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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of An introduction to the mortuary customs of
+the North American Indians, by H. C. Yarrow
+
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+Title: An introduction to the mortuary customs of the North American Indians
+
+Author: H. C. Yarrow
+
+Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6462]
+[This file was first posted on December 17, 2002]
+[Most recently updated August 1, 2004]
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+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORTUARY CUSTOMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Scott Pfenninger, Charles Franks
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+This file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions.
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+
+J.W. POWELL DIRECTOR
+
+
+INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MORTUARY CUSTOMS AMONG THE NORTH AMERICAN
+INDIANS
+
+
+BY DR. H. C. YARROW ACT ASST SU G USA
+
+
+WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1880
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY
+
+_Washington D. C. July 8, 1880_
+
+
+This little volume is the third of a series designed to promote
+anthropologic researches among the North American Indians. The first
+was prepared by myself and entitled "Introduction to the Study of
+Indian Languages," the second by Col. Garrick Mallery entitled
+Introduction to the Study of Sign Language among the North American
+Indians.
+
+The following are in course of preparation and will soon appear.
+
+Introduction to the Study of Medicine Practices among the North
+American Indians
+
+Introduction to the Study of Mythology among the North American
+Indians
+
+Introduction to the Study of Sociology among the North American
+Indians
+
+The mortuary customs of savage or barbaric people have a deep
+significance from the fact that in them are revealed much of the
+philosophy of the people by whom they are practiced. Early beliefs
+concerning the nature of human existence in life and after death and
+the relations of the living to the dead are recorded in these customs.
+The mystery concerning the future love for the departed who were loved
+while here, reverence for the wise and good who may after death be
+wiser and better, hatred and fear of those who were enemies here and
+may have added powers of enmity in the hereafter--all these and like
+considerations have led in every tribe to a body of customs of
+exceeding interest as revealing the opinions, the philosophy of the
+people themselves.
+
+In these customs, also are recorded evidences of the social condition
+of the people, the affection in which friends and kindred are held,
+the very beginnings of altruism in primitive life.
+
+In like manner these customs constitute a record of the moral
+condition of the people, as in many ways they exhibit the ethic
+standards by which conduct in human life is judged. For such reasons
+the study of mortuary customs is of profound interest to the
+anthropologist.
+
+It is hoped that by this method of research the observations of many
+men may be brought together and placed on permanent record, and that
+the body of material may be sufficient, by a careful comparative
+study, to warrant some general discussion concerning the philosophy of
+this department of human conduct.
+
+General conclusions can be reached with safety only after materials
+from many sources have been obtained. It will not be safe for the
+collector to speculate much upon that which he observes. His own
+theory or explanation of customs will be of little worth, but the
+theory and explanation given by the Indians will be of the greatest
+value. What do the Indians do, and say, and believe? When these are
+before us it matters little whether our generalizations be true or
+false. Wiser men may come and use the facts to a truer purpose. It is
+proposed to make a purely objective study of the Indians, and, as far
+as possible, to leave the record unmarred by vain subjective
+speculations.
+
+The student who is pursuing his researches in this field should
+carefully note all of the customs, superstitions, and opinions of the
+Indians relating to--
+
+1. The care of the lifeless body prior to burial, much of which he
+will find elaborated into sacred ceremonies.
+
+2. The method of burial, including the site of burial, the attitude in
+which the body is placed, and the manner in which it is investured.
+Here, also, he will find interesting and curious ceremonial
+observances. The superstitions and opinions of the people relating to
+these subjects are of importance.
+
+3. The gifts offered to the dead; not only those placed with the body
+at the time of burial, but those offered at a subsequent time for the
+benefaction of the departed on his way to the other world, and for his
+use on arrival. Here, too, it is as important for us to know the
+ceremonies with which the gifts are made as to know the character of
+the gifts themselves.
+
+4. An interesting branch of this research relates to the customs of
+mourning, embracing the time of mourning, the habiliments, the self-
+mutilations, and other penances, and the ceremonies with which these
+are accompanied. In all of these cases the reason assigned by the
+Indians for their doings, their superstitions, and explanations are of
+prime importance.
+
+5. It is desirable to obtain from the Indians their explanation of
+human life, their theory of spirits and of the life to come.
+
+A complete account of these customs in any tribe will necessitate the
+witnessing of many funeral rites, as the custom will differ at the
+death of different persons, depending upon age, sex, and social
+standing. To obtain their explanations and superstitions, it will be
+necessary to interrogate the Indians themselves. This is not an easy
+task, for the Indians do not talk with freedom about their dead. The
+awe with which they are inspired, their reverence and love for the
+departed, and their fear that knowledge which may be communicated may
+be used to the injury of those whom they have loved, or of themselves,
+lead them to excessive reticence on these subjects. Their feelings
+should not be rudely wounded. The better and more thoughtful members
+of the tribe will at last converse freely on these subjects with those
+in whom they have learned to place confidence. The stories of ignorant
+white men and camp attaches should be wholly discarded, and all
+accounts should be composed of things actually observed, and of
+relations made by Indians of probity.
+
+This preliminary volume by Dr. H. C Yarrow has been the subject of
+careful research and of much observation, and will serve in many ways
+as a hint to the student. The literature of the subject is vast, but
+to a large extent worthless, from the fact that writers have been
+hasty travelers or subjective speculators on the matter. It is strange
+how much of accepted history must be rejected when the statements are
+carefully criticised and compared with known facts. It has frequently
+been stated of this or that tribe that mutilations, as the cutting off
+of fingers and toes, of ears and nose, the pulling out of teeth, &c.,
+are extensively practiced as a mode of mourning find wild scenes of
+maiming and bloodshed are depicted as following upon the death of a
+beloved chief or great man yet among these tribes maimed persons are
+rarely found It is probable that there is some basis of fact for the
+statement that mutilations are in rare instances practiced among some
+tribes. But even this qualified statement needs absolute proof.
+
+I am pleased to assure those who will take part in this work by
+earnest and faithful research that Dr Yarrow will treat them
+generously by giving them full credit for their work in his final
+publication.
+
+I must not fail to present my thanks to the Surgeon General of the
+United States Army and his corps of officers for the interest and
+assistance they have rendered.
+
+J W POWELL
+
+
+
+
+WASHINGTON, D C, _April_ 5, 1880
+
+
+DEAR SIR: I have the honor to offer for your consideration the
+following paper upon the Mortuary Customs of the North American
+Indians, and trust it may meet with your approval as an introduction
+to the study of a subject which, while it has been alluded to by most
+authors, has received little or no systematic treatment. For this and
+other reasons I was induced some three years since to commence an
+examination and collection of data relative to the matter, and the
+present paper is the outcome of that effort. From the vast amount of
+material in the Bureau of Ethnology, even at the present time, a large
+volume might be prepared, but it was thought wiser to endeavor to
+obtain a still greater array of facts, especially from living
+observers. If the desired end is attained I shall not count as lost
+the labor which has been bestowed.
+
+Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
+
+H C. YARROW.
+
+Maj. J. W. POWELL,
+
+_In charge of Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution_
+
+
+
+
+_The wisest of beings tells us that it is better to go to the House
+of Mourning than to that of laughter. And those who have well consider
+d the grounds he bad for thus his judgment will not by the title of
+this book (as melancholy as it appears) be affrighted from the
+perusing it.
+
+What we read to have been and still to be the custom of some nations
+to make sepulchres the repositories of their greatest riches is (I am
+sure) universally true in a moral sense however it may be thought in
+the literal there being never a grave but what conceals a treasure
+though all have not the art to discover it I do not here invite the
+covetous miser to disturb the dead who can frame no idea of treasure
+distinct from gold and silver but him who knows that wisdom and virtue
+are the true and sole riches of man. Is not truth a treasure think
+you? Which yet Democritus assures us is buried in a deep pit or grave
+and he bad reason for whereas we meet elsewhere with nothing but pain
+and deceit we no sooner look down into a grave but truth faceth us and
+tells us our own._--MURET
+
+
+
+
+INQUIRIES AND SUGGESTIONS
+
+upon the
+
+MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
+
+BY H. C. YARROW.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+The primitive manners and customs of the North American Indians are
+rapidly passing away under influences of civilization and other
+disturbing elements. In view of this fact, it becomes the duty of all
+interested in preserving a record of these customs to labor
+assiduously, while there is still time, to collect such data as may be
+obtainable. This seems the more important now, as within the last ten
+years an almost universal interest has been awakened in ethnologic
+research, and the desire for more knowledge in this regard is
+constantly increasing. A wise and liberal government, recognizing the
+need, has ably seconded the efforts of those engaged in such studies
+by liberal grants from the public funds; nor is encouragement wanted
+from the hundreds of scientific societies throughout the civilized
+globe. The public press, too--the mouth-piece of the people--is ever
+on the alert to scatter broadcast such items of ethnologic information
+as its corps of well-trained reporters can secure. To induce further
+laudable inquiry, and assist all those who may be willing to engage in
+the good work, is the object of this preliminary work on the mortuary
+customs of North American Indians, and it is hoped that many more
+laborers may through it be added to the extensive and honorable list
+of those who have already contributed.
+
+It would appear that the subject chosen should awaken great interest,
+since the peculiar methods followed by different nations and the great
+importance attached to burial ceremonies have formed an almost
+invariable part of all works relating to the different peoples of our
+globe; in fact no particular portion of ethnologic research has
+claimed more attention. In view of these facts, it might seem almost a
+work of supererogation to continue a further examination of the
+subject, for nearly every author in writing of our Indian tribes makes
+some mention of burial observances; but these notices are scattered
+far and wide on the sea of this special literature, and many of the
+accounts, unless supported by corroborative evidence, may be
+considered as entirely unreliable. To bring together and harmonize
+conflicting statements, and arrange collectively what is known of the
+subject has been the writer's task, and an enormous mass of
+information has been acquired, the method of securing which has been
+as follows:
+
+In the first instance a circular was prepared, which is here given;
+this at the time was thought to embrace all items relating to the
+disposal of the dead and attendant ceremonies, although since its
+distribution other important questions have arisen which will be
+alluded to subsequently.
+
+
+"WASHINGTON, D. C, _June_ 15, 1877.
+
+"To--
+
+"SIR: Being engaged in preparing a memoir upon the 'Burial Customs of
+the Indians of North America, both ancient and modern, and the
+disposal of their dead,' I beg leave to request your kind co-operation
+to enable me to present as exhaustive an exposition of the subject as
+possible, and to this end earnestly invite your attention to the
+following points in regard to which information is desired:
+
+"1st. Name of the tribe
+
+"2d. Locality.
+
+"3d. Manner of burial, ancient and modern.
+
+"4th. Funeral ceremonies.
+
+"5th. Mourning observances, if any.
+
+"With reference to the first of these inquiries, 'Name of the tribe,'
+the Indian name is desired as well as the name by which the tribe is
+known to the whites.
+
+"As to 'Locality,' the response should give the range of the tribe,
+and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+"As to the 'Manner of burial,' &c, it is important to have every
+particular bearing on this branch of the subject, and much minuteness
+is desirable.
+
+"For instance:
+
+"(_a_) Was the body buried in the ground; if so, in what
+position, and how was the grave prepared and finished?
+
+"(_b_) If cremated, describe the process, and what disposal was
+made of the ashes.
+
+"(_c_) Were any utensils, implements, ornaments, &c., or food
+placed in the grave? In short, every _fact_ is sought that may
+possibly add to a general knowledge of the subject.
+
+"Answers to the fourth and fifth queries should give as full and
+succinct a description as possible of funereal and other mortuary
+ceremonies at the time of death and subsequently, the period of
+mourning, manner of its observance, &c.
+
+"In obtaining materials for the purpose in question it is particularly
+desirable that well-authenticated sources of information only be drawn
+upon, and, therefore, any points gathered from current rumor or mere
+hearsay, and upon which there is doubt, should be submitted to
+searching scrutiny before being embraced in answers to the several
+interrogatories, and nothing should be recorded as a _fact_ until
+fully established as such.
+
+"In seeking information from Indians, it is well to remember the great
+tendency to exaggeration they show, and since absolute facts will
+alone serve our purpose, great caution is suggested in this
+particular.
+
+"It is earnestly desired to make the work in question as complete as
+possible, and therefore it is especially hoped that your response will
+cover the ground as pointed out by the several questions as thoroughly
+as you may be able and willing to make it.
+
+"In addition to notes, a reference to published papers either by
+yourself or others is desirable, as well as the names of those persons
+who may be able to furnish the needed information.
+
+"Permit me to assure you that, while it is not offered in the way of
+inducement to secure the service asked, since it is barely possible
+that you can be otherwise than deeply interested in the extension of
+the bounds of knowledge, full credit will be given you in the work for
+whatever information you may be pleased to furnish.
+
+"This material will be published under the auspices of Prof. J.W.
+Powell, in charge of the U. S Geographical and Geological Survey of
+the Rocky Mountain Region.
+
+"Communications may be addressed to me either at the address given
+above or at the Army Medical Museum, Washington, D. C.
+
+"Respectfully, yours,
+
+"H. C. YARROW."
+
+
+This was forwarded to every Indian agent, physicians at agencies, to a
+great number of Army officers who had served or were serving at
+frontier posts, and to individuals known to be interested in
+ethnologic matters. A large number of interesting and valuable
+responses were received, many of them showing how customs have changed
+either under influences of civilization or altered circumstances of
+environment.
+
+Following this, a comprehensive list of books relating to North
+American Indians was procured, and each volume subjected to careful
+scrutiny, extracts being made from those that appeared in the writer's
+judgment reliable. Out of a large number examined up to the present
+time, several hundred have been laid under contribution, and the labor
+of further collation still continues.
+
+It is proper to add that all the material obtained will eventually be
+embodied in a quarto volume, forming one of the series of
+contributions to North American Ethnology prepared under the direction
+of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian
+Institution, from whom, since the inception of the work, most constant
+encouragement and advice has been received, and to whom all American
+ethnologists owe a debt of gratitude which can never be repaid.
+
+Having thus called attention to the work and the methods pursued in
+collecting data, the classification of the subject may be given and
+examples furnished of the burial ceremonies among different tribes,
+calling especial attention to similar or almost analogous customs
+among the peoples of the Old World.
+
+For our present purpose the following provisional arrangement of
+burials may be adopted:
+
+1st. By INHUMATION in pits, graves, holes in the ground, mounds;
+cists, and caves.
+
+2d. By CREMATION, generally on the surface of the earth, occasionally
+beneath, the resulting bones or ashes being placed in pits, in the
+ground, in boxes placed on scaffolds or trees, in urns, sometimes
+scattered.
+
+3d. By EMBALMENT or a process of mummifying, the remains being
+afterwards placed in the earth, caves, mounds, or charnel-houses.
+
+4th. By AERIAL SEPULTURE, the bodies being deposited on scaffolds or
+trees, in boxes or canoes, the two latter receptacles supported on
+scaffolds or posts, or on the ground. Occasionally baskets have been
+used to contain the remains of children, these being hung to trees.
+
+5th. By AQUATIC BURIAL, beneath the water, or in canoes, which were
+turned adrift.
+
+These heads might, perhaps, be further subdivided, but the above seem
+sufficient for all practical needs.
+
+The use of the term _burial_ throughout this paper is to be
+understood in its literal significance, the word being derived from
+the Anglo-Saxon "_birgan,_" to conceal or hide away.
+
+In giving descriptions of different burials and attendant ceremonies,
+it has been deemed expedient to introduce entire accounts as
+furnished, in order to preserve continuity of narrative.
+
+
+
+INHUMATION.
+
+
+The commonest mode of burial among North American Indians has been
+that of interment in the ground, and this has taken place in a number
+of different ways; the following will, however, serve as good examples
+of the process.
+
+"The Mohawks of New York made a large round hole in which the body was
+placed upright or upon its haunches, after which it was covered with
+timber, to support the earth which they lay over, and thereby kept the
+body from being pressed. They then raised the earth in a round hill
+over it. They always dressed the corpse in all its finery, and put
+wampum and other things into the grave with it; and the relations
+suffered not grass nor any weed to grow upon the grave, and frequently
+visited it and made lamentation." [Footnote: Hist. Indian Tribes of
+the United States, 1853, part 3, p 183.]
+
+This account may be found in Schoolcraft.
+
+In Jones [Footnote: Antiq. of Southern Indians, 1873, pp 108-110] is
+the following interesting account from Lawson, of the burial customs
+of the Indians formerly inhabiting the Carolinas:
+
+"Among the Carolina tribes, the burial of the dead was accompanied
+with special ceremonies, the expense and formality attendant upon the
+funeral according with the rank of the deceased. The corpse was first
+placed in a cane bundle and deposited in an outhouse made for the
+purpose, where it was suffered to remain for a day and a night guarded
+and mourned over by the nearest relatives with disheveled hair. Those
+who are to officiate at the funeral go into the town, and from the
+backs of the first young men they meet strip such blankets and
+matchcoats as they deem suitable for their purpose. In these the dead
+body is wrapped and then covered with two or three mats made of rushes
+or cane. The coffin is made of woven reeds or hollow canes tied fast
+at both ends. When everything is prepared for the interment, the
+corpse is carried from the house in which it has been lying into the
+orchard of peach-trees and is there deposited in another bundle.
+Seated upon mats are there congregated the family and tribe of the
+deceased and invited guests. The medicine man, or conjurer, having
+enjoined silence, then pronounces a funeral oration, during which he
+recounts the exploits of the deceased, his valor, skill, love of
+country, property, and influence, alludes to the void caused by his
+death, and counsels those who remain to supply his place by following
+in his footsteps; pictures the happiness he will enjoy in the land of
+spirits to which he has gone, and concludes his address by an allusion
+to the prominent traditions of his tribe."
+
+Let us here pause to remind the reader that this custom has prevailed
+throughout the civilized world up to the present day--a custom, in the
+opinion of many, "more honored in the breach than the observance."
+
+"At last [says Mr. Lawson], the corpse is brought away from that
+hurdle to the grave by four young men, attended by the relations, the
+king, old men, and all the nation. When they come to the sepulchre,
+which is about six feet deep and eight feet long, having at each end
+(that is, at the head and foot) a light-wood or pitch-pine fork driven
+close down the sides of the grave firmly into the ground (these two
+forks are to contain a ridgepole, as you shall understand presently),
+before they lay the corpse into the grave, they cover the bottom two
+or three time over with the bark of trees; then they let down the
+corpse (with two belts that the Indians carry their burdens withal)
+very leisurely upon the said barks; then they lay over a pole of the
+same wood in the two forks, and having a great many pieces of pitch-
+pine logs about two foot and a half long, they stick them in the sides
+of the grave down each end and near the top, through of where (sic) the
+other ends lie in the ridge-pole, so that they are declining like the
+roof of a house. These being very thick placed, they cover them many
+times double with bark; then they throw the earth thereon that came
+out of the grave and beat it down very firm. By this means the dead
+body lies in a vault, nothing touching him. After a time the body is
+taken up, the bones cleaned, and deposited in an ossuary called the
+Quiogozon."
+
+Dr Fordyce Grinnell, physician to the Wichita Agency, Indian
+Territory, furnishes the following description of the burial
+ceremonies of the Wichita Indians, who call themselves. "_Kitty-la-
+tats_" or those of the tattooed eyelids.
+
+"When a Wichita dies the town-crier goes up and down through the
+village and announces the fact. Preparations are immediately made for
+the burial, and the body is taken without delay to the grave prepared
+for it reception. If the grave is some distance from the village the
+body is carried thither on the back of a pony, being first wrapped in
+blankets and then laid prone across the saddle, one walking on either
+side to support it. The grave is dug from 3 to 4 feet deep and of
+sufficient length for the extended body. First blankets and buffalo
+robes are laid in the bottom of the grave, then the body, being taken
+from the horse and unwrapped, is dressed in its best apparel and with
+ornaments is placed upon a couch of blankets and robes, with the head
+towards the west and the feet to the east; the valuables belonging to
+the deceased are placed with the body in the grave. With the man are
+deposited his bows and arrows or gun, and with the woman her cooking
+utensils and other implements of her toil. Over the body sticks are
+placed six or eight inches deep and grass over these, so that when the
+earth is filled in it need not come in contact with the body or its
+trappings. After the grave is filled with earth a pen of poles is
+built around it, or, as is frequently the case, stakes are driven so
+that they cross each other from either side about midway over the
+grave, thus forming a complete protection from the invasion of wild
+animals. After all this is done, the grass or other _debris_ is
+carefully scraped from about the grave for several feet, so that the
+ground is left smooth and clean. It is seldom the case that the
+relatives accompany the remains to the grave, but they more often
+employ others to bury the body for them, usually women. Mourning is
+similar in this tribe as in others, and consists in cutting off the
+hair, fasting, &c. Horses are also killed at the grave."
+
+The Caddoes, _Ascena_, or Timber Indians, as they call
+themselves, follow nearly the same mode of burial as the Wichitas, but
+one custom prevailing is worthy of mention.
+
+"If a Caddo is killed in battle, the body is never buried, but is left
+to be devoured by beasts or birds of prey and the condition of such
+individuals in the other world is considered to be far better than
+that of persons dying a natural death."
+
+In a work by Bruhier [Footnote: L'incertitude des Signes de la Mort,
+1740, tom 1, p. 430] the following remarks, freely translated by the
+writer, may be found, which note a custom having great similarity to
+the exposure of bodies to wild beasts mentioned above.
+
+"The ancient Persians threw out the bodies of their dead on the roads,
+and if they were promptly devoured by wild beasts it was esteemed a
+great honor, a misfortune if not. Sometimes they interred, always
+wrapping the dead in a wax cloth to prevent odor."
+
+M. Pierre Muret, [Footnote: Rites of Funeral, Ancient and Modern,
+1683, p 45] from whose book Bruhier probably obtained his information,
+gives at considerable length an account of this peculiar method of
+treating the dead among the Persians, as follows:
+
+"It is a matter of astonishment, considering the _Persians_ have
+ever had the renown of being one of the most civilized Nations in the
+world, that notwithstanding they should have used such barbarous
+customs about the Dead as are set down in the Writings of some
+Historians, and the rather because at this day there are still to be
+seen among them those remains of Antiquity, which do fully satisfie
+us, that their Tombs have been very magnificent. And yet nevertheless,
+if we will give credit to _Procopius_ and _Agathias_, the
+_Persians_ were never wont to bury their Dead Bodies, so far were
+they from bestowing any Funeral Honours upon them. But, as these
+Authors tell us, they exposed them stark naked in the open fields,
+which is the greatest shame our Laws do allot to the most infamous
+Criminals, by laying them open to the view of all upon the highways:
+Yea, in their opinion it was a great unhappiness, if either Birds or
+Beasts did not devour their Carcases; and they commonly made an
+estimate of the Felicity of these poor Bodies, according as they were
+sooner or later made a prey of. Concerning these, they resolved that
+they must needs have been very bad indeed, since even the beasts
+themselves would not touch them; which caused an extream sorrow to
+their Relations, they taking it for an ill boding to their Family, and
+an infallible presage of some great misfortune hanging over their
+heads, for they persuaded themselves, that the Souls which inhabited
+those Bodies being dragg'd into Hell, would not fail to come and
+trouble them, and that being always accompanied with the Devils, their
+Tormentors, they would certainly give them a great deal of disturbance.
+
+"And on the contrary, when these Corpses were presently devoured,
+their joy was very great, they enlarged themselves in praises of the
+Deceased; every one esteeming them undoubtedly happy, and came to
+congratulate their relations on that account: For as they believed
+assuredly, that they were entered into the _Elysian_ Fields, so
+they were persuaded, that they would procure the same bliss for all
+those of their family.
+
+"They also took a great delight to see Skeletons and Bones scatered up
+and down in the fields, whereas we can scarcely endure to see those of
+Horses and Dogs used so. And these remains of Humane Bodies, (the
+sight whereof gives us so much, horror, that we presently bury them
+out of our sight, whenever we find them elsewhere than in Charnel-
+houses or Church yards) were the occasion of their greatest joy
+because they concluded from thence the happiness of those that had
+been devoured wishing after then Death to meet with the like good
+luck."
+
+The same author states and Bruhier corroborates the assertion that the
+Parthians, Medes, Iberians, Caspians, and a few others had such a
+horror and aversion of the corruption and decomposition of the dead
+and of their being eaten by worms that they threw out the bodies into
+the open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, a part of their belief
+being that persons so devoured would not be entirely extinct, but
+enjoy at least a partial sort of life in their living sepulchres. It
+is quite probable that for these and other reasons the Bactrians and
+Hircanians trained dogs for this special purpose called _Canes
+sepulchrales_ which received the greatest care and attention, for
+it was deemed proper that the souls of the deceased should have strong
+and lusty frames to dwell in.
+
+George Gibbs [Footnote: Schoolcraft's Hist. Indian Tribes of the
+United States Pt. 3, 1853, p. 140]  gives the following account of
+burial among the Klamath and Trinity Indians of the Northwest coast.
+
+The graves which are in the immediate vicinity of their houses exhibit
+very considerable taste and a laudable care. The dead are inclosed in
+rude coffins formed by placing four boards around the body and covered
+with earth to some depth; a heavy plank often supported by upright
+head and foot stones is laid upon the top or stones are built up into
+a wall about a foot above the ground and the top flagged with others.
+The graves of the chiefs are surrounded by neat wooden palings, each
+pale ornamented with a feather from the tail of the bald eagle.
+Baskets are usually staked down by the side according to the wealth or
+popularity of the individual and sometimes other articles for ornament
+or use are suspended over them. The funeral ceremonies occupy three
+days during which the soul of the deceased is in danger from _O-mah-
+u_ or the devil. To preserve it from this peril a fire is kept up
+at the grave and the friends of the deceased howl around it to scare
+away the demon. Should they not be successful in this the soul is
+carried down the river, subject, however, to redemption by _Peh-ho
+wan_ on payment of a big knife. After the expiration of three days
+it is all well with them.
+
+The question may well be asked, is the big knife a "sop to Cerberus"?
+
+Capt. F. E. Grossman, [Footnote: Rep. Smithson. Inst., 1871, p. 414]
+USA, furnishes the following account of burial among the Pimas of
+Arizona:
+
+"The Pimas tie the bodies of their dead with ropes, passing the latter
+around the neck and under the knees and then drawing them tight until
+the body is doubled up and forced into a sitting position. They dig
+the grave from four to five feet deep and perfectly round (about two
+feet in diameter), then hollow out to one side of the bottom of this
+grave a sort of vault large enough to contain the body. Here the body
+is deposited, the grave is filled up level with the ground, and poles,
+trees, or pieces of timber placed upon the grave to protect the
+remains from the coyotes (a species of wolf). Burials usually take
+place at night, without much ceremony. The mourners chant during the
+burial, but signs of grief are rare. The bodies of their dead are
+buried, if possible, immediately after death has taken place, and the
+graves are generally prepared before the patients die. Sometimes sick
+persons (for whom the graves had already been dug) recovered; in such
+cases the graves are left open until the persons for whom they were
+intended die. Open graves of this kind can be seen in several of their
+burial-grounds. Places of burial are selected some distance from the
+village, and, if possible, in a grove of mesquite bushes. Immediately
+after the remains have been buried, the house and personal effects of
+the deceased are burned, and his horses and cattle killed, the meat
+being cooked as a repast for the mourners. The nearest relatives of
+the deceased, as a sign of their sorrow, remain in the village for
+weeks and sometimes months; the men cut off about six inches of their
+long hair, while the women cut their hair quite short"
+
+The Coyotero Apaches, according to Dr. W. J. Hoffman, [Footnote: U.S.
+Geol. Surv. of Terr. for 1876, p. 473] in disposing of their dead,
+seem to be actuated by the desire to spare themselves any needless
+trouble, and prepare the defunct and the grave in this manner.
+
+"The Coyoteros, upon the death of a member of the tribe, partially
+wrap up the corpse and deposit it into the cavity left by the removal
+of a small rock or the stump of a tree. After the body has been
+crammed into the smallest possible space the rock or stump is again
+rolled into its former position, when a number of stones are placed
+around the base to keep out the coyotes. The nearest of kin usually
+mourn for the period of one month, during that time giving utterance
+at intervals to the most dismal lamentations, which are apparently
+sincere. During the day this obligation is frequently neglected or
+forgotten, but when the mourner is reminded of his duty he renews his
+howling with evident interest. This custom of mourning for the period
+of thirty days corresponds to that formerly observed by the Natchez."
+
+Somewhat similar to this rude mode of sepulture is that described in
+the life of Moses Van Campen, which relates to the Indians formerly
+inhabiting Pennsylvania:
+
+"Directly after the Indians proceeded to bury those who had fallen in
+battle, which they did by rolling an old log from its place and laying
+the body in the hollow thus made, and then heaping upon it a little
+earth"
+
+As a somewhat curious, if not exceptional, interment, the following
+account, relating to the Indians of New York is furnished, by Mr.
+Franklin B. Hough, who has extracted it from an unpublished journal of
+the agents of a French company kept in 1794:
+
+"Saw Indian graves on the plateau of Independence Rock. The Indians
+plant a stake on the right side of the head of the deceased and bury
+them in a bark canoe. Their children come every year to bring
+provisions to the place where their fathers are buried. One of the
+graves had fallen in and we observed in the soil some sticks for
+stretching skins, the remains of a canoe, &c., and the two straps for
+carrying it, and near the place where the head lay were the traces of
+a fire which they had kindled for the soul of the deceased to come and
+warm itself by and to partake of the food deposited near it.
+
+"These were probably the Massasauga Indians, then inhabiting the north
+shore of Lake Ontario, but who were rather intruders here, the country
+being claimed by the Oneidas."
+
+It is not to be denied that the use of canoes for coffins has
+occasionally been remarked, for the writer in 1875 removed from the
+graves at Santa Barbara an entire skeleton which was discovered in a
+redwood canoe, but it is thought that the individual may have been a
+noted fisherman, particularly as the implements of his vocation--nets,
+fish-spears, &c.--were near him, and this burial was only an
+exemplification of the well-rooted belief common to all Indians, that
+the spirit in the next world makes use of the same articles as were
+employed in this one. It should be added that of the many hundreds of
+skeletons uncovered at Santa Barbara the one mentioned presented the
+only example of the kind.
+
+Among the Indians of the Mosquito coast, in Central America, canoe
+burial in the ground, according to Bancroft [Footnote: Native Races of
+Pacific States, 1874, vol. 1, p 744.], was common, and is thus
+described:
+
+"The corpse is wrapped in cloth and placed in one-half of a pitpan
+which has been cut in two. Friends assemble for the funeral and drown
+their grief in _mushla_, the women giving vent to their sorrow by
+dashing themselves on the ground until covered with blood, and
+inflicting other tortures, occasionally even committing suicide. As it
+is supposed that the evil spirit seeks to obtain possession of the
+body, musicians are called in to lull it to sleep while preparations
+are made for its removal. All at once four naked men, who have
+disguised themselves with paint so as not to be recognized and
+punished by _Wulasha_, rush out from a neighboring hut, and,
+seizing a rope attached to the canoe, drag it into the woods, followed
+by the music and the crowd. Here the pitpan is lowered into the grave
+with bow, arrow, spear, paddle, and other implements to serve the
+departed in the land beyond, then the other half of the boat is placed
+over the body. A rude hut is constructed over the grave, serving as a
+receptacle for the choice food, drink, and other articles placed there
+from time to time by relatives."
+
+
+
+BURIAL IN CABINS, WIGWAMS, OR HOUSES.
+
+
+While there is a certain degree of similitude between the above-noted
+methods and the one to be mentioned subsequently--_lodge_ burial--
+they differ, inasmuch as the latter are examples of surface or aerial
+burial, and must consequently fall under another caption. The
+narratives which are now to be given afford a clear idea of the former
+kind of burial.
+
+Bartram [Footnote: Bartram's Travels, 1791, pp. 515.] relates the
+following regarding the Muscogulges of the Carolinas:
+
+"The Muscogulges bury their deceased in the earth; they dig a four-
+foot, square, deep pit under the cabin, or couch which the deceased
+laid on in his house, lining the grave with cypress bark, when they
+place the corpse in a sitting posture, as if it were alive, depositing
+with him his gun, tomahawk, pipe, and such other matters as he had the
+greatest value for in his lifetime. His eldest wife, or the queen
+dowager, has the second choice of his possessions, and the remaining
+effects are divided among his other wives and children."
+
+According to Bernard Roman, the "funeral customs of the Chickasaws did
+not differ materially from those of the Muscogulges. They interred the
+dead as soon as the breath left the body, and beneath the couch in
+which the deceased expired."
+
+The Navajos of New Mexico and Arizona, a tribe living a considerable
+distance from the Chickasaws, follow somewhat similar customs, as
+related by Dr. John Menard, formerly a physician to their agency.
+
+"The Navajo custom is to leave the body where it dies, closing up the
+house or hogan or covering the body with stones or brush. In case the
+body is removed, it is taken to a cleft in the rocks and thrown in,
+and stones piled over. The person touching or carrying the body, first
+takes off all his clothes and afterwards washes his body with water
+before putting them on or mingling with the living. When a body is
+removed from a house or hogan, the hogan is burned down, and the place
+in every case abandoned, as the belief is that the devil comes to the
+place of death and remains where a dead body is. Wild animals
+frequently (indeed, generally) get the bodies, and it is a very easy
+matter to pick up skulls and bones around old camping grounds, or
+where the dead are laid. In case it is not desirable to abandon a
+place, the sick person is left out in some lone spot protected by
+brush, where they are either abandoned to their fate or food brought
+to them until they die. This is done only when all hope is gone. I
+have found bodies thus left so well inclosed with brush that wild
+animals were unable to get at them; and one so left to die was revived
+by a cup of coffee from our house and is still living and well."
+
+Mr. J. L. Burchard, agent to the Round Valley Indians of California,
+furnishes an account of burial somewhat resembling that of the
+Navajos:
+
+"When I first came here the Indians would dig a round hole in the
+ground, draw up the knees of the deceased Indian, and wrap the body
+into as small a bulk as possible in blankets, tie them firmly with
+cords, place them in the grave, throw in beads, baskets, clothing,
+everything owned by the deceased, and often donating much extra; all
+gathered around the grave wailing most pitifully, tearing their faces
+with their nails till the blood would run down their cheeks, pull out
+their hair, and such other heathenish conduct. These burials were
+generally made under their thatch houses or very near thereto. The
+house where one died was always torn down, removed, rebuilt, or
+abandoned. The wailing, talks, &c., were in their own jargon; none
+else could understand, and they seemingly knew but little of its
+meaning (if there was any meaning in it); it simply seemed to be the
+promptings of grief, without sufficient intelligence to direct any
+ceremony; each seemed to act out his own impulse"
+
+
+
+STONE GRAVES OR CISTS.
+
+
+These are of considerable interest, not only from their somewhat rare
+occurrence, except in certain localities, but from the manifest care
+taken by the survivors to provide for the dead what they considered a
+suitable resting-place. A number of cists have been found in
+Tennessee, and are thus described by Moses Fiske: [Footnote: Trans.
+Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820 vol. 1, p. 302]
+
+"There are many burying grounds in West Tennessee with regular graves.
+They dug them 12 or 18 inches deep, placed slabs at the bottom ends
+and sides, forming a kind of stone coffin, and, after laying in the
+body, covered it over with earth."
+
+It may be added that, in 1873, the writer assisted at the opening of a
+number of graves of men of the reindeer period, near Solutre, in
+France, and they were almost identical in construction with those
+described by Mr. Fiske, with the exception that the latter were
+deeper; this, however, may be accounted for if it is considered how
+great a deposition of earth may have taken place during the many
+centuries which have elapsed since the burial. Many of the graves
+explored by the writer in 1875, at Santa Barbara, resembled somewhat
+cist graves, the bottom and sides of the pit being lined with large
+flat stones, but there were none directly over the skeletons.
+
+The next account is by Maj. J. W. Powell, the result of his
+observation in Tennessee.  "These ancient cemeteries are exceedingly
+abundant throughout the State, often hundreds of graves may be found
+on a single hillside. In some places the graves are scattered and in
+others collected in mounds, each mound being composed of a large
+number of cist graves. It is evident that the mounds were not
+constructed at one time, but the whole collection of graves therein
+was made during long periods by the addition of a new grave from time
+to time. In the first burials found at the bottom and near the center
+of a mound a tendency to a concentric system, with the feet inward, is
+observed, and additions are made around and above these first
+concentric graves, as the mound increases in size the burials become
+more and more irregular:
+
+"Some other peculiarities are of interest. A larger number of
+interments exhibit the fact that the bodies were placed there before
+the decay of the flesh, while in other cases collections of bones are
+buried. Sometimes these bones were placed in some order about the
+crania, and sometimes in irregular piles, as if the collection of
+bones had been emptied from a sack. With men, pipes, stone hammers,
+knives, arrowheads, &c., were usually found; with women, pottery, rude
+beads, shells, &c.; with children, toys of pottery, beads, curious
+pebbles, &c.
+
+"Sometimes, in the subsequent burials, the side slab of a previous
+burial was used as a portion of the second cist. All of the cists were
+covered with slabs."
+
+Dr. Jones has given an exceedingly interesting account of the stone
+graves of Tennessee, in his volume published by the Smithsonian
+Institution, to which valuable work [Footnote: Antiquities of
+Tennessee, Cont. to Knowledge, Smith. Inst., 1876, No. 259, 4 deg., pp. 1,
+8, 37, 52, 55, 82.] the reader is referred for a more detailed account
+of this mode of burial.
+
+
+
+BURIAL IN MOUNDS.
+
+
+In view of the fact that the subject of mound-burial is so extensive,
+and that in all probability a volume by a member of the Bureau of
+Ethnology may shortly be published, it is not deemed advisable to
+devote any considerable space to it in this paper, but a few
+interesting examples may be noted to serve as indications to future
+observers.
+
+The first to which attention is directed is interesting as resembling
+cist-burial combined with deposition in mounds. The communication is
+from Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of Archaology,
+Cambridge, made to the Boston Society of Natural History, and is
+published in volume XX of its proceedings, October 15, 1878:
+
+"...He then stated that it would be of interest to the members, in
+connection with the discovery of dolmens in Japan, as described by
+Professor Morse, to know that within twenty-four hours there had been
+received at the Peabody Museum a small collection of articles taken
+from rude dolmens (or chambered barrows, as they would be called in
+England), recently opened by Mr. E. Curtiss, who is now engaged, under
+his direction, in exploration for the Peabody Museum.
+
+"These chambered mounds are situated in the eastern part of Clay
+County, Missouri, and form a large group on both sides of the Missouri
+River. The chambers are, in the three opened by Mr. Curtiss, about 8
+feet square, and from 4-1/2 to 5 feet high, each chamber having a
+passage-way several feet in length and 2 in width leading from the
+southern side and opening on the edge of the mound formed by covering
+the chamber and passage-way with earth. The walls of the chambered
+passages were about 2 feet thick, vertical, and well made of stones,
+which were evenly laid without clay or mortar of any kind. The top of
+one of the chambers had a covering of large, flat rocks, but the
+others seem to have been closed over with wood. The chambers were
+filled with clay which had been burnt, and appeared as if it had
+fallen in from above. The inside walls of the chambers also showed
+signs of fire. Under the burnt clay, in each chamber, were found the
+remains of several human skeletons, all of which had been burnt to
+such an extent as to leave but small fragments of the bones, which
+were mixed with the ashes and charcoal. Mr. Curtiss thought that in
+one chamber he found the remains of 5 skeletons and in another 13.
+With these skeletons there were a few flint implements and minute
+fragments of vessels of clay.
+
+"A large mound near the chambered mounds was also opened, but in this
+no chambers were found. Neither had the bodies been burnt. This mound
+proved remarkably rich in large flint implements, and also contained
+well-made pottery and a peculiar "gorget" of red stone. The connection
+of the people who placed the ashes of their dead in the stone chambers
+with those who buried their dead in the earth mounds is, of course,
+yet to be determined."
+
+It is quite possible, indeed probable, that these chambers were used
+for secondary burials, the bodies having first been cremated.
+
+In the volume of the proceedings already quoted the same investigator
+gives an account of other chambered mounds which are, like the
+preceding, very interesting, the more so as adults only were inhumed
+therein, children having been buried beneath the dwelling-floors:
+
+"Mr. F. W. Putnam occupied the rest of the evening with an account of
+his explorations of the ancient mounds and burial places in the
+Cumberland Valley, Tennessee.
+
+"The excavations had been carried on by himself, assisted by Mr. Edwin
+Curtiss, for over two years, for the benefit of the Peabody Museum at
+Cambridge. During this time many mounds of various kinds had been
+thoroughly explored, and several thousand of the singular stone graves
+of the mound builders of Tennessee had been carefully opened.... Mr.
+Putnam's remarks were illustrated by drawings of several hundred
+objects obtained from the graves and mounds, particularly to show the
+great variety of articles of pottery and several large and many unique
+forms of implements of chipped flint. He also exhibited and explained
+in detail a map of a walled town of this old nation. This town was
+situated on the Lindsley estate, in a bend of Spring Creek. The earth
+embankment, with its accompanying ditch, encircled an area of about 12
+acres. Within this inclosure there was one large mound with a flat
+top, 15 feet high, 130 feet long, and 90 feet wide, which was found
+not to be a burial mound. Another mound near the large one, about 50
+feet in diameter, and only a few feet high, contained 60 human
+skeletons, each in a carefully-made stone grave, the graves being
+arranged in two rows, forming the four sides of a square, and in three
+layers.... The most important discovery lie made within the inclosure
+was that of finding the remains of the houses of the people who lived
+in this old town. Of them about 70 were traced out and located on the
+map by Professor Buchanan, of Lebanon, who made the survey for Mr.
+Putnam. Under the floors of hard clay, which was in places much burnt,
+Mr. Putnam found the graves of children. As only the bodies of adults
+had been placed in the one mound devoted to burial, and as nearly
+every site of a house he explored had from one to four graves of
+children under the clay floor, he was convinced that it was a regular
+custom to bury the children in that way. He also found that the
+children had been undoubtedly treated with affection, as in their
+small graves were found many of the best pieces of pottery he
+obtained, and also quantities of shell-beads, several large pearls,
+and many other objects which were probably the playthings of the
+little ones while living." [Footnote: A detailed account of this
+exploration, with many illustrations, will be found in the Eleventh
+Annual Report of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878.]
+
+This cist mode of burial is by no means uncommon in Tennessee, as they
+are frequently mentioned by writers on North American archaeology.
+
+The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
+serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most
+part used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless
+common.
+
+Of the burial mounds of Ohio, Caleb Atwater [Footnote: Trans. Amer.
+Antiq. Soc., 1820, i, p. 174 et seq.] gives this description.
+
+"Near the center of the round fort ... was a tumulus of earth about 10
+feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its
+eastern side, and extending six rods from it, was a semicircular
+pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the
+Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The summit
+of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was a raised
+way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike. The summit
+was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and the walk is
+still discernible. The earth composing this mound was entirely removed
+several years since. The writer was present at its removal and
+carefully examined the contents. It contained--
+
+"1st. Two human skeletons lying on what had been the original surface
+of the earth.
+
+"2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
+to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.
+
+"3d. The handle either of a small sword or a large knife, made of an
+elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a
+ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time.
+Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted,
+yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and
+size.
+
+"4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
+surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared to
+have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost
+consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a
+little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to
+the north of it was another, with which were--
+
+"5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2 inches in
+thickness This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and
+on it--
+
+"6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
+disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
+answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This
+skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal and
+a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is in my
+possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the
+time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum at
+Philadelphia.
+
+"To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
+more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate representing
+these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears to be
+artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it contains an
+immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons
+are laid horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center
+and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. A considerable part
+of this work still stands uninjured, except by time. In it have been
+found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and knives and several
+ornaments, with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord
+passing through these perforations they could be worn by their owners.
+On the south side of this tumulus, and not far from it, was a
+semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6 feet deep. On
+opening it was discovered at the bottom a great quantity of human
+bones, which I am inclined to believe were the remains of those who
+had been slain in some great and destructive battle first, because
+they belonged to persons who had attained their full size, whereas in
+the mound adjoining were found the skeletons of persons of all ages,
+and, secondly, they were here in the utmost confusion, as if buried in
+a hurry. May we not conjecture that they belonged to the people who
+resided in the town, and who were victorious in the engagement?
+Otherwise they would not have been thus honorably buried in the common
+cemetery."
+
+
+CHILLICOTHE MOUND.
+
+"Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet, and the diameter of its
+base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand and contained human bones
+belonging to skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It
+was not until this pile of earth was removed and the original surface
+exposed to view that a probable conjecture of its original design
+could be formed. About 20 feet square of the surface had been leveled
+and covered with bark. On the center of this lay a human skeleton,
+over which had been spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or
+bark. On the breast lay what had been a piece of copper, in the form
+of a cross, which had now become verdigrise. On the breast also lay a
+stone ornament with two perforations, one near each end, through which
+passed a string, by means of which it was suspended around the
+wearer's neck. On this string, which was made of sinews, and very much
+injured by time, were placed a great many heads made of ivory or bone,
+for I cannot certainly say which...."
+
+
+MOUNDS OF STONE.
+
+"Two such mounds have been described already in the county of Perry.
+Others have been found in various parts of the country. There is one
+at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not many miles from Newark.
+There is another on a branch of Hargus's Creek, a few miles to the
+northeast of Circleville. There were several not very far from the
+town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were sometimes used as cemeteries
+of distinguished persons, they were also used as monuments with a view
+of perpetuating the recollection of some great transaction or event.
+In the former not more generally than one or two skeletons are found;
+in the latter none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a
+cone, composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were
+visible. In them some of the most interesting articles are found, such
+as urns, ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal,
+as well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; ... works of
+this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none
+of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of
+Circleville, which belong to the first class. I saw one of these stone
+tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the spot
+where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath the
+surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on which the
+"walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to have been
+dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After the bottom
+and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses were placed in
+these graves in an eastern and western direction, and large flat
+stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which had been dug
+out of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of stones was
+placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however, that this was a
+work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are more common in
+Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons, was found in
+these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the present race
+of Indians."
+
+The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
+Holbrook, [Footnote: Amer. Natural, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688] as
+follows:
+
+"I recently made an, examination of a few of the many Indian mounds
+found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first
+one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 7
+feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or
+quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4-1/2 feet
+wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was
+covered with large flat stones No mortar or cement had been used. The
+whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
+interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber. Inside
+of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight human
+skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two fossils, one
+of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One of the long
+bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but there
+remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several places.
+One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the size of a
+silver dime. This perforation had been made during life, for the edges
+had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three circular mounds,
+but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound contained three adult
+human skeletons, a few fragments of the skeleton of a child, the lower
+maxillary of which indicated it to be about six years old. I also
+found claws of some carnivorous animal. The surface of the soil had
+been scooped out and the bodies laid in the excavation and covered
+with about a foot of earth, fires had then been made upon the grave
+and the mound afterwards completed. The bones had not been charred. No
+charcoal was found among the bones, but occurred in abundance in a
+stratum about one foot above them. Two other mounds, examined at the
+same time, contained no remains.
+
+"Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4
+feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on an
+elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the top of
+this mound one might view the country for many miles in almost any
+direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4-1/2 wide.
+It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned
+red, some portions having been almost converted into lime. On and
+about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the sides of the
+altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had been charred.
+It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold and sod, the
+thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in
+this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed I could not tell
+with certainty to what species they belonged. Another large mound was
+opened which contained nothing."
+
+The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
+was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
+States Army. [Footnote: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288]
+
+"Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were buried
+in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his head.
+This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which had been
+made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had,
+indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but not
+buried in the position they imagined. Very extensive explorations made
+at different times by myself have shown that only fragments of skulls
+and of the long bones of the body are to be found in the mound, and
+that these are commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole,
+but more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances portions
+of the skull were placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited
+in its immediate vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand,
+and fragments of bones would be found near them. The most successful
+'find' I made was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen,
+all in a good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of
+skull, which I take from its small size to have been that of a female.
+Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried in
+the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains because of
+her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual
+wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of conjecture. I
+found altogether fragments of skulls and thigh-bones belonging to at
+least fifty individuals, but in no instance did I find anything like a
+complete skeleton. There were no vertebra, no ribs, no pelvic bones,
+and none of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three skulls
+nearly perfect were found, but they were so fragile that it was
+impossible to preserve them. In the majority of instances only
+fragments of the frontal and parietal bones were found, buried in pots
+or in fragments of pots too small to have ever contained a complete
+skull. The conclusion was irresistible that this was not a burial-
+place for _the bodies_ of deceased Indians, but that the bones
+had been gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound,
+or that cremation was practiced before burial, and the fragments of
+bone not consumed by fire were gathered and deposited in the mound.
+That the latter supposition is the correct one I deem probable from
+the fact that in digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in
+numerous places, but without any regularity as to depth and position.
+These evidences consist in strata of from one to four inches in
+thickness, in which the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it
+numerous small fragments of charcoal.
+
+"My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
+following manner. That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was
+erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the
+body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered,
+placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were
+covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for
+that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only the
+shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities, which
+would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by the fact
+that no bones of children were found. Their bones being smaller, and
+containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely
+consumed....
+
+"At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I
+found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved
+skulls.... The bodies were not apparently deposited upon any regular
+system, and I found no objects of interest associated with the
+remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the skeletons
+found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which they
+had sustained a defeat. This view is supported by the fact that they
+were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of ante-mortem
+injuries which must have been of a fatal character."
+
+Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram, [Footnote: Bartram's Travels, 1791,
+p. 513.] in alluding to the ossuary or bone-house, mentions that so
+soon as this is filled a general inhumation takes place, in this
+manner.
+
+"Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of the
+deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one upon
+another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped
+above. The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of
+a festival called the feast of the dead."
+
+Mr. Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a
+somewhat curious mound burial which had taken place in the Miami
+Valley of Ohio.
+
+"A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
+central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons buried
+around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture but leaning against
+one another, tipped over towards the right facing inwards. I did not
+see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls,
+&c., said to have been found near the central body. The parties
+informing me are trustworthy."
+
+As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting
+as being _sui generis_, the following is presented, with the
+statement that the author, Dr J. Mason Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C.,
+bears the reputation of an observer of undoubted integrity, whose
+facts as given may not be doubted.
+
+"_Excavation of an Indian mound by J. Mason Spainhour, D.D.S., of
+Lenoir, Caldwell County, North Carolina, March 11, 1871, on the farm
+of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke County, North
+Carolina_"
+
+"In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he informed
+me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was formerly of
+considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down, that several
+mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated and nothing of interest
+found in them. I asked permission to examine this mound, which was
+granted, and upon investigation the following facts were revealed.
+
+"Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
+and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
+rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
+found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth, about
+18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16
+inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners
+rounded.
+
+"Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in
+the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which upon
+examination proved to be in front of the remains of a human skeleton
+in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right hand were
+resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone
+about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon a
+further examination many of the bones were found, though in a very
+decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air soon crumbled to
+pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable portion of the skull,
+maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the vertebra, were in their
+proper places, though the weight of the earth above them had driven
+them down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an easy
+matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium were slightly
+inclined toward the east. Around the neck were found coarse beads that
+seemed to be of some hard substance and resembled chalk. A small lump
+of red paint about the size of an egg was found near the right side of
+this skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to
+have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches
+below the mark of the plow.
+
+"I made a further excavation toward the west of this grave and found
+another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing
+the east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right
+hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been
+about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much
+better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of
+this one, but are much smaller and of finer quality than those on the
+neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the same. A much
+larger amount of paint was found by the side of this than the first.
+The bones indicated a person of large frame, who, I think, was about
+50 years of age. Everything about this one had the appearance of
+superiority over the first. The top of the skull was about 6 inches
+below the mark of the plane.
+
+"I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found
+nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east,
+found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing the
+west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of the
+right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which
+had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
+pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better finished
+than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much
+smaller and finer than those of the others. A larger amount of paint
+than both of the others was found near this one. The top of the
+cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40
+years of age.
+
+"There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller
+bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken
+from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with the
+fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first settled
+in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord
+Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the land still
+belonging to the descendants of the same family that first occupied
+it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old grave.
+
+"The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet,
+the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of the
+soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the bodies
+with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from the river-
+bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the walls of the
+grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth, and so
+decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in quality
+and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily traced. The
+odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was similar to
+clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed in the hand.
+
+"This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
+made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the warrior
+had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need, in the
+'hunting-grounds beyond,' his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
+scalping-knife.
+
+"The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
+carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the American
+Indians were in possession of at least some of the mysteries of our
+order, and that it was evidently the grave of Masons, and the three
+highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east
+and west; an altar was erected in the center; the south, west, and
+east were occupied--_the north was not;_ implements of authority
+were near each body. The difference in the quality of the beads, the
+tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces, and the difference that the
+bodies were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that these
+three persons had been buried by Masons, and those, too, that
+understood what they were doing.
+
+"Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery, and inform the Masonic
+world how they obtained so much Masonic information?
+
+"The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
+bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at
+Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that institution
+for exhibition, at which place they may be seen."
+
+If Dr. Spainhour's inferences are incorrect, still there is a
+remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.
+
+
+
+CAVE BURIAL.
+
+
+Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
+rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
+earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not
+only the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental
+elevation and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous
+specimens of artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives
+which have actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of
+place at this time, except as may incidentally relate to our own
+Indians, who, so far as can be ascertained, simply adopted caves as
+ready and convenient resting places for their deceased relatives and
+friends.
+
+In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
+but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
+illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
+observers to the subject.
+
+While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a
+natural cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance
+to which resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians
+had deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it
+was quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory
+examination made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In
+the fall of the same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian
+guide, near the Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt
+made to explore it, which failed for reasons to be subsequently given.
+This Indian, a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral
+ceremonies of his tribe, informed the writer that not far from the
+very spot where the party were encamped was a large cave in which he
+had himself assisted in placing dead members of his tribe. He
+described it in detail and drew a rough diagram of its position and
+appearance within. He was asked if an entrance could be effected, and
+replied that he thought not, as some years previous his people had
+stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent game from seeking a refuge
+in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it was so large and extended
+so far under ground that no man knew its full extent. In
+consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many refusals,
+he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and the
+desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of a
+small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
+pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This
+entrance was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle.
+As the Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large
+stones and roots of sage brush, and it was only after six hours of
+uninterrupted, faithful labor that the attempt to explore was
+abandoned. The guide was asked if many bodies were therein, and
+replied "Heaps, heaps," moving the hands upwards as far as they could
+be stretched. There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the
+information received, as it was voluntarily imparted.
+
+In a communication received from Dr. A. J McDonald, physician to the
+Los Pinos Indian Agency, Colorado, a description is given of crevice
+or rock-fissure burial, which follows.
+
+"As soon as death takes place the event is at once announced by the
+medicine-man, and without loss of time the squaws are busily engaged
+in preparing the corpse for the grave. This does not take long;
+whatever articles of clothing may have been on the body at the time of
+death are not removed. The dead man's limbs are straightened out, his
+weapons of war laid by his side, and his robes and blankets wrapped
+securely and snugly around him, and now everything is ready for
+burial. It is the custom to secure, if possible, for the purpose of
+wrapping up the corpse, the robes and blankets in which the Indian
+died. At the same time that the body is being fitted for interment,
+the squaws having immediate care of it, together with all the other
+squaws in the neighborhood, keep up a continued chant or dirge, the
+dismal cadence of which may, when the congregation of women is large,
+be heard for quite a long distance. The death song is not a mere
+inarticulate howl of distress; it embraces expressions eulogistic in
+character, but whether or not any particular formula of words is
+adopted on such occasion is a question which I am unable, with the
+materials at my disposal, to determine with any degree of certainty.
+
+"The next duty falling to the lot of the squaws is that of placing the
+dead man on a horse and conducting the remains to the spot chosen for
+burial. This is in the cleft of a rock, and, so far as can be
+ascertained, it has always been customary among the Utes to select
+sepulchres of this character. From descriptions given by Mr. Harris,
+who has several times been fortunate enough to discover remains, it
+would appear that no superstitious ideas are held by this tribe with
+respect to the position in which the body is placed, the space
+accommodation of the sepulchre probably regulating this matter; and
+from the same source I learn that it is not usual to find the remains
+of more than one Indian deposited in one grave. After the body has
+been received into the cleft, it is well covered with pieces of rock,
+to protect it against the ravages of wild animals. The chant ceases,
+the squaws disperse, and the burial ceremonies are at an end. The men
+during all this time have not been idle, though they have in no way
+participated in the preparation of the body, have not joined the
+squaws in chanting praises to the memory of the dead, and have not
+even as mere spectators attended the funeral, yet they have had their
+duties to perform. In conformity with a long-established custom, all
+the personal property of the deceased is immediately destroyed. His
+horses and his cattle are shot, and his wigwam, furniture, &c.,
+burned. The performance of this part of the ceremonies is assigned to
+the men; a duty quite in accord with their taste and inclinations.
+Occasionally the destruction of horses and other property is of
+considerable magnitude, but usually this is not the case, owing to a
+practice existing with them of distributing their property among their
+children while they are of a very tender age, retaining to themselves
+only what is necessary to meet every-day requirements.
+
+"The widow 'goes into mourning' by smearing her face with a substance
+composed of pitch and charcoal. The application is made but once, and
+is allowed to remain on until it wears off. This is the only mourning
+observance of which I have any knowledge.
+
+"The ceremonies observed on the death of a female are the same as
+those in the case of a male, except that no destruction of property
+takes place, and of course no weapons are deposited with the corpse.
+Should a youth die while under the superintendence of white men, the
+Indians will not as a rule have anything to do with the interment of
+the body. In a case of the kind which occurred at this agency some
+time ago, the squaws prepared the body in the usual manner; the men of
+the tribe selected a spot for the burial, and the employes at the
+agency, after digging a grave and depositing the corpse therein,
+filled it up according to the fashion of civilized people, and then at
+the request of the Indians rolled large fragments of rocks on top.
+Great anxiety was exhibited by the Indians to have the employes
+perform the service as expeditiously as possible."
+
+An interesting cave in Calaveras County, California, which had been
+used for burial purposes, is thus described by Prof. J. D. Whitney:
+[Footnote: Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1867, p. 406.]
+
+"The following is an account of the cave from which the skulls, now in
+the Smithsonian collection, were taken. It is near the Stanislaus
+River, in Calaveras County, on a nameless creek, about two miles from
+Abbey's Ferry, on the road to Vallicito, at the house of Mr. Robinson.
+There were two or three persons with me, who had been to the place
+before and knew that the skulls in question were taken from it. Their
+visit was some ten years ago, and since that the condition of things
+in the cave has greatly changed. Owing to some alteration in the road,
+mining operations, or some other cause which I could not ascertain,
+there has accumulated on the formerly clean stalagmitic floor of the
+cave a thickness of some 20 feet of surface earth that completely
+conceals the bottom, and which could not be removed without
+considerable expense. This cave is about 27 feet deep at the mouth and
+40 to 50 feet at the end, and perhaps 30 feet in diameter. It is the
+general opinion of those who have noticed this cave and saw it years
+ago that it was a burying-place of the present Indians. Dr. Jones said
+he found remains of bows and arrows and charcoal with the skulls he
+obtained, and which were destroyed at the time the village of Murphy's
+was burned. All the people spoke of the skulls as lying on the surface
+and not as buried in the stalagmite."
+
+The next description of cave burial, described by W. H. Dall
+[Footnote: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol 1, p 62.], is so
+remarkable that it seems worthy of admittance to this paper. It
+relates probably to the Innuit of Alaska.
+
+"The earliest remains of man found in Alaska up to the time of writing
+I refer to this epoch [Echinus layer of Dall]. There are some crania
+found by us in the lowermost part of the Amaknak cave and a cranium
+obtained at Adakh, near the anchorage in the Bay of Islands. These
+were deposited in a remarkable manner, precisely similar to that
+adopted by most of the continental Innuit, but equally different from
+the modern Aleut fashion. At the Amaknak cave we found what at first
+appeared to be a wooden inclosure, but which proved to be made of the
+very much decayed supra-maxillary bones of some large cetacean. These
+were arranged so as to form a rude rectangular inclosure covered over
+with similar pieces of bone. This was somewhat less than 4 feet long,
+2 feet wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom was formed of flat pieces
+of stone. Three such were found close together, covered with and
+filled by an accumulation of fine vegetable and organic mold. In each
+was the remains of a skeleton in the last stages of decay. It had
+evidently been tied up in the Innuit fashion to get it into its narrow
+house, but all the bones, with the exception of the skull, were
+reduced to a soft paste, or even entirely gone. At Adakh a fancy
+prompted me to dig into a small knoll near the ancient shell-heap; and
+here we found, in a precisely similar sarcophagus, the remains of a
+skeleton, of which also only the cranium retained sufficient
+consistency to admit of preservation. This inclosure, however, was
+filled with a dense peaty mass not reduced to mold, the result of
+centuries of sphagnous growth, which had reached a thickness of nearly
+2 feet above the remains. When we reflect upon the well-known slowness
+of this kind of growth in these northern regions, attested by numerous
+Arctic travelers, the antiquity of the remains becomes evident."
+
+It seems beyond doubt that in the majority of cases, especially as
+regards the caves of the Western States and Territories, the
+interments were primary ones, and this is likewise true of many of the
+caverns of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, for in the three States
+mentioned many mummies have been found, but it is also likely that
+such receptacles were largely used as places of secondary deposits.
+The many fragmentary skeletons and loose bones found seem to
+strengthen this view.
+
+
+
+MUMMIES.
+
+
+In connection with cave burial, the subject of mummifying or embalming
+the dead may be taken up, as most specimens of the kind have generally
+been found in such repositories.
+
+It might be both interesting and instructive to search out and discuss
+the causes which have led many nations or tribes to adopt certain
+processes with a view to prevent that return to dust which all flesh
+must sooner or later experience, but the necessarily limited scope of
+this preliminary work precludes more than a brief mention of certain
+theories advanced by writers of note, and which relate to the ancient
+Egyptians. Possibly at the time the Indians of America sought to
+preserve their dead from decomposition some such ideas may have
+animated them, but on this point no definite information has been
+procured. In the final volume an effort will be made to trace out the
+origin of mummification among the Indians and aborigines of this
+continent.
+
+The Egyptians embalmed, according to Cassien, because during the time
+of the annual inundation no interments could take place, but it is
+more than likely that this hypothesis is entirely fanciful. It is said
+by others they believed that so long as the body was preserved from
+corruption the soul remained in it. Herodotus states that it was to
+prevent bodies from becoming a prey to animal voracity. "They did not
+inter them," says he, "for fear of their being eaten by worms; nor did
+they burn, considering fire as a ferocious beast, devouring everything
+which it touched." According to Diodorus of Sicily, embalmment
+originated in filial piety and respect. De Maillet, however, in his
+tenth letter on Egypt, attributes it entirely to a religious belief
+insisted upon by the wise men and priests, who taught their disciples
+that after a certain number of cycles, of perhaps thirty or forty
+thousand years, the entire universe became as it was at birth, and the
+souls of the dead returned into the same bodies in which they had
+lived, provided that the body remained free from corruption, and that
+sacrifices were freely offered as oblations to the manes of the
+deceased. Considering the great care taken to preserve the dead, and
+the ponderously solid nature of their tombs, it is quite evident that
+this theory obtained many believers among the people. M. Gannal
+believes embalmment to have been suggested by the affectionate
+sentiments of our nature--a desire to preserve as long as possible the
+mortal remains of loved ones; but MM. Volney and Pariaet think it was
+intended to obviate, in hot climates especially, danger from
+pestilence, being primarily a cheap and simple process, elegance and
+luxury coming later; and the Count de Caylus states the idea of
+embalmment was derived from the finding of desiccated bodies which the
+burning sands of Egypt had hardened and preserved. Many other
+suppositions have arisen, but it is thought the few given above are
+sufficient to serve as an introduction to embalmment in North America.
+
+From the statements of the older writers on North American Indians, it
+appears that mummifying was resorted to among certain tribes of
+Virginia, the Carolinas, and Florida, especially for people of
+distinction, the process in Virginia for the kings, according to
+Beverly, [Footnote: Hist. of Virginia, 1722, p 185] being as follows:
+
+"The _Indians_ are religious in preserving the Corpses of their
+Kings and Rulers after Death, which they order in the following
+manner: First, they neatly flay off the Skin as entire as they can,
+slitting it only in the Back; then they pick all the Flesh off from
+the Bones as clean as possible, leaving the Sinews fastned to the
+Bones, that they may preserve the Joints together: then they dry the
+Bones in the Sun, and put them into the Skin again, which in the mean
+time has been kept from drying or shrinking; when the Bones are placed
+right in the Skin, they nicely fill up the Vacuities, with a very fine
+white Sand. After this they sew up the Skin again, and the Body looks
+as if the Flesh had not been removed. They take care to keep the Skin
+from shrinking, by the help of a little Oil or Grease, which saves it
+also from Corruption. The Skin being thus prepar'd, they lay it in an
+apartment for that purpose, upon a large Shelf rais'd above the Floor.
+This Shelf is spread with Mats, for the Corpse to rest easy on, and
+skreened with the same, to keep it from the Dust. The Flesh they lay
+upon Hurdles in the Sun to dry, and when it is thoroughly dried, it is
+sewed up in a Basket, and set at the Feet of the Corpse, to which it
+belongs. In this place also they set up a _Quioccos,_ or Idol,
+which they believe will be a Guard to the Corpse. Here Night and Day
+one or other of the Priests must give his Attendance, to take care of
+the dead Bodies. So great an Honour and Veneration have these ignorant
+and unpolisht People for their Princes even after they are dead."
+
+It should be added that, in the writer's opinion, this account and
+others like it are somewhat apocryphal, and it has been copied and
+recopied a score of times.
+
+According to Pinkerton [Footnote: Collection of Voyages, 1812, vol.
+XIII, p 39.], the Werowanco preserved their dead as follows:
+
+"... By him is commonly the sepulchre of their Kings. Their bodies are
+first bowelled, then dried upon hurdles till they be very dry, and so
+about the most of their joints and neck they hang bracelets, or chains
+of copper, pearl, and such like, as they used to wear. Their inwards
+they stuff with copper beads, hatchets, and such trash. Then lap they
+them very carefully in white skins, and so roll them in mats for their
+winding-sheets. And in the tomb, which is an arch made of mats, they
+lay them orderly. What remaineth of this kind of wealth their Kings
+have, they set at their feet in baskets. These temples and bodies are
+kept by their priests.
+
+"For their ordinary burials, they dig a deep hole in the earth with
+sharp stakes, and the corpse being lapped in skins and mats with their
+jewels they lay them upon sticks in the ground, and so cover them with
+earth. The burial ended, the women being painted all their faces with
+black coal and oil do sit twenty-four hours in the houses mourning and
+lamenting by turns with such yelling and howling as may express their
+great passions....
+
+"Upon the top of certain red sandy hills in the woods there are three
+great houses filled with images of their Kings and devils and tombs of
+their predecessors. Those houses are near sixty feet in length, built
+harbourwise after their building. This place they count so holy as
+that but the priests and Kings dare come into them; nor the savages
+dare not go up the river in boats by it, but they solemnly cast some
+piece of copper, white beads, or pocones into the river for fear their
+Okee should be offended and revenged of them.
+
+"They think that their Werowances and priests which they also esteem
+quiyoughcosughs, when they are dead do go beyond the mountains towards
+the setting of the sun, and ever remain there in form of their Okee,
+with their heads painted red with oil and pocones, finely trimmed with
+feathers, and shall have beads, hatchets, copper, and tobacco, doing
+nothing but dance and sing with all their predecessors. But the common
+people they suppose shall not live after death, but rot in their
+graves like dead dogs."
+
+The remark regarding truthfulness will apply to this account in common
+with the former.
+
+The Congaree or Santee Indians of South Carolina, according to Lawson,
+used a process of partial embalmment, as will be seen from the
+subjoined extract from Schoolcraft; [Footnote: Hist. Indian Tribes of
+the United States, 1854, Part IV, p. 155, _et seq_] but instead
+of laying away the remains in caves, placed them in boxes supported
+above the ground by crotched sticks.
+
+"The manner of their interment is thus: A mole or pyramid of earth is
+raised, the mould thereof being worked very smooth and even, sometimes
+higher or lower, according to the dignity of the person whose monument
+it is. On the top thereof is an umbrella, made ridgeways, like the
+roof of a house. This is supported by nine stakes or small posts, the
+grave being about 6 or 8 feet in length and 4 feet in breadth, about
+which is hung gourds, feathers, and other such like trophies, placed
+there by the dead man's relations in respect to him in the grave. The
+other parts of the funeral rites are thus: As soon as the party is
+dead they lay the corpse upon a piece of bark in the sun, seasoning or
+embalming it with a small root beaten to powder, which looks as red as
+vermilion; the same is mixed with bear's oil to beautify the hair.
+After the carcass has laid a day or two in the sun they remove it and
+lay it upon crotches cut on purpose for the support thereof from the
+earth then they anoint it all over with the aforementioned ingredients
+of the powder of this root and bear's oil. When it is so done they
+cover it over very exactly with the bark of the pine or cypress tree
+to prevent any rain to fall upon it, sweeping the ground very clean
+all about it. Some of his nearest of kin brings all the temporal
+estate he was possessed of at his death, as guns, bows and arrows,
+beads, feathers, match coat etc. This relation is the chief mourner,
+being clad in moss, with a stick in his hand, keeping a mournful ditty
+for three or four days, his face being black with the smoke of pitch
+pine mixed with bear's oil. All the while he tells the dead mans
+relations and the rest of the spectators who that dead person was, and
+of the great feats performed in his lifetime, all that he speaks
+tending to the praise of the defunct. As soon as the flesh grows
+mellow and will cleave from the bone they get it off and burn it,
+making the bones very clean then anoint them with the ingredients
+aforesaid, wrapping up the skull (very carefully) in a cloth
+artificially woven of opossum's hair. The bones they carefully
+preserve in a wooden box, every year oiling and cleansing them. By
+these means they preserve them for many ages that you may see an
+Indian in possession of the bones of his grandfather or some of his
+relations of a longer antiquity. They have other sorts of tombs as
+when an Indian is slain in, that very place they make a heap of stones
+(or sticks where stones are not to be found), to this memorial every
+Indian that passes by adds a stone to augment the heap in respect to
+the deceased hero. The Indians make a roof of light wood or pitch pine
+over the graves of the more distinguished, covering it with bark and
+then with earth leaving the body thus in a subterranean vault until
+the flesh quits the bones. The bones are then taken up, cleaned,
+jointed, clad in white dressed deer skins, and laid away in the
+_Quiogozon,_ which is the royal tomb or burial place of their
+kings and war captains, being a more magnificent cabin reared at the
+public expense. This Quiogozon is an object of veneration, in which
+the writer says he has known the king, old men, and conjurers to spend
+several days with their idols and dead kings, and into which he could
+never gain admittance."
+
+Another class of mummies are those which have been found in the
+saltpeter and other caves of Kentucky, and it is still a matter of
+doubt with archaeologists whether any special pains were taken to
+preserve these bodies, many believing that the impregnation of the
+soil with certain minerals would account for the condition in which
+the specimens were found. Charles Wilkins [Footnote: Trans. Amer.
+Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 360] thus describes one:
+
+"... exsiccated body of a female ... was found at the depth of about
+10 feet from the surface of the cave bedded in clay strongly
+impregnated with nitre, placed in a sitting posture, incased in broad
+stones standing on their edges, with a flat stone covering the whole.
+It was enveloped in coarse clothes, ... the whole wrapped in deer-
+skins, the hair of which was shaved off in the manner in which the
+Indians prepare them for market. Enclosed in the stone coffin were the
+working utensils, beads, feathers, and other ornaments of dress which
+belonged to her."
+
+The next description is by Dr Samuel L. Mitchill: [Footnote: Trans.
+and Coll. Amer. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p. 318]
+
+[A letter from Dr. Mitchill of New York, to Samuel M. Burnside, Esq.,
+Secretary of the American Antiquarian Society, on North American
+Antiquities.]
+
+"Aug 24th, 1815
+
+"DEAR SIR: I offer you some observations on a curious piece of
+American antiquity now in New York, It is a human body [Footnote: A
+mummy of this kind, of a person of mature age, discovered in Kentucky,
+is now in the cabinet of the American Antiquarian Society. It is a
+female. Several human bodies were found enwrapped carefully in skins
+and cloths. They were inhumed below the floor of the cave,
+_inhumed_, and not lodged in catacombs.] found in one of the
+limestone caverns of Kentucky. It is a perfect exsiccation, all the
+fluids are dried up. The skin, bones, and other firm parts are in a
+state of entire preservation. I think it enough to have puzzled Bryant
+and all the archaologists.
+
+"This was found in exploring a calcareous cave in the neighborhood of
+Glasgow for saltpetre.
+
+"These recesses, though under ground, are yet dry enough to attract
+and retain the nitrick acid. It combines with lime and potash, and
+probably the earthy matter of these excavations contains a good
+proportion of calcareous carbonate. Amidst these drying and
+antiseptick ingredients, it may be conceived that putrefaction would
+be stayed, and the solids preserved from decay. The outer envelope of
+the body is a deer skin, probably dried in the usual way and perhaps
+softened before its application by rubbing. The next covering is a
+deer's skin, whose hair had been cut away by a sharp instrument
+resembling a hatter's knife. The remnant of the hair and the gashes in
+the skin nearly resemble a sheared pelt of beaver. The next wrapper is
+of cloth made of twine doubled and twisted. But the thread does not
+appear to have been formed by the wheel, nor the web by the loom. The
+warp and filling seem to have been crossed and knotted by an operation
+like that of the fabricks of the northwest coast, and of the Sandwich
+islands. Such a botanist as the lamented Muhlenburgh could determine
+the plant which furnished the fibrous material.
+
+"The innermost tegument is a mantle of cloth like the preceding, but
+furnished with large brown feathers arranged and fastened with great
+art so as to be capable of guarding the living wearer from wet and
+cold. The plumage is distinct and entire, and the whole bears a near
+similitude to the feathery cloaks now worn by the nations of the
+northwestern coast of America. A Wilson might tell from what bird they
+were derived.
+
+"The body is in a squatting posture with the right arm reclining
+forward and its hand encircling the right leg. The left arm hangs
+down, with its hand inclined partly under the seat. The individual,
+who was a male did not probably exceed the age of fourteen, at his
+death. There is near the occiput a deep and extensive fracture of the
+skull, which probably killed him. The skin has sustained little
+injury, it is of a dusky colour, but the natural hue cannot be decided
+with exactness from its present appearance. The scalp, with small
+exceptions is cohered with sorrel or foxy hair. The teeth are white
+and sound. The hands and feet, in their shrivelled state, are slender
+and delicate. All this is worthy the investigation of our acute and
+perspicacious colleague, Dr Holmes.
+
+"There is nothing bituminous or aromatic in or about the body, like the
+Egyptian mummies, nor are there bandages around any part. Except the
+several wrappers, the body is totally naked. There is no sign of a
+suture or incision about the belly whence it seems that the viscera
+were not removed.
+
+"It may now be expected that I should offer some opinion, as to the
+antiquity and race of this singular exsiccation.
+
+"First, then, I am satisfied that it does not belong to that class of
+white men of which we are members.
+
+"2dly. Nor do I believe that it ought to be referred to the bands of
+Spanish adventurers, who, between the years 1500 and 1600, rambled up
+the Mississippi, and along its tributary streams. But on this head I
+should like to know the opinion of my learned and sagacious friend,
+Noah Webster.
+
+"3dly. I am equally obliged to reject the opinion that it belonged to
+any of the tribes of aborigines, now or lately inhabiting Kentucky.
+
+"4thly. The mantle of the feathered work, and the mantle of twisted
+threads, so nearly resemble the fabricks of the indigines of Wakash
+and the Pacifick islands, that I refer this individual to that era of
+time, and that generation of men, which preceded the Indians of the
+Green River, and of the place where these relicks were found. This
+conclusion is strengthened by the consideration that such manufactures
+are not prepared by the actual and resident red men of the present
+day. If the Abbe Clavigero had had this case before him, he would have
+thought of the people who constructed those ancient forts and mounds,
+whose exact history no man living can give. But I forbear to enlarge;
+my intention being merely to manifest my respect to the society for
+having enrolled me among its members, and to invite the attention of
+its Antiquarians to further inquiry on a subject of such curiosity.
+
+"With respect, I remain yours,
+
+"SAMUEL L. MITCHILL"
+
+It would appear from recent researches on the Northwest coast that the
+natives of that region embalmed their dead with much care, as may be
+seen from the work recently published by W. H. Dall, [Footnote: Cont.
+to N. A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. 1, p. 89] the description of the mummies
+being as follows:
+
+"We found the dead disposed of in various ways; first, by interment in
+their compartments of the communal dwelling, as already described;
+second, by being laid on a rude platform of drift-wood or stones in
+some convenient rock shelter. These lay on straw and moss, covered by
+matting, and rarely have either implements, weapons, or carvings
+associated with them. We found only three or four specimens in all in
+these places, of which we examined a great number. This was apparently
+the more ancient form of disposing of the dead, and one which more
+recently was still pursued in the case of poor or unpopular
+individuals.
+
+"Lastly, in comparatively modern times, probably within a few
+centuries, and up to the historic period (1740), another mode was
+adopted for the wealthy, popular, or more distinguished class. The
+bodies were eviscerated, cleansed from fatty matters in running water,
+dried, and usually placed in suitable cases in wrappings of fur and
+fine grass matting The body was usually doubled up into the smallest
+compass, and the mummy case, especially in the case of children, was
+usually suspended (so as not to touch the ground) in some convenient
+rock shelter. Sometimes, however, the prepared body was placed in a
+lifelike position, dressed and armed. They were placed as if engaged
+in some congenial occupation, such as hunting, fishing, sewing, etc.
+With them were also placed effigies of the animals they were pursuing,
+while the hunter was dressed in his wooden armor and provided with an
+enormous mask, all ornamented with feathers and a countless variety of
+wooden pendants, colored in gay patterns. All the carvings were of
+wood, the weapons even were only fac-similes in wood of the original
+articles. Among the articles represented were drums, rattles, dishes,
+weapons, effigies of men, birds, fish, and animals, wooden armor of
+rods or scales of wood, and remarkable masks, so arranged that the
+wearer when erect could only see the ground at his feet. These were
+worn at their religious dances from an idea that a spirit which was
+supposed to animate a temporary idol was fatal to whoever might look
+upon it while so occupied. An extension of the same idea led to the
+masking of those who had gone into the land of spirits.
+
+"The practice of preserving the bodies of those belonging to the
+whaling class--a custom peculiar to the Kadiak Innuit--has erroneously
+been confounded with the one now described. The latter included women
+as well as men, and all those whom the living desired particularly to
+honor. The whalers, however, only preserved the bodies of males, and
+they were not associated with the paraphernalia of those I have
+described. Indeed, the observations I have been able to make show the
+bodies of the whalers to have been preserved with stone weapons and
+actual utensils instead of effigies, and with the meanest apparel, and
+no carvings of consequence. These details, and those of many other
+customs and usages of which the shell heaps bear no testimony ... do
+not come within my line."
+
+Martin Sauer, secretary to Billings' Expedition [Footnote: Billings'
+Exped. 1802, p. 167.] in 1802, speaks of the Aleutian Islanders
+embalming their dead, as follows:
+
+"They pay respect, however, to the memory of the dead, for they embalm
+the bodies of the men with dried moss and grass; bury them in their
+best attire, in a sitting posture, in a strong box, with their darts
+and instruments; and decorate the tomb with various coloured mats,
+embroidery, and paintings. With women, indeed, they use less ceremony.
+A mother will keep a dead child thus embalmed in their hut for some
+months, constantly wiping it dry; and they bury it when it begins to
+smell, or when they get reconciled to parting with it."
+
+Regarding these same people, a writer in the San Francisco Bulletin
+gives this account-
+
+"The schooner William Sutton, belonging to the Alaska Commercial
+Company, has arrived from the seal islands of the company with the
+mummified remains of Indians who lived on an island north of Ounalaska
+one hundred and fifty years ago. This contribution to science was
+secured by Captain Henning, an agent of the company, who has long
+resided at Ounalaska. In his transactions with the Indians he learned
+that tradition among the Aleuts assigned Kagamale, the island in
+question, as the last resting-place of a great chief, known as
+Karkhayahouchak. Last year the captain was in the neighborhood of
+Kagamale, in quest of sea-otter and other furs and he bore up for the
+island, with the intention of testing the truth of the tradition he
+had heard. He had more difficulty in entering the cave than in finding
+it, his schooner having to beat on and off shore for three days.
+Finally, he succeeded in effecting a landing, and clambering up the
+rocks he found himself in the presence of the dead chief, his family
+and relatives.
+
+"The cave smelt strongly of hot sulphurous vapors. With great care the
+mummies were removed, and all the little trinkets and ornaments
+scattered around were also taken away.
+
+"In all there are eleven packages of bodies. Only two or three have as
+yet been opened. The body of the chief is inclosed in a large basket-
+like structure, about four feet in height. Outside the wrappings are
+finely-wrought sea-grass matting, exquisitely close in texture, and
+skins. At the bottom is a broad hoop or basket of thinly-cut wood, and
+adjoining the center portions are pieces of body armor composed of
+reeds bound together. The body is covered with the fine skin of the
+sea-otter, always a mark of distinction in the interments of the
+Aleuts, and round the whole package are stretched the meshes of a
+fish-net, made of the sinews of the sea lion; also those of a bird-
+net. There are evidently some bulky articles inclosed with the chief's
+body, and the whole package differs very much from the others, which
+more resemble, in their brown-grass matting, consignments of crude
+sugar from the Sandwich Islands than the remains of human beings. The
+bodies of a pappoose and of a very little child, which probably died
+at birth or soon after it, have sea-otter skins around them. One of
+the feet of the latter projects, with a toe-nail visible. The
+remaining mummies are of adults.
+
+"One of the packages has been opened, and it reveals a man's body in
+tolerable preservation, but with a large portion of the face
+decomposed. This and the other bodies were doubled up at death by
+severing some of the muscles at the hip and knee joints and bending
+the limbs downward horizontally upon the trunk. Perhaps the most
+peculiar package, next to that of the chief, is one which incloses in
+a single matting, with sea-lion skins, the bodies of a man and woman.
+The collection also embraces a couple of skulls, male and female,
+which have still the hair attached to the scalp. The hair has changed
+its color to a brownish red. The relics obtained with the bodies
+include a few wooden vessels scooped out smoothly; a piece of dark,
+greenish, flat stone, harder than the emerald, which the Indians use
+to tan skins; a scalp-lock of jet-black hair; a small rude figure,
+which may have been a very ugly doll or an idol; two or three tiny
+carvings in ivory of the sea-lion, very neatly executed, a comb, a
+necklet made of birds' claws inserted into one another, and several
+specimens of little bags, and a cap plaited out of sea-grass and
+almost water-tight."
+
+With the foregoing examples as illustration, the matter of embalmment
+may be for the present dismissed, with the advice to observers that
+particular care should be taken, in case mummies are discovered, to
+ascertain whether the bodies have been submitted to a regular
+preservative process, or owe their protection to ingredients in the
+soil of their graves or to desiccation in arid districts.
+
+
+
+URN-BURIAL.
+
+
+To close the subject of subterranean burial proper, the following
+account of urn-burial in Foster [Footnote: Pre-Historic Races, 1873,
+p. 199] may be added:
+
+"Urn-burial appears to have been practiced to some extent by the
+mound-builders, particularly in some of the Southern States. In the
+mounds on the Wateree River, near Camden, S. C., according to Dr.
+Blanding, ranges of vases, one above the other, filled with human
+remains, were found. Sometimes when the mouth of the vase is small the
+skull is placed with the face downward in the opening, constituting a
+sort of cover. Entire cemeteries have been found in which urn-burial
+alone seems to have been practiced. Such a one was accidentally
+discovered not many years since in Saint Catherine's Island, on the
+coast of Georgia. Professor Swallow informs me that from a mound at
+New Madrid, Mo, he obtained a human skull inclosed in an earthen jar,
+the lips of which were too small to admit of its extraction. It must
+therefore have been molded on the head after death."
+
+"A similar mode of burial was practiced by the Chaldeans, where the
+funeral jars often contain a human cranium much too expanded to admit
+of the possibility of its passing out of it, so that either the clay
+must have been modeled over the corpse, and then baked, or the neck of
+the jar must have been added subsequently to the other rites of
+interment." [Footnote: Rawlinson's Herodotus, Book 1, chap 198, note.]
+
+It is with regret that the writer feels obliged to differ from the
+distinguished author of the work quoted regarding urn-burial, for
+notwithstanding that it has been employed by some of the Central and
+Southern American tribes, it is not believed to have been customary,
+but _to a very limited extent,_ in North America, except as a
+secondary interment. He must admit that he himself has found bones in
+urns or ollas in the graves of New Mexico and California, but under
+circumstances that would seem to indicate a deposition long subsequent
+to death. In the graves of the ancient peoples of California a number
+of ollas were found in long-used burying places, and it is probable
+that as the bones were dug up time and again for new burials they were
+simply tossed into pots, which were convenient receptacles, or it may
+have been that bodies were allowed to repose in the earth long enough
+for the fleshy parts to decay, and the bones were then collected,
+placed in urns, and reinterred. Dr. E. Foreman, of the Smithsonian
+Institution, furnishes the following account of urns used for burial:
+
+"I would call your attention to an earthenware burial-urn and cover,
+Nos. 27976 and 27977, National Museum, but very recently received from
+Mr. William McKinley, of Milledgeville, Ga. It was exhumed on his
+plantation, ten miles below that city, on the bottom lands of the
+Oconee River, now covered with almost impassable canebrakes, tall
+grasses, and briers. We had a few months ago from the same source one
+of the covers, of which the ornamentation was different but more
+entire. A portion of a similar cover has been received also from
+Chattanooga, Ga. Mr. McKinley ascribes the use of these urns and
+covers to the Muscogees, a branch of the Creek Nation."
+
+These urns are made of baked clay, and are shaped somewhat like the
+ordinary steatite ollas found in the California coast graves, but the
+bottoms instead of being round run down to a sharp apex; on the top
+was a cover, the upper part of which also terminated in an apex, and
+around the border, near where it rested on the edge of the vessel, are
+indented scroll ornamentations.
+
+The burial-urns of New Mexico are thus described by E. A. Barber:
+[Footnote: Amer. Natural, 1876, vol X, p. 455 _et seq_]
+
+"Burial-urns ... comprise vessels or ollas without handles, for
+cremation, usually being from 10 to 15 inches in height, with broad,
+open mouths, and made of coarse clay, with a laminated exterior
+(partially or entirely ornamented). Frequently the indentations extend
+simply around the neck or rim, the lower portion being plain."
+
+So far as is known, up to the present time no burial-urns have been
+found in North America resembling those discovered in Nicaragua by Dr.
+J. C. Bransford, U. S. N., but it is quite within the range of
+possibility that future researches in regions not far distant from
+that which he explored may reveal similar treasures.
+
+
+
+SURFACE BURIAL.
+
+
+This mode of interment was practiced to only a limited extent, so far
+as can be discovered, and it is quite probable that in most cases it
+was employed as a temporary expedient when the survivors were pressed
+for time. The Seminoles of Florida are said to have buried in hollow
+trees, the bodies being placed in an upright position, occasionally
+the dead being crammed into a hollow log lying on the ground. With
+some of the Eastern tribes a log was split in half and hollowed out
+sufficiently large to contain the corpse; it was then lashed together
+with withes and permitted to remain where it was originally placed. In
+some cases a pen was built over and around it. This statement is
+corroborated by Mr. R. S. Robertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind., who states
+in a communication received in 1877 that the Miamis practiced surface
+burial in two different ways:
+
+"... 1st. The surface burial in hollow logs. These have been found in
+heavy forests. Sometimes a tree has been split and the two halves
+hollowed out to receive the body, when it was either closed with
+withes or confined to the ground with crossed stakes; and sometimes a
+hollow tree is used by closing the ends.
+
+"2d. Surface burial where the body was covered by a small pen of logs
+laid up as we build a cabin, but drawing in every course until they
+meet in a single log at the top."
+
+Romantically conceived, and carried out to the fullest possible extent
+in accordance with the _ante mortem_ wishes of the dead, were the
+obsequies of Blackbird, the great chief of the Omahas. The account is
+given by George Catlin: [Footnote: Manners, Customs, &c., of North
+American Indiana, 1844, vol. ii, p. 5]
+
+"He requested them to take his body down the river to this his
+favorite haunt, and on the pinnacle of this towering bluff to bury him
+on the back of his favorite war-horse, which was to be buried alive
+under him, from whence he could see, as he said, 'the Frenchmen
+passing up and down the river in their boats.' He owned, amongst many
+homes, a noble white steed, that was led to the top of the grass-
+covered hill, and with great pomp and ceremony, in the presence of the
+whole nation and several of the far-traders and the Indian agent, he
+was placed astride of his horse's back, with his bow in his hand, and
+his shield and quiver slung, with his pipe and his medicine bag, with
+his supply of dried meat, and his tobacco-pouch replenished to last
+him through the journey to the beautiful hunting grounds of the shades
+of his fathers, with his flint and steel and his tinder to light his
+pipes by the way; the scalps he had taken from his enemies' heads
+could be trophies for nobody else, and were hung to the bridle of his
+horse. He was in full dress, and fully equipped, and on his head waved
+to the last moment his beautiful head-dress of the war-eagles' plumes.
+In this plight, and the last funeral honors having been performed by
+the medicine-men, every warrior of his band painted the palm and
+fingers of his right hand with vermilion, which was stamped and
+perfectly impressed on the milk-white sides of his devoted horse. This
+all done, turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs of
+the horse, and gradually laid up to its sides, and at last over the
+back and head of the unsuspecting animal, and last of all over the
+head and even the eagle plumes of its valiant rider, where all
+together have smouldered and remained undisturbed to the present day."
+
+
+
+CAIRN BURIAL.
+
+
+The next mode of interment to be considered is that of cairn or rock
+burial, which has prevailed and is still common to a considerable
+extent among the tribes living in the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra
+Nevadas.
+
+In the summer of 1872 the writer visited one of these rock cemeteries
+in middle Utah, which had been used for a period not exceeding fifteen
+or twenty years. It was situated at the bottom of a rock slide, upon
+the side of an almost inaccessible mountain, in a position so
+carefully chosen for concealment that it would have been almost
+impossible to find it without a guide. Several of the graves were
+opened and found to have been constructed in the following manner: A
+number of bowlders had been removed from the bed of the slide until a
+sufficient cavity had been obtained; this was lined with skins, the
+corpse placed therein, with weapons, ornaments, etc., and covered over
+with saplings of the mountain aspen; on top of these the removed
+bowlders were piled, forming a huge cairn, which appeared large enough
+to have marked the last resting place of an elephant. In the immediate
+vicinity of the graves were scattered the osseous remains of a number
+of horses which had been sacrificed no doubt during the funeral
+ceremonies. In one of the graves, said to contain the body of a chief,
+in addition to a number of articles useful and ornamental, were found
+parts of the skeleton of a boy, and tradition states that a captive
+boy was buried alive at this place.
+
+In connection with this mode of burial it may be said that the ancient
+Balearic Islanders covered their dead with a heap of stones, but this
+ceremony was preceded by an operation which consisted in cutting the
+body in small pieces and collecting in a pot.
+
+
+
+CREMATION.
+
+
+Next should be noted this mode of disposing of the dead, a common
+custom to a considerable extent among North American tribes,
+especially those living on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains,
+although we have undoubted evidence that it was also practiced among
+the more eastern ones. This rite may be considered as peculiarly
+interesting from its great antiquity, for Tegg informs us that it
+reached as far back as the Theban war, in the account of which mention
+is made of the burning of Menoaeus and Archemorus, who were
+contemporary with Jair, eighth judge of Israel. It was common in the
+interior of Asia and among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and has also
+prevailed among the Hindoos up to the present time. In fact, it is now
+rapidly becoming a custom among civilized people.
+
+While there is a certain degree of similarity between the performance
+of this rite among the peoples spoken of and the Indians of North
+America, yet, did space admit, a discussion might profitably be
+entered upon regarding the details of it among the ancients and the
+origin of the ceremony. As it is, simple narrations of cremation in
+this country, with discursive notes and an account of its origin among
+the Nishinams of California, by Stephen Powers, [Footnote: Cont. to N.
+A. Ethnol., 1877, vol. iii, p. 341] seem to be all that is required at
+this time.
+
+"The moon and the coyote wrought together in creating all things that
+exist. The moon was good, but the coyote was bad. In making men and
+women the moon wished to so fashion their souls that when they died
+they should return to the earth after two or three days, as he himself
+does when he dies. But the coyote was evil disposed, and said this
+should not be, but that when men died their friends should burn their
+bodies, and once a year make a great mourning for them, and the coyote
+prevailed. So, presently when a deer died, they burned his body, as
+the coyote had decreed, and after a year they made a great mourning
+for him. But the moon created the rattlesnake and caused it to bite
+the coyote's son, so that he died. Now, though the coyote had been
+willing to burn the deer's relations, he refused to burn his own son.
+Then the moon said unto him, 'This is your own rule. You would have it
+so, and now your son shall be burned like the others.' So he was
+burned, and after a year the coyote mourned for him. Thus the law was
+established over the coyote also, and, as he had dominion over men, it
+prevailed over men likewise.
+
+"This story is utterly worthless for itself, but it has its value in
+that it shows there was a time when the California Indians did not
+practice cremation, which is also established by other traditions. It
+hints at the additional fact that the Nishinams to this day set great
+store by the moon; consider it their benefactor in a hundred ways, and
+observe its changes for a hundred purposes."
+
+Another myth regarding cremation is given by Adam Johnston, in
+Schoolcraft [Footnote: Hist. Indian tribes of the United States, 1854,
+part IV, p. 224] and relates to the Bonaks, or root-diggers:
+
+"The first Indians that lived were coyotes. When one of their number
+died the body became full of little animals or spirits, as they
+thought them. After crawling over the body for a time they took all
+manner of shapes, some that of the deer, others the elk, antelope,
+etc. It was discovered, however, that great numbers were taking wings,
+and for a while they sailed about in the air, but eventually they
+would fly off to the moon. The old coyotes or Indians, fearing the
+earth might become depopulated in this way, concluded to stop it at
+once, and ordered that when one of their people died the body must be
+burnt. Ever after they continued to burn the bodies of deceased
+persons."
+
+Ross Cox [Footnote: Adventures on the Columbia River, 1831, vol. ii,
+p. 387] gives an account of the process as performed by the Tolkotins
+of Oregon:
+
+"The ceremonies attending the dead are very singular, and quite
+peculiar to this tribe. The body of the deceased is kept nine days
+laid out in his lodge, and on the tenth it is buried. For this purpose
+a rising ground is selected, on which are laid a number of sticks,
+about seven feet long, of cypress, neatly split, and in the
+interstices is placed a quantity of gummy wood. During these
+operations invitations are dispatched to the natives of the
+neighboring villages requesting their attendance at the ceremony. When
+the preparations are perfected the corpse is placed on the pile, which
+is immediately ignited, and during the process of burning, the
+bystanders appear to be in a high state of merriment. If a stranger
+happen to be present they invariably plunder him, but if that pleasure
+be denied them, they never separate without quarreling among
+themselves. Whatever property the deceased possessed is placed about
+the corpse, and if he happened to be a person of consequence, his
+friends generally purchase a capote, a shirt, a pair of trousers,
+etc., which articles are also laid around the pile. If the doctor who
+attended him has escaped uninjured, he is obliged to be present at the
+ceremony, and for the last time tries his skill in restoring the
+defunct to animation. Failing in this, he throws on the body a piece
+of leather, or some other article, as a present, which in some measure
+appeases the resentment of his relatives, and preserves the
+unfortunate quack from being maltreated. During the nine days the
+corpse is laid out the widow of the deceased is obliged to sleep along
+side it from sunset to sunrise; and from this custom there is no
+relaxation even during the hottest days of summer! While the doctor is
+performing his last operations she must lie on the pile, and after the
+fire is applied to it she cannot stir until the doctor orders her to
+be removed, which, however, is never done until her body is completely
+covered with blisters. After being placed on her legs, she is obliged
+to pass her hands gently through the flame and collect some of the
+liquid fat which issues from the corpse, with which she is permitted
+to wet her face and body! When the friends of the deceased observe the
+sinews of the legs and arms beginning to contract they compel the
+unfortunate widow to go again on the pile, and by dint of hard
+pressing to straighten those members.
+
+"If during her husband's lifetime she has been known to have committed
+any act of infidelity or omitted administering to him savory food or
+neglected his clothing, etc, she is now made to suffer severely for
+such lapses of duty by his relations, who frequently fling her in the
+funeral pile, from which she is dragged by her friends; and thus
+between alternate scorching and cooling she is dragged backwards and
+forwards until she falls into a state of insensibility.
+
+"After the process of burning the corpse has terminated, the widow
+collects the larger bones, which she rolls up in an envelope of birch
+bark, and which she is obliged for some years afterwards to carry on
+her back. She is now considered and treated as a slave, all the
+laborious duties of cooking, collecting fuel, etc., devolve on her.
+She must obey the orders of all the women, and even of the children
+belonging to the village, and the slightest mistake or disobedience
+subjects her to the infliction of a heavy punishment. The ashes of her
+husband are carefully collected and deposited in a grave, which it is
+her duty to keep free from weeds; and should any such appear, she is
+obliged to root them out with her _fingers_. During this
+operation her husband's relatives stand by and beat her in a cruel
+manner until the task is completed or she falls a victim to their
+brutality. The wretched widows, to avoid this complicated cruelty,
+frequently commit suicide. Should she, however, linger on for three or
+four years, the friends of her husband agree to relieve her from her
+painful mourning. This is a ceremony of much consequence, and the
+preparations for it occupy a considerable time, generally from six to
+eight months. The hunters proceed to the various districts in which
+deer and beaver abound, and after collecting large quantities of meat
+and fur return to the village. The skins are immediately bartered for
+guns, ammunition, clothing, trinkets, etc. Invitations are then bent
+to the inhabitants of the various friendly villages, and when they
+have all assembled the feast commences, and presents are distributed
+to each visitor. The object of their meeting is then explained, and
+the woman is brought forward, still carrying on her back the bones of
+her late husband, which are now removed and placed in a covered box,
+which is nailed or otherwise fastened to a post twelve feet high. Her
+conduct as a faithful widow is next highly eulogized, and the ceremony
+of her manumission is completed by one man powdering on her head the
+down of birds and another pouring on it the contents of a bladder of
+oil. She is then at liberty to marry again or lead a life of single
+blessedness; but few of them, I believe, wish to encounter the risk
+attending a second widowhood.
+
+"The men are condemned to a similar ordeal, but they do not bear it
+with equal fortitude, and numbers fly to distant quarters to avoid the
+brutal treatment which custom has established as a kind of religious
+rite."
+
+Perhaps a short review of some of the peculiar and salient points of
+this narrative may be permitted. It is stated that the corpse is kept
+nine days after death--certainly a long period of time, when it is
+remembered that Indians as a rule endeavor to dispose of their dead as
+soon as possible. This may be accounted for on the supposition that it
+is to give the friends and relatives an opportunity of assembling,
+verifying the death, and of making proper preparations for the
+ceremony. With regard to the verification of the dead person, William
+Sheldon [Footnote: Trans. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1820, vol. 1, p 377] gives
+an account of a similar custom which was common among the Caraibs of
+Jamaica, and which seems to throw some light upon the unusual
+retention of deceased persons by the tribe in question, although it
+must be admitted that this is mere hypothesis:
+
+"They had some very extraordinary customs respecting deceased persons.
+When one of them died, it was necessary that all his relations should
+see him and examine the body in order to ascertain that he died a
+natural death. They acted so rigidly on this principle, that if one
+relative remained who had not seen the body all the others could not
+convince that one that the death was natural. In such a case the
+absent relative considered himself as bound in honor to consider all
+the other relatives as having been accessories to the death of the
+kinsman, and did not rest until he had killed one of them to revenge
+the death of the deceased. If a Caraib died in Martinico or Guadaloupe
+and his relations lived in St. Vincents, it was necessary to summon
+them to see the body, and several months sometime elapsed before it
+could be finally interred. When a Caraib died he was immediately
+painted all over with _roucou_, and had his mustachios and the
+black streaks in his face made with a black paint, which was different
+from that used in their lifetime. A kind of grave was then dug in the
+_carbet_ where he died, about 4 feet square and 6 or 7 feet deep.
+The body was let down in it, when sand was thrown in, which reached to
+the knees, and the body was placed in it in a sitting posture,
+resembling that in which they crouched round the fire or the table
+when alive, with the elbows on the knees and the palms of the hands
+against the cheeks. No part of the body touched the outside of the
+grave, which was covered with wood and mats until all the relations
+had examined it. When the customary examinations and inspections were
+ended the hole was filled, and the bodies afterwards remained
+undisturbed. The hair of the deceased was kept tied behind. In this
+way bodies have remained several months without any symptoms of decay
+or producing any disagreeable smell. The _roucou_ not only
+preserved them from the sun, air, and insects during their lifetime,
+but probably had the same effect after death. The arms of the Caraibs
+were placed by them when they were covered over for inspection, and
+they were finally buried with them."
+
+Again, we are told that during the burning the by-standers are very
+merry. This hilarity is similar to that shown by the Japanese at a
+funeral, who rejoice that the troubles and worries of the world are
+over for the fortunate dead. The plundering of strangers present, it
+may be remembered, also took place among the Indians of the Carolinas.
+As already mentioned on a preceding page, the cruel manner in which
+the widow is treated seems to be a modification of the Hindoo suttee,
+but if the account be true, it would appear that death might be
+preferable to such torments.
+
+It is interesting to note that in Corsica, as late as 1743, if a
+husband died women threw themselves upon the widow and beat her
+severely. Bruhier quaintly remarks that this custom obliged women to
+take good care of their husbands.
+
+George Gibbs, in Schoolcraft, [Footnote: Hist. Indian Tribes of the
+United States, 1853, part iii, p. 112.]  states that among the Indians
+of Clear Lake, California, "the body is consumed upon a scaffold built
+over a hole, into which the ashes are thrown and covered"
+
+According to Stephen Powers, [Footnote: Contrib. to N. A. Ethnol.,
+1877, vol. iii, p. 169.] cremation was common among the Se-nel of
+California. He thus relates it--
+
+"The dead are mostly burned. Mr. Willard described to me a scene of
+incremation that be once witnessed which was frightful for its
+exhibitions of fanatic frenzy and infatuation. The corpse was that of
+a wealthy chieftain, and as he lay upon the funeral pyre they placed
+in his mouth two gold twenties, and other smaller coins in his ears
+and hands, on his breast, etc., besides all his finery, his feather
+mantles, plumes, clothing, shell money, his fancy bows, painted
+arrows, etc. When the torch was applied they set up a mournful
+ululation, chanting and dancing about him, gradually working
+themselves into a wild and ecstatic raving, which seemed almost a
+demoniacal possession, leaping, howling, lacerating their flesh. Many
+seemed to lose all self-control. The younger English-speaking Indians
+generally lend themselves charily to such superstitious work,
+especially if American spectators are present, but even they were
+carried away by the old contagious frenzy of their race. One stripped
+off a broadcloth coat, quite new and fine, and ran frantically yelling
+and cast it upon the blazing-pile. Another rushed up and was about to
+throw on a pile of California blankets, when a white man, to test his
+sincerity, offered him $16 for them, jingling the bright coins before
+his eyes, but the savage (for such he had become again for the
+moment), otherwise so avaricious, hurled him away with a yell of
+execration and ran and threw his offering into the flames. Squaws,
+even more frenzied, wildly flung upon the pyre all they had in the
+world--their dearest ornaments, their gaudiest dresses, their strings
+of glittering shells. Screaming, wailing, tearing their hair, beating
+their breasts in their mad and insensate infatuation, some of them
+would have cast themselves bodily into the flaming ruins and perished
+with the chief had they not been restrained by their companions. Then
+the bright, swift flames with their hot tongues licked this 'cold
+obstruction' into chemic change, and the once 'delighted spirit' of
+the savage was borne up....
+
+"It seems as if the savage shared in Shakspeare's shudder at the
+thought of rotting in the dismal grave, for it is the one passion of
+his superstition to think of the soul of his departed friend set free
+and purified by the swift purging heat of the flames, not dragged down
+to be clogged and bound in the moldering body, but borne up in the
+soft, warm chariots of the smoke toward the beautiful sun, to bask in
+his warmth and light, and then, to fly away to the Happy Western Land.
+What wonder if the Indian shrinks with unspeakable horror from the
+thought of _burying his friend's soul!_--of pressing and ramming
+down with pitiless clods that inner something which once took such
+delight in the sweet light of the sun! What wonder if it takes years
+to persuade him to do otherwise and follow our custom! What wonder if
+even then he does it with sad fears and misgivings! Why not let him
+keep his custom! In the gorgeous landscapes and balmy climate of
+California and India incremation is as natural to the savage as it is
+for him to love the beauty of the sun. Let the vile Esquimaux and the
+frozen Siberian bury their dead if they will; it matters little, the
+earth is the same above as below, or to them the bosom of the earth
+may seem even the better; but in California do not blame the savage if
+he recoils at the thought of going under ground! This soft, pale halo
+of the lilac hills--ah, let him console himself if he will with the
+belief that his lost friend enjoys it still! The narrator concluded by
+saying that they destroyed full $500 worth of property. 'The
+blankets,' said he with a fine Californian scorn of such absurd
+insensibility to a good bargain, 'the blankets that the American
+offered him $16 for were not worth half the money.'
+
+"After death the Se-nel hold that bad Indians return into coyotes.
+Others fall off a bridge which all souls must traverse, or are hooked
+off by a raging bull at the further end, while the good escape across.
+Like the Yokaia and the Konkan, they believe it necessary to nourish
+the spirits of the departed for the space of a year. This is generally
+done by a squaw, who takes pinole in her blanket, repairs to the scene
+of the incremation, or to places hallowed by the memory of the dead,
+where she scatters it over the ground, meantime rocking her body
+violently to and fro in a dance and chanting the following chorus:
+
+  Hel-lel-li-ly,
+  Hel-lel-lo,
+  Hel-lel-lu.
+
+"This refrain is repeated over and over indefinitely, but the words
+have no meaning whatever."
+
+Mr. Henry Gillman [Footnote: Amer. Natural, November, 1878, p. 753]
+has published an interesting account of the exploration of a mound
+near Waldo, Fla., in which he found abundant evidence that cremation
+had existed among the former Indian population. It is as follows:
+
+"In opening a burial-mound at Cade's Pond, a small body of water
+situated about two miles northeastward of Santa Fe Lake, Florida, the
+writer found two instances of cremation, in each of which the skull of
+the subject, which was unconsumed, was used as the depository of his
+ashes. The mound contained besides a large number of human burials,
+the bones being much decayed. With them were deposited a great number
+of vessels of pottery, many of which are painted in brilliant colors,
+chiefly red, yellow, and brown, and some of them ornamented with
+indented patterns, displaying not a little skill in the ceramic art,
+though they are reduced to fragments. The first of the skulls referred
+to was exhumed at a depth of 2 1/2 feet. It rested on its apex (base
+uppermost), and was filled with fragments of half incinerated human
+bones, mingled with dark-colored dust, and the sand which invariably
+sifts into crania under such circumstances. Immediately beneath the
+skull lay the greater part of a human tibia, presenting the peculiar
+compression known as a platycnemism to the degree of affording a
+latitudinal index of .512; while beneath and surrounding it lay the
+fragments of a large number of human bones, probably constituting an
+entire individual. In the second instance of this peculiar mode in
+cremation, the cranium was discovered on nearly the opposite side of
+the mound, at a depth of 2 feet, and, like the former, resting on its
+apex. It was filled with a black mass--the residuum of burnt human
+bones mingled with sand. At three feet to the eastward lay the shaft
+of a flattened tibia, which presents the longitudinal index of .527.
+Both the skulls were free from all action of fire, and though
+subsequently crumbling to pieces on their removal, the writer had
+opportunity to observe their strong resemblance to the small
+orthocephalic crania which he had exhumed from mounds in Michigan. The
+same resemblance was perceptible in the other crania belonging to this
+mound. The small, narrow, retreating frontal, prominent parietal
+protuberances, rather protuberant occipital, which was not in the
+least compressed, the well-defined supraciliary ridges, and the
+superior border of the orbits, presenting a quadrilateral outline,
+were also particularly noticed. The lower facial bones, including the
+maxillaries, were wanting. On consulting such works as are accessible
+to him, the writer finds no mention of any similar relics having been
+discovered in mounds in Florida or elsewhere. For further particulars
+reference may be had to a paper on the subject read before the Saint
+Louis meeting of the American Association, August, 1878."
+
+The discoveries made by Mr. Gillman would seem to indicate that the
+people whose bones he excavated resorted to a process of partial
+cremation, some examples of which will be given on another page. The
+use of crania as receptacles is certainly remarkable, if not unique.
+
+The fact is well known to archaeologists that whenever cremation was
+practiced by Indians it was customary as a rule to throw into the
+blazing pyre all sorts of articles supposed to be useful to the dead,
+but no instance is known of such a wholesale destruction of property
+as occurred when the Indians of southern Utah burned their dead, for
+Dr. E. Foreman relates, in the American Naturalist for July, 1876, the
+account of the exploration of a mound in that Territory, which proved
+that at the death of a person not only were the remains destroyed by
+fire, but all articles of personal property, even the very habitation
+which had served as a home. After the process was completed, what
+remained unburned was covered with earth and a mound formed.
+
+A. S. Tiffany [Footnote: Proc. Dav. Acad. Nat Soc., 1867-76, p. 64.]
+describes what he calls a cremation-furnace, discovered within seven
+miles of Davenport, Iowa:
+
+"... Mound seven miles below the city, a projecting point known as
+Eagle Point. The surface was of the usual black soil to the depth of
+from 6 to 8 inches. Next was found a burnt indurated clay, resembling
+in color and texture a medium-burned brick, and about 30 inches in
+depth. Immediately beneath this clay was a bed of charred human
+remains 6 to 18 inches thick. This rested upon the unchanged and
+undisturbed loess of the bluffs, which formed the floor of the pit.
+Imbedded in this floor of unburned clay were a few very much
+decomposed, but unburned, human bones. No implements of any kind were
+discovered The furnace appears to have been constructed by excavating
+the pit and placing at the bottom of it the bodies or skeletons which
+had possibly been collected from scaffolds, and placing the fuel among
+and above the bodies, with a covering of poles or split timbers
+extending over and resting upon the earth, with the clay covering
+above, which latter we now find resting upon the charred remains. The
+ends of the timber covering, where they were protected by the earth
+above and below, were reduced to charcoal, parallel pieces of which
+were found at right angles to the length of the mound. No charcoal was
+found among or near the remains, the combustion there having been
+complete. The porous and softer portions of the bones were reduced to
+pulverized bone-black. Mr. Stevens also examined the furnace. The
+mound had probably not been opened after the burning."
+
+This account is doubtless true, but the inferences may be incorrect.
+Many more accounts of cremation among different tribes might be given
+to show how prevalent was the custom, but the above are thought to be
+sufficiently distinctive to serve as examples.
+
+
+
+PARTIAL CREMATION.
+
+
+Allied somewhat to cremation is a peculiar mode of burial which is
+supposed to have taken place among the Cherokees or some other tribe
+of North Carolina, and which is thus described by J. W Foster.
+[Footnote: Pre-Historic Races, 1873, p. 149.]
+
+"Up to 1819 the Cherokees held possession of this region, when, in
+pursuance of a treaty, they vacated a portion of the lands lying in
+the valley of the Little Tennessee River. In 1821 Mr. McDowell
+commenced farming. During the first season's operations the plowshare,
+in passing over a certain portion of a field, produced a hollow
+rumbling sound, and in exploring for the cause the first object met
+with was a shallow layer of charcoal, beneath which was a slab of
+burnt clay about 7 feet in length and 4 feet broad, which, in the
+attempt to remove, broke into several fragments. Nothing beneath this
+slab was found, but on examining its under side, to his great surprise
+there was the mould of a naked human figure. Three of these burned
+clay sepulchers were thus raised and examined during the first year of
+his occupancy, since which time none have been found until
+recently.... During the past season (1872) the plow brought up another
+fragment of one of these moulds, revealing the impress of a plump
+human arm.
+
+"Col. C. W. Jenkes, the superintendent of the Corundum mines, which
+have recently been opened in that vicinity, advises me thus:
+
+"'We have Indians all about us, with traditions extending back for 500
+years. In this time they have buried their dead under huge piles of
+stones. We have at one point the remains of 600 warriors under one
+pile, but a grave has just been opened of the following construction:
+A pit was dug, into which the corpse was placed, face upward; then
+over it was moulded a covering of mortar, fitting the form and
+features. On this was built a hot fire, which formed an entire shield
+of pottery for the corpse. The breaking up of one such tomb gives a
+perfect cast of the form of the occupant.'
+
+"Colonel Jenkes, fully impressed with the value of these
+archaeological discoveries, detailed a man to superintend the
+exhumation, who proceeded to remove the earth from the mould, which he
+reached through a layer of charcoal, and then with a trowel excavated
+beneath it. The clay was not thoroughly baked, and no impression of
+the corpse was left, except of the forehead and that portion of the
+limbs between the ankles and the knees, and even these portions of the
+mould crumbled. The body had been placed east and west, the head
+toward the east. 'I had hoped,' continues Mr. McDowell, 'that the cast
+in the clay would be as perfect as one I found 51 years ago, a
+fragment of which I presented to Colonel Jenkes, with the impression
+of a part of the arm on one side and on the other of the fingers, that
+had pressed down the soft clay upon the body interred beneath.' The
+mound-builders of the Ohio Valley, as has been shown, often placed a
+layer of clay over the dead, but not in immediate contact, upon which
+they builded fires; and the evidence that cremation was often resorted
+to in their disposition are too abundant to be gainsaid."
+
+This statement is corroborated by Mr. Wilcox: [Footnote: Proc. Acad.
+Nat. Soc. Phila., Nov 1874, p 168.]
+
+"Mr. Wilcox also stated that when recently in North Carolina his
+attention was called to an unusual method of burial by an ancient race
+of Indians in that vicinity. In numerous instances burial places were
+discovered where the bodies had been placed with the face up and
+covered with a coating of plastic clay about an inch thick. A pile of
+wood was then placed on top and fired, which consumed the body and
+baked the clay, which retained the impression of the body. This was
+then lightly covered with earth."
+
+It is thought no doubt can attach to the statements given, but the
+cases are remarkable as being the only instances of the kind met with
+in the extensive range of reading preparatory to a study of the
+subject of burial, although it must be observed that Bruhier states
+that the ancient Ethiopians covered the corpses of their dead with
+plaster (probably mud), but they did not burn these curious coffins.
+
+Another method, embracing both burial and cremation, has been
+practiced by the Pitt River or Achomawi Indians of California, who
+"bury the body in the ground in a standing position, the shoulders
+nearly even with the ground. The grave is prepared by digging a hole
+of sufficient depth and circumference to admit the body, the head
+being cut off. In the grave are placed the bows and arrows, bead-work,
+trappings, &c., belonging to the deceased; quantities of food,
+consisting of dried fish, roots, herbs, &c., were placed with the body
+also. The grave was then filled up, covering the headless body; then a
+bundle of fagots was brought and placed on the grave by the different
+members of the tribe, and on these fagots the head was placed, the
+pile fired, and the head consumed to ashes; after this was done, the
+female relatives of the deceased, who had appeared as mourners with
+their faces blackened with a preparation resembling tar or paint,
+dipped their fingers in the ashes of the cremated head and made three
+marks on their right cheek. This constituted the mourning garb, the
+period of which lasted until this black substance wore off from the
+face. In addition to this mourning, the blood female relatives of the
+deceased (who, by the way, appeared to be a man of distinction) had
+their hair cropped short. I noticed while the head was burning that
+the old women of the tribe sat on the ground, forming a large circle,
+inside of which another circle of young girls were formed standing and
+swaying their bodies to and fro and singing a mournful ditty. This was
+the only burial of a male that I witnessed. The custom of burying
+females is very different, their bodies being wrapped or bundled up in
+skins and laid away in caves, with their valuables, and in some cases
+food being placed with them in their mouths. Occasionally money is
+left to pay for food in the spirit land."
+
+This account is furnished by General Charles H. Tompkins, deputy
+quartermaster-general, United States Army, who witnessed the burial
+above related, and is the more interesting as it seems to be the only
+well-authenticated case on record, although E. A. Barber [Footnote:
+American Natural, Sept., 1878, p. 699.] has described what may
+possibly have been a case of cremation like the one above noted:
+
+"A very singular case of aboriginal burial was brought to my notice
+recently by Mr. William Klingbeil, of Philadelphia. On the New Jersey
+bank of the Delaware River, a short distance below Gloucester City,
+the skeleton of a man was found buried in a standing position, in a
+high, red, sandy-clay bluff overlooking the stream. A few inches below
+the surface the neck bones were found, and below these the remainder
+of the skeleton, with the exception of the bones of the hands and
+feet. The skull being wanting, it could not be determined whether the
+remains were those of an Indian or of a white man, but in either case
+the sepulture was peculiarly aboriginal. A careful exhumation and
+critical examination by Mr. Klingbeil disclosed the fact that around
+the lower extremities of the body had been placed a number of large
+stones, which revealed traces of fire, in conjunction with charred
+wood, and the bones of the feet had undoubtedly been consumed. This
+fact makes it appear reasonably certain that the subject had been
+executed, probably as a prisoner of war. A pit had been dug, in which
+he was placed erect, and a fire kindled around him. Then he had been
+buried alive, or, at least, if he did not survive the fiery ordeal,
+his body was imbedded in the earth, with the exception of his head,
+which was left protruding above the surface. As no trace of the
+cranium could be found, it seems probable that the head had either
+been burned or severed from the body and removed, or else left a prey
+to ravenous birds. The skeleton, which would have measured fully six
+feet in height, was undoubtedly that of a man."
+
+Blacking the face, as is mentioned in the first account, is a custom
+known to have existed among many tribes throughout the world, but in
+some cases different earths and pigments are used as signs of
+mourning. The natives of Guinea smear a chalky substance over their
+bodies as an outward expression of grief, and it is well known that
+the ancient Israelites threw ashes on their heads and garments.
+Placing food with the corpse or in its mouth, and money in the hand,
+finds its analogue in the custom of the ancient Romans, who, some time
+before interment, placed a piece of money in the corpse's mouth, which
+was thought to be Charon's fare for wafting the departed soul over the
+Infernal River. Besides this, the corpse's mouth was furnished with a
+certain cake, composed of flour, honey, &c. This was designed to
+appease the fury of Cerberus, the infernal doorkeeper, and to procure
+a safe and quiet entrance. These examples are curious coincidences, if
+nothing more.
+
+
+
+BURIAL ABOVE GROUND.
+
+
+Our attention should next be turned to sepulture above the ground,
+including lodge, house, box, scaffold, tree, and canoe burial, and the
+first example which may be given is that of burial in lodges, which is
+by no means common. The description which follows is by Stansbury,
+[Footnote: Explorations of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah,
+1852, p. 43.] and relates to the Sioux:
+
+"I put on my moccasins, and, displaying my wet shirt like a flag to
+the wind, we proceeded to the lodges which had attracted our
+curiosity. There were five of them pitched upon the open prairie, and
+in them we found the bodies of nine Sioux laid out upon the ground,
+wrapped in their robes of buffalo-skin, with their saddles, spears,
+camp-kettles, and all their accoutrements piled up around them. Some
+lodges contained three, others only one body, all of which were more
+or less in a state of decomposition. A short distance apart from these
+was one lodge which, though small, seemed of rather superior
+pretensions, and was evidently pitched with great care. It contained
+the body of a young Indian girl of sixteen or eighteen years, with a
+countenance presenting quite an agreeable expression; she was richly
+dressed in leggins of fine scarlet cloth elaborately ornamented; a new
+pair of moccasins, beautifully embroidered with porcupine quills, was
+on her feet, and her body was wrapped in two superb buffalo-robes
+worked in like manner; she had evidently been dead but a day or two,
+and to our surprise a portion of the upper part of her person was
+bare, exposing the face and a part of the breast, as if the robes in
+which she was wrapped had by some means been disarranged, whereas all
+the other bodies were closely covered up. It was, at the time, the
+opinion of our mountaineers that these Indians must have fallen in an
+encounter with a party of Crows; but I subsequently learned that they
+had all died of the cholera, and that this young girl, being
+considered past recovery, had been arranged by her friends in the
+habiliments of the dead, inclosed in the lodge alive, and abandoned to
+her fate, so fearfully alarmed were the Indians by this to them novel
+and terrible disease."
+
+It might, perhaps, be said that this form of burial was exceptional,
+and due to the dread of again using the lodges which had served as the
+homes of those afflicted with the cholera, but it is thought such was
+not the case, as the writer has notes of the same kind of burial among
+the same tribe and of others, notably the Crows, the body of one of
+their chiefs (Long Horse) being disposed of as follows.
+
+"The lodge poles inclose an oblong circle some 18 by 22 feet at the
+base, converging to a point at least 30 feet high, covered with
+buffalo-hides dressed without hair except a part of the tail switch,
+which floats outside like, and mingled with human scalps. The
+different skins are neatly fitted and sewed together with sinew, and
+all painted in seven alternate horizontal stripes of brown and yellow,
+decorated with various life-like war scenes. Over the small entrance
+is a large bright cross, the upright being a large stuffed white wolf-
+skin upon his war lance, and the cross-bar of bright scarlet flannel,
+containing the quiver of bow and arrows, which nearly all warriors
+still carry, even when armed with repeating rifles. As the cross is
+not a pagan but a Christian (which Long Horse was not either by
+profession or practice) emblem, it was probably placed there by the
+influence of some of his white friends. I entered, finding Long Horse
+buried Indian fashion, in full-war dress, paint and feathers, in a
+rude coffin, upon a platform about breast high, decorated with
+weapons, scalps, and ornaments. A large opening and wind-flap at top
+favored ventilation, and though he had lain there in an open coffin a
+full month, some of which was hot weather, there was but little
+effluvia; in fact, I have seldom found much in a burial-teepee, and
+when this mode of burial is thus performed it is less repulsive than
+natural to suppose."
+
+This account is furnished by Col. P. W. Norris, superintendent of
+Yellowstone National Park, he having been an eye-witness of what he
+relates in 1876.
+
+The Blackfeet, Sioux, and Navajos also bury in lodges, and the Indians
+of Bellingham Bay, according to Dr. J. F. Hammond, U. S. A., place
+their dead in carved wooden sarcophagi, inclosing these with a
+rectangular tent of some white material.
+
+Bancroft [Footnote: Nat. Races of Pac. States, 1874, vol. 1, p. 780.]
+states that certain of the Indians of Costa Rica, when a death
+occurred, deposited the body in a small hut constructed of plaited
+palm reeds. In this it is preserved for three years, food being
+supplied, and on each anniversary of the death it is redressed and
+attended to amid certain ceremonies. The writer has been recently
+informed that a similar custom prevailed in Demerara. No authentic
+accounts are known of analogous modes of burial among the peoples of
+the Old World, although quite frequently the dead were interred
+beneath the floors of their houses, a custom which has been followed
+by the Mosquito Indians of Central America and one or two of our own
+tribes.
+
+
+
+BOX BURIAL.
+
+
+Under this head may be placed those examples furnished by certain
+tribes on the Northwest coast who used as receptacles for the dead
+wonderfully carved, large wooden chests, these being supported upon a
+low platform or resting on the ground. In shape they resemble a small
+house with an angular roof, and each one has an opening through which
+food may be passed to the corpse.
+
+Some of the tribes formerly living in New York used boxes much
+resembling those spoken of, and the Creeks, Choctaws, and Cherokees
+did the same.
+
+Capt J. H. Gageby, U. S. A., furnishes the following relating to the
+Creeks in Indian Territory:
+
+"... are buried on the surface, in a box or a substitute made of
+branches of trees, covered with small branches, leaves, and earth. I
+have seen several of their graves, which after a few weeks had become
+uncovered and the remains exposed to view. I saw in one Creek grave (a
+child's) a small sum of silver, in another (adult male) some
+implements of warfare, bow and arrows. They are all interred with the
+feet of the corpse to the east. In the mourning ceremonies of the
+Creeks the nearer relatives smeared their hair and faces with a
+composition made of grease and wood ashes, and would remain in that
+condition for several days, and probably a month."
+
+
+
+TREE AND SCAFFOLD BURIAL.
+
+
+We may now pass to what may be called aerial sepulture proper, the
+most common examples of which are tree and scaffold burial, quite
+extensively practiced even at the present time. From what can be
+learned, the choice of this mode depends greatly on the facilities
+present; where timber abounds, trees being used; if absent, scaffolds
+being employed, the construction of which among the Yanktonais is
+related as follows: [Footnote: Life of Belden, the White Chief, 1871,
+p. 87.]
+
+"These scaffolds are 7 to 8 feet high, 10 feet long, and 4 or 5 wide.
+Four stout posts, with forked ends, are first set firmly in the
+ground, and then in the forks are laid cross and side poles, on which
+is made a flooring of small poles. The body is then carefully wrapped,
+so as to make it watertight, and laid to rest on the poles. The reason
+why Indians bury in the open air instead of under the ground is for
+the purpose of protecting their dead from wild animals. In new
+countries, where wolves and bears are numerous, a dead body will be
+dug up and devoured, though it be put many feet under the ground. I
+noticed many little buckets and baskets hanging on the scaffolds....
+These had contained food and drink for the dead. I asked Washtella if
+she was sure the soul ate and drank on its journey, and if the food
+did not remain untouched in its basket. She replied, 'Oh, no, the food
+and water is always gone.' I looked at the hundreds of ravens perched
+on the scaffolds and could account for what became of most of the food
+and water."...
+
+John Young, Indian agent at the Blackfeet Agency, Montana, sends the
+following account of tree-burial among this tribe:
+
+"Their manner of burial has always been (until recently) to inclose
+the dead body in robes or blankets, the best owned by the departed,
+closely sewed up, and then, if a male or chief, fasten in the branches
+of a tree so high as to be beyond the reach of wolves, and then left
+to slowly waste in the dry winds. If the body was that of a squaw or
+child, it was thrown into the underbrush or jungle, where it soon
+became the prey of the wild animals. The weapons, pipes, &c., of men
+were inclosed, and the small toys of children with them. The
+ceremonies were equally barbarous, the relatives cutting off,
+according to the depth of their grief, one or more joints of the
+fingers, divesting themselves of clothing even in the coldest weather,
+and filling the air with their lamentations. All the sewing up and
+burial process was conducted by the squaws, as the men would not touch
+nor remain in proximity to a dead body.
+
+"When an Indian of any importance is departing, the squaws assemble in
+the lodge or teepee and sing the death-song, recounting the prowess
+and virtues of the dying one, and the oldest man at hand goes into the
+open air and solemnly addresses the 'Great Spirit,' bespeaking a
+welcome for him into the happy hunting grounds. Whatever property the
+deceased has--lodge, arms, or ponies--if a will was made, it was
+carefully carried out; if not, all was scrambled for by the relatives.
+I have often had, when a man wanted to go out of mourning, to supply
+the necessary clothing to cover his nakedness.
+
+"Further mourning observances were and are, the women relatives
+getting on some elevated spot near where the body rests, and keeping
+up a dismal wail, frequently even in extreme cold weather, the greater
+part of the night, and this is kept up often for a month. No cremation
+or burying in a grave was practiced by them at any time. Pained by
+often coming on skeletons in trees and the stench of half-consumed
+remains in the brush, and shocked by the frequent mutilations visible,
+I have reasoned with the poor savages. In one case, when a woman was
+about to cut off a finger in evidence of her grief for the loss of a
+child, she consented on entreaty to cut off only one joint, and on
+further entreaty was brought to merely making a cut and letting out
+some blood. This much she could not be prevailed upon to forego....
+Their mourning and wailing, avoiding the defilement of touching a dead
+body, and other customs not connected with burial observances,
+strongly point to Jewish origin."
+
+Keating [Footnote: Long's Exped. to the St. Peter's River, 1834, p.
+392.] thus describes burial scaffolds:
+
+"On these scaffolds, which are from 8 to 10 feet high, corpses were
+deposited in a box made from part of a broken canoe. Some hair was
+suspended, which we at first mistook for a scalp, but our guide
+informed us that these were locks of hair torn from their heads by the
+relatives to testify their grief. In the centre, between the four
+posts which supported the scaffold, a stake was planted in the ground;
+it was about six feet high, and bore an imitation of human figures,
+five of which had a design of a petticoat, indicating them to be
+females; the rest, amounting to seven, were naked, and were intended
+for male figures; of the latter four were headless, showing that they
+had been slain; the three other male figures were unmutilated, but
+held a staff in their hand, which, as our guide informed us,
+designated that they were slaves. The post, which is an usual
+accompaniment to the scaffold that supports a warrior's remains, does
+not represent the achievements of the deceased; but those of the
+warriors that assembled near his remains danced the dance of the post,
+and related their martial exploits. A number of small bones of animals
+were observed in the vicinity, which were probably left there after a
+feast celebrated in honor of the dead.
+
+"The boxes in which the corpses were placed are so short that a man
+could not lie in them extended at full length, but in a country where
+boxes and boards are scarce this is overlooked. After the corpses have
+remained a certain time exposed, they are taken down and buried. Our
+guide, Renville, related to us that he had been a witness to an
+interesting, though painful, circumstance that occurred here. An
+Indian who resided on the Mississippi, hearing that his son had died
+at this spot, came up in a canoe to take charge of the remains and
+convey them down the river to his place of abode, but on his arrival
+he found that the corpse had already made such progress toward
+decomposition as rendered it impossible for it to be removed. He then
+undertook, with a few friends, to clean off the bones. All the flesh
+was scraped off and thrown into the stream, the bones were carefully
+collected into his canoe, and subsequently carried down to his
+residence."
+
+Interesting and valuable from the extreme attention paid to details is
+the following account of a burial case discovered by Dr. George M.
+Sternberg, U. S. A., and furnished by Dr. George A. Otis, U. S. A.,
+Army Medical Museum, Washington, D.C. It relates to the Cheyennes of
+Kansas:
+
+"The case was found, Brevet Major Sternberg states, on the banks of
+Walnut Creek, Kansas, elevated about eight feet from the ground by
+four notched poles, which were firmly planted in the ground. The
+unusual care manifested in the preparation of the case induced Dr.
+Sternberg to infer that some important chief was inclosed in it.
+Believing that articles of interest were inclosed with the body, and
+that their value would be enhanced if they were received at the Museum
+as left by the Indians, Dr. Sternberg determined to send the case
+unopened.
+
+"I had the case opened this morning and an inventory made of the
+contents. The case consisted of a cradle of interlaced branches of
+white willow, about 6 feet long, 3 feet broad, and 3 feet high, with a
+flooring of buffalo thongs arranged as a net-work. This cradle was
+securely fastened by strips of buffalo-hide to four poles of ironwood
+and cottonwood, about 12 feet in length. These poles doubtless rested
+upon the forked extremities of the vertical poles described by Dr.
+Sternberg. The cradle was wrapped in two buffalo-robes of large size
+and well preserved. On removing these an aperture 18 inches square was
+found at the middle of the right side of the cradle or basket. Within
+appeared other buffalo-robes folded about the remains, and secured by
+gaudy-colored sashes. Five robes were successively removed, making
+seven in all. Then we came to a series of new blankets folded about
+the remains. There were five in all--two scarlet, two blue, and one
+white. These being removed, the next wrappings consisted of a striped
+white and gray sack, and of a United States Infantry overcoat, like
+the other coverings nearly new. We had now come apparently upon the
+immediate envelopes of the remains, which it was now evident must be
+those of a child. These consisted of three robes, with hoods very
+richly ornamented with bead-work. These robes or cloaks were of
+buffalo-calf skin about four feet in length, elaborately decorated
+with bead-work in stripes. The outer was covered with rows of blue and
+white bead-work, the second was green and yellow, and the third blue
+and red. All were further adorned by spherical brass bells attached
+all about the borders by strings of beads.
+
+"The remains with their wrappings lay upon a matting similar to that
+used by the Navajo and other Indians of the southern plains, and upon
+a pillow of dirty rags, in which were folded a bag of red paint, bits
+of antelope skin, bunches of straps, buckles, &c. The three bead-work
+hooded cloaks were now removed, and then we successively unwrapped a
+gray woolen double shawl, five yards of blue cassimere, six yards of
+red calico, and six yards of brown calico, and finally disclosed the
+remains of a child, probably about a year old, in an advanced stage of
+decomposition. The cadaver had a beaver-cap ornamented with disks of
+copper containing the bones of the cranium, which had fallen apart.
+About the neck were long wampum necklaces with _dentalium, unionida,
+and auricula,_ interspersed with beads. There were also strings of
+the pieces of _Haliotis_ from the Gulf of California, so valued
+by the Indians on this side of the Rocky Mountains. The body had been
+elaborately dressed for burial, the costume consisting of a red-
+flannel cloak, a red tunic, and frock-leggins adorned with bead-work,
+yarn stockings of red and black worsted, and deerskin bead-work
+moccasins. With the remains were numerous trinkets, a porcelain image,
+a China vase, strings of beads, several toys, a pair of mittens, a fur
+collar, a pouch of the skin of _putorius vison_, &c."
+
+Another extremely interesting account of scaffold burial, furnished by
+Dr. L. S. Turner, U. S. A., Fort Peck, Mont., and relating to the
+Sioux, is here given entire, as it refers to certain curious mourning
+observances which have prevailed to a great extent over the entire
+globe:
+
+"The Dakotas bury their dead in the tops of trees when limbs can be
+found sufficiently horizontal to support scaffolding on which to lay
+the body, but as such growth is not common in Dakota, the more general
+practice is to lay them upon scaffolds from 7 to 10 feet high and out
+of the reach of carnivorous animals as the wolf. These scaffolds are
+constructed upon four posts set into the ground something after the
+manner of the rude drawing which I inclose. Like all labors of a
+domestic kind, the preparation for burial is left to the women,
+usually the old women. The work begins as soon as life is extinct. The
+face, neck, and hands are thickly painted with vermilion, or a species
+of red earth found in various portions of the Territory when the
+vermilion of the traders cannot be had. The clothes and personal
+trinkets of the deceased ornament the body. When blankets are
+available, it is then wrapped in one, all parts of the body being
+completely enveloped. Around this a dressed skin of buffalo is then
+securely wrapped, with the flesh side out, and the whole securely
+bound with thongs of skins, either raw or dressed; and for ornament,
+when available, a bright-red blanket envelopes all other coverings,
+and renders the general scene more picturesque until dimmed by time
+and the elements. As soon as the scaffold is ready, the body is borne
+by the women, followed by the female relatives, to the place of final
+deposit, and left prone in its secure wrappings upon this airy bed of
+death. This ceremony is accompanied with lamentations so wild and
+weird that one must see and hear in order to appreciate. If the
+deceased be a brave, it is customary to place upon or beneath the
+scaffold a few buffalo-heads which time has rendered dry and
+inoffensive; and if he has been brave in war some of his implements of
+battle are placed on the scaffold or securely tied to its timbers. If
+the deceased has been a chief, or a soldier related to his chief, it
+is not uncommon to slay his favorite pony and place the body beneath
+the scaffold, under the superstition, I suppose, that the horse goes
+with the man. As illustrating the propensity to provide the dead with
+the things used while living, I may mention that some years ago I
+loaned to an old man a delft urinal for the use of his son, a young
+man who was slowly dying of a wasting disease. I made him promise
+faithfully that he would return it as soon as his son was done using
+it. Not long afterwards the urinal graced the scaffold which held the
+remains of the dead warrior, and as it has not to this day been
+returned I presume the young man is not done using it.
+
+"The mourning customs of the Dakotas, though few of them appear to be
+of universal observance, cover considerable ground. The hair, never
+cut under other circumstances, is cropped off even with the neck, and
+the top of the head and forehead, and sometimes nearly the whole body,
+are smeared with a species of white earth resembling chalk, moistened
+with water. The lodge, teepee, and all the family possessions except
+the few shabby articles of apparel worn by the mourners, are given
+away and the family left destitute. Thus far the custom is universal
+or nearly so. The wives, mother, and sisters of a deceased man, on the
+first, second, or third day after the funeral, frequently throw off
+their moccasins and leggins and gash their legs with their butcher-
+knives, and march through the camp and to the place of burial with
+bare and bleeding extremities, while they chant or wail their dismal
+songs of mourning. The men likewise often gash themselves in many
+places, and usually seek the solitude of the higher point on the
+distant prairie, where they remain fasting, smoking, and wailing out
+their lamentations for two or three days. A chief who had lost a
+brother once came to me after three or four days of mourning in
+solitude almost exhausted from hunger and bodily anguish. He had
+gashed the outer side of both lower extremities at intervals of a few
+inches all the way from the ankles to the top of the hips. His wounds
+had inflamed from exposure, and were suppurating freely. He assured me
+that he had not slept for several days or nights. I dressed his wounds
+with a soothing ointment, and gave him a full dose of an effective
+anodyne, after which he slept long and refreshingly, and awoke to
+express his gratitude and shake my hand in a very cordial and sincere
+manner. When these harsher inflictions are not resorted to, the
+mourners usually repair daily for a few days to the place of burial,
+toward the hour of sunset, and chant their grief until apparently
+assuaged by its own expression. This is rarely kept up for more than
+four or five days, but is occasionally resorted to, at intervals, for
+weeks, or even months, according to the mood of the bereft. I have
+seen few things in life so touching as the spectacle of an old father
+going daily to the grave of his child, while the shadows are
+lengthening, and pouring out his grief in wails that would move a
+demon, until his figure melts with the gray twilight, when, silent and
+solemn, he returns to his desolate family. The weird effect of this
+observance is sometimes heightened, when the deceased was a grown-up
+son, by the old man kindling a little fire near the head of the
+scaffold, and varying his lamentations with smoking in silence. The
+foregoing is drawn from my memory of personal observances during a
+period of more than six years' constant intercourse with several
+subdivisions of the Dakota Indians. There may be much which memory has
+failed to recall upon a brief consideration."
+
+Perhaps a brief review of Dr. Turner's narrative may not be deemed
+inappropriate here.
+
+Supplying food to the dead is a custom which is known to be of great
+antiquity; in some instances, as among the ancient Romans, it appears
+to have been a sacrificial offering, for it usually accompanied
+cremation, and was not confined to food alone, for spices, perfumes,
+oil, etc., were thrown upon the burning pile. In addition to this,
+articles supposed or known to have been agreeable to the deceased were
+also consumed. The Jews did the same, and in our own time the Chinese,
+Caribe and many of the tribes of North American Indians followed these
+customs. The cutting of hair as a mourning observance is of very great
+antiquity, and Tegg relates that among the ancients whole cities and
+countries were shaved (_sic_) when a great man died. The Persians
+not only shaved themselves on such occasions, but extended the same
+process to their domestic animals, and Alexander, at the death of
+Hephastin, not only cut off the manes of his horses and mules, but
+took down the battlements from the city walls, that even towns might
+seem in mourning and look bald. Scarifying and mutilating the body has
+prevailed from a remote period of time, having possibly replaced, in
+the process of evolution, to a certain extent, the more barbarous
+practice of absolute personal sacrifice. In later days, among our
+Indians, human sacrifices have taken place to only a limited extent,
+but formerly many victims were immolated, for at the funerals of the
+chiefs of the Florida and Carolina Indians all the male relatives and
+wives were slain, for the reason, according to Gallatin, that the
+hereditary dignity of Chief or Great Sun descended, as usual, by the
+female line; and he, as well as all other members of his clan, whether
+male or female, could marry only persons of an inferior clan. To this
+day mutilation of the person among some tribes of Indians is usual.
+The sacrifice of the favorite horse or horses is by no means peculiar
+to our Indians, for it was common among the Romans, and possibly even
+among the men of the Reindeer period, for at Solutre, in France, the
+writer saw horses' bones exhumed from the graves examined in 1873. The
+writer has frequently conversed with Indians upon this subject, and
+they have invariably informed him that when horses were slain great
+care was taken to select the poorest of the band.
+
+Tree-burial was not uncommon among the nations of antiquity, for the
+Colchiens enveloped their dead in sacks of skin and hung them to
+trees; the ancient Tartars and Scythians did the same. With regard to
+the use of scaffolds and trees as places of deposit for the dead, it
+seems somewhat curious that the tribes who formerly occupied the
+eastern portion of our continent were not in the habit of burying in
+this way, which, from the abundance of timber, would have been a much
+easier method than the ones in vogue, while the western tribes, living
+in sparsely wooded localities, preferred the other. If we consider
+that the Indians were desirous of preserving their dead as long as
+possible, the fact of their dead being placed in trees and scaffolds
+would lead to the supposition that those living on the plains were
+well aware of the desiccating property of the dry air of that arid
+region. This desiccation would pass for a kind of mummification.
+
+The particular part of the mourning ceremonies, which consisted in
+loud cries and lamentations, may have had in early periods of time a
+greater significance than that of a mere expression of grief or woe,
+and on this point Bruhier [Footnote: L' des signes de la Mort, 1742,
+I, p. 475 _et seq._] seems quite positive, his interpretation
+being that such cries were intended to prevent premature burial. He
+gives some interesting examples, which may be admitted here.
+
+"The Caribs lament loudly, their wailings being interspersed with
+comical remarks and questions to the dead as to why he preferred to
+leave this world, having everything to make life comfortable. They
+place the corpse on a little seat in a ditch or grave four or five
+feet deep, and for ten days they bring food, requesting the corpse to
+eat. Finally, being convinced that the dead will neither eat nor
+return to life, they throw the food on the head of the corpse and fill
+up the grave."
+
+When one died among the Romans, the nearest parents embraced the body,
+closed the eyes and mouth, and when one was about to die received the
+last words and sighs, and then loudly called the name of the dead,
+finally bidding an eternal adieu. This ceremony of calling the
+deceased by name was known as the _conclamation,_ and was a
+custom anterior even to the foundation of Rome. One dying away from
+home was immediately removed thither, in order that this might be
+performed with greater propriety. In Picardy, as late as 1743, the
+relatives threw themselves on the corpse and with loud cries called it
+by name, and up to 1855 the Moravians of Pennsylvania, at the death of
+one of their number, performed mournful musical airs on brass
+instruments from the village church steeple and again at the grave
+[Footnote: The writer is informed by Mr. John Henry Boner that this
+custom still prevails not only in Pennsylvania, but at the Moravian
+settlement of Salem, North Carolina.] This custom, however, was
+probably a remnant of the ancient funeral observances, and not to
+prevent premature burial, or, perhaps, to scare away bad spirits.
+
+W. L. Hardisty [Footnote: Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 319] gives
+a curious example of log-burial in trees, relating to the Loucheux of
+British America:
+
+"They inclose the body in a neatly-hollowed piece of wood, and secure
+it to two or more trees, about six feet from the ground. A log about
+eight feet long is first split in two, and each of the parts carefully
+hollowed out to the required size. The body is then inclosed and the
+two pieces well lashed together, preparatory to being finally secured,
+as before stated, to the trees"
+
+With regard to the use of scaffolds as places of deposit for the dead,
+the following theories by Dr. W. Gardner, U.S.A., are given:
+
+"If we come to inquire why the American aborigines placed the dead
+bodies of their relatives and friends in trees, or upon scaffolds
+resembling trees, instead of burying them in the ground, or burning
+them and preserving their ashes in urns, I think we can answer the
+inquiry by recollecting that most if not all the tribes of American
+Indians, as well as other nations of a higher civilization, believed
+that the human soul, spirit or immortal part, was of the form and
+nature of a bird, and as these are essentially arboreal in their
+habits, it is quite in keeping to suppose that the _soul-bird_
+would have readier access to its former home or dwelling-place if it
+was placed upon a tree or scaffold than if it was buried in the earth;
+moreover, from this lofty eyrie the souls of the dead could rest
+secure from the attacks of wolves or other profane beasts, and guard
+like sentinels the homes and hunting-grounds of their loved ones."
+
+This statement is given because of a corroborative note in the
+writer's possession, but he is not prepared to admit it as correct
+without farther investigation.
+
+
+
+PARTIAL SCAFFOLD BURIAL AND OSSUARIES
+
+
+Under this heading may be placed the burials which consisted in first
+depositing the bodies on scaffolds, where they were allowed to remain
+for a variable length of time, after which the bones were cleaned and
+deposited either in the earth or in special structures called by
+writers "bone-houses." Roman [Footnote: Hist. of Florida, 1775, p.
+89.] relates the following concerning the Choctaws:
+
+"The following treatment of the dead is very strange ... As soon as
+the deceased is departed, a stage is erected (as in the annexed plate
+is represented) and the corpse is laid on it and covered with a bear
+skin; if he be a man of note, it is decorated, and the poles painted
+red with vermillion and bear's oil; if a child, it is put upon stakes
+set across; at this stage the relations come and weep, asking many
+questions of the corpse, such as, why he left them? did not his wife
+serve him well? was he not contented with his children? had he not
+corn enough? did not his land produce sufficient of everything? was he
+afraid of his enemies? etc. and this accompanied by loud howlings; the
+women will be there constantly, and sometimes with the corrupted air
+and heat of the sun faint so as to oblige the bystanders to carry them
+home; the men will also come and mourn in the same manner, but in the
+night or at other unseasonable times, when they are least likely to be
+discovered.
+
+"The stage is fenced round with poles; it remains thus a certain time
+but not a fixed space; this is sometimes extended to three or four
+months, but seldom more than half that time. A certain set of
+venerable old Gentlemen who wear very long nails as a distinguishing
+badge on the thumb, fore and middle finger of each hand, constantly
+travel through the nation (when i was there, i was told there were but
+five of this respectable order) that one of them may acquaint those
+concerned, of the expiration of this period, which is according to
+their own fancy; the day being come, the friends and relations
+assemble near the stage, a fire is made, and the respectable operator,
+after the body is taken down, with his nails tears the remaining flesh
+off the bones, and throws it with the entrails into the fire, where it
+is consumed; then he scrapes the bones and burns the scrapings
+likewise; the head being painted red with vermillion is with the rest
+of the bones put into a neatly made chest (which for a Chief is also
+made red) and deposited in the loft of a hut built for that purpose,
+and called bone house; each town has one of these; after remaining
+here one year or thereabouts, if he be a man of any note, they take
+the chest down, and in an assembly of relations and friends they weep
+once more over him, refresh the colour of the head, paint the box, and
+then deposit him to lasting oblivion.
+
+"An enemy nor one who commits suicide is buried under the earth as one
+to be directly forgotten and unworthy the above ceremonial obsequies
+and mourning."
+
+Jones [Footnote: Antiquities of the Southern Indiana, 1873, p. 105.]
+quotes one of the older writers, as follows, regarding the
+_Natchez_ tribe:
+
+"Among the Natchez the dead were either inhumed or placed in tombs.
+These tombs were located within or very near their temples. They
+rested upon four forked sticks fixed fast in the ground, and were
+raised some three feet above the earth. About eight feet long and a
+foot and a half wide, they were prepared for the reception of a single
+corpse. After the body was placed upon it, a basket-work of twigs was
+woven around and covered with mud, an opening being left at the head,
+through which food was presented to the deceased. When the flesh had
+all rotted away, the bones were taken out, placed in a box made of
+canes, and then deposited in the temple. The common dead were mourned
+and lamented for a period of three days. Those who fell in battle were
+honored with a more protracted and grievous lamentation."
+
+Bartram [Footnote: Bartram's Travel, 1791, p. 516.] gives a somewhat
+different account from Roman of burial among the Choctaws of Carolina:
+
+"The Choctaws pay their last duties and respect to the deceased in a
+very different manner. As soon as a person is dead, they erect a
+scaffold 18 or 20 feet high in a grove adjacent to the town, where
+they lay the corps, lightly covered with a mantle; here it is suffered
+to remain, visited and protected by the friends and relations, until
+the flesh becomes putrid, so as easily to part from the bones; then
+undertakers, who make it their business, carefully strip the flesh
+from the bones, wash and cleanse them, and when dry and purified by
+the air, having provided a curiously-wrought chest or coffin,
+fabricated of bones and splints, they place all the bones therein,
+which is deposited in the bone-house, a building erected for that
+purpose in every town; and when this house is full a general solemn
+funeral takes place; when the nearest kindred or friends of the
+deceased, on a day appointed, repair to the bone-house, take up the
+respective coffins, and, following one another in order of seniority,
+the nearest relations and connections attending their respective
+corps, and the multitude following after them, all as one family, with
+united voice of alternate allelujah and lamentation, slowly proceeding
+on to the place of general interment, when they place the coffins in
+order, forming a pyramid; [Footnote: Some ingenious men whom I have
+conversed with have given it as their opinion that all those pyramidal
+artificial hills, usually called Indian mounds, were raised on this
+occasion, and are generally sepulchres. However, I am of different
+opinion.] and, lastly, cover all over with earth, which raises a
+conical hill or mount; when they return to town in order of solemn
+procession, concluding the day with a festival, which is called the
+feast of the dead."
+
+Morgan [Footnote: League of the Iroquois 1851, p. 171] also alludes to
+this mode of burial:
+
+"The body of the deceased was exposed upon a hark scaffolding erected
+upon poles or secured upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to
+waste to a skeleton. After this had been effected by the process of
+decomposition in the open air, the bones were removed either to the
+former house of the deceased, or to a small bark-house by its side,
+prepared for their reception. In this manner the skeletons of the
+whole family were preserved from generation to generation by the
+filial or parental affection of the living After the lapse of a number
+of years, or in a season of public insecurity, or on the eve of
+abandoning a settlement, it was customary to collect these skeletons
+from the whole community around and consign them to a common resting
+place.
+
+"To this custom, which is not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless
+to be ascribed the barrows and bone-mounds which have been found in
+such numbers in various parts of the country. On opening these mounds
+the skeletons are usually found arranged in horizontal layers, a
+conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from a common center.
+In other cases they are found placed promiscuously."
+
+D. G. Brinton [Footnote: Myths of the New World, 1868. p. 256.]
+likewise gives an account of the interment of collected bones:
+
+"East of the Mississippi nearly every nation was accustomed at stated
+periods--usually once in eight or ten years--to collect and clean the
+osseous remains of those of its number who had died in the intervening
+time, and inter them in one common sepulcher, lined with choice furs,
+and marked with a mound of wood, stone, or earth. Such is the origin
+of those immense tumuli filled with the mortal remains of nations and
+generations, which the antiquary, with irreverent curiosity, so
+frequently chances upon in all portions of our territory. Throughout
+Central America the same usage obtained in various localities, as
+early writers and existing monuments abundantly testify. Instead of
+interring the bones, were they those of some distinguished chieftain,
+they were deposited in the temples or the council-houses, usually in
+small chests of canes or splints. Such were the charnel-houses which
+the historians of De Soto's expedition so often mention, and these are
+the 'arks' Adair and other authors who have sought to trace the
+descent of the Indians from the Jews have likened to that which the
+ancient Israelites bore with them in their migrations.
+
+"A widow among the Tahkalis was obliged to carry the bones of her
+deceased husband wherever she went for four years, preserving them in
+such a casket, handsomely decorated with feathers (Rich. Arc. Exp, p.
+260). The Caribs of the mainland adopted the custom for all, without
+exception. About a year after death the bones were cleaned, bleached,
+painted, wrapped in odorous balsams, placed in a wicker basket, and
+kept suspended from the door of their dwelling (Gumilla Hist. del
+Orinoco I., pp. 199, 202, 204). When the quantity of these heirlooms
+became burdensome they were removed to some inaccessible cavern and
+stowed away with reverential care."
+
+George Catlin [Footnote: Hist. N. A. Indians, 1844, I, p. 90.]
+describes what he calls the "Golgothas" of the Mandans:
+
+"There are several of these golgothas, or circles of twenty or thirty
+feet in diameter, and in the center of each ring or circle is a little
+mound of three feet high, on which uniformly rest two buffalo skulls
+(a male and female), and in the center of the little mound is erected
+'a medicine pole,' of about twenty feet high, supporting many curious
+articles of mystery and superstition, which they suppose have the
+power of guarding and protecting this sacred arrangement.
+
+"Here, then, to this strange place do these people again resort to
+evince their further affections for the dead, not in groans and
+lamentations, however, for several years have cured the anguish, but
+fond affection and endearments are here renewed, and conversations are
+here held and cherished with the dead. Each one of these skulls is
+placed upon a bunch of wild sage, which has been pulled and placed
+under it. The wife knows, by some mark or resemblance, the skull of
+her husband or her child which lies in this group, and there seldom
+passes a day that she does not visit it with a dish of the best-cooked
+food that her wigwam affords, which she sets before the skull at
+night, and returns for the dish in the morning. As soon as it is
+discovered that the sage on which the skull rests is beginning to
+decay, the woman cuts a fresh bunch and places the skull carefully
+upon it, removing that which was under it.
+
+"Independent of the above-named duties, which draw the women to this
+spot, they visit it from inclination, and linger upon it to hold
+converse and company with the dead. There is scarcely an hour in a
+pleasant day but more or less of these women may be seen sitting or
+lying by the skull of their child or husband, talking to it in the
+most pleasant and endearing language that they can use (as they were
+wont to do in former days), and seemingly getting an answer back."
+
+From these accounts it may be seen that the peculiar customs which
+have been described by the authors cited were not confined to any
+special tribe or area of country, although they do not appear to have
+prevailed among the Indians of the northwest coast, so far as known.
+
+
+
+SUPERTERRENE AND AERIAL BURIAL IN CANOES.
+
+
+The next mode of burial to be remarked is that of deposit in canoes,
+either supported on posts, on the ground, or swung from trees, and is
+common only to the tribes inhabiting the northwest coast. From a
+number of examples, the following, relating to the Clallams and
+furnished by the Rev. M. Eells, missionary to the Skokomish Agency,
+Washington Territory, is selected:
+
+"The deceased was a woman about thirty or thirty-five years of age,
+dead of consumption. She died in the morning, and in the afternoon I
+went to the house to attend the funeral. She had then been placed in a
+Hudson's Bay Company's box for a coffin, which was about 3 1/2 feet
+long, 1 3/4 wide, and 1 1/2 high. She was very poor when she died,
+owing to her disease, or she could not have been put in this box. A
+fire was burning near by, where a large number of her things had been
+consumed, and the rest were in three boxes near the coffin. Her mother
+sang the mourning song, sometimes with others, and often saying. 'My
+daughter, my daughter, why did you die?' and similar words. The burial
+did not take place until the next day, and I was invited to go. It was
+an aerial burial, in a canoe. The canoe was about 25 feet long. The
+posts, of old Indian hewed boards, were about a foot wide. Holes were
+cut in these, in which boards were placed, on which the canoe rested.
+One thing I noticed while this was done which was new to me, but the
+significance of which I did not learn. As fast as the holes were cut
+in the posts green leaves were gathered and placed over the holes
+until the posts were put in the ground. The coffin-box and the three
+others containing her things were placed in the canoe and a roof of
+boards made over the central part, which was entirely covered with
+white cloth. The head part and the foot part of her bedstead were then
+nailed on to the posts, which front the water, and a dress nailed on
+each of these. After pronouncing the benediction, all left the hill
+and went to the beach except her father, mother, and brother, who
+remained ten or fifteen minutes, pounding on the canoe and mourning.
+They then came down and made a present to those persons who were
+there--a gun to me, a blanket to each of two or three others, and a
+dollar and a half to each of the rest, there being about fifteen
+persons present. Three or four of them then made short speeches, and
+we came home.
+
+"The reason why she was buried thus is said to be because she is a
+prominent woman in the tribe. In about nine months it is expected that
+there will be a '_pot-latch_' or distribution of money near this
+place, and as each tribe shall come they will send a delegation of two
+or three men, who will carry a present and leave it at the grave; soon
+after that shall be done she will be buried in the ground. Shortly
+after her death both her father and mother cut off their hair as a
+sign of their grief."
+
+George Gibbs [Footnote: Cont. N. A. Ethnol. 1877, I, p. 200.] gives a
+most interesting account of the burial ceremonies of the Indians of
+Oregon and Washington Territory, which is here reproduced in its
+entirety, although it contains examples of other modes of burial
+besides that in canoes; but to separate the narrative would destroy
+the thread of the story:
+
+"The common mode of disposing of the dead among the fishing tribes was
+in canoes. These were generally drawn into the woods at some prominent
+point a short distance from the village, and sometimes placed between
+the forks of trees or raised from the ground on posts. Upon the
+Columbia River the Tsinuk had in particular two very noted cemeteries,
+a high isolated bluff about three miles below the mouth of the
+Cowlitz, called Mount Coffin, and one some distance above, called
+Coffin Rock. The former would appear not to have been very ancient.
+Mr. Broughton, one of Vancouver's lieutenants, who explored the river,
+makes mention only of _several_ canoes at this place; and Lewis
+and Clarke, who noticed the mount, do not speak of them at all, but at
+the time of Captain Wilkes's expedition it is conjectured that there
+were at least 3,000. A fire caused by the carelessness of one of his
+party destroyed the whole, to the great indignation of the Indians.
+
+"Captain Belcher, of the British ship Sulphur, who visited the river
+in 1839, remarks: 'In the year 1836 [1826] the small-pox made great
+ravages, and it was followed a few years since by the ague.
+Consequently Corpse Island and Coffin Mount, as well as the adjacent
+shores, were studded not only with canoes, but at the period of our
+visit the skulls and skeletons were strewed about in all directions.'
+This method generally prevailed on the neighboring coasts, as at Shoal
+Water Bay, etc. Farther up the Columbia, as at the Cascades, a
+different form was adopted, which is thus described by Captain Clarke:
+
+"About half a mile below this house, in a very thick part of the
+woods, is an ancient Indian burial-place; it consists of eight vaults,
+made of pine or cedar boards, closely connected, about eight feet
+square and six in height, the top securely covered with wide boards,
+sloping a little, so as to convey off the rain. The direction of all
+these is east and west, the door being on the eastern side, and
+partially stopped with wide boards, decorated with rude pictures of
+men and other animals. On entering we found in some of them four dead
+bodies, carefully wrapped in skins, tied with cords of grass and bark,
+lying on a mat in a direction east and west, the other vaults
+contained only bones, which in some of them were piled to a height of
+four feet; on the tops of the vaults and on poles attached to them
+hung brass kettles and frying-pans with holes in their bottoms,
+baskets, bowls, sea-shells, skins, pieces of cloth, hair bags of
+trinkets, and small bones, the offerings of friendship or affection,
+which have been saved by a pious veneration from the ferocity of war
+or the more dangerous temptation of individual gain. The whole of the
+walls as well as the door were decorated with strange figures cut and
+painted on them, and besides these were several wooden images of men,
+some of them so old and decayed as to have almost lost their shape,
+which were all placed against the sides of the vault. These images, as
+well as those in the houses we have lately seen, do not appear to be
+at all the objects of adoration in this place; they were most probably
+intended as resemblances of those whose decease they indicate; and
+when we observe them in houses they occupy the most conspicuous part,
+but are treated more like ornaments than objects of worship. Near the
+vaults which are still standing are the remains of others on the
+ground, completely rotted and covered with moss; and as they are
+formed of the most durable pine and cedar timber, there is every
+appearance that for a very long series of years this retired spot has
+been the depository for the Indians near this place."
+
+"Another depository of this kind upon an island in the river a few
+miles above gave it the name of Sepulcher Island. The _Watlala_,
+a tribe of the Upper Tsinuk, whose burial place is here described, are
+now nearly extinct; but a number of the sepulchers still remain in
+different states of preservation. The position of the body, as noticed
+by Clarke, is, I believe, of universal observance, the head being
+always placed to the west. The reason assigned to me is that the road
+to the _me-mel-us-illa-hee_, the country of the dead, is toward
+the west, and if they place them otherwise they would be confused.
+East of the Cascade Mountains the tribes whose habits are equestrian,
+and who use canoes only for ferriage or transportation purposes, bury
+their dead, usually heaping over them piles of stones, either to mark
+the spot or to prevent the bodies from being exhumed by the prairie
+wolf. Among the Yakamas we saw many of their graves placed in
+conspicuous points of the basaltic walls which line the lower valleys,
+and designated by a clump of poles planted over them, from which
+fluttered various articles of dress. Formerly these prairie tribes
+killed horses over the graves--a custom now falling into disuse in
+consequence of the teachings of the whites.
+
+"Upon Puget Sound all the forms obtain in different localities. Among
+the Makah of Cape Flattery the graves are covered with a sort of box,
+rudely constructed of boards, and else where on the Sound the same
+method is adopted in some cases, while in others the bodies are placed
+on elevated scaffolds. As a general thing, however, the Indians upon
+the water placed the dead in canoes, while those at a distance from it
+buried them. Most of the graves are surrounded with strips of cloth,
+blankets, and other articles of property. Mr. Cameron, an English
+gentleman residing at Esquimalt Harbor, Vancouver Island, informed me
+that on his place there were graves having at each corner a large
+stone, the interior space filled with rubbish. The origin of these was
+unknown to the present Indians.
+
+"The distinctions of rank or wealth in all cases were very marked;
+persons of no consideration and slaves being buried with very little
+care or respect. Vancouver, whose attention was particularly attracted
+to their methods of disposing of the dead, mentions that at Port
+Discovery he saw baskets suspended to the trees containing the
+skeletons of young children, and, what is not easily explained, small
+square boxes, containing, apparently, food. I do not think that any of
+these tribes place articles of food with the dead, nor have I been
+able to learn from living Indians that they formerly followed that
+practice. What he took for such I do not understand. He also mentions
+seeing in the same place a cleared space recently burned over, in
+which the skulls and bones of a number lay among the ashes. The
+practice of burning the dead exists in parts of California and among
+the Tshimsyan of Fort Simpson. It is also pursued by the "Carriers" of
+New California, but no intermediate tribes, to my knowledge, follow
+it. Certainly those of the Sound do not at present.
+
+"It is clear from Vancouver's narrative that some great epidemic had
+recently passed through the country, as manifested by the quantity of
+human remains uncared for and exposed at the time of his visit, and
+very probably the Indians, being afraid, had burned a house, in which
+the inhabitants had perished with the dead in it. This is frequently
+done. They almost invariably remove from an place where sickness has
+prevailed, generally destroying the house also.
+
+"At Penn Cove Mr. Whidbey, one of Vancouver's officers, noticed
+several sepulchers formed exactly like a sentry-box. Some of them were
+open, and contained the skeletons, of many young children tied up in
+baskets. The smaller bones of adults were likewise noticed, but not
+one of the limb bones was found; which gave rise to an opinion that
+these, by the living inhabitants of the neighborhood, were
+appropriated to useful purposes, such as pointing their arrows,
+spears, or other weapons.
+
+"It is hardly necessary to say that such a practice is altogether
+foreign to Indian character. The bones of the adults had probably been
+removed and buried elsewhere. The corpses of children are variously
+disposed of; sometimes by suspending them, at others by placing in the
+hollows of trees, A cemetery devoted to infants is, however, an
+unusual occurrence. In cases of chiefs or men of note much pomp was
+used in the accompaniments of the rite. The canoes were of great size
+and value--the war or state canoes of the deceased. Frequently one was
+inverted over that holding the body, and in one instance, near
+Shoalwater Bay, the corpse was deposited in a small canoe, which again
+was placed in a larger one and covered with a third. Among the
+_Tsinuk_ and _Tsihalis_ the _tamahno-us_ board of the owner was
+placed near him. The Puget Sound Indians do not make these
+_tamahno-us_ hoards, but they sometimes constructed effigies of
+their chiefs, resembling the person as nearly as possible, dressed in
+his usual costume, and wearing the articles of which he was fond. One
+of these, representing the Skagit chief Sneestum, stood very
+conspicuously upon a high bank on the eastern side of Whidbey Island
+The figures observed by Captain Clarke at the Cascades were either of
+this description or else the carved, posts which had ornamented the
+interior of the houses of the deceased, and were connected with the
+superstition of the _tamahno-us_. The most valuable articles of
+property were put into or hung up around the grave, being first
+carefully rendered unserviceable, and the living family were literally
+stripped to do honor to the dead. No little self-denial must have been
+practiced in parting with articles so precious, but those interested
+frequently had the least to say on the subject. The graves of women
+were distinguished by a cup, a Kamas stick, or other implement of
+their occupation, and by articles of dress.
+
+"Slaves were killed in proportion to the rank and wealth of the
+deceased. In some instances they were starved to death, or even tied
+to the dead body and left to perish thus horribly. At present this
+practice has been almost entirely given up, but till within a very few
+years it was not uncommon. A case which occurred in 1850 has been
+already mentioned. Still later, in 1853, Toke, a Tsinuk chief living
+at Shoalwater Bay, undertook to kill a slave girl belonging to his
+daughter, who, in dying, had requested that this might be done. The
+woman fled, and was found by some citizens in the woods half starved.
+Her master attempted to reclaim her, but was soundly thrashed and
+warned against another attempt.
+
+"It was usual in the case of chiefs to renew or repair for a
+considerable length of time the materials and ornaments of the burial-
+place. With the common class of persons family pride or domestic
+affection was satisfied with the gathering together of the bones after
+the flesh had decayed and wrapping them in a new mat. The violation of
+the grave was always regarded as an offense of the first magnitude and
+provoked severe revenge. Captain Belcher remarks, 'Great secrecy is
+observed in all their burial ceremonies, partly from fear of
+Europeans, and as among themselves they will instantly punish by death
+any violation of the tomb or wage war if perpetrated by another tribe,
+so they are inveterate and tenaceously bent on revenge should they
+discover that any act of the kind has been perpetrated by a white man.
+It is on record that part of the crew of a vessel on her return to
+this port (the Columbia) suffered because a person who belonged to her
+(but not then in her) was known to have taken a skull, which, from the
+process of flattening, had become an object of curiosity.' He adds,
+however, that at the period of his visit to the river 'the skulls and
+skeletons were scattered about in all directions; and as I was on most
+of their positions unnoticed by the natives, I suspect the feeling
+does not extend much beyond their relatives, and then only till decay
+has destroyed body, goods, and chattels. The chiefs, no doubt, are
+watched, as their canoes are repainted, decorated, and greater care
+taken by placing them in sequestered spots.'
+
+"The motive for sacrificing or destroying property on occasion of
+death will be referred to in treating of their religious ideas.
+Wailing for the dead is continued for a long time, and seems to be
+rather a ceremonial performance than an act of spontaneous grief. The
+duty, of course, belongs to the woman, and the early morning is
+usually chosen for the purpose. They go out alone to some place a
+little distant from the lodge or camp, and in a loud, sobbing voice
+repeat a sort of stereotyped formula, as, for instance, a mother, on
+the loss of her child, _'Ah seahb shed-da bud-dah ah ta bud! ad-de-
+dah,_ Ah chief!' 'My child dead, alas!' When in dreams they see any
+of their deceased friends this lamentation is renewed."
+
+With most of the Northwest Indians it was quite common, as mentioned
+by Mr. Gibbs, to kill or bury with the dead a living slave, who,
+failing to die within three days was strangled by another slave, but
+the custom has also prevailed among other tribes and peoples, in many
+cases the individuals offering themselves as voluntary sacrifices.
+Bancroft states "that in Panama, Nata, and some other districts, when
+a cacique died those of his concubines that loved him enough, those
+that he loved ardently and so appointed, as well as certain servants,
+killed themselves and were interred with him. This they did in order
+that they might wait upon him in the land of spirits." It is well
+known to all readers of history to what an extreme this revolting
+practice has prevailed in Mexico, South America, and Africa.
+
+
+
+AQUATIC BURIAL
+
+
+As a confirmed rite or ceremony, this mode of disposing of the dead
+has never been followed by any of our North American Indians, although
+occasionally the dead have been disposed of by sinking in springs or
+watercourses, by throwing into the sea, or by setting afloat in
+canoes. Among the nations of antiquity the practice was not uncommon,
+for we are informed that the Ichtliyophagi, or fish-eaters, mentioned
+by Ptolemy, living in a region bordering on the Persian Gulf,
+invariably committed their dead to the sea, thus repaying the
+obligations they had incurred to its inhabitants. The Lotophagians did
+the same, and the Hyperboreans, with a commendable degree of
+forethought for the survivors, when ill or about to die, threw
+themselves into the sea. The burial of Baldor "the beautiful," it may
+be remembered, was in a highly decorated ship, which was pushed down
+to the sea, set on fire, and committed to the waves. The Itzas of
+Guatemala, living on the islands of Lake Peter, according to Bancroft,
+are said to have thrown their dead into the lake for want of room. The
+Indiana of Nootka Sound and the Chinooks were in the habit of thus
+getting rid of their dead slaves, and, according to Timberlake, the
+Cherokees of Tennessee "seldom bury the dead, but threw them into the
+river."
+
+After a careful search for well-authenticated instances of burial,
+aquatic and semi-aquatic, but two have been found, which are here
+given. The first relates to the Gosh-Utes, and is by Capt J. H.
+Simpson: [Footnote: Exploration Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah, 1859, p.
+48.]
+
+"Skull Valley, which is a part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, and
+which we have crossed to-day, Mr. George W. Bean, my guide over this
+route last fall, says derives its name from the number of skulls which
+have been found in it, and which have arisen from the custom of the
+Goshute Indians burying their dead in springs, which they sink with
+stones or keep down with sticks. He says he has actually seen the
+Indians bury their dead in this way near the town of Provo, where he
+resides."
+
+As corroboration of this statement, Captain Simpson mentions in
+another part of the volume that, arriving at a spring one evening,
+they were obliged to dig out the skeleton of an Indian from the mud at
+the bottom before using the water.
+
+This peculiar mode of burial is entirely unique, so far as known, and
+but from the well-known probity of the relator might well be
+questioned, especially when it is remembered that in the country
+spoken of water is quite scarce and Indians are careful not to pollute
+the streams or springs near which they live. Conjecture seems useless
+to establish a reason for this disposition of the dead.
+
+The second example is by Catlin [Footnote: Hist. North American
+Indians, 1844, II, p. 141] and relates to the Chinook.
+
+"... This little cradle has a strap which passes over the woman's
+forehead whilst the cradle rides on her back, and if the child dies
+during its subjection to this rigid mode its cradle becomes its
+coffin, forming a little canoe, in which it lie floating on the water
+in some sacred pool, where they are often in the habit of fastening
+their canoes containing the dead bodies of the old and young, or,
+which is often the case, elevated into the branches of trees, where
+their bodies are left to decay and their bones to dry whilst they are
+bandaged in man skins and ominously packed in their canoes, with
+paddles to propel and ladles to bail them out, and provisions to last
+and pipes to smoke as they are performing their 'long journey after
+death to their contemplated hunting grounds,' which these people think
+is to be performed in their canoes."
+
+
+
+LIVING SEPULCHERS
+
+
+This is a term quaintly used by the learned M Pierre Muret to express
+the devouring of the dead by birds and animals or the surviving
+friends and relatives. Exposure of the dead to animals and birds has
+already been mentioned, but in the absence of any positive proof it is
+not believed that the North American Indians followed the custom,
+although cannibalism may have prevailed to a limited extent. It is
+true that a few accounts are given by authors, but these are
+considered to be so apochryphal in character that for the present it
+is deemed prudential to omit them. That such a means of disposing of
+the dead was not in practice is somewhat remarkable when we take into
+consideration how many analogies have been found in comparing old and
+new world funeral observances, and the statements made by Bruhier,
+Lafitau, Muret, and others, who give a number of examples of this
+peculiar mode of burial.
+
+For instance, the Tartars sometimes ate their dead, and the
+Massageties, Derbices, and Effedens did the same, having previously
+strangled the aged and mixed their flesh with mutton. Horace and
+Tertulian both affirm that the Irish and ancient Britons devoured the
+dead, and Lafitau remarks that certain Indians of South America did
+the same, esteeming this mode of disposal more honorable and much to
+be preferred than to rot and be eaten by worms. To the credit of our
+savages, this barbarous and revolting practice is not believed to have
+been practiced by them.
+
+
+
+
+MOURNING, FEASTS, FOOD, DANCES, SONGS, GAMES, POSTS, FIRES, AND
+SUPERSTITIONS IN CONNECTION WITH BURIAL.
+
+
+The above subjects are coincidental with burial, and some of them,
+particularly mourning, have been more or less treated of in this
+paper, yet it may be of advantage to here give a few of the collected
+examples, under separate heads.
+
+
+
+MOURNING.
+
+
+One of the most carefully described scenes of mourning at the death of
+a chief of the Crows is related in the life of Beckwourth, [Footnote:
+Autobiography of James Beckwourth, 1856, p. 260.] who for many years
+lived among this people, finally attaining great distinction as a
+warrior.
+
+"I dispatched a herald to the village to inform them of the head
+chief's death, and then, burying him according to his directions, we
+slowly proceeded homewards. My very soul sickened at the contemplation
+of the scenes that would be enacted at my arrival. When we drew in
+sight of the village, we found every lodge laid prostrate. We entered
+amid shrieks, cries, and yells. Blood was streaming from every
+conceivable part of the bodies of all who were old enough to
+comprehend their loss. Hundreds of fingers were dismembered; hair torn
+from the head lay in profusion about the paths, wails and moans in
+every direction assailed the ear, where unrestrained joy had a few
+hours before prevailed. This fearful mourning lasted until evening of
+the next day....
+
+"A herald having been dispatched to our other villages to acquaint them
+with the death of our head chief and request them to assemble at the
+Rose Bud in order to meet our village and devote themselves to a
+general time of mourning there met in conformity with this summons
+over ten thousand Crows at the place indicated. Such a scene of
+disorderly vociferous mourning no imagination can conceive nor any pen
+portray. Long Hair cut off a large roll of his hair, a thing he was
+never known to do before. The cutting and hacking of human flesh
+exceeded all my previous experience; fingers were dismembered as
+readily as twigs, and blood was poured out like water. Many of the
+warriors would cut two gashes nearly the entire length of their arm,
+then separating the skin from the flesh at one end, would grasp it in
+their other hand and rip it asunder to the shoulder. Others would
+carve various devices upon their breasts and shoulders and raise the
+skin in the same manner to make the scars show to advantage after the
+wound was healed. Some of their mutilations were ghastly and my heart
+sickened to look at them, but they would not appear to receive any
+pain from them."
+
+From I. L. Mahan, United States Indian Agent for the Chippewas of Lake
+Superior, Red Cliff, Wisconsin, the following detailed account of
+mourning has been received.
+
+There is probably no people that exhibit more sorrow and grief for
+their dead than they. The young widow mourns the loss of her husband;
+by day as by night she is heard silently sobbing; she is a constant
+visitor to the place of rest; with the greatest reluctance will she
+follow the raised camp. The friends and relatives of the young mourner
+will incessantly devise methods to distract her mind from the thought
+of her lost husband. She refuses nourishment but as nature is
+exhausted she is prevailed upon to partake of food; the supply is
+scant, but on every occasion the best and largest proportion is
+deposited upon the grave of her husband. In the mean time the female
+relatives of the deceased have according to custom submitted to her
+charge a parcel made up of different cloths ornamented with bead-work
+and eagles' feathers which she is charged to keep by her side--the
+place made vacant by the demise of her husband--a reminder of her
+widowhood. She is therefore for a term of twelve moons not permitted
+to wear any finery, neither is she permitted to slicken up and comb
+her head; this to avoid attracting attention. Once in a while a female
+relative of deceased, commiserating with her grief and sorrow, will
+visit her and voluntarily proceed to comb out the long-neglected and
+matted hair. With a jealous eye a vigilant watch is kept over her
+conduct during the term of her widowhood, yet she is allowed the
+privilege to marry, any time during her widowhood, an unmarried
+brother or cousin, or a person of the same _Dodem_ [_sic_]
+(family mark) of her husband.
+
+"At the expiration of her term, the vows having been faithfully
+performed and kept, the female relatives of deceased assemble and,
+with greetings commensurate to the occasion, proceed to wash her face,
+comb her hair, and attire her person with new apparel, and otherwise
+demonstrating the release from her vow and restraint. Still she has
+not her entire freedom. If she will still refuse to marry a relative
+of the deceased and will marry another, she then has to purchase her
+freedom by giving a certain amount of goods and whatever else she
+might have manufactured during her widowhood in anticipation of the
+future now at hand. Frequently, though, during widowhood the vows are
+disregarded and an inclination to flirt and play courtship or form an
+alliance of marriage outside of the relatives of the deceased is being
+indulged, and when discovered the widow is set upon by the female
+relatives, her slick braided hair is shorn close up to the back of her
+neck, all her apparel and trinkets are torn from her person, and a
+quarrel frequently results fatally to some member of one or the other
+side."
+
+The substitution of a reminder for the dead husband, made from rags,
+furs, and other articles, is not confined alone to the Chippewas,
+other tribes having the same custom. In some instances the widows are
+obliged to carry around with them, for a variable period, a bundle
+containing the bones of the deceased consort.
+
+Benson [Footnote: Life among the Choctaws, 1860, p. 294.] gives the
+following account of their funeral ceremonies, embracing the
+disposition of the body, mourning feast and dance:
+
+"Their funeral is styled by them 'the last cry.'
+
+"When the husband dies the friends assemble, prepare the grave, and
+place the corpse in it, but do not fill it up. The gun, bow and
+arrows, hatchet and knife are deposited in the grave. Poles are
+planted at the head and the foot, upon which flags are placed; the
+grave is then enclosed by pickets driven in the ground. The funeral
+ceremonies now begin, the widow being the chief mourner. At night and
+morning she will go to the grave and pour forth the most piteous cries
+and wailings. It is not important that any other member of the family
+should take any very active part in the 'cry,' though they do
+participate to some extent.
+
+"The widow wholly neglects her toilet, while she daily goes to the
+grave during one entire _moon_ from the date when the death
+occurred. On the evening of the last day of the moon the friends all
+assemble at the cabin of the disconsolate widow, bringing provisions
+for a sumptuous feast, which consists of corn and jerked beef boiled
+together in a kettle. While the supper is preparing, the bereaved wife
+goes to the grave, and pours out, with unusual vehemence, her bitter
+wailings and lamentations. When the food is thoroughly cooked the
+kettle is taken from the fire and placed in the center of the cabin,
+and the friends gather around it, passing the buffalo-horn spoon from
+hand to hand and from mouth to mouth till all have been bountifully
+supplied. While supper is being served, two of the oldest men of the
+company quietly withdraw and go to the grave and fill it up, taking
+down the flags. All then join in a dance, which not unfrequently is
+continued till morning; the widow does not fail to unite in the dance,
+and to contribute her part to the festivities of the occasion. This is
+the '_last cry,_' the days of mourning are ended, and the widow
+is now ready to form another matrimonial alliance. The ceremonies are
+precisely the same when a man has lost his wife, and they are only
+slightly varied when any other member of the family has died. (Slaves
+were buried without ceremonies.)"
+
+
+
+FEASTS
+
+
+In Beltrami [Footnote: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 443.] an account is
+given of the funeral ceremonies of one of the tribes of the west,
+including a description of the feast which took place before the body
+was consigned to its final resting place:
+
+"I was a spectator of the funeral ceremony performed in honor of the
+manes of _Cloudy Weather's_ son-in-law, whose body had remained
+with the Sioux, and was suspected to have furnished one of their
+repasts. What appeared not a little singular and indeed ludicrous in
+this funeral comedy was the contrast exhibited by the terrific
+lamentations and yells of one part of the company while the others
+were singing and dancing with all their might.
+
+"At another funeral ceremony for a member of the _Grand
+Medicine,_ and at which as _a man of another world_ I was
+permitted to attend, the same practice occurred. But at the feast
+which took place on that occasion an allowance was served up for the
+deceased out of every article of which it consisted, while others were
+beating, wounding, and torturing themselves, and letting their blood
+flow both over the dead man and his provisions, thinking possibly that
+this was the most palatable seasoning for the latter which they could
+possibly supply. His wife furnished out an entertainment present for
+him of all her hair and rags, with which, together with his arms, his
+provisions, his ornaments, and his mystic medicine bag, he was wrapped
+up in the skin which had been his last covering when alive. He was
+then tied round with the bark of some particular trees which they use
+for making cords, and bonds of a very firm texture and hold (the only
+ones indeed which they have), and instead of being buried in the earth
+was hung up to a large oak. The reason of this was that, as his
+favorite Manitou was the eagle, his spirit would be enabled more
+easily from such a situation to fly with him to Paradise."
+
+Hind [Footnote: Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition, 1860, ii, p.
+164.] mentions an account of a burial feast by De Brebeuf which
+occurred among the Hurons of New York:
+
+"The Jesuit missionary, P. de Brebeuf, who assisted at one of the
+'feasts of the dead' at the village of Ossosane, before the dispersion
+of the Hurons, relates that the ceremony took place in the presence of
+2,000 Indians, who offered 1,200 presents at the common tomb, in
+testimony of their grief. The people belonging to five large villages
+deposited the bones of their dead in a gigantic shroud, composed of
+forty-eight robes, each robe being made of ten beaver skins. After
+being carefully wrapped in this shroud, they were placed between moss
+and bark. A wall of stones was built around this vast ossuary to
+preserve it from profanation. Before covering the bones with earth a
+few grains of Indian corn were thrown by the women upon the sacred
+relics. According to the superstitious belief of the Hurons the souls
+of the dead remain near the bodies until the 'feast of the dead';
+after which ceremony they become free, and can at once depart for the
+land of spirits, which they believe to be situated in the regions of
+the setting sun."
+
+
+
+SUPERSTITION REGARDING BURIAL FEASTS.
+
+
+The following account is by Dr. S G. Wright, acting physician to the
+Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota:
+
+"Pagan Indians, or those who have not become Christians, still adhere
+to the ancient practice of feasting at the grave of departed friends;
+the object is to feast with the departed; that is, they believe that
+while they partake of the visible material the departed spirit
+partakes at the same time of the spirit that dwells in the food. From
+ancient time it was customary to bury with the dead various articles,
+such especially as were most valued in lifetime. The idea was that
+there was a spirit dwelling in the article represented by the material
+article; thus the war-club contained a spiritual war-club, the pipe a
+spiritual pipe, which could be used by the departed in another world.
+These several spiritual implements were supposed, of course, to
+accompany the soul, to be used also on the way to its final abode.
+This habit has now ceased...."
+
+
+FOOD.
+
+
+This subject has been sufficiently mentioned elsewhere in connection
+with other matters and does not need to be now repeated. It has been
+an almost universal custom throughout the whole extent of the country
+to place food in or near the grave of deceased persons.
+
+
+DANCES.
+
+
+Gymnastic exercises, dignified with this name, upon the occasion of a
+death or funeral, were common to many tribes. It is thus described by
+Morgan: [Footnote: League of the Iroquois, 1851, p. 297.]
+
+"An occasional and very singular figure was called the 'dance for the
+dead' It was known as the O-he-wa. It was danced by the women alone.
+The music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being stationed
+in the center of the room. To the songs for the dead which they sang
+the dancers joined in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful music.
+This dance was usually separate from all councils and the only dance
+of the occasion. It commenced at dusk or soon after and continued
+until towards morning, when the shades of the dead who were believed
+to be present and participate in the dance were supposed to disappear.
+This dance was had whenever a family which had lost a member called
+for it, which was usually a year after the event. In the spring and
+fall it was often given for all the dead indiscriminately, who were
+believed then to revisit the earth and join in the dance."
+
+The interesting account which now follows is by Stephen Powers,
+[Footnote: Cont. to North American Ethnol., 1878, iv, p. 164.] and
+relates to the Yo-kai-a of California, containing other matters of
+importance pertaining to burial.
+
+"I paid a visit to their camp four miles below Ukiah, and finding
+there a unique kind of assembly-house, desired to enter and examine
+it, but was not allowed to do so until I had gained the confidence of
+the old sexton by a few friendly words and the tender of a silver half
+dollar. The pit of it was about 50 feet in diameter and 4 or 5 feet
+deep, and it was so heavily roofed with earth that the interior was
+damp and somber as a tomb. It looked like a low tumulus, and was
+provided with a tunnel-like entrance about 10 feet long and 4 feet
+high, and leading down to a level with the floor of the pit. The mouth
+of the tunnel was closed with brush, and the venerable sexton would
+not remove it until he had slowly and devoutly paced several times to
+and fro before the entrance.
+
+"Passing in I found the massive roof supported by a number of peeled
+poles painted white and ringed with black and ornamented with rude
+devices. The floor was covered thick and green with sprouting wheat,
+which had been scattered to feed the spirit of the captain of the
+tribe, lately deceased. Not long afterward a deputation of the Senel
+came up to condole with the Yo-kai-a on the loss of their chief, and a
+dance or series of dances was held which lasted three days. During
+this time of course the Senel were the guests of the Yo-kai-a, and the
+latter were subjected to a considerable expense. I was prevented by
+other engagements from being present, and shall be obliged to depend
+on the description of an eye-witness, Mr. John Tenney, whose account
+is here given with a few changes.
+
+"There are four officials connected with the building, who are
+probably chosen to preserve order and to allow no intruders. They are
+the assistants of the chief. The invitation to attend was from one of
+them, and admission was given by the same. These four wore black vests
+trimmed with red flannel and shell ornaments. The chief made no
+special display on the occasion. In addition to these four, who were
+officers of the assembly-chamber, there was an old man and a young
+woman, who seemed to be priest and priestess. The young woman was
+dressed differently from any other, the rest dressing in plain calico
+dresses. Her dress was white covered with spots of red flannel, cut in
+neat figures, ornamented with shells. It looked gorgeous and denoted
+some office, the name of which I could not ascertain. Before the
+visitors were ready to enter, the older men of the tribe were
+reclining around the fire smoking and chatting. As the ceremonies were
+about to commence, the old man and young woman were summoned, and,
+standing at the end opposite the entrance, they inaugurated the
+exercises by a brief service, which seemed to be a dedication of the
+house to the exercises about to commence. Each of them spoke a few
+words, joined in a brief chant, and the house was thrown open for
+their visitors. They staid at their post until the visitors entered
+and were seated on one side of the room. After the visitors then
+others were seated, making about 200 in all, though there was plenty
+of room in the center for the dancing.
+
+"Before the dance commenced the chief of the visiting tribe made a
+brief speech, in which he no doubt referred to the death of the chief
+of the Yo-kai-a, and offered the sympathy of his tribe in this loss.
+As he spoke, some of the women scarcely refrained from crying out, and
+with difficulty they suppressed their sobs. I presume that he proposed
+a few moments of mourning, for when he stopped the whole assemblage
+burst forth into a bitter wailing, some screaming as if in agony. The
+whole thing created such a din that I was compelled to stop my ears.
+The air was rent and pierced with their cries. This wailing and
+shedding of tears lasted about three or five minutes, though it seemed
+to last a half hour. At a given signal they ceased, wiped their eyes,
+and quieted down.
+
+"Then preparations were made for the dance. One end of the room was
+set aside for the dressing-room. The chief actors were five men, who
+were muscular and agile. They were profusely decorated with paint and
+feathers, while white and dark stripes covered their bodies. They were
+girt about the middle with cloth of bright colors, sometimes with
+variegated shawls. A feather mantle hung from the shoulder, reaching
+below the knee; strings of shells ornamented the neck, while their
+heads were covered with a crown of eagle feathers. They had whistles
+in their mouths as they danced, swaying their heads, bending and
+whirling their bodies; every muscle seemed to be exercised, and the
+feather ornaments quivered with light. They were agile and graceful as
+they bounded about in the sinuous course of the dance.
+
+"The five men were assisted by a semicircle of twenty women, who only
+marked time by stepping up and down with short step; they always took
+their places first and disappeared first, the men making their exit
+gracefully one by one. The dresses of the women were suitable for the
+occasion. They were white dresses trimmed heavily with black velvet. The
+stripes were about three inches wide, some plain and others edged like
+saw-teeth. This was an indication of their mourning for the dead chief
+in whose honor they had prepared that style of dancing. Strings of
+haliotis and pachydesma shell beads encircled their necks, and around
+their waists were belts heavily loaded with the same material. Their
+head-dresses were more showy than those of the men. The head was
+encircled with a bandeau of otters' or beavers' fur, to which were
+attached short wires standing out in all directions, with glass or shell
+beads strung on them, and at the tips little feather flags and quail
+plumes. Surmounting all was a pyramidal plume of feathers, black, gray,
+and scarlet, the top generally being a bright scarlet bunch, waving and
+tossing very beautifully. All these combined gave their heads a very
+brilliant and spangled appearance.
+
+"The first day the dance was slow and funereal, in honor of the Yo-
+kai-a chief who died a short time before. The music was mournful and
+simple being a monotonous chant in which only two tones were used,
+accompanied with a rattling of split sticks and stamping on a hollow
+slab. The second day the dance was more lively on the part of the men,
+the music was better, employing airs which had a greater range of tune
+and the women generally joined in the chorus. The dress of the women
+was not so beautiful as they appeared in ordinary calico. The third
+day if observed in accordance with Indian custom the dancing was still
+more lively and the proceedings more gay just as the coming home from
+a Christian funeral is apt to be much more jolly than the going out."
+
+A Yo-kai-a widow's style of mourning is peculiar. In addition to the
+usual evidences of grief she mingles the ashes of her dead husband
+with pitch making a white tar or unguent, with which she smears a band
+about two inches wide all around the edge of the hair (which is
+previously cut off close to the head) so that at a little distance she
+appears to be wearing a white chaplet.
+
+It is their custom to feed the spirits of the dead for the space of
+one year by going daily to places which they were accustomed to
+frequent while living, where they sprinkle pinole upon the ground. A
+Yo-kai-a mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to
+some place where her little one played when alive or to the spot where
+the body was burned and milks her breasts into the air. This is
+accompanied by plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling upon
+her little one to return and sometimes she sings a hoarse and
+melancholy chant and dances with a wild ecstatic swaying of her body.
+
+
+SONGS.
+
+
+It has nearly always been customary to sing songs at not only funerals
+but for varying periods of time afterwards although these chants may
+no doubt occasionally have been simply wailing or mournful
+ejaculation. A writer [Footnote: Am. Antiq., April-May-June 1879, p.
+251.] mentions it as follows:
+
+"At almost all funerals there is an irregular crying kind of singing
+with no accompaniments, but generally all do not sing the same melody
+at the same time in unison. Several may sing the same song and at the
+same time, but each begins and finishes when he or she may wish. Often
+for weeks, or even months, after the decease of a dear friend, a
+living one, usually a woman, will sit by her house and sing or cry by
+the hour; and they also sing for a short time when they visit the
+grave or meet an esteemed friend whom they have not seen since the
+decease. At the funeral both men and women sing. No. 11 I have heard
+more frequently some time after the funeral, and No. 12 at the time of
+the funeral, by the Twanas (For song see p. 251.) The words are simply
+an exclamation of grief, as our word 'alas'; but they also have other
+words which they use, and sometimes they use merely the syllable
+_la_. Often the notes are sung in this order, and sometimes not,
+but in some order the notes _do_ and _la,_ and occasionally
+_mi,_ are sung."
+
+
+GAMES.
+
+
+It is not proposed to describe under this heading examples of those
+athletic and gymnastic performances following the death of a person
+which have been described by Lafitau, but simply to call attention to
+a practice as a secondary or adjunct part of the funeral rites, which
+consists in gambling for the possession of the property of the
+defunct. Dr. Charles E. McChesney, U. S. A., who for some time was
+stationed among the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux, furnishes a detailed
+and interesting account of what is called the "ghost gamble." This is
+played with marked wild-plum stones. So far as ascertained it is
+peculiar to the Sioux.
+
+"After the death of a wealthy Indian the near relatives take charge of
+the effects, and at a stated time--usually at the time of the first
+feast held over the bundle containing the lock of hair--they are
+divided into many small piles, so as to give all the Indians invited
+to play an opportunity to win something. One Indian is selected to
+represent the ghost, and he plays against all the others, who are not
+required to stake anything on the result, but simply invited to take
+part in the ceremony, which is usually held in the lodge of the dead
+person, in which is contained the bundle inclosing the lock of hair.
+In cases where the ghost himself is not wealthy the stakes are
+furnished by his rich friends, should he have any. The players are
+called in one at a time, and play singly against the ghost's
+representative, the gambling being done in recent years by means of
+cards. If the invited player succeeds in beating the ghost he takes
+one of the piles of goods and passes out when another is invited to
+play, etc., until all the piles of goods are won. In cases of men only
+the men play and in cases of women the women only take part in the
+ceremony."
+
+Before the white men came among these Indians and taught them many of
+his improved vices this game was played by means of figured plum
+seeds, the men using eight and the women seven seeds figured as
+follows:
+
+"Two seeds are simply blackened on one side the reverse containing
+nothing. Two seeds are black on one side with a small spot of the
+color of the seed left in the center, the reverse side having a black
+spot in the center, the body being plain. Two seeds have a buffalo's
+head on one side and the reverse simply two crossed black lines. There
+is but one seed of this kind in the set used by the women. Two seeds
+have half of one side blackened and the rest left plain so as to
+represent a half moon, the reverse has a black longitudinal line
+crossed at right angles by six small ones. There are six throws
+whereby the player can win and five that entitle him to another throw.
+The winning throws are as follows, each winner taking a pile of the
+ghost's goods:
+
+"Two plain ones up, two plain with black spots up, Buffalo's head up,
+and two half moons up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two black
+with natural spot up, two longitudinally crossed ones up, and the
+transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones up, two
+black with natural spots up, two half moons up, and the transversely
+crossed one up wins a pile. Two plain black ones, two black with
+natural spot up, two half moons up, and the buffalo's head up wins a
+pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots up, two longitudinally
+crossed ones up, and the transversely crossed one up wins a pile. Two
+plain ones up, two with black spots up, buffalo's head up, and two
+long crossed up wins a pile. The following throws entitle to another
+chance to win: two plain ones up, two with black spots up, one half
+moon up, one longitudinally crossed one up, and Buffalo's head up
+gives another throw, and on this throw if the two plain ones up and
+two with black spots with either of the half moons or Buffalo's head
+up, the player takes a pile. Two plain ones up, two with black spots
+up, two half moons up, and the transversely crossed one up entitles to
+another throw, when, if all of the black sides come up excepting one,
+the throw wins. One of the plain ones up and all the rest with black
+sides up gives another throw, and the same then turning up wins. One
+of the plain black ones up with that side up of all the others having
+the least black on gives another throw, when the same turning up again
+wins. One half moon up with that side up of all the others having the
+least black on gives another throw, and if the throw is then
+duplicated it wins. The eighth seed, used by the men has its place in
+their game whenever its facings are mentioned above. I transmit with
+this paper a set of these figured seeds, which can be used to
+illustrate the game if desired. These seeds are said to be nearly a
+hundred years old, and sets of them are now very rare."
+
+For assisting in obtaining this account Dr. McChesney acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Dr C. C. Miller, physician to the Sisseton Indian
+Agency.
+
+
+POSTS.
+
+
+These are placed at the head or foot of the grave, or both, and have
+painted or carved on them a history of the deceased or his family,
+certain totemic characters, or, according to Schoolcraft, not the
+achievements of the dead, but of those warriors who assisted and
+danced at the interment. The northwest tribes and others frequently
+plant poles near the graves, suspending therefrom bits of rag flags,
+horses tails, etc. The custom among the present Indians does not exist
+to any extent. Beltrami [Footnote: Pilgrimage, 1828, ii, p. 308.]
+speaks of it as follows.
+
+"Here I saw a most singular union. One of these graves was surmounted
+by a cross, whilst upon another close to it a trunk of a tree was
+raised, covered with hieroglyphics recording the number of enemies
+slain by the tenant of the tomb and several of his tutelary Manitous."
+
+
+FIRES.
+
+
+It is extremely difficult to determine why the custom of building
+fires on or near graves originated, some authors stating that the soul
+thereby underwent a certain process of purification, others that
+demons were driven away by them, and again that they were to afford
+light to the wandering soul setting out for the spirit land. One
+writer states that "the Algonkins believed that the fire lighted
+nightly on the grave was to light the spirit on its journey. By a
+coincidence to be explained by the universal sacredness of the number,
+both Algonkins and Mexicans maintained it for _four_ nights
+consecutively. The former related the tradition that one of their
+ancestors returned from the spirit land and informed their nation that
+the journey thither consumed just four days, and that collecting fuel
+every night added much to the toil and fatigue the soul encountered,
+all of which could be spared it". So it would appear that the belief
+existed that the fire was also intended to assist the spirit in
+preparing its repast.  "Stephen Powers [Footnote: Cont. to N. A.
+Ethnol., 1877, ii, p.58] gives a tradition current among the Yurok of
+California as to the use of fires.
+
+"After death they keep a fire burning certain nights in the vicinity
+of the grave. They hold and believe, at least the 'Big Indians' do,
+that the spirits of the departed are compelled to cross an extremely
+attenuated greasy pole, which bridges over the chasm of the debatable
+land, and that they require the fire to light them on their darksome
+journey. A righteous soul traverses the pole quicker than a wicked
+one, hence they regulate the number of nights for burning a light
+according to the character for goodness or the opposite which the
+deceased possessed in this world." Dr. Emil Bessels, of the Polaris
+expedition, informs the writer that a somewhat similar belief obtains
+among the Esquimaux.
+
+
+SUPERSTITIONS.
+
+
+An entire volume might well be written which should embrace only an
+account of the superstitions regarding death and burial among the
+Indians, so thoroughly has the matter been examined and discussed by
+various authors, and yet so much still remains to be commented on, but
+in this work, which is simply preliminary, and is hoped will be
+provocative of future efforts, it is deemed sufficient to give only a
+few accounts. The first is by Dr. W. Mathews, U. S. A., [Footnote:
+Ethnol. and Philol. of the Hidatsa Indians. U.S. Geol. Surv. of Terr.,
+1877, p. 409] and relates to the Hidatsa:
+
+"When a Hidatsa dies his shade lingers four nights around the camp or
+village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge of his departed
+kindred in the 'village of the dead.' When he has arrived there he is
+rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on earth by
+receiving the same regard in the one place as in the other, for there
+as here the brave man is honored and the coward despised. Some say
+that the ghosts of those that commit suicide occupy a separate part of
+the village, but that their condition differs in no wise from that of
+the others. In the next world human shades hunt and live in the shades
+of buffalo and other animals that have here died. There, too, there
+are four seasons, but they come in an inverse order to the terrestrial
+seasons. During the four nights that the ghost is supposed to linger
+near his former dwelling, those who disliked or feared the deceased,
+and do not wish a visit from the shade, scorch with red coals a pair
+of moccasins which they leave at the door of the lodge. The smell of
+the burning leather they claim keeps the ghost out; but the true
+friends of the dead man take no such precautions."
+
+From this account it will be seen that the Hidatsa as well as the
+Algonkins and Mexicans believed that four days were required before
+the spirit could finally leave the earth. Why the smell of burning
+leather should he offensive to spirits it would perhaps be fruitless
+to speculate on.
+
+The next account, by Keating, [Footnote: Long's Exped., 1824, ii, p.
+l58.] relating to the Chippewas, shows a slight analogy regarding the
+slippery-pole tradition already alluded to:
+
+"The Chippewas believe that there is in man an essence entirely
+distinct from the body; they call it _Ochechag,_ and appear to
+supply to it the qualities which we refer to the soul. They believe
+that it quits the body at the time of death and repairs to what they
+term _Chekechekchekawe;_ this region is supposed to be situated
+to the south and on the shores of the great ocean. Previous to
+arriving there they meet with a stream which they are obliged to cross
+upon a large snake that answers the purpose of a bridge; those who die
+from drowning never succeed in crossing the stream; they are thrown
+into it and remain there forever. Some souls come to the edge of the
+stream but are prevented from passing by the snake that threatens to
+devour them: these are the souls of the persons in a lethargy or
+trance. Being refused a passage, these souls return to their bodies
+and reanimate them. They believe that animals have souls and even that
+inorganic substances such as kettles etc., have in them a similar
+essence."
+
+In this land of souls all are treated according to their merits. Those
+who have been good men are free from pain, they have no duties to
+perform, their time is spent in dancing and singing and they feed upon
+mushrooms which are very abundant The souls of bad men are haunted by
+the phantom of the persons or things that they have injured, thus if a
+man has destroyed much property the phantoms of the wrecks of this
+property obstruct his passage wherever he goes, if he has been cruel
+to his dogs or horses they also torment him after death. The ghosts of
+those whom during his lifetime he wronged are there permitted to
+avenge their injuries. They think that when a soul has crossed the
+stream it cannot return to its body, yet they believe in apparitions
+and entertain the opinion that the spirits of the departed will
+frequently revisit the abodes of their friends in order to invite them
+to the other world and to forewarn them of their approaching
+dissolution.
+
+Stephen Powers in his valuable work so often quoted, gives a number of
+examples of superstitions regarding the dead of which the following
+relates to the Karok of California.
+
+"How well and truly the Karok reverence the memory of the dead is
+shown by the fact that the highest crime one can commit is the _pet-
+chi-e-ri_, the mere mention of the dead relative's name. It is a
+deadly insult to the survivors and can be atoned for only by the same
+amount of blood money paid for willful murder. In default of that they
+will have the villain's blood.... At the mention of his name the
+moldering skeleton turns in his grave and groans. They do not like
+stragglers even to inspect the burial place.... They believe that the
+soul of a good Karok goes to the 'happy western land' beyond the great
+ocean. That they have a well grounded assurance of an immortality
+beyond the grave is proven, if not otherwise, by their beautiful and
+poetical custom of whispering a message in the ear of the dead....
+Believe that dancing will liberate some relative's soul from bonds of
+death and restore him to earth"
+
+According to the same author, when a Kelta dies a little bird flies
+away with his soul to the spirit land. If he was a bad Indian a hawk
+will catch the little bird and eat him up soul and feathers, but if he
+was good he will reach the spirit land. Mr. Powers also states that
+"The Tolowa share in the superstitious observance for the memory of
+the dead which is common to the Northern Californian tribes When I
+asked the chief Tahhokolli to tell me the Indian words for 'father'
+and 'mother' and certain others similar, he shook his head mournfully
+and said 'all dead,' 'all dead,' 'no good.' They are forbidden to
+mention the name of the dead, as it is a deadly insult to the
+relatives,"... and that the "Mat-toal hold that the good depart to a
+happy region somewhere southward in the great ocean, but the soul of a
+bad Indian transmigrates into a grizzly bear, which they consider of
+all animals the cousin-german of sin."
+
+The Mosquito Indians of Central America studiously and superstitiously
+avoid mentioning the name of the dead, in this regard resembling those
+of our own country.
+
+
+
+FINAL REMARKS.
+
+
+We have thus briefly, though it is hoped judiciously and carefully,
+reviewed the subject of Indian burial, avoiding elaborate discussion,
+as foreign to the purpose of the work, simply pointing out from the
+carefully gleaned material at our disposal such examples and detached
+accounts as may serve as guides to those whose interest in the subject
+may lead them to contribute to the final volume. Before closing,
+however, it is necessary to again allude to the circular which has
+been forwarded to observers and call attention to some additional
+matters of importance connected with the queries, which are as
+follows: [Footnote: Advantage has been taken to incorporate with the
+queries certain modifications of those propounded by Schoolcraft in
+his well-known work on the Indian tribes of the United States,
+relating to the same subject.]
+
+1st. NAME OF THE TRIBE, present appellation; former, if differing any;
+and that used by the Indians themselves.
+
+2d. LOCALITY, PRESENT AND FORMER.--The response should give the range
+of the tribe and be full and geographically accurate.
+
+3d. DEATHS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES; what are the important and
+characteristic facts connected with these subjects? How is the corpse
+prepared after death and disposed of? How long is it retained? Is it
+spoken to after death as if alive? when and where? What is the
+character of the addresses? What articles are deposited with it; and
+why? Is food put in the grave, or in or near it afterwards? Is this
+said to be an ancient custom? Are persons of the same gens buried
+together, and is the clan distinction obsolete, or did it ever
+prevail?
+
+4th. MANNER OF BURIAL, ANCIENT AND MODERN; STRUCTURE AND POSITION OF
+THE GRAVES; CREMATION--Are burials usually made in high and dry
+grounds? Have mounds or tumuli been erected in modern times over the
+dead? How is the grave prepared and finished? What position are bodies
+placed in? Give reasons therefor if possible. If cremation is or was
+practiced, describe the process, disposal of the ashes, and origin of
+custom or traditions relating thereto. Are the dead ever eaten by the
+survivors? Are bodies deposited in springs or in any body of water?
+Are scaffolds or trees used as burial places; if so, describe
+construction of the former and how the corpse is prepared, and whether
+placed in skins or boxes. Are bodies placed in canoes? State whether
+they are suspended from trees, put on scaffolds or posts, allowed to
+float on the water or sunk beneath it, or buried in the ground. Can
+any reasons be given for the prevalence of any one or all of the
+methods? Are burial posts or slabs used, plain, or marked, with flags
+or other insignia of position of deceased. Describe embalmment,
+mummification, desiccation, or if antiseptic precautions are taken,
+and subsequent disposal of remains. Are bones collected and
+reinterred, describe ceremonies, if any, whether modern or ancient. If
+charnel houses exist or have been used, describe them.
+
+5th. MOURNING OBSERVANCES--Is scarification practiced, or personal
+mutilation? What is the garb or sign of mourning? How are the dead
+lamented? Are periodical visits made to the grave? Do widows carry
+symbols of their deceased children or husbands, and for how long? Are
+sacrifices, human or otherwise, voluntary or involuntary, offered? Are
+fires kindled on graves, why, and at what time, and for how long?
+
+6th. BURIAL TRADITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS--Give in full all that can be
+learned on these subjects, as they are full of interest and very
+important.
+
+In short, every fact bearing on the disposal of the dead, and
+correlative customs are needed, and details should be as succinct and
+full as possible.
+
+One of the most important matters upon which information is needed is
+the "why" and "wherefore" for every rite and custom, for, as a rule,
+observers are content to simply state a certain occurrence as a fact,
+but take very little trouble to inquire the reason for it.
+
+The writer would state that any material the result of careful
+observation will be most gratefully received and acknowledged in the
+final volume, and he would here confess the lasting obligation he is
+under to those who have already contributed in response to his call.
+
+Criticism and comments are earnestly invited from all those interested
+in the special subject of this paper and anthropology in general
+Contributions are also requested from persons acquainted with curious
+forms of burial prevailing among other tribes of savage men.
+
+In addition to the many references, etc, given by the various members
+of the Bureau of Ethnology, communications have been received from the
+following persons, although their accounts may not have been alluded
+to in this volume; should omissions of names have occurred it is hoped
+attention will be called to the fact.
+
+The writer acknowledges with pleasure the assistance he has received
+in reading the proof of this volume from Mr. J. C. Pilling, Dr. Thomas
+W. Wise and Mr. R. W. Hardy.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
+
+
+E. H. ALDEN.
+DR. C. P. ALLEN.
+GEN. BENJAMIN ALVORD, U. S. A.
+C. C. BALDWIN.
+JOHN BALL.
+E. A BARBER.
+DR. JOHN H. BARTHOLF, U. S. A.
+LIEUT. E. M. BASS, U. S. A.
+LIEUT. ERIC BERGLAND, U. S. A.
+DR. E. BESSELS.
+JOHN HENRY BONER.
+DR. W. C. BOTELER.
+LIEUT. JOHN G. BOURKE. U. S. A.
+GEN. L. P. BRADLEY, U. S. A.
+WILLIAM N. BYERS.
+T. A. CHENEY.
+BENJAMIN CLARK.
+LIEUT. WILLIAM P. CLARKE, U. S. A.
+W. J. CLEVELAND.
+W. L. COFFINBERRY.
+J. F. CRAVENS.
+W. M. CUNNINGHAM.
+WILLIAM H. DALL.
+MRS. E. H. DANFORTH.
+W. H. DANILSON.
+WELLS DRURY.
+HARRY EDWARDS.
+REV. EDWIN EELLS.
+DR. LOUIS ELSBERG.
+LIEUT. GEORGE E. FORD, U. S. A.
+DR. EDWARD FOREMAN.
+CAPT J. H. GAGEBY, U. S. A.
+DR. W. H. GARDNER, U. S. A.
+ALBERT S. GATSCHET.
+FLORIEN GIAUQUE.
+G.K. GILBERT.
+DR. J. W. GIVEN.
+O. G. GIVEN.
+DR. P. GREGG.
+REV. SHERLOCK GREGORY.
+DR. FORDYCE GRINNELL.
+DR. J. F. HAMMOND, U. S. A.
+A. G. HENNISSEE.
+DR. W. J. HOFFMAN.
+COL. A. L. HOUGH, U. S. A.
+DR. FRANKLIN B. HOUGH.
+ROBERT HOWELL
+C. A. HUNTINGTON.
+DR. GEORGE W. IRA.
+H. P. JONES.
+CAPT. W. A. JONES, U. S. A.
+JUDGE ANTHONY JOSEPH
+M. B. KENT.
+H. R. KERVEY.
+DR. JAMES P. KIMBALL, U. S. A.
+W. M. KING.
+DR. J. V. LAUDERDALE, U. S. A.
+DR. J. L. LECONTE.
+GEORGE W. LEE.
+J. M. LEE.
+DR. RICHARD ELMHURST LIGHTBURNE, U. S. A.
+DR. REBECCA H. LONGSHORE.
+COL. G. MALLERY, U. S. A.
+DR. CHARLES E. MCCHESNEY, U. S. A.
+DR. AUGUSTIN J. MCDONALD.
+DR. J. C. MCKEE, U. S. A.
+DR. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN.
+DR. T. A. MCPARLIN, U. S. A.
+I. L. MAHAN.
+DR. F. S. MATTESON
+GEN. M. C. MEIGS, U. S. A.
+DR. JOHN MENAUL.
+DR. J. L. MILLS.
+R. H. MILROY.
+DR. RUDOLPH MUELLER.
+DR. WILLIAM M. NOTSON, U. S. A.
+FRANK M. OFFUTT.
+W. T. OWSLEY.
+CAPT. A. D. PALMER.
+DR. EDWARD PALMER.
+C. W. PARISH.
+GEORGE H. PERKINS.
+J. C. PILLING.
+CAPT. R. H. PRATT, U. S. A.
+HOSP.-STEW. CHARLES PRIMBS, U. S. A.
+DR. CHARLES RAU
+DR. J. REAGLES, U. S. A.
+R. S. ROBERTSON.
+DR. J. T. ROTHROCK, U. S. A.
+C. C. ROYCE.
+S. A. RUSSELL.
+C. W. SANDERSON.
+DR. B. G. SEMIG, U. S. A.
+LIEUT. CHARLES S. SMITH, U. S. A.
+DR. JOSEPH R. SMITH, U. S. A.
+JOHN A. SPRING.
+C. L. STRATTON
+DR. M. K. TAYLOR, U. S. A.
+W. H. B. THOMAS.
+GEN. CHARLES H. TOMPKINS, U. S. A.
+M. TOMPKINS.
+CAPT. E. J. THOMPSON, U. S. A.
+T. M. TRIPPE.
+S. S. TURNER.
+CAPT. FRED VAN VLIET, U. S. A.
+GEN. S. VAN VLIET, U. S. A.
+LIEUT. A. W. VOGDES, U. S. A.
+W. D. WHEELER.
+DR. C. A. WHITE.
+DR. W. WHITNEY.
+COL. CHARLES WHITTLESEY.
+EDWARD J. WICKSON.
+DR. B. G. WILDER.
+REV. JOHN P. WILLIAMSON.
+WILLIAM WOOD.
+DR. J. P. WRIGHT.
+S. G. WRIGHT.
+DR. LORENZO J. YATES.
+JOHN YOUNG.
+
+
+Letters and papers, to forward which stamps will be sent if requested,
+may be addressed as follows:
+
+DR H. C. YARROW, P. O. Box 585, WASHINGTON, D C.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Achomawi Indians, burial and cremation of
+Alaska Cave burial
+Aleutian mummies
+Ancient burial customs of Persians
+Antiquity of cremation
+Aquatic burial, Cherokees
+                Chinooks
+                Gosh-Utes
+                Hyperboreans
+                Ichthyophagians
+                Itzas
+                Lotophagians
+Ascena Indians
+Atwater, Caleb
+Bactians, burial customs of
+Bancroft, Hubert H.
+Barber, E. A.
+Bartram, William
+Basket burial
+Bean, George W.
+Beckwourth, James
+Beltrami, J. C.
+Benson, H. C.
+Beverley, Robert
+Blackbird's burial
+Blackfeet lodge burial
+          tree burial
+Bonaks, cremation myths of
+Bone houses
+           Choctaws
+Box burial
+Bransford, U. S. N., Dr. J. C.
+Brebeuf, P. de
+Brinton, Dr. D. G.
+Britons, living sepulcher of
+Bruhier, Jacques Jean
+Burchard, J. L.
+Burial above ground, Sioux
+Burial and cremation, Achomawi Indians
+                      in California
+                      in New Jersey
+Burial, aquatic, Gosh-Utes
+Burial boxes and canoes
+             Makah
+Burial customs of Bactrians
+                  Caspians
+                  Chickasaws
+                  Hircanians
+                  Iberians
+                  Medes
+                  Parthians
+       dances
+       dance, Iroquois
+              Yo-kai-a
+       feasts
+       feast, Hurons
+       feasts, superstitions regarding
+       fires
+       food
+           Yo-kai-a
+           and dances
+           and songs
+       houses, Columbia River
+       in baskets
+       in boxes
+               Cherokees
+               Choctaws
+               Creeks
+       in cabins, wigwams, or houses
+          cairns
+          cairns, Utah
+          caves
+          caves, California
+          logs
+       mounds, Missouri
+               Ohio
+       of Baldor
+          Balearic Islanders
+          Blackbird
+          Indians of Round Valley
+          Muscogulges
+       on trees and scaffolds
+       posts
+            and fires
+       sacrifice
+       sacrifice, Tsinuk
+       scaffolds
+       songs
+Burials, provisional arrangement of
+Burial superstitions, Chippewa
+                      Hidatea
+                      Karok
+                      Kelta
+                      Mat-toal
+                      Tolowa
+                      Yurok
+       superterrene and aerial
+       surface
+Burial urns
+           California
+           Georgia
+           Muscogee
+           New Mexico
+           Nicaragua
+Burnside, Samuel L.
+Cabin, wigwam, or house burial
+Caddoes, inhumation of
+Cairn burial
+           Utah
+California burial and cremation
+                  urns
+            cave burial
+Canes sepulchrales
+Canoe burial, Clallams
+Canoe burial, Indians of Oregon and Washington
+Canoes and burial boxes
+Canoes, inhumation in
+Caraibs, verification of death of
+Caribs' mourning
+Carolina tribes, inhumation of
+Caspians, burial customs of
+Catlin, George
+Cave burial
+           Alaska
+           Innuit
+           Utah
+Chaldean urn burial
+Chambered mounds
+Cherokees, aquatic burial of
+           burial in boxes
+           partial cremation of
+Cheyenne scaffold burial
+Chickasaws, burial customs of
+Chillicothe mound
+Chinook, aquatic burial of
+Chippewa burial superstitions
+         mourning observances
+Choctaw bone houses
+Choctaws, burial in boxes of
+          mourning observances
+          ossuaries of
+ Circular of queries
+ Cists or stone graves
+ Clallam canoe burial
+Colchiens, tree burial of
+Collectors, suggestions for
+Columbia River burial houses
+Conclamation of Romans
+Congaree and Santee Indians, partial embalmment of
+Contributors, list of
+Costa Rica Indians
+Coyotero Apaches, inhumation of
+Cox, Ross
+Creeke, burial in boxes of
+Cremation
+         antiquity of
+         Florida
+         furnace
+         Indians of Clear Lake
+         Indians of Utah
+         myths
+              Bonaks
+              Nishinams
+         Oregon
+         partial
+         remarks on
+         Senel Indians
+         Tolkotins
+Crow lodge burial
+Crows, mourning observances of
+Curtiss, Edwin
+Dall, William H.
+Dances, burial
+        and burial food
+Dance for the dead
+Dead, dance for
+Derbices, living sepulchers of
+Eells, Rev. M.
+Effedens, living sepulchers of
+Feasts, burial
+Final remarks
+Fires, burial
+Fiske, Moses
+Florida burial mounds
+        cremation
+Food burial
+Foreman, Dr. E.
+Foster, J. W.
+Furnace cremation
+Gageby, U. S. A. Captain J. H.
+Georgia burial urns
+"Ghost gamble," Sioux
+Gianque Florian
+Gibbs, George
+Gillman, Henry
+"Golgothas," Mandans
+Grinnell, Dr. Fordyce
+Grossman, U. S. A., Captain F. E.
+Hammond, U. S. A., Dr. J. F.
+Hardy, R. W.
+Hidatsa burial superstitions
+Hind, H. Y.
+Hircanians, burial customs of
+Hoffman, Dr. W. J.
+Holbrook, W. C.
+Hough, Franklin B.
+Houses, bone
+Hurons, burial feasts of
+Hyperboreans, aquatic burial of
+Iberians, burial customs of
+Ichthyophagi, aquatic burial of
+Illinois burial mounds
+Indians of Clear Lake, cremation
+        of Oregon and Washington, canoe burial
+        of Utah, cremation
+Inhumation
+          Caddoes
+          in canoes
+          Carolina tribes
+          Coyotero Apaches
+          Klamaths
+          Massasaugas
+          Mohawks
+          Navajos
+          Pimas
+          Wichitas
+Innuit cave burial
+Introductory remarks
+Irish, living sepulchers of
+Iroquois, burial dance of
+Iroquois, ossuaries of
+Itzas, aquatic burial of
+Jenkes, Col. C. W.
+Johnston, Adam
+Jones, Charles C., jr
+Jones, Dr. J. S.
+Karok burial superstitions
+Keating, William H.
+Kelta burial superstitions
+Kentucky mummies
+Kitty-ka-tats
+Klamaths, inhumation of
+Klingbeil, William
+Lawson, John
+Letter of transmittal
+List of contributors
+Living sepulchers
+                 Britons
+                 Derbices
+                 Effedens
+                 Irish
+                 Massageties
+                 Tartars
+Lodge burial, Blackfeet
+              Crows
+              Navajos
+              Sioux
+Log burial
+Lotophagians, aquatic burial of
+Mahan, I. L.
+Makah burial boxes
+Mandan "Golgothas"
+Massageties, living sepulchers of
+Massasaugas, inhumation of
+Mathews, U. S. A., Dr. W.
+Mat-toal burial superstitions
+McChesney, U. S. A., Dr. Charles E.
+McDonald, Dr. A. J.
+McKinley, William
+Medes, burial customs of
+Menard, Dr. John
+Miami Valley mound burial
+Miller, Dr. C. C.
+Mitchill, Dr. Samuel L.
+Mohawks, inhumation of
+Morgan, L. H.
+Mortuary customs of the Persians
+Mound burial, Florida
+              Illinois
+              Miami Valley
+              Missouri
+              North Carolina
+              Tennessee
+Mound, Chillicothe
+Mounds, chambered
+        of stone
+Mourning observances, Caribs
+                      Chippewas
+                      Choctaws
+                      Crows
+                      Sioux
+Mummies
+       Aleutian
+       Kentucky
+       Northwest Coast
+       South Carolina
+       Virginia
+Muret, Pierre
+Muscogee burial urns
+Muscogulge Indians, burial of
+Myths of cremation
+Natchez ossuaries
+Navajo lodge burial
+Navajos, inhumation of
+New Jersey, burial and cremation in
+New Mexico burial urns
+Nicaragua
+Nishinams, cremation myths of
+Norris, P. W.
+North Carolina burial mounds
+Northwest coast mummies
+Ohio burial mounds
+Oregon, cremation in
+Ossuaries
+Ossuaries, Choctaw
+           Iroquois
+           Natchez
+Ossuary of Choctaws
+Otis, U. S. A., Dr. George A.
+Parthians, burial customs of
+Partial cremation
+                 Cherokees
+        embalmment, Congaree and Santee Indians
+        scaffold burial and ossuaries
+Persians, ancient burial customs of
+          mortuary customs of
+Pilling, J. C.
+Pimas Indians
+      inhumation of
+Pinkerton, John
+Posts, burial
+       and fires, burial
+Powell, Maj. J. W.
+                  preface by
+Powers, Stephen
+Preface by Maj. J. W. Powell
+Provisional arrangement of burials
+Putnam, F. W.
+Queries, circular of
+Remarks, final
+         introductory
+         on cremation
+Review of Turner's narrative
+Robertson, R. S.
+Roman, Bernard
+Romans, conclamation of
+Round Valley Indians, burial of
+Sacrifice, burial
+Sauer, Martin
+Scaffolds, burial on
+Scaffold burial, Cheyennes
+                 Sioux
+                 Yanktonias
+Schoolcraft, Henry R.
+Scythians, tree burial of
+Senel Indians, cremation of
+Sepulchers, living
+Sheldon, William
+Simpson, U. S. A., Capt. J. H.
+Sioux burial above ground
+      "ghost gamble"
+      lodge burial
+Sioux mourning observances
+      scaffold burial
+Solutre, France, stone graves or cists of
+Songs and burial food
+      burial
+South Carolina mummies
+               urn burial
+Spainhour, Dr. J. Mason
+Sternberg, U. S. A., Dr. George M.
+Stone graves or cists
+                     of Solutre, France
+                        Tennessee
+      mounds
+Suggestions for collectors
+Superstitions regarding burial feasts
+Superterrene and aerial burial
+Surface burial
+Swallow, G. C.
+Tartars, living sepulchers of
+         tree burial of
+Tennessee mound burial
+          stone graves or cists
+Tiffany, A. S.
+Tolkotin, cremation
+Tolowa burial superstitions
+Tompkins, U. S. A., Gen. Charles H.
+Transmittal, letter of
+Tree and scaffold burial
+     burial, Blackfeet
+             Colchiens
+             Scythians
+             Tartars
+Tsinuk burial sacrifice
+Turner, Dr. L. S.
+Urn burial
+          Chaldeans
+          South Carolina
+Utah cave burial
+Van Campen, Moses
+Verification of death of Caraibs
+Virginia mummies
+Whitney, J. D.
+Wichitas, inhumation of
+Wilcox, Mr.
+Wilkins, Charles
+Wise, Dr. Thos. W.
+Yanktonias, scaffold burial of
+Yo-kai-a burial dance
+                food
+Young, John
+Yurok, burial superstitions of
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An introduction to the mortuary
+customs of the North American Indians, by H.C. Yarrow
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #6462 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6462)