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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #63584 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63584)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First Atomic
-Merchant Ship, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First Atomic Merchant Ship
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: October 30, 2020 [EBook #63584]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUCLEAR SHIP SAVANNAH ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                                  the
-                              nuclear ship
-                                SAVANNAH
-
-
-                      _first atomic merchant ship_
-
-
-                           one of the world’s
-                                 SAFEST
-                                 ships
-
-
-                      U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
-                   Frederick H. Mueller, _Secretary_
-
-                        MARITIME ADMINISTRATION
-          Ralph E. Wilson, _Chairman_, Federal Maritime Board
-                      and _Maritime Administrator_
-
-                        ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-                       John A. McCone, _Chairman_
-
-    [Illustration: Multiple advanced electronic and mechanical safety
-    devices guard this “atomic heart.”]
-
-  CONTROL ROD DRIVE MOTORS
-  HYDRAULIC SCRAM CYLINDERS
-  DRIVE LINE LEAD SCREW SECTION
-  BUFFER SEAL ENCLOSURE
-  BORON STEEL CONTROL RODS
-  PRESSURE VESSEL
-  OUTLET NOZZLE
-  REACTOR CORE
-  THERMAL SHIELD
-  FUEL ELEMENTS
-  FLOW BAFFLE
-  SUPPORT RING
-  INLET NOZZLE
-  PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR
-
-
-The N.S. SAVANNAH, the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, is
-one of the safest seagoing craft in the world.
-
-This is the result of careful and deliberate planning.
-
-Every appropriate safety device, factor, and technique were sought in
-the design and planning stage, and the ship’s construction has probably
-been more closely and intensively inspected, tested, and scrutinized
-than that of any other merchant ship ever built.
-
-
-SAFETY POLICY BASIC
-
-The Declaration of Policy of the Merchant Marine Act of 1936 calls upon
-the Maritime Administration for the promotion and maintenance of an
-American Merchant Marine for trade and defense “composed of the best
-equipped, safest, and most suitable types of vessels.”
-
-The Atomic Energy Commission is engaged in the N.S. SAVANNAH project as
-a part of its responsibility under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 “to
-encourage widespread participation in the development and utilization of
-atomic energy for peaceful purposes to the maximum extent consistent
-with the common defense and security and with the health and safety of
-the public.” The Commission has the responsibility of providing a safely
-operable nuclear power plant for the vessel; instructions and
-regulations for the disposition of wastes; the use, handling, and
-disposal of source, special nuclear, and by-product material; and the
-health and safety aspects associated with these responsibilities.
-
-Ship safety ashore, abroad, on the high seas, and in port is of major
-interest to the Maritime Administration, the Atomic Energy Commission,
-the U.S. Coast Guard, the Public Health Service, and such private
-agencies as the American Bureau of Shipping.
-
-The N.S. SAVANNAH is constructed to meet or surpass every standard set
-by all of these responsible agencies and will have a substantial
-built-in safety margin in excess of the most stringent requirements of
-applicable standards, which are among the highest in the world. Where
-there were no existing standards every precaution in keeping with sound
-judgment and engineering experience has been applied in the construction
-and safety considerations of the ship.
-
-                   _The N.S. Savannah Is a Safe Ship_
-
-The reputation of American industry and the integrity of the Government
-of the United States stand behind this statement.
-
-Following is a detailed listing of the factors that make the N.S.
-SAVANNAH so safe:
-
-
-SAFETY FACTORS
-
-As the world’s first commercial, nonstationary type of nuclear power
-plant, the SAVANNAH’s design and construction have resulted in a vessel
-with an unprecedented degree of safety. Basically, the safety
-considerations concern two separate but closely inter-related factors:
-
-(1) The hull and interior structure surpass the highest standards of
-safety, both in the conventional marine sense and in the light of the
-additional factors created by the installation of a nuclear propulsion
-plant; and
-
-(2) The nuclear propulsion system creates no more hazard to the crew and
-passengers, and other ships in a busy port, than any modern conventional
-steam propulsion system—actually, in the light of safety factors,
-included because of its prototype nature, the N.S. SAVANNAH is as safe
-as, and in some respects safer than, a steam-powered vessel that burns
-coal or oil.
-
-The basic difference in safety between a nuclear-powered ship and a
-conventionally powered ship involves radioactivity which results from
-the fission process. Provision has been made to control this
-radioactivity on the SAVANNAH under all foreseeable conditions. This
-control is accomplished through the following design and operational
-features:
-
-
-HULL AND INTERIOR STRUCTURE
-
-In general, the following safety requirements were used by the
-SAVANNAH’s architects, George G. Sharp, Inc., in the design of the ship:
-
-(1) The ship is as safe as, or safer than, any other vessel of its class
-with regard to the usual “hazards of the sea”; and
-
-(2) In no credible accident can there be any hazardous release of
-radioactivity to the surroundings.
-
-The SAVANNAH is designed to a two-compartment standard of subdivision
-(i.e., the ship will remain afloat with two main compartments totally
-flooded) at a draft of 29 feet, 6 inches. The ship complies with all the
-applicable laws of the United States and requirements of the regulatory
-bodies and rules in force as to standards of safety.
-
-Structurally, the SAVANNAH differs from conventional passenger-cargo
-ships only in that the reactor and containment foundations are
-comparatively much heavier than the foundations for normal ship’s
-machinery. The heavy longitudinal members are carried well beyond the
-reactor space bulkheads to tie with a smooth transition into the
-double-bottom structure.
-
-Stability equivalent to that of a conventional passenger-cargo ship with
-fuel oil tanks full has been obtained in the SAVANNAH. In addition,
-because there is no fuel oil to be consumed in passage, there is less
-variation in the stability of the ship during the course of a long
-voyage.
-
-
-VITAL COMPONENTS DUPLICATED
-
-From the standpoint of ship safety, assurance of sufficient power to
-maintain steerage and maneuverability is the principal requirement of
-the propulsion plant. To this end, duplication of machinery and power
-sources on the SAVANNAH has been carried to the fullest practicable
-degree. An electric “take-home” motor is installed for emergency
-operation. Developing 750 hp (nominal), it is coupled to one of the
-high-speed pinions in the reduction gear. A quick-connect coupling
-permits engagement in less than 2 minutes. In addition, a temporary
-supplementary startup steam plant is installed in No. 7 hold. This plant
-is capable of developing 2,000 shp ahead and about 1,750 shp astern,
-using the main propulsion unit; in emergencies this steam plant may be
-used in lieu of the take-home motor. Using forced circulation boilers,
-it can, like the take-home motor, be brought on the line in about 2
-minutes. In case of a reactor plant failure, the stored heat in the
-reactor system will be available during the interim period, so that at
-no time will the SAVANNAH be without power to the shaft.
-
-From the standpoint of conventional ship operation, the SAVANNAH is
-designed and constructed to the highest degree of operational safety.
-
-Reactor safety is ensured by the heavy steel containment shell
-surrounding the reactor system. This shell is designed to withstand the
-pressure surge from the hypothetical example, “maximum credible
-accident,” used in nuclear reactor analysis. Thus, any internal accident
-will be contained within the reactor containment shell and no hazardous
-amount of radioactivity can escape to the environment.
-
-Protection of the containment complex from ship accidents was studied in
-detail in establishing the SAVANNAH’s design criteria. In particular,
-ship collisions were carefully reviewed and methods developed to predict
-structural damage to vessels struck in collision as a function of speed
-and displacement of the vessels involved. On the basis of the data
-obtained from these studies, the SAVANNAH is designed and constructed to
-withstand, without damage to the nuclear reactor compartment, any
-collision with any of the ships making up 99 percent of the world’s
-merchant fleet.
-
-
-COLLISION POSSIBILITY LOW
-
-The probability of collision with a ship of this remaining 1 percent
-group is extremely low. Considering that the SAVANNAH, as the first
-nuclear-powered merchant ship, will be handled with extreme care, the
-probability of a dangerous release of radioactivity through collision is
-negligible. Because large ships proceed at relatively low speeds in
-harbors, and because of the built-in invulnerability of the SAVANNAH,
-the probability of a collision of sufficient severity to damage the
-reactor compartment is extremely low.
-
-Surrounding the reactor compartment are heavier-than-normal structural
-members. The inner-bottom, below the reactor space, is “egg crated” with
-transverse floors at every frame; and a deep vertical keel with more
-than the usual number of keelsons in the fore and aft direction add to
-this strengthening. Outboard of the reactor compartment are two heavy
-longitudinal collision bulkheads; outboard of these bulkheads there is
-heavier-than-normal plating continuously welded to the beams. Inboard of
-the collision bulkheads are collision mats made up of alternate layers
-of 1-inch steel and 3-inch redwood planks for a total thickness of 24
-inches.
-
-In the event of a collision broadside to the reactor compartment, the
-ramming ship would have to penetrate 17 feet of stiffened ship
-structure, the collision mat, and the reactor containment vessel, before
-reaching the reactor plant.
-
-
-SINKING, GROUNDING WEIGHED
-
-Other accidents, such as grounding, fire and explosion, and sinking also
-were considered in the design and construction of the N.S. SAVANNAH.
-Grounding is very similar to collision in its effects, except that the
-damage is ordinarily more localized. The heavy reactor and containment
-foundations in the inner-bottom provide adequate protection to the
-reactor system.
-
-The SAVANNAH, as a passenger ship, is prohibited by Coast Guard
-regulation from carrying dangerous and explosive cargo in quantity.
-
-The ship’s fire-protection and fire-fighting systems are fully adequate.
-
-In case of sinking, provision has been made to allow for automatic
-flooding of the containment shell of the reactor to prevent its collapse
-in deep waters. The flooding valves are designed to close upon pressure
-equalization so that containment integrity will be maintained even after
-sinking. Salvage connections have been installed to allow containment
-purging or filling with concrete in case of sinking in shallow water
-where recovery or immobilization of the reactor plant seems advisable.
-
-Besides the very latest in navigation and communication equipment,
-including true motion radar, the ship is equipped with antiroll
-stabilizers. Located outside the hull amidships, the stabilizers are
-operated hydraulically by a gyro system capable of sensing sea
-conditions and providing counter-forces to reduce the roll. Each
-stabilizing fin has a lift of approximately 70 tons at 20 knots speed.
-
-
-RADIATION SHIELDING
-
-One of the most important features of the SAVANNAH is her radiation
-shielding. The main sources of radiation during operation of the
-SAVANNAH’s power plant are the reactor itself and the primary coolant
-loop lines. The primary coolant which passes through the reactor core is
-irradiated, and itself becomes a source of radiation. Both the reactor
-and the coolant emit neutrons and gamma rays. There are also radiation
-sources of lesser magnitude including process piping, hold-up tanks,
-pumps, and demineralizers.
-
-The objective of radiation shielding on the SAVANNAH is twofold: First,
-it limits the radiation dose outside the containment to prescribed safe
-levels, and second, it reduces the activation of structure within the
-containment shell by reactor core neutrons. The latter consideration is
-necessary in order that the reactor plant be accessible for maintenance
-within 30 minutes after shutdown.
-
-The shielding is divided into a primary shield, which surrounds the
-reactor itself, and a secondary shield, which surrounds the entire
-containment shell.
-
-
-PRIMARY SHIELDING
-
-The primary shield, immediately surrounding the reactor pressure vessel,
-consists of a 17-foot-high lead-covered steel tank that surrounds the
-reactor vessel with a 33-inch water-filled annulus. The tank extends
-from a point well below the active core area to a point well above it.
-The active core height within the reactor is only 60 inches. Constructed
-of carbon steel, the primary shield tank is covered with a layer of lead
-varying in thickness from 2 to 4 inches. When the tank is filled with
-water, the dose rate outside the primary shielding from core gamma
-sources and activated nuclei will not exceed 200 mr per hour 30 minutes
-after shutdown. This is sufficiently low to permit entry into the
-containment vessel for inspection or maintenance.
-
-
-SECONDARY SHIELDING
-
-The containment shell completely surrounds the primary (reactor) system,
-and serves not only to confine spread of radioactivity in the event of a
-rupture of the system but to support the hundreds of tons of lead and
-polyethylene of the secondary shield.
-
-
-CONTAINMENT SHELL
-
-The primary function of the containment shell is to surround the primary
-system and provide complete containment of any radioactive matter that
-might escape from the system. The design pressure of the vessel was
-determined by postulating the instantaneous release and expansion of the
-entire contents of the primary system. This approach is highly
-conservative because of the improbability of a large rupture.
-
-A study has been made concerning the penetration of the vessel wall by a
-piece of debris in an explosion. An analysis of the penetrating power of
-high-speed components indicated that the shell would contain the largest
-missile that could be expected.
-
-The shell is cylindrical in shape, 35 feet in diameter by 50.5 feet
-long, and is centrally located on the ship’s bottom.
-
-The containment shell is sealed at all times during plant operation.
-Entry to the shell will be made only after the reactor has been shut
-down, the shell purged with air, and the radiation level has dropped
-below 200 mr per hour.
-
-The bottom half of the shell rests in a cradle of steel surrounded by a
-48-inch-thick wall of reinforced concrete.
-
-The top half of the containment shell is covered by a 6-inch layer of
-lead plus a 6-inch layer of polyethylene. During normal power operation,
-this reduces the radiation level to less than 0.6 mr per hour at the
-nearest point of access by the crew.
-
-
-CONTAINMENT SHELL AIR CONDITIONING
-
-This system maintains a constant maximum ambient temperature of 140° F.
-and a maximum relative humidity of 72 percent inside the containment
-shell. The system operates in conjunction with the intermediate cooling
-water system, using 95° F. water.
-
-During normal operation, the containment shell is sealed and no outside
-air will enter or leave the vessel. Ambient conditions will be
-maintained by regulating the cooling water flow as required according to
-instrument readings on the control panel.
-
-In all areas where crew members have unlimited access, radiation levels
-will be less than 5 rem integrated dosage per year, the recommended
-maximum annual exposure of workers in the atomic energy field. Assuming
-that passengers would move about the ship, and on the basis of their
-calculated average distance from the reactor, the average exposure of a
-passenger remaining aboard for a year would be under 0.5 rem, i.e. ¹/₂₀
-of the occupational value.
-
-The 5 rem area is relatively small and not in general use. No crew
-member will be aboard ship or in the 5 rem area continuously for a full
-year, and it is doubtful that any crew member will actually receive an
-integrated dose of more than 0.5 rem in a year.
-
-
-ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
-
-This system supplies power to the reactor system and its auxiliaries and
-is designed to operate with a high degree of reliability to assure
-reactor safety during all phases of operation and shutdown.
-
-It includes all load control and protective devices, containment wiring,
-metering, interlocking and alarms associated with electrical loads for
-the reactor system. Power for the system normally is supplied by two
-turbine-generators, each rated at 1,500 kw, 0.8 pf, 450-volts, 3 phase
-and 60 cycles. For increased reliability, a double bus type arrangement
-is used. In the event of a bus fault, an automatic transfer of all vital
-loads to the other bus will occur. During normal operation, a circuit
-breaker ties the two busses together.
-
-
-RADIATION MONITORING
-
-The radiation monitoring system of the SAVANNAH keeps a constant check
-on the intensity of radiation at various points within the reactor
-system as well as areas remote from the power plant. This system is
-divided into two areas for this description. They are power-plant
-monitoring and health physics monitoring. The latter is covered under
-its own heading.
-
-
-POWER-PLANT MONITORING
-
-Through keeping track of the radiation level at various points in the
-reactor system, any abnormalities in operation can be quickly detected
-and corrected.
-
-A leak in the heat exchangers, for example, would show up on a radiation
-monitor located in the blowdown line from each of the heat exchangers.
-
-The intermediate cooling system, which includes cooling water from the
-primary pumps, shield water cooler, containment air cooler, and other
-components not directly in the primary loop, is monitored at five
-locations. Leakage of primary loop water into the secondary water is
-possible only from the pumps and letdown coolers, because of differences
-in pressure. Consequently, radiation monitors are located downstream
-from the letdown coolers and in each of the return lines from the pump
-cooling coils.
-
-The demineralizers are also monitored. When the resin bed is
-functioning, the flow downstream (effluent) will have negligible
-radioactivity. Consequently, a monitor signal at this point will
-indicate when to switch to a new demineralizer. The monitor in the
-influent (water entering the demineralizer) measures the activity level
-in the primary loop.
-
-The fission product monitor keeps track of fission product activity in
-the primary (reactor) system. The monitor consists of a cation and anion
-column, an amplifier, and an indicating system. This monitor is located
-in the primary coolant flow system.
-
-
-TANKS HOLD LIQUID WASTE
-
-Power plant liquid wastes are collected in tanks for storage prior to
-discharge into a specially designed servicing vessel in port. The liquid
-waste collection tanks are monitored. Gaseous wastes will normally be
-disposed of at sea through the radio mast, which contains two detectors
-for monitoring purposes. They are an air-particle monitor and a
-radio-gas monitor, and operate at all times so that gas is vented to the
-atmosphere. If gaseous radioactivity should rise above specified limits,
-the gas will be diluted to below the limit before being discharged to
-atmosphere.
-
-The above monitor stations are the principal ones involved in reactor
-system operation. The monitors operate through a system of separate
-channels, with each channel responsible for a pre-selected range of
-activity. All detectors relay their readings to the main panel in the
-control room, where automatic recording and visual observation
-instruments are located.
-
-    [Illustration: Surrounded by steel, wood, concrete, the N.S.
-    SAVANNAH reactor is safe against any credible accident.]
-
-  STABILIZING BRACKET PORT AND STARBOARD
-  POLYETHYLENE
-  “C” DECK
-  STEEL & REDWOOD COLLISION MAT
-  WOOD PAD
-  “D” DECK
-  CONCRETE
-  WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD
-  REACTOR COMPARTMENT
-  STIFFENING RINGS
-  LEAD
-  CONTAINMENT VESSEL
-  COMPARTMENT BULKHEAD
-  CONCRETE
-  INNER BOTTOM
-  FOUNDATIONS
-  FORWARD
-
-Portable monitoring equipment, samplers, and other health physics survey
-equipment are provided for access, survey, and maintenance monitoring.
-
-
-REACTOR CONTROL AND SAFETY SYSTEMS
-
-The design of the control system is such that a malfunction which leads
-to an abnormal withdrawal rate of the rods will not result in a
-dangerous condition. Studies indicate that the minimum reactor period
-resulting from maximum withdrawal of the rods is not less than 30
-seconds. The control system is designed to maintain the _net_ reactivity
-insertion always less than the delayed neutron fraction.
-
-The entire reactor system is protected by the safety system. This system
-causes the reactor to terminate power production if a dangerous
-operating condition exists. The safety system also contains interlocks
-which prevent actions which would otherwise jeopardize the reactor
-system.
-
-The control and safety systems are capable of protecting the reactor
-system from damage due to any credible accident except a major leak in
-the primary loop.
-
-The reactor will “scram” (shut down) automatically from any of seven
-causes: (1) shorter than a safe reactor period, (2) excessive power, (3)
-excessive rise or fall in reactor pressure, (4) excessive reactor outlet
-pressure, (5) loss of flow, (6) loss of power to safety circuits, and
-(7) loss of power to control rod drives.
-
-
-INSTRUMENTS DOUBLE CHECKED
-
-The nuclear instrumentation system provides maximum reliability and
-safety, yet minimizes erroneous readings or signals from the monitoring
-channels. This is done by using two or more measuring channels in each
-operating range, and then interlocking the circuits so that at least two
-of them give the same signal of abnormal operating conditions before
-initiating a reactor “scram.”
-
-Increased reliability is obtained by using “solid state” instruments or
-magnetic amplifier units rather than electron tubes and relays.
-
-
-REACTOR SAFETY SYSTEM
-
-This system constantly monitors signals from the nuclear and non-nuclear
-instrumentation, and when necessary takes corrective action. Corrective
-action will be either in the form of “fast insertion” of the control
-rods, or in the form of reactor “scram.” Fast insertion takes place at a
-rate of 15 inches per minute, while a scram is achieved in 1.6 seconds.
-
-Fast insertion consists of moving all control rods to the full down
-position at the fastest rate possible through the electromechanical
-drives. For reactor “scram,” all rods are driven to full down position
-under the force of a net hydraulic pressure of 1,250 psi.
-
-
-SHORTER THAN A SAFE PERIOD
-
-The reactor period is a measure of the rate of reactor power increase;
-the shorter the period the faster the rise. Ten neutron-measuring
-channels, covering the full range from source level to 150 percent of
-maximum power, measure neutron intensity (flux level) and its rate of
-change. These data are continuously transmitted to the reactor operator
-and the automatic control and safety system. Too fast a rate of change,
-or shorter than a safe period, will automatically “scram” the reactor.
-
-
-EXCESSIVE POWER
-
-The amount of power produced is a function of the neutron flux and its
-resultant heat generation in the primary loop. The temperature selected
-to produce automatic “scram” is 540° F. This temperature “scram” circuit
-provides an independent backup to the neutron flux “scram.”
-
-
-EXCESSIVE RISE OR FALL IN PRESSURE
-
-Too low a pressure could result in boiling of the primary coolant, while
-too high a pressure could result in poor heat transfer as well as
-placing unnecessary stresses on the reactor’s fuel element core
-structure. There are a number of causes for either condition, all of
-which would relay a “scram” signal to the operator and to the automatic
-safety system.
-
-
-EXCESSIVE OUTLET PRESSURE
-
-In addition to protection against rapid rate of change in pressure, a
-scram circuit is provided to prevent any steady excessive outlet
-pressure that could result in damage to the core and related equipment.
-
-
-LOSS OF FLOW
-
-This condition would result from a mechanical failure in the primary
-loop pumps, piping, etc., or by accidentally stopping the pumps when the
-reactor is at power, or by loss of power to the pumps. When a single
-pump fails to operate for any reason, an alarm is sounded to warn the
-operator. If all four pumps fail to operate for any reason, a signal is
-sent to the reactor safety system to “scram” the reactor.
-
-
-LOSS OF POWER TO SAFETY CIRCUITS
-
-The hydraulic drives that operate the “scram” mechanism require reserve
-pressure to keep them in the “ready” position for “scram” condition and
-are an integral part of the safety circuitry. A power failure in the
-safety circuits would automatically put the hydraulic drives into
-operation to “scram” the reactor.
-
-
-LOSS OF POWER TO CONTROL ROD DRIVES
-
-Each of the 21 control rods has its own drive mounted vertically on the
-upper reactor head. Of these, 9 are servo controlled and 12 are of the
-nonservo type. The 9 servo rods have variable speed drives and operate
-in two groups in a synchronous manner, according to demand signals from
-the reactor system. The 12-rod group can be operated manually or in
-groups according to predetermined conditions. All of these operate at a
-speed determined by their gearing.
-
-The safety considerations are as follows:
-
-1. Each servo loop contains a monitor that will sound an alarm and
-initiate a fast insertion if the rod fails to follow its command signal.
-
-2. Another circuit monitors all nine servo monitors, and should any of
-the servo monitors malfunction, an alarm will sound and appropriate
-corrective action will be taken through the automatic safety system.
-
-3. “Scram” action starts in the safety system and is independent of
-operator control. Once started, a “scram” action cannot be stopped.
-
-4. For conditions that do not warrant “scram” action, a fast insertion
-serves to reduce power and permit the operator to correct the condition
-without a complete shutdown. A manual fast insertion can be made by the
-operator.
-
-The electrical circuits controlling the reactor control rods are
-monitored, and an electrical failure in one or more circuits will result
-in a fast insertion or “scram” action. Should electrical power to the
-control rod drives fail completely, the hydraulic drives will be
-actuated.
-
-
-WASTE STORAGE AND HANDLING
-
-This system drains and collects, until safe for removal, all drainage
-from the reactor system that might be radioactive. Drainage may result
-from a leak, or be part of the normal drainage accumulation during
-initial fill and testing, normal startup, operation and shutdown, and
-decontamination.
-
-The drainage and storage system consists of two pumps, valves, piping,
-containment drain tank, and four waste storage tanks. The total capacity
-of the tanks is 1,350 cubic feet. This is approximately 80 percent more
-than the maximum operational leakage and drainage for a 100-day period.
-Provisions are made to take samples from any of the five tanks at any
-time.
-
-After sampling indicates sufficiently low level of activity, the fluid
-will be pumped to special dock facilities for transfer to inland waste
-disposal sites. No waste will be discharged at sea under present
-operating plans.
-
-A special 129-foot vessel, the NSV ATOMIC SERVANT, will service the
-Savannah’s reactor and handle the radioactive wastes.
-
-The majority of the potentially radioactive gases vent into a central
-manifold. Here they are monitored, diluted by fan-driven air and
-discharged up the radio mast after passing through a series of filters.
-During normal operation, the manifold is vented continuously. However,
-if the radiation monitor indicates activity levels too high for
-satisfactory dilution, the gases can be diverted into the containment
-shell.
-
-
-GAS FILTERED, MONITORED
-
-The region between the containment vessel and the secondary shielding is
-ventilated with a 4,000 cfm fan which discharges about half way up the
-radio mast. This gas is not expected to be radioactive but as an added
-precaution it is monitored to determine if radioactivity is present.
-
-All gases released through the radio mast are filtered to remove
-particulate matter.
-
-The containment shell air is purged with fresh air periodically at sea
-and prior to entry by the ship’s engineering crew. During normal
-operation the only radioactive gas in the shell is argon-41, at a
-concentration less than the maximum permissible level for continuous
-occupational exposure. The only potential sources of activity in the
-containment air above tolerance levels would be fission products and
-these are not present during normal operation. However, as previously
-described, prior to purging, air samples will be analyzed to ascertain
-the activity levels.
-
-
-HEALTH PHYSICS MONITORING SYSTEM
-
-This system provides radiation protection to crew and passengers through
-constant monitoring for any abnormalities in radiation levels that might
-occur. This is accomplished through a system of 12 radiation detector
-units in the following locations: A-deck, outside doctor’s office;
-B-deck, aft passageway; B-deck, port passageway; C-deck, port
-passageway; C-deck, aft passageway; D-deck, starboard passageway;
-D-deck, both fore and aft bulkheads and at tanktop level, the port,
-starboard, fore and aft passageways.
-
-These 12 monitor units feed their readings into 2 channels, with 6
-monitors on each channel according to a predetermined sequence. A
-manually operated detector permits switching to any one monitor to allow
-observation and study of that station for as long as desired. By means
-of a recorder on each channel, a permanent record of the 12 monitoring
-stations can be obtained.
-
-The detectors are calibrated and maintained periodically by operating
-personnel using a standardized cobalt-60 source.
-
-Ionization chambers located at the points of entry into the containment
-vessel will determine when it is safe to enter the vessel. In addition,
-anyone entering the vessel will carry a portable monitor to determine
-the dose rate at the point he will be working.
-
-In addition to the installed detectors, there is a full complement of
-portable equipment to make any specific investigations required. The
-equipment is used to check decontamination results and to monitor
-contaminated spaces during maintenance. Health physics personnel,
-equipped with portable equipment, accompany all groups working any area
-that might contain radioactivity.
-
-The health physics laboratory aboard the ship is outfitted for all tests
-required during the operation of the reactor plant.
-
-
-AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
-
-_Sampling System._ This system provides a means for removing liquid
-samples from the primary loop to determine the effectiveness of the
-purification system. Samples will be taken from both the inlet and
-outlet flow of the primary demineralizers.
-
-_Intermediate Cooling System._ The primary function is to provide clean
-cooling water to the various reactor system components. A secondary
-function is to maintain water in the annular primary shield tank.
-
-The system consists of two separate flow circuits: a sea water circuit
-and a fresh water circuit. Each of these circuits contains two pumps and
-two coolers, plus other necessary components. The pumps and coolers are
-arranged in parallel, permitting either pump to supply water to either
-cooler.
-
-In the sea water circuit, inlet temperature is 85° F and outlet
-temperature is 106° F. The fresh water enters its coolers at 143° F and
-leaves at 95° F.
-
-Components outside and inside of the containment vessel are cooled by
-one or the other of these intermediate cooling circuits.
-
-
-EXTRA EMERGENCY POWER
-
-Two auxiliary 750-kw diesel generator sets are on standby to provide the
-following: (1) Power to the main bus for operating those loads needed to
-supply cooling for decay-heat removal after a scram or shutdown, (2)
-emergency “take-home” power should the nuclear power plant become
-inoperative, (3) power for reactor startup, and (4) spare generating
-capacity for normal operation should a turbine generator become
-inoperative.
-
-In the event of a reactor “scram,” these generators will automatically
-start and synchronize on the main bus bar to supply and distribute power
-to the components used for reactor cooling.
-
-A 300-kw emergency diesel generator is also available to supply power to
-the 450-volt emergency switchboard. This source will operate in case
-both the main turbine generators and auxiliary diesel generators do not.
-Loads connected to the emergency switchboard include lighting, low speed
-windings of the primary coolant pumps, and the emergency cooling system.
-
-A battery protected source will also provide power to those loads that
-require an especially dependable power source with no interruption due
-to loss or switching of auxiliary power.
-
-
-TAKE-HOME POWER
-
-As mentioned, in the electrical system there are two 750-kw diesel
-generator sets installed in the engine room. If any emergency
-“take-home” power is required, either diesel generator can be used to
-operate a 750-hp wound rotor motor, which is connected to the ship’s
-propeller, through the reduction gears.
-
-Each diesel generator is sized to furnish adequate power for reactor
-decay heat removal, lighting, and necessary ship service.
-
-
-N.S. SAVANNAH MANNED FOR SAFETY
-
-To assure that the first nuclear-propelled merchant ship will be
-completely safe, it is manned by well-trained, competent personnel whose
-duty and responsibility it is to operate the ship safely and
-efficiently.
-
-Every mechanical and electrical safety device of modern navigation is at
-the disposal of the SAVANNAH’s crew to insure the safety and integrity
-of the ship.
-
-The men who will handle the SAVANNAH ashore and afloat will have had the
-advantage of the specialized and extensive training program conducted by
-the Atomic Energy Commission, the Maritime Administration, and the
-private contractors who built the N.S. SAVANNAH and her reactor.
-
-The ship’s master and officers are men of long experience on the sea
-whose backgrounds assure sound and stable assessment and judgment under
-all possible conditions.
-
-All of the factors herein discussed make it possible for the United
-States Government to say of the N.S. SAVANNAH, as she ushers in the
-atomic age on the world’s essential trade routes, that this unique and
-wonderful vessel is unquestionably one of the world’s safest ships.
-
-
-THE NUCLEAR SHIP SAVANNAH IS DESIGNED AND BUILT TO THESE SAFETY
-REQUIREMENTS
-
-_APPLICABLE CODES OF_:
-
-  1. U.S. Coast Guard
-  2. American Bureau of Shipping
-  3. Maritime Administration
-  4. U.S. Public Health Service
-  5. American Institute of Electrical Engineers Marine Code
-  6. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
-
-_SAFETY REVIEW BY_:
-
-1. AEC Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards
-
-_DESIGN REVIEW BY_:
-
-  1. U.S. Coast Guard
-  2. Maritime Administration
-  3. AEC
-    (A) Oak Ridge National Laboratory
-    (B) Electric Boat Company
-  4. American Bureau of Shipping
-
-                       U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960    O—562017
-
-    [Illustration: The N.S. SAVANNAH’s construction meets ultimate
-    standards of health and environmental safety.]
-
-  PASSENGER DINING ROOM
-  CREW QUARTERS
-  MAIN LOUNGE
-  PASSENGER STATEROOMS
-  REACTOR HATCH
-  REACTOR AUX. HATCH
-  CREW QUARTERS
-  CARGO HOLD
-  MACHINERY CONTROL CENTER
-  ENGINE ROOM
-  SHIP’S PROVISIONS
-  STABILIZER SPACE
-  CARGO HOLD
-  REACTOR CONTAINMENT VESSEL
-
-    [Illustration: The N.S. SAVANNAH—world’s first atomic merchant
-    ship—pride of the American Merchant Marine—model of maritime
-    safety.]
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Silently corrected a few typos.
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First
-Atomic Merchant Ship, by Anonymous
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First Atomic
-Merchant Ship, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First Atomic Merchant Ship
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: October 30, 2020 [EBook #63584]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUCLEAR SHIP SAVANNAH ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Nuclear Ship Savannah" width="915" height="1500" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1><span class="ss">the
-<br />nuclear ship
-<br />SAVANNAH</span></h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="larger ss"><i>first atomic merchant ship</i></span></p>
-<hr class="dwide" />
-<p class="center"><span class="larger ss">one of the world&rsquo;s
-<br />SAFEST
-<br />ships</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ssn">U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
-<br />Frederick H. Mueller, <i>Secretary</i></span></p>
-<p class="center small"><span class="ssn">MARITIME ADMINISTRATION
-<br />Ralph E. Wilson, <i>Chairman</i>, Federal Maritime Board
-<br />and <i>Maritime Administrator</i></span></p>
-<p class="center small"><span class="ssn">ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
-<br />John A. McCone, <i>Chairman</i></span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p02.jpg" alt="" width="715" height="1601" />
-<p class="pcap">Multiple advanced electronic and mechanical safety devices guard
-this &ldquo;atomic heart.&rdquo;</p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>CONTROL ROD DRIVE MOTORS</dt>
-<dt>HYDRAULIC SCRAM CYLINDERS</dt>
-<dt>DRIVE LINE LEAD SCREW SECTION</dt>
-<dt>BUFFER SEAL ENCLOSURE</dt>
-<dt>BORON STEEL CONTROL RODS</dt>
-<dt>PRESSURE VESSEL</dt>
-<dt>OUTLET NOZZLE</dt>
-<dt>REACTOR CORE</dt>
-<dt>THERMAL SHIELD</dt>
-<dt>FUEL ELEMENTS</dt>
-<dt>FLOW BAFFLE</dt>
-<dt>SUPPORT RING</dt>
-<dt>INLET NOZZLE</dt>
-<dt><span class="large">PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR</span></dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div>
-<p class="tb">The N.S. SAVANNAH, the first nuclear-powered
-cargo-passenger ship, is one of the safest seagoing craft
-in the world.</p>
-<p>This is the result of careful and deliberate planning.</p>
-<p>Every appropriate safety device, factor, and technique
-were sought in the design and planning stage,
-and the ship&rsquo;s construction has probably been more
-closely and intensively inspected, tested, and scrutinized
-than that of any other merchant ship ever built.</p>
-<h3 id="c1">SAFETY POLICY BASIC</h3>
-<p>The Declaration of Policy of the Merchant Marine
-Act of 1936 calls upon the Maritime Administration for
-the promotion and maintenance of an American Merchant
-Marine for trade and defense &ldquo;composed of the
-best equipped, safest, and most suitable types of
-vessels.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>The Atomic Energy Commission is engaged in the
-N.S. SAVANNAH project as a part of its responsibility
-under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 &ldquo;to encourage
-widespread participation in the development and utilization
-of atomic energy for peaceful purposes to the
-maximum extent consistent with the common defense
-and security and with the health and safety of the
-public.&rdquo; The Commission has the responsibility of
-providing a safely operable nuclear power plant for
-the vessel; instructions and regulations for the disposition
-of wastes; the use, handling, and disposal of source,
-special nuclear, and by-product material; and the
-health and safety aspects associated with these
-responsibilities.</p>
-<p>Ship safety ashore, abroad, on the high seas, and in
-port is of major interest to the Maritime Administration,
-the Atomic Energy Commission, the U.S. Coast
-Guard, the Public Health Service, and such private
-agencies as the American Bureau of Shipping.</p>
-<p>The N.S. SAVANNAH is constructed to meet or surpass
-every standard set by all of these responsible
-agencies and will have a substantial built-in safety
-margin in excess of the most stringent requirements of
-applicable standards, which are among the highest in
-the world. Where there were no existing standards
-every precaution in keeping with sound judgment and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-engineering experience has been applied in the construction
-and safety considerations of the ship.</p>
-<p class="center"><i>The N.S. Savannah Is a Safe Ship</i></p>
-<p>The reputation of American industry and the integrity
-of the Government of the United States stand
-behind this statement.</p>
-<p>Following is a detailed listing of the factors that
-make the N.S. SAVANNAH so safe:</p>
-<h3 id="c2">SAFETY FACTORS</h3>
-<p>As the world&rsquo;s first commercial, nonstationary type of
-nuclear power plant, the SAVANNAH&rsquo;s design and
-construction have resulted in a vessel with an unprecedented
-degree of safety. Basically, the safety considerations
-concern two separate but closely inter-related
-factors:</p>
-<p>(1) The hull and interior structure surpass the
-highest standards of safety, both in the conventional
-marine sense and in the light of the additional factors
-created by the installation of a nuclear propulsion
-plant; and</p>
-<p>(2) The nuclear propulsion system creates no more
-hazard to the crew and passengers, and other ships in
-a busy port, than any modern conventional steam propulsion
-system&mdash;actually, in the light of safety factors,
-included because of its prototype nature, the N.S.
-SAVANNAH is as safe as, and in some respects safer
-than, a steam-powered vessel that burns coal or oil.</p>
-<p>The basic difference in safety between a nuclear-powered
-ship and a conventionally powered ship
-involves radioactivity which results from the fission
-process. Provision has been made to control this radioactivity
-on the SAVANNAH under all foreseeable
-conditions. This control is accomplished through the
-following design and operational features:</p>
-<h3 id="c3">HULL AND INTERIOR STRUCTURE</h3>
-<p>In general, the following safety requirements were
-used by the SAVANNAH&rsquo;s architects, George G.
-Sharp, Inc., in the design of the ship:</p>
-<p>(1) The ship is as safe as, or safer than, any other
-vessel of its class with regard to the usual &ldquo;hazards of
-the sea&rdquo;; and</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<p>(2) In no credible accident can there be any hazardous
-release of radioactivity to the surroundings.</p>
-<p>The SAVANNAH is designed to a two-compartment
-standard of subdivision (i.e., the ship will remain afloat
-with two main compartments totally flooded) at a draft
-of 29 feet, 6 inches. The ship complies with all the
-applicable laws of the United States and requirements
-of the regulatory bodies and rules in force as to standards
-of safety.</p>
-<p>Structurally, the SAVANNAH differs from conventional
-passenger-cargo ships only in that the reactor
-and containment foundations are comparatively much
-heavier than the foundations for normal ship&rsquo;s machinery.
-The heavy longitudinal members are carried
-well beyond the reactor space bulkheads to tie with a
-smooth transition into the double-bottom structure.</p>
-<p>Stability equivalent to that of a conventional passenger-cargo
-ship with fuel oil tanks full has been obtained
-in the SAVANNAH. In addition, because
-there is no fuel oil to be consumed in passage, there is
-less variation in the stability of the ship during the
-course of a long voyage.</p>
-<h3 id="c4">VITAL COMPONENTS DUPLICATED</h3>
-<p>From the standpoint of ship safety, assurance of
-sufficient power to maintain steerage and maneuverability
-is the principal requirement of the propulsion
-plant. To this end, duplication of machinery and
-power sources on the SAVANNAH has been carried
-to the fullest practicable degree. An electric &ldquo;take-home&rdquo;
-motor is installed for emergency operation.
-Developing 750 hp (nominal), it is coupled to one of
-the high-speed pinions in the reduction gear. A
-quick-connect coupling permits engagement in less
-than 2 minutes. In addition, a temporary supplementary
-startup steam plant is installed in No. 7 hold.
-This plant is capable of developing 2,000 shp ahead
-and about 1,750 shp astern, using the main propulsion
-unit; in emergencies this steam plant may be used in
-lieu of the take-home motor. Using forced circulation
-boilers, it can, like the take-home motor, be
-brought on the line in about 2 minutes. In case of a
-reactor plant failure, the stored heat in the reactor
-system will be available during the interim period, so
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-that at no time will the SAVANNAH be without
-power to the shaft.</p>
-<p>From the standpoint of conventional ship operation,
-the SAVANNAH is designed and constructed to the
-highest degree of operational safety.</p>
-<p>Reactor safety is ensured by the heavy steel containment
-shell surrounding the reactor system. This
-shell is designed to withstand the pressure surge from
-the hypothetical example, &ldquo;maximum credible accident,&rdquo;
-used in nuclear reactor analysis. Thus, any
-internal accident will be contained within the reactor
-containment shell and no hazardous amount of radioactivity
-can escape to the environment.</p>
-<p>Protection of the containment complex from ship
-accidents was studied in detail in establishing the
-SAVANNAH&rsquo;s design criteria. In particular, ship collisions
-were carefully reviewed and methods developed
-to predict structural damage to vessels struck in collision
-as a function of speed and displacement of the
-vessels involved. On the basis of the data obtained
-from these studies, the SAVANNAH is designed and
-constructed to withstand, without damage to the
-nuclear reactor compartment, any collision with any of
-the ships making up 99 percent of the world&rsquo;s merchant
-fleet.</p>
-<h3 id="c5">COLLISION POSSIBILITY LOW</h3>
-<p>The probability of collision with a ship of this remaining
-1 percent group is extremely low. Considering
-that the SAVANNAH, as the first nuclear-powered
-merchant ship, will be handled with extreme care, the
-probability of a dangerous release of radioactivity
-through collision is negligible. Because large ships proceed
-at relatively low speeds in harbors, and because
-of the built-in invulnerability of the SAVANNAH, the
-probability of a collision of sufficient severity to damage
-the reactor compartment is extremely low.</p>
-<p>Surrounding the reactor compartment are heavier-than-normal
-structural members. The inner-bottom,
-below the reactor space, is &ldquo;egg crated&rdquo; with transverse
-floors at every frame; and a deep vertical keel with
-more than the usual number of keelsons in the fore and
-aft direction add to this strengthening. Outboard of
-the reactor compartment are two heavy longitudinal
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-collision bulkheads; outboard of these bulkheads there
-is heavier-than-normal plating continuously welded to
-the beams. Inboard of the collision bulkheads are
-collision mats made up of alternate layers of 1-inch
-steel and 3-inch redwood planks for a total thickness
-of 24 inches.</p>
-<p>In the event of a collision broadside to the reactor
-compartment, the ramming ship would have to penetrate
-17 feet of stiffened ship structure, the collision
-mat, and the reactor containment vessel, before reaching
-the reactor plant.</p>
-<h3 id="c6">SINKING, GROUNDING WEIGHED</h3>
-<p>Other accidents, such as grounding, fire and explosion,
-and sinking also were considered in the design
-and construction of the N.S. SAVANNAH. Grounding
-is very similar to collision in its effects, except that
-the damage is ordinarily more localized. The heavy
-reactor and containment foundations in the inner-bottom
-provide adequate protection to the reactor
-system.</p>
-<p>The SAVANNAH, as a passenger ship, is prohibited
-by Coast Guard regulation from carrying dangerous
-and explosive cargo in quantity.</p>
-<p>The ship&rsquo;s fire-protection and fire-fighting systems
-are fully adequate.</p>
-<p>In case of sinking, provision has been made to allow
-for automatic flooding of the containment shell of the
-reactor to prevent its collapse in deep waters. The
-flooding valves are designed to close upon pressure
-equalization so that containment integrity will be maintained
-even after sinking. Salvage connections have
-been installed to allow containment purging or filling
-with concrete in case of sinking in shallow water where
-recovery or immobilization of the reactor plant seems
-advisable.</p>
-<p>Besides the very latest in navigation and communication
-equipment, including true motion radar, the
-ship is equipped with antiroll stabilizers. Located outside
-the hull amidships, the stabilizers are operated
-hydraulically by a gyro system capable of sensing sea
-conditions and providing counter-forces to reduce the
-roll. Each stabilizing fin has a lift of approximately
-70 tons at 20 knots speed.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<h3 id="c7">RADIATION SHIELDING</h3>
-<p>One of the most important features of the SAVANNAH
-is her radiation shielding. The main sources of
-radiation during operation of the SAVANNAH&rsquo;s
-power plant are the reactor itself and the primary
-coolant loop lines. The primary coolant which passes
-through the reactor core is irradiated, and itself becomes
-a source of radiation. Both the reactor and the
-coolant emit neutrons and gamma rays. There are also
-radiation sources of lesser magnitude including process
-piping, hold-up tanks, pumps, and demineralizers.</p>
-<p>The objective of radiation shielding on the SAVANNAH
-is twofold: First, it limits the radiation dose
-outside the containment to prescribed safe levels, and
-second, it reduces the activation of structure within
-the containment shell by reactor core neutrons. The
-latter consideration is necessary in order that the reactor
-plant be accessible for maintenance within 30 minutes
-after shutdown.</p>
-<p>The shielding is divided into a primary shield, which
-surrounds the reactor itself, and a secondary shield,
-which surrounds the entire containment shell.</p>
-<h3 id="c8">PRIMARY SHIELDING</h3>
-<p>The primary shield, immediately surrounding the
-reactor pressure vessel, consists of a 17-foot-high lead-covered
-steel tank that surrounds the reactor vessel
-with a 33-inch water-filled annulus. The tank extends
-from a point well below the active core area to a
-point well above it. The active core height within the
-reactor is only 60 inches. Constructed of carbon steel,
-the primary shield tank is covered with a layer of lead
-varying in thickness from 2 to 4 inches. When the
-tank is filled with water, the dose rate outside the
-primary shielding from core gamma sources and activated
-nuclei will not exceed 200 mr per hour 30 minutes
-after shutdown. This is sufficiently low to permit
-entry into the containment vessel for inspection or
-maintenance.</p>
-<h3 id="c9">SECONDARY SHIELDING</h3>
-<p>The containment shell completely surrounds the
-primary (reactor) system, and serves not only to confine
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-spread of radioactivity in the event of a rupture
-of the system but to support the hundreds of tons of
-lead and polyethylene of the secondary shield.</p>
-<h3 id="c10">CONTAINMENT SHELL</h3>
-<p>The primary function of the containment shell is to
-surround the primary system and provide complete
-containment of any radioactive matter that might escape
-from the system. The design pressure of the vessel
-was determined by postulating the instantaneous release
-and expansion of the entire contents of the primary
-system. This approach is highly conservative
-because of the improbability of a large rupture.</p>
-<p>A study has been made concerning the penetration of
-the vessel wall by a piece of debris in an explosion. An
-analysis of the penetrating power of high-speed components
-indicated that the shell would contain the
-largest missile that could be expected.</p>
-<p>The shell is cylindrical in shape, 35 feet in diameter
-by 50.5 feet long, and is centrally located on the ship&rsquo;s
-bottom.</p>
-<p>The containment shell is sealed at all times during
-plant operation. Entry to the shell will be made only
-after the reactor has been shut down, the shell purged
-with air, and the radiation level has dropped below 200
-mr per hour.</p>
-<p>The bottom half of the shell rests in a cradle of steel
-surrounded by a 48-inch-thick wall of reinforced
-concrete.</p>
-<p>The top half of the containment shell is covered by a
-6-inch layer of lead plus a 6-inch layer of polyethylene.
-During normal power operation, this reduces the radiation
-level to less than 0.6 mr per hour at the nearest
-point of access by the crew.</p>
-<h3 id="c11">CONTAINMENT SHELL AIR CONDITIONING</h3>
-<p>This system maintains a constant maximum ambient
-temperature of 140&deg; F. and a maximum relative humidity
-of 72 percent inside the containment shell. The
-system operates in conjunction with the intermediate
-cooling water system, using 95&deg; F. water.</p>
-<p>During normal operation, the containment shell is
-sealed and no outside air will enter or leave the vessel.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-Ambient conditions will be maintained by regulating
-the cooling water flow as required according to instrument
-readings on the control panel.</p>
-<p>In all areas where crew members have unlimited
-access, radiation levels will be less than 5 rem integrated
-dosage per year, the recommended maximum annual
-exposure of workers in the atomic energy field. Assuming
-that passengers would move about the ship, and
-on the basis of their calculated average distance from
-the reactor, the average exposure of a passenger remaining
-aboard for a year would be under 0.5 rem,
-i.e. &sup1;/&#8322;&#8320; of the occupational value.</p>
-<p>The 5 rem area is relatively small and not in general
-use. No crew member will be aboard ship or in the 5
-rem area continuously for a full year, and it is doubtful
-that any crew member will actually receive an integrated
-dose of more than 0.5 rem in a year.</p>
-<h3 id="c12">ELECTRICAL SYSTEM</h3>
-<p>This system supplies power to the reactor system and
-its auxiliaries and is designed to operate with a high
-degree of reliability to assure reactor safety during all
-phases of operation and shutdown.</p>
-<p>It includes all load control and protective devices,
-containment wiring, metering, interlocking and alarms
-associated with electrical loads for the reactor system.
-Power for the system normally is supplied by two turbine-generators,
-each rated at 1,500 kw, 0.8 pf, 450-volts,
-3 phase and 60 cycles. For increased reliability,
-a double bus type arrangement is used. In the event
-of a bus fault, an automatic transfer of all vital loads
-to the other bus will occur. During normal operation,
-a circuit breaker ties the two busses together.</p>
-<h3 id="c13">RADIATION MONITORING</h3>
-<p>The radiation monitoring system of the SAVANNAH
-keeps a constant check on the intensity of radiation
-at various points within the reactor system as well
-as areas remote from the power plant. This system is
-divided into two areas for this description. They are
-power-plant monitoring and health physics monitoring.
-The latter is covered under its own heading.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
-<h3 id="c14">POWER-PLANT MONITORING</h3>
-<p>Through keeping track of the radiation level at
-various points in the reactor system, any abnormalities
-in operation can be quickly detected and corrected.</p>
-<p>A leak in the heat exchangers, for example, would
-show up on a radiation monitor located in the blowdown
-line from each of the heat exchangers.</p>
-<p>The intermediate cooling system, which includes
-cooling water from the primary pumps, shield water
-cooler, containment air cooler, and other components
-not directly in the primary loop, is monitored at five
-locations. Leakage of primary loop water into the
-secondary water is possible only from the pumps and
-letdown coolers, because of differences in pressure.
-Consequently, radiation monitors are located downstream
-from the letdown coolers and in each of the
-return lines from the pump cooling coils.</p>
-<p>The demineralizers are also monitored. When the
-resin bed is functioning, the flow downstream (effluent)
-will have negligible radioactivity. Consequently, a
-monitor signal at this point will indicate when to switch
-to a new demineralizer. The monitor in the influent
-(water entering the demineralizer) measures the activity
-level in the primary loop.</p>
-<p>The fission product monitor keeps track of fission
-product activity in the primary (reactor) system. The
-monitor consists of a cation and anion column, an amplifier,
-and an indicating system. This monitor is
-located in the primary coolant flow system.</p>
-<h3 id="c15">TANKS HOLD LIQUID WASTE</h3>
-<p>Power plant liquid wastes are collected in tanks for
-storage prior to discharge into a specially designed servicing
-vessel in port. The liquid waste collection tanks
-are monitored. Gaseous wastes will normally be disposed
-of at sea through the radio mast, which contains
-two detectors for monitoring purposes. They are an
-air-particle monitor and a radio-gas monitor, and operate
-at all times so that gas is vented to the atmosphere.
-If gaseous radioactivity should rise above specified
-limits, the gas will be diluted to below the limit before
-being discharged to atmosphere.</p>
-<p>The above monitor stations are the principal ones
-involved in reactor system operation. The monitors
-operate through a system of separate channels, with
-each channel responsible for a pre-selected range of
-activity. All detectors relay their readings to the main
-panel in the control room, where automatic recording
-and visual observation instruments are located.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p03.png" alt="" width="888" height="886" />
-<p class="pcap">Surrounded by steel, wood, concrete, the N.S. SAVANNAH reactor is safe against any credible accident.</p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>STABILIZING BRACKET PORT AND STARBOARD</dt>
-<dt>POLYETHYLENE</dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;C&rdquo; DECK</dt>
-<dt>STEEL &amp; REDWOOD COLLISION MAT</dt>
-<dt>WOOD PAD</dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;D&rdquo; DECK</dt>
-<dt>CONCRETE</dt>
-<dt>WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD</dt>
-<dt><span class="u">REACTOR COMPARTMENT</span></dt>
-<dt>STIFFENING RINGS</dt>
-<dt>LEAD</dt>
-<dt>CONTAINMENT VESSEL</dt>
-<dt>COMPARTMENT BULKHEAD</dt>
-<dt>CONCRETE</dt>
-<dt>INNER BOTTOM</dt>
-<dt>FOUNDATIONS</dt>
-<dt>FORWARD</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<p>Portable monitoring equipment, samplers, and other
-health physics survey equipment are provided for access,
-survey, and maintenance monitoring.</p>
-<h3 id="c16">REACTOR CONTROL AND SAFETY SYSTEMS</h3>
-<p>The design of the control system is such that a malfunction
-which leads to an abnormal withdrawal rate
-of the rods will not result in a dangerous condition.
-Studies indicate that the minimum reactor period resulting
-from maximum withdrawal of the rods is not
-less than 30 seconds. The control system is designed
-to maintain the <i>net</i> reactivity insertion always less than
-the delayed neutron fraction.</p>
-<p>The entire reactor system is protected by the safety
-system. This system causes the reactor to terminate
-power production if a dangerous operating condition
-exists. The safety system also contains interlocks which
-prevent actions which would otherwise jeopardize the
-reactor system.</p>
-<p>The control and safety systems are capable of protecting
-the reactor system from damage due to any
-credible accident except a major leak in the primary
-loop.</p>
-<p>The reactor will &ldquo;scram&rdquo; (shut down) automatically
-from any of seven causes: (1) shorter than a
-safe reactor period, (2) excessive power, (3) excessive
-rise or fall in reactor pressure, (4) excessive reactor
-outlet pressure, (5) loss of flow, (6) loss of power to
-safety circuits, and (7) loss of power to control rod
-drives.</p>
-<h3 id="c17">INSTRUMENTS DOUBLE CHECKED</h3>
-<p>The nuclear instrumentation system provides maximum
-reliability and safety, yet minimizes erroneous
-readings or signals from the monitoring channels.
-This is done by using two or more measuring channels
-in each operating range, and then interlocking the circuits
-so that at least two of them give the same signal
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-of abnormal operating conditions before initiating a
-reactor &ldquo;scram.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Increased reliability is obtained by using &ldquo;solid state&rdquo;
-instruments or magnetic amplifier units rather than
-electron tubes and relays.</p>
-<h3 id="c18">REACTOR SAFETY SYSTEM</h3>
-<p>This system constantly monitors signals from the
-nuclear and non-nuclear instrumentation, and when
-necessary takes corrective action. Corrective action
-will be either in the form of &ldquo;fast insertion&rdquo; of the
-control rods, or in the form of reactor &ldquo;scram.&rdquo; Fast
-insertion takes place at a rate of 15 inches per minute,
-while a scram is achieved in 1.6 seconds.</p>
-<p>Fast insertion consists of moving all control rods to
-the full down position at the fastest rate possible
-through the electromechanical drives. For reactor
-&ldquo;scram,&rdquo; all rods are driven to full down position
-under the force of a net hydraulic pressure of 1,250 psi.</p>
-<h3 id="c19">SHORTER THAN A SAFE PERIOD</h3>
-<p>The reactor period is a measure of the rate of
-reactor power increase; the shorter the period the
-faster the rise. Ten neutron-measuring channels, covering
-the full range from source level to 150 percent of
-maximum power, measure neutron intensity (flux
-level) and its rate of change. These data are continuously
-transmitted to the reactor operator and the
-automatic control and safety system. Too fast a rate
-of change, or shorter than a safe period, will automatically
-&ldquo;scram&rdquo; the reactor.</p>
-<h3 id="c20">EXCESSIVE POWER</h3>
-<p>The amount of power produced is a function of the
-neutron flux and its resultant heat generation in the
-primary loop. The temperature selected to produce
-automatic &ldquo;scram&rdquo; is 540&deg; F. This temperature
-&ldquo;scram&rdquo; circuit provides an independent backup to the
-neutron flux &ldquo;scram.&rdquo;</p>
-<h3 id="c21">EXCESSIVE RISE OR FALL IN PRESSURE</h3>
-<p>Too low a pressure could result in boiling of the primary
-coolant, while too high a pressure could result
-<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span>
-in poor heat transfer as well as placing unnecessary
-stresses on the reactor&rsquo;s fuel element core structure.
-There are a number of causes for either condition, all
-of which would relay a &ldquo;scram&rdquo; signal to the operator
-and to the automatic safety system.</p>
-<h3 id="c22">EXCESSIVE OUTLET PRESSURE</h3>
-<p>In addition to protection against rapid rate of change
-in pressure, a scram circuit is provided to prevent any
-steady excessive outlet pressure that could result in
-damage to the core and related equipment.</p>
-<h3 id="c23">LOSS OF FLOW</h3>
-<p>This condition would result from a mechanical failure
-in the primary loop pumps, piping, etc., or by accidentally
-stopping the pumps when the reactor is at
-power, or by loss of power to the pumps. When a single
-pump fails to operate for any reason, an alarm is
-sounded to warn the operator. If all four pumps fail
-to operate for any reason, a signal is sent to the reactor
-safety system to &ldquo;scram&rdquo; the reactor.</p>
-<h3 id="c24">LOSS OF POWER TO SAFETY CIRCUITS</h3>
-<p>The hydraulic drives that operate the &ldquo;scram&rdquo;
-mechanism require reserve pressure to keep them in
-the &ldquo;ready&rdquo; position for &ldquo;scram&rdquo; condition and are an
-integral part of the safety circuitry. A power failure in
-the safety circuits would automatically put the hydraulic
-drives into operation to &ldquo;scram&rdquo; the reactor.</p>
-<h3 id="c25">LOSS OF POWER TO CONTROL ROD DRIVES</h3>
-<p>Each of the 21 control rods has its own drive
-mounted vertically on the upper reactor head. Of
-these, 9 are servo controlled and 12 are of the nonservo
-type. The 9 servo rods have variable speed drives and
-operate in two groups in a synchronous manner, according
-to demand signals from the reactor system.
-The 12-rod group can be operated manually or in
-groups according to predetermined conditions. All of
-these operate at a speed determined by their gearing.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div>
-<p>The safety considerations are as follows:</p>
-<p>1. Each servo loop contains a monitor that will
-sound an alarm and initiate a fast insertion if the rod
-fails to follow its command signal.</p>
-<p>2. Another circuit monitors all nine servo monitors,
-and should any of the servo monitors malfunction, an
-alarm will sound and appropriate corrective action will
-be taken through the automatic safety system.</p>
-<p>3. &ldquo;Scram&rdquo; action starts in the safety system and is
-independent of operator control. Once started, a
-&ldquo;scram&rdquo; action cannot be stopped.</p>
-<p>4. For conditions that do not warrant &ldquo;scram&rdquo; action,
-a fast insertion serves to reduce power and permit
-the operator to correct the condition without a complete
-shutdown. A manual fast insertion can be made
-by the operator.</p>
-<p>The electrical circuits controlling the reactor control
-rods are monitored, and an electrical failure in one or
-more circuits will result in a fast insertion or &ldquo;scram&rdquo;
-action. Should electrical power to the control rod
-drives fail completely, the hydraulic drives will be
-actuated.</p>
-<h3 id="c26">WASTE STORAGE AND HANDLING</h3>
-<p>This system drains and collects, until safe for removal,
-all drainage from the reactor system that might
-be radioactive. Drainage may result from a leak, or
-be part of the normal drainage accumulation during
-initial fill and testing, normal startup, operation and
-shutdown, and decontamination.</p>
-<p>The drainage and storage system consists of two
-pumps, valves, piping, containment drain tank, and
-four waste storage tanks. The total capacity of the
-tanks is 1,350 cubic feet. This is approximately 80
-percent more than the maximum operational leakage
-and drainage for a 100-day period. Provisions are
-made to take samples from any of the five tanks at any
-time.</p>
-<p>After sampling indicates sufficiently low level of
-activity, the fluid will be pumped to special dock facilities
-for transfer to inland waste disposal sites. No
-waste will be discharged at sea under present operating
-plans.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<p>A special 129-foot vessel, the NSV ATOMIC
-SERVANT, will service the Savannah&rsquo;s reactor and
-handle the radioactive wastes.</p>
-<p>The majority of the potentially radioactive gases
-vent into a central manifold. Here they are monitored,
-diluted by fan-driven air and discharged up
-the radio mast after passing through a series of filters.
-During normal operation, the manifold is vented continuously.
-However, if the radiation monitor indicates
-activity levels too high for satisfactory dilution, the
-gases can be diverted into the containment shell.</p>
-<h3 id="c27">GAS FILTERED, MONITORED</h3>
-<p>The region between the containment vessel and the
-secondary shielding is ventilated with a 4,000 cfm fan
-which discharges about half way up the radio mast.
-This gas is not expected to be radioactive but as an
-added precaution it is monitored to determine if
-radioactivity is present.</p>
-<p>All gases released through the radio mast are filtered
-to remove particulate matter.</p>
-<p>The containment shell air is purged with fresh air
-periodically at sea and prior to entry by the ship&rsquo;s engineering
-crew. During normal operation the only
-radioactive gas in the shell is argon-41, at a concentration
-less than the maximum permissible level for
-continuous occupational exposure. The only potential
-sources of activity in the containment air above tolerance
-levels would be fission products and these are not
-present during normal operation. However, as previously
-described, prior to purging, air samples will be
-analyzed to ascertain the activity levels.</p>
-<h3 id="c28">HEALTH PHYSICS MONITORING SYSTEM</h3>
-<p>This system provides radiation protection to crew
-and passengers through constant monitoring for any
-abnormalities in radiation levels that might occur.
-This is accomplished through a system of 12 radiation
-detector units in the following locations: A-deck, outside
-doctor&rsquo;s office; B-deck, aft passageway; B-deck,
-port passageway; C-deck, port passageway; C-deck,
-aft passageway; D-deck, starboard passageway;
-<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span>
-D-deck, both fore and aft bulkheads and at tanktop
-level, the port, starboard, fore and aft passageways.</p>
-<p>These 12 monitor units feed their readings into 2
-channels, with 6 monitors on each channel according
-to a predetermined sequence. A manually operated
-detector permits switching to any one monitor to allow
-observation and study of that station for as long as
-desired. By means of a recorder on each channel, a
-permanent record of the 12 monitoring stations can be
-obtained.</p>
-<p>The detectors are calibrated and maintained periodically
-by operating personnel using a standardized
-cobalt-60 source.</p>
-<p>Ionization chambers located at the points of entry
-into the containment vessel will determine when it is
-safe to enter the vessel. In addition, anyone entering
-the vessel will carry a portable monitor to determine the
-dose rate at the point he will be working.</p>
-<p>In addition to the installed detectors, there is a full
-complement of portable equipment to make any specific
-investigations required. The equipment is used
-to check decontamination results and to monitor contaminated
-spaces during maintenance. Health physics
-personnel, equipped with portable equipment, accompany
-all groups working any area that might contain
-radioactivity.</p>
-<p>The health physics laboratory aboard the ship is outfitted
-for all tests required during the operation of the
-reactor plant.</p>
-<h3 id="c29">AUXILIARY SYSTEMS</h3>
-<p><i>Sampling System.</i> This system provides a means for
-removing liquid samples from the primary loop to determine
-the effectiveness of the purification system.
-Samples will be taken from both the inlet and outlet
-flow of the primary demineralizers.</p>
-<p><i>Intermediate Cooling System.</i> The primary function
-is to provide clean cooling water to the various
-reactor system components. A secondary function is to
-maintain water in the annular primary shield tank.</p>
-<p>The system consists of two separate flow circuits: a
-sea water circuit and a fresh water circuit. Each of
-these circuits contains two pumps and two coolers, plus
-other necessary components. The pumps and coolers
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-are arranged in parallel, permitting either pump to
-supply water to either cooler.</p>
-<p>In the sea water circuit, inlet temperature is 85&deg; F
-and outlet temperature is 106&deg; F. The fresh water
-enters its coolers at 143&deg; F and leaves at 95&deg; F.</p>
-<p>Components outside and inside of the containment
-vessel are cooled by one or the other of these intermediate
-cooling circuits.</p>
-<h3 id="c30">EXTRA EMERGENCY POWER</h3>
-<p>Two auxiliary 750-kw diesel generator sets are on
-standby to provide the following: (1) Power to the
-main bus for operating those loads needed to supply
-cooling for decay-heat removal after a scram or shutdown,
-(2) emergency &ldquo;take-home&rdquo; power should the
-nuclear power plant become inoperative, (3) power
-for reactor startup, and (4) spare generating capacity
-for normal operation should a turbine generator become
-inoperative.</p>
-<p>In the event of a reactor &ldquo;scram,&rdquo; these generators
-will automatically start and synchronize on the main
-bus bar to supply and distribute power to the components
-used for reactor cooling.</p>
-<p>A 300-kw emergency diesel generator is also available
-to supply power to the 450-volt emergency switchboard.
-This source will operate in case both the main
-turbine generators and auxiliary diesel generators do
-not. Loads connected to the emergency switchboard
-include lighting, low speed windings of the primary
-coolant pumps, and the emergency cooling system.</p>
-<p>A battery protected source will also provide power to
-those loads that require an especially dependable power
-source with no interruption due to loss or switching of
-auxiliary power.</p>
-<h3 id="c31">TAKE-HOME POWER</h3>
-<p>As mentioned, in the electrical system there are two
-750-kw diesel generator sets installed in the engine
-room. If any emergency &ldquo;take-home&rdquo; power is required,
-either diesel generator can be used to operate
-a 750-hp wound rotor motor, which is connected to the
-ship&rsquo;s propeller, through the reduction gears.</p>
-<p>Each diesel generator is sized to furnish adequate
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-power for reactor decay heat removal, lighting, and
-necessary ship service.</p>
-<h3 id="c32">N.S. SAVANNAH MANNED FOR SAFETY</h3>
-<p>To assure that the first nuclear-propelled merchant
-ship will be completely safe, it is manned by well-trained,
-competent personnel whose duty and responsibility
-it is to operate the ship safely and efficiently.</p>
-<p>Every mechanical and electrical safety device of
-modern navigation is at the disposal of the SAVANNAH&rsquo;s
-crew to insure the safety and integrity of the
-ship.</p>
-<p>The men who will handle the SAVANNAH ashore
-and afloat will have had the advantage of the specialized
-and extensive training program conducted by
-the Atomic Energy Commission, the Maritime Administration,
-and the private contractors who built the
-N.S. SAVANNAH and her reactor.</p>
-<p>The ship&rsquo;s master and officers are men of long experience
-on the sea whose backgrounds assure sound
-and stable assessment and judgment under all possible
-conditions.</p>
-<p>All of the factors herein discussed make it possible
-for the United States Government to say of the N.S.
-SAVANNAH, as she ushers in the atomic age on the
-world&rsquo;s essential trade routes, that this unique and
-wonderful vessel is unquestionably one of the world&rsquo;s
-safest ships.</p>
-<h3 id="c33">THE NUCLEAR SHIP SAVANNAH IS DESIGNED AND BUILT TO THESE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS</h3>
-<p><i>APPLICABLE CODES OF</i>:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">1. U.S. Coast Guard</p>
-<p class="t0">2. American Bureau of Shipping</p>
-<p class="t0">3. Maritime Administration</p>
-<p class="t0">4. U.S. Public Health Service</p>
-<p class="t0">5. American Institute of Electrical Engineers Marine Code</p>
-<p class="t0">6. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission</p>
-</div>
-<p><i>SAFETY REVIEW BY</i>:</p>
-<p>1. AEC Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
-<p><i>DESIGN REVIEW BY</i>:</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">1. U.S. Coast Guard</p>
-<p class="t0">2. Maritime Administration</p>
-<p class="t0">3. AEC</p>
-<p class="t">(A) Oak Ridge National Laboratory</p>
-<p class="t">(B) Electric Boat Company</p>
-<p class="t0">4. American Bureau of Shipping</p>
-</div>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="smallest"><span class="ss">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1960    O&mdash;562017</span></span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="759" />
-<p class="pcap">The N.S. SAVANNAH&rsquo;s construction meets ultimate standards of health and environmental safety.</p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>PASSENGER DINING ROOM</dt>
-<dt>CREW QUARTERS</dt>
-<dt>MAIN LOUNGE</dt>
-<dt>PASSENGER STATEROOMS</dt>
-<dt>REACTOR HATCH</dt>
-<dt>REACTOR AUX. HATCH</dt>
-<dt>CREW QUARTERS</dt>
-<dt>CARGO HOLD</dt>
-<dt>MACHINERY CONTROL CENTER</dt>
-<dt>ENGINE ROOM</dt>
-<dt>SHIP&rsquo;S PROVISIONS</dt>
-<dt>STABILIZER SPACE</dt>
-<dt>CARGO HOLD</dt>
-<dt>REACTOR CONTAINMENT VESSEL</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="1600" height="613" />
-<p class="pcap">The N.S. SAVANNAH&mdash;world&rsquo;s first atomic merchant ship&mdash;pride of the American Merchant Marine&mdash;model of maritime safety.</p>
-</div>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nuclear Ship Savannah, First
-Atomic Merchant Ship, by Anonymous
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