-western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the
-eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through
-the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaņa of Bolivia, Peru
-and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a
-broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen
-thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into
-salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.</p>
-
-<p>Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern
-side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to
-the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in
-eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are
-fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow
-and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of
-mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a
-single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption
-at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the
-most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of
-fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so
-without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted
-in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000
-lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over
-four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal
-wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower
-Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was
-felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.</p>
-
-<p>A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the
-valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run
-southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque
-to the Rio de la Plata.</p>
-<br>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"><small><small>[p. 3]</small></small></a></span>
-<center>R<small>IVER</small> S<small>YSTEMS</small>.</center>
-
-<p>A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the
-equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes
-the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near
-Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds
-blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil
-surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the
-vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land;
-but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder
-winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras,
-all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers
-for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the
-world.</p>
-
-<p>In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers&mdash;the
-Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata&mdash;rise. The mountain ranges north and
-south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser
-valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow,
-watering three-fourths of South America.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>The Orinoco</i>.</center>
-
-<p>The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the
-Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred
-miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful
-falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.</p>
-
-<p>The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled
-forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless
-prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses.
-Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle
-of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great
-variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous
-serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of
-vegetation.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>The Amazon</i>.</center>
-
-<p>The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles
-wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the
-Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty
-river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and
-then more gradually to the ocean,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"><small><small>[p. 4]</small></small></a></span>
-where it is only 150 miles wide.
-Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is
-very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably
-considerably less.</p>
-
-<p>The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are
-raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and
-silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The
-flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually
-narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon
-cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run
-parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming
-large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found
-on all its larger tributaries.</p>
-
-<p>Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a
-bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles
-and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.</p>
-
-<p>In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of
-its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow
-raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun
-crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its
-course, and the branches that have their source in the east and
-northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The
-flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising
-its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the
-flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of
-navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable,
-forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the
-Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the
-flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.</p>
-
-<p>The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as
-distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of
-Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there
-is but little difference between the species.</p>
-
-<p>The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for
-1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that
-of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults
-which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual
-mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees
-which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom
-and bear fruit all the year round.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"><small><small>[p. 5]</small></small></a></span>
-<p>Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the
-south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira,
-its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the
-king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width
-or depth.</p>
-
-<p>This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial
-current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight
-course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to
-the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly
-tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the
-Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the
-naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of
-floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among
-these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the
-last I saw of the Amazon."</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>The Rio de la Plata</i>.</center>
-
-<p>The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is
-formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from
-the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and
-widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than
-all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are
-fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil,
-within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on
-the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise
-only 125 miles from the Pacific.</p>
-
-<p>Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba,
-and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center><i>The San Francisco</i>.</center>
-
-<p>The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro
-and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains,
-then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the
-Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of
-Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many
-falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.</p>
-<br>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"><small><small>[p. 6]</small></small></a></span>
-<center>G<small>ENERAL</small> D<small>ESCRIPTION</small>.</center>
-
-<p>In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people,
-soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe
-there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the
-several states.</p>
-
-<p>In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural
-boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different
-states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are
-watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the
-Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile,
-but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by
-negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is
-inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal
-Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa.
-Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the
-prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.</p>
-
-<p>Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America.
-They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety
-of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the
-coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on
-the mountains.</p>
-
-<p>In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are
-several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts,
-sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from
-becoming densely inhabited.</p>
-
-<p>On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and
-less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there
-is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends
-from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current
-runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the
-land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their
-scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not
-a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run
-from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their
-narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands
-of the plain.</p>
-
-<p>In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called
-Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.</p>
-
-<p>The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"><small><small>[p. 7]</small></small></a></span>
-found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat
-starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a
-thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco
-into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to
-the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil
-and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one
-of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the
-ocean.</p>
-
-<p>The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through
-the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan.
-Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part
-of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The
-pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the
-prairies run from east to west.</p>
-
-<p>The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in
-the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>T<small>HE</small> A<small>BORIGINES</small>.</center>
-
-<p>The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the
-natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their
-language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each
-other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious
-beliefs generally similar.</p>
-
-<p>In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages,
-and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as
-many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe
-and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type
-than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the
-substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes
-a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word.</p>
-
-<p>The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to
-cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are
-thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm
-(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish
-and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except
-the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The
-tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle.</p>
-
-<p>Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise
-at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"><small><small>[p. 8]</small></small></a></span> the
-trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of
-Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with
-moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and
-clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life.</p>
-
-<p>The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the
-negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to
-the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and
-the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are
-common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also
-to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the
-negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the
-continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods
-of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built
-substantially on the same plan.</p>
-
-<p>From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South
-America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on
-further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage
-of civilization than to identity of race.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>T<small>HE</small> I<small>NCAS OF</small> P<small>ERU</small>.</center>
-
-<p>In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road
-ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate
-valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and
-then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South
-America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in
-height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet.
-This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of
-which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height.</p>
-
-<p>On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South
-America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual
-monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected,
-we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence.
-The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed
-before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of
-Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind
-and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded
-condition of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"><small><small>[p. 9]</small></small></a></span>
-the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac
-and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities,
-to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship
-of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and
-wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found
-an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or
-twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended
-through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred
-tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their
-dominion.</p>
-
-<p>The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili
-northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand
-miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the
-Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a
-stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant
-warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed
-fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion.</p>
-
-<p>The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful
-valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley
-would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a
-perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of
-immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and
-culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of
-laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we
-reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama,
-which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for
-transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these
-buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids
-of Egypt are not more wonderful.</p>
-
-<p>Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting
-different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the
-Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed
-the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country.
-All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were
-erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's
-journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom
-had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty
-to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to
-the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"><small><small>[p. 10]</small></small></a></span>
-next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the
-couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In
-this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made.</p>
-
-<p>These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe,
-and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better
-than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained.
-One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms
-forming three sides of a court.</p>
-
-<p>The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the
-products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast,
-perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical
-vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and
-while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is
-budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains
-is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of
-temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced
-in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the
-forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the
-evening, cool and delicious.</p>
-
-<p>On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from
-which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and barren.</p>
-
-<p>The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the
-people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike,
-some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and
-were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges
-and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The
-conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the
-Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects.</p>
-
-<p>The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the
-most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was
-not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it
-would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant."</p>
-
-<p>The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia.
-One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests
-of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to
-cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their
-own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to
-their number. Every newly
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"><small><small>[p. 11]</small></small></a></span>
-married couple received a stated
-portion which was increased as the family increased.</p>
-
-<p>Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two
-feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together,
-from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe.
-The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas,
-though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes.</p>
-
-<p>The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order
-than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were
-in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that
-traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were
-contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty,
-although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although
-they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition
-nor strong love of country.</p>
-
-<p>When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the
-other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them
-made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but
-they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small
-force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants
-of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land&mdash;a
-mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the
-conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever
-since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas.</p>
-
-<p>There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population
-consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed
-Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized
-than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are poorer.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>D<small>ISCOVERY OF THE</small> A<small>MAZON</small>.</center>
-
-<p>Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending
-them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were
-explored downward from their sources to the ocean.</p>
-
-<p>Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of
-Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious
-stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded.
-He determined to follow the little
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"><small><small>[p. 12]</small></small></a></span>
-stream which, rising in the
-Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find
-the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish
-horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves.</p>
-
-<p>The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a
-river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the
-slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the
-open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into
-the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more
-dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley,
-for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo.
-Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became
-scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually
-diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves.</p>
-
-<p>The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they
-would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said,
-flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was
-abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to
-build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with
-food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber;
-the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was
-used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for
-oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European
-vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew
-broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until
-it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw
-before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the
-Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the
-Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and
-the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done?
-Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The
-journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to
-explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was
-faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed
-down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other
-rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north,
-more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew
-so broad that they could not see from one side to the other.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"><small><small>[p. 13]</small></small></a></span>
-Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main
-stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went,
-till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they
-sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad,
-where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the
-story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they
-passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous
-tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine
-women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men
-into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away
-the male children and training the girls to become amazons and warriors.</p>
-
-<p>Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a
-new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before
-reaching the river.</p>
-
-<p>Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made
-their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as
-Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but
-found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive,
-and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations
-being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after
-their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the
-skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed
-to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of
-spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred
-and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left.</p>
-
-<p>Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships,
-length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in
-the annals of American discovery.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>G<small>UIANA</small>.</center>
-
-<p>Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin
-race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to
-his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own
-country was at peace.</p>
-
-<p>Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful
-stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco,
-surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were
-carried by English navigators to Great Britain,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"><small><small>[p. 14]</small></small></a></span>
-with legends of a
-prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then
-powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic
-golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some
-from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city
-was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose
-bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles
-dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they
-told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to
-exchange their jewels for jews-harps.</p>
-
-<p>Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his
-queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold
-mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in
-Christendom&mdash;"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels
-and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe."</p>
-
-<p>In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of
-Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the
-Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and
-sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden
-city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed
-surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the
-Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the
-Indians to swear fealty to his queen.</p>
-
-<p>Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order
-to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He
-sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and
-sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too
-feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis
-returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of
-the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought
-reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and
-emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth
-of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know
-then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed himself.</p>
-
-<p>Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards
-demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after
-his first expedition, on the ground that in time of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"><small><small>[p. 15]</small></small></a></span> peace Raleigh
-had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth
-had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana
-became an English colony.</p>
-
-<p>The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been
-found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical
-rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of Peru.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>P<small>OPULATION OF</small> S<small>OUTH</small> A<small>MERICA</small>.</center>
-
-<p>As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same
-time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they
-can be considered as a whole.</p>
-
-<p>The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and
-sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the
-western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana,
-by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated,
-carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and
-exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the
-Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil,
-religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central
-America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one
-hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day
-they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country.
-Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great
-endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure,
-expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they
-plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed
-into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed.</p>
-
-<p>The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they
-brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians,
-and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their
-ancestors without the virtues of either.</p>
-
-<p>A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten
-to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the
-Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements,
-excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast.</p>
-
-<p>Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian
-population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population;
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"><small><small>[p. 16]</small></small></a></span>
-and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian,
-Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one
-hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and
-foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at
-the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In
-Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and
-sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there
-are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of
-that valley.</p>
-
-<p>Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is
-inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence
-of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and
-the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the
-Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The
-natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the
-Spaniards discovered America.</p>
-
-<p>The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they
-leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians,
-retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When
-the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the
-present century, republics were established, but they were republics
-only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for
-self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of
-dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a
-long rule, for their power and position were sought by others.
-Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic stage.</p>
-
-<p>A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system,
-was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder
-being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than
-80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima,
-the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them;
-they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one
-man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only
-interested in robbing her.</p>
-
-<p>Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions,
-says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it
-would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and
-tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no
-permanent policy, in any Spanish
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"><small><small>[p. 17]</small></small></a></span>
-country. The hope for the future
-is that the English, German, and French population will increase and
-become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an
-active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration
-of the government.</p>
-
-<p>Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French,
-Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner
-groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and
-restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and bankers.</p>
-
-<p>Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe
-to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America,
-stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around
-Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run
-direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and
-the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American
-steamers trading to South America.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>B<small>RAZIL</small>.</center>
-
-<p>We have given a general description of South America, but three
-countries&mdash;Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru&mdash;require further
-notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying
-three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that
-was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it
-is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru,
-illustrates the political and financial phases through which the
-Spanish republics have passed.</p>
-
-<p>The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the
-world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and
-undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined
-to the trees above and the waters below.</p>
-
-<p>The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the
-climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the
-vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montaņa district,
-where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there
-are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both
-animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the
-montaņa district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and
-where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the
-valley of the Amazon or that of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"><small><small>[p. 18]</small></small></a></span>
-montaņa. As in Africa, so
-here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley
-selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to
-England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air
-and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached.</p>
-
-<p>Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon,
-is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where
-rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of
-rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and
-instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the
-valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but
-without extremes of heat and cold.</p>
-
-<p>Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the
-sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent.
-of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to
-Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old world.</p>
-
-<p>Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has
-been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics.
-Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally
-successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of
-whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves.
-Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country;
-the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from
-early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was
-passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the
-planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee
-and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which
-caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined
-the insurgents in establishing the Republic.</p>
-
-<p>The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the
-Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that
-Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has
-been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into
-two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense
-domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to
-travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to
-Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance
-is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"><small><small>[p. 19]</small></small></a></span> through the
-Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although
-the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of
-intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and
-the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country
-back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be
-opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown
-and soon become impassable.</p>
-
-<p>Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and
-run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of
-Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian
-government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels
-carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber,
-Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest.</p>
-
-<p>Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers,
-and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi
-carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than
-the Amazon in a year.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>T<small>HE</small> A<small>RGENTINE</small> R<small>EPUBLIC</small>.</center>
-
-<p>The history of South American republics is illustrated in the
-Argentine republic.</p>
-
-<p>It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes,
-and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern
-Terra del Fuego.</p>
-
-<p>The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part,
-semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is
-generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the
-land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The
-soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting
-in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel
-and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of
-the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or
-four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a
-dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all
-plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting verdure.</p>
-
-<p>Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or
-American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"><small><small>[p. 20]</small></small></a></span>
-pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it
-for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon
-be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American prairie.</p>
-
-<p>The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our
-prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder.
-Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to
-the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the
-plains.</p>
-
-<p>The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one
-locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon,
-wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich
-and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are
-called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare
-exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to
-attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug
-an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to
-the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids&mdash;and
-fewer Indians.</p>
-
-<p>The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by
-overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of
-thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually
-passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old
-world have settled in the country as farmers and planters.</p>
-
-<p>The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never
-been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The
-gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its
-rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish
-states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or
-dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces
-had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay,
-formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in
-the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887.</p>
-
-<p>For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then
-the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was
-arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces
-prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres.
-Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics
-of Uruguay and Paraguay.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"><small><small>[p. 21]</small></small></a></span>
-<p>Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and
-foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must
-be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000
-of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating
-mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a
-currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes
-were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We
-are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and
-that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists
-in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price
-of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of
-pashas at Galata."</p>
-
-<p>Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different
-directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard
-to its population or business.</p>
-
-<p>A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between
-the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed
-by a carriage of any kind.</p>
-
-<p>The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired.
-Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money
-from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have
-been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated
-that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the
-last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the
-same period has been twice as great as that of the United States.
-Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or
-leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a
-year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the
-provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were
-readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay
-for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on
-depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a
-valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank,
-for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were
-issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required,
-more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was
-increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand
-four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of
-two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per cent.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"><small><small>[p. 22]</small></small></a></span>
-<p>In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general
-prostration ensued.</p>
-
-<p>It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the
-accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is
-greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any
-other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is
-to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>P<small>ERU</small>.</center>
-
-<p>A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural
-harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a
-plateau, and still another range of mountains&mdash;this is Peru.</p>
-
-<p>In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers,
-to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds.</p>
-
-<p>Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in
-the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and
-desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams
-running now through deep caņons and then through rich, fertile valleys
-steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever
-broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montaņa is reached,
-only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have
-become rivers, navigable to the ocean.</p>
-
-<p>The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that
-breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or
-from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has
-contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great
-deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and
-silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual
-revenue of $20,000,000.</p>
-
-<p>The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower,
-all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the
-mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and
-tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a
-bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth&mdash;such is Peru.</p>
-
-<p>To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars
-were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever
-finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads
-were built by the government, the others by private parties.</p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"><small><small>[p. 23]</small></small></a></span>
-<p>The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made
-Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war
-with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the
-loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her
-guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much
-less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus
-bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default
-and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by
-Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the
-bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in
-consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru,
-receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of
-lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a
-government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of
-Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly
-average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway
-system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres
-for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000
-acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the
-navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the
-Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000
-tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000
-tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their
-part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads,
-and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an
-estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations
-to a limited amount.</p>
-
-<p>This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a
-bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and
-cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of prosperity.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>T<small>RADE</small> R<small>ELATIONS WITH THE</small>
-U<small>NITED</small> S<small>TATES</small>.</center>
-
-<p>It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to
-and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only
-four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally
-owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are
-Englishmen or Germans; that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"><small><small>[p. 24]</small></small></a></span>
-many of the mines, cattle ranches,
-coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident
-foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products
-is the United States, although this country sells few of its
-manufactures and products to South America.</p>
-
-<p>The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English
-dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are
-sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are
-sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the
-money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English
-therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South
-America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight
-from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods,
-and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to
-Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two
-countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other
-wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean
-sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and
-we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America,
-where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber,
-cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here,
-therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a
-trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred
-United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than
-twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per
-cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war
-came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied
-a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our
-manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we
-refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell
-off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American
-ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to
-England, Germany and France.</p>
-
-<p>It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot,
-without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete
-with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a
-waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the
-cheaper we can manufacture, and we can
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"><small><small>[p. 25]</small></small></a></span>
-surely find a large and
-new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the
-experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and
-protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our
-merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South
-America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show
-the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America
-that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other
-directions, we must ultimately succeed.</p>
-
-<p>It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the
-South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and
-manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and
-prosperous commerce will be established between North America and
-South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities
-to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America.
-By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market
-for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its
-vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the
-large cities of South America.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>R<small>AILROADS</small>.</center>
-
-<p>We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the
-little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the
-Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world,
-ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which
-in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They
-were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and
-Cordilleras.</p>
-
-<p>The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length,
-starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an
-elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and
-the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the
-navigable waters of the Amazon.</p>
-
-<p>Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo,
-Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on
-the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road
-from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water
-that the only supply for
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"><small><small>[p. 26]</small></small></a></span>
-the engines and stations is by an iron
-pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an
-elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast.</p>
-
-<p>Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from
-Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes
-through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above
-the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two
-hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or
-below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean.</p>
-
-<p>From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the
-mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these
-runs westwardly toward Bolivia.</p>
-
-<p>Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a
-road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at
-Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the
-Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the
-Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro.</p>
-
-<p>There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the
-Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in
-the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in operation.</p>
-
-<p>A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the
-Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the
-Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian,
-and ultimately with the Argentine roads.</p>
-
-<p>The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where
-there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from
-Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the
-Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here,
-near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern
-Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of
-the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down
-that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above
-tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador
-to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From
-Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its
-southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the
-montaņa <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"><small><small>[p. 27]</small></small></a></span>
-and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles,
-to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch
-will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco.</p>
-
-<p>This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the
-Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining
-region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines
-are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been
-thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals
-have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and
-treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain;
-where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive.
-This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these
-mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and
-lucrative traffic.</p>
-
-<p>Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many
-of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from
-communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many
-branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of
-navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is
-claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would
-find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para.</p>
-
-<p>There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the
-Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the
-stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the
-cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the
-valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though
-it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes
-through the montaņa district, which is generally high, healthy and fertile.</p>
-
-<p>This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an
-immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but
-it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers,
-and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are
-not numerous.</p>
-
-<p>The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate,
-but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily
-be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"><small><small>[p. 28]</small></small></a></span> cross the
-numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between
-the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material
-for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo
-to another, says:</p>
-
-<blockquote><small>"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is
-legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then
-descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on
-the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the
-Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the
-low arcade of foliage."</small></blockquote>
-
-<p>Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon
-and montaņa country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para
-than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would
-be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to
-all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up
-the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a
-second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of
-the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad.</p>
-
-<p>At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the
-operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government
-subsidies to build and operate it.</p>
-
-<p>Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that
-the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important
-element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via
-Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and
-developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the
-railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither
-opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume
-that it will not suffice in the future.</p>
-<br>
-
-<center>C<small>ONCLUSION</small>.</center>
-
-<p>In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America.
-Buckle says:</p>
-
-<blockquote><small>"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he
-is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is
-surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never
-been able to make head against them.</small></blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><small>"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the
-contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"><small><small>[p. 29]</small></small></a></span>
-the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this
-unequal struggle, has been unable to advance.</small></blockquote>
-
-<blockquote><small>"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where
-vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by
-the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the
-profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that
-accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible."</small></blockquote>
-
-<p>Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the
-Amazon, closes his book as follows:</p>
-
-<blockquote><small>"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its
-social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can
-reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the
-inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone
-that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition
-of man's beautiful heritage, the earth."</small></blockquote>
-
-<p><small>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Washington, January, 1891</i>.</small></p>
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"><small><small>[p. 30]</small></small></a></span>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The National Geographic Magazine, Vol. III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891
-
-Author: Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
-Release Date: August 22, 2020 [EBook #63012]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ASCII
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, MARCH 28, 1891 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Ron Swanson
-
-
-
-
-
-VOL. III. PP. 1-30, PL. 1, MARCH 28, 1891
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
-
-
-
-
-SOUTH AMERICA
-
-ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT
-
-GARDINER G. HUBBARD
-
-
-
-
-WASHINGTON
-
-PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
-
-Price, 25 Cents.
-
-
-{1}
-
-
-VOL. III, PP 1-30, PL 1., MARCH 28, 1891.
-
-THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
-
-
-
-
-SOUTH AMERICA.
-
-ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
-
-GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
-
-(_Presented to the Society December 19, 1890._)
-
-
-Two years ago I selected for my annual address _Africa, or the Dark
-Continent_; last year _Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts_; this
-year I have chosen _South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas_.
-
-[Illustration: VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1. SOUTH AMERICA. From the
-International Cylopedia, by permission of Dodd, Mead & Company.]
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention
-to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of
-government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly
-on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North
-America and South America should be more closely united, for the one
-is the complement of the other.
-
-The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of
-mountains--next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,--its great
-valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan
-to the Caribbean sea.
-
-
-THE MOUNTAINS.
-
-The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a
-northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence
-continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called
-the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, {2}
-Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are
-connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In
-Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest
-elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central
-America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean.
-Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the
-eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of
-South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and
-Cauca rivers.
-
-The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the
-western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the
-eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through
-the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montana of Bolivia, Peru
-and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a
-broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen
-thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into
-salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.
-
-Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern
-side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to
-the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in
-eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are
-fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow
-and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of
-mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a
-single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption
-at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the
-most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of
-fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so
-without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted
-in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000
-lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over
-four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal
-wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower
-Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was
-felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.
-
-A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the
-valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run
-southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque
-to the Rio de la Plata.
-
-
-{3} RIVER SYSTEMS.
-
-A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the
-equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes
-the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near
-Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds
-blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil
-surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the
-vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land;
-but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder
-winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras,
-all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers
-for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the
-world.
-
-In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers--the
-Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata--rise. The mountain ranges north and
-south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser
-valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow,
-watering three-fourths of South America.
-
-
-_The Orinoco_.
-
-The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the
-Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred
-miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful
-falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.
-
-The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled
-forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless
-prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses.
-Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle
-of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great
-variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous
-serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of
-vegetation.
-
-
-_The Amazon_.
-
-The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles
-wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the
-Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty
-river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and
-then more gradually to the ocean, {4} where it is only 150 miles wide.
-Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is
-very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably
-considerably less.
-
-The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are
-raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and
-silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The
-flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually
-narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon
-cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run
-parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming
-large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found
-on all its larger tributaries.
-
-Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a
-bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles
-and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.
-
-In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of
-its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow
-raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun
-crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its
-course, and the branches that have their source in the east and
-northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The
-flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising
-its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the
-flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of
-navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable,
-forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the
-Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the
-flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.
-
-The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as
-distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of
-Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there
-is but little difference between the species.
-
-The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for
-1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that
-of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults
-which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual
-mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees
-which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom
-and bear fruit all the year round.
-
-{5} Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the
-south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira,
-its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the
-king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width
-or depth.
-
-This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial
-current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight
-course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to
-the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly
-tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the
-Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the
-naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of
-floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among
-these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the
-last I saw of the Amazon."
-
-
-_The Rio de la Plata_.
-
-The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is
-formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from
-the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and
-widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than
-all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are
-fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil,
-within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on
-the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise
-only 125 miles from the Pacific.
-
-Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba,
-and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.
-
-
-_The San Francisco_.
-
-The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro
-and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains,
-then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the
-Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of
-Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many
-falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.
-
-
-{6} GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
-
-In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people,
-soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe
-there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the
-several states.
-
-In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural
-boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different
-states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are
-watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the
-Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile,
-but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by
-negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is
-inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal
-Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa.
-Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the
-prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.
-
-Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America.
-They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety
-of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the
-coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on
-the mountains.
-
-In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are
-several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts,
-sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from
-becoming densely inhabited.
-
-On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and
-less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there
-is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends
-from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current
-runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the
-land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their
-scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not
-a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run
-from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their
-narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands
-of the plain.
-
-In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called
-Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.
-
-The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be {7}
-found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat
-starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a
-thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco
-into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to
-the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil
-and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one
-of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the
-ocean.
-
-The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through
-the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan.
-Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part
-of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The
-pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the
-prairies run from east to west.
-
-The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in
-the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.
-
-
-THE ABORIGINES.
-
-The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the
-natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their
-language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each
-other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious
-beliefs generally similar.
-
-In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages,
-and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as
-many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe
-and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type
-than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the
-substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes
-a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word.
-
-The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to
-cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are
-thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm
-(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish
-and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except
-the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The
-tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle.
-
-Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise
-at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From {8} the
-trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of
-Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with
-moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and
-clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life.
-
-The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the
-negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to
-the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and
-the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are
-common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also
-to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the
-negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the
-continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods
-of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built
-substantially on the same plan.
-
-From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South
-America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on
-further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage
-of civilization than to identity of race.
-
-
-THE INCAS OF PERU.
-
-In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road
-ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate
-valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and
-then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South
-America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in
-height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet.
-This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of
-which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height.
-
-On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South
-America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual
-monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected,
-we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence.
-The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed
-before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of
-Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind
-and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded
-condition of {9} the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac
-and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities,
-to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship
-of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and
-wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found
-an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or
-twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended
-through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred
-tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their
-dominion.
-
-The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili
-northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand
-miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the
-Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a
-stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant
-warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed
-fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion.
-
-The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful
-valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley
-would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a
-perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of
-immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and
-culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of
-laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we
-reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama,
-which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for
-transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these
-buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids
-of Egypt are not more wonderful.
-
-Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting
-different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the
-Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed
-the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country.
-All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were
-erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's
-journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom
-had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty
-to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to
-the {10} next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the
-couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In
-this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made.
-
-These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe,
-and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better
-than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained.
-One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms
-forming three sides of a court.
-
-The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the
-products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast,
-perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical
-vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and
-while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is
-budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains
-is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of
-temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced
-in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the
-forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the
-evening, cool and delicious.
-
-On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from
-which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and
-barren.
-
-The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the
-people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike,
-some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and
-were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges
-and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The
-conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the
-Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects.
-
-The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the
-most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was
-not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it
-would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant."
-
-The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia.
-One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests
-of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to
-cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their
-own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to
-their number. Every newly {11} married couple received a stated
-portion which was increased as the family increased.
-
-Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two
-feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together,
-from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe.
-The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas,
-though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes.
-
-The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order
-than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were
-in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that
-traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were
-contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty,
-although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although
-they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition
-nor strong love of country.
-
-When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the
-other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them
-made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but
-they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small
-force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants
-of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land--a
-mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the
-conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever
-since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas.
-
-There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population
-consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed
-Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized
-than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are
-poorer.
-
-
-DISCOVERY OF THE AMAZON.
-
-Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending
-them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were
-explored downward from their sources to the ocean.
-
-Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of
-Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious
-stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded.
-He determined to follow the little {12} stream which, rising in the
-Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find
-the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish
-horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves.
-
-The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a
-river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the
-slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the
-open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into
-the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more
-dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley,
-for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo.
-Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became
-scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually
-diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves.
-
-The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they
-would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said,
-flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was
-abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to
-build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with
-food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber;
-the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was
-used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for
-oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European
-vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew
-broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until
-it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw
-before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the
-Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the
-Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and
-the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done?
-Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The
-journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to
-explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was
-faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed
-down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other
-rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north,
-more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew
-so broad that they could not see from one side to the other. {13}
-Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main
-stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went,
-till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they
-sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad,
-where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the
-story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they
-passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous
-tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine
-women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men
-into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away
-the male children and training the girls to become amazons and
-warriors.
-
-Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a
-new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before
-reaching the river.
-
-Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made
-their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as
-Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but
-found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive,
-and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations
-being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after
-their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the
-skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed
-to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of
-spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred
-and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left.
-
-Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships,
-length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in
-the annals of American discovery.
-
-
-GUIANA.
-
-Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin
-race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to
-his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own
-country was at peace.
-
-Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful
-stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco,
-surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were
-carried by English navigators to Great Britain, {14} with legends of a
-prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then
-powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic
-golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some
-from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city
-was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose
-bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles
-dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they
-told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to
-exchange their jewels for jews-harps.
-
-Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his
-queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold
-mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in
-Christendom--"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels
-and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe."
-
-In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of
-Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the
-Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and
-sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden
-city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed
-surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the
-Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the
-Indians to swear fealty to his queen.
-
-Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order
-to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He
-sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and
-sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too
-feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis
-returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of
-the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought
-reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and
-emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth
-of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know
-then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed
-himself.
-
-Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards
-demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after
-his first expedition, on the ground that in time of {15} peace Raleigh
-had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth
-had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana
-became an English colony.
-
-The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been
-found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical
-rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of
-Peru.
-
-
-POPULATION OF SOUTH AMERICA.
-
-As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same
-time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they
-can be considered as a whole.
-
-The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and
-sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the
-western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana,
-by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated,
-carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and
-exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the
-Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil,
-religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central
-America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one
-hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day
-they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country.
-Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great
-endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure,
-expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they
-plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed
-into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed.
-
-The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they
-brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians,
-and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their
-ancestors without the virtues of either.
-
-A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten
-to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the
-Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements,
-excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast.
-
-Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian
-population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population; {16}
-and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian,
-Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one
-hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and
-foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at
-the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In
-Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and
-sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there
-are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of
-that valley.
-
-Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is
-inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence
-of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and
-the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the
-Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The
-natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the
-Spaniards discovered America.
-
-The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they
-leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians,
-retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When
-the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the
-present century, republics were established, but they were republics
-only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for
-self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of
-dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a
-long rule, for their power and position were sought by others.
-Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic
-stage.
-
-A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system,
-was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder
-being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than
-80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima,
-the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them;
-they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one
-man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only
-interested in robbing her.
-
-Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions,
-says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it
-would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and
-tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no
-permanent policy, in any Spanish {17} country. The hope for the future
-is that the English, German, and French population will increase and
-become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an
-active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration
-of the government.
-
-Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French,
-Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner
-groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and
-restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and
-bankers.
-
-Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe
-to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America,
-stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around
-Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run
-direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and
-the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American
-steamers trading to South America.
-
-
-BRAZIL.
-
-We have given a general description of South America, but three
-countries--Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru--require further
-notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying
-three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that
-was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it
-is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru,
-illustrates the political and financial phases through which the
-Spanish republics have passed.
-
-The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the
-world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and
-undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined
-to the trees above and the waters below.
-
-The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the
-climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the
-vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montana district,
-where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there
-are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both
-animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the
-montana district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and
-where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the
-valley of the Amazon or that of the {18} montana. As in Africa, so
-here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley
-selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to
-England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air
-and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached.
-
-Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon,
-is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where
-rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of
-rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and
-instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the
-valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but
-without extremes of heat and cold.
-
-Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the
-sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent.
-of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to
-Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old
-world.
-
-Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has
-been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics.
-Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally
-successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of
-whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves.
-Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country;
-the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from
-early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was
-passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the
-planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee
-and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which
-caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined
-the insurgents in establishing the Republic.
-
-The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the
-Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that
-Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has
-been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into
-two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense
-domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to
-travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to
-Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance
-is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer {19} through the
-Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although
-the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of
-intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and
-the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country
-back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be
-opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown
-and soon become impassable.
-
-Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and
-run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of
-Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian
-government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels
-carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber,
-Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest.
-
-Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers,
-and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi
-carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than
-the Amazon in a year.
-
-
-THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
-
-The history of South American republics is illustrated in the
-Argentine republic.
-
-It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes,
-and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern
-Terra del Fuego.
-
-The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part,
-semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is
-generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the
-land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The
-soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting
-in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel
-and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of
-the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or
-four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a
-dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all
-plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting
-verdure.
-
-Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or
-American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the {20}
-pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it
-for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon
-be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American
-prairie.
-
-The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our
-prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder.
-Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to
-the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the
-plains.
-
-The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one
-locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon,
-wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich
-and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are
-called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare
-exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to
-attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug
-an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to
-the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids--and
-fewer Indians.
-
-The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by
-overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of
-thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually
-passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old
-world have settled in the country as farmers and planters.
-
-The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never
-been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The
-gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its
-rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish
-states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or
-dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces
-had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay,
-formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in
-the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887.
-
-For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then
-the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was
-arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces
-prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres.
-Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics
-of Uruguay and Paraguay.
-
-{21} Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and
-foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must
-be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000
-of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating
-mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a
-currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes
-were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We
-are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and
-that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists
-in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price
-of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of
-pashas at Galata."
-
-Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different
-directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard
-to its population or business.
-
-A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between
-the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed
-by a carriage of any kind.
-
-The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired.
-Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money
-from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have
-been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated
-that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the
-last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the
-same period has been twice as great as that of the United States.
-Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or
-leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a
-year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the
-provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were
-readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay
-for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on
-depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a
-valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank,
-for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were
-issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required,
-more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was
-increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand
-four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of
-two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per
-cent.
-
-{22} In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general
-prostration ensued.
-
-It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the
-accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is
-greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any
-other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is
-to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy.
-
-
-PERU.
-
-A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural
-harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a
-plateau, and still another range of mountains--this is Peru.
-
-In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers,
-to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds.
-
-Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in
-the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and
-desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams
-running now through deep canons and then through rich, fertile valleys
-steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever
-broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montana is reached,
-only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have
-become rivers, navigable to the ocean.
-
-The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that
-breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or
-from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has
-contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great
-deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and
-silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual
-revenue of $20,000,000.
-
-The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower,
-all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the
-mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and
-tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a
-bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth--such is Peru.
-
-To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars
-were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever
-finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads
-were built by the government, the others by private parties.
-
-{23} The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made
-Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war
-with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the
-loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her
-guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much
-less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus
-bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default
-and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by
-Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the
-bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in
-consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru,
-receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of
-lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a
-government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of
-Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly
-average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway
-system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres
-for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000
-acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the
-navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the
-Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000
-tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000
-tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their
-part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads,
-and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an
-estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations
-to a limited amount.
-
-This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a
-bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and
-cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of
-prosperity.
-
-
-TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES.
-
-It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to
-and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only
-four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally
-owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are
-Englishmen or Germans; that {24} many of the mines, cattle ranches,
-coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident
-foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products
-is the United States, although this country sells few of its
-manufactures and products to South America.
-
-The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English
-dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are
-sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are
-sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the
-money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English
-therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South
-America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight
-from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods,
-and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to
-Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two
-countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other
-wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean
-sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and
-we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America,
-where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber,
-cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here,
-therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a
-trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred
-United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than
-twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per
-cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war
-came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied
-a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our
-manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we
-refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell
-off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American
-ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to
-England, Germany and France.
-
-It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot,
-without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete
-with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a
-waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the
-cheaper we can manufacture, and we can {25} surely find a large and
-new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the
-experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and
-protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our
-merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South
-America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show
-the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America
-that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other
-directions, we must ultimately succeed.
-
-It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the
-South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and
-manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and
-prosperous commerce will be established between North America and
-South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities
-to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America.
-By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market
-for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its
-vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the
-large cities of South America.
-
-
-RAILROADS.
-
-We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the
-little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the
-Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world,
-ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which
-in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They
-were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and
-Cordilleras.
-
-The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length,
-starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an
-elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and
-the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the
-navigable waters of the Amazon.
-
-Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo,
-Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on
-the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road
-from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water
-that the only supply for {26} the engines and stations is by an iron
-pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an
-elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast.
-
-Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from
-Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes
-through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above
-the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two
-hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or
-below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean.
-
-From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the
-mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these
-runs westwardly toward Bolivia.
-
-Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a
-road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at
-Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the
-Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the
-Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro.
-
-There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the
-Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in
-the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in
-operation.
-
-A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the
-Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the
-Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian,
-and ultimately with the Argentine roads.
-
-The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where
-there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from
-Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the
-Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here,
-near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern
-Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of
-the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down
-that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above
-tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador
-to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From
-Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its
-southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the
-montana {27} and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles,
-to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch
-will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco.
-
-This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the
-Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining
-region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines
-are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been
-thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals
-have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and
-treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain;
-where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive.
-This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these
-mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and
-lucrative traffic.
-
-Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many
-of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from
-communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many
-branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of
-navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is
-claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would
-find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para.
-
-There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the
-Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the
-stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the
-cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the
-valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though
-it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes
-through the montana district, which is generally high, healthy and
-fertile.
-
-This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an
-immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but
-it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers,
-and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are
-not numerous.
-
-The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate,
-but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily
-be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must {28} cross the
-numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between
-the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material
-for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo
-to another, says:
-
-"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is
-legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then
-descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on
-the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the
-Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the
-low arcade of foliage."
-
-Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon
-and montana country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para
-than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would
-be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to
-all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up
-the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a
-second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of
-the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad.
-
-At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the
-operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government
-subsidies to build and operate it.
-
-Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that
-the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important
-element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via
-Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and
-developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the
-railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither
-opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume
-that it will not suffice in the future.
-
-
-CONCLUSION.
-
-In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America.
-Buckle says:
-
-"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he
-is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is
-surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never
-been able to make head against them.
-
-"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the
-contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and
-{29} the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this
-unequal struggle, has been unable to advance.
-
-"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where
-vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by
-the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the
-profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that
-accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible."
-
-Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the
-Amazon, closes his book as follows:
-
-"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its
-social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can
-reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the
-inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone
-that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition
-of man's beautiful heritage, the earth."
-
-_Washington, January, 1891_.
-
-{30}
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The National Geographic Magazine, Vol.
-III., PP. 1-30, PL.1, March 28, 1891, by Gardiner Greene Hubbard
-
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