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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..427f4f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65673 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65673) diff --git a/old/65673-0.txt b/old/65673-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c27ad0e..0000000 --- a/old/65673-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9647 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Putnam's Automobile Handbook, by H. -Clifford Brokaw - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Putnam's Automobile Handbook - The Care and Management of the Modern Motor-Car - -Authors: H. Clifford Brokaw - Charles A. Starr - -Release Date: June 22, 2021 [eBook #65673] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Brian Wilcox and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUTNAM'S AUTOMOBILE -HANDBOOK *** - - -Transcriber’s Notes:— - -Italic text is clothed with _underscores_. - -Bold text is clothed with =equal signs=. - -The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the -original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been -corrected. - - - - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of Allen Motor Co. - -SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE] - - - - - Putnam’s - Automobile Handbook - - The Care and Management of the - Modern Motor-Car - - By - - H. Clifford Brokaw - - Principal - - And - - Charles A. Starr - - Of the Staff - of the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s - Christian Association of New York City - - _Illustrated_ - - G. P. Putnam’s Sons - New York and London - The Knickerbocker Press - 1918 - - - - -COPYRIGHT, 1918 - -BY - -G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - - -The Knickerbocker Press, New York - - - - -FOREWORD - - -Much of the material, here assembled for the first time, has been -printed in the automobile section of New York City newspapers. It -has stood the scrutiny of the wisest men in the automobile trade and -has been read eagerly by owners within the sphere of the newspapers’ -limited circulation; some of it has been reprinted in papers all over -the country, which is evidence enough of its practical value. - -The publication, however, has been without sequence and all of it -has not appeared in any one paper. Moreover it has been reassembled -and rewritten and much has been added to round out the story of the -automobile and to adapt the material to the use of everyday men who do -not understand or care for the more technical works. - -It should not be taken as the last word concerning the auto. That -will not be written until after the automobile has been driven out of -business by the airplane or something else and is as obsolete as the -oxcart of a century or two ago. There is nothing new in the principle -of the gas engine, but new appliances and new methods are constantly -being invented and discovered. - -All that is herein contained is the result of years of experience -at the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian -Association, New York City. This was one of the pioneer schools and -for fourteen years has turned out more than 1000 trained drivers each -year who know their engine and working parts thoroughly. Last year the -number was nearly 2500. Naturally in handling these thousands of bright -men the instructors were stimulated and themselves learned as they -taught. The consensus of this ripe experience is given here. - -Lest there be misunderstanding, it were better said at once that if the -reader has come to this book to learn how to be a garage mechanic, how -to qualify as an expert in automotive technique, or how to learn common -sense, he should at once seek another source of information. This book -makes no pretensions of teaching the last word in automobile repair. -But if the automobile owner desires to have a working knowledge of his -car, to know how to find and overcome the ordinary ills and troubles to -which it is subject, and how to diagnose and prescribe for it when it -begins to wheeze or squeak or groan or knock, let him read on. The book -is for him. - -In other words this is not a _sine qua non_, but a friend in need; it -is not a know-it-all, but a first-aid treatise. It is a leaf—several -in fact—from the book of experience, relating not to the engineering -problems of the automobile, but to the things which the engineer -overlooked or could not solve, and which the ingenuity of men who lay -no claim to the title of engineer, has enabled them to learn so that -they may take a bucking auto and make it feed out of their hands and -stand without hitching. - -One of the first essentials of an automobile is that it shall go, and -that no amount of perversity shall prevent the owner from “driving it -back home under its own power.” Anyone may be towed in, if there is a -horse or another automobile handy; the wise owner will prepare himself -to avoid this. Except for serious breaks of parts, or forgetfulness -which permits oil or gas supply to run out, there is seldom reason why -the average owner should not “get out and get under” to find out what -the trouble is and, having found it, to remove the cause and start the -engine. It usually should take only a few minutes. System in locating -trouble and knowledge of what to do to remove the trouble are within -the compass of all; if there also reside within the individual a few -grains of common sense, his problem is simplified, his troubles are -lightened. - -Let it be said also that this book does not in any way pretend to -supersede an automobile school for the owner who desires to make all -his ordinary repairs, and do more puttering about the car than the -average owner cares for. All owners would save the cost of instruction -many times over and repay the lost time by taking a course of -instruction in a reputable school. Many Y. M. C. A. branches all over -the land have well equipped schools, and there are many others in the -cities; there are also many where time spent would be wasted. There are -several in one of our large cities where the expense is very small, but -it is dear at any price. The “course” consists largely in putting the -student to work in a garage as an apprentice, where his instruction -is confined to verbal orders of how to repair a car which comes in. -In time, of course, the student comes across a large variety of -troubles, depending upon the character of the garage trade. Meanwhile -the garage-auto-school proprietor permits the student to pay for the -privilege of doing the repair work at the institution. No wonder the -course is advertised as unlimited! - -It should be understood that this book does not pretend to tell all the -troubles attaching to automobiles and how to end them; but it covers -the general run of difficulties experienced on the road and a close -study of its pages and an application of its advice will make an owner -who has the least mechanical genius independent of the garage man, with -his delay and extravagant charges; at least it will enable him to get -to the home garage in most cases, where repairs may be effected with a -minimum of expense and annoyance. - -Upon this basis and with this understanding, the automobile owner may -safely pin his faith to what follows and plunge at once into its depths -without fear. - - H. C. B. - C. A. S. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I.—WHAT TO DO ON PURCHASING A CAR 1 - - II.—SOME THINGS TO AVOID 7 - - III.—WHAT AN AUTOMOBILE IS 12 - - IV.—WHAT MAKES THE ENGINE GO 21 - - V.—EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES 26 - - VI.—IF WELL “SLICKED” THE ENGINE RUNS 33 - - VII.—WHERE LUBRICATION IS NEGLECTED 39 - - VIII.—SOMETIMES THE CAR SMOKES 46 - - IX.—THE CARBURETOR AND ITS FAILINGS 51 - - X.—GETTING THE MOST OUT OF A GALLON OF GAS 58 - - XI.—THINGS WHICH MAKE GAS BILLS HIGH 63 - - XII.—CARE OF THE TIRES 69 - - XIII.—SKIDDING MAY BE MINIMIZED 76 - - XIV.—“CAN’T-SLIP HEELS” LESSEN SKIDDING 84 - - XV.—AVOID NEWLY OILED ROADS 90 - - XVI.—WATCH YOUR BRAKES 93 - - XVII.—WHY THE AUTO STEERS EASILY 101 - - XVIII.—THE ELUSIVE “JUICE” 108 - - XIX.—PUTTING THE KICK IN THE SPARK 116 - - XX.—WHAT’S THE TROUBLE WITH MY BATTERY? 123 - - XXI.—WHY GEARS STRIP 130 - - XXII.—THE GEAR-SHIFTING BUGABOO 137 - - XXIII.—THE MUFFLER 143 - - XXIV.—YOUR BEARINGS 149 - - XXV.—DRIVING THE CAR 156 - - XXVI.—WHERE EXTRA CAUTION IS NECESSARY 178 - - XXVII.—AN AUTO FURNACE FOR WINTER 184 - - XXVIII.—THE COOLING SYSTEM IN WINTER 191 - - XXIX.—OVERHEATING THE ENGINE IN SUMMER 197 - - XXX.—SOME OTHER HOT-WEATHER TIPS 203 - - XXXI.—HOT-WEATHER TIRE EXPANSION 209 - - XXXII.—GUARDING AGAINST FIRE 214 - - XXXIII.—DON’T RUN AWAY FROM A FIRE 220 - - XXXIV.—DEATH IN THE GASOLINE 224 - - XXXV.—SHIFTING GEARS ON HILLS 229 - - XXXVI.—KEEPING THE CAR SLEEK 236 - - XXXVII.—SOME THINGS A TOURIST SHOULD KNOW 244 - - XXXVIII.—LITTLE KNOCKS ARE HARDLY BOOSTS 251 - - XXXIX.—SOME OTHER CAUSES OF KNOCKING 255 - - XL.—CHASSIS KNOCKS 262 - - XLI.—KEEPING DOWN THE AUTO UPKEEP 267 - - XLII.—HUNTING TROUBLE 272 - - XLIII.—MORE TROUBLE 280 - - XLIV.—DON’T TAKE THINGS FOR GRANTED 285 - - XLV.—BLOWING YOUR OWN HORN 294 - - XLVI.—WOMEN AS DRIVERS 300 - - XLVII.—MISCELLANEOUS RULES 308 - - XLVIII.—THE GOLDEN RULE OF MOTORING 317 - - INDEX 331 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE - WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE _Frontispiece_ - - CHASSIS PLAN OF THE SAME AUTOMOBILE 14 - - SECTIONAL VIEW OF A FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE - WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PARTS CONNECTED - WITH LUBRICATION 34 - - REAR WHEEL AND BRAKE DRUM REMOVED, - SHOWING EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL BRAKE - BANDS AND MECHANISM 98 - - THEN HE WENT TO SCHOOL TO LEARN SOME - MORE ABOUT HIS CAR 125 - - DIAGRAM OF THREE SPEED AND REVERSE GEAR 132 - - BLOCK OF STEEL, AND THE GEAR WHEEL WHICH - WAS HAMMERED FROM IT 138 - - BRAKE LEVERS AND LINKAGE, SHOWING EQUALIZING - ROD AND SPRINGS 246 - - SHE IS ACCUMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF AN - INTRICATE MACHINE—AND SHE IS FASCINATED 305 - - - - -Putnam’s Automobile Handbook - - - - -CHAPTER I - -WHAT TO DO UPON PURCHASING A CAR - - -The man who buys a car will receive from the salesman a certain amount -of instruction as to running it. He will be taught how to manipulate -the pedals and levers, switches and other devices of the equipment and, -if necessary, how to run the car. He will be given, also, certain books -of instructions. - -It is presumable that almost any man will remember enough of the -salesman’s patter to enable him to get home with the car, and that some -bits of memory as to the instruction books will remain. But will the -owner get out those books and go to school awhile with them? Not if he -is the average owner. Probably he looks upon them as mere catalogues -for ordering repair parts—well enough when needed. Do not make that -mistake. There is no other book printed, no matter how complete, which -supersedes or which can be substituted for the manufacturer’s book -concerning his own car. It was not printed just to consume paper and -ink; the manufacturer had no idea you would cut out the pictures and -paste them about the garage. He and his assistants spent a large amount -of time and a larger amount of gray matter in preparing those books so -that you, Mr. Owner, would know how your car is built, what it ought to -do, and why it won’t unless you do certain things. The books contain -in a small compass practically everything about your particular car. -The owner should master the contents first of all. Nothing can take its -place. - -If the owner has not read the instructions, lay down this volume right -now, go to the garage, and get the books and read them over. If you -haven’t read them they are still in the car. The manufacturer made -certain that the owner could not claim the books were not received, -by tacking them fast under the seat or elsewhere so that they could -not get away and so that a forgetful salesman would not overlook this -important matter. Get them out and lay the basis of what is to follow. - -Doubtless the owner will find that the manufacturer has, for instance, -given certain instructions concerning lubrication, perhaps has -specified certain kinds of lubricants. Now, no matter how much you -may know about the subject of lubrication, rest assured that the -manufacturer has had an engineer study out the lubrication of his car -and what he writes concerning it is the last word and it should be -followed implicitly. All that is contained in these pages upon the -subject of lubrication is explanatory and corrective and in no way can -take the place of the manufacturer’s advice for the particular car. - -The same thing is true as to tires, or brakes, or steering gear, or -any other part of the mechanism. Read his book first and then turn to -the appropriate chapter here and you will find no divergence, only -interpretation, clarification, supplementary advice. - -Probably it would be well to remind the owner that nine-tenths of the -complaints which reach the manufacturer or his service stations, show -that the owners making the “holler” confess that they had not read the -books given them with the car. It has become such a serious thing that -at least one manufacturer has started schools for purchasers of the -make, where, at a nominal compensation, they may be made to read the -instructions and be given a visualization of what they mean. All owners -cannot visit the centers where such schools are maintained, and all -manufacturers do not maintain them now, though it may be necessary in -the near future. The fact that it is necessary, however, should leave -the impress upon the reader’s mind of the importance of the subject. - -The owner, whether he possess a “flivver,” or an edition _de luxe_, -has about as much money tied up in his car as he feels he can devote -to that form of pleasure or to business. It is an investment which -will, or will not, bring commensurate returns in money, or moments, -well spent; it can be made an indispensable aid to both business and -pleasure, or it may become an unsufferable nuisance in either. The -value of a car depends not upon the amount of the purchase price, but -upon what can be gotten out of it: its service, its dependability and -general reliability; that and the low cost of upkeep and operation. - -Would it not seem reasonable, therefore, for the owner to give as much -thought and study to the machine which propels him and his merchandise -as to the machine in the factory which produces the merchandise; ought -he not to understand how and why and wherefore it propels him—or why -not? - -Few men there be who would consign their bodies to the mercy of wind -and waves if they did not believe that a competent captain and engineer -were aboard the craft, or to a railway train were there not an engineer -and conductor at hand to look to his safety. Why should he place -himself and loved ones in a motor car and start off on a trip with an -uncertain hand at the steering wheel, with no one aboard competent to -rule the engine, or to know if all other parts of the mechanism are -properly adjusted, when a maladjustment may mean danger and even death? - -One would not waste sympathy upon the owner himself in case of an -accident through ignorance, but the fate of others in his keeping -prompts the sounding of a warning. - -Years ago traveling sign painters decorated trees and rail fences and -barns along the railways with injunctions of a religious nature, such -as “Prepare to Meet Thy God.” The last time the writer was back “at the -farm” this identical message confronted him from a big rock alongside -the railway crossing, as it did thirty or more years ago. Only this -time it seemed appropriate, for there was more recklessness shown than -one cares to witness regularly—it is too nerve-racking. - -When one considers that a defective brake, a worn-through steering -knuckle, or any one of a number of broken parts—broken because -neglected—may be the particular weapon selected by the fool-killer, -the owner who cares for his bones, or for the lives of his passengers, -would better spend a few hours occasionally in looking after his car -and in finding out all that is possible about it. - -Even though the owner can afford a chauffeur who “knows all about an -auto,” it is noticeable that chauffeurs have a way of forgetting, that -they loaf on the job shamefully, that they conspire with the supply -dealer to run the cost of upkeep to skyline altitudes, and are little -more immune from road troubles than the common or garden variety of -owner. The owner who knows can detect all these lapses from strict -rectitude, to the comfort of his person and the safety of his bank -balance. - -So, now, having turned to the manufacturer’s books of instructions and -pondered over the warnings here given, the reader may safely pass on to -the chapters dealing with the beast he is called upon to tame. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -SOME THINGS TO AVOID - - -When a certain character of history, long touted as “the wisest guy -ever,” uttered his famous “Wisdom crieth aloud in the street,” and -along with it, “Fools hate knowledge,” he must have had a vision of the -present day, when there is so much and so little known about the chief -mode of transportation, the automobile; so much by those who really -have studied its mechanical principles, and so little by those who are -running them about the highways. Yet in this day of automobile schools -and service stations there is no need of a single individual being -ignorant, nor of his coming under the condemnation of the same wise -one: “The careless ease of fools shall destroy them.” - -Give me an individual of average intelligence in overalls and jumper -and a mind devoid of the “I know it” error and 99.99 per cent. of such -can be taught to “make the auto auto as it really ought to auto.” The -chief obstacle is the half knowledge—half error—which some possess. - -Josh Billings once said: “I’d rather not know so much than know a lot -that is not so.” The reader will get the idea. - -One of the hardest things for the average man to learn is not to do -useless things. Over and over folks will do things contrary to all -rules and instructions and make extra work for themselves. In a school -it is a good thing, perhaps, for it enables the instructor to point -out the futility of going at the thing wrong end first. There was one -class at the West Side Y. M. C. A. school particularly stupid in this -respect. They were set to locating engine troubles, forgot all about -the rules and took turns cranking the engine, expecting in that way to -find out why the engine would not run. The instructor, looking into -the classroom, found how things were going. All but one student were -intent upon turning over the engine; that one man stood in one corner -grinning, apparently having a good time with himself. The instructor in -feigned amazement called out to him: - -“Here, why are you not cranking the engine, too?” - -With a grin perfectly idiotic the fellow drawled out: - -“What’s the use of cranking if she ain’t goin’ to run?” - -The reader can figure out for himself the relative degrees of idiocy -or stupidity in that class. The instructor quickly set them to work by -rule and they all knew in a few minutes that troubles are not located -by cranking alone. The reader who will give careful attention to the -instructions herein contained, and who will follow closely the rules, -will not be cranking the engine when he should be cleaning a spark -plug, or adjusting the carburetor, or mending a broken wire. He will -learn that there is a sequence in every little job about the auto which -tends to lessen the labor and to produce the best result, just as there -is in keeping a set of books, or in running a farm. - -The carpenter who does his work without plans usually is dubbed a -“wood butcher.” The inference is that the man who would care for his -automobile should learn to do it in a systematic way, according to -rule, doing everything always the same way and in the same order. -Thus the labor becomes a habit and is performed quickly and easily. -At the same time habit must not be allowed to become a rut; the owner -must preserve originality and initiative, and native ingenuity is -invaluable. - -Particularly it is wise to avoid the idea that at the first sign of -something wrong one knows just what the trouble is. Probably no one -thing has caused more unnecessary work and unnecessary expletive than -jumping at a conclusion. Have a rule and go by it. Under the chapter -relating to troubles there will be found a rule for locating them. It -does not matter so much where one starts if it is followed through when -started. Experience will lead one in time to select the starting point, -either under the heading ignition, or gasoline, or other heading, -the symptoms indicating generally to the experienced ear what is the -matter; but there is so much chance of error in this guess that the -rule must be remembered and closely followed. - -It takes three things to start a gas engine running: gasoline in the -proper mixture, compression, and ignition. To keep it running we must -add a lubricating and a cooling system. There must also be free exhaust -for burned gases. While there are many phases of each, it is necessary -for the owner to get these things fixed in his, mind first. Everything -else is extraneous. - -There is something else to avoid. Avoid giving offense to the policeman -on the street, and avoid running away if you have had an accident or -are hailed by the traffic man. It does not pay, and will make added -trouble, unless you are as fortunate in explanations as was a fellow -who was caught by the officer in front of the Automobile School. He -had hit someone and instead of stopping as the law provided, he gave a -hasty look, saw no policeman, and shot ahead, turning the next corner. -He dodged in and out of several streets, not seeing the motorcycle -policeman chasing him. When caught and stopped he was asked why he was -running away. - -“Me running away?” he asked. “I was not running away, I was just trying -to find a cop to report the accident.” - -It worked that time, but it is not safe to trust the expedient under -other circumstances. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -WHAT AN AUTOMOBILE IS - - -It matters not whether one call it an automobile, a tin lizzie, a gas -wagon, or what not, it consists of a steel frame upon which are mounted -wheels, an engine, appliances for connecting the engine to the driving -wheels, a fuel supply tank, a system for producing ignition at the -right moment, and appliances for regulating the speed of the engine and -the direction of the car. A seat for the driver and sundry pedals and -levers are needed to accomplish speed and steering control, and sundry -other parts have their place, but the above covers in a general way the -necessities of an automobile. - -An automobile, as the name suggests, is a car which contains its own -propelling force and to which it is not necessary to hitch a horse, or -steam engine, or something else to make it go. This in spite of the -fact that occasionally it _is_ necessary to hitch something else to an -auto to make it go. - -The assembly, generally speaking, consists of the chassis, -corresponding to the running gear of a wagon; the engine, mounted on -the chassis; and the body. - -The chassis usually is made of angle iron riveted together in form -convenient for supporting the other parts. This rests upon the springs -which take up the road shocks in part, and the springs rest upon the -axles. - -The rear axles—there is a separate axle for each rear wheel—are fixed, -that is, they keep the wheels from oscillating, and they are joined -in the center by the differential, a device driving the axle shafts -by which one wheel is permitted to revolve at a differing speed as -compared with the other, in turning a corner. Since, in turning, the -outer wheel must travel a much longer distance than the inside wheel, -if no device were installed to take up this difference, the outer wheel -would scrape over the ground on every curve, or the inner wheel would -spin without forward motion. In either event it would be disastrous to -tires. - -To keep the differential housing from twisting, a torque rod or tube -connects it to the frame; to keep the rear axles at right angles to -the frame and to transmit the driving thrust to the load, radius rods -connect the axles to the frame forward. - -The forward axle, unlike in an ordinary wagon, is fastened to the -chassis frame, through springs, and does not turn. On either end is a -yoke from which is suspended a steering knuckle, the wheel turning on a -tapered spindle forged with the knuckle. The two knuckles are fastened -together by a tie rod, which has some form of a turn buckle by which -the wheels may be made to run parallel, or practically so. As a matter -of fact the wheels are not parallel. They foregather slightly, so that -the lines, projected forward far enough, would meet and make a pointed -effect, like the bow of a boat. Its effect is to bring a slight but -constant pressure upon both wheels and makes them less likely to swerve -through contact with road unevenness. Also the wheels undergather, so -that the load is brought over the center of knuckle support, minimizing -the strain. - -This deviation of the wheels from true produces a very slight wear on -the tires, but it is more than compensated for by the other advantages -noted. The deviation is worked out scientifically and the owner need -not trouble himself about it. His only concern is that the tie rod -be not bent so that the foregather is increased, when there would be -excess wear of tires. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of Allen Motor Co. - -CHASSIS OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE] - -The brake drums are attached to the rear wheels and have inside and -outside bands with mechanism to tighten them against the drum providing -the necessary friction. The levers which connect the bands to the brake -pedal or emergency lever are termed the brake linkage. - -The motor, or engine, rests upon the chassis frame forward, being -fastened thereto by bolts. Forward of it is a radiator, if it is a -water-cooled motor, to which it is connected by pipes; the cooling -system may be either pump or thermo-syphon type. Some few motors are -air-cooled. The principle of cooling is that the motor should be kept -just cool enough to prevent the lubricating oil from burning off the -cylinder walls. - -Attached to the motor are the carburetor, in which air and gasoline -are mixed properly for rapid combustion, wires to supply ignition to -the mixture at the proper time, a device for giving lubrication, and -exhaust pipes leading to the muffler, the latter designed to stifle the -noise of rapid explosions, which otherwise would be deafening. - -The ignition system may be either battery and coil, or high-tension -magneto which has its own coil and distributor, or a combination of -both these systems. Where there is a self-starter there is a storage -battery, which supplies current to the starting motor, and from which -the ignition current is drawn, and a generator to keep the battery -charged, and the generator may be provided with a circuit breaker and -distributor, or a separate magneto or coil may be used. - -The lubricating device may either be a gravity or force-feed oiler -system with pipes leading to the various bearings, or the chief -lubrication may be by the splash system, where a reservoir of oil is -kept under the crank case from which it is pumped to oil pans under the -cranks, being splashed by projections which dip into the oil and throw -it all over the inside mechanism. - -Also attached to the carburetor is the pipe from the fuel supply tank. -This supply may come by gravity or under pressure, and a late device -which is furnished with many cars is a vacuum gravity system, the -gasoline being drawn from the main tank, by a vacuum created in the -intake manifold, into a small container attached under the hood, whence -it flows by gravity to the carburetor, maintaining a uniform supply. - -The motor consists of one or more cylinders, inside of each being a -piston which fits tight, the escape of gas being further prevented by -piston rings which seal the cylinder with the aid of the lubricating -oil. The pistons are attached to a connecting rod by a wrist pin, -the connecting rod being attached at the other end to the crank which -rests in bearings. The action of the engine is that by drawing down the -piston a vacuum is created in the upper part of the cylinder called the -combustion chamber. At the right moment an inlet valve is opened and a -charge of gas and air, called mixture, is sucked in. The valve closes -and the piston rising compresses the charge. When the piston reaches -its highest point a spark is introduced through spark plug or igniter. -This fires the mixture, bringing a rapid expansion, and this drives the -piston downward, producing force. This revolves the crank shaft, which -turns the force into rotary motion. This operation repeated rapidly -furnishes the motion which drives the car. The fly wheel carries the -crank over the strokes which do not produce power. - -There are four strokes to each motor cycle. The first, which takes in -the mixture, is called the suction stroke; the next is the compression -stroke, the third is the power stroke, and the last is the exhaust -stroke when the burned gases are expelled from the combustion chamber. -These four strokes take two complete revolutions of the crank shaft, so -that the four _cycle_ is really two _circles_. - -Power having been created and turned into motion, the next step is to -connect it to the propelling or drive wheels. The first device for -controlling the power is the clutch, which provides means of applying -or cutting off the power or motion quickly without stopping the engine. -This is done by friction in some form. The most common are the cone -clutch, where male and female cones are engaged by pressure, the -friction transmitting the power to the driving shaft; and the multiple -disc clutch, where numerous thin discs of metal or metal and textile -material are compressed together by a lever and transmit the power. - -To provide for varying speeds and for reversing, also extra power -to the rear wheels for hill climbing, sandy roads, etc., gears are -necessary. In a general way this is a set of cog wheels of varying -sizes, so arranged on parallel shafts that by engaging different size -gears on the shafts a certain speed will be transmitted, other gear -sets producing another speed or a reverse motion. The diagram in -Chapter XXI. shows the usual form of construction. Three speeds and -reverse usually are provided, though some cars have four speeds. These -gear sets are engaged successively until the desired speed is reached. - -From the gear case the power is transmitted by the drive shaft, which -has one or two universal joints to take up any misalignment and to -enable installing the engine level and yet transmit the power to the -driving axles, through the differential, at another level or angle, or -at varying angles due to spring action. - -Upon each of the wheels is a tire consisting of a rubber and fabric -casing, enclosing a soft rubber tube with a valve by which it may be -inflated. The purpose of the tires is to absorb road shocks and make -riding easy, as well as to keep the car from jolting to pieces. The -tires are of varying composition and form and are attached to the rims -in differing ways. Many auto trucks use solid rubber tires. - -Without going into detail, the foregoing gives the makeup of the car -and the simple principles of its operation. To control the car requires -various other parts. The first is the steering wheel and its mechanism. -The wheel is mounted on a shaft running within a tube, and to the lower -end of this shaft is a worm controlling a gear, and by levers and ball -joints operating the steering knuckle on one of the front wheels, the -other being operated simultaneously by the tie rod connection. On the -steering wheel or steering column are mounted the spark-timing lever -and the throttle lever. The spark lever regulates the time of the -spark within the combustion chamber and the throttle the amount of -mixture admitted to the combustion chamber. - -At the feet of the driver are the pedal for engaging the clutch, that -for applying the brake, and the accelerator pedal, which operates the -throttle as well as the lever before mentioned. The throttle lever on -the steering column is for the regular running adjustment, while the -accelerator pedal is for temporary increase of the mixture in starting -or in speeding up. There may also be a pedal for the self-starter, -though the switch often is upon the dash. On the Ford and some other -cars the gear shift is controlled by pedals, but usually the shift is -made by a lever placed convenient to the right hand of the driver. -With it is installed also the emergency brake lever, which is used for -locking the car when standing and for alternating with the foot brake -on long hills. - -On the dashboard may be mounted the ignition and lighting switch, the -speedometer, sight oil feed, and sundry other dials and switches, -depending upon the fastidiousness of the owner. Where there is a -self-starter there is a charge and discharge dial, the ammeter, which -tells whether the generator is working, and how. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WHAT MAKES THE ENGINE GO - - -As has been stated on a previous page, it takes three things to start -an engine and three more to keep it going. The first three essentials -are a proper mixture of gasoline and air, ignition at the right moment, -and compression. - -Gasoline will continue to burn after ignition, but, contrary to the -common idea, it will not explode unless confined, and not even then -unless it has vaporized and the vapor is mixed with air. It takes -about two hundred cubic feet of air to a pint of gasoline vaporized -to produce good combustion, though the air supply is usually much -more than this to insure carrying off the unburned nitrogen from the -air. For starting and speeding up, more gasoline is admitted to the -vaporizing chamber as the rich mixture ignites more quickly, but for -running, a leaner mixture produces better results. - -But whatever the mixture which is burned, there would be little or no -power produced if the mixture were not confined under pressure. It is, -of course, a fact that a tank filled with gasoline vapor and air will -explode with great force if ignited, though there be only the ordinary -atmospheric pressure upon the tank. But it must be remembered that -if the pressure were sixty or seventy pounds to the square inch the -explosion would destroy everything in the vicinity. Taking advantage of -this fact the designers of the gasoline engine provided for compressing -the gas before ignition, to produce the greatest amount of power for -driving the car. Valves are provided which admit the charge of mixture -to the combustion chamber, closing tight after the charge is received. -Then the piston rises, compressing the contents of the combustion -chamber until a pressure of between forty and seventy-five pounds per -square inch is reached. It is upon the principle of the muzzle-loading -rifle or shotgun, or in blasting, where the charge is tamped down, or -confined by wads, and the exploding powder is held until the pressure -sends the bullet on its errand, or rends the rock. - -Just as the piston reaches the highest point, and the compression is at -the maximum, a spark is introduced into the combustion chamber. Under -the pressure the gases burn much more rapidly and the explosive force -is greater. The gas does not burn instantaneously, however. It takes -a distinct interval of time for all the gas mixture to ignite; for -this reason, when the engine is running under its own power, the spark -comes just before the time of greatest pressure, and before the piston -reaches top center, so that by the time the piston starts the downward -stroke the highest efficiency of power will have been reached. For this -reason the spark-timing control lever is advanced after the engine is -started to give the best results. But the engine is always cranked with -the spark fully retarded. - -The carburetor, meanwhile, has been called upon to send into the -combustion chamber through the intake manifold and intake valves a -charge of gas mixture; the quantity is regulated by the throttle. For -starting, a lever is manipulated which depresses the float in the fuel -chamber of the carburetor, permitting an extra supply to be drawn into -the mixing chamber, thus making the mixture richer and more readily -fired. When the engine has started running, the throttle is closed to -a point where the motor does not race. The correct running position is -given by the manufacturer and experience will soon determine where the -best results are obtained. - -The ignition system must deliver to the combustion chamber at the right -instant a spark of sufficient intensity to fire the charge. Whether the -electric current is obtained from battery or magneto, it must be hot -enough to do its work and there must be a timing device which will send -the spark into each cylinder when it is needed. These come in several -forms and are described in detail in the manufacturer’s instruction -books, in connection with the ignition and wiring diagrams. - -The compression is maintained when the piston rings and grooves are -free from gummed oil or carbon and move freely; when the cylinder walls -are not worn oval by a slapping piston, or creased by carbon, and when -a film of lubricating oil is constant on the side walls and when valves -are properly seated. Loss of compression means loss of power and the -cylinders should be tested every little while to make sure that no -cylinder is failing to do its duty. More will be said concerning this -later, as well as of minor things which may affect the compression. - -As has been mentioned, to keep the engine running for any length of -time there must be a cooling system, a system of lubrication, and a -free exhaust. Once the owner comprehends the simplicity of gas-engine -operation, he can begin to trace each part of the operation, learning -all there is to know concerning the several steps in his own motor, and -absorbing the specific knowledge which will enable him to care for his -car efficiently and economically. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES - - -With every car are furnished all the things required for operation, -including lamps, tire pump, jack, tire-repair kit, a variety of -wrenches to fit all nuts and bolts, oil can, set of spark plugs -and generally an extra one; hammer, screw driver, cold chisel, -magneto-adjusting wrench, and some other things, varying with the car. - -There are any number of additions which may be made in the way of -tools, or of devices which some motorists deem desirable. Some of these -things are a speedometer, a clock, trouble lamp attachable to a socket -on the dash, a mirror to enable the driver to see what is going on -back of him (compulsory in New Jersey and some other States), cigar -lighters, foot warmers, and elaborate lights for the limousine. The -owner is cautioned, however, against loading up his battery with a lot -of electrical devices which use up current very fast. Not so as to -tools; one may err in having too few rather than too many. - -While it is true that a woman with a hairpin and a piece of string -can fix almost anything under the sun, the autoist would better not -trust to his wife’s ingenuity, but be a little better prepared for -the emergencies of the road. It does not do any good to know what the -matter is when the car balks unless one has the tools and material to -do the necessary repair work or adjustment. - -Every new car is equipped with certain tools, but some owners have no -interest in these tools and lose most of them in a short time, so that -when needed they are missing, while other owners add sufficient tools -to equip a good-sized machine shop. - -A wise selection of tools for the car will provide everything at all -likely to be needed on tour, and yet capable of being packed in such -a compact space that it does not become an annoyance through the room -occupied, nor weigh down the car. The special tools furnished should be -preserved with great care, because nothing else fills the bill quite -so well. To these might be added some few tools and parts not needed -often, but when they are, their absence is a source of delay and is -temper-provoking. - -Recently the author was asked to go about fifty miles into the country -to bring in a machine which had refused to run and had been stored in a -barn over night. He found that the interrupter points had become glazed -so that no spark was being procured. A special file is manufactured for -the particular purpose of cleaning off these points. As one of these -was not in the car, it was necessary to disassemble the spark timer -completely, take out the points, and then find a piece of flat hard -stone upon which the points could be cleaned. This did the work all -right, but much time could have been saved if the interrupter point -file had been carried in the car. - -Likewise no wrench was available for adjusting the points and it was -necessary to go to a nearby blacksmith shop and saw out a temporary -wrench for the purpose. Word has come from France to the National War -Work Council of the Y. M. C. A. that one of their supply cars serving -the huts in the trenches was laid up nine days for the lack of a small -magneto wrench. - -Many an owner has had the experience of being caught out on the road -by a storm and having to put on non-skid chains. How often have they -found that, though these chains were in good condition when leaving -the garage and when they were put on, after running awhile over rough -roads at a fair speed, some of the links wore through and began to -thrash against the mud guards. This is not only annoying, but often -does real damage to the guards. Most owners have stopped more than once -to wire the loose ends to the side chains to stop the banging, and it -certainly would be more satisfactory to carry a supply of links and -a chain tool so that the broken ends could be removed and new links -inserted. - -Of course, the loose ends can be pried off with a screw driver and new -links pounded fast with a hammer, but you will have to remove the chain -to do it and it takes time, and much exasperation can be saved by using -the proper tool. - -A folding pail is very useful, especially when one has to go up very -long hills and finds that the water in the radiator has boiled away. -The cooling systems for automobile engines to-day are very efficient -and it is only in exceptional cases that the water will boil out of the -radiator, and that is just the reason why an occurrence of that sort is -disastrous, because one is not expecting it and is not prepared for it. - -In sandy country and on dirt roads one often will have occasion to jack -up a wheel to change a tire, and will find that the jack sinks into -the loose sand or dust instead of lifting the car. A block of wood an -inch thick and about six inches wide and a foot long will be found a -big help under such circumstances. Many drivers also have had to use -a fence rail to jack up a car because some one borrowed the jack from -the car and neglected to return it. Even though tire trouble is not -expected, it is well to make sure there is a jack in the car and also a -handle for the jack. The jack is more often found than the handle. - -Working about an automobile means a lot of grease and grime on the -hands, and possibly oil or grease upon parts of the car, so that it is -well to carry a small bag of waste or rags. If the grease or dirt prove -obstinate, a little gasoline, drawn from the drain cock at the bottom -of the carburetor, will cut it and enable you to clean the hands fairly -well. - -It is a good idea to have a three-in-one or similar tire-valve tool -with which it is possible to remove the valve plunger, cut threads in -the valve stem so that the plunger may be properly seated, and cut -threads on the outside of the stem so that the cap will screw down -tight. In some cases where the valve stem is battered in changing a -tire, air cannot be gotten into the tire if these threads are damaged. - -Many persons object to carrying a tow rope for fear it will be -understood that they have doubts of their ability to get home under -their own power; but in addition to affording a connection to some -other source of power, a tow rope may be used to help a brother in -distress and is superior to chains in very sandy or muddy places, when -wrapped about the tire. - -An extra set of electric-light bulbs may save considerable trouble and -annoyance, because the traffic policemen to-day will accept no excuse -when at least one light is not burning. - -If you do not take your wife’s first-aid kit—the shoestring and -hairpin—you had better be provided with a spool of soft iron wire, the -ordinary stovepipe wire. It is wonderful how many little temporary -repair jobs may be done with its aid. Some drivers like to have a small -hank of strong twine also. - -There are many other things which might be added to the list of useful -things to have along for emergency, all of which may be stowed in the -tool box or under a seat. They may not be needed once a year—perhaps -never—but like the insurance policy, when you do need a tool you need -it pretty badly. - - -AUTOMOBILE FIRST-AID KIT. - - 1. Wrench for adjusting ignition interrupter points. - 2. File for cleaning above points. - 3. One set of ignition brushes. (In box labeled.) - 4. Several extra spark plugs, cleaned and adjusted ready to use. - 5. Tow rope. - 6. Half-dozen valve plungers for inner tubes. - 7. Three-in-one tire-valve tool. - 8. Tire pressure gauge. - 9. Jack and handle. (Be sure about the handle.) - 10. Squirt can full of oil. - 11. Voltmeter, or hydrometer, for testing battery. - 12. Box of assorted nuts. - 13. Box of assorted cotter pins. - 14. Box of assorted cap screws. - 15. Box of assorted washers. - 16. Spool of copper wire and one of soft iron wire. - 17. Full set of electric-light bulbs. - 18. Bag of clean waste or rags. - 19. Two blocks of wood, 6″ × 12″ × 1″. - 20. Full set of fuses—if fuses are used. - 21. Folding pail. - 22. Chain tool and several cross links. - - The nuts, cap screws, washers, and cotter pins of regular - assortment and packed in boxes are carried by supply stores. These - and several of the other articles may be packed in a cigar box for - stowing away. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -IF WELL “SLICKED” THE ENGINE RUNS - - -If we scuff our feet on the bare pavement we wear out our shoes, -develop a lot of heat, and notice considerable resistance; but if we -step on a banana peel, a piece of ice, or a patch of oil or grease, our -passage is facilitated, and our feet are likely to slide out from under -us and we sit down with little effort. Now this is just like the auto -engine. If the parts were all made perfect and fitted together properly -and the engine started without lubrication, there would be so much -friction that the parts would very quickly wear out. - -As a matter of fact an engine could be wrecked in less than half an -hour’s running, unless there were something introduced to prevent -friction. - -The lubrication of the modern auto engine is so simple that most -owners do not realize its importance. It is the things which normally -take care of themselves that are most likely to be neglected; the -things about which we know the least, when they do go wrong, cause the -greatest damage, not the things with which we have become familiar -through frequent tinkering. - -The instruction books issued by the manufacturers say to inspect the -oil reservoir of the engine each time before leaving the garage to see -if the required amount of oil is there; and this inspection should not -be neglected; with most owners it is “by guess and begorry.” - -The most usual scheme of engine lubrication used to-day is to carry a -certain amount of oil in a compartment in the bottom of the crank case, -called the sump. There is a pump which operates whenever the engine is -running and which pumps the oil to some sort of an indicator on the -dash, so that the driver can see if it is circulating. From this point -it flows by gravity to the splash pans located under the connecting -rods, and above the sump. Here the oil is held at such a level that -when the crank shaft revolves the ends of the connecting rods dip into -the oil and splash it over practically all the working parts of the -engine. This splashing and agitation of the oil creates a fog of oil -in the crank case, and the rapid motion of the piston and other parts -circulates the vaporized oil over the moving members, so that a film of -oil is deposited even on those parts where the splash itself does -not reach. - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of Tide Water Oil Co. - -SECTIONAL VIEWS OF A FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO -PARTS CONNECTED WITH LUBRICATION - - A Sump - B Oil Pump - C Crank-case - D Troughs for Oil - E Connecting Rods - F Oil Cups - G Main Bearings - H Crank Pin Bearings - I Cylinders - K Pistons - L Wrist Pins - M Basin in which Crank Shaft Gear Runs - N Piston Rings - O Oil Pockets - S Drain Cock or Oil Gauge - T Push Rods -] - -The pump circulates more oil than is used and the splash pans are -arranged with overflow openings so that the excess simply drops back -into the sump and again is passed through the system by the pump. - -It is this oil which enables the engine to move without friction. It -is the effect of the banana peel under your heel in that it makes the -parts slip over each other easily. In addition to this the oil between -the piston and the cylinder wall makes a seal which prevents gas from -leaking by on compression and explosion strokes. If too much oil is fed -a great deal will be drawn past the piston on the suction stroke and -get in the cylinder where it will burn, forming carbon and giving out -smoke from the exhaust. - -In this type of system the principal causes of trouble are too much -oil in the sump, so that the level reaches above the splash pans, -and projections upon the connecting rods that are so large that too -much oil is splashed when the level is normal. In the latter case the -trouble often may be remedied by narrowing the projections of the -connecting rod which dip into the oil. It is not wise to shorten these -projections, because it is very difficult to get an even graduation -that will insure sufficient oil without giving too much. - -If the oil should run out while the car is in use, the engine will get -stiff, lose its power, and the friction of the unlubricated parts will -generate sufficient heat to melt out the lining of the bearings, and -if the engine runs for any length of time in this condition it may be -wrecked beyond repair. - -This means that although the oiling system needs very little or no -attention, it should be inspected each time before leaving the garage -and on the road occasionally if long trips are taken, to make sure that -oil is present in sufficient quantity and is circulating. - -Oil in a sense does wear out and in this sort of a system it should be -replaced with new oil occasionally. Some of it will work up past the -piston and be burned up and some will work out around the different -parts of the engine and be lost, but most of it will remain in the sump -longer than it is advisable to use it. All of the gasoline that is -taken into the cylinder is usually not consumed. Some of it is forced -past the piston on the compression stroke into the crank case, where -it condenses and mixes with the oil. This thins the oil sometimes to a -point where it has little or no lubricating value. Also the oil on the -inside of the piston head burns and drops down into the crank case, -and there is some wear of the moving parts which causes a deposit of -metal in the oil. These things, together with the small amount of road -dust sucked in through the breather pipe, make the oil in a short time -unfit for use. - -In this circulating splash system, where the oil is used over and -over again, the oil should be drained out entirely about every 1000 -miles, more or less, depending upon the grade of the oil and fit of the -piston. The following things all enter into the lubricating value of -the oil after 1000 miles’ performance: - - Grade of the oil - Fit of the pistons - Temperature at which the engine is run - Grade of the gasoline - Adjustment of the carburetor. - -There are some other things, but the above are the chief factors. It -would be well to acquire the habit of examining the oil every few days -to determine just how it stands up in the particular engine. - -After the oil is drained out, a half gallon or so of kerosene should be -poured into the sump and the engine run for about one minute or less, -the idea being to get a complete circulation of kerosene through the -lubricating system. The kerosene should then be drained off and the -splash pans under the connecting rods be wiped out if possible. The -screen of the oil pump also should be removed and washed carefully in -kerosene and replaced. Then the sump should be filled to the proper -level with fresh oil. - -Aside from getting under the car to remove the drain plug, this is not -a dirty job. Still one would better put on old clothes and overalls to -prevent the possibility of getting grease on a perfectly good suit. - -While oil is expensive, it is poor economy to use it beyond its useful -stage, because damage may be done to the machinery which will cost much -more than a year’s supply of good oil. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -WHERE LUBRICATION IS NEGLECTED - - -In some of the minor and oftentimes hidden parts of an automobile are -found frequent sources of trouble. There are places to be lubricated -of which many an auto owner has no knowledge. They wear slowly but -constantly, and unless given proper attention will erelong give trouble. - -There are a number of these lesser bearings which tell the expert -whether the car has had proper care. In fact, in looking over a used -car the man who knows naturally turns to these first to find out how -well the car has been taken care of. Experience shows that even where -other parts show normal, or practically no wear, these lesser bearings -show absolute neglect, and these are “the little foxes that spoil the -vineyards” in the auto world. - -Practically every owner will fill up the oiler to insure engine -lubrication, because that is a regular task; most men will remember -to keep oil in the transmission case and the differential housing; -probably a lesser number will put grease in the wheel bearings when -needed. As the latter is not required very often, it is frequently -forgotten. - -What are the neglected parts? Well, when the expert looks into the -condition of a car, one of the first places he inspects for wear is -at the steering knuckles. One must realize that they are under a -pretty heavy load, and that, while the motion is not great, there is a -continual motion there, even when the car is driving straight ahead. -Very few have learned that it needs a constant supply of good, heavy -grease to prevent wear at this point. It is worth while to screw down -on the grease cups on the steering knuckles every time oil is put in -the engine. When the grease cup is screwed down so that it cannot be -turned further, it should be filled immediately. There should be enough -grease there to keep forcing it out, so that grit cannot get into the -bearing. - -Underneath the floor boards there are a number of parts which need -attention, but being out of sight they are often out of mind. They -are a little inconvenient to get at, also. Under there we have the -universal joint. This is another joint in which the motion is not -great, but the load is heavy and continuous. That is the next place -that usually shows hard wear. There are one or two modern designs -which have housings covering this joint which may be filled with -heavy oil and it then takes care of itself for a month. It should be -inspected and the oil replaced once a month. - -Certain universal joints, not generally used, however, are supplied -with grease cups, which need attention every time the car is used, just -as much as the oiler in the engine. - -Also underneath the floor boards are the levers and arms used for -controlling the clutch and brake, the self-starter and the accelerator. -All have bearings, used occasionally, but enough so that they should -be kept lubricated or they will wear. This is especially true of the -clutch and brake linkage, particularly in city running, where the -clutch and brake are in constant use. Usually this linkage has no means -of lubrication other than oil holes, into which a drop or two of oil -only may be placed. Naturally it will not last long and oil should be -dropped in the holes at least once a week. - -This is also true of the brake linkage on the rear axle. Often at that -point no provision whatever is made for oiling. It is simply a matter -of flowing oil around the joint and letting it work in. If the brake -linkage wears and weakens and it becomes necessary to apply the brake -with extra force in an emergency, it will give way. - -The spring shackle bolts usually are equipped with grease cups and they -do not suffer quite as much as other points, but often the passages -become clogged and one may screw down on the cup and only force the -grease out of the thread of the cup, instead of into the bearing, for -the grease-cup cap fits loosely upon the thread. - -Many cars come from the factory with the grease holes clogged with -enamel, or hardened grease, so that no great amount of grease could -be forced through in turning down the cap. Cars are allowed to run so -long sometimes in this condition that the shackles have worn through, -allowing the body to drop down on the axle. - -Very often complaint is made that a new car will develop a squeak very -soon after it is tried out—an elusive sort of a squeak that seems to -be first one place and then another. The owner who has this experience -will probably find upon examination that the spring shackles have not -been lubricated, either because the hole was clogged, or for some -other reason. It is recommended that in such cases the car be jacked -up and all the shackle pins be driven out and all the grease passages -inspected and cleaned thoroughly; also that heavy grease be applied -directly to the bolt when it is put back in place. - -This will take a little time, but it pays, for it is a matter of -experience that if the pins are not driven out and the holes opened up -for inspection it will take a solid month to force the grease through -by screwing down the grease cup, and until this passage is open there -can be no lubrication of the joint. - -Wheel bearings ought to run for six months if properly packed, but -there is no way of telling when the bearing needs attention except by -inspection and it is well to look them over regularly. When inspecting -the rear-wheel bearings, if the construction is of the type where the -wheel hub is keyed on to the shaft, it is well to inspect the key to -determine whether it is tight. Out of four cars recently inspected -three were found with a loose key. - -There are two dangers when the key is loose. One is that the key way -becomes rocked out of shape and the key cannot be fitted tight again. -The other is that shaft and hub may become so worn that the taper is -destroyed and a tight fit is made impossible, and of course the only -remedy is to replace both. This condition will often account for a -knocking or rattling, which will be felt throughout the car and the -cause often be supposed to be located far from the real place. For -instance, in one case the driver thought the knocking was in the gear -case, until shown the loose hub. - -The spring leaves need lubrication once a season. Tools are sold for -separating the leaves enough to apply a lubricant made especially for -that purpose. - -Another part which shows hard wear quickly is the valve push-rod guide, -especially in overhead valve construction the ones on the forward end -of the motor. Dust blowing over the radiator collects on these forward -guides and wears them rapidly. This condition is indicated usually when -the crank case becomes covered with oil blown up from the loose joint. -Modern designs have taken care of this to a large extent by enclosing -the push rods in a casing, and many owners have put in housings -themselves when they discovered the difficulty. - -Overhead valves, worked by a rocker arm, must be lubricated every time -the car is taken out. The lubrication is not included in the ordinary -lubrication scheme of the engine, but must be done separately. - -Careful attention to these minor points will result in greatly -lengthened life for the car, and in a much higher value when it is -traded in for another car. The man who buys a used car would better -inspect closely along these lines if he desires to buy something -better than a bunch of junk. The owner should not trust to his -chauffeur the care of these parts, unless he has found out that the -man knows of the importance of lubrication, nor should it be taken for -granted that the garage man is attending to them. Make sure yourself -is the best rule. It is well to remember that “many a mickle makes a -muckle” in wearing of auto parts, and look after the little things. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -SOMETIMES THE CAR SMOKES - - -The officer will get you if you don’t watch out, if you leave a trail -of smoke behind you; then it will be: - -“Good morning, Jedge, your Honor.” - -“Guilty? Two dollars, please.” - -“Cheap,” you say. Yes, if it were only the two dollars; but there is -the time lost in appearing in court and then, really, you know, to make -that smoke you were burning money. - -Such smoke comes from two sources: Burning too much gasoline and using -too much lubricating oil; usually the latter. Excessive use of gasoline -comes from faulty carburetor adjustment, or poor design of carburetor -or intake manifold, or keeping the engine cylinder at too low a -temperature, because of the water being too cold in the cooling system. - -In the latter case the carburetor may vaporize the gasoline properly, -but it condenses in the cylinder and does not burn well and the part -which is not consumed passes off as black smoke, which issues from the -exhaust pipe. - -We must have a certain amount of oxygen to consume the gasoline -entirely. The size of the cylinder limits the amount of air (from which -the oxygen is taken) which may be taken in and if the carburetor is -adjusted to feed too much gasoline, there may not be enough oxygen -present to consume it all. Practically speaking, what is not consumed -forms carbon or smoke. - -The obvious remedy is to adjust the carburetor so that no more gasoline -will be fed to the engine than is required for running. In cold weather -it is necessary, usually, to supply heat to the ingoing air at the -mixing chamber of the carburetor, so that the vaporization will be -complete. - -A light blue smoke coming from the exhaust pipe indicates too much -lubricating oil. This may be due to feeding too much oil or to running -the engine a great deal with the throttle nearly closed. In order to -draw a charge of gas into the cylinder the piston travels partly out -of the cylinder and forms a vacuum. With the throttle wide open a high -vacuum is not obtained because a large amount of gasoline and air is -allowed to come in and fill the cylinder. When the engine is throttled -down by closing the throttle, the air cannot enter in such a large -quantity, and in consequence there is a decided vacuum in the cylinder -on each intake stroke of the piston. This vacuum has a tendency to draw -oil up past the piston into the combustion chamber, where it burns and -forms smoke. This is why, when the machine is left at the curb with the -engine running for any length of time, it will often be found to start -away with clouds of smoke issuing from the exhaust. - -In the same way, when the engine is running slowly, air passes through -the carburetor so slowly that the gasoline is not broken up into very -fine particles, consequently it does not fully vaporize and is very -easily condensed. It forms liquid gasoline in the intake pipe or -cylinder. This is called “loading up” and is responsible for black -smoke when the machine is started. - -One way of overcoming this is to supply a larger amount of heat than -usual to the mixing chamber. Most carburetors are not designed to take -care of this condition and the only remedy would be to stop the engine -instead of allowing it to run while standing at the curb. - -To overcome smoke from the oil which is drawn up past the piston, it is -customary to have a groove turned in the piston under the lower piston -ring, with five or six holes drilled in the groove through the piston. -The piston ring then scrapes the oil from the cylinder wall into the -groove and it is led back into the crank case through the piston walls. -This prevents it from working up into the combustion chamber. Many -manufacturers have this scheme on the very new models and repair men -are using it on older models which were not turned out with it. - -Sometimes the oil level will be found too high. This may be corrected -often by lowering the oil troughs, or by filing off the dip on the -bottom of the connecting rod so that it touches the oil with a narrowed -surface. - -In addition to the smoke resulting from too much gasoline or oil there -is a large amount of carbon deposited in the cylinder which takes up -space in the combustion chamber and raises the compression so high -that pre-ignition occurs and the engine knocks. The car must then be -taken to a repair shop to have the carbon burned or scraped out. This -is expensive work and besides the car is laid up and one loses its use -while the scraping is being done. The owner will see that he has been -spending a lot of money to supply gasoline and oil that he didn’t need -to use just to make smoke and carbon and expense and that he has lost -from every point of view. - -Smoke should not be confused with steam which issues from the exhaust -pipe in cold weather. One of the products of combustion in the gas -engine is water, a natural result of the breaking up of a hydro-carbon. -This usually passes off at a high temperature as an invisible vapor. In -cold weather it condenses immediately it strikes the air and is visible -in the form that we call steam. Really it is a fog that we create. -Therefore do not let the policeman summons you for having a smoking -engine, when it is only steam issuing from the exhaust pipe. If he -doesn’t know which it is you probably can convince him, by the color. -If it is white it is steam, if it is black it is gasoline smoke, and if -it is light blue it is the smoke from the lubricating oil. Therefore -watch your exhaust for there are many eyes watching you just now in -parks and city streets. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE CARBURETOR AND ITS FAILINGS - - -One of the frequent and most annoying troubles to which automobile -engines are subject has to do with the carburetor. With one of -the standard carburetors or vaporizers which is properly adjusted -there should be, and usually is, no serious difficulty in ordinary -conditions, but if there is one part of the engine which seems -possessed to kick up its heels it is the carburetor. Particularly -is this so in the frosty months, when the gasoline and air do not -mix properly and do not vaporize when they do mix. This is of easy -solution, however. Simply warm the intake a few minutes and it will -take care of itself thereafter. - -In these days of indifferent gasoline automobile drivers are -complaining constantly that the carburetors are giving unusual -troubles. The carburetor is the lungs of the engine. Well, did you -ever breathe in a crumb of cake and then for a while have all your -faculties suspend operation while the lungs sought to expel the -intruding substance? That is just what happens when you get a crumb of -something in the needle valve, or in the intake valve of the vaporizer. -One little, good-for-nothing, insignificant speck of dirt, so small as -to be almost invisible, will put the best carburetor literally out of -business, and the only thing to do is to remove the speck. - -There are several good makes of gasoline strainers which reduce -this trouble to a minimum, provided one will drain off the strainer -occasionally to let the dirt run off. Straining the gasoline supply -through wire gauze or chamois does not obviate the difficulty, for -gasoline tanks are prone to acquire a slight sediment. - -A few drops of water in the gasoline which reaches the carburetor will -make trouble likewise, for it will not vaporize, and, what is more, -it will not let anything else vaporize. Probably no one is trying to -dilute the gasoline with water and sell you such a mixture, but there -are some mighty careless men in the gasoline trade. It reminds one of -the farmer caught selling watered milk, who pleaded that there was -a pump in the milking yard and some of his men must be careless in -passing by it. The chamois skin will remove this impediment, for water -will not pass through it. - -Another trouble which afflicts motor-boat engines more than the -automobile motor has to do with the weather. The motor-boat carburetor -requires frequent adjustment, due to changes of the weather. On a -dry, warm day the gasoline vaporizes easily and the maximum charge -is readily exploded in the cylinder, giving a maximum of power. On a -wet, cold, heavy day, one must slightly decrease the supply, or the -cylinders will clog, the engine will knock, and one will think harsh -things if they are not audibly expressed. The automobile engine, not -being so constantly over the water, will not have this trouble so -much, but it is probable that most drivers fail to take this into -consideration and perhaps do not know that it is a cause of trouble. - -A very slight leak in the intake manifold gaskets likewise makes all -sorts of trouble, since the supply of mixture to the cylinders will -vary according as the vibration opens up the gasket and stops the -suction by which the cylinders are supplied. A leaky piston ring will -do this for one of the cylinders. If worn, or frozen fast by carbon, it -will fail to keep the piston tight, the mixture passes by the leak, if -sucked in, and there is no compression and no explosion or irregular -firing. This will make one think sometimes that the carburetor is at -fault, whereas the engine really needs an overhauling. - -In fact, if one is having engine trouble which is hard to diagnose, one -should try out the piston rings to see if they are doing their duty. -This is very simple, for all practical-test needs. Crank the cylinder -up to high pressure and let it stand a couple of minutes. Then open pet -or priming cock and see if there is any pressure left. On the two-cycle -engine this is a good test, and by trying the cylinders in turn piston -ring trouble may be located. - -On the four-cycle engine the valves must be considered also, for -they may leak and the pistons be perfectly tight, but in such an -event it will be found almost impossible to get good pressure on the -cylinder, since it leaks through the valves while the piston is making -the compression stroke. Don’t condemn the carburetor until you have -determined whether either of these things is occurring. - -The carburetor should be drained occasionally to prevent the -accumulation of sediment, which will later clog the needle valve, and -at least once a season should be taken apart and cleaned. Time spent in -this way well repays the owner. - -In all that has been said thus far no account has been taken of poor -gasoline. By this is not meant gasoline with water or dirt in it, -but a poor quality. Nowadays there is such a demand for gasoline for -automobiles and motor boats, that the producers have had to market much -of a low grade, or, as is generally the case, have mixed the first -quality with the cheaper grades, producing a medium quality. - -The seeming necessity of utilizing these low grades of gasoline makes -it necessary to change the carburetor forms, and one sees now a -tendency to do away with the old, long intake, either by raising the -carburetor to the cylinder level, with a horizontal intake only, or -with an internal intake manifold, the carburetor being attached to the -cylinder block. Several makes of carburetors using one of these methods -are said to vaporize even the low grades of gasoline, while some later -models are claimed to handle kerosene successfully. - -For the motor boat there are several makes of vaporizers which will -handle either gasoline or kerosene, and all intermediate grades, by -slight adjustment. It is possible that some ingenious builder will -devise a similar vaporizer for the automobile engine, if gasoline -continues to decline in quality, and to be short in supply as well. - -An easy test to see whether the carburetor is working right is to -run several blocks with the throttle practically closed, then, when -the road is clear, press sharply upon the accelerator pedal, which -opens the throttle wide and should make the engine speed up and the -car jump forward. If it is sluggish it will denote a too rich mixture, -and if it sputters and perhaps backfires, it is too lean. But if, with -smooth yet rapid action, it makes the car speed up, that is “pep.” The -amount of pep which a car is said to possess is gauged by the quickness -with which it responds to the acceleration, either by the pedal or by -throttle lever, changing the car from slow or moderate speed to full -speed. That, too, without jerky action or tearing the motor apart. - -While this test, showing the presence of pep, will denote that the -mixture passing through the carburetor is correct, absence of pep does -not always mean that it is wrong. Therefore it is not wise to jump to -the conclusion that the adjustment is wrong. In fact the adjustment -should not be changed unless it is fully certain that it is wrong. -If the car has been running with the carburetor working properly and -no one has changed the adjustment, it may safely be assumed that the -carburetor adjustment is correct. Adjustments are not changed except by -someone’s fingers. - -Do not be like the new chauffeur who, having trouble, at once descended -upon the carburetor. Another chauffeur whose car was standing near -advised: - -“I wouldn’t touch that, boss.” - -“Well, there’s something the matter and I guess it’s here,” said the -troubled one. - -“I wouldn’t touch it, boss; try somewhere else.” - -“Oh; let’s see what’s on the inside of it,” impatiently exclaimed the -new chauffeur, and he proceeded to unscrew and unbolt the parts. - -Of course, he had to send to the garage for a repair man and finally -was towed in for complete reassembly and readjustment of the part. - -The lesson in all this for the owner is that he should learn the -make-up and peculiarities of his carburetor, understand its common and -uncommon ills and thus be able to remedy a trouble which would mar -a trip or the general serviceability of the car. It is unnecessary -to go into the detail of any make of carburetor, because if the -manufacturer’s instruction book does not contain full information and -sketches of the make used, a special carburetor book may be obtained -from the maker. But there is no excuse for failure to master the lungs -of the engine and to learn how to keep them breathing properly. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -GETTING THE MOST OUT OF A GALLON OF GAS - - -With the price of gasoline constantly mounting skyward and tires -following when not leading the rise, while everything else needed -for automobile upkeep is ascendant, it is timely to assert the need -that the owner consider his expense and renewal costs. And when it is -considered that labor and repair parts have pirouetted along with the -other things, it behooves the owner to devise ways of decreasing his -running expenses and to learn how to get as much as possible out of a -gallon of gas, and every mile out of his tires they can be coaxed to -give. - -There are many little expenses about running a car which total a -considerable sum. A nickel, a dime, a quarter, a dollar, do not seem -much at the time, but they pile up the cost per mile frightfully. Not -everyone can be like a friend, who, when cautioned about the way his -chauffeur was running up the cost of his several cars, replied: - -“I don’t want to know what my cars cost. If I did, my business instinct -would doubtless make me dispose of them all, and I do not want to do -this. The cars are a luxury and I don’t want to know what they cost.” - -A car which lasts with ordinary care one or two years, if given -intelligent care by the owner might be made to last three to five -years. This means taking unusual precaution and having a thorough -knowledge of the working parts and of how to keep them in condition, -and it means doing faithfully and persistently the things necessary to -keep everything in order. - -When it is considered that under prevailing conditions it may not be -possible to get a new car as often as it has been in the past, it might -be as well to take care of the cars we have rather than let them go to -rack and ruin for lack of care. A good many automobiles are wasted more -than they are used. In some cases this is due to carelessness and in -others by lack of knowledge of what to do and how to do it. - -Take tires, for instance. The cost due to neglect is often greater -than the cost of actual wear. Some of the things which cause excessive -wear and deterioration of tires are driving into holes in the street, -or in deep ruts, turning corners at too high speed, stopping the car -so quickly with the brake that the wheels slide on the pavement, and a -harsh clutch which jerks the car suddenly from a standstill, causing -needless wear. Then there are such things as letting the front wheels -get out of alignment so that they do not run parallel, or nearly so, -the action being that the tire is slid, instead of being rolled, over -the road. There should be a slight toe in, for mechanical reasons, as -explained elsewhere, but if this is allowed to go beyond the proper -limit it costs money. - -Adjusters tell us that a very large percentage of tire failures is -caused by under-inflation, which allows the tires to flatten and breaks -the side walls. Every tire should be tested with a gauge and not with -the eye or hand and kept to the pressure named by the tire maker. - -To get the greatest life out of a tire it should be watched continually -for small cuts through the rubber to the fabric. Most tires will be -found after a short service to have from two to a dozen such cuts. -These will allow sand to work in and loosen the rubber and then -moisture gets in and rots the fabric. There are preparations with which -these cuts may be healed in a few minutes; serious cuts, especially -where the rubber is loosened from the fabric, should be taken at once -to the vulcanizer. - -While oil and grease of good quality cost money, their proper use will -save many times their price in replacement of parts. On the other hand, -a waste of lubricant makes unnecessary expense. Especially with a new -car, oil and grease should be carefully watched until the bearings have -had time to work in. That is the time when expense for replacement of -bearings is most likely. - -It is not generally realized that a large number of things enter -into the economical use of gasoline. To get the most out of a gallon -of gasoline all moving parts must work properly. This means proper -lubrication. The brakes should not drag; each cylinder of the engine -should fire properly; the clutch should not slip, and the carburetor -should be in proper adjustment. It is not well to adjust the carburetor -unless you are sure it is at fault. Excessive carbon in the cylinder -causes a decided loss of power, due to back pressure on the piston, and -the partial clogging of the muffler indirectly consumes extra gasoline. -The importance of keeping the muffler free is not usually understood. - -To insure each cylinder getting its proper power without waste, the -engine should be driven with the spark lever advanced as far as -possible without causing back pressure. The spark-plug gaps should be -properly adjusted to insure a thorough ignition of the charge; the -spark plugs should be kept clean to prevent the loss of a charge of -gas through non-ignition, likewise the interrupter points, and the -distributor should be kept clean and properly adjusted. - -To use all the gas that is taken into the cylinder there should be no -loss of compression through leaky valves, or weak valve springs, or -poor gaskets on spark plugs or valve caps; and it is equally important -that pet cocks, cylinder head, where there is one, and piston rings are -tight, so that gas will not be wasted. - -It is not safe to leave these things to the chauffeur and the garage -man. The owner should learn himself how to make all these adjustments. -If he does so he will find that his propelling machine will work -better, and that he will not only have more use and pleasure out of it, -but he will save a very appreciable part of the cost of up-keep. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THINGS WHICH MAKE GAS BILLS HIGH - - -There are other things which affect the amount of gas consumed which -need the attention of the automobile owner. One of the common things, -mentioned in the preceding chapter, concerns the intake manifold, which -has to do with the distribution of the gas mixture from the carburetor -to the several cylinders. A leak at the carburetor side would prevent -drawing into the manifold a sufficient supply of the mixture, so that -the cylinders would be scantily supplied—perhaps one or more not -supplied at all. Likewise air would be drawn into the manifold through -the leak, and this would thin the mixture coming from the carburetor. -As the mixture in the cylinders would be thin it would not compress -properly, the firing pressure would be poor, the mixture would fire -badly or not at all, and the power would be lessened. - -The natural thing to do when the misfiring is noticed is to open the -spray or needle valve, admitting more gasoline to the mixing chamber -and making a higher consumption with no gain in power. The proper thing -to do, however, is to look for a leak in the manifold. - -If the leak is on the cylinder side of the manifold, it might be at -one or all of the cylinders. The result would be the same as in the -case just cited, a poor supply of the mixture, or some of the cylinders -might be properly supplied and work all right, while others might be -short of the mixture and might not fire at all. The loss might be -sufficient to affect seriously the power and lessen the speed of the -car. - -The manifold ought not to become loosened in the ordinary use of the -car. There have been cases where vibration has done it, but the usual -trouble is where the manifold has been removed for some purpose and -improperly replaced. Copper and asbestos gaskets ordinarily are used, -and these may be dented or jammed out of shape so that the joint is not -tight, or there might have been no shellac handy, or the bolts may not -have been tightened enough. Whatever the reason, the leak makes a weak -mixture, and the first thought of the chauffeur or the average garage -man is to increase the gasoline at the spray nozzle of the carburetor -to make the mixture of the right proportion to fire. On account of the -mixture being made in the intake manifold, instead of the carburetor, -as it should be, the work is not efficiently done and gasoline is -wasted, the result being the increase of the expense account. - -One of the most common causes of gas loss is from leaky supply pipes. -Where there is a solid pipe from tank to carburetor the only leak, -barring a break or perforation of the pipe, would be at the connection -with the tank or the carburetor. Vibration might cause the joints to -loosen, though if they are put together properly with shellac, soap -or some equivalent, and are thoroughly tightened, there ought not to -be any loosening. It is needless, but how often we see a car dripping -gasoline at considerable loss. It is also dangerous, for a stray flame -or spark may ignite the gas. - -There is another leak of the same nature which is quite as expensive, -and that is of lubricating oil. If you do not believe it to be -prevalent or serious in extent, you have only to watch places where -automobiles stand frequently along the curb and notice the pools of -oil on the pavement. These come from leaky crank cases, transmission -gear cases, rear-axle gear (differential) cases, or from a faulty -distributor. In most cases it is only a matter of tightening a few -bolts or connections occasionally; but with oil at present prices it -is a serious matter. - -Another leak which needs to be corrected frequently is at the valves. -So much has been written about the care of valves that it would seem -superfluous to refer to it, but regrinding and proper care pay big -dividends in efficiency and should be on the regular program. There is -a leak at the valve, however, seldom mentioned, though quite as serious -as the others, which is due to worn valve stems. - -The valve stems should fit snugly in the guides; if they do not, air -will be drawn past the stem into the cylinder on the suction stroke -and thin down the mixture so that the engine runs irregularly, unless -more gasoline is supplied at the spray nozzle, and throttling down to -a reasonable idling speed is impossible. If the exhaust valve guide is -worn there will be a hissing sound that is objectionable. - -The purpose of repeating this caution as to mixture thinning is to make -it plain that wherever there is a leak between the carburetor and the -cylinder it lets in air and thins the mixture so that it is necessary -to feed in more gasoline to get a mixture that will fire and that is -wasteful, for a mixture made anywhere else than in the carburetor is -less efficiently accomplished. - -The burned gases pass out through the exhaust valve side and in so -doing often deposit small pieces of carbon, which keep the valve from -seating properly and let perfectly good mixture escape. If not cleaned -often, the heat and constant tapping of the valve against the seat will -hammer the carbon fast to the valve or seat as though it had been fused -there. Carbon must be scraped off frequently and as often as necessary -the valve should be reground into the seat. - -Piston rings which are not pinned often work around until the slots -are in line and the mixture will blow through. If the rings will not -stay in place a pin should be put in the ring groove on the piston to -prevent the ring from working around and the slots should be staggered, -so that no two are in line. Naturally the rings must be kept free from -carbon or gum from the oil or they will freeze to the groove and leak -mixture. - -In older cars the cylinder may be worn oval, so that the piston and its -rings do not fit. When the cylinder is oval the piston will not pump in -the mixture properly, and when the explosion occurs much of the burned -gas will be forced down into the crank case. One of the products of -combustion is water, which is exhausted in the form of vapor. When it -gets into the crank case and condenses, forming water, it collects -under the oil. In cleaning out and replacing the oil, if water is -found, it always indicates a tendency to oval in the cylinder. This is -caused by the thrust of the connecting rod being against one side on -the up stroke and against the other on the down stroke. - -With everything else there may be a loss of gasoline by reason of poor -adjustment of the carburetor. The adjustment should be such as to make -the mixture as lean as possible and have it fire readily, and to have -the float not too high. One sure indication that the mixture is too -rich is when black smoke is given off. Black smoke always indicates -excess gasoline—burning money. As has been told in another chapter, -there is another kind of smoke to guard against, but if the owner will -make sure that he is not exhausting black smoke he need not worry about -the price of gasoline, and a little judgment and care will eliminate -many of the items of upkeep expense. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CARE OF THE TIRES - - -When a tire buyer is told by the dealer that a tire is guaranteed for -so many miles, the manufacturer expects to make good—he expects if -the tire falls down on performance to replace it, or at least make an -allowance for the mileage short. As a matter of fact they do not have -to do this on thousands of tires which are defective, for the reason -that the auto owner has not kept his part of the bargain. Nine times -out of ten this is because the user of the tire does not know how it -ought to be treated and doctored and cajoled into doing all that it is -expected to do. - -Tires are a great deal like human beings; are just as finicky and -contrary; and it takes a great insight into their make-up if one would -get the most out of them. - -One of the chief causes of tire deterioration is lack of care—absolute -neglect. Drivers send their machines over all kinds of roads, -regardless of ruts, and stones, and glass or junk in the roadway, and -then cannot understand why the tires are all cut up about it. Worse -than that, they do not seem to understand that a cut tire needs as much -and as prompt attention as a cut finger—perhaps more, for nature will -mend the one; the other has no such luck. - -The first thing to do when one discovers a cut is to clean it out and -jiffy in one of the good solutions sold, which will cement the edges -together or press in the putty-like repair material. If the cut is not -too large or too deep it will mend easily and give little trouble, if -care is taken. If it is a large cut the vulcanizer should be visited. -The cement should hold long enough for that. It will keep out water, -which rots the fabric easily, and sand, which makes blisters along the -tread. Only a slight patch is needed if done promptly, but if water and -sand get in it is almost impossible to vulcanize in a patch, and when -it is done it probably will not last. - -Tires should be inspected regularly and often and attended to -intelligently. This will save the automobile owner much annoyance and -cut down one of the big items of maintenance. - -Some drivers, too, never seem to think of favoring an auto tire at -times of greatest strain. They will whirl around a corner as fast as -their nerve and the traffic policeman will allow and then wonder why it -is that the tread wears away so quickly. They do not seem to understand -that under such circumstances there is a steady grind of tire upon -pavement, and grind means wear. - -Another set of drivers will run along for weeks without noticing that -the steering gear is out of true. Perhaps the machine has hit something -and the equalizing rod is bent just a trifle, making the front wheels -far from parallel. It may not be enough to see with the eye, but it is -off true and one or both of the tires grinds with every revolution. The -speed with which the tread will wear away depends upon the character of -the roadway. On gravel or macadam roads it is fast. The manufacturer -will not replace a tire worn out that way if he can detect the cause, -and experience has taught him where to look for it. One man wore a pair -of front tires through to the fabric in a very short run and raised -a fuss because the replacement man disclaimed responsibility after -testing the wheels. The roll and slide motion combined will work havoc -with the best tire and should be corrected. - -A harsh clutch does the same thing in a little different way. A -clutch which grips too hard will cause the wheels to slide and wear. -The brake, also, should not be too positive, but be adjusted to work -easily, so that the wheel will stop turning just as the momentum is -spent, to prevent sliding. Both brakes should be adjusted alike, or -one will grip the wheel fast and the other turn. The gripped tire will -scrape along and the pavement cuts the tire like a rasp. - -Another set of men forgets that oil and grease and gasoline are the -natural enemies of tires. They allow the machine to stand in the garage -where there are pools of oil or gas. Gasoline will dissolve gum rubber. -It will disintegrate the tire, which is a combination of rubber, -soapstone, and other things, so that it wears out quickly. Lubricating -oil and grease hasten the decay of rubber and shorten the life of the -tire. Besides there is no sense in wasting oil and gas, and if someone -else allows it to spill on the pavement the wise man will keep out of -the mess. - -In wet seasons there is especial need for care of the tire. Rubber cuts -easily when the sharp edge of the cutting agent is wet. Tire workers -dip their knives in water to facilitate the work. Go out on a road -where there is glass, or sharp stones dripping from a rain, and the -tire is an easy mark. A wet day on a sharp gravel road will fill the -tires full of small cuts. - -Tubes should be kept in the shoes where possible. If folded up they are -likely to harden on the creases and crack on the surface, blowing out -easily. Tubes in excess of shoes carried should be rolled up carefully -and be kept in a bag to prevent chafing on tools or box. - -Tires cost the owner about the same as the car if he does much running. -In a general sense the set of four tires used on any car bears a -certain proportion to the selling price of the car. On the cheaper -makes of cars the tires cost new approximately $60 per set. They -increase in price in direct ratio to the price of the car. They are -usually guaranteed for five thousand miles, and as the average owner -makes at least ten thousand miles per year, he uses up two sets of -tires. Taking three years as the average time the owner will keep the -car before trading it in, would mean six sets of tires. Taking the -car which uses the $60 set and we find that six sets of tires would -cost $360, or pretty near the first cost of the car. Few owners give -consideration to this fact. - -Another way of figuring the cost of tires is that in upkeep expense -tires figure for one-third of the total, gasoline and oil for another -third, and wear and tear on the car the remainder. Upon this basis the -owner should give one-third of the total care to the tires. But few, if -any, do. - -When the car is stored for the winter, or for any length of time at any -other season, the car should be jacked up and the tires deflated until -the pressure is less than half the normal. Where the car cannot be left -jacked up the tires should be removed from the car and hung up high and -dry where there will be neither extremes of heat nor cold, though heat -is more injurious than cold. - -It is good practice, if, on coming to the garage, it is found that one -or more tires are deflated below normal and there is no time to pump -them up, to lift the weight off the tire with jack or otherwise, so -that the strain will be removed from the walls of the tire between the -rim and the floor or ground. - -Do not put tires where they will be subject to strong sunlight, which -decomposes the rubber. Oil and grease left on the surface do the same -thing. Clean the tires of mud and grease after every trip. Keep the -small cuts healed and the big blisters will not occur. - -Make friends with the vulcanizer and take his advice as to repair of -your tires. That’s his business. If too far from a vulcanizer, buy a -small outfit and spoil a few casings and tubes learning how to do the -small jobs, and send the big ones to the shop by express. - -Remember in mending tubes and casings that cleanliness is before -godliness. You may be a perfect church member, but if you do not -observe perfect cleanliness the mend will not stick and in the end may -lose you your church membership by provoking you to violent words. - -Throw away the valve insides every once in a while on general -principles and put in new ones. Learn how to test the tubes by dipping -them under water when inflated and looking for air bubbles. Test the -valve the same way, at the same time. Bubbles may indicate why the tire -will not keep pumped hard. - -Rubber is porous to a slight degree and you must expect loss of air -from that cause both in the tires on the wheels and that held in -reserve. Make sure of the pressure by the tire gauge. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SKIDDING MAY BE MINIMIZED - - -When you are out driving next time watch the cars ahead of you and -notice how many of them have wobbly rear wheels. You can by this -means tell fairly well who is a careful driver and whose car has been -skidding about the streets and has brought up sharply against the curb, -or car track, or rut, or some other obstruction over which the wheels -would not slide, and which was sufficiently solid to give them a hard -knock. - -No man can appreciate what a skid means until he has had one and then, -perhaps, he will not live to appreciate it. No amount of preaching -seems to do any good. He must sow his wild auto-driving oats and learn -from experience. Because of this, it is recommended that each driver -who has not had a real skid yet, pick out a very broad and wet street -paved with asphalt where there is no traffic in sight. Let him drive -the car fifteen miles an hour up the middle of the street, then give -the steering wheel a sharp turn to the left, at the same time applying -the brakes. The resulting sensation of absolute helplessness will be -remembered for an hour or two—at least. For those who wish to continue -the lesson, try allowing some other driver to repeat the operation, -while the experience seeker occupies the back seat. - -Now the skid against the curb or other obstruction may not have -demolished the wheel, but it left its mark in cracked spokes, or bent -rim, or if the car was of a certain type of construction it may have -bent the axle shaft itself. If the wobble is due to a bend in the rim, -it wears the tires excessively and if the spokes have been a little -cracked it weakens the wheel; if the axle shaft has been bent, it is -causing undue wear in the bearing; and under all of these conditions -there is too much wear of the tires. - -During the winter skidding is prevalent, much more so than at other -seasons. This is due to the fact that snow and ice keep the pavements -wet or icy, according to the temperature. There is another element -entering into the situation, however; most folks who travel at this -time of the year, because of the cold and discomforts of motoring, -desire to get there and so travel faster—the very fact that they are -uncomfortable causes them to pay less attention to driving with care. -The result is that they run up close behind some other vehicle, which -stops quickly; then they jam on the brakes hard and skid. Or, a car -comes out of a side street suddenly, making it necessary to swerve -quickly to one side, or stop, and the result is a skid in either case. - -A rather unusual case of skidding is thus related by a driver: - - I was driving up Broadway, in New York City, and to make the hill - north of 157th Street had put on a little more speed, for the car was - not a good hill climber. A block or two above the subway station a boy - on a sled darted out of a side street and swung to continue down the - Broadway hill. To avoid hitting him I jammed on the brake hard, and - began to skid. There was a wagon at the curb and on the other side of - me an auto going in the same direction and there was not room to turn - out. - - I saw that if my car continued to skid it would swing in front of the - sled. It is unusual to skid going up hill, but there was so much loose - snow, with ice underneath, that the skid chains did not take hold. - There was but an instant to act, much less time than it takes to tell - it, and I released the brake and let in the clutch. This stopped the - skidding and the car shot forward just in time to let the boy go by. - -Probably the greatest cause of skidding is turning the corner at too -high speed. This often causes a skidding of the front wheels as well -as the rear wheels—that is, the car is going so fast that the front -wheels do not get traction enough to change their direction and when -they attempt to make the turn they skid and the car goes for the curb. -Applying the brake usually will overcome this skid. - -In a rear-wheel skid the worst thing one can do is to apply the -brake. It is best to let the car coast, turning the front wheels in -the direction in which the rear end of the car is skidding; if it is -trying to go to the left, turn the front wheels that way. If there is -something in the way, so that it is necessary to stop, the brake may be -applied a little as the wheels take hold, leaving the clutch engaged, -which prevents locking the wheels, as the engine is pulling against the -brake and there is not so much danger of locking the wheels. It keeps -the wheels revolving slowly, so that you get a better traction for -stopping. - -It takes a greater pressure applied laterally to start the wheel -sliding than to keep it skidding once it is started, and you can bring -the car to a standstill much quicker if you can keep the wheels from -sliding. A little practice will teach the driver just how much he can -apply the brake without causing the wheels to skid. - -The bent axle has been mentioned as a result of skidding. It may also -be a cause for skidding, for it sometimes happens that by hitting the -curb hard, or the wheel of another car, or a street car, the rear axle -gets out of true—perhaps the spring-seat bolt will shear off—and the -wheels will not track with the front wheels. This will cause skidding. - -When there is not snow during the cold months, often water is used to -sweep or flush the streets. Wet asphalt is always slippery, whether it -is warm or cold, but in cold weather it often freezes and the pavement -is dangerous and skidding is almost certain unless care be taken. The -street-car tracks are another cause of skidding. Often it is necessary -to give the front wheels a considerable turn to get out of the track -when necessary, and, especially if they are wet—and they are wet when -other parts of the pavement are dry—the rear wheels will continue in -the tracks, causing a bad skid. Under no circumstances should one -habitually drive in the car tracks when the streets are wet. - -If the brakes are adjusted unevenly, so that there is a little more -pressure on the one wheel than the other and therefore stops it a -little more, it will cause skidding. Another case may come from giving -the steering wheel a little twist just as the brake is applied. -Occasionally in an emergency stop the driver will give a hasty glance -behind to see if a car is close upon him. The hands follow the eye, -it is said, and this will often give the slight twist that causes the -wheels to slide. - -Some cars skid because the weight is not balanced on the wheels—that -is, there is too much weight on front or rear wheels. There is a -remarkable difference in cars in this respect and it might be well -before buying a car to try it out on its likelihood to skid. - -There are numerous designs of non-skid tires and they do prevent, or -decrease, skidding to a very large degree on some cars. While they help -in some cases, it is not well to depend upon them entirely. It is the -general practice now to use non-skid chains. On muddy roads they are a -necessity and on wet asphalt are almost as essential and chains should -be used under such circumstances; but as they cause excessive wear on -the tires, they should only be used when needed. The driver should not -allow himself to be either too hurried or too lazy to put them on and -take them off according to the condition of the pavement. Better to do -this a dozen times a day rather than wear out a set of tires or skid -into the curb or a street car. - -They should be adjusted loosely, so they can creep around and wear -the entire circumference of the tire slightly but evenly; if they are -so tight they cannot creep, the cross chains will cut away the outer -rubber right down to the fabric. A great many tires are ruined in that -way. Tires cut this way cannot be turned back to the manufacturer for -replacement, for the adjuster will know at once what caused the wear. - -Be sure there are a sufficient number of cross chains so that it will -not be possible for the brakes to stop the wheel between the cross -links, for in that event it will slide just as badly as though no -chains were used. As a car is more likely to skid going down grade -than on the level, it follows that extra care should be exercised, -and that the driver should slow speed for a stop farther away than -would ordinarily be necessary, and that the stop should be gradual. -One should watch closely on a hill, for there is a greater coasting -momentum and a greater tendency for the rear wheels to slew around, -because of the weight upon them. - -After all, the greatest preventive of skidding is care. The driver who -keeps his eyes and wits about him will have his car under control in -situations which might possibly cause skidding. It is an essential of -economy in tires and wheels and some other parts of the mechanism, and -it is an essential in safety, for some very bad, even fatal, accidents -have come from skidding at an unfortunate moment, when care would have -prevented it. It is no fun to incur injury to person or car, or to pay -for repairs or excessive renewals; he who would avoid causes for much -of this should beware of skidding. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -“CAN’T-SLIP HEELS” LESSEN SKIDDING - - -If your auto is not equipped with “Can’t-Slip Heels,” the green or pink -plugged shock absorbers, the same as you wear on your own heels to keep -from skidding over the sidewalk, perhaps it were well to look into it -a little. Autos as well as men take to skidding quite easily, and not -infrequently come to grief. - -We use rubber heels to absorb shocks and jars just as we use rubber -tires on the auto to absorb road shocks. We find in both instances -that in wet weather the pavement becomes lubricated and a slip or skid -is likely to result in damage to person or car. In the case of rubber -heels it was found desirable to provide some means to prevent slipping, -and plugs were inserted which grip the ice or slippery surface and hold -fast. Tire manufacturers have developed all sorts of devices, such -as projections and recesses, vacuum cups, etc., in the tread of the -tire, to keep them from slipping. In one case the device has been very -successful, where the manufacturer has inserted strips of cotton fabric -in the tread of the tire, on the same principle as the plug in the -rubber heels. - -The fabric, really a thick canvas, projects a very little beyond the -rubber surface, and gives the tire a better traction than plain rubber -would have on a slippery pavement, and makes one of the best non-skid -combinations. You doubtless will remember that rubbers worn smooth are -more slippery than the leather heels with their nails; or that the -rubber heels which have no plugs get very “slick” and are worse than -nothing. It is exactly the same with rubber tires. - -No matter with what non-skid device tires are equipped, there is always -the danger of slipping when the pavements are wet or slushy, and the -fact that such equipment is used should not make the driver think that -he can drive at high speed with safety. On ordinary wet pavements very -satisfactory results are obtained with most of the regular non-skid -types of tires. Where ice or packed snow or surface mud is encountered, -chains are better. In very deep mud, loose sand, or loose snow, heavy -rope wrapped around the tire between the spokes will probably be found -best. In an emergency, when caught out in the country, it might be -necessary to cut up a blanket or find some other substitute for the -rope. - -When there is a telephone pole or post near at hand when the car -becomes stuck in loose snow, sand, or deep mud, often the car may be -pulled out if a tow rope long enough is handy. Fasten one end of the -rope to the pole and the other to the forward part of the rear wheel. -Then start the engine and if the rope is strong enough and it is -stretched tight enough, as the wheel revolves it will start the car -forward. Take a fresh hitch on the pole and try it again. A few inches -at a time it will pull the car forward, a distance equal to about the -diameter of the wheel, and in time get the wheel out of the rut or hole -so that it may grip the solid earth again. - -The flat steel stud tires are absolutely worthless on ice; they are -good skates, but for gripping the ice they are failures. - -The great majority of skids are due to excessive speed. The author -has been told by a driver who drifted into another car and broke both -headlights that he was only going ten miles an hour. This was probably -true, but unquestionably he was going too fast for the condition of the -streets and his tires. It is quite necessary that the driver should -know how his car is going to behave under all conditions and drive -accordingly. - -Occasionally the crown of the road will cause a slip of front or rear -wheels to the side that cannot be prevented by a reduction in speed; -but the careful driver will at least drive slow enough under such -conditions to make whatever damage might occur from this cause as light -as possible. Wherever a road has a crown there is always increased -danger of skidding, but often these roads that have a hard slippery -section in the middle have a narrow strip of gravel or dirt on each -side. Where this is the case it would be better to drive with one pair -of wheels in the dirt rather than to keep in the middle, where slipping -is almost unavoidable. - -In other cases, where there is no dirt strip, it is perhaps better -to keep right in the middle of the road and to use great caution in -turning out for other vehicles. - -Rounding a corner at high speed is, of course, a direct invitation -for a very serious skid. Making sharp turns of the steering wheel on -straightaway is also dangerous. When driving in traffic on slippery -pavements, care should be taken not to follow another vehicle too close -and to judge stops far enough in advance so that the car may be brought -to a standstill, if necessary, several feet before the desired point -is reached. In other words, the brakes should be applied very carefully. - -In extreme cases it may be found impossible to apply the brakes at all -without skidding, and it will be necessary to practically allow the -car to drift to a standstill. Brakes which are adjusted so that one -takes hold a little stronger than the other will also cause a skid, by -permitting one wheel to turn and twist the car about. - -When skidding does occur, about the only thing the driver can do is -to turn the steering wheel in the direction of the skidding, with no -pressure on the brake. This will correct the skid before damage is -done, provided the speed is not too great. Another help in preventing -skidding is to leave the clutch engaged and the engine pulling slightly -when the brake is applied. Of course, before the car is actually -brought to a standstill the clutch must be released, or the engine will -stall. The slight pull of the engine when the brake is applied prevents -the locking of the rear wheels, and in that way prevents skidding in a -large measure. - -On any stormy day a short tour of any of the much used avenues in any -city will disclose a variety of machines which have had their skid and -are against the curb with broken wheels, if nothing worse. It seems -as though no amount of advice will teach the driver to use care on -slippery pavements. He must have his own skid before he learns his -lesson. - -The season for skidding is always with us, however, and every patch of -ice, or a frozen or wet street surface, or a muddy country road gives -the warning “Drive Carefully.” It behooves the owner, therefore, to -provide his car with the best safety devices to be had, whether it be -chains, rope, tires with plugs which encircle the tread, or whatever -may be necessary. He will do this if he has had his skid; if he hasn’t, -probably no amount of advice will have the slightest effect upon him. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -AVOID NEWLY OILED ROADS - - -Tourists going out on week-end trips into the country, and country -owners who go into strange sections, should pay strict attention to -signs which say in effect: “Danger, Road Being Oiled.” It does not -matter in the least whether you believe in signs or not, pay attention -to all such; it may save an upset, or at least skidding into the ditch. -An oily macadam road is more slippery even than a wet asphalt pavement. - -The danger is greater from the fact that the road is crowned—that is, -it rises in the center and slopes off on either side to a ditch. If -you get off the crown on an oily road the machine is pretty sure to -slide toward the ditch. In running over an oily road it is necessary -to keep on the crown as much as possible and when one has to pass -another vehicle, if he cares much for his safety, he had better slow -down, or come to a stop, and let the other fellow worry about getting -by. An ounce of caution before is worth several horse-power of energy -in getting the car back after it goes in the ditch or tries to climb a -telegraph pole. - -Recently the author had occasion to visit Orange County, New York, and -struck a piece of very heavily oiled road near Goshen. It apparently -had been oiled the night before and the workmen had not finished -putting on the binder. It was thick with oil. The road makers knew it -was dangerous and put up a sign similar to that quoted above, but a big -car ahead went down a little slope leading to the oil and the driver -failed to heed the sign quickly enough, and when we caught up with him -he was in the ditch. Coming up were half a dozen other cars sliding all -around but trying to get to the ditched car to give assistance. - -The big car had slowed down somewhat, else it would have gone over -into the field, but it had turned completely around and was headed in -the direction whence it had come. The other cars were sliding in every -direction. When he found his car beginning to slide, the author very -cautiously stopped, for his car was just moving. On inquiring of the -driver of the skidded car, he was told that when the latter had found -himself skidding around he had jammed on the brake, and, of course, -just as might have been expected, the rear of the car went right -around. In going up the slight rise of ground, the author met other -cars and had to leave the crown of the road. Immediately the rear tires -began to slide and he went for some distance with the rear pair of -wheels trying to slide down into the ditch while the front pair were -holding fairly well to the road. As soon as he could get back on the -crown of the road again, of course the car straightened out all right. - -Any car which struck the oiled road on high speed would have turned -over or smashed against a telephone pole and probably everybody aboard -would have been hurt, if not killed; so it is wise not to be so -absorbed in entertaining one’s friends that warning signs are missed. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -WATCH YOUR BRAKES - - -Look well to the condition of the brakes on your car before starting on -a trip. See that they are in good shape even if you do not have time to -look over the engine. The brakes are more important than the engine. It -needs an engine in at least fair condition to get anywhere, but if you -do not have brakes you may get too far—too eternally far. - -Manufacturers of cars have recognized the importance of the brake -appliances and have given considerable attention to the improvement of -the brake, designing more efficient operating mechanism, increasing the -size of the braking surface and improving the quality of the friction -materials, and also in protecting the brakes from excessive wear due to -grit and dragging of bands when not in use. - -The brakes, moreover, on the average car of modern design, are -sufficient for all general use, if used intelligently and if they are -given a moderate amount of care. But like most other parts of cars, -some owners give them no attention whatever, and consequently there is -frequent failure and often it is a matter of life and death when the -brakes refuse to work properly. - -First of all, owners should understand that there are two sets of -brakes on the car, which operate independently of each other, and -each brake should be capable of holding the car at a standstill on -practically any grade, or, as the chauffeur usually puts it, “sliding -the wheels.” - -A recent experience with a Ford car illustrates the need of the owner -thoroughly understanding his braking system. This was a case of a -new car where the owner had not yet become very familiar with the -mechanism. He came to a very long and fairly steep hill. He released -the clutch and applied the brake as he had been taught, and got about -two-thirds of the way down the hill when the brake lining burned out -and the brake no longer held the car. Then, because he forgot what he -ought to do (or else did not know), the owner lost his head and thought -he was going to smash, and of course did. The car ran into the ditch -and upset, bent the front axle, broke the mud guards and top bows, and -mixed things up generally, but fortunately no one was hurt. - -This was all unnecessary, for on this particular car he had three other -means of braking. He could have pushed the pedal which engages the -low-speed gear and kept the car at low enough speed to negotiate the -hill in safety. Or, he could have pushed the reverse pedal, which on -this particular car would have acted as a very efficient brake. And, -also, he might have applied the emergency brake, as on any other car. - -As every car is equipped with two distinct sets of brakes, drivers -should learn to use first one and then the other on long grades, and -this may be helped out considerably by using the motor as a brake—that -is, by cutting off the ignition and allowing the machine to push the -engine under compression, and even more by engaging a lower gear before -cutting off the ignition, so that there is a greater leverage obtained -to retard the car. Likewise, long grades should be descended at a -comparatively slow speed in cases where the brake is at all necessary, -because the higher speed develops more heat and the brake lining is -more likely to burn out. - -Of course the brake lining has been improved so that it does not -actually burn out very readily, but under extreme conditions it will -become charred and lose its frictional qualities. - -Perhaps one of the greatest causes of brake failure is oil. Now the oil -which gets on the brakes usually works through the rear-axle housing -from the differential gear. The owner may be a little too enthusiastic -about lubrication and may put too much oil in the differential and it -travels along the inside of the axle tube. The wheels are so placed -on the axle that this oil can get out only by working over the wheel -bearing and into the brake drum. It will often be noticed that the oil -collects mostly on the right-hand brake. This is because the crown of -the road, and perhaps the ditch alongside of the road which is used -in passing other cars, tilts the car so that the right-hand wheel is -lower than that on the left-hand side. Even where too much lubricant is -not used, it seems that some cars have a tendency to leak oil from the -right-hand wheel housing. - -Usually this trouble may be overcome by taking a long, thin strip of -hard felt of the proper thickness to fill the space between the axle -shaft and the axle housing, and winding around the shaft in helical -form, so that the action, when the shaft is turned, is to force the oil -back toward the differential. Of course, if the felt is not wound in -the right way it would have the opposite tendency and draw the oil out -into the wheel bearing. - -For this reason the felt should be wound, starting from the wheel end, -in a direction opposite to the forward motion of the wheel, covering -the axle for a distance of six or eight inches. The felt should be -fastened to the shaft with shellac and bound in three or four places -with cord. - -While oil on the brake bands is not desirable, oil on all of the -bearing points of the brake mechanism is highly desirable. Some time, -when driving in a city, take notice of the number of times the brake -is applied. Then stop to think how each action is taking place in the -brake mechanism. This ought to bring one to realize the necessity of -lubricating the bearing parts. These need more frequent oiling because -they are placed where they pick up more than the usual amount of dust -and grit. If the lubrication of these parts is neglected they are -likely to wear unduly and become so weakened that a sudden emergent -strain would mean a break; and this might happen at a time when failure -means death to the occupants of the car. - -Brakes of modern design are so arranged that the bands clear the drum -entirely when they are disengaged. This is done by means of springs and -other devices placed around the drum at different points. These springs -should be inspected occasionally to make sure that they have not -become broken or otherwise fail in the performance of their functions. - -Another cause of brake failure is due to the lining wearing thin and -allowing the copper rivets, with which it is fastened to the band, to -come in contact with the brake drum. This in time scores grooves in -the drum and greatly reduces the braking effect. It is not economy, -therefore, to wear the brake linings entirely through. When they become -thin the linings should be inspected, and be replaced as soon as the -rivets begin to show wear. - -The usual practice is to have four brakes, one on each rear wheel -operated by the service-brake pedal and one on each rear wheel operated -by the emergency lever. The emergency brake is designed more for -holding the car at standstill after it has been stopped, but may be -used alternately with the service brake on long grades. The service -brake should be kept in such condition that it will bring the car to a -stop within a reasonable distance at any car speed, and it should be -understood by the driver that the emergency brake is not intended to be -used to help out the service brake which holds poorly when a quick stop -is desired. - -[Illustration: REAR WHEEL AND BRAKE DRUM REMOVED, SHOWING EXTERNAL AND -INTERNAL BRAKE BANDS AND MECHANISM] - -Many manufacturers term the second brake the hand brake, rather than -the emergency brake, to discourage the idea that it is to be used to -help out when an extra quick stop is desired. Too many owners go upon -the assumption that one good brake is all that is necessary, and allow -one to get into such condition as to be useless when the other fails -unexpectedly, or when it is desirable to use the two sets alternately. - -As to the adjustment of brakes, it is very important, in order to get -the best braking effect—and to save wear on the tires as well—to have -both brakes of a set give about the same friction. There are two places -where adjustments may be made, one at each brake and one on the brake -linkage, usually on each side, but possibly on the single rod connected -to the pedal. By means of these two adjustments it is possible to have -the bands clear the drums when the brakes are released and at the same -time have each brake start to take hold at the same time and with equal -force. The equalizing bar helps out in small variations, but cannot be -expected to take care of the entire adjustment. - -When one considers the multitude of accidents because the “brake -gave way” and of the risk taken by others who fail to care for this -important bit of mechanism, it would surely suggest to the careful man -that he study the construction of the brake upon which he depends on a -down grade and that he give it enough attention to know that it is in -working order. If he does not value his own neck enough for that, he -should at least have a care for those who share the danger. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -WHY THE AUTO STEERS EASILY - - -Visions of disaster come to the automobile driver at the thought of -running without the steering tie rod. One thinks of wheels trying to go -in divergent directions and of ultimate destination in the ditch. As a -matter of fact, it is possible to run along quite a while at moderate -speed with only one wheel connected to the steering apparatus, and -experiments have demonstrated that this can be done at quite a lively -gait, on a speed track, whether straightaway or oval. There are several -other peculiarities about the front wheels of an automobile which are -not fully understood by automobile men, unless they have had technical -training. - -Most people think the front wheels of an automobile should be -perfectly true in every way; that is that they should run parallel, -but as a matter of fact they do not run parallel from any viewpoint. -The front wheels actually toe in to a slight degrees—that is, the -distance between the front part of the wheels should be one-quarter to -three-eighths of an inch smaller than the distance measured between the -back parts. The tire manufacturer will tell one that the wheels must be -in perfect alignment if full service is to be gotten out of the tires. -This is true in a degree, but auto manufacturers understand that there -must be a slight foregather. - -Theoretically there would be a wear on the tires if they were at all -out of true, but when it comes to the practical consideration of an -automobile there are certain variations of this which are necessary to -make the operation of the car safe and a matter of ease. - -Of course there cannot be too great a difference in the alignment, but -a very slight difference is necessary to enable the steering to be a -matter of certainty. There will be, of course, an intangible amount of -wear, but it does not cut any particular figure in the life of the tire -and it gives a stability in the steering which cannot be neglected. - -Perhaps it can best be illustrated by referring to two types of boats -which are familiar to most persons. One is the scow with the square -nose, which is very hard to steer either with or against the tide; it -is pushing flat against the water and there is no lateral pressure to -keep it steady. The pointed-bow boat, the ordinary type, has a pressure -upon each bow so that there is a constant resistance against any -extraordinary pressure from either direction. This makes it necessary -in steering to exert a certain pressure to turn the boat about. In -actual practice it keeps the boat from wobbling. The same is true -when applied to the front wheels. If they are perfectly aligned there -will be no tendency to give one way more than another and very little -pressure would tend to turn the wheels aside and make the car wobble. -Experience teaches that this actually occurs. - -At the automobile school, of course, there are many novices learning to -steer a car, and they are taken out by experts. Where the wheels are -actually aligned perfectly the wobbling effect, especially where the -mechanism is a little worn, is very disconcerting to the student. Now, -if the wheels toe in there is exactly the same pressure effect working -from opposite directions. Each seeks to go slightly out of true and -each offsets that tendency in the other. This naturally keeps the car -steady and the wheels pass over slight obstructions without turning -them in the slightest degree; only a rut or some large obstruction -would cause them to turn and this would be the case under all -circumstances. - -In case there is wear due to neglected lubrication or otherwise, the -wobbling tendency is especially noticeable. With the wheels toeing in -slightly this is overcome, because pressure is exerted on the knuckle -pins, keeping them firmly in place, even though there be considerable -wear. The pressure being from both sides, it naturally takes up the -play in both knuckles the same as with a chain when it is drawn tight. - -Nor do the front wheels run in an absolutely vertical position, for -they are set to undergather. This is done to save the tremendous strain -upon the knuckles and make it possible to have these much lighter -than would otherwise be the case. The fact of the undergather, of -course, takes the strain off the steering knuckle pins. Were the wheels -absolutely vertical they would set two or perhaps three inches outside -the knuckle. The weight line being directly through the knuckle to the -ground, there would be a leverage of two or three inches which would -put a tremendous strain directly upon the knuckle; where the wheels are -undergathered, the line of weight intersects both the knuckle and the -tread contact, removing the item of leverage completely, and the wheel -necessarily bears its full proportion of the load without undue strain -upon the knuckle or pin. - -Sometimes the pins are inclined fore and aft, that is, the bottom is -farther forward than the top. This is to help in keeping the wheels -pointed straight ahead by making the wheels into sort of a caster, so -that they trail easily. The knuckles are directly over the center of -the wheels and the line of weight would be directly downward, but the -pins point forward. In this way, as engineers readily understand, the -line of weight is moved forward and the weight is carried ahead of the -contact point of the tire with the ground. Anyone who has ever ridden a -bicycle understands the principle of this. In the old velocipedes where -the wheel fork was vertical, it was very difficult to steer. Bicycle -manufacturers discovered that by projecting the fork forward and -transferring the weight line in advance of the wheel, they were able to -make a machine which would naturally go straight ahead. The principle -is exactly that of the caster. The roller trails along after the weight -and so moves freely, even over obstructions, where it would be hard -going if the roller were directly under the weight. - -Now, as a matter of fact, wheels which are set in the manner described -may run for a considerable distance without the tie rod, which fastens -the knuckles together. It is usually understood that when the tie rod -breaks there is bound to be a smash at high speed, and under most -circumstances this might be true, but at moderate speeds it often -happens that the car runs a considerable distance, steering perfectly, -after the tie rod has been broken. - -The author had an experience of this kind. He was going up Riverside -Drive in New York City, toward the viaduct. After he had gone almost -across the viaduct he was startled to see what looked like the tie rod -protruding out in front of the car, although the car was moving along -with no sign of trouble. The car was stopped and it was found that the -bolt had jumped out of the knuckle on one side and that the tie rod had -actually swung out in front, and not until then had it been discovered -that there was any trouble. - -Going back over the route across the viaduct and some distance beyond -did not disclose the missing pin, but the conclusion was reached -that it must have come out on the hill leading to the viaduct. Yet -the wheels remained perfectly straight and the car steered properly, -although there were no very sharp turns, and the car did not go to -smash as it ought to have done in theory. It was the caster effect -which saved the car from an accident. The trailing effect described -kept the wheels running straight even after the tie rod was out of -commission. - -Some time later it was learned that the same thing actually had -occurred in one of the big auto races. It so mystified the driver and -his mechanician that they decided to experiment. They fixed up a car -without a tie rod and started to speed up on the track. They attained -quite a high speed without mishap and slowed down and drove to the shed -as though the steering gear were regularly equipped. - -However, it is not recommended that any automobile owner neglect to -have his steering apparatus regularly inspected and to see that the -pins are kept tight and that the wheels do not get too much out of -alignment. The pin might drop out when going down a steep hill or when -running at high speed, and tires do wear out when the wheels are too -much out of alignment; but the instances cited show that sometimes -strict theory and actual practice do not always meet. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE ELUSIVE “JUICE” - - -It takes good “juice” and lots of it to run a modern auto; not the kind -that Uncle Sam has put a ban upon, for that ran the auto into the ditch -oftener than most anything else; but something quite as hot and with at -least an equal amount of “kick” in it—the electric “juice.” - -Probably this is the least understood element in running a car, if one -may judge by the troubles reported. Large numbers of autoists have no -idea of the functions of the batteries and wires and switches and other -parts of the electrical equipment, and when anything goes wrong they -are helpless. - -In dealing with the electrical equipment of a machine the owner should -understand that a complete circuit is necessary in order to have the -current do its work; that is, starting with the battery as the source, -a wire leads the current from the battery through the switch to the -device to be operated, and then the current must be led back to the -battery before it will do any work. It is not sufficient simply to lead -the current to the device; if there is no way back to the battery it -will not get even as far as the switch. It won’t travel except on a -round-trip ticket. - -In looking for trouble electrically the first thing to inspect is -the battery. See that it is charged—has current in it. That can be -determined by using a voltmeter (for dry cells an ammeter) or a -hydrometer. Then each successive terminal from the battery should -be tested. For instance, there is a wire to the lighting switch. It -is insulated and the first place to test after making sure that the -battery is O. K. is at the switch. If there is no current there the -wire may be broken or the terminal connections poor; but whatever the -trouble may be, you have narrowed it down to one small stretch of wire. - -The next step would be to test where the wire leaves the switch to -go to the device to be operated. If the current gets to the switch -and does not get out of it, it is apparent that the trouble is in the -switch, or if it gets to the switch but not through the fuse, the fuse -is at fault. - -If the current leaves the fuse and does not get to the lamp which -the switch controls, then we know that the trouble is in that wire -somewhere; if it gets to the lamp but the lamp will not light, we know -it is in the lamp; if we can trace it through the lamp, but it does -not reach the battery, we know that it is the wire leading back to the -battery which is at fault. - -If the current is carried back through the frame of the car, as is very -often the case, frequently the ground connections are poor or there is -a break in the ground. Thus, we might attach a ground wire to a piece -of iron on the dash, and if this is of wood that piece of iron might -be insulated from the remainder of the metal work of the car and the -ground connection would not be complete. - -Recently the author came across some electrical troubles which were -rather mysterious to the owners of the cars, but proved to be simple -under systematic search. One man worked all of one Sunday morning, -with the help of several sympathetic owner friends trying to find out -where an extra wire on his switch should be connected. He could not get -the engine started, the horn would not blow, the headlights would not -light, the starting motor would not turn over, but the dash and tail -lights, which were in series, did light. - -A little experiment developed the fact that when the starting pedal was -depressed the dash light grew very dim. This, of course, indicated -that it was not possible to draw a very large amount of current from -the battery, or that the battery was either in a discharged condition, -or that the connections leading from it were poor. It was found that -when the wire connected to the battery terminal was moved, the light -would brighten up. This wire was disconnected and cleaned carefully -to make sure that the contact was good. When it was assembled again -no improvement was shown, so it was taken apart again and a careful -inspection showed that one end of the taper on the inside of the -terminal had a slight shoulder, which prevented the taper end of the -wire from being drawn into place snugly. Therefore a very light contact -was made and sufficient current could not pass to operate the starting -motor. This shoulder was removed with a penknife and the engine started -without difficulty. Several hours’ time would have been saved if the -owner had started to look for the trouble at the source of the current -instead of puzzling over the end of a wire that was not intended to be -connected to anything and had nothing to do with the trouble. It was -simply an extra wire for use if some new device should be installed. - -A week later this same man was unable to start his engine and again -worked over it several hours before calling for help. This time the -lights were all right, but the engine would not start. To determine -the condition of the battery, he turned on a light and depressed the -starter pedal as before, to see if the light would dim very much under -the heavy load; as it did not, it was decided that the battery was all -right this time. - -The hood was open and it was observed that when the starter pedal was -depressed the fan did not revolve and therefore the engine was not -being turned over, though one could hear the starting motor buzzing -plainly. This showed that the overrunning clutch of the starting motor -was slipping. As correcting this trouble was a shop job, they cranked -the engine over by hand, but still it did not start. - -To make sure that a spark was being delivered, the wire leading from -the ignition coil to the high tension distributor was disconnected and -given about 1/16 inch gap. As soon as this was done it was plain to see -that a spark was being delivered, and the engine started immediately -also. Making a slight gap in the secondary circuit increases the -intensity of the spark at the plug and often aids in starting a balky -motor. This was an occasion when an outside spark gap was of value. -After the engine was warmed up, it was started several times without -difficulty. - -Another fellow who was in trouble had a “sick” horn. It sounded like -a man who has a cold clogging his vocal organs—that is, it gave a -cracking or rattling sound instead of a musical note, if the sound of -a horn can be called musical. This type of horn has a notched wheel -which revolves and strikes against an iron pin riveted into a disc. -The disc in this way is made to vibrate, giving the desired sound. An -examination showed that the pin had become loose and rattled. It was -explained to the owner what the trouble was and he was told that the -pin was of hardened steel and as it was rather difficult to rivet it, -it might loosen up again. He replied that he would not worry about -that, because now that he knew what the trouble was he could easily get -it fixed again or replace it if necessary. - -Another fellow had a horn which would not play because it had become -grounded and blown the fuse. The ground was removed, but as no fuse -could be obtained, a single strand of very fine wire from an ignition -cable was substituted in place of the fuse. This wire was small enough -to burn up before other short circuits could do damage to battery or -wiring. - -Still another fellow had his car laid up for a week while he tried to -find out what was the matter with it. He had sent magneto and coil to -the factory for repairs and when they were returned to him a new type -of coil was provided. He wired it up the best he knew how, but the -engine would not start. Checking the wires over very carefully, they -seemed to be placed properly, but a spark could not be obtained. Going -to the source of the current, a test of the dry cells with an ammeter -showed that they were dead. The fellow had lost a week’s use of the car -because, having decided that the trouble was at the magneto or coil, he -did not look anywhere else. He should have started at the battery to -trace the current. - -Another case which came under notice was where one of the headlights -failed to light. A test showed that the current came to the lamp. To -make sure the lamp was not at fault the one from the opposite side was -substituted, but it would not light. The lamp was grounded by an extra -length of wire and it worked all right. Then it was found that the -ground wire, which was located back of the reflector inside the lamp, -had become loose. - -Most of these troubles point to the fact that a complete circuit is -necessary to have an electrical current do its work. Therefore, when -trouble occurs, the source of the current should be examined first and -then the current should be traced through its entire path leading from -and returning to the battery. - -It might be a good idea for the owner on winter evenings to get out -the wiring diagram of his car and trace the current from the battery -through each light, through the ignition system, through the horn, and -through every other electrical device used on the car, including the -generator and starting motor. - -Also it might be good practice for the owner to carry his wiring -diagram with him when touring, so that the garage man, if there be -trouble, may be helped to quickly locate it. But if the winter evenings -be spent wisely in studying the electrical equipment, or even the -entire car, or perhaps invested in a course of instruction at a good -school, the owner might be independent of the garage man for the most -part and besides have the satisfaction of knowing that when anything -does go wrong he can find it and in most cases fix the trouble. The -release from worry ought to be worth the time spent in learning how. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -PUTTING THE KICK IN THE SPARK - - -Motors are a good deal like men. Very many of them, when everything -is wide open and they are hitting it up at top speed, have excellent -performance, but spit and sputter and knock a bit when compelled to -travel at a lesser pace. - -This is not moralizing, but the natural deduction from the complaints -which are constantly received. A great many drivers want to know why it -is they cannot throttle down the engine; they say it will pull well at -medium or high speed, but skips at the lower speeds. - -Where magneto ignition is used, this often may be overcome by adjusting -the interrupter points for a little wider gap. That makes the -interrupter points open a little earlier and causes the spark to occur -when the magneto armature is in a more favorable position, and the -spark therefore has more kick in it. - -The interrupter points usually are adjusted for normal running -speed, or a little higher than medium speed. Increasing the number -of revolutions per minute of the armature causes a distortion of the -magnetic field, which tends to follow the armature. This distortion -is not so great at lower speeds. To overcome the distortion, which in -effect twists the field around so that the points do not open at the -period of greatest current potency, we must change the time when the -points open and cause the spark; therefore, to get the best spark it is -necessary to have the points open earlier. Widening the gap between the -points accomplishes this. - -If the engine misses at high speed, close the points a little to make -the opening come later and when in better armature position, the action -being just the reverse of the foregoing paragraph. - -Widening the gap of the spark plug also will help to overcome skipping -at low speeds. At low speeds a full charge of gas is not drawn in and -compression is low and temperature low in consequence; the mixture is -not so near the self-ignition point when the spark occurs as it is at -higher speeds. Therefore a better spark is needed to ignite it. By -widening the gap in the plugs the secondary current is held back until -it acquires high enough potentiality to jump the greater gap; so that -when it does occur an exceptionally powerful spark is obtained. - -This may be demonstrated with the use of a vibrating coil. Set one -of the cylinders on top of compression ready to ignite. Turn on the -current and while the vibrator will buzz the spark inside the cylinder -is not strong enough to ignite the charge. Now detach the spark-plug -wire and hold it close to the outer plug terminal and turn on the -current. The extra gap will increase the strength of the spark in that -cylinder and it will ignite the charge, starting the engine. This has -led to the use in some cases, of outside spark gap attachments. - -Widening the gap and getting a longer spark is not what ignites the -charge. It is simply that the greater gap causes the current to build -up to a higher pressure, or voltage, before it will jump the gap, so -that when it does occur it is of greater intensity. - -There are several other things about sparking not generally understood -by the novice. The general opinion is that the greater insulating -surface of a plug there is inside the cylinder the less likelihood -there is of short circuiting and consequently the more certain will be -the spark occurrence. This is only partly true; it is true so far as -short-circuiting is concerned; but where the surface is too great and -soot or carbon is deposited upon the insulator surface, the carbon acts -as a condenser and absorbs the secondary current. The effect is that -it will not build up a sufficiently high voltage to jump the gap. Very -heavy insulation on the secondary wires absorbs current in the same way. - -The fact that the spark jumps across the points of the plug when it -is in the open air does not necessarily mean that it jumps when the -points are under compression in running conditions. A current which -will cause a spark to jump a half-inch gap in the open air, will cause -it to jump a gap of only 1/32 inch under normal running compression. -Failure to appreciate this often results in a man thinking his ignition -is all right when there may be a crack in the insulation so small that -it scarcely can be seen with the naked eye when cleaning the plug, or -there may be a porous spot in the porcelain, either of which would -leak current under compression. Many manufacturers test the porcelains -to see if they leak, using a spark gap of 3/4 inch under a very high -voltage. - -If there is carbon on the porcelain, the current very often will travel -through this under high compression, because there is less resistance -offered by the carbon than by the spark gap. It short-circuits the -plug and there is no ignition. Yet, when this same plug is removed and -tested in the open air, there will be a good spark; the resistance of -the gap in the open air would be less than the resistance offered by a -path through the carbon coating. If on testing a plug in this way there -seems to be a good spark, yet the cylinder will not fire, clean the -plug thoroughly and try it out in the cylinder. If it still does not -fire, try a plug which you know is all right and see if it fires. If it -does, you may know that the old plug leaks current somehow and probably -needs a new porcelain. - -It is a common error with motorists when cleaning a spark plug to -polish up the points and call it a job. What really is required is to -remove all of the carbon, which is a fair conductor of electricity, -from the porcelain or mica and get these back into the insulator class -again. - -The conditions which allow the adjustment of the interrupter points -in magneto ignition to accommodate certain speeds, do not arise when -battery ignition is used. Battery interrupter points are usually -adjusted for an opening of 1/64 inch and the gap at the spark-plug -points must be greater usually than when magneto ignition is used, -because the spark given by battery systems is naturally of less volume -than that given by the magneto. Therefore the gap must be greater to -intensify the current as before described. - -The interrupter points sometimes become coated with an insulating -glaze, composed of oxides and dirt hammered by the action of the -movable interrupter point, or hammer. The points will have the -appearance of being all right; there will be no pits or points; -nevertheless there may be enough insulating material there to keep the -current from flowing and no spark will occur in consequence. The points -may be cleaned by inserting a very thin file between the points when -they are open and then allowing them to close on the file, being held -together with no more pressure than the spring exerts, and working the -file back and forth until the glaze is removed. It is necessary to -have a flat surface, so that care in using the file is needed, and, as -platinum is more valuable than gold at present, it will be apparent -that as little filing as possible should be done. - -The condenser is another point of possible trouble. The condenser -increases the volume of the spark about twenty-five times. We often -find that a very weak spark may be caused by a partial breaking down -of the condenser, or occasionally to the fact that it is disconnected -at the terminal. Condensers are usually hidden away so that the novice -cannot locate troubles of this nature, but an excessive sparking at -the interrupter or vibrator points, with a very weak spark at the plug -points, indicates that the condenser is not working properly. When this -sparking occurs have an expert examine the condenser for trouble. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -WHAT’S THE TROUBLE WITH MY BATTERY? - - -With the coming of the shorter days in the year a frequent complaint -to garage man and battery or electric-system expert has to do with the -battery, though in nine times out of ten the man with the kick does -not know that it is the battery. He will talk about the lights failing -every once in a while, or the horn refusing to honk on demand. But in -the majority of cases it is the battery which is at fault. - -It is more difficult to keep the battery charged at that time of the -year than it is in the summer. The reason is that the sun sets earlier, -and just as our electric light and gas bills mount at home, because we -light the lamps earlier, so it is with the auto. The driver who obeys -the law uses more current. - -One complaint came from an owner who was experiencing trouble with his -electric plant. The lights would not work right when he was running. -Starting out there was light, but after running a short time there was -trouble. The lamps were fitted with dimmers and these would not work at -all times; sometimes one would light and the other fail. He went to the -garage repair man and then the dimmers would not work at all. He went -to an expert electrician, who looked over the battery and declared it -to be all right, but on the ground that he was a battery expert and not -a wiring expert he could not say why the lights would not shine and the -owner had visions of stern policemen and the possibility of having to -face a traffic judge, and he sought advice elsewhere. - -In the meantime his troubles multiplied. The horn—electric—refused to -honk at times and got so that it worked only after the car had been -running half an hour or so. This was the case the writer was asked to -diagnose. - -While trying to determine the cause, questions asked developed that -the owner was employed during most of the day and only ran his car -nights, except that he was making long trips on Saturday and Sunday, -and ran quite late into the night both days. During the week nights his -trips were short, with numerous stops. This caused frequent use of the -self-starter. He found it took longer to start the car, a natural -result of the cooler weather. - -[Illustration: THEN HE WENT TO SCHOOL TO LEARN SOME MORE ABOUT HIS CAR] - -These facts suggested that the battery was being starved; that is, that -it was not getting enough charge to keep it at its best. There seemed -to be no trouble with the wiring and the owner was told he had better -have the battery charged and see if his troubles did not end. They did. -Then he went to school to learn some more about his car. - -His trouble was that he did most of his running at night and as he -carefully observed the speed laws, consequently the generator did not -generate very much extra current and the battery was being recharged at -a very low rate and being discharged at a rather high rate. In other -words, he was chopping off both ends—burning both ends of his candle. -He was using an excessive amount of current and generating less than -usual because of running at night, starting often, and running slow to -observe the speed laws. Up to a certain point, the amount of current -which goes into the battery is increased in proportion to the speed of -the car. - -Generators are constructed so that they will deliver a normal charge to -the battery for normal running; they must not be constructed so they -will send out excessive current, or they will overcharge the battery, -and that is harmful. The sun sets much earlier in winter and the cool -weather makes it necessary to use the starter more. In warm weather one -little kick will start the car off; in cold weather it takes often from -half a minute to a minute. - -Most engines now are equipped with carburetor check and priming devices -to facilitate starting when the engine is cold, but even with these -more current is consumed in starting the engine than when it is warm. - -Then, too, the storage battery drops off in efficiency as the -temperature is lowered and will not deliver so much current on a full -charge as at a higher temperature. This comes at a time when there is -a greater call on the battery, and where a battery fails under such -circumstances, it is wise to get an occasional charge to help out the -generator. - -It is becoming the practice to take all current for lights, ignition, -and other purposes direct from the battery, using a generator to -recharge it. Inside of a year at the most the bottom of the battery -will become filled with a sediment from the plates. This causes an -internal short circuit and the battery will discharge itself inside -instead of outside. At least once a year a battery should be taken -apart and the sediment be cleaned out. - -Some generators are constructed so that they can be adjusted to deliver -more current on demand; that is, there is one adjustment for summer and -one for winter running. Wherever it is possible to do this it should -be done. Otherwise, when a battery loses voltage, it can be taken off -the car and be charged. It need not be necessary to leave it for a -twenty-hour charging period; if taken soon enough it can be charged in -six to ten hours, or, when the car is laid up over night. Two nights -would be enough at any rate. - -As a matter of fact, in self-starter practice, everything is done to -the storage battery that formerly was included in the list of battery -“don’ts.” On account of the exceptional demands of self-starters, -batteries have been improved so that they stand this to some extent; -but the improvement has not kept pace with the extra demand put upon -the battery. - -Some of the old “don’ts” are: - -You should not charge the battery at a high rate when completely -discharged. - -It should not be charged at a high rate when almost fully charged. - -It should not be overcharged too often; occasional overcharge is good, -but not too often. - -It should not be discharged at a very high rate. - -Most self-starters are of the two-unit type; they have a generator for -recharging the battery and a motor for cranking the engine. In other -self-starters the two units are combined; the same instrument, when -current is fed to it from the battery, kicks off the motor and when -driven by the engine acts as a generator. - -When self-starters were first introduced they had all sorts of devices -to offset the high-current demand and regulators and cutouts to comply -with the battery-makers’ directions in recharging. These devices were -complicated and could not be depended upon, and consequently were -discontinued, and it was put up to the battery to stand the abnormal -conditions. The battery makers have been trying to offset this and to -a certain extent have succeeded, but as it is directly against former -practice—for every one of the “don’ts” is disregarded in self-starter -systems—the makers have not been able to rectify conditions entirely. - -On account of these conditions the life of a storage battery may be -considered to be about one and a half years, and if it lasts as long as -that it is considered to have done its work and to be entitled to be -retired. - -But if your battery seems to fail with the coming of short and cool -days, do not discard it until you have tried having it recharged, for -possibly you have simply been overworking it and not feeding it enough -current to keep it in condition. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -WHY GEARS STRIP - - -Some of the most unnecessary and expensive repairs to an automobile are -those connected with its transmission. It is not only exasperating, but -unnecessary to be told that the gears of your car are stripped, or that -the teeth are broken so that smooth running is impossible, if indeed -the car can be run at all. - -It is not in the permanent mesh gears, where shaft motion is turned -into axle motion, that the trouble comes. Properly set and packed the -rear axle gears never should make trouble. But it is in the shifting -gears of the transmission, where gears come to mesh at varying rates -of speed, and with the number of revolutions, load, and several other -things to complicate the situation, that there is wear and tear—largely -tear. - -If an automobile could run at an unvarying rate of speed, if there -were no hills which require the translation of speed into power, or if -the engine controls alone could give sufficient speed regulation to -cover the emergencies constantly arising, the transmission might be -simplified into a mere coupling and reverse. But simplify as you will, -there must be provision for varying speeds and these must be attained -while the car is in motion, and this means the meshing together of -finely built gears revolving so fast the teeth cannot be seen. - -It is no novelty to hear a grinding or clashing within the car when -a careless chauffeur starts, or when he changes from one speed to -another. If the owner knew what was going on inside to make all that -noise, a new chauffeur would have a job quickly and there would be laid -down starting, speeding, slowing down, and stopping rules as stringent -as those of the traffic policeman. - -The illustration gives the mechanism of a simple transmission gear -case. The engine shaft J has on the end a gear wheel A, and on the face -of the gear are four engaging teeth I. The end of the shaft J is hollow -and in this revolves one end of the transmission shaft K, which is -square. On it are two gear wheels of varying size, D and E, one having, -say, thirty teeth and the other forty. The smaller is yoked to the -larger and both slide along the square shaft when moved by a lever. -The gear D has on its face engaging teeth I, corresponding to those on -the engine shaft gear A, and when the two are engaged the transmission -shaft revolves at the same speed as the engine shaft, giving the -highest speed of which the car is capable. - -[Illustration] - -To provide for varying speeds, another shaft is suspended in the -transmission case, on which are other gears. If gear A has twenty -teeth, B will have, say, forty. This reduces the motion of the gear -shaft to one-half that of the engine shaft. Farther along the gear -shaft, gear F, with twenty teeth, engages gear E with forty, further -reducing the speed, so that the transmission shaft revolves one-fourth -as fast as the engine shaft, making the low gear, or slowest speed. - -When the car is standing, of course, gears E and F are not engaged, but -the engine is running in neutral—that is, no gear on the transmission -shaft is engaged, gear E being shifted just far enough to miss gear F. -To start, it is customary to disconnect the engine and move the lever -so that gears E and F engage. If the speed of the engine shaft be 600 -r.p.m. that of gear F would be 300 r.p.m., or 6000 teeth pass a given -point per minute (300 × 20)—something of a buzz-saw motion. Into this -revolving mass of teeth the forty teeth of gear E, which is at rest, -must penetrate and mesh. It does not require much of a mechanic to see -that the meshing must be quite perfect or there would be a clash and -grind that does no good to delicate machinery. So it is good practice -to allow enough time after the clutch is released for the moving shaft -to come to rest. - -Once the car is under way and it is desired to increase the speed, -the lever is shoved forward, moving the transmission gears forward -until gear D engages gear C. These are the same size and have, say, -thirty teeth each. But they are not moving at the same speed. Gear C, -revolving at 300 r.p.m. puts 9000 teeth per minute past the engaging -point, while gear D, moving at 150 r.p.m. puts just 4500 around per -minute. The difference of 4500 represents the possibilities of -clashing and breaking or stripping the gear. The wise chauffeur just -at the instant of shifting the gear, would throttle down his engine -one-half and bring the number of revolutions of the gear shaft to -approximately that of the transmission shaft, which is kept in motion -by the momentum of the car. He also will hesitate in the shift—that is, -stop for an instant in neutral before completing the shift, to allow -for adjustment. It is possible in this way to lessen the difference in -teeth speed. If it were possible to make both gears revolve at exactly -the same speed the shift would be noiseless and frictionless. This is -practically impossible in actual running, though in theory it can be -done. But they may be brought near enough to minimize the clash. - -In shifting to high speed from medium, the engine should be throttled -more closely and the shift lever should hesitate again, if one would -avoid the thump and jerk commonly felt when the high gear is thrown in. -The engaging teeth of gears A and D will stand a sledge-hammer blow, -but “constant tapping wears away the hardest rock,” you know, and the -best gears made wear and break. Besides there is the jar to engine and -car to consider. Constant jerking and jumping rack the mechanism, -chassis, and body and shorten the life of each, so that economy, if not -comfort, would seem to dictate care by the driver. - -In reversing the operation—that is, going from high to medium and -medium to low, one needs to reverse the directions given for increasing -speed. Still assuming the engine shaft to be running 600 r.p.m., gear -D would have that speed and would throw 18,000 teeth per minute (600 × -30), while gear C, as before, would be going at 9000 teeth per minute -(300 × 30). It would therefore be wise to stop in neutral, engaging -the clutch to speed the engine up, and then release the clutch before -engaging the lower gear, bringing gear C to somewhere near the speed -of gear D. In practice it is approximated by not releasing the clutch -fully when changing to lower gear, thus preventing the clutch from -reducing its speed. To accomplish this speedily, however, the car speed -must be reduced considerably before attempting to make the shift. - -Going on to lowest speed, gear E would now be moving at 300 r.p.m. -and gear F at 300 r.p.m., but gear E’s forty teeth move at 12,000 per -minute and gear F’s twenty teeth at 6000 p.m., to correct which one -should speed up the engine, or check the car, in the same manner as -just described. - -In reversing, to back the car, the gear operation intensifies the -problem. In the illustration, gear G operates gear H constantly, the -action being to reverse the motion in the latter, and when gear E -engages gear H to reverse the motion of the transmission shaft and thus -back the car. In addition to the difference in speed and variance of -teeth revolutions, there is added the contrary direction of the two -gears which are to engage. To throw back on reverse even at moderate -speed menaces the gears and shakes things up uncomfortably. Fortunately -it is almost invariably necessary to fully stop the car before -reversing, and necessity of caution in backing prompts very low speed -throughout the operation. - -Care in operating the gears will add much to the life of the car and to -the pleasure of the owner, and chauffeurs should be instructed in the -proper handling of the speed and reverse levers. It racks one’s nerves -when riding to hear gears clash and grind on a passing car, and many of -the taxis seem to have this trouble. - -The chauffeurs run the cars on a slap-dash method and disregard of the -gears is a part of it all, but it costs the owner much in upkeep and -renewals. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE GEAR-SHIFTING BUGABOO - - -Probably the chief bugaboo of the new owner is gear shifting. This -is evident from the fact that the average motor-driving novice will -leave the gear in high when the car is slowed down practically to a -standstill, and make the engine labor in order to pick up speed again, -rather than run the risk of making a noisy shift. He has learned from -his brief experience that, in addition to the noise he creates, he does -not mesh the gears anyway, and has to start off from a standstill. -Consequently he does not shift gears, but makes the engine start on -high-speed gear. - -This, no doubt, is the cause in a large measure of the great popularity -of six-, eight-, and twelve-cylinder engines, since with motors of this -type the gear shift is not so necessary. There is a greater range of -speed; a greater flexibility and power may be delivered at lower speed. -Even the manufacturers of four-cylinder engines have designed their -motors for higher speed with greater gear reduction, which makes it -easier for the engine to pick up the load from the very lowest speed, -consequently making the car more popular with the prospective owner. - -Inventors are continually at work trying to devise simple methods of -bringing about an adjustment of load to speed without actually sliding -the gears into mesh, and one very popular type of car is arranged so -that no sliding of gears is necessary, and another one or two leave out -the gears entirely. - -However, the three-speed sliding-gear transmission seems to be the -most satisfactory, considered from all standpoints, including cost of -manufacture, ease of repair and care required, consequently the owner -should learn at once how to manipulate the gear lever with a minimum of -noise, which is largely a matter of practice. - -If a man should get into a strange car he could hardly be expected to -shift the gears noiselessly under all conditions; but a man who owns a -car and drives it should very quickly learn the peculiarities of that -particular car and be able to make the required gear shifts with ease -and confidence. - -[Illustration: CYLINDER OF STEEL, AND THE GEAR WHEEL WHICH WAS HAMMERED -FROM IT] - -Shifting gears at the proper time saves racking the entire mechanism -of the car. It usually is not very difficult in the average car to -shift to a higher gear, although some car owners manage to stir up -considerable noise in doing this. One of the sources of trouble in -this respect is a dragging clutch. But most cars now are equipped with -a clutch brake, and by depressing the pedal far enough this brake is -brought into play and overcomes the tendency to drag. - -Usually the best results can be obtained in shifting from first to -second gear by speeding the car up a very little on first, shifting -out of first and hesitating an instant in neutral and then shifting -into second. Unless the clutch-brake action is harsh the clutch pedal -should be depressed all the way in making this shift. The procedure is -the same in shifting from second to third. Care should be exercised, -however, not to speed the car up too much before shifting, and the -throttle should be in closed position and the accelerator pedal -released during the time of the shift. - -Changing from high to a lower gear is where the most of the trouble is -experienced and this is usually due to the fact that the car is being -driven at perhaps twenty-five to thirty miles an hour and the driver -for some reason or other thinks he is going to have use for the second -speed. Immediately he proceeds to shift; the result is audible for -half a mile. Usually no difficulty would be experienced in shifting to -a lower gear if the car speed is diminished sufficiently. As a general -rule, when shifting to a lower gear the speed of the car should be a -little less than when shifting to a higher, between the same relative -gears. - -In ordinary driving the gear need not be shifted to first speed except -when the car is brought to a standstill and on a level road the -second-speed gear need not be employed until a speed as low as five to -ten miles an hour is reached. The gear should be shifted when the car -speed has been decreased to this extent, and the driver should guard -against shifting before slowing down simply because his judgment tells -him he is going to have to use a lower gear, if he desires to make a -silent shift. There is a tendency to anticipate the necessity and then -to do it immediately and before it is required; the consequence is -noise. - -When climbing steep hills it is desirable to make the shift at a little -higher car speed than on the level, otherwise the car may lose so much -momentum during the operation that the engine will be unable to pick -up the load and will stall. This is a rather difficult situation which -needs special handling. - -In a great many cases a silent shift may be made on a hill by leaving -the throttle slightly open so that the engine speed will increase when -the clutch is released and make a very quick shift with the clutch but -partly released. - -After the driver becomes a little experienced he may shift from third -to second without sound at practically any car speed that the engine -is able to deliver on second gear. This may even be found of value -when climbing steep hills and in anticipating necessary shifts. To -make this shift at high speed, release the clutch, shift gear lever to -neutral notch, engage clutch, and accelerate engine speed to a point -which experience tells you is the correct engine speed for second gear -at that car speed, disengage clutch and shift into second. This is a -matter for experiment and experience. - -In starting the car grinding of the gears occurs because the owner has -not patience to wait the five seconds that may be necessary for the -clutch to stop spinning before meshing the gears. - -Another source of annoyance which often leads up to a noisy gear -change, comes from the fact that occasionally it is not possible to -bring the first-speed gears into mesh when about to start the car. -This is due to the fact that the gear teeth line up so that the gears -cannot be slid into mesh. This may be overcome by leaving the lever -in neutral, engaging the clutch so that one gear will spin, and then -disengage the clutch again before shifting the lever. It may need one -or two repetitions of this before accomplishing the desired result, but -a little patience will save strain on the gear and a minimum of noise -in shifting. - -A noiseless shift cannot be made from first to reverse or reverse to -first unless the car is at a standstill. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE MUFFLER - - -Much despised, detested by many automobile operators and neglected -by almost every chauffeur, and even “cut out” altogether when the -traffic policeman is not around, the muffler plainly ought not to be -so treated. It is deserving of careful consideration every once in a -while, if the owner cares much for efficiency and economy in operation. - -The muffler is located under the car, and being out of sight is usually -out of mind. It is therefore often neglected or misused. And yet it -ought not to be. The muffler is placed on the end of the exhaust pipe, -and its sole purpose is to silence the exhaust of the engine so that -the driver of an automobile while taking pleasure himself does not -wholly deprive others of it. - -Let us consider the use of the muffler. The exhaust valve opens while -the burned gas is still under a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty -pounds per square inch. If this were exhausted directly into the -air the resulting noise would stifle conversation in the car, annoy -everybody along the street, and quickly get the driver into trouble -with the police. The muffler prevents all this. It provides a chamber -in which these exhaust gases may expand and cool somewhat and at the -same time breaks up the pressure by allowing it to leak out slowly -through a number of very small holes, instead of letting it loose in -one “big noise.” - -In the early history of the automobile, mufflers were not used and -everybody for blocks around knew when an auto was coming. As the -automobiles increased in number this became a nuisance and was stopped -by law. Then they sought—indeed had been seeking—a means of stifling -the sound. In the early muffler there was trouble because the gas would -back up in the cylinder and decrease the power of the motor. It was -thought there was no way to decrease the sound without decreasing the -power; therefore the manufacturers devised a valve to “cut out” the -muffler on the car whenever extra power was desired. - -Sometimes the back pressure was so great as to interfere when driving -through heavy roads or up hills. The “cut-out” let the gas exhaust -directly into the air instead of going through the muffler. At the -present time nearly every city has a law prohibiting the use of -“cut-outs.” - -As a matter of fact those well posted on automobile engines understand -to-day that the “cut-out” is absolutely unnecessary on a modern car if -the muffler is kept in proper condition. Muffler manufacturers have -been able to produce a design with which there is no back pressure at -all. For this reason manufacturers discourage the use of the “cut-out” -on their cars and some of them will no longer install one except as an -“extra.” - -The average driver, however, does not know that his muffler needs as -careful attention as any other part of the mechanism and so he neglects -it. In these days of noiseless cars it requires a great number of very -small holes inside the muffler. These become clogged with soot or -carbon from the exhaust. The deposit collects very rapidly, especially -when the grade of oil used is poor or too much oil is used. It also -results when the carburetor is adjusted to give too rich a mixture. - -When these small openings become clogged, the exhaust gases cannot -escape readily and naturally the cylinder of the engine is not cleaned -at the exhaust stroke. Result: It is impossible to bring in a full -cylinder of new gas on the next intake stroke. There is not a full -charge to explode and this means a loss of power to the engine. - -Cases are known where the throttle was opened wide without any increase -in power. Trying to find out what the matter was the driver opened the -“cut-out” and this caused the machine to accelerate very rapidly. - -In other cases when the engine was cranked, there would be a few -explosions, a sputter and a stop, and the reason was that the muffler -was so clogged that it was impossible to exhaust the gas from these few -explosions, the cylinder remained full of burned gas, and, of course, -could not take in a further supply. These, of course, are extreme -cases, but the writer had this experience not long ago: - -He was riding in a car that could hardly make headway against a strong -wind blowing. This meant frequent use of the second-speed gear, which -in itself causes an undue use of gasoline. He found on experimenting -that the muffler “cut-out” pedal could be used in place of the -accelerator pedal; that is, when the muffler “cut-out” was open the -engine had considerable more power and immediately speeded up. In fact, -he kept the “cut-out” open most of the way home and had no more trouble -in bucking the headwind. The experience led to the discovery that the -muffler was almost totally clogged with carbon. - -Of course, where the engine is stopped or there is a decided decrease -in power, the owner will hunt for the trouble, and find it, perhaps, in -the muffler. He might not notice less serious cases where, while the -muffler is somewhat clogged, it does not decrease the power strikingly; -but even in these less serious cases it will often be found that the -power of the motor may be materially increased by having the muffler -cleaned. Yet it is seldom done, even when the car is supposed to be -overhauled completely. Many drivers seem to think the muffler can take -care of itself. In looking over the inspection card of a well-known -make of car it was found that no provision was made for even looking at -the muffler. The service-station inspection orders contain no mention -of the muffler. - -There is still another cause of the clogging of the muffler with -carbon, and that is the practice of putting kerosene in the cylinders -to clean them. The kerosene cleans the carbon from the cylinder walls -and that is what makes the trouble, for it is exhausted right into the -muffler. Some drivers understand this and when using kerosene for this -purpose open the muffler “cut-out”; this allows the discharge of the -greater part of the carbon into the air, but even then some of it finds -its way into the muffler and in time makes trouble. - -A muffler of modern design, if kept clean, needs no “cut-out” -arrangement, but if it becomes clogged it is necessary to use a -“cut-out” when the full power of the engine is needed. The consequence -may be a trip to the police station and then to the court and then a -fine to be paid. It is evident, therefore, that if one wishes to get -power out of his car on an economical basis and wishes to escape fines, -he should look after his muffler. - -Since instruction books, and even service-station inspection charts do -not say much about the muffler, and since it is evident that it has an -important part in the operation of the car, where the owner does not -find sufficient information concerning it from the instruction books -furnished him, he would better ask the agency to furnish him a special -muffler pamphlet, which will show its construction and care. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -YOUR BEARINGS - - -Ever stop to count up how many bearings there are about your car? If -you haven’t, you are likely to lose your bearings while you hunt for -the several hundred bearing points of the modern automobile. - -A bearing is a support for a moving member, so designed as to minimize -friction and receive wear, and to permit of fine adjustment. - -There are many types of bearings, some in which the metals are selected -with the idea of obtaining strength rather than non-friction qualities; -others have strong metal shells lined with a comparatively soft -non-friction metal. In these bearings moving members slide over each -other. - -In addition to this we have the so-called anti-friction bearings, in -which balls, or straight, taper, or helical rollers are used, giving a -rolling rather than a sliding contact. - -On the engine alone there are 102 bearings. This is figured on the -average six-cylinder motor; some of them have more than double the -number. There are, for instance, the following: - -Six cylinders, 6 wrist-pin bearings, 6 crank-pin bearings, 4 main, 3 -cam shaft, 12 cam, 12 push rod, 12 valve stem, 2 fan, 2 water pump, 8 -ignition, 6 spark control, 6 carburetor control, 6 carburetor, 3 oil -pump, 4 self-starter, and 4 self-starter linkage bearings; total, 102. - -The first named, cylinder and piston, not generally termed bearings, -are usually of cast iron, which gives comparatively long wear and in -which the friction is not great if well lubricated. When wear does -occur at this point it is necessary to rebore and have larger pistons -fitted. - -The wrist-pin bearings usually are in the form of a bronze shell, -called a bushing, surrounding the wrist pin; when wear occurs it is -necessary to drive out the bushing and replace with a new one which -fits. - -The crank-pin bearings are usually in halves, the metal babbitt or -bronze, surrounded by a steel strap or casing. When wear occurs, -the adjustment is made by taking out thin sheets of metal, called -shims, which allow the halves to be brought closer together. The main -crank-shaft bearings are of the same type. - -The cam-shaft bearings are usually in bushing form, which must be -replaced with new ones when they become worn. The cam-follower bearings -may be just flat plates resting directly upon the cam, or rollers -running on a pin in the valve push rod. Wear in these parts would -usually be compensated for by adjusting screws on the valve push rods. - -The push-rod guides are sometimes made of cast iron or other metal, -with babbitt or bronze shell in bushing form, and would require -replacement when worn. - -The oil-pump bearings consist of a plunger working in a small cylinder, -with one end bearing against a cam, or a pair of gears driven from the -cam shaft. These bearings, being perfectly lubricated, seldom or never -require adjustment. - -All of the bearings considered so far are cared for by the lubricating -system of the engine, which starts when the engine starts to run, and -as long as oil is kept in the engine they are quite certain to be taken -care of, barring accidental stoppage of the oil lead. - -The fan usually runs on ball bearings which are lubricated with a -squirt can; being usually of the cup and cone type, they are adjusted -by tightening the cone. The water-pump bearings are lubricated by -compression grease cups; when the bearings become badly worn it is -necessary to drive out the bushings and replace them; generally the -shaft also will need replacing. When this shaft becomes worn out of -round, no amount of tightening of the stuffing box will prevent water -from leaking out. - -The valve-stem guides are sometimes bushings, but more usually are -holes bored through the cylinder casting. In the former case, when -wear occurs the bushing may be driven out and a new one, with new -valve, installed; in the latter case, the holes must be reamed true and -larger, and valves with larger stems be inserted. - -In the ignition system ball bearings usually are employed, with or -without means of adjustment. These are lubricated with an oil can or -packed in grease. There is one bearing of the ignition system which is -unique in that some manufacturers advise keeping it free of lubricating -substance of any kind. This is the rocker arm of the interrupter -on certain makes of magnetos. Other forms of interrupters are so -constructed that lubrication is advisable. - -The carburetor air-valve bearing operates better if not lubricated, -but does wear and need replacing at times. The throttle bearings may -be lubricated and would certainly wear longer if this were done. When -they do wear air is admitted which is noticeable at low engine speed, -causing skipping and irregular running. Then the holes in the casting -must be enlarged and larger shaft inserted. - -The throttle and spark-control linkage have a number of bearings, which -may be of the steel ball and socket type, or a wire bent to fit in an -eye. These pins should be frequently lubricated with a squirt can. -Usually they are not adjustable, so that parts must be replaced when -they become badly worn. - -The self-starter motor and generator are usually equipped with ball -bearings and are lubricated with a squirt can. Both the motor and -generator have a copper commutator on which carbon brushes bear. These -are not bearings, strictly speaking, but they do require a very slight -trace of oil if the brushes have not been soaked in oil. The commutator -becomes worn occasionally and must be smoothed up with fine sand paper, -or, if badly worn, must be removed and trued in a lathe. - -The other principal bearings throughout the car are usually of -ball or roller type, which may or may not be adjustable. Usually -the directions for the care and replacement are given in the -manufacturer’s instruction book. - -In the steering gear there is a plain bronze bearing or bushing in -which the shaft is set out of center, so that when wear occurs by -twisting the bushing, the sector of the steering gear may be thrown -deeper into mesh with the worm and take up the play. - -In the transmission gear, in which all other bearings are of the -ball or roller type, there will be found often a plain bearing on -the forward end of the square or fluted shaft called the pilot-shaft -bearing. This is one weak point in many otherwise satisfactory -transmissions. When this bearing wears, the operation becomes noisy -and the gears are difficult to shift. The transmission must be -disassembled, the bushing withdrawn and a new one pressed in. - -The steering-gear linkage bearings are usually of the ball and socket -type, self-adjusting by means of springs. Steering knuckle bearings are -usually bushings which may be driven out and replaced when wear occurs. -It usually is necessary to replace the pins at the same time. - -The universal joints of the propeller shaft become very noisy when -the bearings are worn. In modern construction these bearings are in -the form of bushings which may be replaced at small expense. The -brake linkage has many bearings, which are clevis and pin. These are -non-adjustable, and unfortunately are not often lubricated. When wear -occurs the holes may be drilled larger and larger pins be inserted, or -the parts may be replaced entirely. - -Of course there are scores of other bearings in other parts of -the chassis, that with ordinary care last the life of the car. -The lubrication and adjustment are usually given in detail in the -manufacturer’s book of instructions and need no special caution other -than to advise following what is there printed. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -DRIVING THE CAR - - -It takes more than a knowledge of certain small levers and pedals -and a deftness in manipulating clutch and brakes and gear shifts and -steering wheel, to make an automobile driver. Because of this fact the -Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian Association, -in New York City, has formulated a set of instructions to its students -for the road lessons, which are about the most complete, yet concise, -so far published. They are copyrighted and published by permission. It -may emphasize the foregoing chapter to first quote the introductory -paragraph which otherwise would have been omitted. - - The following applies particularly to the cars used in the school. - Slight variations may be found on other machines, so it is well to get - an instruction book from the manufacturers of the car you expect to - operate and follow their instructions closely. - - =Before Leaving the Garage=—See that there is sufficient gasoline and - oil in the tanks to carry you the distance you wish to go. Examine - the radiator or tank to see that it is full of water. Have sufficient - air in the tires. All grease cups should be filled and turned down - properly. If batteries only are used, two should be carried, and one - of them fully charged. If you are carrying only one battery, be sure - that it is sufficiently charged to make the desired run. Have on the - car at least one extra shoe and three extra tubes, with the ordinary - equipment of tire pump, jack, oil gun, tire tools, tire patches and - cement, and the regular kit of other tools. A set of non-skid chains - will be found very useful on wet days; in fact it is not safe to run - without them on wet asphalt. They should not be used however any more - than is necessary, as they wear the tires excessively. A couple of - extra spark plugs should be carried to save the trouble of cleaning a - short circuited one on the road. - - =Starting Crank=—In a gasoline automobile, it is found that the motor - must draw a supply of gas into the cylinder and compress it before - this charge can be ignited to expand and give power. It is therefore - necessary to have some means of turning the engine over to accomplish - this. The starting crank placed usually on the front of the machine, - just in front of the radiator and between the front spring horns, is - for this purpose. It is operated, as a rule, with the right hand, and - is rotated clockwise (the direction the hands of a clock travel). When - there is a self-starter provided, the starting crank is carried in the - tool box, and is used only when the starter will not operate. - - =Starting Pedal=—The starting pedal or button may generally be found - somewhere on the floor board. Pressing on it connects an electric - motor to the crank shaft of the engine and closes a switch that allows - current from the storage battery to flow to the motor and crank the - engine. This takes the place of the hand-starting crank. - - =Clutch Pedal=—It is quite often desirable to run the engine without - moving the car, and it will also be found necessary at times to - bring into mesh different gears so that more power or speed may be - obtained. A clutch is, therefore, placed between the engine and the - rear wheels. It is controlled by means of a pedal placed just back - of the dash. The clutch is released by pressing on this pedal with - the left foot, and when released the engine will continue to run, but - will not deliver power to the driving wheels. When the pressure of the - left foot is released from the pedal, the clutch will become engaged - automatically by means of a stiff spring and the car will move forward - or backward, according to which gears are in mesh. If the gears are in - the neutral position, however, power will not be applied to the car - when the clutch is engaged. The clutch must be released every time the - gear-shifting lever is moved and whenever the brake is applied. - - Remember, it is =depressing= or =pushing= this pedal that overcomes - the tension of the spring and =releases= the clutch, and when no - pressure is applied to the pedal, the clutch is =engaged=. - - =The Running-Brake Pedal=—The running brake is used for bringing the - car to a standstill. It is operated by means of a pedal placed just - back of the dash and to the right of the clutch pedal. To apply the - brake, first release the clutch by pushing on the clutch pedal, then - push down or forward on the brake pedal with the right foot gently - but firmly until the car is stopped. After removing the foot from the - brake pedal the brake will be released automatically by means of a - spring. Use the brake gently to save discomfort to the passengers, - wear on tires and the machine in general. Do not run close to the - point where the stop is to be made and then jam the brake on hard, but - begin to apply it early and bring the car to a standstill gradually. - - =The Emergency-Brake Lever=—The emergency brakes are used chiefly - after the car has been stopped and the operator wishes to leave it. - They are applied by means of a lever operated by the right hand. This - lever is usually placed just forward and to the right of the driver’s - seat. It is fitted with a spring latch and when applied will lock on, - and so is very convenient in stopping on a hill or when the car is - left standing at the curb. The brake is applied by pulling back the - lever. This brake can be used alone or in connection with the running - brake for quick stops when necessary, but it should not be used for - ordinary stopping as it is usually not designed for such work. - - =Gear-Shifting Lever=—This lever is usually placed forward and to the - right of the operator’s seat, and to the left of the emergency-brake - lever. It is operated with the right hand. By shifting this lever - which engages different sets of gears, the machine may be made to go - forward at different speeds while the engine turns at a practically - uniform speed. It also controls the reverse gear. When the car is - standing, the lever should be left in neutral position. When in this - position, even if the clutch is engaged, the machine will not move. To - start the car, release emergency brake, release the clutch with left - foot, grasp the gear-shifting lever with the right hand and shift from - the neutral position to the first speed notch, accelerate slightly, - then allow the clutch to engage slowly and the car will start. After - the car has started, release the clutch again and shift the gear lever - to the second speed notch and engage the clutch quickly but gently. - Repeat this operation for third and fourth speeds. =Always release - clutch when shifting this lever.= Whenever the car is brought to a - standstill, put the lever in the neutral position before applying - emergency brake. - - =Accelerator Pedal=—This pedal operates the throttle on the carburetor - and regulates the amount of gas going to the engine and thus controls - the power which the motor develops. It is sometimes placed between the - clutch and brake pedals, but usually to the right of the brake pedal - and is operated by the right foot. More gas is permitted to enter the - cylinders and therefore more power is obtained by pressing on it, and - when released the throttle will be returned to its minimum position - by means of a spring. Push on the pedal very slowly, for a slight - movement greatly increases the power developed by the motor and a too - sudden application of power will strain the whole machine. It should - be pushed slightly when the clutch is engaged to increase the power - of the motor, and should be released when the clutch is disengaged, - so that the engine will not race. =The Throttle Lever=—This lever - controls the throttle on the carburetor the same as the accelerator - pedal but it has a spring latch, and when it is desirable to run the - machine for some distance at a nearly constant speed, this lever may - be used as it will stay where placed, thus relieving the right foot - which would become tired of holding the accelerator pedal in one - position for a long time. It is usually placed on the steering post - above the steering wheel and is operated with the right hand. =Do not - advance throttle lever too quickly.= - - =The Spark-Control Lever=—It takes some time after the spark occurs - for the gas to get thoroughly ignited and give power. It is therefore - desirable to have the spark occur earlier when the engine is running - fast, so that the gas may be thoroughly ignited at the beginning - and deliver power for full length of the working stroke. This means - that the spark when advanced actually occurs when the piston is - still traveling up on the compression stroke and so gets the gas in - the cylinder at its maximum pressure when the crank passes top dead - center. When the motor is cranked in starting it is turned so slowly - that to avoid a kick back the spark must be retarded so that it occurs - after the crank has passed top dead center. The spark-control lever is - connected with the spark-timing device, and so controls the time at - which the spark occurs in the cylinder. It is usually placed on the - steering column above the steering wheel, and is operated with the - right hand. On some cars it is moved forward and on others backward to - advance the spark. When the engine is cranked in starting, the spark - should be fully retarded. After the motor has started it can usually - be advanced about two-thirds, but there is no set rule for this. In - general, advance as the motor (not the car) gains speed and retard as - it slackens speed. Keep the spark advanced as far as possible at all - times but retard it if the engine labors or knocks. - - =Ignition Switch=—Usually placed on the dash. It is for the purpose - of closing and opening the electric circuit and thus stopping the - motor or allowing it to be started. It is generally provided with a - removable plug or a key so that the car may be safely left at the - curb. Be sure that switch is in “Off” position when the motor is - stopped. - - =Steering Wheel=—The steering wheel is usually placed on the left-hand - side of the car directly in front of the operator’s seat. By its means - the direction of the car is controlled. When moving forward, turning - the wheel counter clockwise will cause the car to go to the left and - turning it clockwise will cause the car to go to the right. It should - be operated with the left hand only unless steering is very hard, when - both hands may be used. Grasp the wheel firmly with one or both hands - but not with a strong, nervous grip, as this becomes very tiresome. - If the hand is kept always in one position on the wheel when only - slight turns are desired, there will be no difficulty in knowing by - its position when the front wheels are pointing straight ahead. When - turning corners the position of the hand on the wheel may be changed - and both hands should be used. Do not attempt to turn the steering - wheel when the car is not moving as this throws a very great and - entirely needless strain on the whole steering mechanism. - - =Priming Device or “Choke”=—When the engine is cranked in starting, - it is turned so slowly that the air going in through the carburetor - has not sufficient velocity to draw the required amount of gasoline - from the spray nozzle. The mixture that goes into the cylinder is - therefore weak and cannot be exploded easily. To enrich the mixture, - a valve is placed in the carburetor air passage, to choke off the - air and feed more gasoline to the motor. This valve is operated by a - lever or button usually found on the dash or attached to the steering - column under the steering wheel. It is often combined with a device - for making the mixture richer or leaner to take care of different - weather conditions. Some engines will start nearly every time without - priming the carburetor; others must be primed every time the engine is - started. Do not prime to excess; as soon as the engine starts, return - the lever or button to the running position. - - =The Gasoline Tank=—The gasoline tank carries the fuel that is to be - fed to the engine. It will sometimes be found under the front seats, - and may be filled by removing the cushion. In this system the gasoline - flows by gravity to the carburetor and a small hole about the size of - a pin will be found in the filler cap to allow the air to enter as the - gasoline leaves. This hole should be kept clean, because if the air - cannot enter the gasoline will stop flowing to the carburetor and the - engine will stop running. Some cars carry the gasoline tank on the - rear of the chassis under the body and air pressure is kept on the - gasoline to force it to the carburetor. This pressure is obtained by - a hand pump placed on the dash, and is kept constant automatically. - This system differs from all others in that there should be no hole in - the filler cap of the tank and the gasket on the cap should be kept in - good condition to prevent air leakage. A gauge will be found on the - dash and by this means the pressure on the tank can be determined. - Other cars with the tank under the rear end of the chassis have a - system of drawing the gasoline by means of a vacuum, to a small tank - located by the carburetor under the hood, from which it flows into the - carburetor by gravity. Still other cars have a gasoline tank in the - cowl of the dash from which the gasoline flows to the carburetor by - gravity. - - =The Lubricator=—The lubricating system is generally built into the - crank case of the engine. The oil is supplied through a pipe or other - opening found on the engine and a gauge or pet cock is provided - to indicate the amount of oil in the motor. The system should be - kept filled with a light to medium high-grade gas-engine oil. The - lubricating system usually oils all internal parts of the engine only, - the transmission, steering and differential gears being lubricated by - heavy oil or grease placed in their respective housings, and all other - parts of the car are taken care of by oil or grease cups. Any oil put - into the engine should be carefully strained to remove dirt or grit. - - =The Water Tank=—The water tank or radiator is placed on the front of - the car and should be kept filled with clear water. Any sediment that - is allowed to enter the radiator will clog it and the engine will then - overheat. During the winter it is well to fill the radiator with some - anti-freezing solution. Alcohol is good for this purpose, mixed with - water in the following proportions as desired. - - 2 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 0° Fahr. - 2-1/2 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 10° below - 3 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 20° below - 4 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 38° below - - If steam is discharged from the radiator, examine the fan directly - back of it and the water pump, and see that there is no clog in the - pipes leading to and from it. - - =Tires=—Keep the tires free from oil and grease as they rot the - rubber. Drive very carefully in wet weather because rubber cuts very - easily when wet. Drive slowly around corners and start and stop - without jerks; also be very careful not to rub the tires against the - curb. Have all small cuts vulcanized so that moisture cannot get in - and rot the fabric. Do not run on a flat tire unless it has been - damaged beyond repair. Run slowly on the rim or wrap rope around it - if no other tire is to be had. It is very important to keep the tires - fully inflated at all times. If tires do not give satisfactory wear - report it to the manufacturer at once. When the car is to be laid up - for some time, place jacks under it to keep the weight off the tires. - - =To Start the Motor=—Place the gear-shifting lever in the neutral - position, put the emergency brake on, retard the spark fully or if - well acquainted with the motor, to a point where the spark will surely - occur after the crank has passed top center. Open throttle about - one-third. (After getting acquainted with the machine you will find a - position for the throttle where the motor starts best.) - - Put the switch in “On” position. If the motor habitually starts hard, - prime the carburetor with choking or enriching lever. If car is - equipped with electric self-starter, press hard on starting button or - pedal. When the engine starts, remove foot from pedal immediately, - then close throttle and advance spark lever two-thirds. In cranking - the motor by hand, grasp some part of the car with the left hand - to steady yourself, place the feet wide apart, and stand close to - the front of the machine. Grasp the starting crank with the right - hand having it at its lowest position, or a little to the right of - this point. Push the crank in as far as it will go and turn slowly - clockwise until it engages the crank shaft. It will usually catch when - about at its lowest position. When engaged, brace yourself firmly - and pull up quickly on crank, turning it about one-half revolution. - If after repeating this operation several times the engine does - not start, it may be found necessary to spin the motor. This means - cranking for a full revolution or more. In spinning the motor, care - should be taken to always start with an up pull so as to gain momentum - for the down thrust and so reduce the danger of a kick back to a - minimum. After the engine starts, advance the spark about two-thirds - and close the throttle. If the engine has been started on the battery - and a magneto is used, switch immediately from the battery to magneto. - Do not allow the motor to race. When running idle, it should turn over - at its slowest speed. - - =To Start the Car=—Take your place in the driver’s seat, place left - foot on clutch pedal, and press hard to release the clutch. Keep it - disengaged while with the right hand the emergency brake is released - and gear lever is shifted from neutral to the first speed notch. Then - with the right foot press the accelerator pedal gently until the motor - speed is increased a little and at the same time with the left foot - allow the clutch pedal to come back, until the clutch starts to engage - and the car begins to move. From this point decrease the pressure on - the clutch pedal very gradually until the clutch is fully engaged, - at the same time listening to the engine to see that it doesn’t - slow down sufficiently to stall. If it shows signs of stalling, - press accelerator pedal a little more to increase its speed, at the - same time keeping a slightly greater pressure on the clutch pedal. - Stalling the motor is the result of feeding too little gas with the - accelerator, or of not keeping pressure on the clutch pedal during - the time the clutch is engaging. The jerking of the car comes from - feeding too much gas and engaging the clutch too suddenly. Both of - these faults may be overcome by listening to the speed of the engine - and keeping it right through the proper use of the accelerator pedal, - and by releasing the pressure of the foot from the clutch pedal very - gradually from the time it starts to engage until it is fully engaged. - It is impossible to become a good driver until the ear learns to judge - the speed of the motor by its sound and the left foot learns to engage - the clutch gradually. When the clutch has become fully engaged, press - accelerator pedal slightly to speed up the machine. As soon as it has - attained fair momentum, release the clutch and at the same time let - up on the accelerator pedal. Change gear lever immediately from first - speed notch to second speed notch and let in the clutch quickly until - you feel it take hold and then gradually, at the same time pressing - slightly on the accelerator pedal. _When the clutch pedal is pushed - out, the accelerator pedal should be released; when the clutch is let - in, the accelerator pedal should be pressed slightly._ Change from - second to third and from third to fourth if four speeds are employed, - always releasing clutch when gear is shifted, and always accelerating - slightly while the clutch is being engaged. - - Do not forget that the clutch is released when the clutch pedal is - pushed out, and that it is engaged when the pedal is allowed to come - back. Run on the high-speed gear as much as possible, and when it - is necessary to drive more slowly release the clutch and apply the - brake gently until the car is brought to the desired speed. Then if - the speed of the machine is low enough to warrant it, release the - brake and, with the clutch still disengaged, change from the high - to the next lower speed notch and let in the clutch. If the car has - lost much momentum it may be necessary to change to the lowest gear - before letting in the clutch, otherwise the engine may be stalled. - Do not drive too close to other vehicles or objects before releasing - the clutch and applying the brakes as the brakes may not hold as - well as you think and you may not be able to operate them correctly - when in close quarters. If while the machine is standing it is found - impossible to move the gear lever from neutral to first or reverse, - leave the lever in neutral, allow the clutch to engage slightly, then - release it quickly and shift lever to desired notch. - - =To Stop the Car=—Select a lamp-post, tree, or other object along - the curb, and when still some distance from it, disengage the clutch - and apply the brake gently and get the car under control so that you - can, if you wish, stop ten feet before the object is reached. Then, - releasing the brake pressure slightly, allow the car to drift to the - object, stopping with the rear door directly opposite the object and - the car close enough to the curb to allow passengers to alight on the - sidewalk. Shift gears to neutral, apply emergency brake, and allow - clutch to engage. Be careful that the tires do not scrape along the - curb as this is very damaging. The brake should be applied so that the - car is not brought up with a jerk. This can be accomplished easily - with a little practice, as can also starting of the car. Remember that - you are driving for the comfort of the passengers, and they can feel - the jerks and jar much more than you. - - =To Reverse the Car=—Bring it to a standstill first, then with the - clutch released place the gear lever in the reverse notch. Allow the - clutch to engage gently with the left hand only on the steering wheel, - look backward and gauge the direction by the rear end of the car. Do - not attempt to steer by watching the front wheels; always look to the - rear when going backward, to make sure the way is clear. - - =Turning in Narrow Streets=—With the car moving slowly, first look - back to see that there is no other vehicle coming and then turn the - wheels sharply to the left as far as possible. When within five feet - more or less, depending upon the speed of the car, of the left-hand - curb, release the clutch and apply the brake gently, at the same time - turning the steering wheel quickly to the right. Stop turning the - wheel when the car is brought to a standstill. With the clutch still - released and the brake on, shift to the reverse gear. Then release - the brake; accelerate slightly, let the clutch in carefully, and - when the car starts to move continue turning the wheel to the right - or clockwise. This will point the car in the opposite direction. - When going backward look toward the back of the car and also up and - down the street to see that no other vehicle is approaching. After - the car has traveled back a sufficient distance, release the clutch, - take foot off of accelerator pedal and apply brake, at the same time - turning steering wheel to the left until the car stops. Then with the - clutch still released and the brake still on, shift from reverse gear - to first speed gear. Take right foot from brake pedal and accelerate - slightly, allowing clutch to engage gradually, and as soon as the car - starts to move, continue turning steering wheel to the left until the - car goes straight ahead. Do not turn the steering wheel while the car - is standing. Start to turn when the car begins to move. Do not allow - tires to strike curb. - - =Turning Corners=—Before turning a corner hold out the hand so that - any driver behind you may see it, and also look back to make sure - that he does see it. If another vehicle is close behind you or if - there is one in front coming toward you, slow up your car and wait - until it has passed before turning. When turning a corner to the right - keep as close to the curb as possible so that the car will be on the - right-hand side when you get into the side street. When turning to the - left go past the center of the street into which you are traveling and - then turn sharply, so that you will be on the right-hand side of the - road. Do not cut close to the left curb. Always go around a corner at - a low enough speed to make the use of the second speed gear necessary, - and reduce speed so that the gear shifting must be done before - starting to turn, not after, as this gives better control of the car. - Turning corners at a high rate of speed puts a great strain on the - tires and causes them to wear excessively. It is also uncomfortable - for the passengers. Use both hands on the steering wheel, and if the - car is found to be going too fast check it by releasing the clutch and - applying the brake slightly. Do not shift gears before slowing the - car. The idea is to slow the car sufficiently to make shifting to a - lower gear necessary. - - =Climbing Hills=—When approaching a hill accelerate and advance the - spark, as speeding up the motor makes it more powerful and adding - momentum to the car will often carry it over hills that would need an - intermediate speed gear if an attempt is made to climb them slowly. - As the hill is reached, open the throttle fully. If the engine begins - to feel the grade and labors or knocks, retard the spark until the - knocking or laboring ceases. If the hill is a very steep one, as - soon as the engine begins to lose speed, release the clutch, remove - pressure from accelerator and, without applying the brake, shift to - a lower speed gear. Let clutch in quickly and at the same time open - accelerator wide. It will then probably be found that the spark can - be advanced without causing the engine to knock. On some hills it - may be found necessary to shift to the first speed gear, but this - should not be done unless the engine will not pull the car on a - higher gear. When gears are shifted on a hill the change must be made - quickly and the clutch let in immediately, as slow work will allow - the car to lose momentum, and then when the clutch is engaged the - engine will stall. If the engine stalls, put on the emergency brake - and put gear lever in neutral notch. It will be well to place a stone - or block back of the rear wheels before cranking the motor as the - vibration of the engine may jar the emergency lever loose. In starting - again, release the clutch, put lever in first speed gear, accelerate - strongly, release the emergency brake and at the same time let the - clutch engage. This must be done quickly, otherwise the car will start - to back down the hill. With some cars it may be found easier when - starting from a standstill on a steep hill, to apply the foot brake, - release the emergency brake, engage the clutch while the foot brake is - released gradually, at the same time feeding gas to the engine with - the hand throttle. Do not attempt to climb steep hills until you have - thoroughly mastered shifting gears on the level. - - =Descending Hills=—When descending slight grades throw off the - ignition switch and leave the gear lever in high speed with the clutch - engaged. This will cause the engine to act as a slight brake and if - necessary the running brake may be operated in connection with it. - There is no harm in applying the brake under these conditions with the - clutch engaged, because switching off the ignition causes the engine - to stop giving power. When a very steep grade is encountered, before - attempting to descend it, stop the car and shift to second or first - speed gear. The lower the gear used the greater will be the braking - power, and when first speed is used it is almost impossible for the - car to get beyond control. The ignition may be switched off or on as - the occasion requires. Switching it off gives greater braking power. - The clutch must be left engaged, and the brakes may be used to help. - It is well to use first one brake and then the other in descending - long grades, as too long an application of one will cause it to heat - and burn the friction material. Do not wait until you are half way - down the hill before finding out that it is too steep for the brakes - to hold the car. Make up your mind before starting to descend and - shift to first gear if necessary. Do not allow the brakes to get in - such condition that they will not hold to the best of their ability. - Never descend the hill at a high rate of speed no matter how safe it - looks. Brakes do not hold as well when the car is going fast as they - do when it is moving slowly, nor will they stop a car as quickly going - down a grade as they will going up. - - =Driving in Congested Streets=—Procure a copy of the rules of the - road of the city in which you are driving and obey them. Keep to the - right-hand curb unless it is lined with standing vehicles, in which - case keep close to them. In overtaking another vehicle, pass it on its - left. In passing a vehicle coming in the opposite direction go to the - right of it. When stopping, the wheels must be within six inches of - the curb. Before stopping, hold your hand out at the side of the car - to warn the man who may be behind you. Do not at any time slow down - or stop without holding out your hand and looking back to make sure - that it is seen. Pedestrians have the right of way at crossings, but - you may warn them of your approach by blowing the horn. However, do - not make a nuisance of yourself by using it more than necessary. When - traveling in a side street, upon coming to a main thoroughfare slow - up so that you can stop quickly, as vehicles on these streets have - the right of way. When on a main thoroughfare it is not necessary - to slow up at every cross street. Watch the traffic policeman, and - when one holds up his hand, stop; first holding out your hand to - warn anyone behind you. Remain standing until the policeman motions - you to proceed. In some places the policemen use whistles instead of - motions, and the signals used by them should be learned. Whenever it - is necessary to reduce the speed of the car considerably, release the - clutch and apply the brake. When the car is going slow enough, shift - to a lower speed gear to prevent stalling the motor when the clutch - is let in. When it is found necessary to keep behind a slow moving - vehicle, shift to a speed so low that it will not be necessary to slip - the clutch. If it is desirable to go slower than first speed gear, - however, the clutch may be slipped by keeping a slight pressure on - that clutch pedal. A great variation in speed may be obtained when in - any gear by the proper manipulation of the spark and throttle levers. - - Do not attempt to keep pace with other vehicles until you are an - experienced driver. When in close quarters, perform every operation - slowly as a move made slowly but surely will probably take less - time than a move made incorrectly. There is no occasion for getting - excited, as it is safe to assume that every other vehicle is under - perfect control. _Learn to shift gears without looking at the lever, - because you will need your eyes to watch the road._ Sit straight in - the seat: do not get hunched over the steering wheel as this indicates - a novice. Always drive into the garage on the first speed gear. - - =Washing the Car=—The car should be washed immediately upon coming - into the garage, before the mud has had time to dry. Do not scour - off the mud as this scratches the varnish. Use the hose with a slow - stream until the mud is well loosened, and then finish by soaking (not - rubbing) off with a sponge well wet with water. Where a hose is not - procurable the mud may be loosened with a wet sponge and then washed - off entirely by throwing pails of water on it. Be careful that water - does not go through the radiator or any other opening and get on the - engine, as this is likely to short circuit the magneto or spark plugs - and prevent the motor from running. If there is grease on the car, - soap must be used to remove it. Castile soap is the best for this - purpose. However, do not apply the soap itself to the car, but make - suds in lukewarm water. After all mud and grease has been removed, - wipe dry with a chamois skin. Wash and dry the body before the running - gear, and be careful that no grease is collected on chamois from wheel - bearings and steering-arm joints. - - =Cautions=—Don’t twist the steering wheel when the car is standing. - Corners should be turned at slow speed to save wear on tires. The - brakes should not be applied with too much force except in an - emergency, as it is hard on tires and the machine in general. Don’t - let the motor labor or knock when ascending hills. When going down - long hills use one set of brakes and then the other. Shift to first - speed gear before descending steep hills. Change from first speed to - reverse and from reverse to first only when the car is standing. Be - very careful of skidding on wet pavements. Put non-skid chains on for - wet or icy roads. Always start and stop the car without a jerk. This - constitutes good driving. Don’t forget to see that the license pad is - attached before leaving the garage. Inspect oil, gasoline, and water - tanks before making a trip and see that the necessary tools and extra - tires are in the car. Don’t let the car stand with the motor stopped - in the winter time, unless the radiator is filled with anti-freezing - solution. Look the car over thoroughly after each run. - - The records of the examinations held at the school show that there - are a few points of driving which a large majority of the students do - not entirely master. This is not due to lack of instruction in the - subjects, but is rather the result of poor memory or insufficient - practice. Failure to perform these operations perfectly does not - necessarily mean that the student is not a safe driver, but it does - show that he needs more practice before being rated as an expert. - If you want to be a little better than the average driver, keep in - mind the following points, go back and read them over again in this - booklet, think about them when driving the car and try your best to - master them. - - When about to turn a corner, or turn in a street, or in fact whenever - swerving from a straight line, look back to see if it is safe to make - the turn, and hold out your hand to signal what you intend to do. - - Make sure that the spark is retarded, the gear lever is in neutral, - switch on, and other levers in their proper positions before cranking - the engine. - - When the car has been slowed down to a very low speed for any reason, - shift to a lower gear; don’t try to pick up speed on high gear. - Don’t shift to a lower gear until the car speed has been reduced - sufficiently. - - In New York City, traffic traveling north and south has the right of - way, therefore when crossing an avenue go slowly and make sure you - will not cut off vehicles on the avenue. - - When starting the car, allow the clutch pedal to come back until the - clutch begins to engage, then keep enough pressure on the pedal to - allow it to become fully engaged very gradually. Letting the clutch - engage all at once makes the car jump or the engine stall, and - observers smile knowingly. In this connection you should listen to the - engine and operate the clutch and accelerator so that the engine is - not raced or stalled. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -WHERE EXTRA CAUTION IS NECESSARY - - -It would seem unnecessary to give caution to the motorist where there -is an element of safety involved; it ought to be understood that -everyone entrusted with the wheel of a motor car would be interested in -his personal safety and in the safety of those in his keeping, and that -he would take all ordinary and even extraordinary precautions to keep -skin unscratched and bones unbroken and existence preserved. But it is -a fact that for a large proportion of motorists there is no such word -as “Danger,” and no such word as “Care.” Why is it? - -For some reason there is abroad the spirit of “take a chance,” and -it has entirely superseded the cautious foresight which was once the -American nature. Perhaps it is the changed conditions of our land which -is responsible for this. In pioneer days caution was necessary, for one -did not know behind what tree or rock lurked death in the form of a -savage, and there were wild animals to avoid in the forests, and even -along traveled highways; so that to look ahead, to watch for signs of -danger, and to approach points of peril with every sense alert, was -second nature. - -Boys who were brought up to tramp the woods or prairies were alert -also, because of hiding snakes and prowling wolves, and because of the -need for keeping track of distances and locations to prevent being -lost. We are only a generation or two from these things even at the -crowded centers of population; but the last two generations which have -grown up in the city, and millions who have come from other lands in -the same period have not this inbred caution. Men who are in peril -daily from one cause and another incident to city life, and “nothing -happens,” cannot be expected to get excited about possibilities, which -in time become so familiar as to breed contempt. - -The man who is in constant fear lest something fall from a tall -building upon him, or there be an explosion from beneath, or a crash of -trolley, subway, or elevated cars, with a generous complement of fire -and flood and gale added, would go crazed if he thought much on these -things. Therefore it is hard to get him to think of “safety first.” It -is rather “I should worry,” and it actually prolongs life, so long as -it is applied to familiar things—it keeps nerve systems from breaking. - -This is why it is so hard to get the city driver accustomed to caution -in places of real peril. One of the worst of these is driving over -railway tracks. Out on the Huckleberry division, where there is but one -train a day each way if luck favors the intending passengers, there is -not so much danger; but in the vicinity of all the large cities where -suburban trains run often and through trains are numerous, it behooves -the autoist to acquire speedily a belief in signs. The usual sign at a -railroad crossing is a post with two arms in the form of an X to warn -highway travelers. It matters not that there is a flagman or gates, a -due sense of caution is necessary for the driver of an auto. - -The railway near the writer’s old home had signs reading: “Stop, Look, -Listen”; and this should be the slogan of the driver nearing a railway -crossing today. In spite of the ringing of engine bells and blowing of -locomotive whistles and of other precautions of the railway company, it -is incumbent upon the motorist to be careful, to know that there is no -train approaching. An automobile may be stopped within a few feet and -the train sometimes takes a quarter of a mile for a stop; therefore -the motorist should not trust to the stopping of the locomotive, for by -that time it might be everlastingly too late. Better stop the auto at -every crossing if the noise of the motor prevents hearing whistle or -bell signals from the train. - -But there is a worse dereliction than failing to make sure that a train -is not at hand, and that is the devil-may-care spirit which prompts -driver to spurt up the engine and dash for the crossing to get over -ahead of the train that is in plain sight. There are few persons who -can estimate the speed of a railway train with any degree of accuracy, -even the railway employes having to check the time between known points -to estimate the speed, unless there is a speedometer. The autoist, -looking at a coming train, sees it at an angle which prevents his -comparing it with fixed objects and cannot tell if it is running ten or -sixty miles an hour as a rule. - -It does not do any good to talk about rights and failure to hear a -warning after the final ceremonies are over and the cemetery has -another monument, and the writer would much prefer to be a live snail -than a dead hare, and would agree to make his destination first, as -well. Neither will it do to talk about the fool-killer and his good -work; sometimes others than the foolish driver are imperiled and -suffer. There is only one way to regard it and that is to resolve to -observe the ordinary rules of caution and to make sure that one is not -trying to occupy the same space as a railway train at the same time. -The train has might, if not right, you know. - -Equally important are the crossings of trolley lines, in these days of -high-speed trains and cars, and quite as many accidents occur at street -intersections where two main lines of travel cross, even though there -be no trolley lines. It takes so little effort and so little loss of -time to slow down until one can see the way clear, when there is no -traffic man at the crossing. - -But if one needs be careful of his own hide, it is quite as important -that he be careful of the other fellow’s anatomy. It is easy to say of -the pedestrian, or the man in another vehicle, let him keep out of the -way, or keep to his own side of the road; well, if he don’t, you can -keep out of his way and you will be a great deal happier at the end -of your trip than if you disregard him and there is an accident. One -hardly likes to contemplate even an unavoidable injury to another. - -It must be remembered, also, that the pedestrian has rights upon the -highway greater than the auto driver. It is popular to talk about the -“jay-hawker” and to assume that the man on foot has few rights in the -road, whereas he has the first right, according to the United States -Supreme Court, and no amount of traffic rules and ordinances and laws -can affect his right. Without respect to the wisdom of his doing it, -the man afoot has the right to travel in the middle of the road if he -cares to, and it is the duty of the driver to keep out of his way. -Remembrance of this may save the driver damages in large amount, for -the courts will assess the careless driver, or the careful driver for -that matter, if the pedestrian is hurt and asks damages. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -AN AUTO FURNACE FOR WINTER - - -Have you a little hot air furnace on your car? You need one on frosty -mornings unless you want the engine to act as though it had an acute -attack of bronchitis for half or three-quarters of an hour. Maybe -you’ll also need to get out the teakettle and some more extras to get -started in proper shape. A lot of men borrow their wives’ dishrags also -to help start the cars. Great help, too. - -There is not a bit of foolishness about this as the man who has a car -will appreciate, if he has tried to start it with the temperature -down at the freezing point and a wind blowing that would carry off -the engine heat so fast the metal would remain cold. Probably most -other folks have noticed that a lot of cars sputter and cough and spit -and pop as though all kinds of trouble were going on inside, and the -experienced ear can detect many a six-cylinder hitting only on two of -the cylinders, while many a flivver is chug-chugging away like one -of the old one-lungers of ancient auto days. Not only is this at the -start, but for blocks and even miles. - -Now to a novice, the new owner, the first inclination would be to cuss -the manufacturer and the engine. It isn’t the fault of the engine at -all; it is because “the gasoline doesn’t gas.” However there is a -solution of the problem, at least enough of a remedy to make life a -little happier for the owner. - -This condition of gas was absent for several years. In the early days -of automobile construction, before the manufacturers were able to -devise a carburetor for vaporizing gasoline under all conditions, we -had this same trouble as soon as the weather turned cold. Persistent -experiments produced a carburetor which overcame the trouble. Then -almost as soon as a carburetor was developed which would vaporize -the gasoline under adverse conditions, somehow the volatility of the -gasoline was found to have decreased. - -You will remember the contest between armor plate and big guns—as soon -as an impenetrable armor plate was invented, some genius would go ahead -and find a powder or gun which would shatter the impenetrable plate. -Then the armor factory would try to find something to outwit the gun -maker. That is the way with carburetor and gasoline. It is time for the -carburetor maker to devise a scheme to volatilize the heavy gasoline -now supplied under all conditions—particularly in cold weather. There -are signs that he is matching up to the emergency. - -It is true that the gasoline now sold has a greater heat-producing -quality, if only we can get it properly mixed and volatilized. It may -be that the gasoline producers, by putting heavier gasoline on the -market, have been of a real service to auto men, once we have learned -to utilize it economically and efficiently. They may have had in mind -the higher power, but they have given us a gas which is very hard to -vaporize on a frosty morning. Sometime soon, probably the carburetor -man will catch up and give us a vaporizer which will handle it. Until -they do, we will have to look for means of overcoming the difficulties -now experienced, and it is largely a question of warming up the air. - -In changing gasoline from liquid to vapor, considerable heat must -be supplied. When the atmospheric temperature is too low, there is -not sufficient heat in it to vaporize the gasoline sprayed into the -carburetor. When the engine is warm, the process of vaporization -goes on from the needle valve to the moment of ignition, but if the -engine is cold, the process is retarded more or less, and under some -conditions it is possible for thoroughly vaporized gasoline to be -again condensed. The man who does not understand is inclined to say -uncomplimentary things about the engine and talk about “fireproof -gasoline.” The only trouble is that the temperature is so low that we -must heat the air before we send it into the carburetor. Practically -all the carburetor manufacturers put out a “stove” to heat the air -supply, which is attached around the exhaust pipe, so that the hot air -surrounding the pipe is conveyed to the carburetor, which warms the -air entering the intake, thus supplying the heat necessary to effect -vaporization. This “stove” or gas warmer, the chauffeurs are beginning -to call a “hot-air furnace.” - -The process of vaporization absorbs a large amount of heat. To raise -the temperature of the liquid one degree takes a certain amount of -heat. The amount required per degree remains the same until the point -of vaporization is reached, when two hundred times that amount of heat -is required to effect vaporization. The “hot-air furnace” supplies the -extra amount of heat. - -A great many carburetors have the mixing chamber water-jacketed and -the water from the cooling system is circulated through it, supplying -some heat in that way. Sometimes that in itself is sufficient, but at -present it seems advisable to use both. Neither one of these is in -operation when the engine is started; the “hot-air furnace” depends -upon the exhaust pipe being heated, and the water-jacket upon the -engine itself being heated long enough to warm up the circulating -water. So that it becomes necessary to find some means to supply heat -until these warm up. - -When the car is started in a warm garage the gasoline will vaporize -properly and the engine will run in good shape, but as soon as the car -goes out into the cold air it will cool the engine so that some of -the gasoline will be condensed. Therefore we close the radiator cover -partly or wholly until the engine is thoroughly warmed. If the car is -started in a cold garage, the teakettle and dishrag method must be -resorted to. Wrap the cloth around the carburetor so that it does not -cover the air intake, and pour the boiling water on the rag, taking -care that none gets in the air intake. The hot water will heat the -carburetor and intake pipe and raise the temperature of the mixture so -that the engine will run. In some cases it may be necessary even to -drain out the cooling system and fill it with hot water, so that the -combustion chamber becomes heated up. - -As the weather becomes colder it will be found necessary, no doubt, -to close up the radiator more and more in order to keep the engine at -the required temperature. High engine temperature, up to the point -where the water in the cooling system begins to boil, is desirable from -the standpoint of efficiency, and if no trouble is experienced with -irregular running, the hotter the engine is, the larger amount of power -is developed. - -One manufacturer has incorporated in the radiator a shutter-like -device, by means of which the amount of air admitted may be regulated -from the driver’s seat. Doubtless others will follow, or find an -equally good substitute. - -Radiator covers to fit almost any car now made may be procured at -trifling expense; one may simply put a piece of cardboard over it. -Being out without a cover recently when the engine did not work right, -the author stopped when he came to a newsboy and bought a paper and -tied it over the radiator, getting home all right with this substitute. - -One man complained that his car would start out well and run all right -as long as he was going away from home, but as soon as he turned -homeward it would begin to act up. He wanted to know if the car had the -wanderlust. Inquiry developed the fact that the trips he spoke of on -the going trip were with the wind and returning against it. The added -force of the wind over the engine cooled the engine too much, and he -was advised to cover the radiator under such circumstances. He reported -no trouble after trying it. - -Of course, sometimes, the skipping can be overcome by enriching the -mixture by the dash control, but with the present heavy gasoline the -enriched mixture does not seem to do much good and is simply adding to -the supply of gasoline which already is refusing to vaporize. Therefore -it seems to be the stove and the dishrag for the cold engine. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -THE COOLING SYSTEM IN WINTER - - -While there are many sections of the country where it is necessary -to put the car away for that portion of the year when the ground is -covered with snow and ice, and for that reason many cars are put in -storage, yet there are sections where this is not necessary. And -likewise, in the Northern cities, where the snow is cleared from the -streets after every storm, the improvement in carburetors and the -adoption of heating devices have made it possible to keep the car in -commission where formerly it was thought impossible. - -There are two things necessary if the car is to be operated in winter, -the first of which is some anti-freezing solution for the cooling -system; the second is a device for warming the mixture before admission -to the cylinders. - -Many things have been tried for making the cooling system freeze-proof. -The most common are salt, glycerin, and alcohol. Any one of these -in the proper proportion will insure against freezing. They are not -equally desirable, however. Salt has a tendency to set up electrolitic -action where iron and brass parts are combined in the cooling system, -but four pounds of salt to the gallon will give a solution which will -not freeze until seventeen degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, is reached. -Glycerin will keep the water from freezing, but it is expensive and -if rubber hose is used to connect radiator and the cylinder pipes, -glycerin will cause it to decompose rapidly. - -Denatured alcohol probably is the best to use, mixed with water in -proportion as the cold to be expected may demand. Twenty per cent. of -alcohol will give protection to five degrees above zero; thirty per -cent. to nine degrees below zero, and thirty-five per cent. to sixteen -degrees below. The owner must not make the error of using a mixture -which will protect him only for the average low temperature of his -locality. For thirty years the average minimum for the vicinity of New -York City was twelve degrees above zero. The man who thought he was -playing safe with a twenty-per-cent. solution would have ruined his -engine on one of the days while this material was being prepared, for -the temperature went to twenty below in the suburbs and to seventeen -below in the city. Unless the owner had foresight enough to drain out -the cooling solution there would have been burst radiator and pipes, -and perhaps a cracked cylinder, or at least the water-jacket, to be -replaced. Even a thirty-five per cent. solution would not have saved -the damage. - -Probably a combination of alcohol and glycerin will suit the particular -owner a little better than alcohol alone, since there is less -evaporation, and a single dose of glycerin will last the entire season, -only alcohol and water needing to be added to replace that boiled away -or evaporated. Half alcohol and half glycerin is the proper proportion -to be added to the water. It has one advantage, that it freezes quite -a bit lower than the alcohol alone. While there are many kinds of -solutions sold which are “guaranteed,” the owner can make his own at -less expense, even considering prices of alcohol and glycerin. The same -treatment must be given to an acetylene gas producer, since the water -will freeze in that and burst the tank. - -Another thing which must be taken into account in winter is the warming -of the mixture for starting so that it does not condense the moment it -strikes the cold cylinder walls. Modern cars are provided with means -for accomplishing this when the engine has started, but the hot-water -jacket and hot-air furnace depend upon a warmed-up engine for their -availability, and for starting other means must be devised. It may -often be wise to drain off the anti-freeze solution from the cooling -system and substitute hot water until the engine is well warmed up, -then replacing the anti-freeze mixture. There also are various devices -for heating the carburetor and intake manifold while the engine is -warming up. There is an electric heater, where one has current in the -garage and other ways of accomplishing the same thing. If no better -means is at hand a hot-water bottle about half full, so that it can be -wrapped about the manifold, may do it all right; or a cloth wrapped -about the manifold and carburetor without covering the air intake, and -a kettle of hot water, may do it satisfactorily. These methods are -considered more at length in the preceding chapter. - -It will doubtless be found necessary to prime the engine in starting in -cold weather, and it is wise to carry a squirt can for this purpose, -though a piece of waste saturated from the carburetor drip cock and -squeezed over the priming cup will do the trick. If there are no -priming cups it means taking out the spark plugs. - -For running at low temperatures it will be found desirable, if indeed -not necessary, to keep the anti-freeze solution from cooling too -rapidly and thus retarding combustion in the cylinders. Most engines -run better in the winter when the fan is disconnected by removing the -belt. When it becomes very cold, however, other means must be provided -in the way of radiator covers. These may be procured at any supply -house, fitted to any car. They are in various forms, usually with a -curtain which may be lifted for moderate temperatures and closed when -extremes are reached. Anything which will cover the air spaces of the -radiator may be used in an emergency, if one is caught by a sudden drop -in the temperature. A blanket, a bag, even a newspaper or wrapping -paper tied on will work properly until better provision can be made. - -Care of the lubrication system is needed also in cold weather, since -oil does not flow the same when cold as when warm. Most manufacturers -give a schedule of oils for different seasons and this should be -followed explicitly for best results. The owner should make sure that -the oil is feeding through the system. If there is a dash sight feed -it should be watched, for while oil does not freeze, it does get very -viscid and, like molasses, flows stiff at low temperatures. However, -winter lubrication has been studied by engineers for a quarter of a -century and oils which are suited to all climes and all extremes are -no novelty. The manufacturer is the best judge of the oil which will -work most satisfactorily in the machine he turns out; besides, general -advice could not be given which would apply to all cars. As a rule the -man who sells oil should not be taken as an adviser in lubrication. In -case of doubt go to the service station, if within reach, for advice. - -This does not mean that an owner should not substitute a different -brand of oil when he cannot get the one the manufacturer specifies; but -he should get a corresponding quality and then watch results closely -until a supply of the right kind is available. Experience and study -will be a sufficient guide for the careful owner. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -OVERHEATING THE ENGINE IN SUMMER - - -The automobile engine will heat up too quickly in hot weather, just as -an individual will. No, we did not say overeat; though if you let the -engine gorge itself too long on motor fodder, it will help to overheat -as well as overeat. There are a variety of reasons for the overheating, -which it is well for the novice to understand. - -Those who have found it necessary during the winter to cover the -radiator and take off the fan belt and do other things to keep the -engine hot enough to run smoothly and with the proper vaporization and -firing, may find in summer that they are having as much or more trouble -in keeping the engine cool enough to run properly. - -Generally speaking, the nearer to the boiling point we can run the -engine without actually having the water boil and steam away, the more -efficient it will be. Some engines, in fact, develop much less than the -maximum horse-power because they are too well cooled, and yet we hear -a great many complaints about the water boiling in the radiator and the -engine overheating. - -This would not occur if everything were working as the designer -intended it should. During cold weather the man who drives with a -retarded spark uses up more gasoline than necessary, but he is not -bothered with overheating. When the mercury goes up he finds that his -engine overheats and gives him trouble. He has not changed his manner -of driving, and cannot understand why there should be trouble. - -Driving the engine at high speed with the spark retarded is one -very good way of overheating the engine. As a matter of fact, the -battery ignition systems which are now coming more into use require -considerable manipulation of the spark-control lever, and the tendency -is, because the engine knocks at low speed, to leave the lever partly -retarded, instead of advancing it, when a higher speed is reached. - -With the magneto, it is the general practice to advance the lever to -three-fourths or seven-eighths of the full range right after the engine -is started and leave it there for practically all work, except very -high speeds. This may be done largely with such a system, because the -nature of the spark given by the magneto changes somewhat with the -speed of the engine, and the equivalent of an automatic advance and -retard of the spark occurs with the variation of speed of the motor. -With the battery system, however, there is very little change in the -nature of the spark effected by the engine speed. - -A frequent cause of chronic overheating may be traced to sediment in -the radiator which cuts off free radiation of the heat. This usually -may be removed by the use of a saturated solution of washing soda and -water. With the advent of summer each year it would be well to fill -the cooling system with a solution of this sort and run the engine -for several hours and then drain it off and refill the system with -clean water. If in the system used a pump is employed, one should -disconnect the upper hose from the radiator and run the engine to pump -the solution out of the system. At the same time water from a hose or -other source should be fed into the top of the radiator as fast as it -is pumped out, and thus flush the entire system, before connecting up -the hose again. - -Where the thermo-syphon system is used, which does not employ a pump, -this, of course, cannot be done, but one should remove both upper and -lower hose connections after running the engine with the solution and -wash it out with fresh water as well as possible. A hose inserted in -the upper connection probably would force all the solution out with any -collection of sediment, and the same process with the radiator ought to -clean it out. - -Fan belts are more likely to get out of order in hot weather than in -cold weather; perhaps this is because the engine throws oil or grease -more readily when it is warm. Belts should have grease enough to keep -them soft and pliable, of course, but too much causes slipping. They -should be wiped free of all oil occasionally. There is always a belt -adjustment and this should be tightened so that there is sufficient -tension to drive the fan at all engine speeds. - -Some engines have the spokes of the fly-wheel shaped to form a fan, -and where this is the case the oil pan and hood should be kept tight -so that air will be drawn through the radiator rather than through -other openings. If the radiator is not kept free from oil the outside -passages will very quickly collect dust, which will prevent a free flow -of air and cut off radiating surface, which also occurs when the front -of the radiator is smeared too thickly with paint. - -Pumps do wear out, but this is one of the last places to look for -trouble. The action of the pump may be determined usually by removing -the radiator filler cap when the engine is running and noting whether -the water is circulating, but if a baffle plate is placed in the filler -opening, it cannot be seen, and a test may be made in the same manner -in which the cleaning solution is washed out, namely, by removing the -top hose from the radiator and running the engine, while supplying -water through the filler opening. - -With the thermo-syphon system there is very little pressure generated -and a slight obstruction will stop the flow of water. Therefore it -is more necessary to keep the system free from sediment and to see -that the gaskets at the joints are made with circular openings of the -right sizes so as not to obstruct the flow of water. Likewise water -must be kept above the top hose of the radiator in order to have any -circulation in this type of cooling system. - -Another cause of overheating, which it has been found very difficult to -locate, comes from carelessness in stretching the hose over the pipe. -In doing this sometimes the inner lining of the hose is loosened and -folds back, covering the opening of the pipe, so that water does not -flow freely. It looks all right from the outside, but an examination -of the inside will show that it is almost entirely clogged at the end. -Also, the lining of the hose will often loosen up and pieces will -lodge where they cut off the circulation. - -Keep the engine free from carbon and keep the valve push rods adjusted -close, have the mixture as lean as possible and be sure the exhaust -from the muffler is free. Taking care of these things and seeing that -the other things mentioned are all right, will prevent most of the -overheating which troubles the novice, if, indeed, not all of it. - -They are things which should not be trusted entirely to chauffeur -or garage man, but the owner should learn how to take care of them -himself; then if he wants to hire it done he will know if it is being -done according to his orders and will recognize the symptoms when -anything goes wrong. It may take a little time and get one’s hands -somewhat soiled, but it pays in the long run, not alone in the saving -of labor but in the absence of annoyance when out on a trip. It is far -from pleasant to have to stop along a hot roadside to make repairs -which should have been done in the garage, with probable delay and -consequent upsetting of the schedule. Therefore, it behooves the owner -to look after these things before starting out and to learn his car so -well that he will anticipate troubles and by removing causes save time -and money. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -SOME OTHER HOT-WEATHER TIPS - - -There are a number of other points which should be borne in mind by -auto owners with the coming of hot weather, if the most efficient -service is to be had from the car. - -One of the Y. M. C. A. secretaries excitedly called the school to ask -why a seemingly good tire should blow out after a short run. A few -minutes later another secretary put the same inquiry with variations. -That is, he had a tire which was rather old, but it had been inflated -for two weeks and had been running every day since inflation, when it -tested eighty pounds’ pressure. It had blown out. - -The first secretary had been invited by a friend to take a ride. He -had watched the tires inflated and all other bits of preparedness and -saw that nothing was overlooked, and settled down for a fine ride. The -blow-out came about five miles away. - -The trouble with both was that they had not taken into account the fact -that summer was at hand. Experienced drivers know that in hot weather, -whether it is according to rules or not, it is better not to keep the -tire pressure so high as during the cold months, even though it means -more wear on the tires. - -Considerable heat is generated by rolling a tire over the ground. This -heat expands the air in the tire and increases the pressure. In the -winter this heat is absorbed to a large extent by the cold atmosphere -and the cold and wet pavements, and therefore the pressure does not -vary so much. In the summer the roads are very hot, the air temperature -is high, and the heat generated by friction is not carried off to any -appreciable extent. - -On a recent summer trip the writer noticed that the car was riding -harder than usual and a test of the pressure on the tires developed the -fact that it was above normal. To find out just what the difference in -pressure would be, the pressure for each tire was taken before leaving -the garage next morning. After rolling about forty miles at an average -speed of thirty miles an hour, the pressure was again tested. It had -increased about twelve pounds on each tire. - -Several tire manufacturers insist that owners shall not carry less -pressure on tires in hot weather, saying that the increased pressure -due to heat is not sufficient to materially affect their make. This -probably is true for new tires, or for about two-thirds of their -guaranteed life, but if the tire has been weakened, through having been -run under-inflated, or from fabric deterioration through cuts in the -tread, there is danger from the increase in pressure due to heat. - -_More tires are damaged by under-inflation than by over-inflation_, -because the former breaks down the side walls through running flat, -in practically every case, while the over-inflation causes a blow-out -only when the tire is weak at some point. It would be good practice, -however, on hot summer days, to leave the garage with the tire pressure -about ten pounds less than that specified by the manufacturer as being -correct for his make. Any driver ought to test out his tires after -running at a good clip on a hot day and find out just what they do. A -little persistence would enable him to understand how much his tires -heat up and he could regulate the pressure accordingly. - -Manufacturers of high-pressure tires resent the above advice and -declare that it is wrong. The succeeding chapter tells of definite -tests made and the owner can draw his own inferences and decide for -himself whether he wants _high_ tire mileage, or comfort with _pretty -good_ tire mileage. - -There are some other hot-weather points which it might be well to keep -in mind if one would get the best results from the car. One of these is -the care of the carburetor. It will be found usually that not quite so -much gasoline is required as in cold weather, and therefore the dash -adjustment may be carried a little nearer the lean, or air, side. This -not only saves gasoline, but increases the power of the motor, for a -too heavy mixture makes it run logy. - -It will be found also that in most cases the hot-air stove of the -carburetor may be dispensed with or adjusted. Usually provision is -made on the hot-air stoves for allowing some cold air to enter, or to -take cold air entirely. Where the carburetor is water-jacketed, there -usually is a valve that may be closed to prevent the flow of hot water. -Experiment will determine whether it is advisable to cut out the heat -entirely on the individual carburetor, since all are not benefited by -the change. - -The water in the storage battery will evaporate more quickly in -hot weather and where it has been necessary to replenish it once -in two weeks in the winter, it will need to be done every week in -hot weather. This is not entirely due to evaporation from heat but -is accounted for in part by the fact that the engine starts easier -and therefore less current is used for starting; also there is more -daylight and the lamps are used less. Therefore the battery is more -often in a fully charged condition, and in this condition the charging -current causes more gas than when the battery is lower. This is due to -the chemical action which decomposes the water, the hydrogen and oxygen -gases passing off through the vent holes; the water escapes from this -cause as gas and not as vapor, as it does when there is evaporation. - -In hot weather city streets are generally sprinkled regularly and the -country roads are oiled some time during the season. The novice going -behind a street sprinkler, or reaching an oiled stretch of road, should -exercise particular care to prevent skidding, as he would be unlikely -to realize the danger unless he has experienced it once. This is -explained fully in the part of this book devoted to skidding. - -Hot weather softens grease, so that trouble may be experienced through -grease or oil seeping out of transmission or differential cases, or -from the grease cups. Many manufacturers recommend a heavier grease -for summer than for winter to give the greatest efficiency. This -softening of the grease is likely to make a little ring of grease -around each cup, which will collect dust and give the car an unkempt -appearance, besides there is the possibility of some of the dust -working into the bearing. Grease cups must be kept turned down so that -the dust is forced out, and then it should be carefully wiped off. - -Every bearing needs additional care to keep dust out and lubricant in, -but every moment spent in this way pays dividends in expense saved -and comfort and freedom from annoyance on the road, so that the owner -will do well to take note that hot weather calls for added care and -precautions. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -HOT-WEATHER TIRE EXPANSION - - -There is considerable question whether the pressure on tires should -be decreased during the hot summer days. Tire manufacturers claim, -as a rule, that tires heat more on low pressure than when run at the -full pressure given by them. They claim that even a slight decrease to -offset any increase from heating, because of warmer temperature of the -air, friction, and the hot pavements, will injure the tires. On the -other hand, drivers of long experience insist that the car should be -started out with the tires softer than in cold weather. Still others -insist that the tire pressure demanded by the manufacturer makes the -tire too hard for comfort and that when the pressure is increased by -heat it makes the tire as hard as one of solid rubber. There is some -truth on both sides. - -There has been considerable criticism of the conclusions drawn from the -writer’s experience with tires while on a summer tour, related in the -previous chapter. He stated that there was a twelve-pound increase in -a forty-mile run. This was disputed. Tests prove that he was right and -that in city driving tires ordinarily heat up even when the conditions -are not extreme. - -To determine what effect the hot weather has on tires in the city, the -author drove a 3200-pound Model L Locomobile, equipped all around with -34 × 4-1/2 inch tires, through the park and on Riverside Drive for -fifteen miles at ordinary city-traffic speed, which always is under -twenty miles an hour. The thermometer registered 86 degrees and the -day was partly overcast, so that the full effect of the sun on the -pavements was not obtained. The tires were inflated to full 90 pounds, -which is the pressure recommended by many manufacturers. - -At the end of the run, one tire registered 101 pounds, two were 100 -pounds, and one was 99 pounds. The conditions were not excessive in any -way and the weather was not abnormal, the road was smooth except for -very short stretches, the speed was low, and the tires were of ample -size for the weight of car and load. - -After the test run, a gauge was made to test the flattening effect on -the tire from a lowered pressure. With the car loaded it was necessary -to decrease the pressure in the tire to 65 pounds to have 1/16 inch -bulge of the side of the tire. At 70 pounds pressure there was no -flattening perceptible by the use of the gauge. - -It is certain that more tires are damaged by under-inflation than by -over-inflation, also that perfect new tires will stand more than 20 -pounds over-inflation without damage to them. But it is reasonable to -believe that, if a tire has become weakened from any cause, it will -blow out quicker under increased pressure. It is also a fact that a -tire inflated to the pressure recommended by many manufacturers has -very little resiliency, and the riding qualities of the car are very -greatly impaired, and when the pressure rises slightly higher the tire -loses its chief function, that of absorbing the small road shocks. -Anyone who has had the experience of riding on hard tires knows the -discomfort of it; one might about as well ride on solid tires. - -But all this comes back to the question: What is under-inflation? A -tire with ten pounds less pressure than recommended probably will heat -more than when carrying a full pressure; but it will very quickly come -up to the required pressure when the car is run. - -As the pressure recommended by many manufacturers is the extreme so -far as comfort in riding is concerned, the car owner must take his -choice between comfort and tire mileage, assuming that a slightly less -pressure does decrease the life of the tire. Presumably the average -owner would rather have comfortable riding, even at the expense of tire -mileage, and we are not prepared to admit that decreased mileage would -be an inevitable result with ten pounds less pressure. Beyond question -the average man would not use a substitute for gasoline which gave him -all sorts of discomfort because it did not run the engine smoothly, -even if it gave a slightly greater mileage to the gallon. - -One manufacturer of fabric tires recommends 56 pounds pressure for -a 4-inch tire and guarantees 5000 miles, and makes the claim that -this pressure makes riding much more comfortable. Another well-known -manufacturer advises inflating the tire only to the point where there -is no bulge or flattening, and another type of pneumatic tire has -become very popular because it requires still less pressure and makes -riding that much more pleasurable. - -Where tires are hard and roads are rough, the machine jumps around so -that it is more likely to jump off the road, therefore there is an -element of safety as well as comfort involved. - -For all around comfort, though possibly with lessened tire mileage, -the conclusion is reached that a ten-pound decrease in pressure in -hot summer weather is desirable. The tire cannot be damaged much, -because after a very few minutes on really hot pavements the pressure -will equal that recommended by the most exacting manufacturer and any -overheating due to this cause would be a matter of very short duration. - -As was said in the previous chapter, the wise owner will test out his -car and tires and find out just the proper amount of decrease the -tires will stand. He will then have to decide whether he wants the -highest amount of tire mileage or the highest amount of comfort and act -accordingly. - -It is beside the argument, but a matter of fact, that a certain tire -salesman, a fellow who is quite insistent upon a certain pressure being -maintained, makes it his invariable practice to deflate his tires ten -pounds in hot weather; he wants tire mileage, too. - -All of which goes to show that some people do not always practice what -they preach, or take the medicine they give to others. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -GUARDING AGAINST FIRE - - -The education of automobile owners and chauffeurs is decreasing the -number of cars which go up in smoke, but there still are cases enough -to require a word of warning as to causes and prevention. Automobile -fires sometimes come from causes not ordinarily considered under the -control of the driver. However, a little extra caution in a few matters -will render the motorist practically free from danger. - -Of course, the principal cause of automobile fires is from back-firing. -Without going into all the causes of back-firing, the chief one is too -lean a mixture fed to the cylinders. This will almost invariably cause -back-fire in starting. Really, the chief trouble comes in starting when -the engine is cold, and naturally this is most frequent in the winter. -When there is a back-fire a sheet of flame comes from the air intake of -the carburetor; if there is anything inflammable in that vicinity, it -is quite likely to take fire. - -Gasoline vaporizes so rapidly that if there is gasoline in the drip pan -there is almost sure to be a sufficient mixture around the carburetor -to make trouble. As a matter of fact, the drip pan under the carburetor -should be so arranged as to allow any gasoline to be drained off before -it has had time to vaporize. Indeed, there ought not to be very much -gasoline in the drip pan at any time. If it comes from a leak in the -supply pipe or the connection to the carburetor, the leak should be -repaired. If it comes from an overflow of the carburetor due to poor -seating of the float valve, that should be taken apart and cleaned -so that the float valve will seat properly. These two things are -practically the only occasion for gasoline in the drip pan. - -Another cause of fire may be in running for some time at extreme -speed. This usually will cause the exhaust pipe to become very hot, -sometimes to glow. The exhaust pipe in some cases is placed close to -the woodwork of the car, which may be set on fire. Particularly is this -true if the woodwork has an accumulation of grease and oil, and here -is where caution will have a beneficial effect. The owner who keeps -the woodwork free from oil and grease—cleans it off regularly and -thoroughly—minimizes the danger at this point. - -The pipe also heats up when the engine is run with a greatly retarded -spark. Sometimes the pipe gets red-hot and it is an easy matter to -ignite the woodwork. Here again oil or grease would increase the -danger. The economical operator will not allow grease and oil to be -wasted in this way, aside from the fact that grease, oil, and gasoline -in drip pan or carburetor form a menace hard to overestimate. - -Fires have been started occasionally by opening the muffler “cut-out” -in starting up. This is particularly dangerous when the car is in a -garage, where usually there are grease and gasoline spilled around on -the floor, giving off fumes and creating a danger zone. Occasionally -when the car is standing in the garage the supply line will drip a -little. It may be all right when the gasoline is flowing into the -carburetor regularly, but when it stands, a tiny drip will make a -considerable mixture under the car. A leak, so small as to be unnoticed -ordinarily, when continued over night will cause enough mixture to be -dangerous. If, to aid the engine, the operator opens up the “cut-out,” -there are quite likely to be some sparks flying out. Sparks and gas -mixture are a very perilous combination and there is pretty sure to be -a blazing car in a moment. - -Sometimes in filling the gasoline tank it overflows and drips down. -Perhaps the driver, delayed by taking on gasoline, is in a hurry, so he -opens the “cut-out” and finds that making haste is often dangerous. - -Another cause of fires comes from short-circuiting of the ignition -or lighting systems when a storage battery is used. Occasionally a -short-circuit will heat one of the wires red-hot and burn off the -insulation. Then, if there be an accumulation of grease, oil, or -gasoline, there will be trouble. - -To obviate vibration, some chauffeurs pack around the battery with used -waste, which is more or less greasy. It is possible for a tool to drop -down on the battery and give off a spark, or, under vibration, a series -of sparks, sufficient to set fire to the waste. It is on record, in one -of the old-style cars, that a cushion spring wore through and dropped -down on the battery, making a spark every time the spring touched the -terminals, and eventually setting fire to the car. The remedy for all -these instances is very obvious. - -Another cause of fire, which has been written about a great deal, -is static electricity, which is generated when gasoline is filtered -through chamois under certain conditions. Very many funnels have -a chamois strainer. Gasoline poured upon chamois creates static -electricity. It is all right if the funnel touches the gas tank, but -if it does not, a static spark is very likely to cross the gap and set -fire to the volatilizing gasoline. The remedy, of course, is either not -to use chamois or to see that there is a perfect connection between the -funnel and the tank. - -Since one of the chief troubles is the back-firing when the car is -started, it would be well for the owner, when starting the car in -cold weather, to enrich the mixture slightly; this will prevent the -back-firing, and when the engine is well started the mixture may be -adjusted to the proper proportion. Most cars now have a means of -enriching the mixture on the dash. - -It ought not to be necessary to suggest the wisdom of carrying along -one of the approved fire extinguishers, but it is a fact that very many -owners “take a chance.” The insurance companies make a reduction in the -premium when a fire extinguisher is carried, which is a pretty good -indication that they consider it a valuable accessory on the car. Some -companies insist that one be carried. - -Inasmuch as fires may occur even with the most careful operator, from -causes beyond his control, such as the accidental short-circuit, or -the carelessness of others, it may be out of place to suggest that the -owner of a valuable car, or one who really cares, insure his car. Rates -are fairly reasonable, and if insurance ever is good it surely ought to -be in the case of an automobile, where several thousands of dollars are -often centered in a very small compass. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII - -DON’T RUN AWAY FROM A FIRE - - -Whatever may be the cause of a fire in your automobile, do not run away -from it. Stay and fight the fire. Often the utmost haste is needed in -getting out of the car when a fire starts, but on the way out grab the -fire extinguisher and turn to use it. Do not be afraid that there will -be an explosion and run. There will be none, and if you work fast you -may save serious damage to the car. Keep your head and fight. - -The presumption is that you will have a good extinguisher on the car. -Two would be better and more in keeping with a high-priced car, both -placed where they can be gotten at instantly, for gasoline fires spread -mighty fast. The causes of fires have been pretty well discussed in -the preceding chapter, and the fact that care will prevent all but a -negligible percentage of fires. Back-fire, for instance, may be made -harmless by placing over the air intake a screen of wire gauze, such -as is used in a miner’s safety lamp. To prevent shutting off some -of the air and deranging the carburetor, the screen should be much -larger than the opening of the intake. It can be made in bulb shape and -clamped, soldered, or wired in position, and it ought not to require -more than average gumption to fit such a device on any carburetor. Make -sure it is safety gauze. - -There are several forms of gaskets advertised for this purpose, but -all so far noticed were to go between the carburetor and intake and -are too likely to cause condensation of the gasoline to be recommended -for use. Particularly in cold weather would there be a likelihood of -condensation of vaporized or partly vaporized gasoline. But with the -wire-gauze screen above described the sting of back-fire will be gone, -as no blaze could pass through it and so reach the gasoline fumes which -might be in the drip pan. - -One cause of fire not often mentioned because of its rarity, would be -from sparks from the magneto or generator brushes, or from the breaker -points which might be hot enough to ignite gasoline fumes and therefore -are to be guarded against. - -Since gasoline fumes are heavier than air usually the magneto and -generator are set high enough to be above the danger point; and where -the magneto is between the cylinders on the V-shaped installation, -there would be no danger. On marine engines, however, high installation -is being featured lately to offset this very danger. - -If, after all precautions are taken, you are visited by fire, stay to -fight it. Get only far enough away to escape being burned, and then -fight and fight hard. Work the fire extinguisher for all it is worth, -for in less time than it takes to read this page the fate of your car -will have been decided. - -Get out of your head, first of all, the idea that there is to be an -explosion. It doesn’t happen. The first puff from the burning gasoline -is the nearest thing to an explosion you will see. After this first -puff, it is fire, not explosion, you need fear and fight. Tanks will -not explode unless empty of gasoline, or nearly so, and filled with -gasoline fumes—that is, vapor and air mixed. Water is little good in -fighting an automobile fire where gasoline and oil are burning. - -There are several things, however, which will quench the flames, and -which should be at hand. If you could get sand and salt in sufficient -quantity on the flames it would be effectual, but of course one -could hardly carry a sufficient quantity along. There are also tube -extinguishers filled with a dry compound, which under favorable -circumstances will do the trick. But the trouble is to get the compound -at the seat of the fire, and to throw it violently upon the flame is -impossible. - -There is one thing, however, which will actually put out a gasoline -fire, and it is such a safeguard that no owner can afford to be -without it. That is the carbon tetra-chloride compound, which is the -basis of all liquid extinguishers on the market. This, discharged -close to the seat of the flames, forms a dense smoke-like gas which -has no oxygen to feed the fire, which therefore goes out for lack of -fuel. There are many good extinguishers on the market which use the -carbon tetra-chloride mixture with other ingredients to keep it from -corroding the pump, or to add some other quality to the compound. -These extinguishers cost more than the dry compound tubes, but the -man who can afford to own a car can afford to have the necessary -appliances for its protection. One may never have occasion to use the -fire extinguishers, but it is nice to know that they are ready if the -emergency does come, for there isn’t always a fire department handy, -and if there is, generally the firemen arrive after the car is doomed. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV - -DEATH IN THE GASOLINE - - -Most persons understand the danger of getting gasoline and fire in -close proximity, but there is another peril in gasoline which is not so -well comprehended—indeed has only come to the attention of scientists -in recent months. It is death, called petromortis, or gasoline death, -which lurks in the fumes of the burned gases from the exhaust pipe. - -That which comes from the exhaust is no longer inflammable. It has -served its purpose in the combustion chamber by burning with rapid -expansion, furnishing power. It has undergone chemical changes, has -been split up, the hydro-carbon uniting for the most part with the -oxygen of the air in the mixture and forming carbon monoxide and carbon -dioxide. The latter is carbonic acid gas, in which no living thing can -live. The carbon monoxide is no less deadly, and besides there is the -nitrogen from the air, which will suffocate as well, unless it mingles -with the air freely. - -These three gases exuding from the exhaust pipe into a confined space, -such as a small garage, would quickly vitiate the atmosphere to a point -where, close to the floor, asphyxiation would result, and sooner or -later would fill the garage up to the point of the air intake. Then, -as oxygen-filled air could not enter the intake to form mixture, the -engine would slow down and stop. - -There is little danger, since the deadly gases are heavier than air, -when one is working about the garage in a standing posture, where the -breathing apparatus would be above the strata of gases and taking in -the normal air. But where one is working at the tires, or any part of -the car below the level of the gases, or under the car, he might be -overcome and die of suffocation in a few minutes. - -It was not until such accidents really had occurred that the attention -of the public was directed to this danger. Just recently a notable -case of death from gasoline fumes was that of a popular actor. He was -working in his garage, and because of the cold had the doors tightly -closed. Getting under the car to adjust and oil the mechanism while the -engine was running to warm it up, he was overcome by the gases which -could not escape from the garage, and died before being discovered. - -The chemical composition of the exhaust gases, according to an expert, -is as follows: - - PER CENT. - Carbonic acid gas 8.70 - Oxygen 2.75 - Carbon monoxide .30 - Hydrocarbons 6.55 - Nitrogen 81.70 - ------ - 100.00 - -There is much disagreement as to the quantity of carbon monoxide -necessary to be fatal. A well-known automobile trade journal recently -said that 25 per cent. would produce death in half an hour and 15 -per cent. would produce a violent headache in several hours. Other -authorities claim that as little as .5 per cent. would be fatal. It -is more probable that the large amount of suffocating gases, nitrogen -and carbonic acid gas, produces unconsciousness, and then the carbon -monoxide, attacking the blood particles, affects them so that they are -unable to take in oxygen; hence death is certain. - -There are several ways in which the danger may be obviated. The first -and most natural one is to open the garage doors when the engine is -being run, or have an opening on the level with the floor through which -the heavy fumes may escape—roll out of the garage. - -Another way is to provide a pipe, with flexible hose to attach it to -the exhaust pipe and leading to the outer air, so that the exhaust -would virtually be out-of-doors. This would not be expensive nor -difficult for any ingenious man to arrange. The pipe should be larger -than the exhaust nozzle and flexible metal hose of convenient length -should be attached by the use of a reducer, the other end to be forced -over the end of the exhaust, to which a short length of pipe might be -added if necessary. Three or four inches would be long enough for the -hose to attach easily. If necessary a clamp with wing nut on the bolt -could be used to hold it in place. - -Gasoline fumes which are not burned also have a peculiar effect when -one inhales them profusely. Years ago when on a visit to Oil City, -Pa., the writer was invited to inspect the old Imperial Refinery, one -of the plants which helped found the Rockefeller millions. One phase -of refining kerosene is to wash out the volatile elements which make -it dangerous. This is done in an agitator, where streams of water -literally wash the kerosene, keeping it eddying and boiling as though -a fire were under it. The top is open and around it runs a gallery from -which the process is watched. It was a favorite trick of the employes -to conduct a stranger to this gallery and steer him to the lee side -where he gets the full effect of the fumes which pass off. Most men -not used to it began to feel light-headed in a few minutes and to act -as though they had been imbibing strong waters. It is an exact simile -of the alcoholic condition, though without the after effects the next -day. To a limited degree one may acquire the same effects from gasoline -in the garage if there are large open gasoline receptacles to send off -fumes sufficient to affect one. Of course, if there were enough to do -this, a spark from any source would start a fire. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV - -SHIFTING GEARS ON HILLS - - -One of the most humiliating experiences which can come to an owner is -to have to ask his guests, even if it be only friend wife, to get out -and walk when a long and steep hill is partly ascended. While there -are conditions of engine which would make hill climbing hard, if not -impossible, they are due to neglect or poor adjustment, so that the -engine has not power enough to negotiate stiff grades. The owner who -keeps the motor in proper condition, in practically any make of car on -the market today, should have no trouble in making the worst hills. Yet -how often we find cars stalled on mountain roads and even on steep city -streets, and see owner and guests walking or pushing the car. - -Recently the writer, going from Greenwood Lake to Tuxedo, in Orange -County, New York, in a well-known make of touring car, passed six -cars of different kinds stalled at the very start of the climb over -Sterling Mountain. The first one met was a Ford. Now there is no reason -whatever for stalling a car of this make on any hill. It is a matter of -comment that the Ford—much despised by the owner of the big car—will -take hills that some multi-cylindered and high-powered cars make much -fuss over, and do it handily. The trouble was that the driver started -at high speed and then did not know how to shift the gears properly and -the car stalled. - -When we reached it the Ford was stalled across the roadway and we had -to stop until the driver started the engine and backed the car to one -side. Not being familiar with the hill-climbing abilities of the car in -which he was seated, the writer inquired of our driver if it were not -better to walk awhile. - -“No one will ever walk while I am driving,” was the reply, “unless -something breaks. I do not go out riding to walk; besides the car will -carry us all right.” - -And it did. Although we had stopped at the very foot of a steep grade -fifty feet long, the car on low gear took it without a stutter, and -then coming to a lesser grade, a shift was made to second gear. We did -not use first speed more than once or twice, and then only to keep from -stalling on the grade when it was necessary to slow down in passing -other cars at narrow points in the road. Occasionally high speed was -possible for short stretches. When well over the top of the mountain we -stopped to let the engine cool off for probably ten minutes and then -coasted nearly all the way down the mountain side. - -There was no need of any of the cars stalling on this grade, though it -is long and has many very steep places; there was no sign that any of -the cars was deficient in power. The deficiency was in knowledge on the -part of the drivers. - -Where the driver understands gear shifting well enough to do it on -a grade, the proper way to approach a hill is on high, with the -accelerator opened enough, and spark advanced, to speed up the car. -Then when the car begins to lose speed and before it has slowed down -too much, the shift should be made to second-speed gear, which should -carry the car up any ordinary hill. If an extra steep gradient be -encountered, first speed may be necessary for that stretch. - -It is well just as the foot of a hill is reached to open the throttle -wide. If the engine begins to knock or otherwise labor, retard the -spark enough to overcome this. In the chapter on “Driving the Car,” -detailed instructions for the operation of the gears in hill climbing -and descending are given. Study these rules closely and try out your -car on short grades before attempting long and steep hills. Make sure -that you know how to operate the levers for gear shifting and then take -things easy. Do not be in a hurry. Haste makes waste. - -While many high-powered cars, and sometimes those of less pretentious -build, will take almost any hill on high gear, it is not always policy -to do this. Some modern motors are designed with a view to make the -climbing of hills easy, but even so, the climb made on second-speed -gear will take but a trifle longer and the car will not be submitted -to the tremendous strain of operation on high speed. It is all very -well to boast that one’s car will “take the worst hill on high,” but -a better boast would be that the car has stood up for two or three -years longer than ordinary, and care in the operation will produce that -result. - -The driver whose engine is not in the best of condition and which is -not delivering its full power, and especially if he is not fully versed -in shifting the gears, would better not try to take a hill of any -length or of any considerable grade on high. Indeed it is wise to shift -into second gear before starting up the grade, for nothing is more -unpleasant than stalling the engine half way up. And he ought not to -despise low speed if necessary to negotiate the hill without straining -the engine unduly. Motoring is not just piling up mileage records or -speeding across the country as though the devil were at one’s heels. -There are a few things more desirable than miles per hour, even though -the American “Get There” spirit be abroad. Generally speaking there is -a direct relation between cost per mile and miles per hour, and while -some owners may be able to afford twenty cents and upwards per mile, -the average owner does not care to indulge regularly in such a cost -figure. - -When it comes to descending steep hills, the cost does not figure so -much as safety. How often one sees cars tearing down a hill with the -engine running, gear in high speed, and devil-may-care at the wheel. -If the drivers realized the slight things upon which their fate hangs -at such a time there would be more care. Ninety per cent. of all the -accidents to automobiles are the result of sheer carelessness of the -drivers; nine per cent. are from the carelessness of some other driver; -only about one per cent. can be set down to breaks of parts, blow-outs, -or other things not to be prevented by ordinary precautions. - -On a slight and straight hill it is all right to go down on high -speed, simply shutting off the ignition so that the engine will act as -a brake, the foot brake being used if necessary; but on a steep hill it -is far wiser to shift into second-speed or even first-speed gear before -attempting to descend. The engine will exert a powerful braking force -in low-speed gear. Besides, the running and emergency brakes are to be -used alternately, so that on a long hill the brake linings will not -be burned up. Of course the clutch must be left engaged to secure the -braking effect of the engine. - -It is a mighty bad thing to start down a hill in high gear and then, -half way down, find that brakes will not hold, or that something has -gone wrong suddenly. Long and steep hills rarely are wide or smooth; -there are ditches and humps and rocks, sometimes, and narrow places -where there is scarce room for two cars to pass, and less than perfect -control of the car is perilous. “Better be safe than sorry” is a homely -old saw, but it is pertinent. - -Another thing is that the hill speedster is one of the greatest menaces -to other drivers so far found. If one cares not for his own car or -neck, at least he should have a care for the others on the hill; and -whether it is on the ascent or descent the speedster endangers every -one else going in either direction at the same time, except perhaps -the fellow who is following him at a safe pace. It is no comfort to -know that the mortality is highest among the speed fiends of motordom; -occasionally they raise the mortality figure of the drivers who -practice safety first. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI - -KEEPING THE CAR SLEEK - - -Of course, if one does not care for appearances, and has no pride -in the bright and shiny varnish of the body and in the absence of -rustiness of the top, and thinks because the engine is under the hood -no one will see that it has been neglected, this section will not -particularly interest the reader. But, on the other hand, if these -things count, and the owner understands that true economy consists in -keeping not only the running parts in condition, but everything else at -the top notch of perfection, then he will heed the advice herein. - -Just because it does not show to the passer-by, many think that the -appearance of the engine does not count; that it is not essential that -it be kept free of oil, grease, dust, and corrosion of iron and brass. -Get this idea out of the head instanter. It is false and has much to do -with breakdown and wear-out of the motor. The cleaner it is kept the -longer will it run satisfactorily, both as to troubles and to length -of life. One may well err on the side of cleanliness rather than be -somewhat slovenly. The motor ought to be cleaned off on the outside -after any lengthy trip, or after any run when roads are dusty, or oily, -or sandy. - -One may be as particular as possible, yet there will be some oil or -grease on the motor exterior. Probably that which lodges upon the -cylinders will, if there is much hill climbing to heat the motor -unduly, make itself visible and smellable—visible in a thin streak of -smoke coming from the hood, and smellable to the point of offensiveness -when that streak of smoke strikes the olfactory nerves. But in most -instances it will remain upon the engine, gradually becoming a gum from -the drying up of the substance and the accretion of dust from the road. -The longer it remains the harder it is to remove it; hence when the -work is done in the garage every time the car comes in, it will take -but a few minutes and slight labor; while if allowed to accumulate, it -may mean hours’ work to get rid of the hard deposit. - -Sufficient instruction has been given as to the care of the working -parts of the motor, so that only the exterior need be considered at -this time. Begin at the top. First of all see that the wire terminals -at the spark plugs are free from corrosion and grease. They should -be dry and clean if they are to transmit the current to the plugs. -Usually the wires are carried in a tube to protect them from heat and -grease, but not always. In any event, trace along the wires to see that -oil or grease is not present upon them. Either will rot the rubber -insulation and cause a leak which will affect the ignition. Examine all -the terminals under the hood for the same purpose, and every once in a -while disconnect the wires one by one and scrape the terminals bright, -also the contact point where terminal is fastened. Replace the wires -one by one as you clean them so they will not become disarranged. See -also that there is no oil, grease, or dirt on the spark plugs, for it -might form a sufficient path for current to practically short-circuit -the plug. - -Wipe off the top of the cylinders and blow out accumulations of dust -from any recesses where it has collected. If there is thickened or -gummy oil upon the metal, which will not wipe off readily, saturate the -waste or cloth in gasoline at the carburetor drip cock, and it will -loosen up quickly. Gasoline is more convenient, but kerosene will do -the work better, leaving a surface less likely to rust. In the same -way clean the exterior of all the parts of the motor and everything -attached to it. Where the brass shows corrosion, use a cleaning -compound to remove it. Brass may be kept from corroding in wet weather -by coating it with whiting. Several good compounds also are sold for -this purpose. Bright iron parts may be kept from rusting by wiping -them with a rag dampened with a thin oil, which should be wiped off -regularly, and there never should be enough to show. - -The fan, fan belt, pulleys, gear casings, and other parts at the front -end collect much dust and should be kept clean. The air holes through -the radiator, also, must be kept free of dust, oil, and asphalt from -oiled roads. In fact every part under the hood needs frequent cleaning. - -There are some parts of the chassis and undergear which will not be -readily reached by the hose and water when cleaning the body; therefore -they should first be rubbed off and cleaned of dirt, grease, and -accumulations of asphalt from oiled roads, or mud. Do this while the -space under the car is dry, and if it is done regularly it will not -be difficult to keep this part of the car in order. The parts of the -various rods and rocker shafts, and particularly near the bearings, -should be kept clean. - -If one will make a “creeper” from which to work when getting under -the car, it will remove most of the objections which drivers have to -“getting under.” Take a board of twelve inches wide and five feet -long and mount casters which move freely under it. At one end place -an inclined head or shoulder rest a foot long and with four or five -inches’ rise. Then cover the upper side with carpet, padded to make it -comfortable. Lying down upon this, one may move about under the car -in ease and get at all the mechanism readily. It is not only good for -cleaning time, but when inspecting or oiling, or tightening up the -bolts and nuts and bearings which may be reached only from beneath the -car. It also keeps one off a wet floor or ground. - -Next take a hose, if one be available, and play it freely all over -the body and running gear, fenders, mud guards, wheels, with care, of -course, that the upholstery be not sprinkled too much. Do a thorough -job with the hose but do not use a powerful stream upon the highly -polished surfaces. It will not only take off dust but loosen up mud, -and the force of the spray will take off fresh accumulations of asphalt -from mud guards and chassis. Then with the hose playing ahead, use a -soft sponge to go over all the parts to remove any remaining dirt -and rinse down with water alone. Next, with cloth and chamois dry the -woodwork and other painted surfaces until they shine. - -Where mud and asphalt are dried and refractory, other means must be -taken to remove them before rinsing and drying. Mud may be softened by -holding a saturated sponge over it for a few moments. If the mud be -mixed with oil or grease so that water does not soften it, kerosene -will, and it does not take much of it. Kerosene also will soften the -asphalt which clings to the car. Grease and oil also yield to kerosene, -which should be wiped off and the painted parts polished with a -cloth dampened with linseed oil. Naturally this should be wiped off -completely so that it would not become a dust catcher. - -Do not use soap on the highly polished surfaces of the body. Most -soaps have free alkali—lye—in their composition, and while this makes -them cut dirt and grease fast, it injures the varnished surface, in -a short time wearing off the gloss. Washing is the better done when -the hose only is used. In the country, where a hose is not available, -the washing will be slower, since the water in a pail must be renewed -frequently and the sponge rinsed practically every stroke to rid it of -grit. Where it is possible to run a line from tank to the garage, or, -if there is no tank, from an elevated barrel, which can be filled with -a force pump, it should be done. - -There are various preparations sold for renewing the surface of auto -bodies after it begins to dull. Good gloss should last a year with -care, especially if it be wiped over occasionally with a soft cloth -dampened with a mixture of linseed oil and a little high-grade carriage -varnish—a half pint to the gallon of oil. As there is a wide variation -in both ingredients, if the mixture seems sticky when rubbed between -the fingers or when applied to the car surface, add considerably more -oil, as it is not intended as a new covering for the paint, but to -freshen up the varnish. - -Mohair tops need to be dusted with a moist sponge, using also soapsuds -if spotted with oil or grease. Leather and its imitations may be kept -in good condition if oiled occasionally or treated with one of the good -preparations sold. The top should be dried before folding down. After -driving through a shower let the top stay up until sun and wind have -dried it thoroughly. Care in folding will lengthen the life of the top. -Freedom from cracks and creases will mean a dry top, to insure which is -worth any amount of trouble. - -Keeping the car covered when in the garage pays, for dust will blow in -and settle over all parts. The upholstery also may be protected by slip -covers, which should be kept on during dusty trips, and be washed when -dirty. Leather cushions should be freshened the same as the top. - -The man who has cared for a fine carriage will know what to do with -similar parts of the automobile; others should learn how to care for -them, and understand that varnished and polished surfaces will become -dulled if the car is stored in a stable, or adjacent to stable or -barnyard. If a barn is converted into a garage, it should be thoroughly -renovated and fitted with a cement floor sloping to the center, with -a drain leading outside, so that the car may be washed there and the -water run off through the drain. - -In fact the owner of a car may find something to do all the time for -convenience and comfort. If he arranges things conveniently he will not -only save time but will be able to do better work, and will have the -satisfaction of knowing that he is keeping down expense and getting the -most out of his machine for the expenditure. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII - -SOME THINGS A TOURIST SHOULD KNOW - - -These are the days of the tour and to thousands more each year it means -a trip by automobile to lake or mountain, or the more pretentious visit -to the old home, or to some new, and to the tourist, undiscovered, -country. The tourist who goes by auto fully prepared for the -emergencies which may arise, unhampered by railway schedule, and who -will take time to enjoy himself, will get untold pleasure out of the -trip. - -The speedster knows nothing of the pleasure of touring, and the fellow -who is always worrying lest he shall not make Squedunk Corners in time -to eat and get to Possum Crossing for the night will be watching the -road map and the clock on the dash so closely that the beauties nature -has lavishly scattered about will be lost upon him, and his memory -of the trip will be a procession of eating and sleeping houses, with -trouble between them all. - -The man who is starting out for the tour with a new car, which has -been tried out enough to be sure that it is in condition, need only -know that he has with him the things most likely to be needed for an -emergency, but if the car has been in service for several months or -more, he ought to give it a “once over” at least before starting. - -One of the things to attend to is refilling the gear cases. Both the -transmission and differential cases should be drained of all oil and -washed out carefully with kerosene. At the same time the gears should -be examined closely to see if they are in good shape. One may find one -or two teeth chipped, though not broken enough to make the condition -known by sound. It probably was too hard originally and the break is -not the fault of the driver, but it should be replaced, for it is -likely to give trouble at any time. When cleaned, the cases should be -refilled with the proper amount of new lubricant, but not too much, -because then it will work out and scatter over the car and probably get -on the brake drums and make them slip. - -The crank case of the engine should be drained and cleaned out with -kerosene and fresh oil be put in. If the oiling system is working -properly, it is best to let it alone and see that it is kept filled -with the proper quality of lubricant while on the road. Of course the -grease cups should be filled and all points which are lubricated by -oil from a squirt can should be taken care of. The wheel bearings all -should be examined to determine their condition and to see that they -are properly lubricated. If very dirty they should be cleaned and fresh -grease be applied. - -It is well to carry an extra gallon of engine oil in the car, also a -small can of grease. Garages are plenty, but sometimes an accident -occurs which causes a loss of the main supply of oil and makes it -impossible to drive even a mile without an extra supply. Likewise if -the gasoline tank is not provided with an emergency tank or chamber, an -extra gallon of gasoline should be carried. Convenient emergency tanks -for this purpose may be purchased at any accessory store. - -Both sets of brakes should be carefully examined to see that the lining -is not worn too thin and that the different pins and clevises of the -brake linkage are not worn so as to be weak and likely to give away in -touring under extraordinary pressure. Often in touring one comes upon -unexpected grades, some of them miles long, and the tourist should be -prepared for prolonged and extraordinary service. - -[Illustration: BRAKE LEVERS AND LINKAGE, SHOWING EQUALIZING ROD AND -SPRINGS] - -Where prolonged service is required it should be possible to use the -two sets of brakes alternately. In this connection it is well to keep -in mind that on long grades considerable braking may be done by cutting -off the ignition and allowing the car to turn the engine over in high -or intermediate gear. Keeping the car down to a rather low speed in -this manner will also be found to save burning up the brake linings. - -It is of the utmost necessity to keep the brake drums free from oil. -When the car is driven out into the country the crown of the road tilts -the car over, so that if there is too much oil in the differential case -it will work through the axle housing to the brake drum on the right -side. Of course this is taken care of largely as previously advised, by -winding felt around the axle, or by not having too much lubricant in -the differential, although enough is very necessary. - -If the engine shows any tendency to knock on the hill it would be well -to have the carbon removed before starting. It is very disagreeable -to have to take a hill on second speed that could be taken on high if -the throttle could be kept open without causing knocking. Trips may be -practically spoiled by the fact that the engine is full of carbon and -does not have sufficient power to negotiate the hills. - -Of course the car should be gone over systematically to see that all -nuts are tight and properly supplied with cotter pins or lock washers. -All parts should be scrutinized carefully to see that there are no -cracked or badly worn parts likely to give out under the severe strain -of touring. - -The compression of the engine should be tested and if found weak in -any cylinder the valves should be ground in. Spark plugs should be -made perfectly clean, magneto interrupter points cleaned and adjusted -to gauge and high-tension distributor cleaned out, and the battery -should be tested to make sure it is in normal condition. If almost -discharged, a charge should be given it from some external source. The -commutators of the generator and starting motor should be examined and -if badly scored they will need to be trued up. If the storage battery -is depended upon entirely for ignition, a set of dry cells should be -carried so that in case of entire failure of the storage battery, -ignition and lights may be had for a short time, even though the engine -has to be cranked by hand. - -Some annoyance may be saved by examining the springs to see if there -is a cracked leaf to be replaced. Spring repair attachments are sold, -but it depends upon the ingenuity of the individual whether repairs of -this sort can be made upon the road. - -In addition to tools and the other things previously recommended to be -carried, the tourist should take at least one set of electric bulbs for -the car. Spark plugs may be cleaned with very little trouble, but it is -handier to carry two or three extra ones for quick exchange, cleaning -the ones removed at the end of the day, or at the noon stop. One or two -extra tires carried inflated and on the rims are usual, and it is wise -to have two or three extra inner tubes. If one does have tire trouble -it seems to come in bunches and it is just as well to be prepared for -the worst. The tourist who is traveling very far from garages should -carry also patches and cement. - -Of course each car will carry a real fire extinguisher and a tow rope. -If you do not need to be towed out of a mud hole yourself someone else -will. Be prepared. Most drivers like to have along a spool of annealed -wire, a pair of side-cutting pliers, and a roll of tire tape. It is -really wonderful what an ingenious man can do with these things. The -tools to be carried should be sufficient to do ordinary road repairs -and the outfit suggested in a previous chapter is recommended. - -As previously stated, it is not the man who rushes around and plans -maximum distances for each day’s run who gets the most out of the tour; -he makes work out of pleasure keeping up with a schedule. It is better -to allow more time for the runs, and then if one gets ahead of schedule -to lay off a half day and see the sights and keep the car in condition. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII - -LITTLE KNOCKS ARE HARDLY BOOSTS - - -One of the worst things with which the autoist has to contend -mechanically is the accumulation of carbon in the cylinders, clogging -the piston rings, filling and short-circuiting the spark plugs and -causing a knock which is not only annoying, but productive of trouble -sooner or later. There are various reasons for the accumulation of -carbon, such as poor gas, defective ignition, insufficient pressure, -but few have assigned as a cause of carbon trouble and knocking a too -high cylinder compression. - -Too high compression occasions much of the knock ordinarily -assigned to other causes. Engines are designed with a certain size -combustion chamber, and with a chamber of that size to get a certain -compression in pounds per square inch. The nearer we get to the point -of pre-ignition without actually reaching pre-ignition, the more -efficiently will the engine operate. Pre-ignition, of course, would -make a knock. - -A good many manufacturers make the compression figure just as high as -they dare, with the result that, when the carbon forms, the size of -the combustion chamber is reduced and the pressure is raised to such a -degree that it will cause pre-ignition and its resultant knock. When a -manufacturer tells the buyer that his engine is proof against carbon -and the knocking occasioned thereby, he probably is trying to offset -more serious “knocks” the car is receiving from disgruntled users. - -This is an instance which illustrates the point: - -A friend of mine has a four-cylinder engine in one of the later models -of a well-known car of high speed and power. On several occasions we -have been driving in and near the city and, after about 125 miles, we -seemed always to have trouble with knocking in climbing hills. On one -trip my friend had the carbon burned out carefully before starting. -About the time we reached the end of the trip the engine began to knock -on the hills from the collection of carbon. On our return he had the -carbon burned out again and the knock ceased. - -I advised him to raise the cylinders one-fourth of an inch by a fiber -gasket under each cylinder casting, thus increasing the size of the -combustion chamber and naturally lessening the compression. He also had -to adjust the water connection and raise the valve push rods, and a few -things of that sort. He ran the car upwards of 2000 miles after that -before it began to show any signs of knocking under severe conditions, -indicating that the cylinders needed to have the carbon removed. - -Where the knock is caused in this way by a slight compression increase, -it indicates that the manufacturer has put the pressure as high as -the engine will stand, and the only way to cure it is by raising the -cylinders or lowering the pistons. The gasket is the simpler method. - -This trouble was very obvious in one model of car used for road -instruction at the Automobile School. No amount of ordinary adjustment -and cleaning out of the carbon would keep the car from knocking after -very short service. It was taken to the service station several times -and returned with the remark that it would “be all right now.” It was -not all right. Finally the request was made to let the car remain -at the station several days and the experts would see what could be -done. When it was returned the trouble was cured. But when the expert -was asked what had been done he replied: “Nothing much.” He admitted -cleaning out the carbon and adjusting the carburetor. But a still hunt -was made for the corrective cause and it was discovered that fiber -gaskets had been put under the cylinders. They were camouflaged with -enamel to conceal their presence, their existence was denied, and they -were like the man without a country, “unhonored and unsung,” but they -did the trick, and until the car was retired because of old age and -decrepitude the gaskets stood between the engine and the knock. Perhaps -if that agent picks up this volume one day he will be surprised to find -that his subterfuge was discovered. It may have been his little secret. - -The owner who learns this remedy for knocking due to carbon and high -compression will be saved a lot of worry and be enabled to cure the -engine’s ills, or have it done at the shop. But take it from the writer -that carbon accumulation will cause any of the high compression engines -to knock, and the only way to cure it is to lessen the compression or -continually clean out carbon. Also the only simple way to lower the -compression is to raise the cylinder with a fiber gasket. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX - -SOME OTHER CAUSES OF KNOCKING - - -The motorist must not imagine that all knocks come from too great -compression, however, for there are “fifty-seven other varieties” of -knock to be taken into consideration. He must not take it for granted -that the cylinders are filling up with carbon if the engine starts -knocking while out on the road, nor is it a foregone conclusion that -the main bearings are loose. - -The knock may be from a totally different source. In fact there are so -many different kinds of knocks that even an expert cannot always tell -just where one comes from without totally dis-assembling the engine. -Even then it sometimes puzzles him a lot by its elusiveness. - -Most engines have a knock of some sort which annoys the driver, which -might vary from a barely perceptible click to a blow that may be heard -by persons standing on the sidewalk. A great many of the knocks do not -do any harm; that is, they are not causing any damage to the engine -parts; but there are some knocks which require immediate attention to -prevent the demolition of the engine or seriously damaging it. Some of -these are loose connecting-rod bearing; cylinder loose on its base; -lack of lubrication and consequent overheating; and a broken revolving -or reciprocating member, which might tear things up if allowed to run. -The spark advanced too far puts an excessive strain on the crank shaft, -and a short circuit in the ignition does the same. - -On the other hand there is no immediate danger if there is a piston -slap, though pretty noisy; nor is there when the oil pump gives a thump -or loud click at the valve seating. But on general principles when -there is a knock its cause should be ascertained at once and expert -advice be obtained as to whether it is dangerous. If so, it must be -fixed before running further. If it is only a minor knock the repair -can be left to a more convenient time. - -So many of the knocks are only a matter of annoyance; that is, they do -no more harm than to cause the driver unnecessary nerve jars and to -spoil the pleasure of riding. But he will bother the various garage men -and everybody else he can get to listen and then will not accept the -assurance that the knock is not doing the car any harm. - -As a matter of fact there are knocks peculiar to certain makes of -engines that the manufacturers have not seen fit to eliminate because -they are not harmful. Among these is the so-called “gas knock.” Now the -writers do not know what a “gas knock” is, and doubt if anybody else -does. But it is a common term for the kind of a knock which cannot be -located anywhere and it is laid to some action of the gas. - -Sometimes the knocks are hard to locate. One of the school cars needed -a new cam-shaft gear to replace a worn one which produced a knock. It -was put on, but when the engine was started it was found that there was -a worse knock than before. It took a long time to find that it was the -new gear. It fitted very tight on the shaft and had to be forced on. -Without being noticeable the forcing had cracked the hub, the crack -extending through the rim, so that two of the teeth were out of true -and had spread enough to pound when that portion of the gear came into -mesh. - -Another knock difficult to locate is caused by sticking exhaust valves. -One of the valve stems has been oiled, say, and this has been allowed -to burn to a nice sticky paste. Now, when the push rod opens the valve -and starts down the valve does not follow closely. The spring brings it -down, of course, but more slowly than it should, because of the sticky -stem, and when the stem and push rod meet there is a thump. - -It is ordinarily said that a lean mixture or an over advanced spark -will cause knocking. As a matter of fact they do not do anything of -the kind; but it is true that these things bring to our notice other -faults, such as a worn piston or cylinder wall and consequent side -slap, or they magnify some other worn part so that it becomes audible. -As a matter of fact it is possible to advance the spark so far that it -will try to reverse the engine and not have a particle of knock. And -it is possible to have a mixture so lean that it will hardly run the -engine yet have no knock; but if there is something else wrong it will -bring that out. - -Some of the causes of knocking discovered at the school have been -collated and are given for the instruction of the novice: - - -_Mechanical Looseness, Due to Improper Adjustment, or Wear:_ - - Loose connecting-rod bearing, crank-pin end. - Crank-pin bearing out of round. - Main bearings of crank shaft loose. - Bearings too tight. - Wrist pin loose in piston. - Wrist pin loose in upper end of connecting rod. - Wrist pin not in line with crank shaft, causing side slap. - Piston ring loose in slot or broken. - Cam follower guide won. - Cam loose on shaft. - Worn cams (Flat spot). - Fly-wheel loose on crank shaft (old models with keyed-on wheel). - Fly-wheel out of balance. - Worn or broken timing-gear teeth. - Cylinder loose at its base. - Timing gears loose on shaft. - Engine loose from frame. - Piston too small for cylinder, causing side slap. - Poor push-rod adjustment—gap too great. - Exhaust or inlet valve sticking in guide. - Spark plug touching valve. - Magneto coupling loose. - Fan-belt coupling striking pulley. - Fan blades striking something. - Worn cylinder, causing side slap. - Bent crank shaft. - - -_Faulty Ignition:_ - - Spark advanced too far. - Spark too late, causing overheating. - Short circuits in ignition system causing irregular spark. - Spark-plug points constructed wrong, causing them to overheat. - Spark plug in poor position. - Wrong timing of ignition system; too early, too late, or wrong order. - Dirty distributor, misdirecting the current. - - -_Faulty Carburetion:_ - - Pre-ignition, due to excessive carbon deposits. - Rich mixture, causing overheating. - Lean mixture, in conjunction with worn parts. - - -_Faulty Lubrication:_ - - Lack of oil. - Lubricants of poor quality. - Excess of oil causing carbon deposit. - - -_Overheating of Engine:_ - - Fan not working. - Pump parts not revolving. - Radiator clogged. - Pipe lines clogged. - Rubber hose defective inside, blocking flow of water. - Ignition timed too late. - - -_Faulty Compression:_ - - Engine designed with too high compression, causing pre-ignition when - throttle is wide open. - - * * * * * - -There are, of course, many other causes which contribute to the little -noises which accompany the car along the road, but the novice will -find here the most common ones, and by a process of elimination may -arrive at his particular bane; to find it naturally suggests the cure. -Therefore, stop that knocking. - - - - -CHAPTER XL - -CHASSIS KNOCKS - - -Does your car chatter? Does it talk to you and protest against running -over holes and bumps in the road? If it does, it is a sign to which you -should pay attention, a hint that you should do away with the knocks -and clicks and chattering which annoy you and everybody else within -hearing as you run along. That is, if you can find them, for there are -some noises so obscure as to defy detection even by the expert. - -Such was the car which developed a sharp click whenever it was started -forward or backward. It ran quite a long time before it was possible -to discover just what and where it was. It was somewhere in the back, -but so hidden as to defy detection. The rear axle was of the floating -type, the construction in which the driving shaft is connected to the -hub of the wheel by a number of flutings on the shaft, into which -corresponding projections of the flange fitted. These had become worn -and allowed sufficient play to cause a noise. - -By walking alongside of the rear wheel while the car was being started -and stopped, it was decided that the sound came from the hub of the -wheel. The hub cap was removed and by placing the finger on the hub -flange and end of shaft at the same time the play was detected by the -sense of feeling, though it was hardly visible to the eye. The trouble -was overcome by having the shaft welded to the flange. - -A few days later the owner happened to be at the agency and told what -he had found. - -“So glad you came,” was the response, “for we have been looking for -the same kind of a click a long time ourselves and the service-station -mechanics have not been able to locate it. They thought it was in the -brake, but upon examination could see no reason for a click.” - -There have been cases where the wheel was keyed on, and where the keys -had acquired sufficient play to cause a continuous knocking, especially -when the machine was being driven at low speed. This sort of knocking -is more likely to occur with the four-cylinder, slow-speed engine than -with the high-speed, many-cylindered type. - -A mysterious knock may sometimes be traced to the torque rod, when it -becomes loose at the forward end, or to worn torque-tube bearings, and -in some cases the bolts fastening the torque rods to the rear axle -become loosened, or worn, causing a knock, especially when going over -bumps or dropping into holes. - -The brake rods become worn and set up a continuous clattering on rough -roads and this noise is accentuated if the tires are kept inflated at -too high a pressure. As a matter of fact the car owner has the choice -between the greatest life for his tires and accompanying rattles and -discomforts, and riding at a sufficiently low pressure to subdue these -noises and make life in a car worth living; of course there will be an -attendant higher wear of tires. Where the wear cannot be taken up by -adjustments or using new bolts or pins, often the rattle may be ended -by wiring a spiral spring to the frame and rattling part. This keeps it -taut. - -Worn spring-shackle bolts will not ordinarily cause knocking or -rattling, but when going over bumps or holes the rebound of the body is -sufficient to make the looseness audible. It can be overcome by having -a new bolt put in, and prevented by keeping the bolts well lubricated. - -Worn steering-knuckle pins and tie-rod bolts will sometimes be found -responsible for knocks and rattles in the front end of the car. The -remedy is obvious and the location of the noise is not so hard to find. - -In addition to these we have rattles due to tools being thrown loosely -into the tool box, and sometimes from the body bolts having become -loosened. The lamps occasionally jolt loose and the license-plate -bracket is sometimes so loose that it is audible as well as visible. - -There are other knocks due to broken gear teeth and other broken parts, -and sometimes these broken teeth, loose nuts, bolts, or pins in gear -or differential case become wedged between the gear teeth and cause a -knocking that is not hard to locate, albeit rather expensive to repair. - -And then there are the knocks and rattles from the hundred or more -accessories which are attached to the chassis of many cars and which -sooner or later develop defects and noise. - -The up-to-date, well-designed car in perfect shape is practically -noiseless, and if a knock or rattle develops it indicates that -something is worn or out of adjustment, and needs attention. The owner -who takes care to have all parts properly lubricated and kept tight -need fear none of these annoyances, and proper attention means lack -of annoyance when out touring, while slovenly habits will advertise -themselves to everyone along the road. - - - - -CHAPTER XLI - -KEEPING DOWN THE AUTO UPKEEP - - -If the general run of auto owners and chauffeurs do not mend their ways -city streets will be paved with a mixture of asphalt and auto parts -and country roads will be lucrative fields for the junkman. Anyone who -doubts this need but inspect the pavement at busy corners and see what -a collection of junk is strewn along, particularly at the places where -many cars make sudden stops. - -To illustrate: The other day a car stopped and the driver pondered what -was the matter that the engine had no power. Failing to get a solution, -as he was near a garage, he called for a mechanic to look it over. - -“A few minutes ago,” he said, “the engine had so much power I couldn’t -stop it when I wanted to; now I can’t make it pull at all.” - -“Open your throttle,” the mechanic said. - -“The throttle is open,” was the response. - -“Oh, I see,” said the workman, and he disappeared into the garage. In -a few minutes he reappeared with a small bolt and proceeded to connect -the throttle linkage so that the lever and accelerator pedal would open -the throttle when moved. - -What had happened was that through neglect the bolt had worked loose -and dropped out so that the lever did not move the throttle arm, and -advancing the lever had no effect. - -This bolt probably is one of those to be found imbedded in the pavement -somewhere about the city. An examination of the pavement of any of -the automobile thoroughfares will reveal nearly all the fifty-seven -varieties of auto accessory parts in the asphalt. A great many of the -bits of metal found there will be broken skid-chain links, but the -writer counted twenty-six different species of other lost parts in -crossing Fifty-seventh Street at Eighth Avenue, New York City. - -While counting them a driver came along and was unable to stop his car -properly—the brake did not work and he had to use the emergency brake -after nearly running over a pedestrian. He got out and found that a -pin was gone in the brake linkage. A spring cotter had worked out or -sheared off and the pin had rattled loose and dropped out. - -Many of the stray parts are of a similar nature; nuts, bolts, washers, -screws, cotter pins and the like which have worked loose because of -neglect. Their absence will doubtless account for a good many of the -rattles and squeaks which their former owner is now complaining of, and -to replace which he will pay the garage man several times their value. - -The average instruction book given with a car will advise the owner to -go over the car every so often and tighten up the bolts and nuts as a -precautionary measure, but usually no attention is paid to this until -the car stops or develops some unusual sound. Then a mechanic is called -in and it takes him a couple of hours to find the cause of the trouble, -while the owner stands around cursing the maker of the car. - -Probably a good many of these parts along the road are due to careless -mechanics who drop small parts in the dust pan and will not take the -trouble to fish them out, or leave them on the running board and after -a time they jar off to the roadway; but it shows there is a lot of -carelessness among drivers when they even lose number plates and hub -caps. - -A pair of brass hub caps picked up along the road and which have been -turned into ash trays are among the writer’s trophies. - -The loss of the hub caps allows grit to get into the bearings and to -prevent this as far as possible by making the driver take care of them, -the prices of extra caps have been made entirely out of proportion to -their real value by some manufacturers. - -Some of the lost parts are of such shape that they would very readily -puncture a tire, so that they are not only a loss to the owner of the -car from which they dropped, but to the fellow who follows and picks -them up for a punctured tire. - -The writer has seen the pin holding in place the tie rod, which keeps -the wheels in alignment, drop out, and in another case, hunting a -knock, found the cylinder loose on the base because the nuts had been -without lock washers, or cotter pins, and had worked loose. They might -in time have worked off entirely and there would have been a “cylinder -missing.” He has also seen the entire engine loose on the frame so that -it was doing a fox trot while running. - -Drivers should keep watch of the non-skid chains, for they wear and -drop cross links often. The driver who wishes to avoid personal -annoyance and annoyance to everybody else within hearing distance, will -take pains to see that the cross links are never so loose that they hit -the mud guards, nor have broken ends which hit. A spool of wire will -enable one to fasten broken or loose cross links to the side chains and -repair links can be put in when the garage is reached. - -The owner should become well acquainted with his car, so that he knows -where the different bolts and nuts are. Many will tighten up all they -know about, but do not bend their backs to get underneath where they -can see the dust-pan bolts and brake-linkage bolts. If the owner knows -where these parts are he should make it his business to see that every -bolt and pin is locked with a lock washer or cotter pin. Then he should -go over them at least once a month and tighten them up. He may be sure -he will pay several times their value and a mechanic’s time if they -are lost, so that economy is involved as well as the inconvenience of -having the car stopped on the road. - - - - -CHAPTER XLII - -HUNTING TROUBLE - - -Ordinarily the fellow who starts to hunt trouble finds it quicker -than he expected, but not so with the automobilist; when he starts to -hunt trouble—in the car—it seems to be a very demon for eluding the -searcher. Trouble will hide in a tiny piece of carbon lodged under a -valve or between spark-plug points, in a wire that has jarred loose, in -an interrupter point, a piston ring, a gas pipe—oh, in the most secret -and insignificant place—in size—and just defy one to ferret out the -demon. One learns that the insignificant things are really the most -important at times. - -Yet most troubles incident to the operation of a motor car may be -located very quickly if one will but go after them in a systematic way, -and not wander aimlessly about the engine and other parts. The hardest -thing a driver has to do when the engine stops or acts up is to divest -himself of the idea that he knows just what the trouble is. He is sure -he can fix it in a minute and he putters around a long time before he -makes up his mind that it is something else and it takes a lot of time -to prove that to some persons. - -The best way to go about it is to start without preconceived ideas as -to what the trouble may be, and follow a system, which is really a -process of elimination. Remember that to start a gasoline engine three -things are necessary—gasoline, compression, and a spark at the right -time, and that to keep it running it is necessary to have water for -cooling, unless it be an air-cooled engine, and oil for lubrication. - -If the engine stops on the road and pressing the starter pedal fails to -start it, or if one or two cylinders miss fire, the first thing to do -is to get the crank out of the tool kit and crank over the engine. If, -with the gears in neutral, the engine cranks over hard, it indicates -a lack of lubricating oil, or a lack of water, which has allowed the -engine to reach a temperature where the lubricant fails to perform its -work. If the engine turns over fairly easy, it is not necessary to look -for oil or water trouble. - -The next test is for compression. If the driver is not experienced -and is unable to tell simply by the resistance to the starting crank -whether each cylinder has compression, he should open all petcocks -except on one cylinder and turn the crank two revolutions, noting -if there is a resistance for one-quarter of a revolution in the two -complete turns. Compression occurs only on one stroke of the piston -in the four-stroke cycle. Each cylinder should be tested in a similar -manner, opening all petcocks except on the cylinder being tested; see -if the compression is practically equal in all cylinders. - -If one cylinder has very weak or no compression, the trouble will be -found usually in the exhaust valve. First examine the push rod to -see if there is clearance between it and the valve when the valve is -supposed to be closed; if there is, the valve must be lifted out and -the valve and seat inspected for carbon. Sometimes a piece of carbon -will lodge on the valve seat and, due to the hammering of the valve, -will become fastened to valve or seat. For temporary repair generally -it can be scraped off with a knife, and the valve be ground in upon -reaching the garage. - -If the trouble is not in the exhaust valve, it might be in the inlet -valve. In some types of engines the valve head may break off and -get into the cylinder and when the piston comes up punch a hole in -the piston head. A petcock may be loose so that it will jar open -sufficiently to affect the compression and so cause the cylinder to -miss fire. These troubles usually are confined to one cylinder and not -to the whole engine. - -The gasoline is the next to be inspected. Is there any gasoline in the -bowl of the carburetor? This may be determined by inspection, opening -the drain cock, or “tickling”—flooding. If not, examine the gasoline -tank and see if there is a supply; then see if the shut-off valve in -the line leading to the carburetor is open; if so, drain the bowl of -the carburetor to get rid of water or possible dirt. To check the -possible clogging of the gasoline pipe, or carburetor screen, notice if -the bowl fills up again in a reasonable time. - -Do not adjust the carburetor. If the engine has been running, it -is practically certain that the carburetor has not gotten out of -adjustment. Inspect the intake pipe, or manifold, to see if it has been -loosened by vibration. If the engine still refuses to run, put about a -tablespoonful of gasoline in each cylinder and crank over the engine. -If this runs the engine for a few revolutions, it indicates that the -trouble is in the gasoline system and leaves but the spray nozzle, -which may have dirt lodged in it, or the auxiliary air valve stuck, as -the remaining causes of trouble. Sometimes turning the needle valve -a full turn and then turning it back exactly where it was will remove -an obstruction at that point. Care should be taken in this to get the -needle valve set as it originally was. - -Next inspect the ignition system. The first thing to do is to loosen -one of the wires from a spark plug and lay it so the bare end will be -1/8 inch from the base of the plug, and have someone crank the engine -by hand or with the starter. If a spark does not occur, go first to -the interrupter points and short circuit the fixed point with a screw -driver or other metal tool and see if there is a spark when the engine -is cranked. Examine the points for dirt and see if they come together -and open properly. Then examine the condition of the battery, testing -it. Examine the connectors on the battery, which sometimes jar loose; -examine the wires leading to the interrupter and switch; see if they -are loose or broken or short-circuited. This need not be done if a -spark shows at the interrupter. - -Examine the distributor for moisture or dirt and see if the wires -have become loose. If a magneto only is used, it is a simple matter -to see if the interrupter points are making and breaking properly and -if the distributor is clean and dry. If these appear to be all right -the trouble doubtless is in the armature winding or the condenser and -cannot be repaired upon the road. - -The wires to the plugs may be burned or short-circuited. If, with -an apparently good spark, you have compression and there is mixture -passing into the cylinders, the trouble may be in the spark plug. To -test a spark plug it is necessary to remove it. Widen the gap to 1/8 -inch and lay the plug with wire attached upon the cylinder; crank the -engine and see if a spark jumps the gap. Widening the gap is necessary -because the spark will not jump so far under compression as in the -open air. If it does not jump, the plug may have a broken insulator -porcelain or need cleaning. If uncertain about the condition of the -plug, exchange it with one in another cylinder which is working -properly. An extra set of plugs should be carried to replace those -which become dirty; cleaning should be done in the garage. - -This covers most of the usual troubles experienced on the road. There -are, of course, a great many other possibilities, but if these tests, -carefully made, do not disclose the cause of the trouble, the novice -had better send for a garage man. If one or two cylinders miss fire, -the trouble is most likely to be caused through lack of compression or -a short-circuited spark plug. If the engine refuses to run, the trouble -is most likely to be due to lack of gasoline, or failure of battery or -magneto. - -The general rule given herewith should be copied and pasted under the -hood, or carried in an envelope in the tool box for ready reference. -It may save much time and trouble when far from a garage. Carefully -followed, it should locate almost any trouble likely to be experienced, -and it is the locating, not the fixing, which takes time. - -The chart on the next page was evolved out of the experience of years -at the school and elsewhere. It will be found a guide in hunting -trouble: - - +---------------------------------------------------------------+ - | THE Y. M. C. A. GENERAL TROUBLE CHART | - | | - | Above all _remove nothing from the engine_ except as directed | - | to test rules. | - +========+=========+============================================+ - | |1. | Is tank full? ARE PIPES CLEAN? | - | Needed | GASOLINE| Is Carburetor clean? If Carburetor | - | | | needs adjusting, do it, otherwise LEAVE | - | to | | IT ALONE. Does Manifold leak? | - | +---------+--------------------------------------------+ - | Make |2. | To test--Open all petcocks except | - | | COMPRES-| the one on cylinder to be tested; | - | an | SION | crank engine, noticing how strong | - | | | the compression is in each cylinder, | - | Engine | | in turn. | - | +---------+--------------------------------------------+ - | Run |3. | A. Test for a spark by taking the | - | | IGNITION| wire off any plug; hold wire about 1/8″ | - | | | from plug; crank engine with switch | - | | at | on. Spark should jump to plug. | - | | +--------------------------------------------+ - | | the | B. _Are the Batteries run down?_ | - | | | Does the vibrator (if any) buzz? Is | - | | right | timer clean? Does timer rotor make | - | | | _good_ contact? | - | | time +--------------------------------------------+ - | | | C. Are any WIRES loose, burnt, wet, | - | | | broken, or short-circuited? Are spark | - | | | plugs clean and are points 1/50″ apart? | - | | +--------------------------------------------+ - | | | D. Does MAGNETO armature revolve? | - | | | Is safety spark gap clean. | - | | | Are Interrupter points clean and adjusted | - | | | good contact? Is Distributor clean? | - | | | Is Distributor Rotor loose, broken, or | - | | | making poor contact? | - | | +--------------------------------------------+ - | | | E. Check Magneto wires as per “C.” | - +========+=========+============================================+ - | NOTE—Loose wires and terminals, neglected batteries, and | - | dirty gasoline cause much trouble. | - +---------------------------------------------------------------+ - | TO KEEP A GAS ENGINE RUNNING, cooling and lubrication and | - | a free exhaust are necessary. | - +---------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - -CHAPTER XLIII - -MORE TROUBLE - - -“You may have your self-starting 6-, 8-, or 12-cylinder cars if you -want them, but give me a four-cylinder motor with a crank on the front -end for mine. I’ll get there ahead of you nine times out of ten.” - -This was the boast of a chauffeur of a big car, who called at the -school to inquire about some action of the motor which he did not -understand. His self-starter would not start. A few simple tests -narrowed the trouble to the self-starter control, and it was found in -the switch, which had become dirty. From repeated arcing the spring -had become heated and lost its temper and finally no contact was made, -or so little that it would not supply current to start the starter. -Which shows that it is a good thing to keep the temper, even in a -self-starter switch spring. - -This is only one instance where added conveniences have brought new -troubles to the motorist. The self-starter has made it possible for -many, notably women, to drive cars, who before could not because -they were not able to crank the engine. Adding cylinders has made -smoother riding cars, which drive easier as well. The greater number of -cylinders permits of a much quicker getaway in traffic. It allows the -motor to be run at a much lower speed without shifting the gears. The -motor has more power and the cars are better hill climbers; there is a -better distribution of the same amount of power. - -But this has made more work and worry for the chauffeur and mechanic, -in that, instead of having eight valves to grind in, he may have as -many as twenty-four, and if the double-valve idea is carried far enough -he might have as many as forty-eight. In arranging the cylinders -to procure a more even torque, in some instances it has been found -necessary to locate the valves in positions where they are not readily -accessible. In some types it is necessary almost to dismantle the -engine, and in others the valves may be reached to remove them only by -removing the mudguard. - -The self-starter, while undoubtedly a great convenience, has made -it necessary to take care of the battery regularly, and to keep -the generator and motor commutators in condition; has multiplied -the wiring—has added hundreds of wires to the car—and its numerous -regulators and other instruments are bound to need adjusting -occasionally. The extra care and the unusual troubles give the -chauffeur a lot more to worry about. - -The electric lights are undoubtedly brighter and better than kerosene -or acetylene installation, but they will give trouble occasionally and -the average man understands more about filling a lamp with oil than -he does about locating troubles in electric circuits. Then there are -electric warmers, electric heaters for passenger and driver, electric -cigar lighter, limousine lights, and electric horns, which make -additional wires until the traditional Philadelphia lawyer would be -totally inadequate to unravel the tangle. - -Suppose the ignition goes wrong and the battery seems to be all right -and no cause of trouble can be found in the magneto and its wires, and -the chauffeur is in a pickle. Along comes Mr. Man-Who-Knows and finds -that the trouble is a short circuit in a lighting installation which -impaired the ignition so that the cylinders would not fire, or fired -irregularly. - -The old cars did not have generators and motors; but the driver now -must know how to sandpaper commutators and undercut the insulation -of commutators, which is an electrical engineer’s job; and he must -be wise enough to know that these things are necessary because there -is sparking at the commutator, and the generator is not charging the -battery as it should, and the motor is not starting the engine as it -ought. This, of course, is because the brushes are overriding the -commutators when the insulation is not undercut, and the contact period -is shortened, and perhaps some of the contacts are skipped altogether -because the high speed carries the brushes over without touching the -commutator. - -Then, he must know, for instance, that when the lights dim while the -engine is going at low speed, it is because the reverse current cut-out -is out of adjustment and it requires a considerable discharge from the -battery into the generator in order to make the cut-out operate, when -the lights will become bright again. - -Also, he must know, when the volt or ammeter needle becomes erratic, -sometimes showing a big charge or a little charge or no charge at -all and then comes to normal again, that he has a loose connection -somewhere or the voltage regulator is not working properly. - -When he presses the button of the electric horn and it does not sound, -but does work right after he has kicked or pounded it, he ought to know -why his rage started it working. It was simply that the brush stuck -upon a dead contact point of the commutator, due to a dead armature -coil, and when he jammed the horn it moved the commutator until a live -contact point was against the brush and the motor started to work. - -There was a time when the manufacturer pointed with pride to the fact -that there were no complications on his car. There was nothing on the -dash but the ignition switch, with one wire leading to the magneto. -This followed a period when the dash had been filled up gradually with -all sorts of devices. Ways were found to do away with them. - -Now there are hundreds of wires and pipes tacked on to the dash, and -the other side of the dash fronting the driver is filled with dials and -gauges and switches almost without number. These all add to the comfort -of the motorist, but in the same proportion they add to the worries of -the driver. He pays the price of the comforts in added worries. Owners -also find that these added conveniences have given demand for added -technical knowledge. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIV - -DON’T TAKE THINGS FOR GRANTED - - -Don’t take anything for granted with your car. Don’t expect that there -is water, or gasoline, or oil, or current in the battery, unless -you have first inspected to find out. Inspect, don’t expect. There -are many bad habits in car practice, and one of them is the evil of -absent-mindedness in locating troubles in your car. - -The man who spent half an hour looking for his glasses, and then -discovered they were on his nose, should not be laughed at by anyone -who runs a motor car. It is only natural that this man should take it -for granted they were not on his nose, yet taking things for granted, -writes Harold F. Blanchard, in _Motor Life_, is the greatest difficulty -that the man who has to locate trouble has to face, whether he is an -amateur or an expert. A number of cases are cited to prove the point. - -Everyone knows better than to crank the engine with the switch off, yet -recently we saw an average motorist waste twenty minutes this way. The -ignition switch was set in the center of the lighting switch handle. -Therefore the absolute position of the ignition switch key varied -according to what lights were on—hence the error; yet this motorist -looked all over his engine before he discovered his trouble. Probably -being absent-minded had something to do with it; he had just left his -office for the day and was on his way home, which demonstrates that the -thoughtless or preoccupied man is much more likely to make unrightful -assumptions than the alert man. - -Recently an old automobile mechanic was riding on an interurban car -when the latter was held up by a motor car stalled across the tracks. -There was a big crowd around the machine trying frantically to push it -out of the way. For some reason the rear wheels were locked. No amount -of effort would budge the car and it was too large to lift and carry. - -The mechanic got off and watched the proceedings. He found that the -gear lever was stuck in low gear, and inquiry as to whether the -trouble was due to jammed gears or some other serious defect could not -be answered by the owner or any of his helpers. He began to wonder -where the trouble was while the others struggled, but being old in -the game, the thought flashed across his mind: “Take nothing for -granted.” Therefore the first question to determine was whether the -whole difficulty might not be solved by pushing out the clutch. This -seemed too easy—too good to be true. He hesitated to suggest it, but -the more he thought about it the more he became convinced, and finally -he mustered up enough courage to slip behind the wheel and command -the resting crowd to push. The car glided off, to the astonishment of -everyone. It developed that the owner of the car had become excited -when he stalled the engine on the crossing with the lever stuck in low. -In his feverish haste he tried to push the car off instead of shoving -out his clutch and starting the motor, and as the crowd collected they -accepted the locked condition of the rear wheels as something which -could not be remedied. - -A motorist of ten years’ experience bought a used car. He took delivery -of it late one rainy afternoon. The former owner told him the car was -complete, the only thing missing being the key to the tool box, which -he promised to mail him early the next day. The motorist got a couple -of friends and started for a ride. Finally they stopped for dinner. -When they came out the owner put his foot on the starter pedal, -but it stuck. He pulled up the floor boards but could not reach the -mechanism. The only way was to crawl under the car and this was out of -the question because of the mud. They looked for the crank under the -rear-seat cushion and under the front-seat cushion, but could not find -it. Quite naturally they concluded it must be in the locked tool box -or else the former owner had neglected to include this very important -item. They tried to locate a car of the same make in some neighboring -garages without success. They jacked the car up and tried to crank it -by turning a rear wheel, but the compression was too great, so they -tossed the jack into the tonneau and started in search of someone who -would tow the car to start it. Eventually they got the engine going. -When they reached the garage the owner slipped his hand into the -tonneau and he pulled out—not the jack—but the crank! - -The worst is to come. The next morning a mechanic who had been in -the business long enough to know better than to make unwarranted -assumptions was called in. He pressed down the pedal without success, -then for no logical reason but simply because automobiles were second -nature to him he pulled up and the pedal came. Then he pushed and the -starter worked. The owner was nonplussed. Later he admitted that he had -thought of pulling up on the pedal but _assumed_ it would do no good. - -A few years ago, when expanding clutches were more popular, a motorist -found one day that his clutch was slipping. He had a vague idea that -there must be some means for adjusting the clutch to cure this trouble, -but he looked in vain for a nut or a screw or a bolt which might do -the trick. True, there was a small screw in the fly-wheel rim, set -almost flush with the edge of the rim and locked by a tiny spring -wire which rested in the milled slot in the screw. But he limped to a -garage on low gear and held consultation with the entire force. They -examined the car carefully and decided there was no way to adjust the -clutch. They suggested a new lining or strips of metal under the old -lining to swell it out so that it would grip. The former was out of the -question because of the time it would take, so the latter was tried. -The makeshift worked all right for a few miles, and then the clutch -slipped more than ever. In desperation he called the agent up on the -long distance, and was informed that his troubles would be over if he -would give that innocent-looking screw a couple of turns. It sounded -like black magic, but he went back and tried it, and his troubles ended. - -An owner who was very particular about having his car in the best of -condition found that the compression in the first cylinder was weak -although the valves had just been ground. He removed the exhaust valve -and found it in perfect condition. Then he took out the intake valve, -although he felt foolish while doing it. It was in excellent shape but, -just to be on the safe side and because he did not know what else to -do, he ground it anyhow. The trouble was no better. Neither did the -difficulty seem to be due to too small a clearance between valve stems -and push rods, because the clearance was the prescribed amount on both -intake and exhaust valves. He concluded that it must be the rings. -Either they were gummed or broken. Flooding the cylinder with kerosene -did not improve the condition, so a pint of very heavy oil was put -in with the idea that this would temporarily stop any leaks between -cylinder and piston, but the compression was no better. Several times -during the hunt he was tempted to increase the clearance between valve -stems and push rods, not for any sensible reason, because the clearance -was correct, but simply in desperation. It seemed about the only thing -left to do—it was the only thing he had not tried. But his “common -sense” said no, so he took his car to the service station. The first -thing they did was to increase the clearance on the intake valve, and -the trouble was cured. The reason for doing this was that there was a -high spot on the back of the intake cam which would open the valve a -slight amount on the compression stroke. The clearance was increased to -a point where the high spot had no effect. - -One day a motorist had serious magneto trouble. The engine missed and -finally stopped. It was necessary to take the magneto to an expert to -have it repaired. The very day the magneto was replaced the car started -missing again and it looked as if the work had not been properly done. -Finally the engine refused to go further. A passing farm wagon was -hailed and the car brought home—seven miles. The magneto was returned -to the shop, but nothing wrong was found. Yet when it was replaced the -car still refused to run. A telephone talk with the nearest agent, -forty miles away, showed that the trouble might be in the carburetor -and a search showed that it was—the low speed jet was clogged. To prove -the truth of this suspicion the engine was primed and ran perfectly -except at low speed. When the car first stalled, it occurred to -the owner that it might be a good idea to prime the engine, but he -dismissed the thought because he was so certain the trouble was in the -magneto, and without a better reason than it was too much work to prime -the engine because there were no priming cups. - -A similar trouble in that it was of a dual nature was experienced with -a car which had just had the valves ground and the carbon removed. -After the work was done the engine could not be started. Investigation -showed there was no spark. No short-circuits could be found in the -wiring. The breaker points were examined and after filing and adjusting -them the engine started on the first turn. Fortunately the man who did -this job knew how to proceed—he made no guesses or assumptions. In this -he was different from the owner whose experience was related elsewhere. - -The last two instances show something it is very important for everyone -to realize, although this is a diversion, namely, that repair men are -often blamed for tampering with cars without cause. The preceding -incident was pure coincidence. The breaker points gave out entirely -when the engine was shut off prior to grinding the valves. - -The various incidents which have been related prove that it is not -wise to take anything for granted. It seems like a simple rule, but -only those who have tried to follow it will find out how hard it is. -It is also important to bear in mind that it is not wise to use too -much logic in hunting trouble, for the solution is often far from -logical. It is well to reason as carefully as possible, but if the -solution is still to be found it often happens that it is obtained by -some illogical act. Follow the general-trouble rule in an orderly way, -therefore, and do not take anything for granted. - - - - -CHAPTER XLV - -BLOWING YOUR OWN HORN - - -Of course it is your horn and you have a right to do anything you want -to do with it—except make a nuisance of yourself to others—and you can -toot it to your heart’s content when off in some wilderness; but if you -desire to live in peace and harmony with your neighbors and with your -fellow travelers in this vale of tears, you will have a care when and -where you toot your toots. - -In olden days it was compulsory to have bells on the horse when drawing -a sleigh, which was supposed to be noiseless. The bells were to give -warning of the sleigh’s approach around a curve or over the hill. This -was the only vehicle to have a warning tone, except the fishman or the -junk cart, and their noise was inviting—ostensibly—rather than warning, -though often it ought to have been the latter. - -Soon after the coming of the bicycle it became apparent that some means -of signalling its approach must be had. Now singularly enough in -the light of present-day understanding, the bicycle bell or horn was -not to warn people to get out of the way. It was to warn folks that -you were looking out for them and that, unless they stepped suddenly -in your path, they might feel assured that you would not run into -them. Everybody understood that the pedestrian had first right to the -road. Bicycle riders practiced strenuously the ways to avoid the man -afoot—most of them. - -With the coming of the automobile the use of horns was continued, early -electrics and some others using a bell. They were the continuance of -the bicycle warning, and when the automobile was popularizing itself it -was understood that the bell or horn was merely to prevent others from -walking into danger. The autoist saw to it, so far as he could, that -the man, woman, or child went safe. - -Came another generation and the universal use of the automobile for -pleasure, business, and transportation uses, and all of a sudden people -began to talk about the rights of the autoist, and the horn began to -peremptorily order folks to get out of the way or get run over. There -is not the slightest doubt in the mind of the writer that the present -attitude of autoists in general is due to the mistaken notion that -they have rights in the roadway part of the street and the pedestrian’s -rights are confined to the sidewalks and crossing walks; nor that this -notion was bred by the police regulations of traffic which sought to -protect the pedestrian by herding him off the road to the side walks -and permitting him at intervals to cross the road. It is noticeable, -however, that not one arrest for refusing to keep off the roadway has -ever been made—or at least sustained by court. The policeman may frown -at the man who tries to go contrary to the traffic rule, but that is -all. - -Out of this misunderstanding there has come such a constant use of -horns as to make it a continual nuisance on thickly traveled streets -and even on much traveled highways in the country. And the nuisance is -not from the necessary signaling to other cars or vehicles, but the -unnecessary tooting the driver does because he wants everybody to know -that he is coming and to understand that they must get out of the way -for him. - -Now a certain amount of signaling is needed in driving, but it is -possible to drive through the thick traffic of New York City from the -Battery to Harlem without tooting the horn half a dozen times—that is -if one is a careful and well-instructed driver. - -Watch other drivers and pedestrians and do not blow the horn after they -have seen you, or if their direction and speed of travel is such that -they will be out of your way before you get to them. If not seen, sound -the horn once and be ready to stop. As a matter of fact the foot should -instinctively go to the brake pedal each time the hand goes to the -horn. But if you are seen by the other person why blow the horn at all? - -If one is driving along a country road and desires to pass another car -going in the same direction, it is customary to sound the horn once -that the driver ahead may not turn his car in front of you, and so -that, if needed, he may turn to the right to let you pass on the left. -He is the judge as to when and where he will turn, since he can see -ahead better and knows what obstructions are to be avoided. With few -exceptions he will, when signaled, immediately give way; if he does -not, and it is fair to presume that he heard the signal, it is polite -to wait a moment before again signaling your desire. - -One also should signal just before reaching the top of a hill, -particularly if the road be a narrow one, that anyone coming up on -the other side may know of your presence and be guided accordingly; -likewise the signal should be given before coming to a cross-roads, -unless there is a plain view of both roads for a sufficient distance to -make sure that a collision is not likely. - -Occasionally one will catch up to a farmer’s load of hay, and the -signal will not be heard, and it becomes necessary to toot a number of -times, but this is rare. In meeting a wagon or another auto it is not -necessary to sound the horn unless it is apparent that the other driver -does not see you, or is keeping to the crown of the road, expecting you -to do all the turning out. Well, even then, sometimes, it is better to -do it, at that. - -As a rule, it is easier on one’s temperament, and safer in the long -run, to let the fellow who wants all the road have it; therefore when -you hear a speed fiend coming, his presence announced by vociferous -tooting of the horn and perhaps punctuated by shouting, or oaths, draw -to one side and slow up. It costs little either in time or effort, and -if it happens to be a load of drunken, irresponsible loafers you will -be safe. At the same time, if you have influence with the police and -other officials, call their attention to persons who thus disregard -others and see that they are fined and their licenses taken. For the -meekness advised, in letting them have their own way, is but that you -may survive to do a piece of good work for the country at large by -bringing before the law those who violate all principles of courtesy -and rules of the road. - -Blow your own horn, if you want to, but blow it discreetly; let others -blow, too, and heed the warning, lest you come to grief with them. - -CHAPTER XLVI - -WOMEN AS DRIVERS - - -The 5.19 had stopped at Lonesomehurst, and the grating sound of the -Klaxon had caused more than one commuter to wish there were a law -against harsh noises. To Cholly Subbubs, however, it had a welcome -tone, and he grabbed for his bundles and umbrella, saying while he -dashed to the door and swung off the train as it pulled out: - -“Sorry, boys; finish the game tomorrow. Wife’s here with the car for -me.” - -His partners at whist saw him step into a smart car driven by Mrs. -Subbubs, who turned it about and took the road parallel with the track -and for several miles gave race to the train, while sundry passengers -uttered wise sayings as to the folly of a woman trying to run an auto. - - A woman can run a car as well as a man [one of the commuters finally - averred, as an answer to the criticism of the wiseacres]. I expect my - wife will be at the next station and we will have a twenty-five-mile - spin before dinner. It will blow off all the grouch, and blow out of - my lungs all the bad air I have had to breathe today, and give me an - appetite that would do credit to a man who has been toting bricks up a - ladder rather than selling bonds. - -He had told the story of the new era of automobiling which has come to -the metropolis. Wife, the chauffeur! Now what is happening about New -York City is an old story in some parts of the country, but the latest -wrinkle in suburban travel about these parts is for friend wife to meet -the train two or three stations up the line and take tired hubby for -a ride on the way home. Having learned to run the car, she had been -taking him to the station and meeting him at night. One night he was -startled to hear her familiar signal on the horn—he knows his master’s -voice—some distance from the home station, looked out of the window and -just had time to swing off on the station platform. Now he is keen for -that sound. Probably every commuter train which leaves the city each -evening in pleasant weather has several such scenes. - -It is not a fad, either, but the solution of the fresh-air problem for -pent-up business men; the relaxation from the daily cares and just -the most delightful visit with each other that devoted ones can have. -In the summer evenings there is time for a long ride before dining; in -the cooler evenings of fall and winter, when dark comes before hubby -is due, good roads still are inviting and the crisp air rejuvenates -one and creates an appetite which is alarming, the high cost of living -considered. - -Women in the East began to take an interest in running an automobile -about the time the self-starter was put on the market, three or four -years ago. Cranking is not a feminine job and old models of cars bore -no semblance in convenience and ease of handling to those now on the -market; they are more reliable and dependable than the ancient makes. - -Then, too, women in New York are used to being waited upon. They are -not of the aggressive type, and do not care for man’s work; while -in the West they are more self-reliant. That is only natural, since -the western women have been thrown more upon their own resources; -having helped the men subdue prairie and forest and desert, the -younger generation has not departed from their footsteps. There are -self-reliant women in New York, of course, but of a different type, -and one would hardly expect them to want to own or operate a car -themselves; but they are beginning to, by the thousands. - -Another reason for the slowness of women to take up auto driving is -that New York City is not a place for pleasure driving; but in the -suburbs they are taking it up rapidly, as the increasing daytime -honk-honk indicates. In the city it is unnecessary, for there is every -convenience for shopping or calling at beck and call—taxis, buses, and -rent cars. These things are not to be had so largely in the suburbs, -and when hubby is at business and the chauffeur is at his grandmother’s -funeral, or has too heavy a load of “Oh, be joyful,” for safety or -pleasure, it is a case of stay at home, or learn to run the thing -for herself. She learns, and then does not have to worry about the -chauffeur going around the corner for a highball while she is calling. - -So far as mastering the mechanical and technical details of a car, -women seem to be just as apt as most men, if they take it seriously -enough. The fact that mechanical talent is not limited to the male sex -is indicated by the numerous automobile developments which are the -product of the feminine brain. - -The Y. M. C. A. Automobile School has been taking women pupils for -three years and among the four hundred graduates have been every type, -from the society debutante to the mature matron, chorus girl, actress, -and a few who desired to become professional chauffeurs—“Jit Chicks” -they call them in Philadelphia—with a lot of applications from school -teachers. It does not appear why so many of that class have taken the -course, but one of the instructors says that most of them are learning -so that at vacation time they can take their car instead of the ocean -steamer or railroad train and spend two months “seeing America.” One -of them, however, declares that she intends to become a professional -chauffeur during vacation, so that she can make money while enjoying a -full relaxation from her ordinary labor. She teaches at an exclusive -club-colony center and will run her car there. - -When the first woman applicant came, it caused some of the instructors -to gasp: - -“Why, a woman cannot understand an engine.” - -“Only because they never have tried,” was the response. “Give me a -chance—I’ll show you.” - -“But you would get all dirty. The men have to crawl under the cars and -get covered with grease and grime,” was objected. - -“If they get any dirtier than I did this morning when I had to clean -out the kitchen stovepipe,” was the comeback, “then I’ll give up; -grease has no fearsomeness for a housewife.” - -[Illustration: SHE IS ACCUMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF AN INTRICATE -MACHINE—AND SHE IS FASCINATED] - -Of course the director gave in, as man ever has yielded to woman, and -today the women’s department of the school is a fixture, for woman has -demonstrated that she can understand machinery and wires and things and -learn how to pilot a car and do all sorts of other stunts with it. - -It is no child’s play to which the woman student is ushered when -beginning the course. She goes right at a machine and first of all has -to learn what the array of bolts and valves and belts and wires is for. -The women put on big aprons—or overalls—and gloves, and with sleeves -rolled up start to dissect one of the cars as a doctor does a cadaver. -From starting crank to differential and from spark plug to oil sump it -all has to come down, and, worse yet, has to be put together again. The -dainty young thing in dimity—under the jumper—gets her arms greasy and -a splotch on her nose, but she doesn’t care a bit, for it all washes -off and she knows that back of the nose she is accumulating something -that won’t wash off—a knowledge of an intricate machine—and she is -fascinated. - -She has to learn about tires, too; how to take them off and repair and -replace them. It is just a bit odd to see a woman patching an inner -tube as handily and as daintily as though she were embroidering a bit -of Christmas frumpery; but really she handles the shears to cut the -patch a lot more readily than most men, and she puts the patch in place -as carefully as though she were mending the seat of her young hopeful’s -rompers. - -When the student has mastered the mechanical part and has overcome -all the “queering” the instructor can devise, she is taken out for -road experience. When she has the car ready, supplied with gasoline, -lubricating oil, water for the radiator, and all the other things which -make for safety and successful operation, and has cranked the engine, -unless there is a self-starter, then, with hands and feet engaging the -steering wheel, levers, and pedals, the momentous hour has come when -the machine is to be under her control. The instructor is provided -with a duplicate set of levers for an emergency. Lessons begin in the -quiet streets, gradually emerging into those busier, until at last -Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street, the busiest intersection in the -metropolis, is reached. - -The women always enjoy that. Never one but shows she is having the time -of her life at that corner. They are expected to lose their heads and -“go up in the air,” but they do not. They are not so reckless as men, -are quicker to grasp a situation, and do not “take a chance” as men -do. Alertness is an attribute of most women, also intuition, and these -are qualities needed by an auto driver. - -The era of low-priced cars undoubtedly has had something to do with -the influx of women into auto driving. Thousands to whom a high-priced -car with liveried chauffeur must ever be a dream, are able to have a -moderate or low-priced car for the whole family. Mother will not let -her sons and daughters distance her in anything, so she learns too. - -Whatever may be the cause, it is a fact that the women of the country -are taking up the auto seriously. There already are too many in the -city streets to excite even casual notice, but in the suburbs, where -there is an almost total absence of men during the daytime, every car -you meet has a woman at the wheel. There is no indication, however, -that man has been relegated to the care of the nursery. He still is too -valuable as a producer for that—producer of gasoline and tires and what -not. But the chauffeur who drives for a living must take account of the -woman at the wheel, for it means lessened opportunity; still, the use -of trucks is increasing, and woman is not likely to be a competitor -there—not yet. - - - - -CHAPTER XLVII - -MISCELLANEOUS RULES - - -Below are given a number of rules for doing things about an automobile, -which may help the novice remember the instructions heretofore given -by the agent from whom he bought the car, or obtained at the service -station, in the manufacturer’s book of instructions, or elsewhere. - - -FOUR THINGS TO DO BEFORE LEAVING THE GARAGE - - Be sure there is plenty of water. - - Be sure there is plenty of gasoline. - - Be sure there is plenty of oil. - - Be sure there is plenty of air in the tires. - - -FIVE THINGS TO DO BEFORE CRANKING THE ENGINE - - Be sure the emergency brake is set. - - Be sure the gear-shift lever is in neutral position. - - Retard the spark fully. - - Open the gas hand throttle about one-third. - - Throw switch to battery position. - - - THREE THINGS TO DO AFTER CRANKING - - Close the throttle until the engine idles. - - Advance the spark about two-thirds. - - Switch from battery to magneto. - - -TO ADJUST A CARBURETOR - - Adjust the needle valve at low speed—engine idling. - - For high speeds adjust the auxiliary air valve. - - (Owners should learn the make-up of their carburetor before attempting - to adjust it, and should first watch someone who knows how to do it.) - - -TO ADJUST CAM SHAFTS WHICH TIME VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING - - Make sure that push-rod adjustment is right—that a thin card will pass - between push rod and valve stem when valve is closed. - - Determine direction of rotation of cam shafts. - - Set fly wheel so that the mark 1 T. C. (top center) registers with - pointer. - - Turn fly wheel until mark 10° P. T. C. (past top center) registers - with pointer. - - Rotate exhaust cam shaft in proper direction until the exhaust valve - of No. 1 cylinder has just closed. - - Rotate inlet cam shaft until inlet valve of No. 1 cylinder is just - about to open. - - Mesh the gears and lock them in place. - - If No. 1 cylinder is right the others must be. - - - RULE FOR TIMING THE MAGNETO - - Find the firing order of the engine. - - Turn crank shaft of engine and note directions in which armature and - distributor of magneto should revolve. - - Set No. 1 cylinder on beginning of power stroke by watching exhaust - valve just close and then turning crank one complete revolution. - - Set fly wheel so that mark No. 1. T. C. registers with pointer. - - Retard spark fully—by moving breaker box in same direction as arrow - points or armature rotates, as far as it will go. - - Rotate armature in proper direction until interrupter points are just - about to open. - - In this position mesh gears and lock magneto to base. - - At this point prove your work by advancing spark. If points are right - they will open. - - Notice what point in distributor the rotor is touching. This goes to - No. 1 cylinder. - - Wire distributor in firing order of the engine. - - (The distributor always rotates in opposite direction to the armature.) - - -RULES FOR CARE OF CLUTCH - - To remedy a harsh gripping leather-faced cone clutch, apply neatsfoot - oil or castor oil to leather face. - - To remedy a slipping leather-faced cone clutch, apply fuller’s earth - or French talc to leather facing. In rare cases a little gasoline may - be used. - - To remedy a harsh gripping multiple disc clutch that runs in oil, add - engine oil to the mixture. - - To remedy a slipping multiple disk clutch running in oil, add kerosene - to the mixture. - - Too little spring tension will cause slipping. - - Once every 100 miles turn down all grease cups on the clutch. - - Once every 500 miles apply neatsfoot oil to a leather-faced clutch. - - Once every 1000 miles drain a multiple disc clutch and clean - thoroughly with kerosene and renew the oil. - - -RULES FOR CARE OF TRANSMISSION AND DIFFERENTIAL - - It must be kept half filled with very heavy oil. (Consult - manufacturer’s instructions.) - - Once every 500 miles inspect and replenish lubricant if need be. - - Once every 5000 miles drain case, clean thoroughly with kerosene, and - renew lubricant. - - -RULES FOR CARE OF OTHER PARTS - - Once every 1000 miles pack universal joint with very heavy grease. - - Once every 250 miles use oil can freely and turn down all grease cups - on torsion and radius rods. - - Pack the wheel hubs with grease every 1000 miles. - - Pack the steering worm housing with medium grease every 500 miles. - - Oil the steering mechanism every 100 miles and turn down all grease - cups. - - - LUBRICATION TIME-TABLE - - Lubricate as often as is necessary. The safest rule always is to - follow the manufacturer’s instructions. - - Every 100 miles: Use oil can freely; turn all grease cups down two or - three turns. - - Be sure that these parts are well lubricated: Steering apparatus, - clutch, spring-shackle bolts, crank handle, fan, valve-rocker arms, - wheel hubs. - - Every 250 miles: Give same care to braking apparatus, emergency brake, - and gear-shift levers, and rocker shafts, water pump, torsion and - radius rods. Clean force-feed oil system. - - Every 500 miles: Inspect transmission and differential cases and - refill if necessary; pack steering worm housing; apply neatsfoot oil - to cone clutch facing; clean gravity and circulating splash systems. - - Every 1000 miles: Pack universal joints, ball and socket boots, hub - caps; oil magneto, electric motor, electric generator; clean disc - clutch; clean splash system; lubricate spring leaves by jacking up - frame of car, spreading leaves apart, and putting graphite mixed with - gasoline between leaves. - - Every 5000 miles: Drain transmission and differential cases and clean - with kerosene and renew lubricant; clean wheel bearings and repack - hubs with grease. - - Give all bearings a careful inspection and take up all play. - - -CARE OF STORAGE BATTERY - - Keep electrolite over top of plates by adding distilled water. - - Keep top of battery clean and metal parts covered with vaseline to - prevent corrosion. - - Keep holes in vent plugs open. - - Never leave battery standing in a discharged condition. - - Make sure it is tightly fastened on car. - - Examine battery once a week in summer; every two weeks in winter. - - Take hydrometer readings at these times; never take hydrometer reading - immediately after adding water; wait fifteen minutes for water to mix - with electrolite. - - If one cell always needs water examine for leaky container. - - -INDICATIONS OF A DISCHARGED BATTERY - - Starting motor cranks engine slowly or not at all. - - Lamps burn dimly or not at all. - - Lamps burn brightly when first turned on but soon dim. - - Electric horn weak. - - Low specific gravity of electrolite. - - -CAUSES OF DISCHARGED BATTERY - - Generator not charging battery. - - Generator belt slipping. - - Wires short-circuited or grounded. - - Plates not covered with electrolite. - - Defective or leaky cell. - - Excessive lamp load. - - Excessive use of lamps when engine is stopped. - - Car not being run fast enough to charge at sufficient rate. - - Using starter too much. - - Cut-out not working properly. - - Broken or loose connection between generator and battery. - - (Storage battery efficiency in winter is half that of summer.) - - -LOCATING TROUBLES IN LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEM - - If no charge shows on dash meter when engine is running at speed equal - to 15 m. p. h., connect good ammeter in series with dash meter; if - this meter shows proper charging rate, trouble is with dash meter; if - it also shows no charge, connect voltmeter with generator terminals. - If it indicates a very high voltage, generator is O. K. and trouble is - between generator and battery. - - Test cut-out and examine all connections and wires. - - If lights light when engine is stopped, trouble is between generator - and ammeter. If lights do not light, trouble is between ammeter and - battery. - - If no, or low, voltage is indicated, trouble is with the generator, - regulator, or wire between generator and regulator. - - If starting motor will not crank engine, make sure battery is O. - K., connections bright and clean, commutator and brushes in good - condition, and that starting switch makes good contact. Crank engine - by hand to make sure some mechanical defect is not preventing engine - from turning. - - - If starting motor spins but does not crank engine, pinion or drive - gear may be loose, chain broken, or overrunning clutch slipping. If a - Bendix drive, pinion may stick in worm due to dirt in threads. - - If none of the bulbs light, examine connection at battery, ammeter, - lighting switch, and wires between those units for breaks; also all - the bulbs may be burned out. - - If a grounded system, examine ground connection at frame. - - If only one bulb fails to light, trouble must be in its own circuit. - Take trouble lamp or voltmeter and test at contacts of connector - at lamp. If you get current at this point, trouble is with bulb or - contact pins sticking, or not long enough. If you do not get current - at this point, examine fuses, connections at lighting switch and - connectors; also wire for breaks. - - As a short circuit on the car generally shows its presence by its - effect on battery, preventing it from holding a charge, if meter shows - discharge all the time, remove wire from meter or battery. If needle - remains on discharge, needle is stuck; if it drops to zero, there is a - short circuit or cut-out does not open. - - A short circuit beyond the lighting switch will not show on the meter - until switch is turned to circuit in which short circuit is located. - This will cause lights to dim and show a heavy discharge on meter. - - As there are other circuits whose current does not pass through meter, - a short circuit in them would not be indicated on meter, but would be - indicated by running down of battery. To locate, remove all bulbs, - also all wires from one of the battery terminals. Connect one side of - the trouble lamp to battery terminal and the other side of lamp to - wires removed. Any current leaving the battery must now pass through - the trouble lamp causing it to light. - - 1—If trouble lamp lights when lighting switch is turned off, short - circuit is either in starting motor-circuit, generator circuit (or - cut-out does not open), horn circuit, or in wires between lighting - switch and battery, or in ignition circuit. Eliminate one circuit - after another until trouble lamp goes out. Then examine circuit on - which it goes out for short. - - 2—If trouble lamp lights only when lighting switch is on, short - circuit is in circuit beyond lighting switch. Examine circuit - indicated on face of switch when in position that trouble lamp lights, - as switch can be divided into sections. Eliminate one section after - another until trouble lamp goes out; then examine this circuit for - short. - - - - -CHAPTER XLVIII - -THE GOLDEN RULE OF MOTORING - - -This volume does not pretend to set a standard of manners for owners of -automobiles, nor does it profess to be a first-aid course in courtesy, -much less suggest lessons in gentlemanliness, which might as well be -called gentleness at once; yet there is sad need of instruction in all -these things, if one may judge by the experiences of the road and of -the inn and garage stops along the way. - -Now the writer believes that the American citizen is a gentleman to -the manor born, of natural right and disposition, and that he does not -leave his manners at home, as he is supposed to leave his religion at -the church door. A gentleman in the drawing-room will be a gentleman on -the highway. He will not be a boor because the man he happens to meet -is one, not even if the majority are. - -Why is it, then, that there is an utter absence of courtesy, or -if there be an occasional display of good nature it but emphasizes -the lack of it in general? Undoubtedly this is a fair statement of -conditions in and about the metropolis. It is not true to anywhere -near the same extent in the Western country, and “Western” ought to be -understood in this connection as anything west of the Alleghany range. - -The writer has been astounded on several occasions in Denver and other -Western cities at the really human spirit of the drivers. They actually -stopped of their own accord to let the writer, a pedestrian at the -time, cross the street, and did it in so gracious a way as to make it -seem a real pleasure. Picture that on Fifth Avenue, New York City, or -upon any of the highways out of the metropolis on a Sunday or holiday -in warm weather. - -But it is not alone in the attitude of the driver toward the pedestrian -that there is remissness, but in the behavior toward other drivers that -there is need for improvement. What is easier than to cheerfully make -way for the man who wishes to pass by, or to turn aside as much as may -be necessary for the other car we meet; to slow up at the intersection, -instead of spurting to get ahead of the other fellow, and making him -jam on the brakes to avoid a collision? Why is it necessary to try to -get the best of the other fellow, as though driving were a contest of -wits and that skill on the road consisted in “beating the other fellow -to it?” - -Perhaps the answer to all this criticism is that in and about New York, -where there is a dense population, there are thousands of drivers who -are not from the ranks of the well-bred, by which is not meant the -wealthy. The low price of cars and the thousands of used cars on the -market has put them at the disposal of the butcher boy and the hod -carrier and bell hop, and they seem to have the idea that the driver -of a car possesses superior rights over others and must assert it. Out -in the land where folks have a chance to open their lungs and breathe, -a broader view of life is held. It is a fact, however, that the -well-to-do families of the East are more and more requiring of their -drivers that they follow the golden rule and not the Eben Holden brand. -You remember Eben’s version: “Do unto others what they are trying to do -unto you, and do it fust.” - -Secretary of State Francis M. Hugo, of New York, recently delivered -an address to a group of students in which he said a number of -pertinent things concerning the operation of cars, based upon his own -experiences. It is so good that it is reprinted here: - - It is not too much to say that the future of motoring largely depends - upon the behavior of motorists and their drivers toward the public. - As fewer owners of large touring machines drive their own cars - nowadays in proportion to the number driven than used to be the case, - it is, therefore, mainly the behavior of their drivers on the road - that is important. The subject of the training of the motor man is - consequently worth much attention, and that the automobile community - as a whole realizes this is evident not only by the establishment - of various schools, where the mechanical side of the profession is - taught to the future driver, but by the efforts of various clubs and - associations, notably of the Y. M. C. A., who have started schools all - over the country to help in this training. - - For the past few years, those who drive motor cars for wages have been - called “chauffeurs,” a word against which a protest should always be - made on the double ground of etymology and nationality. To begin with, - the word in reality means “stoker.” On the foot plate of a French - locomotive the driver is called “mechanicien,” while the fireman is - designated as the “chauffeur.” In the case of motor cars propelled by - steam, the word “chauffeur” may thus be held to be remotely correct, - but on the ordinary car propelled by the internal combustion engine or - by electric power, there is no sense in the term. In the best French - circles also, the word “mechanicien” is always used to designate the - driver of a car and the word “chauffeur” even in France is said to be - becoming obsolete. - - The motorman, as he will, therefore, be called, is very often the - subject of much discussion and sometimes of irrational abuse. Of - course, there are black sheep in this profession, as in every other, - but one is glad to place on record that black sheep were far more - numerous five years ago than they are now. No one who observes without - prejudice the behavior of motor-car drivers in New York City and - elsewhere can help being struck with the careful way in which private - motor cars are now driven, the neatness and cleanliness of the men - themselves, and the vast improvement which has taken place in their - general manners. Formerly, it was thought to be the highest mark of - the profession that a motorman should be dirty in every respect, and - a greasy cap, black hands and face, oily clothes and, as a rule, a - half-smoked dirty cigarette in the side of his mouth, combined with a - contemptuous scowl at every passer-by, was not an uncommon sight. - - This state of things, however, has changed for the better. - Occasionally a specimen of the primeval driver is met with, and - even now the habit of cigarette smoking when in charge of a car is - supposed, by the younger and less intelligent men of the profession, - to confer an air of knowledge coupled with disdain. In course of time - this form of swagger will die out also. The manners, moreover, of many - motormen to their employers and to their fellow servants have not in - the past been all that could be desired, but as stated before, their - general behavior is markedly improving, and it must be remembered - that, motormen are greatly superior in intelligence to most of their - predecessors. - - It need hardly be noted here that much depends upon the way the - motorman has been trained. When automobiling was just beginning the - only person available who even half knew the somewhat complicated - machine of the early days was the mechanic trained for a few months - in the shop where the car had been manufactured. He was master of the - situation because he alone had working knowledge of its parts. No one - in those days thought for one moment of a motorman from the viewpoint - of good driving. The owner of the car, above all, desired to possess - a good mechanic, for breakdowns were numerous and varied and half of - the expenses of motoring were necessitated by renewals of parts or - adjustments due to ordinary wear and tear. Nowadays serious or even - insignificant breakdowns are rare, and there is hardly a first-class - make of car in the market which will not run many thousands of - miles without anything being necessary in the way of repairs and - adjustments. Those which are necessary are, moreover, of the simplest - kind. There is no longer, therefore, the same necessity for the - motorman to be what is called a really good mechanic, so long as he - understands the general principle on which the engine works and the - arrangement of the gears. - - The majority of motor-car owners have, therefore, changed in their - requirements. They do not want a man who is primarily a skilled - mechanic, but they do ask for a skillful driver, and on this wise - alternative in the chief qualifications demanded lies a good deal of - the reason for the great change which has taken place in the behavior - of the motorman in the city and out of it. It may be remarked that an - excellent mechanic is not necessarily a good driver, though he may - be so in certain cases. What is required in the driver besides the - general knowledge of the machinery is a knowledge of the customs and - courtesies of the road and the habits of traffic, the possession of - the qualities of alertness, foresight, and consideration for others. - Above all, he should have a temperate frame of mind, an abstinence not - only from drunkenness, but drinking in any but a most moderate sense. - The driver of an ordinary wagon is conspicuous by his ignorance of the - way to drive and his want of consideration of other traffic. He is the - most persistent moving obstruction which exists. The motor-car driver, - on the other hand, has to be the best driver on the highway if he is - to drive without offense to the public and danger to them and himself, - for he has to conduct a vehicle which is more valuable than any other - and far and away more speedy though more handy, and, therefore, whose - meeting with and overtaking of other vehicles is many times more - rapid. In addition to these, he has to consider other dangers of the - road to which other vehicles are not so liable and which come from the - construction of its surface. - - The complete motorman should have a working knowledge of the different - materials of which roads are made, of their comparative tendency to - cause skidding, and of the perils which arise from excessive and - badly laid street-car tracks. He must know and continually practice - the courtesies of the road and learn its manners and customs. He - must be observant and realize that children hanging on the rear of - wagons are liable to drop off suddenly and run across his path. He - must be on the look-out for pedestrians, stupid, drunk, or deaf, for - wagons on the wrong side of dangerous corners, and to be prepared - to find vehicles in charge of sleepy drivers who will often do the - wrong act on awakening. It will, therefore, be seen that the motorman - to be really good has to be the best driver on the road and that - the standard demanded must necessarily be high. He must possess - exceptional qualities as compared with the horse driver. The question - is, therefore, all important—What are the best methods of training - such a man? - - There is no doubt that many of the schools which are teaching - elementary mechanics to the would-be motorman are excellent in their - way. But there are many which are nothing but frauds. Reports have - frequently been made to the State where a man has complained bitterly - of having put down $25 or $50 in return for which nothing but most - elementary instruction has been given and this often in the worst - possible way. There has been no teaching in traffic rules or on the - road, or, if given, so little as to be of no use. But at other places - pains are taken, and, by diagrams in the class-room and practical - teaching on the road much has been taught. There are also nowadays - hand-books galore which teach the construction, repair, the common - faults and likely failings of the gasoline engine from A to Z. The - mechanical side may, therefore, be said to have been amply provided - for. - - But this is only the less important, though necessary, part of the - training of the modern motorman. What is really needed is that some - school should teach manners on the road and the habits of traffic,—in - short, train its men for the road. There should also be problems - of difficult but ordinary situations in traffic set in a written - examination, the correct solution of which should be obligatory before - the motorman could be said to be property trained. It is not, perhaps, - easy to see at first how this sort of instruction can be given on the - present scale of fees, but the schools in the future, which devote a - large part of their attention to teaching the rules of the road and - its customs and courtesies will assuredly turn out the best class of - drivers, who will be in the greatest demand. - - To begin with, the habits of horse-drawn vehicles should be studied. - It is a liberal education to take a journey, for instance, on the - top of a Fifth Avenue motor bus and watch the way in which the - driver drives his unwieldly vehicle through the streets of New York. - Other bus drivers also are rapidly becoming his equal, and let it be - acknowledged that nothing but the hard school of practical, every-day - experience in New York City streets, assisted by police supervision - and the fear of dismissal for carelessness or accident, could produce - such able drivers. - - Again, the expert taxicab driver might be taken as an example of a - faster class of motor traffic. The would-be first-class motorman - when being trained would thus have the experience of horse vehicles - and pedestrians, and have noted carefully what usually happens and - have tried to understand their point of view. This is one of the - first steps which should be taken in training the driver of the swift - mechanical vehicle. Then example might be given of the proper way to - drive cars around corners, both right-handed and left-handed, and - the best manner of the ascending and surmounting steep gradients or - negotiating high bridges. Driving at night should also be practiced, - and prospective drivers should learn to distinguish the faint glow on - the road ahead which designates the presence of a motorcycle and other - signs denoting persons or vehicles. Map reading should also be a part - of his instruction. - - And there is yet one other thing which the motor-driving school should - inculcate, though it could not technically teach the motorman—that - is, good manners to his employer and his employer’s friends. To be - rough and rude is a disgrace to any class, and it is the mark of a man - who is either not certain of himself or is afflicted with an innate - bad temper. It is not, and never can be, a sign of superiority. A - respectful and civil attitude not only makes the path of life easier, - but is in itself a strong recommendation. Little things which do not - at first seem to matter, and are merely more in the nature of courtesy - than servile attentions, should be observed. A civil salute when the - owner first addresses the motorman, the readiness to help in any - little matter, such as carrying a bag to the station, or the thought - of a rug to cover the lap, and similar little courtesies, are the - sign of the man who, if considerate in these little matters, is likely - to be considerate in others more important. It also establishes him - firmly in the estimation of his employer. - - To sum up, the perfect motorman, though he should possess as - much knowledge of mechanics as possible, should, above all, be a - considerate driver, well versed in the manners and courtesies of - the road and the habits of traffic. And in addition, he should try - to be well mannered, as more and more motor-car owners are becoming - convinced that, besides knowledge, “Manners maketh the Motorman.” - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Accelerate while clutch is being engaged, 168 - - Accelerator, lubrication of, 41 - - Accelerator pedal, 20; - what it does, where placed, 160 - - Accessories, electric, cause trouble, 282 - - Air in tires, plenty of, before leaving garage, 308 - - Alcohol, in freeze-proof solution, how much to use, 192 - - Alignment, why wheels are not set in perfect, 101, 102, 103 - - Ammeter, 20, 109; - needle erratic, cause of, 283 - - Anti-freezing solution, 164, 165; - necessary in winter, 191; - best to use, 193; - home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, 193; - composition of, depends on temperature, 193; - sometimes wise to replace with hot water to start engine, 194 - - Armature, increasing speed of, 117 - - Armature winding, trouble in, 277 - - Asphalt, dried, how to remove from car, 241 - - Asphyxiation from gasoline fumes, 225; - how to avoid, 226 - - Automobile, value of, what it depends on, 4; - schools, 7; - half knowledge of, an obstacle, 8; - description and essentials of, 12; - how to pull out when stuck, 86; - steering compared with steering of boats of different types, 102; - setting of wheels compared with bicycle, 105; - will steer with broken tie rod, 106; - how to start with engine running, 166; - how to stop, 168; - how to reverse, 169; - cleaning of, 175, 236; - may be kept in commission in many cold places the year round, 191; - any modern make, if kept in good condition will climb worst hill, - 229; - to prepare for a tour, 244; - trouble hunting must be systematic, 272; - trouble, best way to find, 273; - not a fad, 301 - - Automobile body, how to care for gloss of, 242 - - Automobile fires, causes of, 214 - - Auxiliary air valve, adjust for high speeds, 309 - - Axle, rear, description, 13; - forward, description and location, 14 - - Axle shaft, rear, wind felt around, to keep oil away from brake - lining, 96 - - - B - - Back-firing, cause of fires, 214; - how to prevent, 220 - - Bands, brake, how arranged, 97 - - Batteries, two should be carried, 157 - - Battery, 15; - source of current, 10; - necessity of first testing, 109, 114; - ignition, 120; - be sure it is sufficiently charged before leaving garage, 157; - must be filled oftener in hot weather, 206; - packed around with waste, sometimes causes fire, 217; - test before touring, 248; - inspect, in case of trouble, 276; - rules for care of, 312; - indications and causes of a discharged, 313 - - Battery and coil ignition system, 15 - - Battery to magneto, switch from, 309 - - Battery trouble, 123; - more difficult to keep charged in winter, 123; - instance of starving battery, 124, 125; - must not be overcharged, 125; - less efficiency in cold weather, 126; - now furnishes all current used, 126; - sediment in, 126; - can be charged overnight, 127; - former battery “don’ts,” 127; - average life of battery, 128 - - Bearings, crank, 17; - lubrication of wheel, 43; - definition, different types, 149; - of engine, form and construction, how oiled, 150; - of ignition system, form and lubrication, 152; - carburetor and throttle, 152, 153; - spark-control, starter, 153; - steering-gear, transmission propeller shaft, 154; - other, 155; - need additional care in summer, 208; - loose, cause knocking, 258; - tight, cause knocking, 259; - grit in, due to loss of hub cap, 270 - - Belts fan, troubles, how to care for, 200 - - Bicycle, setting of wheel compared with automobile, 105 - - Boats of different types, steering of, compared with steering of - automobile, 102 - - Bolts, dropped from cars, 268; - absence of, cause squeaks, 269; - examination of, 269; - brake-linkage, 271; - dust-pan, 271; - must know location of, 271; - tighten, once a month, 271 - - Bottle, rubber hot-water, for heating carburetor, 194 - - Brake, use of engine as a, 95, 234, 247; - running, when needed, how operated, 158; - emergency, its use, how operated, 159, 308 - - Brake bands, how arranged, 97 - - Brake drums, description and location, 14, 15; - how injured, 98; - keep free from oil, 247 - - Brake-lever, emergency, 20, 159; - lubrication of, 41 - - Brake lining, can be ruined, 95; - oil on, its cause, the results, how to prevent, 96; - wears thin, 98; - when necessary to replace, 98; - rivets of, 98; - how to save, 247 - - Brake linkage, 15, 97; - bolts, 271 - - Brake mechanism, oiling of, important, 97 - - Brake pedal, 20 - - Brake rods, worn, cause clattering, 264 - - Brakes, affect tires, 72; - badly or unevenly adjusted, cause skidding, 80, 88; - more important than the engine, manufacturers constantly - improving, 93; - must be continually watched, 94; - other means of braking, 95; - use of, on hills, 95, 172, 173; - oil in lining, what causes it, how to prevent it, 96, 97; - lubrication necessary, 97; - failure of lining, 98; - hand and foot, 98, 99; - adjustment of both, for best effect, 99; - inspect both sets before touring, 246; - use two sets alternately, 247 - - Brass, remove corrosion from, with cleaning compound, 239; - how to keep from corrosion, 239 - - Breaker points cause trouble, 292 - - Bulbs, electric light, extra set, 31 - - Bursting of radiator, pipes, and water-jacket prevented by proper - freeze-proof solution, 193 - - - C - - Cam, loose, causes knocking, 259; - follower guide causes knocking, 259; - shafts to adjust, 309 - - Cams, worm, cause knocking, 259 - - Carbon, on valves, 67; - secondary current absorbed by, 119; - acts as a condenser, 119; - short circuits spark plug, 120; - in engine causes over-heating, 202; - remove, before touring, 247; - causes knocking, 251; - reduces size of combustion chamber, 252; - bits of, in unusual places, cause trouble, 272; - on valve seats, 274 - - Carbon dioxide, in gasoline fumes, 224; - monoxide, in gasoline fumes, 224 - - Carbonic acid gas, in gasoline fumes, 224 - - Carburetor, location, 15; - what it does, 23; - float, 23; - adjustment to limit gasoline supply, 47; - affected by weather, 53; - varieties of, 55; - test for, 56; - adjustment of, 56, 57; - poor adjustment of, 68; - bearings, 152; - priming, 166; - works worst in cold weather, 185; - manufacturers constantly improving efficiency of, 185, 186; - desired which will vaporize heavy gasoline in cold weather, 186; - stove and water-jacket both needed for cold weather, 186; - will work better if hot air is first introduced, 187; - “stove” put out by many manufacturers, 187; - with water-jacketed mixing chamber, 187; - devices for heating, 194; - hot weather treatment, 206; - inspect in case of trouble, 275; - how to adjust a, 309; - learn construction before attempting to adjust, 309 - - Caster effect of inclined knuckle pins, 105 - - Castor oil for harsh-gripping clutch, 310 - - Cautions, miscellaneous important, 176 - - Chains, cross, 82; - non-skid, how to adjust, 81, 82; - often drop links, 270 - - Chain tool, convenience of, 29 - - Chamber, combustion, 17 - - Chamois skin, 52, 241 - - Charge, of gasoline and air, 17; - in combustion chamber, how fired and when, 22 - - Chart, Y. M. C. A., general trouble, 279 - - Chassis, construction of, 13; - position of, 13; - how to clean, 239 - - “Chauffeur,” real meaning “stoker,” 320 - - Chauffeurs, faults of, 6; - must now have technical electrical knowledge, 282, 283, 284; - show generally an increase - in neatness and cleanliness and improvement in manners, 321 - - Choke, or priming device, 162 - - Circuit, breaker, 16; - complete necessary, 108; - secondary, gap in, 112; - secondary, heavy insulation absorbs current, 119 - - Clattering caused by worn brake rods, 264 - - Cleaning car, 175, 236; - cleaner it is kept, longer it will run satisfactorily, 236; - oil and grease should be removed from outside of engine, 237, 238; - from wire terminals and spark plugs, 238; - from cylinders, remove corrosion from brass, 239; - keep iron parts from rusting, 239; - fan, fan belt, pulleys, and casings, 239; - chassis and parts under car, 239; - how to make a “creeper” to lie on while working under car, 240; - cleaning the body with hose and water, 240; - drying with chamois and cloth, 241; - how to remove dried mud and asphalt, 241; - do not use soap, 241; - use running water if possible, 242; - preparations for renewing varnished surface, 242; - cleaning and treatment of the top, 242; - keep car covered in garage, 242; - slip covers, 243; - fumes from stable or barnyard will dull varnish, 243; - barn used for garage should be renovated, 243 - - Clearance between valve stems, and push rods causes trouble, 290 - - Click caused by rear driving shaft, instance of, 262 - - Climbing hills, 171 - - Clogging of muffler, 145, 146 - - Cloth, use of, in cleaning car, 241 - - Clutch, cone, 18; - multiple disc, 18; - location of, 18; - pedal, 20; - lever lubrication of, 41; - affects tires, 71; - where placed, its purpose, how it works, 158; - how to use with accelerator pedal, 168; - use in hill-climbing, 172; - engage gradually, 177; - expanding, instance connected with, 289; - rules for care of, 310 - - Clutch pedal, where placed, 158 - - Cold weather, starting, in, 184 - - Combustion, 67 - - Combustion chamber, 17; - charge in, how fired and when, 22; - oil in, 48, 49; - reduced in size by carbon, 252 - - Commutators, driver must know how to sandpaper, 282; - and to undercut the insulation of, 283; - sparking at the, 283 - - Complications on car, increase comfort, but add to worries, 284 - - Compression, how maintained, 24; - absence of, 53; - test before touring, 248; - too high, causes knocking, 251, 260; - necessary to start engine, 273; - tests in case of trouble, 273; - when it occurs, 274 - - Compression chamber, instance of stopping knocking by increasing - size, 252 - - Compression stroke, 17 - - Condenser, may need examination, 121 - - Cone clutch, 18 - - Congested streets, driving in, 173 - - Connecting rod, 17, 68; - bearing, causes knock, 256, 258 - - Connection, loose, results of, 283 - - Connector, battery, 276 - - Conveniences, added, have made more trouble, 280, 281 - - Cooling, principle of, 15; - different system, 15 - - Corners, how to turn, 170 - - Cotter pins, supply to all nuts before touring, 248; - lost in street, 268; - absence of, causes squeaks, 269 - - Courtesy in motoring, 317; - more noticeable in the West than in the East, 318; - absence of, in ill-bred drivers, 319; - speech by Hon. Francis M. Hugo, general requirements and - desirable qualities of men who are trusted to run automobiles - on the public roads, 319 - - Covers for radiator, 195 - - Crank, 17; - where placed and carried, 157; - missing, instance of, 287 - - Crank bearings, 17 - - Crank case, 16; - water in, 68; - to be drained, cleaned, and refilled before touring, 245 - - Crank-pin bearings cause knocking, 258 - - Crank shaft, revolutions in complete cycle, 17; - bearing causes knocking, 258; - bent, causes knocking, 259 - - Crank the engine, how to, 166 - - Cranking engine, no use when switch is off, 285; - five things to do before, 308; - three things to do after, 309 - - Creeper, to lie on in working under car, how to make, 240 - - Crossings, railway, extra care necessary, 180 - - Crown of the road causes slipping, 90 - - Current, electric, course of, 108; - break in, order of tests to find, 109; - more used in starting in winter, 126 - - Cut-out, object, 144; - now prohibited and unnecessary, 145; - sometimes causes fires when opened in garage, 216 - - Cut-out, reverse current, 283 - - Cuts in tires, 70 - - Cycle of the engine, number of strokes, 17 - - Cylinders, 16; - importance of testing, 24; - size of, in relation to air taken in, 47; - proper power from each, 61; - worn oval, 67; - water in, 68; - outside kept free from oil and grease, 238; - raised by fiber gasket, 252; - loose on base, causes knock, 256; - worn causes knocking, 259; - loose due to lost washers or pins, 270; - test for compression, 274 - - - D - - Dashboard, wires and pipes, dials and gauges and switches on, 284 - - Death from gasoline fumes, 224; - how to avoid, 226 - - Descending hills, use of engine as a brake, 172 - - Differential, location and purpose of, 13; - housing, 13; - rules for care of, 311 - - Disc clutch, multiple, 18 - - Distance between cars, necessary to keep enough, 87 - - Distributor, 16; - dirty, causes knocking, 260; - examine in case of trouble, 276 - - Doors of garage left open when engine is running, 227 - - Drivers must look out for pedestrians, 296 - - Drive shaft, 19 - - Driving, 156; - in congested streets, 173 - - Drums, brake, description and location, 14, 15; - how injured, 98; - keep free from oil, 247 - - Dry cells may be carried while touring, 248 - - Dust pan, parts drop into, 269 - - - E - - Electric, bulbs, extra set needed while touring, 249; - lights and accessories cause trouble, 282 - - Electrical, equipment, 108; - trouble, tests for, 109; - systems, knowledge of, necessary to operate and care for a modern - car, 282, 283, 284 - - Electricity, static, causes fires, 217 - - Electrolite, replenish with water, 312 - - Electrolitic action set up by salt in freeze-proof solution, 192 - - Emergencies, be prepared for, with proper tools, 27 - - Emergency brake, lever, 20, 159; - to be set, 308 - - Engine, three things necessary to start, 10, 273; - three things necessary to keep running, 10, 21; - location of, 15; - description of, 16; - cycle, number of strokes in, 17; - power in, how secured, 22; - use of, as a brake, 95, 172, 234; - gap in secondary circuit helps to start, 112; - skips at low speeds, 116; - missing at high and low speeds, how to overcome, 116, 117; - bearings, 150; - how to start, 165; - to prevent stalling, 167; - speed of, learn to judge by sound, 167; - stalls on a hill, what to do if, 172; - missing due to cold weather, 184; - higher temperature to the boiling point of water, best for - efficiency, 189, 197; - efficiency of, improved by covering radiator when running against - the wind, 190; - two things necessary to operate in winter, 191; - freeze-proof solution, what to use, 191; - priming in cold weather, 194; - to start, sometimes necessary to substitute hot water for - anti-freezing solution, 194; - runs better in winter when fan is disconnected, 195; - radiator cover necessary in cold weather, 195; - overheating in summer causes trouble, 197; - knocking at high speed, 198; - overheats when driven at high speed with spark retarded, 198; - overheating caused by sediment in radiator, 199; - overheating caused by careless stretching of hose, 201; - overheating rarely caused by pump, 201; - keep free from carbon to prevent overheating, 202; - will climb worst hills, if kept in good condition, 229; - remove oil and grease from outside, 237, 238; - remove carbon before touring, 247; - knocks from too high compression caused by carbon, 251; - knocking stopped by raising cylinder, 252; - loose on frame, causes knocking, 259; - loose, due to lost washers or pins, 270; - oil and water necessary to keep running, 273; - conditions existing in case of trouble, 273; - stalled on crossing, instance of, 287; - five things to do before cranking, 308 - - Engine oil, for multiple disc clutch, 311 - - Equipment, which may be purchased separately, 24; - electrical, 108; - extra, to be carried on car, 157 - - Exhaust, steam from, in cold weather, 50 - - Exhaust pipe, 15; - may set fire to car, 215, 216; - fumes from, cause death, 224; - how to prevent, 226; - composition of fumes, 226 - - Exhaust stroke, 17 - - Exhaust valves, sticking, cause knock, 257; - carbon in, 274 - - Expansion of charge, 17 - - Expense of upkeep, 73 - - Explosion, none, from gasoline, 222 - - Extinguisher, fire, necessary, 218; - dry and liquid, 223; - carry while touring, 249 - - - F - - Fan, disconnect in cold weather, 195; - formed by spokes of fly-wheel, 200; - collects dust, 239; - causes knocking, 260 - - Fan belts, troubles of, how to care for, 200; - collects dust, 239; - coupling, causes knocking, 259 - - Fan blades cause knocking, 259 - - Feed systems, gravity, pressure, and vacuum, 163 - - Felt, use of, to prevent oil on brake linings, 96 - - Fence rail as jack, 30 - - File, interrupter point, 28 - - Fire, causes of, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 221; - extinguisher necessary, 218; - don’t run away from, stay and fight hard, 220; - to put out, use sand, salt, or patent extinguisher, 222; - carry extinguisher while touring, 249 - - First-aid kit, 32 - - Five things to do before cranking engine, 308 - - Float in carburetor, 23 - - Fly wheel, 17; - spokes of, forming fan, 200; - loose, causes knocking, 259; - out of balance, causes knocking, 259 - - Force, how produced in a gasoline engine, 17 - - Force-feed lubrication, 16 - - Four things to do before leaving garage, 308 - - Freeze-proof solution, for engine, 191; - composition of, depends on temperature, 192; - best to use, 193; - home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, 193; - sometimes wise to replace, with hot water to start engine, 194 - - Fresh-air problem, solution of, 301 - - Fuel supply systems, 16; - tank, 16 - - Fuller’s earth for slipping clutch, 310 - - Fumes of gasoline cause death, 224; - chemical changes, composition of, 224, 226; - heavier than air, 225; - how to avoid, 226; - intoxication from, 227, 228 - - Fumes from stable or barnyard affect polished auto bodies, 243 - - “Furnace,” hot-air for warming air before it enters carburetor, 187 - - Fuse, 109; - substitute for, in horn, 113 - - - G - - Gap in secondary circuit, 112 - - Garage doors, leave open while engine is running, 227 - - Garage, what to do before leaving, 157, 308; - opening near floor for escape of gasoline fumes, 227 - - Gaskets, intake manifold, 53; - dented or jammed, 64; - under cylinders increase size of compression chamber, - and stop knocking, 253, 254 - - Gas knock, 257 - - Gasoline, and air, charge of, 17; - under what conditions it explodes, 21; - proportion of vapor to air to produce good combustion, 21; - causes of excessive use of, 46; - adjustment of carburetor to limit supply of, 47; - needs oxygen for complete consumption, 47; - water in, 52; - strainer for, 52; - different qualities of, 55; - cost of, 58; - economy of, 61, 62, 63; - loss through leaking, 65; - excess of, indicated by black smoke, 68; - affects tires, 72; - examine supply before leaving garage, 157; - feed systems, 163; - teakettle and dishrag method of vaporizing, 184, 188, 194; - volatility of, decreasing, 185; - present supply has higher heat-producing quality when vaporized, - but heavier, harder to vaporize in cold weather, 186; - heat necessary to change from liquid to vapor, 186, 187; - stove makes vaporization easier, 187; - when vaporized, sometimes condenses again in cold engine, 187; - stove and water jacket both needed in cold weather, 188; - vaporizes properly in a warm garage, some condenses in cold - air, 188; - unnecessary amount used by retarded spark, 198; - less required in hot weather than in cold, 206; - in drip-pan, cause of fire, 215; - burns, does not explode under normal conditions, 221; - will not explode unless vaporized, 222; - fire, how to put out, 222; - fumes, of, cause death, 224; - chemical changes, composition of fumes of, 224-226; - fumes of, heavier than air, 225; - how to avoid fumes of, 226; - intoxication from fumes of, 227, 228; - loosens up grease and oil in cleaning car, 238; - carry extra supply when touring, 246; - necessary to start engine, 273; - inspect, in case of trouble, 275; - used for slipping clutch, 310 - - Gasoline tank, where placed, how gasoline supply is maintained, 162; - examine in case of trouble, 275 - - Gas-pipe, carbon in, 272 - - Gear, low-speed, as a brake, 95; - high-speed, run on as much as possible, 168; - always turn corners on second speed, 171 - - Gear casings, collect dust, 239; - refill before touring, 245 - - Gear shifting, 137; - necessary for proper adjustment of load to speed, 138; - noiseless shifting desirable, 138; - how best to shift from first to second, and second to third, 139; - how best to shift from third to second, and second to - first, 139, 140; - when to go back to second, to first, 140; - don’t shift too soon, 140; - in hill climbing, 140; - how to make a silent shift on a hill, 141; - what makes gears grind, 141; - how to avoid a noisy shift to first on starting, 141; - on hills, 229; - on an up grade, 231; - starting up hill, 231; - which gear is best to use, 232; - avoid straining car by careful choice of gears, 232, 233; - gears to use descending hills, 233, 234; - no speeding on hills, perfect control of car necessary, 234 - - Gear-shifting lever, where placed, how operated, 159; - how to move, when stuck in neutral, 168; - place in neutral, 308 - - Gear-shifting pedals, 20 - - Gears, purpose of, 18, 131; - trouble comes in the shifting gears, not in the transmission, 130; - grinding or clashing detrimental, 131, 141; - diagram and explanation of three-speed gears, 131; - to start, 133; - to increase speed, 133, 134; - to decrease speed, 135; - to reverse, 136; - care necessary, 136; - use of, in hill-climbing, 171; - examine before touring, 245 - - Generator, 16; - must not overcharge battery, 125; - adjustable for summer and winter, 127 - - Glycerin in freeze-proof solution, 192 - - Gravity fuel supply, 16, 163 - - Grease, 61; - affects tires, 72; - heavier quality needed in summer, 207; - carry extra supply when touring, 246 - - Grease cups, turn down, before leaving garage, 157, 311, 312 - - Greasing car, rules for, 311, 312 - - Grinding and clashing of gears, 131, 141 - - Ground connections, 110 - - Ground wire, loose, 114 - - Guides, valve push-rod, enclosed in housings, 44; - lubrication of, 44 - - - H - - Headlight trouble, 114 - - Heat, much, necessary for vaporization of gasoline, 186, 189 - - High-speed gear, run on, as much as possible, 168 - - High-tension magneto system, 15 - - Hill-climbing, how to shift gears, 140, 141; - use of throttle, spark, and gears, 171; - what to do if engine stalls, 172; - use of clutch, 172; - blowing horn when, 297 - - Hills, descending, use of engine as a brake, 172; - use of brakes on, 173; - the steepest can be made by any modern car which is in good - condition, 229 - - Horn blowing, 292; - how it has arisen, 295; - much of it unnecessary, 296; - blowing not necessary after others have seen you, 297; - while passing and turning, 297; - on hills, 297; - when others are passing, 298 - - Horn trouble, 113, 284 - - Hose, careless stretching of, causes overheating, 201; - defective, causes knocking, 260 - - Hose and water, how to use in cleaning car, 240 - - Hot weather, over-inflation of tire, instance of, 203; - expands air in tires, giving greater pressure, 204 - - Housings, differential, 13; - for valve push-rod guides, 44 - - Hub of rear wheel needs inspection when keyed to shaft, 43 - - Hub caps, loss of, allows grit to get into bearings, 270 - - Hugo, Hon. Francis M., speech by, 319 - - Hydro-carbon in burning gasoline, 224 - - Hydrometer, 109; - rules for readings, 313 - - - I - - Ignition, switch, 20; - magneto, 116; - battery, 120; - prevented by short-circuiting due to carbon, 120; - switch, where placed, its use, how operated 162; - use of, when braking with engine, on hills, 173; - wrongly timed, causes knocking, 260; - inspect in case of trouble, 276 - - Ignition system, kinds, 15; - work of, 24; - bearings, 152; - requires many changes of spark lever, 198; - test before touring, 248; - rules for locating trouble in, 314 - - Inflation, tire, under, 60; - increased by hot weather, 204; - lower pressure needed in hot weather, 205; - proper degree of, 211, 212 - - Inlet valve, 17; - trouble in, 274 - - Inspect, don’t expect, 285 - - Instruction book, manufacturer’s, importance of fully - mastering, 1, 269 - - Instructions, importance of following, 8, 9 - - Insulation, heavy, on secondary wires absorbs current, 119 - - Insurance premium lower when extinguisher is carried, 218 - - Intake manifold, 16; - gaskets, 53; - leaky, 63; - loose, 64 - - Intake valve, 52 - - Interrupter point file, 28 - - Interrupter points, adjusting, to overcome engine missing at high - or low speed, 116; - cleaning of, 121; - carbon in, 272; - inspect in case of trouble, 276 - - Iron, angle, used in chassis, 13 - - Iron parts, how to keep from rusting, 239 - - - J - - Jack, importance of handle, 30; - use of fence-rail as a, 30 - - Jerking, how to overcome, 167 - - Jet, low speed, clogged, 291 - - Joints, universal, 19, 40 - - - K - - Kerosene, can be used for cleaning out the sump, 37; - loosens up grease and oil, 238; - for cleaning car, 241; - for multiple disc clutch, 311 - - Kit, first-aid, 32 - - Knocking, of engine, 198; - prevented by removal of carbon, 247; - too high compression, 251; - caused by cam-shaft gear, sticking exhaust valves, 257; - stopped by increasing size of compression chamber, 252; - many causes for, 255; - some need immediate attention, some do not, 256; - loose connecting rod bearing, loose cylinder, - lack of lubrication, spark advanced too far, short circuit, 256; - not caused by lean mixture, or over-advanced spark, 258; - caused by mechanical looseness due to improper adjustment or - wear, 258; - by faulty ignition, 259; - by faulty carburetion, 260; - by faulty lubrication, 260; - by overheating of engine, 260; - by faulty compression, 260 - - Knocks in the chassis, 262 - - Knuckle-pins, how kept in place and relieved of weight, 104; - inclined fore and aft, 105 - - Knuckles, steering, 14, 40 - - - L - - Lamps, 109, 110 - - Leaks of oil and gasoline, sources of, 65 - - Lever, spark timing, 19; - emergency brake, 20; - throttle, - 19, 20, 161; - clutch, lubrication of, 41; - gear shifting, 159; - emergency brake, 159; - spark control, 161, 198 - - Lighting switch, 20, 109 - - Lighting system, rules for locating troubles in, 314 - - Lights dim, what makes the, 283 - - Linings, brake, can be ruined, 95; - oil on, 96; - wear thin, 98; - when necessary to replace, 98 - - Linkage, brake, 15, 97 - - Links, loose cross, how to fasten, 271 - - Linseed oil, use of, in cleaning car, 241 - - Lubrication, systems, 16; - why needed, 33; - most common system, 34; - troubles, 35; - necessity of frequent inspection, 36; - needed in many minor places, 39; - steering knuckles, 40; - universal joint, 40; - clutch and brake levers, self-starter and accelerator, 41; - spring shackles, 42; - wheel bearings, 43; - spring leaves, valve push-rod guides, overhead valves, 44; - of brakes important, 97; - system how made and supplied, its care, 164; - in cold weather, 195; - proper oil necessary, 195; - heavier grease needed in summer, 207; - inspect before touring, 246; - time table, 312 - - Lubricants, poor, cause knocking, 260 - - - M - - Magnetic field, distortion of, 117 - - Magneto, high-tension, systems, 15; - ignition, 116; - manipulation of spark lever when using, 198; - coupling causes knocking, 259; - trouble, - instance of, 291; - rules for timing, 310 - - Manifold, intake, 16; - leaky, 63; - loose, 64 - - “Mechanicien” French term for driver of a car, 321 - - Mechanics, careless, 269 - - Misfiring, 63 - - Mixing chamber, 23 - - Mixture, 17; - rich and lean, 21; - proper, 56; - thin, 63, 66; - weak, 64; - anti-freezing, 164, 165; - warming device, necessary in winter, 186; - too rich or too lean calls attention to other parts which are - causing knocking, 258 - - Motor, _see_ Engine - - Motor, starting, _see_ Self-starter - - Motorist, absent-mindedness in—bad habit, 285, 286, 287 - - Motoring, future of, depends upon behavior of motorists toward the - public, 320 - - “Motorman” best term for driver of an automobile, 321 - - Mud, dried, how to remove from car, 241 - - Muffler, purpose of, 15; - often neglected or misused, 143; - its uses, and advantages, 143, 144; - original object of the cut-out, 144; - cut-out now prohibited and unnecessary, 145; - needs careful attention, 145; - clogging prevents escape of gases, and brings loss of - power, 145, 146; - instance of bad effect of clogging, 146; - usually no provision made for inspection, 147; - kerosene clogs, 147; - special information sometimes necessary, 148 - - Multiple disc clutch, 18 - - - N - - Neatsfoot oil for harsh gripping clutch, 310, 311, 312 - - Needle valve, 52, 63, 276; - adjust at low speed, 309 - - Nitrogen in gasoline fumes, 224 - - Noise, in the chassis, 262; - from torque rod, from worn brake rods, from worn spring-shackle - bolts, 264; - from worn steering knuckle-pins, 265; - from tools and accessories, 265; - from broken gear teeth and other parts, 265 - - Non-skid, tires, 81, 84, 85; - chains, 81, 82; - devices, which to use under various conditions, 85; - chains often drop links, 270 - - Nuts, tighten before touring, 248; - absence of, cause squeaks, 269; - examination of, 269; - must know location of, 271 - - - O - - Oil, effect of absence of, in lubrication, 36; - things which wear it out and make necessary to replace, 36, 37; - how often to drain out, 37; - things which affect its lubricating value, 37; - in the combustion chamber, 48; - how to prevent, 49; - waste of, through leakage, 65; - affects tires, 72, 165; - on the brake lining, cause, results, how to prevent, 96; - examine supply of, before leaving garage, 157, 308; - proper, necessary for cold weather, 195; - take car maker’s advice, 196; - on fan belts, 200; - remove from exterior of engine, 238; - carry reserve supply when touring, 246; - lack of, causes knocking, 260; - excess of, causes knocking, 260; - necessary to keep engine running, 273 - - Oil feed sight, 20 - - Oil level, how to correct when too high, 49 - - Oil pump, 34, 35 - - Oil the car, when to, 311, 312 - - Oiled roads dangerous, 90; - necessary to take at low speed, 92; - during summer season, 207 - - Outlet valves, 22 - - Overheating, caused by sediment in radiator, 199; - rarely caused by pump, 201; - caused by careless stretching of hose, 201; - caused by carbon in engine, 202 - - Over-inflation of tire, in hot weather, instance of, 203; - makes riding uncomfortable, 211 - - Owner, originality, initiative, and ingenuity of, important, 9; - should learn how to do many things himself, 202 - - - P - - Pail, folding, 29 - - Parts dropped in streets, 268, 269; - lost, puncture tires, 270 - - Passengers, drive for the comfort of, 169 - - Passing others, blowing horn while, 297, 298 - - Pedals, gear-shifting, 20; - starting, 20, 158, 288; - brake, 20, 158; - clutch, 20, 158; - accelerator, 20, 160, 168; - reverse, 95 - - Pedestrians have right of way everywhere, 296 - - “Pep,” 56 - - Petcocks, 274 - - Pin, tie rod, 270 - - Pipe, exhaust, 15; - exhaust, may set fire to car, 215, 216; - attach to exhaust in garage, to lead fumes to outer air, 227 - - Pipe lines, clogged, cause knocking, 260 - - Pipes, leaky supply, 65; - to prevent bursting of, 193 - - Piston head, hole punched in, by valve head, 274 - - Piston rings, 16; - grooving and drilling to release surplus oil, 49; - leaky, 53, 54; - to prevent working around, 67; - loose, cause knocking, 259; - carbon in, 272 - - Pistons, 16; - too small, cause knocking, 259 - - Pliers, carry while touring, 249 - - Plug, spark, 17; - cracks or porosity in, 119; - carry extra set while touring, 249; - to test in case of trouble, 277 - - Policemen, don’t run away from, 10 - - Power, stroke, 17; - how connected to wheels, 18; - how secured in engine, 22; - necessity of pressure to get, 22; - proper, from each cylinder, 61 - - Pre-ignition, caused by increase of pressure in combustion - chamber, 252; - causes knocking, 260 - - Premium on fire insurance lower when extinguishers carried, 218 - - Pressure, necessity of, for power, 22; - on tires increases in hot weather, 204; - on tires test for increase in, in hot weather, 210; - proper for tires, 211, 212; - in combustion chamber, 251 - - Pressure fuel system, 16, 163 - - Priming, how done, 163; - in cold weather, 194 - - Propeller-shaft bearings, 154 - - Pump, oil, 34, 35; - overheating rarely caused by, 200; - parts of, cause knocking, 260 - - Pump type of cooling system, 15 - - Puncture caused by lost parts, 270 - - Push-rod adjustment causes knocking, 259 - - Push-rods, clearance between valve stems and, causes trouble, 290 - - - R - - Radiator, location of, 15; - examine, before leaving garage, 157; - sediment in, 164, 199; - to remedy discharge of steam from, 165; - adjustable device to regulate admittance of air, 189; - covers, 189, 195; - cover partly or wholly in cold weather, 188, 189; - if covered, improved efficiency of engine, 190; - bursting of, to prevent, 193; - water boiling in, 198; - clogged, causes knocking, 260 - - Radius rods, 13 - - Railway crossings, extra care necessary, 180 - - Rattles, causes of, 269 - - Reverse the car, how to, 169 - - Reverse pedal, use of, as a brake, 95 - - Reversing, shifting of gears in, 136 - - Rings, piston, 16, 49, 53, 54, 67 - - Rivets of brake lining, 98 - - Road rules, of Y. M. C. A., 156; - local, must be obeyed, 173 - - Roads, oiled, dangerous, 90; - necessary to take at low speed, 92; - generally sprinkled or oiled during summer season, 207 - - Roads, signs along, importance of, 90; - parts found along, 269 - - Roadway, crown of the, causes slipping, 87, 90 - - Rod, radius, 13; - torque, 13, 264; - tie, 14, 101, 106, 107; - connecting, 17, 68 - - Rotary motion, how obtained, 17 - - Rubber hose decomposed by glycerin in freeze-proof solution, 192 - - Rules, importance of following, 8, 9, 10; - miscellaneous, 308 - - Running brake, 158 - - - S - - Safety devices, best necessary, 89 - - Salt in freeze-proof solution, 192 - - Schools, automobile, manufacturers’ for purchasers, 3, 7; - danger of being taught at inefficient or fraudulent - institutions, 324 - - Screws, absence of, causes squeaks, 269 - - Secondary current absorbed by carbon, 119 - - Sediment, in battery causing short-circuit, 126; - in radiator, 164, 199 - - Self-starter, pedal, 20; - lubrication of, 41; - types of, 128; - bearings, 153 - - Service stations, 7 - - Shaft, crank, 17; - drive, 19; - rear, in driving causes click, 262 - - Shifting gears, 133; - on hills, 229; - on an up grade, 231; - starting uphill, 231; - choice of gears, 232; - avoid straining car, 232, 233; - descending hills, 233, 234 - - Short circuiting, causes fires, 217; - causes knocking, 259 - - Shut-off valve, 275 - - Sight oil feed, 20 - - Signs along the road, importance of, 90 - - Skidding, 76; - effects of, on car, 77; - in winter, 77; - turning corners, 78; - rear wheel, how to stop, 79; - street-car tracks, 80; - uneven brakes, 86, 88; - unequal distribution of weight, 81; - best prevented by care, 82, 83; - due mostly to excessive speed, 86; - caused by crown of road, 87; - by turning corners at high speed, by sharp turn of - steering-wheel, 87; - stopped by turning steering-wheel, 88 - - Skipping sometimes overcome by enriching the mixture, 190 - - Smoke, its sources, 46; - remedies, 47, 48, 49; - how to tell from what it comes, 50; - black, 68 - - Soap, not to be used on polished surfaces of car, 241 - - Spark, 17; - why advanced and retarded and how, 23; - intensity of, increased by gap in secondary circuit, 112; - has more kick, 116; - very weak, perhaps caused by condenser, 121; - use of, in hill-climbing, 171; - retarded, uses unnecessary gasoline, and overheats engine, 198; - greatly retarded indirectly causes fires, 216; - retard to prevent knocking on hills, 231; - over advanced does not cause knocking, 258; - too late causes knocking, 259; - at right time, necessary to start engine, 273; - test for in case of trouble, 276; - fully retarded, 308; - advance two-thirds, 309 - - Spark-control bearings, 153 - - Spark lever, 19, 161, 198 - - Spark plugs, 17; - widening gaps of, to prevent engine missing, 117; - insulating surface inside cylinder, 118; - cracks in, insulation, 119; - testing of, 120; - short-circuited by carbon, 120; - keep free from oil and grease, 238; - carry when touring, 249; - points of, cause knocking, 259, 260; - carbon between points of, 272; - how to test in case of trouble, 277 - - Sparking at commutator, 283 - - Sparks from commutators cause fires, 221 - - Speed, how to shift gears in increasing or decreasing, 133, 134, 135; - of engine, learn to judge by sound, 167; - running at extreme, cause of fires, 215 - - Speeds, number of, in gears, 18 - - Spindles, 14 - - Splash lubrication, 16; - pan, 34 - - Sponge, use of, in cleaning car, 240 - - Spray nozzle, 275 - - Spray valve, 63 - - Spring leaves, lubrication of, 44 - - Spring repair attachments, 248 - - Spring-shackle bolts sometimes make noise, 264 - - Spring shackles, lubrication of, 42 - - Springs, examine before touring, 248 - - Squeaks, causes of, 269 - - Stalling engine, how caused, 167; - what to do, on a hill, 172 - - Starter, switch, trouble in, 280; - a great convenience, but a source of trouble, 281, 282; - pedal sticking, instance of, 288; - makes automobile available to women, 302 - - Starting, motor, 16; - pedal, 20, 158; - systems, types, 128; - crank, 157; - engine, three things necessary, 273 - - Steam, from exhaust in cold weather, 50; - to remedy discharge from radiator, 165 - - Steering, of automobile compared with steering of different type - of boats, 102; - with broken tie rod, 106, 107 - - Steering gear, out of true, 71; - bearings, 154 - - Steering knuckles, 14; - lubrication in, 40 - - Steering-shaft, worm on, 19 - - Steering tie rod, 101 - - Steering wheel, 19, 162 - - Stop, how to, 168 - - Storage battery, 15 - - Stove, supplied by many manufacturers to heat air before it enters - carburetor, 187; - may be dispensed with in hot weather, 206 - - Strain, how taken off knuckle pins, 104 - - Streets, how to turn in narrow, 169; - driving in congested, 173 - - Strokes, suction, compression, power, and exhaust, 17 - - Suburbs of any city, the place for automobiling, 303 - - Suction stroke of engine, 17 - - Sump, 34 - - Supply pipes, leaky, 65 - - Switch, lighting, 20, 109; - ignition, 20, 162; - self-starter, trouble in, 280; - thrown to battery position, 308 - - System, importance of, in locating trouble, 9; - a process of elimination, 273 - - Systems, cooling, kinds, 15; - ignition, kinds, 15; - lubrication, kinds, 16; - fuel supply, kinds, 16, 163 - - - T - - Talc French, for slipping clutch, 310 - - Tank, fuel supply, 16; - gasoline, 162; - water, 164 - - Tape, tire, carry, while touring, 249 - - Temperature, high, to the boiling point of water, but for - efficiency of engine, 189 - - Terminals, electric, testing of, 109 - - Tests for electrical troubles, examples of, 109 - - Thermo-syphon type of cooling system, 15 - - Things to do, four before leaving garage, 308; - five, before cranking engine, 308; - three after cranking, 309 - - Throttle, purpose, 23; - use of, in hill-climbing, 171; - open, in starting, 308; - close, till engine idles, 309 - - Throttle bearings, 153 - - Throttle lever, its use, where placed, how operated, 19, 20, 161 - - Tie rod, must not be bent, 14, 101; - broken, 106, 107 - - Tie rod pin, 270 - - Timing, correct, 24 - - Timing gears, to adjust, 309 - - Timing gear teeth cause knocking, 259 - - Timing, ignition, wrong, causes knocking, 260 - - Tire pressure, tests of increase due to running in hot weather, 210 - - Tire repair materials, carry, while touring, 249 - - Tire-valve tool, 30 - - Tires, purpose and location, 19; - abuse of, 59, 60; - deterioration of, 69; - cuts in, 70; - affected by steering gear, 71; - by clutch, 71; - by brakes, 72; - by oil, grease, gasoline, and wet weather, 72; - general cost of, 73; - storing, in winter, 74; - porosity of, 75; - keep clean, 75; - non-skid, 81, 84, 85, 86; - examine, before leaving garage, 157; - how to care for, 165; - expand in hot weather, 204; - pressure test of, after hot weather running, 205; - under-inflation and over-inflation, 205; - inflated too hard make riding uncomfortable, 211; - weakened from any cause blow-out quicker, 211; - proper pressure for, 211, 212; - extra, carry on car, 249; - puncture caused by lost parts, 270 - - Tool for tire valves, 30 - - Tools, furnished with car, 26; - for emergencies, 27; - too many better than too few, 27; - additional, desirable, 28; - to be carried on car, 157 - - Tops, how to clean and care for, 242 - - Torque rod, 13; - causes knocks, 264 - - Touring, what to do before, 244; - refill gear case, 245; - examine gears, 245; - drain, clean, and refill crank case, 245; - attend to lubrication, 246; - carry extra oil, grease and gasoline on car, 246; - examine brakes, 246; - keep brake drums free from oil, 247; - have carbon removed, 247; - tighten nuts and inspect all parts, 248; - test compression, grind in valves, inspect ignition system, - recharge battery, dry cells should be carried, examine - springs, 248; - things which should be carried, 249 - - Tow rope, 31; - fastened to post and rear wheel, 86; - carry while touring, 249 - - Traffic, driving in, 173; - rules give pedestrian right of way, 296; - rules should be taught by auto schools, 325 - - Transmission, 130; - rules for care of, 311 - - Transmission gear bearings, 154 - - Trolley crossings, extra care necessary, 182 - - Trouble, hunting must be systematic, 272; - a process of elimination, 273; - the first thing to do, 273; - indications when engine turns over easily or hard, 273; - compression tests, 273, 274; - exhaust valves, 274; - inlet valve, 274; - inspect gasoline, 275; - inspect carburetor, 275; - inspect ignition system, 276; 277, 314; - chart, Y. M. C. A., 279; - in the self-starter switch, 280; - caused by added conveniences, 280, 281; - necessary to almost dismantle complex types of engines, 281; - made by starter, 281, 282; - made by electric lights and accessories, 282; - by complicated electric systems and wiring, 282, 283, 284 - - Tubes, how to keep, 73; - carry extra while touring, 249 - - Turn buckle, 14 - - Turn, in narrow streets, how to, 169; - corners, how to, 170 - - Turning, blowing horn when, 297 - - - U - - Universal joints, 19, 40 - - Upholstery, protect with slip covers, 243 - - - V - - Vacuum fuel supply, 16, 164 - - Valve head, punches hole in piston head, 274 - - Valve push-rod guides enclosed in housings, 44; - lubrication of, 44 - - Valve-stems, clearance between push rods and, causes trouble, 290 - - Valve, needle, 52, 63, 276, 309; - spray, 63; - sticking causes knocking, 259; - auxiliary air, 275, 309; - shut off, 275 - - Valves inlet, 17, 22; - outlet, 22; - overhead, lubrication of, 44; - leaky, 54, 66; - carbonized, 67, 272, 274; - exhaust, 257; - inlet, 274 - - Vaporization of gasoline absorbs much heat, 187; - best in cold weather when stove and water jacket are both used, 188 - - Velocipede, setting of wheel compared with automobile, 105 - - Vibration, effects of, 65 - - Voltmeter, 109 - - - W - - Washers, supply to all nuts before touring, 248; - absence of, causes squeaks, 269; - lock, 270 - - Washing automobile, what to use, how to do it, 175 - - Waste, carry on car, 30; - packed around battery has caused fires, 217 - - Water, in cylinder and crank case, 68; - where placed, its care, 164; - boiling in radiator, 198; - evaporates from battery quicker in hot weather, 206; - of no use in fighting gasoline fires, 222; - running, should be used in cleaning car whenever possible, 242; - needed, 273; - take on before leaving garage, 308 - - Water jacket, on mixing chamber of gasoline, 187; - to prevent bursting of, 193 - - Wet weather affects tires, 72 - - Wheel, fly, 17; - steering, 19, 162 - - Wheels, how front are made to converge and undergather, 14; - how power is connected to, 18; - why not parallel, 101, 102, 103; - set to undergather, 104; - setting of, compared with bicycle, 105 - - Wheel bearings, lubrication of, 43 - - Wind sometimes cools the engine too much when traveling against, 190 - - Wire, spool of, 31; - extra wire for additional device, 111; - carry while touring, 249; - to fasten cross link, 271 - - Wire gauze, 52 - - Wire terminals, keep free from oil and grease, 238 - - Wires to plugs, inspect, in case of trouble, 277 - - Wiring diagram, knowledge of, important, 115 - - Wobbling, tendency to overcome by converging of wheels, 103 - - Women as drivers, 300; - Eastern and Western compared, 302; - as apt as men at mastering details, 303; - at Y. M. C. A. Auto School, 303; - all types, pupils, 304; - take cars apart and assemble them, 305; - road instruction for, 306; - have the main qualities needed for drivers, 307; - taking up the auto seriously, 307 - - Wood, block of, to put under jack, 30 - - Worm on steering shaft, 19 - - Wrist pin, out of line or loose, causes knocking, 259 - - - Y - - Yokes, 14 - - Y. M. C. A. Automobile School, road rules, 56; - general trouble chart, 279; - women as pupils, 303 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUTNAM'S AUTOMOBILE -HANDBOOK *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Clifford Brokaw</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Putnam's Automobile Handbook</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>The Care and Management of the Modern Motor-Car</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Authors: H. Clifford Brokaw</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em;'>Charles A. Starr</p> -<p style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: June 22, 2021 [eBook #65673]</p> -<p style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Brian Wilcox and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUTNAM'S AUTOMOBILE HANDBOOK ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="frontis" style="max-width: 155.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="right">Courtesy of Allen Motor Co.</p> - -<p class="caption">SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE</p></div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h1>Putnam’s<br /> -Automobile Handbook</h1> - -<p class="center">The Care and Management of the<br /> -Modern Motor-Car</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="smaller">By</span><br /> -H. Clifford Brokaw<br /> - -<span class="smallest">Principal<br /> - -And</span><br /> - -Charles A. Starr<br /> - -<span class="smallest">Of the Staff -of the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s -Christian Association of New York City</span></h2> - -<p class="center noindent padt2 padb2"><i>Illustrated</i></p> - -<p class="center noindent">G. P. Putnam’s Sons<br /> -New York and London<br /> -The Knickerbocker Press<br /> -1918 -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center noindent padt2 padb2 smallest">COPYRIGHT, 1918<br /> -BY<br /> - -G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</p> - -<p class="center noindent padt2 padb2 smallest"> -The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOREWORD">FOREWORD</h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Much</span> of the material, here assembled for the first time, has been -printed in the automobile section of New York City newspapers. It -has stood the scrutiny of the wisest men in the automobile trade and -has been read eagerly by owners within the sphere of the newspapers’ -limited circulation; some of it has been reprinted in papers all over -the country, which is evidence enough of its practical value.</p> - -<p>The publication, however, has been without sequence and all of it -has not appeared in any one paper. Moreover it has been reassembled -and rewritten and much has been added to round out the story of the -automobile and to adapt the material to the use of everyday men who do -not understand or care for the more technical works.</p> - -<p>It should not be taken as the last word concerning the auto. That -will not be written until after the automobile has been driven out of -business by the airplane or something else and is as obsolete as the -oxcart of a century or two ago. There is nothing new in the principle -of the gas engine, but new appliances and new methods are constantly -being invented and discovered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span></p> - -<p>All that is herein contained is the result of years of experience -at the Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian -Association, New York City. This was one of the pioneer schools and -for fourteen years has turned out more than 1000 trained drivers each -year who know their engine and working parts thoroughly. Last year the -number was nearly 2500. Naturally in handling these thousands of bright -men the instructors were stimulated and themselves learned as they -taught. The consensus of this ripe experience is given here.</p> - -<p>Lest there be misunderstanding, it were better said at once that if the -reader has come to this book to learn how to be a garage mechanic, how -to qualify as an expert in automotive technique, or how to learn common -sense, he should at once seek another source of information. This book -makes no pretensions of teaching the last word in automobile repair. -But if the automobile owner desires to have a working knowledge of his -car, to know how to find and overcome the ordinary ills and troubles to -which it is subject, and how to diagnose and prescribe for it when it -begins to wheeze or squeak or groan or knock, let him read on. The book -is for him.</p> - -<p>In other words this is not a <i>sine qua non</i>, but a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span> friend in -need; it is not a know-it-all, but a first-aid treatise. It is a -leaf—several in fact—from the book of experience, relating not to the -engineering problems of the automobile, but to the things which the -engineer overlooked or could not solve, and which the ingenuity of men -who lay no claim to the title of engineer, has enabled them to learn so -that they may take a bucking auto and make it feed out of their hands -and stand without hitching.</p> - -<p>One of the first essentials of an automobile is that it shall go, and -that no amount of perversity shall prevent the owner from “driving it -back home under its own power.” Anyone may be towed in, if there is a -horse or another automobile handy; the wise owner will prepare himself -to avoid this. Except for serious breaks of parts, or forgetfulness -which permits oil or gas supply to run out, there is seldom reason why -the average owner should not “get out and get under” to find out what -the trouble is and, having found it, to remove the cause and start the -engine. It usually should take only a few minutes. System in locating -trouble and knowledge of what to do to remove the trouble are within -the compass of all; if there also reside within the individual a few -grains of common sense, his problem is simplified, his troubles are -lightened.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p> - -<p>Let it be said also that this book does not in any way pretend to -supersede an automobile school for the owner who desires to make all -his ordinary repairs, and do more puttering about the car than the -average owner cares for. All owners would save the cost of instruction -many times over and repay the lost time by taking a course of -instruction in a reputable school. Many Y.M.C.A. branches all over -the land have well equipped schools, and there are many others in the -cities; there are also many where time spent would be wasted. There are -several in one of our large cities where the expense is very small, but -it is dear at any price. The “course” consists largely in putting the -student to work in a garage as an apprentice, where his instruction -is confined to verbal orders of how to repair a car which comes in. -In time, of course, the student comes across a large variety of -troubles, depending upon the character of the garage trade. Meanwhile -the garage-auto-school proprietor permits the student to pay for the -privilege of doing the repair work at the institution. No wonder the -course is advertised as unlimited!</p> - -<p>It should be understood that this book does not pretend to tell all the -troubles attaching to automobiles and how to end them; but it covers -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span> general run of difficulties experienced on the road and a close -study of its pages and an application of its advice will make an owner -who has the least mechanical genius independent of the garage man, with -his delay and extravagant charges; at least it will enable him to get -to the home garage in most cases, where repairs may be effected with a -minimum of expense and annoyance.</p> - -<p>Upon this basis and with this understanding, the automobile owner may -safely pin his faith to what follows and plunge at once into its depths -without fear.</p> - -<p class="right">H. C. B.<br /> -C. A. S.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable" summary="toc"> -<tr> -<th class="tdr normal small">CHAPTER</th> -<th> </th> -<th class="tdr normal small">PAGE</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">I.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">What to Do on Purchasing a Car</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">II.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Some Things to Avoid</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">III.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">What an Automobile Is</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">What Makes the Engine Go</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">V.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Equipment and Accessories</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">If well “Slicked” the Engine Runs</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Where Lubrication is Neglected</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Sometimes the Car Smokes</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Carburetor and its Failings</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">X.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Getting the Most out of a Gallon of Gas</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Things which Make Gas Bills High</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Care of the Tires</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span>XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Skidding may be Minimized</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XIV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">“Can’t-Slip Heels” Lessen Skidding</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Avoid Newly Oiled Roads</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XVI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Watch your Brakes</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XVII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Why the Auto Steers Easily</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Elusive “Juice”</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XIX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Putting the Kick in the Spark</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">What’s the Trouble with my Battery?</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Why Gears Strip</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Gear-Shifting Bugaboo</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Muffler</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXIV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Your Bearings</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Driving the Car</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXVI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Where Extra Caution is Necessary</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXVII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">An Auto Furnace for Winter</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Cooling System in Winter</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXIX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Overheating the Engine in Summer</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Some Other Hot-Weather Tips</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Hot-Weather Tire Expansion</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span>XXXII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Guarding against Fire</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Don’t Run away from a Fire</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXIV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Death in the Gasoline</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Shifting Gears on Hills</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXVI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Keeping the Car Sleek</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXVII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Some Things a Tourist should Know</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Little Knocks Are Hardly Boosts</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XXXIX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Some Other Causes of Knocking</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XL.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Chassis Knocks</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Keeping down the Auto Upkeep</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Hunting Trouble</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">More Trouble</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLIV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Don’t Take Things for Granted</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Blowing your own Horn</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLVI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Women as Drivers</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLVII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Rules</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">XLVIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">—<span class="smcap">The Golden Rule of Motoring</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="tdl padl1"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable" summary="loi"> -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th class="tdr normal smaller">PAGE</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Sectional View of a Modern Automobile with Four-Cylinder Engine</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><i><a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a></i></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Chassis Plan of the Same Automobile</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing014">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Sectional View of a Four-Cylinder Engine -with Special Reference to Parts Connected -with Lubrication</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing034">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Rear Wheel and Brake Drum Removed, -Showing External and Internal Brake -Bands and Mechanism</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing098">98</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Then He Went to School to Learn some -More about his Car</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing125">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Diagram of Three Speed and Reverse Gear</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#image132">132</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Block of Steel, and the Gear Wheel which -was Hammered from it</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing138">138</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Brake Levers and Linkage, Showing Equalizing -Rod and Springs</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing246">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><span class="smcap">She is Accumulating Knowledge of an -Intricate Machine—and She is Fascinated</span></p></td> -<td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#facing305">305</a></td> -</tr></table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I"><span class="largest">Putnam’s Automobile Handbook</span><br /> -<br /> -CHAPTER I<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHAT TO DO UPON PURCHASING A CAR</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> man who buys a car will receive from the salesman a certain amount -of instruction as to running it. He will be taught how to manipulate -the pedals and levers, switches and other devices of the equipment and, -if necessary, how to run the car. He will be given, also, certain books -of instructions.</p> - -<p>It is presumable that almost any man will remember enough of the -salesman’s patter to enable him to get home with the car, and that some -bits of memory as to the instruction books will remain. But will the -owner get out those books and go to school awhile with them? Not if he -is the average owner. Probably he looks upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> them as mere catalogues -for ordering repair parts—well enough when needed. Do not make that -mistake. There is no other book printed, no matter how complete, which -supersedes or which can be substituted for the manufacturer’s book -concerning his own car. It was not printed just to consume paper and -ink; the manufacturer had no idea you would cut out the pictures and -paste them about the garage. He and his assistants spent a large amount -of time and a larger amount of gray matter in preparing those books so -that you, Mr. Owner, would know how your car is built, what it ought to -do, and why it won’t unless you do certain things. The books contain -in a small compass practically everything about your particular car. -The owner should master the contents first of all. Nothing can take its -place.</p> - -<p>If the owner has not read the instructions, lay down this volume right -now, go to the garage, and get the books and read them over. If you -haven’t read them they are still in the car. The manufacturer made -certain that the owner could not claim the books were not received, -by tacking them fast under the seat or elsewhere so that they could -not get away and so that a forgetful salesman would not overlook this -important matter. Get them out and lay the basis of what is to follow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p> - -<p>Doubtless the owner will find that the manufacturer has, for instance, -given certain instructions concerning lubrication, perhaps has -specified certain kinds of lubricants. Now, no matter how much you -may know about the subject of lubrication, rest assured that the -manufacturer has had an engineer study out the lubrication of his car -and what he writes concerning it is the last word and it should be -followed implicitly. All that is contained in these pages upon the -subject of lubrication is explanatory and corrective and in no way can -take the place of the manufacturer’s advice for the particular car.</p> - -<p>The same thing is true as to tires, or brakes, or steering gear, or -any other part of the mechanism. Read his book first and then turn to -the appropriate chapter here and you will find no divergence, only -interpretation, clarification, supplementary advice.</p> - -<p>Probably it would be well to remind the owner that nine-tenths of the -complaints which reach the manufacturer or his service stations, show -that the owners making the “holler” confess that they had not read the -books given them with the car. It has become such a serious thing that -at least one manufacturer has started schools for purchasers of the -make, where, at a nominal compensation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> they may be made to read the -instructions and be given a visualization of what they mean. All owners -cannot visit the centers where such schools are maintained, and all -manufacturers do not maintain them now, though it may be necessary in -the near future. The fact that it is necessary, however, should leave -the impress upon the reader’s mind of the importance of the subject.</p> - -<p>The owner, whether he possess a “flivver,” or an edition <i>de -luxe</i>, has about as much money tied up in his car as he feels -he can devote to that form of pleasure or to business. It is an -investment which will, or will not, bring commensurate returns in -money, or moments, well spent; it can be made an indispensable aid to -both business and pleasure, or it may become an unsufferable nuisance -in either. The value of a car depends not upon the amount of the -purchase price, but upon what can be gotten out of it: its service, its -dependability and general reliability; that and the low cost of upkeep -and operation.</p> - -<p>Would it not seem reasonable, therefore, for the owner to give as much -thought and study to the machine which propels him and his merchandise -as to the machine in the factory which produces the merchandise; ought -he not to understand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> how and why and wherefore it propels him—or why -not?</p> - -<p>Few men there be who would consign their bodies to the mercy of wind -and waves if they did not believe that a competent captain and engineer -were aboard the craft, or to a railway train were there not an engineer -and conductor at hand to look to his safety. Why should he place -himself and loved ones in a motor car and start off on a trip with an -uncertain hand at the steering wheel, with no one aboard competent to -rule the engine, or to know if all other parts of the mechanism are -properly adjusted, when a maladjustment may mean danger and even death?</p> - -<p>One would not waste sympathy upon the owner himself in case of an -accident through ignorance, but the fate of others in his keeping -prompts the sounding of a warning.</p> - -<p>Years ago traveling sign painters decorated trees and rail fences and -barns along the railways with injunctions of a religious nature, such -as “Prepare to Meet Thy God.” The last time the writer was back “at the -farm” this identical message confronted him from a big rock alongside -the railway crossing, as it did thirty or more years ago. Only this -time it seemed appropriate, for there was more recklessness shown than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -one cares to witness regularly—it is too nerve-racking.</p> - -<p>When one considers that a defective brake, a worn-through steering -knuckle, or any one of a number of broken parts—broken because -neglected—may be the particular weapon selected by the fool-killer, -the owner who cares for his bones, or for the lives of his passengers, -would better spend a few hours occasionally in looking after his car -and in finding out all that is possible about it.</p> - -<p>Even though the owner can afford a chauffeur who “knows all about an -auto,” it is noticeable that chauffeurs have a way of forgetting, that -they loaf on the job shamefully, that they conspire with the supply -dealer to run the cost of upkeep to skyline altitudes, and are little -more immune from road troubles than the common or garden variety of -owner. The owner who knows can detect all these lapses from strict -rectitude, to the comfort of his person and the safety of his bank -balance.</p> - -<p>So, now, having turned to the manufacturer’s books of instructions and -pondered over the warnings here given, the reader may safely pass on to -the chapters dealing with the beast he is called upon to tame.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SOME THINGS TO AVOID</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> a certain character of history, long touted as “the wisest guy -ever,” uttered his famous “Wisdom crieth aloud in the street,” and -along with it, “Fools hate knowledge,” he must have had a vision of the -present day, when there is so much and so little known about the chief -mode of transportation, the automobile; so much by those who really -have studied its mechanical principles, and so little by those who are -running them about the highways. Yet in this day of automobile schools -and service stations there is no need of a single individual being -ignorant, nor of his coming under the condemnation of the same wise -one: “The careless ease of fools shall destroy them.”</p> - -<p>Give me an individual of average intelligence in overalls and jumper -and a mind devoid of the “I know it” error and 99.99 per cent. of such -can be taught to “make the auto auto as it really ought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> to auto.” The -chief obstacle is the half knowledge—half error—which some possess.</p> - -<p>Josh Billings once said: “I’d rather not know so much than know a lot -that is not so.” The reader will get the idea.</p> - -<p>One of the hardest things for the average man to learn is not to do -useless things. Over and over folks will do things contrary to all -rules and instructions and make extra work for themselves. In a school -it is a good thing, perhaps, for it enables the instructor to point -out the futility of going at the thing wrong end first. There was one -class at the West Side Y.M.C.A. school particularly stupid in this -respect. They were set to locating engine troubles, forgot all about -the rules and took turns cranking the engine, expecting in that way to -find out why the engine would not run. The instructor, looking into -the classroom, found how things were going. All but one student were -intent upon turning over the engine; that one man stood in one corner -grinning, apparently having a good time with himself. The instructor in -feigned amazement called out to him:</p> - -<p>“Here, why are you not cranking the engine, too?”</p> - -<p>With a grin perfectly idiotic the fellow drawled out:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<p>“What’s the use of cranking if she ain’t goin’ to run?”</p> - -<p>The reader can figure out for himself the relative degrees of idiocy -or stupidity in that class. The instructor quickly set them to work by -rule and they all knew in a few minutes that troubles are not located -by cranking alone. The reader who will give careful attention to the -instructions herein contained, and who will follow closely the rules, -will not be cranking the engine when he should be cleaning a spark -plug, or adjusting the carburetor, or mending a broken wire. He will -learn that there is a sequence in every little job about the auto which -tends to lessen the labor and to produce the best result, just as there -is in keeping a set of books, or in running a farm.</p> - -<p>The carpenter who does his work without plans usually is dubbed a -“wood butcher.” The inference is that the man who would care for his -automobile should learn to do it in a systematic way, according to -rule, doing everything always the same way and in the same order. -Thus the labor becomes a habit and is performed quickly and easily. -At the same time habit must not be allowed to become a rut; the owner -must preserve originality and initiative, and native ingenuity is -invaluable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></p> - -<p>Particularly it is wise to avoid the idea that at the first sign of -something wrong one knows just what the trouble is. Probably no one -thing has caused more unnecessary work and unnecessary expletive than -jumping at a conclusion. Have a rule and go by it. Under the chapter -relating to troubles there will be found a rule for locating them. It -does not matter so much where one starts if it is followed through when -started. Experience will lead one in time to select the starting point, -either under the heading ignition, or gasoline, or other heading, -the symptoms indicating generally to the experienced ear what is the -matter; but there is so much chance of error in this guess that the -rule must be remembered and closely followed.</p> - -<p>It takes three things to start a gas engine running: gasoline in the -proper mixture, compression, and ignition. To keep it running we must -add a lubricating and a cooling system. There must also be free exhaust -for burned gases. While there are many phases of each, it is necessary -for the owner to get these things fixed in his, mind first. Everything -else is extraneous.</p> - -<p>There is something else to avoid. Avoid giving offense to the policeman -on the street, and avoid running away if you have had an accident or -are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> hailed by the traffic man. It does not pay, and will make added -trouble, unless you are as fortunate in explanations as was a fellow -who was caught by the officer in front of the Automobile School. He -had hit someone and instead of stopping as the law provided, he gave a -hasty look, saw no policeman, and shot ahead, turning the next corner. -He dodged in and out of several streets, not seeing the motorcycle -policeman chasing him. When caught and stopped he was asked why he was -running away.</p> - -<p>“Me running away?” he asked. “I was not running away, I was just trying -to find a cop to report the accident.”</p> - -<p>It worked that time, but it is not safe to trust the expedient under -other circumstances.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHAT AN AUTOMOBILE IS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> matters not whether one call it an automobile, a tin lizzie, a gas -wagon, or what not, it consists of a steel frame upon which are mounted -wheels, an engine, appliances for connecting the engine to the driving -wheels, a fuel supply tank, a system for producing ignition at the -right moment, and appliances for regulating the speed of the engine and -the direction of the car. A seat for the driver and sundry pedals and -levers are needed to accomplish speed and steering control, and sundry -other parts have their place, but the above covers in a general way the -necessities of an automobile.</p> - -<p>An automobile, as the name suggests, is a car which contains its own -propelling force and to which it is not necessary to hitch a horse, or -steam engine, or something else to make it go. This in spite of the -fact that occasionally it <i>is</i> necessary to hitch something else -to an auto to make it go.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> - -<p>The assembly, generally speaking, consists of the chassis, -corresponding to the running gear of a wagon; the engine, mounted on -the chassis; and the body.</p> - -<p>The chassis usually is made of angle iron riveted together in form -convenient for supporting the other parts. This rests upon the springs -which take up the road shocks in part, and the springs rest upon the -axles.</p> - -<p>The rear axles—there is a separate axle for each rear wheel—are -fixed, that is, they keep the wheels from oscillating, and they are -joined in the center by the differential, a device driving the axle -shafts by which one wheel is permitted to revolve at a differing speed -as compared with the other, in turning a corner. Since, in turning, the -outer wheel must travel a much longer distance than the inside wheel, -if no device were installed to take up this difference, the outer wheel -would scrape over the ground on every curve, or the inner wheel would -spin without forward motion. In either event it would be disastrous to -tires.</p> - -<p>To keep the differential housing from twisting, a torque rod or tube -connects it to the frame; to keep the rear axles at right angles to -the frame and to transmit the driving thrust to the load, radius rods -connect the axles to the frame forward.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p> - -<p>The forward axle, unlike in an ordinary wagon, is fastened to the -chassis frame, through springs, and does not turn. On either end is a -yoke from which is suspended a steering knuckle, the wheel turning on a -tapered spindle forged with the knuckle. The two knuckles are fastened -together by a tie rod, which has some form of a turn buckle by which -the wheels may be made to run parallel, or practically so. As a matter -of fact the wheels are not parallel. They foregather slightly, so that -the lines, projected forward far enough, would meet and make a pointed -effect, like the bow of a boat. Its effect is to bring a slight but -constant pressure upon both wheels and makes them less likely to swerve -through contact with road unevenness. Also the wheels undergather, so -that the load is brought over the center of knuckle support, minimizing -the strain.</p> - -<p>This deviation of the wheels from true produces a very slight wear on -the tires, but it is more than compensated for by the other advantages -noted. The deviation is worked out scientifically and the owner need -not trouble himself about it. His only concern is that the tie rod -be not bent so that the foregather is increased, when there would be -excess wear of tires.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="facing014" style="max-width: 158.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing014.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="right">Courtesy of Allen Motor Co.</p> - -<p class="caption">CHASSIS OF A MODERN AUTOMOBILE WITH FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">The brake drums are attached to the rear wheels and have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> inside and -outside bands with mechanism to tighten them against the drum providing -the necessary friction. The levers which connect the bands to the brake -pedal or emergency lever are termed the brake linkage.</p> - -<p>The motor, or engine, rests upon the chassis frame forward, being -fastened thereto by bolts. Forward of it is a radiator, if it is a -water-cooled motor, to which it is connected by pipes; the cooling -system may be either pump or thermo-syphon type. Some few motors are -air-cooled. The principle of cooling is that the motor should be kept -just cool enough to prevent the lubricating oil from burning off the -cylinder walls.</p> - -<p>Attached to the motor are the carburetor, in which air and gasoline -are mixed properly for rapid combustion, wires to supply ignition to -the mixture at the proper time, a device for giving lubrication, and -exhaust pipes leading to the muffler, the latter designed to stifle the -noise of rapid explosions, which otherwise would be deafening.</p> - -<p>The ignition system may be either battery and coil, or high-tension -magneto which has its own coil and distributor, or a combination of -both these systems. Where there is a self-starter there is a storage -battery, which supplies current to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> the starting motor, and from which -the ignition current is drawn, and a generator to keep the battery -charged, and the generator may be provided with a circuit breaker and -distributor, or a separate magneto or coil may be used.</p> - -<p>The lubricating device may either be a gravity or force-feed oiler -system with pipes leading to the various bearings, or the chief -lubrication may be by the splash system, where a reservoir of oil is -kept under the crank case from which it is pumped to oil pans under the -cranks, being splashed by projections which dip into the oil and throw -it all over the inside mechanism.</p> - -<p>Also attached to the carburetor is the pipe from the fuel supply tank. -This supply may come by gravity or under pressure, and a late device -which is furnished with many cars is a vacuum gravity system, the -gasoline being drawn from the main tank, by a vacuum created in the -intake manifold, into a small container attached under the hood, whence -it flows by gravity to the carburetor, maintaining a uniform supply.</p> - -<p>The motor consists of one or more cylinders, inside of each being a -piston which fits tight, the escape of gas being further prevented by -piston rings which seal the cylinder with the aid of the lubricating -oil. The pistons are attached to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> connecting rod by a wrist pin, -the connecting rod being attached at the other end to the crank which -rests in bearings. The action of the engine is that by drawing down the -piston a vacuum is created in the upper part of the cylinder called the -combustion chamber. At the right moment an inlet valve is opened and a -charge of gas and air, called mixture, is sucked in. The valve closes -and the piston rising compresses the charge. When the piston reaches -its highest point a spark is introduced through spark plug or igniter. -This fires the mixture, bringing a rapid expansion, and this drives the -piston downward, producing force. This revolves the crank shaft, which -turns the force into rotary motion. This operation repeated rapidly -furnishes the motion which drives the car. The fly wheel carries the -crank over the strokes which do not produce power.</p> - -<p>There are four strokes to each motor cycle. The first, which takes in -the mixture, is called the suction stroke; the next is the compression -stroke, the third is the power stroke, and the last is the exhaust -stroke when the burned gases are expelled from the combustion chamber. -These four strokes take two complete revolutions of the crank shaft, so -that the four <i>cycle</i> is really two <i>circles</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> - -<p>Power having been created and turned into motion, the next step is to -connect it to the propelling or drive wheels. The first device for -controlling the power is the clutch, which provides means of applying -or cutting off the power or motion quickly without stopping the engine. -This is done by friction in some form. The most common are the cone -clutch, where male and female cones are engaged by pressure, the -friction transmitting the power to the driving shaft; and the multiple -disc clutch, where numerous thin discs of metal or metal and textile -material are compressed together by a lever and transmit the power.</p> - -<p>To provide for varying speeds and for reversing, also extra power -to the rear wheels for hill climbing, sandy roads, etc., gears are -necessary. In a general way this is a set of cog wheels of varying -sizes, so arranged on parallel shafts that by engaging different size -gears on the shafts a certain speed will be transmitted, other gear -sets producing another speed or a reverse motion. The diagram in -Chapter XXI. shows the usual form of construction. Three speeds and -reverse usually are provided, though some cars have four speeds. These -gear sets are engaged successively until the desired speed is reached.</p> - -<p>From the gear case the power is transmitted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> by the drive shaft, which -has one or two universal joints to take up any misalignment and to -enable installing the engine level and yet transmit the power to the -driving axles, through the differential, at another level or angle, or -at varying angles due to spring action.</p> - -<p>Upon each of the wheels is a tire consisting of a rubber and fabric -casing, enclosing a soft rubber tube with a valve by which it may be -inflated. The purpose of the tires is to absorb road shocks and make -riding easy, as well as to keep the car from jolting to pieces. The -tires are of varying composition and form and are attached to the rims -in differing ways. Many auto trucks use solid rubber tires.</p> - -<p>Without going into detail, the foregoing gives the makeup of the car -and the simple principles of its operation. To control the car requires -various other parts. The first is the steering wheel and its mechanism. -The wheel is mounted on a shaft running within a tube, and to the lower -end of this shaft is a worm controlling a gear, and by levers and ball -joints operating the steering knuckle on one of the front wheels, the -other being operated simultaneously by the tie rod connection. On the -steering wheel or steering column are mounted the spark-timing lever -and the throttle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> lever. The spark lever regulates the time of the -spark within the combustion chamber and the throttle the amount of -mixture admitted to the combustion chamber.</p> - -<p>At the feet of the driver are the pedal for engaging the clutch, that -for applying the brake, and the accelerator pedal, which operates the -throttle as well as the lever before mentioned. The throttle lever on -the steering column is for the regular running adjustment, while the -accelerator pedal is for temporary increase of the mixture in starting -or in speeding up. There may also be a pedal for the self-starter, -though the switch often is upon the dash. On the Ford and some other -cars the gear shift is controlled by pedals, but usually the shift is -made by a lever placed convenient to the right hand of the driver. -With it is installed also the emergency brake lever, which is used for -locking the car when standing and for alternating with the foot brake -on long hills.</p> - -<p>On the dashboard may be mounted the ignition and lighting switch, the -speedometer, sight oil feed, and sundry other dials and switches, -depending upon the fastidiousness of the owner. Where there is a -self-starter there is a charge and discharge dial, the ammeter, which -tells whether the generator is working, and how.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHAT MAKES THE ENGINE GO</span></h2></div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> has been stated on a previous page, it takes three things to start -an engine and three more to keep it going. The first three essentials -are a proper mixture of gasoline and air, ignition at the right moment, -and compression.</p> - -<p>Gasoline will continue to burn after ignition, but, contrary to the -common idea, it will not explode unless confined, and not even then -unless it has vaporized and the vapor is mixed with air. It takes -about two hundred cubic feet of air to a pint of gasoline vaporized -to produce good combustion, though the air supply is usually much -more than this to insure carrying off the unburned nitrogen from the -air. For starting and speeding up, more gasoline is admitted to the -vaporizing chamber as the rich mixture ignites more quickly, but for -running, a leaner mixture produces better results.</p> - -<p>But whatever the mixture which is burned,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> there would be little or no -power produced if the mixture were not confined under pressure. It is, -of course, a fact that a tank filled with gasoline vapor and air will -explode with great force if ignited, though there be only the ordinary -atmospheric pressure upon the tank. But it must be remembered that -if the pressure were sixty or seventy pounds to the square inch the -explosion would destroy everything in the vicinity. Taking advantage of -this fact the designers of the gasoline engine provided for compressing -the gas before ignition, to produce the greatest amount of power for -driving the car. Valves are provided which admit the charge of mixture -to the combustion chamber, closing tight after the charge is received. -Then the piston rises, compressing the contents of the combustion -chamber until a pressure of between forty and seventy-five pounds per -square inch is reached. It is upon the principle of the muzzle-loading -rifle or shotgun, or in blasting, where the charge is tamped down, or -confined by wads, and the exploding powder is held until the pressure -sends the bullet on its errand, or rends the rock.</p> - -<p>Just as the piston reaches the highest point, and the compression is at -the maximum, a spark is introduced into the combustion chamber. Under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -the pressure the gases burn much more rapidly and the explosive force -is greater. The gas does not burn instantaneously, however. It takes -a distinct interval of time for all the gas mixture to ignite; for -this reason, when the engine is running under its own power, the spark -comes just before the time of greatest pressure, and before the piston -reaches top center, so that by the time the piston starts the downward -stroke the highest efficiency of power will have been reached. For this -reason the spark-timing control lever is advanced after the engine is -started to give the best results. But the engine is always cranked with -the spark fully retarded.</p> - -<p>The carburetor, meanwhile, has been called upon to send into the -combustion chamber through the intake manifold and intake valves a -charge of gas mixture; the quantity is regulated by the throttle. For -starting, a lever is manipulated which depresses the float in the fuel -chamber of the carburetor, permitting an extra supply to be drawn into -the mixing chamber, thus making the mixture richer and more readily -fired. When the engine has started running, the throttle is closed to -a point where the motor does not race. The correct running position is -given by the manufacturer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> and experience will soon determine where the -best results are obtained.</p> - -<p>The ignition system must deliver to the combustion chamber at the right -instant a spark of sufficient intensity to fire the charge. Whether the -electric current is obtained from battery or magneto, it must be hot -enough to do its work and there must be a timing device which will send -the spark into each cylinder when it is needed. These come in several -forms and are described in detail in the manufacturer’s instruction -books, in connection with the ignition and wiring diagrams.</p> - -<p>The compression is maintained when the piston rings and grooves are -free from gummed oil or carbon and move freely; when the cylinder walls -are not worn oval by a slapping piston, or creased by carbon, and when -a film of lubricating oil is constant on the side walls and when valves -are properly seated. Loss of compression means loss of power and the -cylinders should be tested every little while to make sure that no -cylinder is failing to do its duty. More will be said concerning this -later, as well as of minor things which may affect the compression.</p> - -<p>As has been mentioned, to keep the engine running for any length of -time there must be a cooling system, a system of lubrication, and a -free<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> exhaust. Once the owner comprehends the simplicity of gas-engine -operation, he can begin to trace each part of the operation, learning -all there is to know concerning the several steps in his own motor, and -absorbing the specific knowledge which will enable him to care for his -car efficiently and economically.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> every car are furnished all the things required for operation, -including lamps, tire pump, jack, tire-repair kit, a variety of -wrenches to fit all nuts and bolts, oil can, set of spark plugs -and generally an extra one; hammer, screw driver, cold chisel, -magneto-adjusting wrench, and some other things, varying with the car.</p> - -<p>There are any number of additions which may be made in the way of -tools, or of devices which some motorists deem desirable. Some of these -things are a speedometer, a clock, trouble lamp attachable to a socket -on the dash, a mirror to enable the driver to see what is going on -back of him (compulsory in New Jersey and some other States), cigar -lighters, foot warmers, and elaborate lights for the limousine. The -owner is cautioned, however, against loading up his battery with a lot -of electrical devices which use up current very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> fast. Not so as to -tools; one may err in having too few rather than too many.</p> - -<p>While it is true that a woman with a hairpin and a piece of string -can fix almost anything under the sun, the autoist would better not -trust to his wife’s ingenuity, but be a little better prepared for -the emergencies of the road. It does not do any good to know what the -matter is when the car balks unless one has the tools and material to -do the necessary repair work or adjustment.</p> - -<p>Every new car is equipped with certain tools, but some owners have no -interest in these tools and lose most of them in a short time, so that -when needed they are missing, while other owners add sufficient tools -to equip a good-sized machine shop.</p> - -<p>A wise selection of tools for the car will provide everything at all -likely to be needed on tour, and yet capable of being packed in such -a compact space that it does not become an annoyance through the room -occupied, nor weigh down the car. The special tools furnished should be -preserved with great care, because nothing else fills the bill quite -so well. To these might be added some few tools and parts not needed -often, but when they are, their absence is a source of delay and is -temper-provoking.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span></p> - -<p>Recently the author was asked to go about fifty miles into the country -to bring in a machine which had refused to run and had been stored in a -barn over night. He found that the interrupter points had become glazed -so that no spark was being procured. A special file is manufactured for -the particular purpose of cleaning off these points. As one of these -was not in the car, it was necessary to disassemble the spark timer -completely, take out the points, and then find a piece of flat hard -stone upon which the points could be cleaned. This did the work all -right, but much time could have been saved if the interrupter point -file had been carried in the car.</p> - -<p>Likewise no wrench was available for adjusting the points and it was -necessary to go to a nearby blacksmith shop and saw out a temporary -wrench for the purpose. Word has come from France to the National War -Work Council of the Y. M. C. A. that one of their supply cars serving -the huts in the trenches was laid up nine days for the lack of a small -magneto wrench.</p> - -<p>Many an owner has had the experience of being caught out on the road -by a storm and having to put on non-skid chains. How often have they -found that, though these chains were in good condition when leaving -the garage and when they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> were put on, after running awhile over rough -roads at a fair speed, some of the links wore through and began to -thrash against the mud guards. This is not only annoying, but often -does real damage to the guards. Most owners have stopped more than once -to wire the loose ends to the side chains to stop the banging, and it -certainly would be more satisfactory to carry a supply of links and -a chain tool so that the broken ends could be removed and new links -inserted.</p> - -<p>Of course, the loose ends can be pried off with a screw driver and new -links pounded fast with a hammer, but you will have to remove the chain -to do it and it takes time, and much exasperation can be saved by using -the proper tool.</p> - -<p>A folding pail is very useful, especially when one has to go up very -long hills and finds that the water in the radiator has boiled away. -The cooling systems for automobile engines to-day are very efficient -and it is only in exceptional cases that the water will boil out of the -radiator, and that is just the reason why an occurrence of that sort is -disastrous, because one is not expecting it and is not prepared for it.</p> - -<p>In sandy country and on dirt roads one often will have occasion to jack -up a wheel to change a tire, and will find that the jack sinks into -the loose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> sand or dust instead of lifting the car. A block of wood an -inch thick and about six inches wide and a foot long will be found a -big help under such circumstances. Many drivers also have had to use -a fence rail to jack up a car because some one borrowed the jack from -the car and neglected to return it. Even though tire trouble is not -expected, it is well to make sure there is a jack in the car and also a -handle for the jack. The jack is more often found than the handle.</p> - -<p>Working about an automobile means a lot of grease and grime on the -hands, and possibly oil or grease upon parts of the car, so that it is -well to carry a small bag of waste or rags. If the grease or dirt prove -obstinate, a little gasoline, drawn from the drain cock at the bottom -of the carburetor, will cut it and enable you to clean the hands fairly -well.</p> - -<p>It is a good idea to have a three-in-one or similar tire-valve tool -with which it is possible to remove the valve plunger, cut threads in -the valve stem so that the plunger may be properly seated, and cut -threads on the outside of the stem so that the cap will screw down -tight. In some cases where the valve stem is battered in changing a -tire, air cannot be gotten into the tire if these threads are damaged.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span></p> - -<p>Many persons object to carrying a tow rope for fear it will be -understood that they have doubts of their ability to get home under -their own power; but in addition to affording a connection to some -other source of power, a tow rope may be used to help a brother in -distress and is superior to chains in very sandy or muddy places, when -wrapped about the tire.</p> - -<p>An extra set of electric-light bulbs may save considerable trouble and -annoyance, because the traffic policemen to-day will accept no excuse -when at least one light is not burning.</p> - -<p>If you do not take your wife’s first-aid kit—the shoestring and -hairpin—you had better be provided with a spool of soft iron wire, -the ordinary stovepipe wire. It is wonderful how many little temporary -repair jobs may be done with its aid. Some drivers like to have a small -hank of strong twine also.</p> - -<p>There are many other things which might be added to the list of useful -things to have along for emergency, all of which may be stowed in the -tool box or under a seat. They may not be needed once a year—perhaps -never—but like the insurance policy, when you do need a tool you need -it pretty badly.</p> - -<p class="padb1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span></p> - -<table class="autotable" summary="auto first aid kit"> -<tr> -<th class="tdc normal" colspan="2">AUTOMOBILE FIRST-AID KIT.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">1.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Wrench for adjusting ignition interrupter points.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">2.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">File for cleaning above points.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">3.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">One set of ignition brushes. (In box labeled.)</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">4.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Several extra spark plugs, cleaned and adjusted ready to use.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">5.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Tow rope.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">6.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Half-dozen valve plungers for inner tubes.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">7.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Three-in-one tire-valve tool.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">8.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Tire pressure gauge.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">9.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Jack and handle. (Be sure about the handle.)</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">10.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Squirt can full of oil.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">11.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Voltmeter, or hydrometer, for testing battery.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">12.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Box of assorted nuts.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">13.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Box of assorted cotter pins.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">14.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Box of assorted cap screws.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">15.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Box of assorted washers.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">16.</td><td class="tdl"><p class="indent"> Spool of copper wire and one of soft iron wire.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">17.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Full set of electric-light bulbs.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">18.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Bag of clean waste or rags.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">19.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Two blocks of wood, 6″ × 12″ × 1″.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">20.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Full set of fuses—if fuses are used.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">21.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Folding pail.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr vertt">22.</td> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Chain tool and several cross links.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="indent">The nuts, cap screws, washers, and cotter pins of regular assortment -and packed in boxes are carried by supply stores. These and several -of the other articles may be packed in a cigar box for stowing away.</p></td> -</tr></table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">IF WELL “SLICKED” THE ENGINE RUNS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> we scuff our feet on the bare pavement we wear out our shoes, -develop a lot of heat, and notice considerable resistance; but if we -step on a banana peel, a piece of ice, or a patch of oil or grease, our -passage is facilitated, and our feet are likely to slide out from under -us and we sit down with little effort. Now this is just like the auto -engine. If the parts were all made perfect and fitted together properly -and the engine started without lubrication, there would be so much -friction that the parts would very quickly wear out.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact an engine could be wrecked in less than half an -hour’s running, unless there were something introduced to prevent -friction.</p> - -<p>The lubrication of the modern auto engine is so simple that most -owners do not realize its importance. It is the things which normally -take care of themselves that are most likely to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> neglected; the -things about which we know the least, when they do go wrong, cause the -greatest damage, not the things with which we have become familiar -through frequent tinkering.</p> - -<p>The instruction books issued by the manufacturers say to inspect the -oil reservoir of the engine each time before leaving the garage to see -if the required amount of oil is there; and this inspection should not -be neglected; with most owners it is “by guess and begorry.”</p> - -<p>The most usual scheme of engine lubrication used to-day is to carry a -certain amount of oil in a compartment in the bottom of the crank case, -called the sump. There is a pump which operates whenever the engine is -running and which pumps the oil to some sort of an indicator on the -dash, so that the driver can see if it is circulating. From this point -it flows by gravity to the splash pans located under the connecting -rods, and above the sump. Here the oil is held at such a level that -when the crank shaft revolves the ends of the connecting rods dip into -the oil and splash it over practically all the working parts of the -engine. This splashing and agitation of the oil creates a fog of oil -in the crank case, and the rapid motion of the piston and other parts -circulates the vaporized oil over the moving members, so that a film of -oil is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> deposited even on those parts where the splash itself does -not reach.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="facing034" style="max-width: 145.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing034.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="right small">Courtesy of Tide Water Oil Co.</p> - -<p class="caption">SECTIONAL VIEWS OF A FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO -PARTS CONNECTED WITH LUBRICATION</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary="parts"> -<tr> -<th class="tdl normal">A</th> -<th class="tdl normal">Sump</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">B</td> -<td class="tdl">Oil Pump</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">C</td> -<td class="tdl">Crank-case</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">D</td> -<td class="tdl">Troughs for Oil</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">E</td> -<td class="tdl">Connecting Rods</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">F</td> -<td class="tdl">Oil Cups</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">G</td> -<td class="tdl">Main Bearings</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">H</td> -<td class="tdl">Crank Pin Bearings</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">I</td> -<td class="tdl"> Cylinders</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">K</td> -<td class="tdl">Pistons</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">L</td> -<td class="tdl">Wrist Pins</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">M</td> -<td class="tdl">Basin in which Crank Shaft Gear Runs</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">N</td> -<td class="tdl">Piston Rings</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">O</td> -<td class="tdl">Oil Pockets</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">S</td> -<td class="tdl">Drain Cock or Oil Gauge</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">T</td> -<td class="tdl">Push Rods</td> -</tr></table> - -</div> - -<p class="padt1">The pump circulates more oil than is used and the splash pans are -arranged with overflow openings so that the excess simply drops back -into the sump and again is passed through the system by the pump.</p> - -<p>It is this oil which enables the engine to move without friction. It -is the effect of the banana peel under your heel in that it makes the -parts slip over each other easily. In addition to this the oil between -the piston and the cylinder wall makes a seal which prevents gas from -leaking by on compression and explosion strokes. If too much oil is fed -a great deal will be drawn past the piston on the suction stroke and -get in the cylinder where it will burn, forming carbon and giving out -smoke from the exhaust.</p> - -<p>In this type of system the principal causes of trouble are too much -oil in the sump, so that the level reaches above the splash pans, -and projections upon the connecting rods that are so large that too -much oil is splashed when the level is normal. In the latter case the -trouble often may be remedied by narrowing the projections of the -connecting rod which dip into the oil. It is not wise to shorten these -projections, because it is very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> difficult to get an even graduation -that will insure sufficient oil without giving too much.</p> - -<p>If the oil should run out while the car is in use, the engine will get -stiff, lose its power, and the friction of the unlubricated parts will -generate sufficient heat to melt out the lining of the bearings, and -if the engine runs for any length of time in this condition it may be -wrecked beyond repair.</p> - -<p>This means that although the oiling system needs very little or no -attention, it should be inspected each time before leaving the garage -and on the road occasionally if long trips are taken, to make sure that -oil is present in sufficient quantity and is circulating.</p> - -<p>Oil in a sense does wear out and in this sort of a system it should be -replaced with new oil occasionally. Some of it will work up past the -piston and be burned up and some will work out around the different -parts of the engine and be lost, but most of it will remain in the sump -longer than it is advisable to use it. All of the gasoline that is -taken into the cylinder is usually not consumed. Some of it is forced -past the piston on the compression stroke into the crank case, where -it condenses and mixes with the oil. This thins the oil sometimes to a -point where it has little or no lubricating value. Also the oil on the -inside of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> piston head burns and drops down into the crank case, -and there is some wear of the moving parts which causes a deposit of -metal in the oil. These things, together with the small amount of road -dust sucked in through the breather pipe, make the oil in a short time -unfit for use.</p> - -<p>In this circulating splash system, where the oil is used over and -over again, the oil should be drained out entirely about every 1000 -miles, more or less, depending upon the grade of the oil and fit of the -piston. The following things all enter into the lubricating value of -the oil after 1000 miles’ performance:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="noindent padt1 padb1">Grade of the oil<br /> -Fit of the pistons<br /> -Temperature at which the engine is run<br /> -Grade of the gasoline<br /> -Adjustment of the carburetor.</p></div> - -<p>There are some other things, but the above are the chief factors. It -would be well to acquire the habit of examining the oil every few days -to determine just how it stands up in the particular engine.</p> - -<p>After the oil is drained out, a half gallon or so of kerosene should be -poured into the sump and the engine run for about one minute or less, -the idea being to get a complete circulation of kerosene<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> through the -lubricating system. The kerosene should then be drained off and the -splash pans under the connecting rods be wiped out if possible. The -screen of the oil pump also should be removed and washed carefully in -kerosene and replaced. Then the sump should be filled to the proper -level with fresh oil.</p> - -<p>Aside from getting under the car to remove the drain plug, this is not -a dirty job. Still one would better put on old clothes and overalls to -prevent the possibility of getting grease on a perfectly good suit.</p> - -<p>While oil is expensive, it is poor economy to use it beyond its useful -stage, because damage may be done to the machinery which will cost much -more than a year’s supply of good oil.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHERE LUBRICATION IS NEGLECTED</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> some of the minor and oftentimes hidden parts of an automobile are -found frequent sources of trouble. There are places to be lubricated -of which many an auto owner has no knowledge. They wear slowly but -constantly, and unless given proper attention will erelong give trouble.</p> - -<p>There are a number of these lesser bearings which tell the expert -whether the car has had proper care. In fact, in looking over a used -car the man who knows naturally turns to these first to find out how -well the car has been taken care of. Experience shows that even where -other parts show normal, or practically no wear, these lesser bearings -show absolute neglect, and these are “the little foxes that spoil the -vineyards” in the auto world.</p> - -<p>Practically every owner will fill up the oiler to insure engine -lubrication, because that is a regular task; most men will remember -to keep oil in the transmission case and the differential housing;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -probably a lesser number will put grease in the wheel bearings when -needed. As the latter is not required very often, it is frequently -forgotten.</p> - -<p>What are the neglected parts? Well, when the expert looks into the -condition of a car, one of the first places he inspects for wear is -at the steering knuckles. One must realize that they are under a -pretty heavy load, and that, while the motion is not great, there is a -continual motion there, even when the car is driving straight ahead. -Very few have learned that it needs a constant supply of good, heavy -grease to prevent wear at this point. It is worth while to screw down -on the grease cups on the steering knuckles every time oil is put in -the engine. When the grease cup is screwed down so that it cannot be -turned further, it should be filled immediately. There should be enough -grease there to keep forcing it out, so that grit cannot get into the -bearing.</p> - -<p>Underneath the floor boards there are a number of parts which need -attention, but being out of sight they are often out of mind. They -are a little inconvenient to get at, also. Under there we have the -universal joint. This is another joint in which the motion is not -great, but the load is heavy and continuous. That is the next place -that usually shows hard wear. There are one or two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> modern designs -which have housings covering this joint which may be filled with -heavy oil and it then takes care of itself for a month. It should be -inspected and the oil replaced once a month.</p> - -<p>Certain universal joints, not generally used, however, are supplied -with grease cups, which need attention every time the car is used, just -as much as the oiler in the engine.</p> - -<p>Also underneath the floor boards are the levers and arms used for -controlling the clutch and brake, the self-starter and the accelerator. -All have bearings, used occasionally, but enough so that they should -be kept lubricated or they will wear. This is especially true of the -clutch and brake linkage, particularly in city running, where the -clutch and brake are in constant use. Usually this linkage has no means -of lubrication other than oil holes, into which a drop or two of oil -only may be placed. Naturally it will not last long and oil should be -dropped in the holes at least once a week.</p> - -<p>This is also true of the brake linkage on the rear axle. Often at that -point no provision whatever is made for oiling. It is simply a matter -of flowing oil around the joint and letting it work in. If the brake -linkage wears and weakens and it becomes necessary to apply the brake -with extra force in an emergency, it will give way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span></p> - -<p>The spring shackle bolts usually are equipped with grease cups and they -do not suffer quite as much as other points, but often the passages -become clogged and one may screw down on the cup and only force the -grease out of the thread of the cup, instead of into the bearing, for -the grease-cup cap fits loosely upon the thread.</p> - -<p>Many cars come from the factory with the grease holes clogged with -enamel, or hardened grease, so that no great amount of grease could -be forced through in turning down the cap. Cars are allowed to run so -long sometimes in this condition that the shackles have worn through, -allowing the body to drop down on the axle.</p> - -<p>Very often complaint is made that a new car will develop a squeak very -soon after it is tried out—an elusive sort of a squeak that seems to -be first one place and then another. The owner who has this experience -will probably find upon examination that the spring shackles have not -been lubricated, either because the hole was clogged, or for some -other reason. It is recommended that in such cases the car be jacked -up and all the shackle pins be driven out and all the grease passages -inspected and cleaned thoroughly; also that heavy grease be applied -directly to the bolt when it is put back in place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - -<p>This will take a little time, but it pays, for it is a matter of -experience that if the pins are not driven out and the holes opened up -for inspection it will take a solid month to force the grease through -by screwing down the grease cup, and until this passage is open there -can be no lubrication of the joint.</p> - -<p>Wheel bearings ought to run for six months if properly packed, but -there is no way of telling when the bearing needs attention except by -inspection and it is well to look them over regularly. When inspecting -the rear-wheel bearings, if the construction is of the type where the -wheel hub is keyed on to the shaft, it is well to inspect the key to -determine whether it is tight. Out of four cars recently inspected -three were found with a loose key.</p> - -<p>There are two dangers when the key is loose. One is that the key way -becomes rocked out of shape and the key cannot be fitted tight again. -The other is that shaft and hub may become so worn that the taper is -destroyed and a tight fit is made impossible, and of course the only -remedy is to replace both. This condition will often account for a -knocking or rattling, which will be felt throughout the car and the -cause often be supposed to be located far from the real place. For -instance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> in one case the driver thought the knocking was in the gear -case, until shown the loose hub.</p> - -<p>The spring leaves need lubrication once a season. Tools are sold for -separating the leaves enough to apply a lubricant made especially for -that purpose.</p> - -<p>Another part which shows hard wear quickly is the valve push-rod guide, -especially in overhead valve construction the ones on the forward end -of the motor. Dust blowing over the radiator collects on these forward -guides and wears them rapidly. This condition is indicated usually when -the crank case becomes covered with oil blown up from the loose joint. -Modern designs have taken care of this to a large extent by enclosing -the push rods in a casing, and many owners have put in housings -themselves when they discovered the difficulty.</p> - -<p>Overhead valves, worked by a rocker arm, must be lubricated every time -the car is taken out. The lubrication is not included in the ordinary -lubrication scheme of the engine, but must be done separately.</p> - -<p>Careful attention to these minor points will result in greatly -lengthened life for the car, and in a much higher value when it is -traded in for another car. The man who buys a used car would better -inspect closely along these lines if he desires to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> buy something -better than a bunch of junk. The owner should not trust to his -chauffeur the care of these parts, unless he has found out that the -man knows of the importance of lubrication, nor should it be taken for -granted that the garage man is attending to them. Make sure yourself -is the best rule. It is well to remember that “many a mickle makes a -muckle” in wearing of auto parts, and look after the little things.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SOMETIMES THE CAR SMOKES</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> officer will get you if you don’t watch out, if you leave a trail -of smoke behind you; then it will be:</p> - -<p>“Good morning, Jedge, your Honor.”</p> - -<p>“Guilty? Two dollars, please.”</p> - -<p>“Cheap,” you say. Yes, if it were only the two dollars; but there is -the time lost in appearing in court and then, really, you know, to make -that smoke you were burning money.</p> - -<p>Such smoke comes from two sources: Burning too much gasoline and using -too much lubricating oil; usually the latter. Excessive use of gasoline -comes from faulty carburetor adjustment, or poor design of carburetor -or intake manifold, or keeping the engine cylinder at too low a -temperature, because of the water being too cold in the cooling system.</p> - -<p>In the latter case the carburetor may vaporize the gasoline properly, -but it condenses in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> cylinder and does not burn well and the part -which is not consumed passes off as black smoke, which issues from the -exhaust pipe.</p> - -<p>We must have a certain amount of oxygen to consume the gasoline -entirely. The size of the cylinder limits the amount of air (from which -the oxygen is taken) which may be taken in and if the carburetor is -adjusted to feed too much gasoline, there may not be enough oxygen -present to consume it all. Practically speaking, what is not consumed -forms carbon or smoke.</p> - -<p>The obvious remedy is to adjust the carburetor so that no more gasoline -will be fed to the engine than is required for running. In cold weather -it is necessary, usually, to supply heat to the ingoing air at the -mixing chamber of the carburetor, so that the vaporization will be -complete.</p> - -<p>A light blue smoke coming from the exhaust pipe indicates too much -lubricating oil. This may be due to feeding too much oil or to running -the engine a great deal with the throttle nearly closed. In order to -draw a charge of gas into the cylinder the piston travels partly out -of the cylinder and forms a vacuum. With the throttle wide open a high -vacuum is not obtained because a large amount of gasoline and air is -allowed to come in and fill the cylinder. When the engine is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> throttled -down by closing the throttle, the air cannot enter in such a large -quantity, and in consequence there is a decided vacuum in the cylinder -on each intake stroke of the piston. This vacuum has a tendency to draw -oil up past the piston into the combustion chamber, where it burns and -forms smoke. This is why, when the machine is left at the curb with the -engine running for any length of time, it will often be found to start -away with clouds of smoke issuing from the exhaust.</p> - -<p>In the same way, when the engine is running slowly, air passes through -the carburetor so slowly that the gasoline is not broken up into very -fine particles, consequently it does not fully vaporize and is very -easily condensed. It forms liquid gasoline in the intake pipe or -cylinder. This is called “loading up” and is responsible for black -smoke when the machine is started.</p> - -<p>One way of overcoming this is to supply a larger amount of heat than -usual to the mixing chamber. Most carburetors are not designed to take -care of this condition and the only remedy would be to stop the engine -instead of allowing it to run while standing at the curb.</p> - -<p>To overcome smoke from the oil which is drawn up past the piston, it is -customary to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> a groove turned in the piston under the lower piston -ring, with five or six holes drilled in the groove through the piston. -The piston ring then scrapes the oil from the cylinder wall into the -groove and it is led back into the crank case through the piston walls. -This prevents it from working up into the combustion chamber. Many -manufacturers have this scheme on the very new models and repair men -are using it on older models which were not turned out with it.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the oil level will be found too high. This may be corrected -often by lowering the oil troughs, or by filing off the dip on the -bottom of the connecting rod so that it touches the oil with a narrowed -surface.</p> - -<p>In addition to the smoke resulting from too much gasoline or oil there -is a large amount of carbon deposited in the cylinder which takes up -space in the combustion chamber and raises the compression so high -that pre-ignition occurs and the engine knocks. The car must then be -taken to a repair shop to have the carbon burned or scraped out. This -is expensive work and besides the car is laid up and one loses its use -while the scraping is being done. The owner will see that he has been -spending a lot of money to supply gasoline and oil that he didn’t need -to use just to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> make smoke and carbon and expense and that he has lost -from every point of view.</p> - -<p>Smoke should not be confused with steam which issues from the exhaust -pipe in cold weather. One of the products of combustion in the gas -engine is water, a natural result of the breaking up of a hydro-carbon. -This usually passes off at a high temperature as an invisible vapor. In -cold weather it condenses immediately it strikes the air and is visible -in the form that we call steam. Really it is a fog that we create. -Therefore do not let the policeman summons you for having a smoking -engine, when it is only steam issuing from the exhaust pipe. If he -doesn’t know which it is you probably can convince him, by the color. -If it is white it is steam, if it is black it is gasoline smoke, and if -it is light blue it is the smoke from the lubricating oil. Therefore -watch your exhaust for there are many eyes watching you just now in -parks and city streets.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE CARBURETOR AND ITS FAILINGS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the frequent and most annoying troubles to which automobile -engines are subject has to do with the carburetor. With one of -the standard carburetors or vaporizers which is properly adjusted -there should be, and usually is, no serious difficulty in ordinary -conditions, but if there is one part of the engine which seems -possessed to kick up its heels it is the carburetor. Particularly -is this so in the frosty months, when the gasoline and air do not -mix properly and do not vaporize when they do mix. This is of easy -solution, however. Simply warm the intake a few minutes and it will -take care of itself thereafter.</p> - -<p>In these days of indifferent gasoline automobile drivers are -complaining constantly that the carburetors are giving unusual -troubles. The carburetor is the lungs of the engine. Well, did you -ever breathe in a crumb of cake and then for a while have all your -faculties suspend operation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> while the lungs sought to expel the -intruding substance? That is just what happens when you get a crumb of -something in the needle valve, or in the intake valve of the vaporizer. -One little, good-for-nothing, insignificant speck of dirt, so small as -to be almost invisible, will put the best carburetor literally out of -business, and the only thing to do is to remove the speck.</p> - -<p>There are several good makes of gasoline strainers which reduce -this trouble to a minimum, provided one will drain off the strainer -occasionally to let the dirt run off. Straining the gasoline supply -through wire gauze or chamois does not obviate the difficulty, for -gasoline tanks are prone to acquire a slight sediment.</p> - -<p>A few drops of water in the gasoline which reaches the carburetor will -make trouble likewise, for it will not vaporize, and, what is more, -it will not let anything else vaporize. Probably no one is trying to -dilute the gasoline with water and sell you such a mixture, but there -are some mighty careless men in the gasoline trade. It reminds one of -the farmer caught selling watered milk, who pleaded that there was -a pump in the milking yard and some of his men must be careless in -passing by it. The chamois skin will remove this impediment, for water -will not pass through it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></p> - -<p>Another trouble which afflicts motor-boat engines more than the -automobile motor has to do with the weather. The motor-boat carburetor -requires frequent adjustment, due to changes of the weather. On a -dry, warm day the gasoline vaporizes easily and the maximum charge -is readily exploded in the cylinder, giving a maximum of power. On a -wet, cold, heavy day, one must slightly decrease the supply, or the -cylinders will clog, the engine will knock, and one will think harsh -things if they are not audibly expressed. The automobile engine, not -being so constantly over the water, will not have this trouble so -much, but it is probable that most drivers fail to take this into -consideration and perhaps do not know that it is a cause of trouble.</p> - -<p>A very slight leak in the intake manifold gaskets likewise makes all -sorts of trouble, since the supply of mixture to the cylinders will -vary according as the vibration opens up the gasket and stops the -suction by which the cylinders are supplied. A leaky piston ring will -do this for one of the cylinders. If worn, or frozen fast by carbon, it -will fail to keep the piston tight, the mixture passes by the leak, if -sucked in, and there is no compression and no explosion or irregular -firing. This will make one think sometimes that the carburetor is at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -fault, whereas the engine really needs an overhauling.</p> - -<p>In fact, if one is having engine trouble which is hard to diagnose, one -should try out the piston rings to see if they are doing their duty. -This is very simple, for all practical-test needs. Crank the cylinder -up to high pressure and let it stand a couple of minutes. Then open pet -or priming cock and see if there is any pressure left. On the two-cycle -engine this is a good test, and by trying the cylinders in turn piston -ring trouble may be located.</p> - -<p>On the four-cycle engine the valves must be considered also, for -they may leak and the pistons be perfectly tight, but in such an -event it will be found almost impossible to get good pressure on the -cylinder, since it leaks through the valves while the piston is making -the compression stroke. Don’t condemn the carburetor until you have -determined whether either of these things is occurring.</p> - -<p>The carburetor should be drained occasionally to prevent the -accumulation of sediment, which will later clog the needle valve, and -at least once a season should be taken apart and cleaned. Time spent in -this way well repays the owner.</p> - -<p>In all that has been said thus far no account has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> been taken of poor -gasoline. By this is not meant gasoline with water or dirt in it, -but a poor quality. Nowadays there is such a demand for gasoline for -automobiles and motor boats, that the producers have had to market much -of a low grade, or, as is generally the case, have mixed the first -quality with the cheaper grades, producing a medium quality.</p> - -<p>The seeming necessity of utilizing these low grades of gasoline makes -it necessary to change the carburetor forms, and one sees now a -tendency to do away with the old, long intake, either by raising the -carburetor to the cylinder level, with a horizontal intake only, or -with an internal intake manifold, the carburetor being attached to the -cylinder block. Several makes of carburetors using one of these methods -are said to vaporize even the low grades of gasoline, while some later -models are claimed to handle kerosene successfully.</p> - -<p>For the motor boat there are several makes of vaporizers which will -handle either gasoline or kerosene, and all intermediate grades, by -slight adjustment. It is possible that some ingenious builder will -devise a similar vaporizer for the automobile engine, if gasoline -continues to decline in quality, and to be short in supply as well.</p> - -<p>An easy test to see whether the carburetor is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> working right is to -run several blocks with the throttle practically closed, then, when -the road is clear, press sharply upon the accelerator pedal, which -opens the throttle wide and should make the engine speed up and the -car jump forward. If it is sluggish it will denote a too rich mixture, -and if it sputters and perhaps backfires, it is too lean. But if, with -smooth yet rapid action, it makes the car speed up, that is “pep.” The -amount of pep which a car is said to possess is gauged by the quickness -with which it responds to the acceleration, either by the pedal or by -throttle lever, changing the car from slow or moderate speed to full -speed. That, too, without jerky action or tearing the motor apart.</p> - -<p>While this test, showing the presence of pep, will denote that the -mixture passing through the carburetor is correct, absence of pep does -not always mean that it is wrong. Therefore it is not wise to jump to -the conclusion that the adjustment is wrong. In fact the adjustment -should not be changed unless it is fully certain that it is wrong. -If the car has been running with the carburetor working properly and -no one has changed the adjustment, it may safely be assumed that the -carburetor adjustment is correct. Adjustments are not changed except by -someone’s fingers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> - -<p>Do not be like the new chauffeur who, having trouble, at once descended -upon the carburetor. Another chauffeur whose car was standing near -advised:</p> - -<p>“I wouldn’t touch that, boss.”</p> - -<p>“Well, there’s something the matter and I guess it’s here,” said the -troubled one.</p> - -<p>“I wouldn’t touch it, boss; try somewhere else.”</p> - -<p>“Oh; let’s see what’s on the inside of it,” impatiently exclaimed the -new chauffeur, and he proceeded to unscrew and unbolt the parts.</p> - -<p>Of course, he had to send to the garage for a repair man and finally -was towed in for complete reassembly and readjustment of the part.</p> - -<p>The lesson in all this for the owner is that he should learn the -make-up and peculiarities of his carburetor, understand its common and -uncommon ills and thus be able to remedy a trouble which would mar -a trip or the general serviceability of the car. It is unnecessary -to go into the detail of any make of carburetor, because if the -manufacturer’s instruction book does not contain full information and -sketches of the make used, a special carburetor book may be obtained -from the maker. But there is no excuse for failure to master the lungs -of the engine and to learn how to keep them breathing properly.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">GETTING THE MOST OUT OF A GALLON OF GAS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> the price of gasoline constantly mounting skyward and tires -following when not leading the rise, while everything else needed -for automobile upkeep is ascendant, it is timely to assert the need -that the owner consider his expense and renewal costs. And when it is -considered that labor and repair parts have pirouetted along with the -other things, it behooves the owner to devise ways of decreasing his -running expenses and to learn how to get as much as possible out of a -gallon of gas, and every mile out of his tires they can be coaxed to -give.</p> - -<p>There are many little expenses about running a car which total a -considerable sum. A nickel, a dime, a quarter, a dollar, do not seem -much at the time, but they pile up the cost per mile frightfully. Not -everyone can be like a friend, who, when cautioned about the way his -chauffeur was running up the cost of his several cars, replied:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> - -<p>“I don’t want to know what my cars cost. If I did, my business instinct -would doubtless make me dispose of them all, and I do not want to do -this. The cars are a luxury and I don’t want to know what they cost.”</p> - -<p>A car which lasts with ordinary care one or two years, if given -intelligent care by the owner might be made to last three to five -years. This means taking unusual precaution and having a thorough -knowledge of the working parts and of how to keep them in condition, -and it means doing faithfully and persistently the things necessary to -keep everything in order.</p> - -<p>When it is considered that under prevailing conditions it may not be -possible to get a new car as often as it has been in the past, it might -be as well to take care of the cars we have rather than let them go to -rack and ruin for lack of care. A good many automobiles are wasted more -than they are used. In some cases this is due to carelessness and in -others by lack of knowledge of what to do and how to do it.</p> - -<p>Take tires, for instance. The cost due to neglect is often greater -than the cost of actual wear. Some of the things which cause excessive -wear and deterioration of tires are driving into holes in the street, -or in deep ruts, turning corners at too high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> speed, stopping the car -so quickly with the brake that the wheels slide on the pavement, and a -harsh clutch which jerks the car suddenly from a standstill, causing -needless wear. Then there are such things as letting the front wheels -get out of alignment so that they do not run parallel, or nearly so, -the action being that the tire is slid, instead of being rolled, over -the road. There should be a slight toe in, for mechanical reasons, as -explained elsewhere, but if this is allowed to go beyond the proper -limit it costs money.</p> - -<p>Adjusters tell us that a very large percentage of tire failures is -caused by under-inflation, which allows the tires to flatten and breaks -the side walls. Every tire should be tested with a gauge and not with -the eye or hand and kept to the pressure named by the tire maker.</p> - -<p>To get the greatest life out of a tire it should be watched continually -for small cuts through the rubber to the fabric. Most tires will be -found after a short service to have from two to a dozen such cuts. -These will allow sand to work in and loosen the rubber and then -moisture gets in and rots the fabric. There are preparations with which -these cuts may be healed in a few minutes; serious cuts, especially -where the rubber is loosened from the fabric, should be taken at once -to the vulcanizer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span></p> - -<p>While oil and grease of good quality cost money, their proper use will -save many times their price in replacement of parts. On the other hand, -a waste of lubricant makes unnecessary expense. Especially with a new -car, oil and grease should be carefully watched until the bearings have -had time to work in. That is the time when expense for replacement of -bearings is most likely.</p> - -<p>It is not generally realized that a large number of things enter -into the economical use of gasoline. To get the most out of a gallon -of gasoline all moving parts must work properly. This means proper -lubrication. The brakes should not drag; each cylinder of the engine -should fire properly; the clutch should not slip, and the carburetor -should be in proper adjustment. It is not well to adjust the carburetor -unless you are sure it is at fault. Excessive carbon in the cylinder -causes a decided loss of power, due to back pressure on the piston, and -the partial clogging of the muffler indirectly consumes extra gasoline. -The importance of keeping the muffler free is not usually understood.</p> - -<p>To insure each cylinder getting its proper power without waste, the -engine should be driven with the spark lever advanced as far as -possible without causing back pressure. The spark-plug gaps should be -properly adjusted to insure a thorough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> ignition of the charge; the -spark plugs should be kept clean to prevent the loss of a charge of -gas through non-ignition, likewise the interrupter points, and the -distributor should be kept clean and properly adjusted.</p> - -<p>To use all the gas that is taken into the cylinder there should be no -loss of compression through leaky valves, or weak valve springs, or -poor gaskets on spark plugs or valve caps; and it is equally important -that pet cocks, cylinder head, where there is one, and piston rings are -tight, so that gas will not be wasted.</p> - -<p>It is not safe to leave these things to the chauffeur and the garage -man. The owner should learn himself how to make all these adjustments. -If he does so he will find that his propelling machine will work -better, and that he will not only have more use and pleasure out of it, -but he will save a very appreciable part of the cost of up-keep.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THINGS WHICH MAKE GAS BILLS HIGH</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are other things which affect the amount of gas consumed which -need the attention of the automobile owner. One of the common things, -mentioned in the preceding chapter, concerns the intake manifold, which -has to do with the distribution of the gas mixture from the carburetor -to the several cylinders. A leak at the carburetor side would prevent -drawing into the manifold a sufficient supply of the mixture, so that -the cylinders would be scantily supplied—perhaps one or more not -supplied at all. Likewise air would be drawn into the manifold through -the leak, and this would thin the mixture coming from the carburetor. -As the mixture in the cylinders would be thin it would not compress -properly, the firing pressure would be poor, the mixture would fire -badly or not at all, and the power would be lessened.</p> - -<p>The natural thing to do when the misfiring is noticed is to open the -spray or needle valve, admitting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> more gasoline to the mixing chamber -and making a higher consumption with no gain in power. The proper thing -to do, however, is to look for a leak in the manifold.</p> - -<p>If the leak is on the cylinder side of the manifold, it might be at -one or all of the cylinders. The result would be the same as in the -case just cited, a poor supply of the mixture, or some of the cylinders -might be properly supplied and work all right, while others might be -short of the mixture and might not fire at all. The loss might be -sufficient to affect seriously the power and lessen the speed of the -car.</p> - -<p>The manifold ought not to become loosened in the ordinary use of the -car. There have been cases where vibration has done it, but the usual -trouble is where the manifold has been removed for some purpose and -improperly replaced. Copper and asbestos gaskets ordinarily are used, -and these may be dented or jammed out of shape so that the joint is not -tight, or there might have been no shellac handy, or the bolts may not -have been tightened enough. Whatever the reason, the leak makes a weak -mixture, and the first thought of the chauffeur or the average garage -man is to increase the gasoline at the spray nozzle of the carburetor -to make the mixture of the right proportion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> to fire. On account of the -mixture being made in the intake manifold, instead of the carburetor, -as it should be, the work is not efficiently done and gasoline is -wasted, the result being the increase of the expense account.</p> - -<p>One of the most common causes of gas loss is from leaky supply pipes. -Where there is a solid pipe from tank to carburetor the only leak, -barring a break or perforation of the pipe, would be at the connection -with the tank or the carburetor. Vibration might cause the joints to -loosen, though if they are put together properly with shellac, soap -or some equivalent, and are thoroughly tightened, there ought not to -be any loosening. It is needless, but how often we see a car dripping -gasoline at considerable loss. It is also dangerous, for a stray flame -or spark may ignite the gas.</p> - -<p>There is another leak of the same nature which is quite as expensive, -and that is of lubricating oil. If you do not believe it to be -prevalent or serious in extent, you have only to watch places where -automobiles stand frequently along the curb and notice the pools of -oil on the pavement. These come from leaky crank cases, transmission -gear cases, rear-axle gear (differential) cases, or from a faulty -distributor. In most cases it is only a matter of tightening a few -bolts or connections occasionally;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> but with oil at present prices it -is a serious matter.</p> - -<p>Another leak which needs to be corrected frequently is at the valves. -So much has been written about the care of valves that it would seem -superfluous to refer to it, but regrinding and proper care pay big -dividends in efficiency and should be on the regular program. There is -a leak at the valve, however, seldom mentioned, though quite as serious -as the others, which is due to worn valve stems.</p> - -<p>The valve stems should fit snugly in the guides; if they do not, air -will be drawn past the stem into the cylinder on the suction stroke -and thin down the mixture so that the engine runs irregularly, unless -more gasoline is supplied at the spray nozzle, and throttling down to -a reasonable idling speed is impossible. If the exhaust valve guide is -worn there will be a hissing sound that is objectionable.</p> - -<p>The purpose of repeating this caution as to mixture thinning is to make -it plain that wherever there is a leak between the carburetor and the -cylinder it lets in air and thins the mixture so that it is necessary -to feed in more gasoline to get a mixture that will fire and that is -wasteful, for a mixture made anywhere else than in the carburetor is -less efficiently accomplished.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - -<p>The burned gases pass out through the exhaust valve side and in so -doing often deposit small pieces of carbon, which keep the valve from -seating properly and let perfectly good mixture escape. If not cleaned -often, the heat and constant tapping of the valve against the seat will -hammer the carbon fast to the valve or seat as though it had been fused -there. Carbon must be scraped off frequently and as often as necessary -the valve should be reground into the seat.</p> - -<p>Piston rings which are not pinned often work around until the slots -are in line and the mixture will blow through. If the rings will not -stay in place a pin should be put in the ring groove on the piston to -prevent the ring from working around and the slots should be staggered, -so that no two are in line. Naturally the rings must be kept free from -carbon or gum from the oil or they will freeze to the groove and leak -mixture.</p> - -<p>In older cars the cylinder may be worn oval, so that the piston and its -rings do not fit. When the cylinder is oval the piston will not pump in -the mixture properly, and when the explosion occurs much of the burned -gas will be forced down into the crank case. One of the products of -combustion is water, which is exhausted in the form of vapor. When it -gets into the crank case and condenses,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> forming water, it collects -under the oil. In cleaning out and replacing the oil, if water is -found, it always indicates a tendency to oval in the cylinder. This is -caused by the thrust of the connecting rod being against one side on -the up stroke and against the other on the down stroke.</p> - -<p>With everything else there may be a loss of gasoline by reason of poor -adjustment of the carburetor. The adjustment should be such as to make -the mixture as lean as possible and have it fire readily, and to have -the float not too high. One sure indication that the mixture is too -rich is when black smoke is given off. Black smoke always indicates -excess gasoline—burning money. As has been told in another chapter, -there is another kind of smoke to guard against, but if the owner will -make sure that he is not exhausting black smoke he need not worry about -the price of gasoline, and a little judgment and care will eliminate -many of the items of upkeep expense.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">CARE OF THE TIRES</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> a tire buyer is told by the dealer that a tire is guaranteed for -so many miles, the manufacturer expects to make good—he expects if -the tire falls down on performance to replace it, or at least make an -allowance for the mileage short. As a matter of fact they do not have -to do this on thousands of tires which are defective, for the reason -that the auto owner has not kept his part of the bargain. Nine times -out of ten this is because the user of the tire does not know how it -ought to be treated and doctored and cajoled into doing all that it is -expected to do.</p> - -<p>Tires are a great deal like human beings; are just as finicky and -contrary; and it takes a great insight into their make-up if one would -get the most out of them.</p> - -<p>One of the chief causes of tire deterioration is lack of care—absolute -neglect. Drivers send their machines over all kinds of roads, -regardless of ruts,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> and stones, and glass or junk in the roadway, and -then cannot understand why the tires are all cut up about it. Worse -than that, they do not seem to understand that a cut tire needs as much -and as prompt attention as a cut finger—perhaps more, for nature will -mend the one; the other has no such luck.</p> - -<p>The first thing to do when one discovers a cut is to clean it out and -jiffy in one of the good solutions sold, which will cement the edges -together or press in the putty-like repair material. If the cut is not -too large or too deep it will mend easily and give little trouble, if -care is taken. If it is a large cut the vulcanizer should be visited. -The cement should hold long enough for that. It will keep out water, -which rots the fabric easily, and sand, which makes blisters along the -tread. Only a slight patch is needed if done promptly, but if water and -sand get in it is almost impossible to vulcanize in a patch, and when -it is done it probably will not last.</p> - -<p>Tires should be inspected regularly and often and attended to -intelligently. This will save the automobile owner much annoyance and -cut down one of the big items of maintenance.</p> - -<p>Some drivers, too, never seem to think of favoring an auto tire at -times of greatest strain. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> will whirl around a corner as fast as -their nerve and the traffic policeman will allow and then wonder why it -is that the tread wears away so quickly. They do not seem to understand -that under such circumstances there is a steady grind of tire upon -pavement, and grind means wear.</p> - -<p>Another set of drivers will run along for weeks without noticing that -the steering gear is out of true. Perhaps the machine has hit something -and the equalizing rod is bent just a trifle, making the front wheels -far from parallel. It may not be enough to see with the eye, but it is -off true and one or both of the tires grinds with every revolution. The -speed with which the tread will wear away depends upon the character of -the roadway. On gravel or macadam roads it is fast. The manufacturer -will not replace a tire worn out that way if he can detect the cause, -and experience has taught him where to look for it. One man wore a pair -of front tires through to the fabric in a very short run and raised -a fuss because the replacement man disclaimed responsibility after -testing the wheels. The roll and slide motion combined will work havoc -with the best tire and should be corrected.</p> - -<p>A harsh clutch does the same thing in a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> different way. A -clutch which grips too hard will cause the wheels to slide and wear. -The brake, also, should not be too positive, but be adjusted to work -easily, so that the wheel will stop turning just as the momentum is -spent, to prevent sliding. Both brakes should be adjusted alike, or -one will grip the wheel fast and the other turn. The gripped tire will -scrape along and the pavement cuts the tire like a rasp.</p> - -<p>Another set of men forgets that oil and grease and gasoline are the -natural enemies of tires. They allow the machine to stand in the garage -where there are pools of oil or gas. Gasoline will dissolve gum rubber. -It will disintegrate the tire, which is a combination of rubber, -soapstone, and other things, so that it wears out quickly. Lubricating -oil and grease hasten the decay of rubber and shorten the life of the -tire. Besides there is no sense in wasting oil and gas, and if someone -else allows it to spill on the pavement the wise man will keep out of -the mess.</p> - -<p>In wet seasons there is especial need for care of the tire. Rubber cuts -easily when the sharp edge of the cutting agent is wet. Tire workers -dip their knives in water to facilitate the work. Go out on a road -where there is glass, or sharp stones dripping from a rain, and the -tire is an easy mark.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> A wet day on a sharp gravel road will fill the -tires full of small cuts.</p> - -<p>Tubes should be kept in the shoes where possible. If folded up they are -likely to harden on the creases and crack on the surface, blowing out -easily. Tubes in excess of shoes carried should be rolled up carefully -and be kept in a bag to prevent chafing on tools or box.</p> - -<p>Tires cost the owner about the same as the car if he does much running. -In a general sense the set of four tires used on any car bears a -certain proportion to the selling price of the car. On the cheaper -makes of cars the tires cost new approximately $60 per set. They -increase in price in direct ratio to the price of the car. They are -usually guaranteed for five thousand miles, and as the average owner -makes at least ten thousand miles per year, he uses up two sets of -tires. Taking three years as the average time the owner will keep the -car before trading it in, would mean six sets of tires. Taking the -car which uses the $60 set and we find that six sets of tires would -cost $360, or pretty near the first cost of the car. Few owners give -consideration to this fact.</p> - -<p>Another way of figuring the cost of tires is that in upkeep expense -tires figure for one-third of the total, gasoline and oil for another -third, and wear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> and tear on the car the remainder. Upon this basis the -owner should give one-third of the total care to the tires. But few, if -any, do.</p> - -<p>When the car is stored for the winter, or for any length of time at any -other season, the car should be jacked up and the tires deflated until -the pressure is less than half the normal. Where the car cannot be left -jacked up the tires should be removed from the car and hung up high and -dry where there will be neither extremes of heat nor cold, though heat -is more injurious than cold.</p> - -<p>It is good practice, if, on coming to the garage, it is found that one -or more tires are deflated below normal and there is no time to pump -them up, to lift the weight off the tire with jack or otherwise, so -that the strain will be removed from the walls of the tire between the -rim and the floor or ground.</p> - -<p>Do not put tires where they will be subject to strong sunlight, which -decomposes the rubber. Oil and grease left on the surface do the same -thing. Clean the tires of mud and grease after every trip. Keep the -small cuts healed and the big blisters will not occur.</p> - -<p>Make friends with the vulcanizer and take his advice as to repair of -your tires. That’s his business. If too far from a vulcanizer, buy a -small outfit and spoil a few casings and tubes learning how<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> to do the -small jobs, and send the big ones to the shop by express.</p> - -<p>Remember in mending tubes and casings that cleanliness is before -godliness. You may be a perfect church member, but if you do not -observe perfect cleanliness the mend will not stick and in the end may -lose you your church membership by provoking you to violent words.</p> - -<p>Throw away the valve insides every once in a while on general -principles and put in new ones. Learn how to test the tubes by dipping -them under water when inflated and looking for air bubbles. Test the -valve the same way, at the same time. Bubbles may indicate why the tire -will not keep pumped hard.</p> - -<p>Rubber is porous to a slight degree and you must expect loss of air -from that cause both in the tires on the wheels and that held in -reserve. Make sure of the pressure by the tire gauge.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SKIDDING MAY BE MINIMIZED</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> you are out driving next time watch the cars ahead of you and -notice how many of them have wobbly rear wheels. You can by this -means tell fairly well who is a careful driver and whose car has been -skidding about the streets and has brought up sharply against the curb, -or car track, or rut, or some other obstruction over which the wheels -would not slide, and which was sufficiently solid to give them a hard -knock.</p> - -<p>No man can appreciate what a skid means until he has had one and then, -perhaps, he will not live to appreciate it. No amount of preaching -seems to do any good. He must sow his wild auto-driving oats and learn -from experience. Because of this, it is recommended that each driver -who has not had a real skid yet, pick out a very broad and wet street -paved with asphalt where there is no traffic in sight. Let him drive -the car fifteen miles an hour up the middle of the street, then give -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> steering wheel a sharp turn to the left, at the same time applying -the brakes. The resulting sensation of absolute helplessness will be -remembered for an hour or two—at least. For those who wish to continue -the lesson, try allowing some other driver to repeat the operation, -while the experience seeker occupies the back seat.</p> - -<p>Now the skid against the curb or other obstruction may not have -demolished the wheel, but it left its mark in cracked spokes, or bent -rim, or if the car was of a certain type of construction it may have -bent the axle shaft itself. If the wobble is due to a bend in the rim, -it wears the tires excessively and if the spokes have been a little -cracked it weakens the wheel; if the axle shaft has been bent, it is -causing undue wear in the bearing; and under all of these conditions -there is too much wear of the tires.</p> - -<p>During the winter skidding is prevalent, much more so than at other -seasons. This is due to the fact that snow and ice keep the pavements -wet or icy, according to the temperature. There is another element -entering into the situation, however; most folks who travel at this -time of the year, because of the cold and discomforts of motoring, -desire to get there and so travel faster—the very fact that they are -uncomfortable causes them to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> pay less attention to driving with care. -The result is that they run up close behind some other vehicle, which -stops quickly; then they jam on the brakes hard and skid. Or, a car -comes out of a side street suddenly, making it necessary to swerve -quickly to one side, or stop, and the result is a skid in either case.</p> - -<p>A rather unusual case of skidding is thus related by a driver:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="padt1">I was driving up Broadway, in New York City, and to make the hill -north of 157th Street had put on a little more speed, for the car was -not a good hill climber. A block or two above the subway station a -boy on a sled darted out of a side street and swung to continue down -the Broadway hill. To avoid hitting him I jammed on the brake hard, -and began to skid. There was a wagon at the curb and on the other -side of me an auto going in the same direction and there was not room -to turn out.</p> - -<p>I saw that if my car continued to skid it would swing in front of -the sled. It is unusual to skid going up hill, but there was so much -loose snow, with ice underneath, that the skid chains did not take -hold. There was but an instant to act, much less time than it takes -to tell it, and I released the brake and let in the clutch. This -stopped the skidding and the car shot forward just in time to let the -boy go by.</p> -</div> - -<p class="padt1">Probably the greatest cause of skidding is turning the corner at too -high speed. This often causes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> a skidding of the front wheels as well -as the rear wheels—that is, the car is going so fast that the front -wheels do not get traction enough to change their direction and when -they attempt to make the turn they skid and the car goes for the curb. -Applying the brake usually will overcome this skid.</p> - -<p>In a rear-wheel skid the worst thing one can do is to apply the -brake. It is best to let the car coast, turning the front wheels in -the direction in which the rear end of the car is skidding; if it is -trying to go to the left, turn the front wheels that way. If there is -something in the way, so that it is necessary to stop, the brake may be -applied a little as the wheels take hold, leaving the clutch engaged, -which prevents locking the wheels, as the engine is pulling against the -brake and there is not so much danger of locking the wheels. It keeps -the wheels revolving slowly, so that you get a better traction for -stopping.</p> - -<p>It takes a greater pressure applied laterally to start the wheel -sliding than to keep it skidding once it is started, and you can bring -the car to a standstill much quicker if you can keep the wheels from -sliding. A little practice will teach the driver just how much he can -apply the brake without causing the wheels to skid.</p> - -<p>The bent axle has been mentioned as a result of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> skidding. It may also -be a cause for skidding, for it sometimes happens that by hitting the -curb hard, or the wheel of another car, or a street car, the rear axle -gets out of true—perhaps the spring-seat bolt will shear off—and the -wheels will not track with the front wheels. This will cause skidding.</p> - -<p>When there is not snow during the cold months, often water is used to -sweep or flush the streets. Wet asphalt is always slippery, whether it -is warm or cold, but in cold weather it often freezes and the pavement -is dangerous and skidding is almost certain unless care be taken. The -street-car tracks are another cause of skidding. Often it is necessary -to give the front wheels a considerable turn to get out of the track -when necessary, and, especially if they are wet—and they are wet when -other parts of the pavement are dry—the rear wheels will continue -in the tracks, causing a bad skid. Under no circumstances should one -habitually drive in the car tracks when the streets are wet.</p> - -<p>If the brakes are adjusted unevenly, so that there is a little more -pressure on the one wheel than the other and therefore stops it a -little more, it will cause skidding. Another case may come from giving -the steering wheel a little twist just as the brake is applied. -Occasionally in an emergency stop the driver will give a hasty glance -behind to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> see if a car is close upon him. The hands follow the eye, -it is said, and this will often give the slight twist that causes the -wheels to slide.</p> - -<p>Some cars skid because the weight is not balanced on the wheels—that -is, there is too much weight on front or rear wheels. There is a -remarkable difference in cars in this respect and it might be well -before buying a car to try it out on its likelihood to skid.</p> - -<p>There are numerous designs of non-skid tires and they do prevent, or -decrease, skidding to a very large degree on some cars. While they help -in some cases, it is not well to depend upon them entirely. It is the -general practice now to use non-skid chains. On muddy roads they are a -necessity and on wet asphalt are almost as essential and chains should -be used under such circumstances; but as they cause excessive wear on -the tires, they should only be used when needed. The driver should not -allow himself to be either too hurried or too lazy to put them on and -take them off according to the condition of the pavement. Better to do -this a dozen times a day rather than wear out a set of tires or skid -into the curb or a street car.</p> - -<p>They should be adjusted loosely, so they can creep around and wear -the entire circumference of the tire slightly but evenly; if they are -so tight they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> cannot creep, the cross chains will cut away the outer -rubber right down to the fabric. A great many tires are ruined in that -way. Tires cut this way cannot be turned back to the manufacturer for -replacement, for the adjuster will know at once what caused the wear.</p> - -<p>Be sure there are a sufficient number of cross chains so that it will -not be possible for the brakes to stop the wheel between the cross -links, for in that event it will slide just as badly as though no -chains were used. As a car is more likely to skid going down grade -than on the level, it follows that extra care should be exercised, -and that the driver should slow speed for a stop farther away than -would ordinarily be necessary, and that the stop should be gradual. -One should watch closely on a hill, for there is a greater coasting -momentum and a greater tendency for the rear wheels to slew around, -because of the weight upon them.</p> - -<p>After all, the greatest preventive of skidding is care. The driver who -keeps his eyes and wits about him will have his car under control in -situations which might possibly cause skidding. It is an essential of -economy in tires and wheels and some other parts of the mechanism, and -it is an essential in safety, for some very bad, even fatal, accidents -have come from skidding at an unfortunate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> moment, when care would have -prevented it. It is no fun to incur injury to person or car, or to pay -for repairs or excessive renewals; he who would avoid causes for much -of this should beware of skidding.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">“CAN’T-SLIP HEELS” LESSEN SKIDDING</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> your auto is not equipped with “Can’t-Slip Heels,” the green or pink -plugged shock absorbers, the same as you wear on your own heels to keep -from skidding over the sidewalk, perhaps it were well to look into it -a little. Autos as well as men take to skidding quite easily, and not -infrequently come to grief.</p> - -<p>We use rubber heels to absorb shocks and jars just as we use rubber -tires on the auto to absorb road shocks. We find in both instances -that in wet weather the pavement becomes lubricated and a slip or skid -is likely to result in damage to person or car. In the case of rubber -heels it was found desirable to provide some means to prevent slipping, -and plugs were inserted which grip the ice or slippery surface and hold -fast. Tire manufacturers have developed all sorts of devices, such -as projections and recesses, vacuum cups, etc., in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> tread of the -tire, to keep them from slipping. In one case the device has been very -successful, where the manufacturer has inserted strips of cotton fabric -in the tread of the tire, on the same principle as the plug in the -rubber heels.</p> - -<p>The fabric, really a thick canvas, projects a very little beyond the -rubber surface, and gives the tire a better traction than plain rubber -would have on a slippery pavement, and makes one of the best non-skid -combinations. You doubtless will remember that rubbers worn smooth are -more slippery than the leather heels with their nails; or that the -rubber heels which have no plugs get very “slick” and are worse than -nothing. It is exactly the same with rubber tires.</p> - -<p>No matter with what non-skid device tires are equipped, there is always -the danger of slipping when the pavements are wet or slushy, and the -fact that such equipment is used should not make the driver think that -he can drive at high speed with safety. On ordinary wet pavements very -satisfactory results are obtained with most of the regular non-skid -types of tires. Where ice or packed snow or surface mud is encountered, -chains are better. In very deep mud, loose sand, or loose snow, heavy -rope wrapped around the tire between the spokes will probably be found -best.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> In an emergency, when caught out in the country, it might be -necessary to cut up a blanket or find some other substitute for the -rope.</p> - -<p>When there is a telephone pole or post near at hand when the car -becomes stuck in loose snow, sand, or deep mud, often the car may be -pulled out if a tow rope long enough is handy. Fasten one end of the -rope to the pole and the other to the forward part of the rear wheel. -Then start the engine and if the rope is strong enough and it is -stretched tight enough, as the wheel revolves it will start the car -forward. Take a fresh hitch on the pole and try it again. A few inches -at a time it will pull the car forward, a distance equal to about the -diameter of the wheel, and in time get the wheel out of the rut or hole -so that it may grip the solid earth again.</p> - -<p>The flat steel stud tires are absolutely worthless on ice; they are -good skates, but for gripping the ice they are failures.</p> - -<p>The great majority of skids are due to excessive speed. The author -has been told by a driver who drifted into another car and broke both -headlights that he was only going ten miles an hour. This was probably -true, but unquestionably he was going too fast for the condition of the -streets and his tires. It is quite necessary that the driver<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> should -know how his car is going to behave under all conditions and drive -accordingly.</p> - -<p>Occasionally the crown of the road will cause a slip of front or rear -wheels to the side that cannot be prevented by a reduction in speed; -but the careful driver will at least drive slow enough under such -conditions to make whatever damage might occur from this cause as light -as possible. Wherever a road has a crown there is always increased -danger of skidding, but often these roads that have a hard slippery -section in the middle have a narrow strip of gravel or dirt on each -side. Where this is the case it would be better to drive with one pair -of wheels in the dirt rather than to keep in the middle, where slipping -is almost unavoidable.</p> - -<p>In other cases, where there is no dirt strip, it is perhaps better -to keep right in the middle of the road and to use great caution in -turning out for other vehicles.</p> - -<p>Rounding a corner at high speed is, of course, a direct invitation -for a very serious skid. Making sharp turns of the steering wheel on -straightaway is also dangerous. When driving in traffic on slippery -pavements, care should be taken not to follow another vehicle too close -and to judge stops far enough in advance so that the car may be brought -to a standstill, if necessary, several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> feet before the desired point -is reached. In other words, the brakes should be applied very carefully.</p> - -<p>In extreme cases it may be found impossible to apply the brakes at all -without skidding, and it will be necessary to practically allow the -car to drift to a standstill. Brakes which are adjusted so that one -takes hold a little stronger than the other will also cause a skid, by -permitting one wheel to turn and twist the car about.</p> - -<p>When skidding does occur, about the only thing the driver can do is -to turn the steering wheel in the direction of the skidding, with no -pressure on the brake. This will correct the skid before damage is -done, provided the speed is not too great. Another help in preventing -skidding is to leave the clutch engaged and the engine pulling slightly -when the brake is applied. Of course, before the car is actually -brought to a standstill the clutch must be released, or the engine will -stall. The slight pull of the engine when the brake is applied prevents -the locking of the rear wheels, and in that way prevents skidding in a -large measure.</p> - -<p>On any stormy day a short tour of any of the much used avenues in any -city will disclose a variety of machines which have had their skid and -are against the curb with broken wheels, if nothing worse. It seems -as though no amount of advice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> will teach the driver to use care on -slippery pavements. He must have his own skid before he learns his -lesson.</p> - -<p>The season for skidding is always with us, however, and every patch of -ice, or a frozen or wet street surface, or a muddy country road gives -the warning “Drive Carefully.” It behooves the owner, therefore, to -provide his car with the best safety devices to be had, whether it be -chains, rope, tires with plugs which encircle the tread, or whatever -may be necessary. He will do this if he has had his skid; if he hasn’t, -probably no amount of advice will have the slightest effect upon him.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">AVOID NEWLY OILED ROADS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tourists</span> going out on week-end trips into the country, and country -owners who go into strange sections, should pay strict attention to -signs which say in effect: “Danger, Road Being Oiled.” It does not -matter in the least whether you believe in signs or not, pay attention -to all such; it may save an upset, or at least skidding into the ditch. -An oily macadam road is more slippery even than a wet asphalt pavement.</p> - -<p>The danger is greater from the fact that the road is crowned—that is, -it rises in the center and slopes off on either side to a ditch. If -you get off the crown on an oily road the machine is pretty sure to -slide toward the ditch. In running over an oily road it is necessary -to keep on the crown as much as possible and when one has to pass -another vehicle, if he cares much for his safety, he had better slow -down, or come to a stop, and let the other fellow worry about getting -by. An ounce of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> caution before is worth several horse-power of energy -in getting the car back after it goes in the ditch or tries to climb a -telegraph pole.</p> - -<p>Recently the author had occasion to visit Orange County, New York, and -struck a piece of very heavily oiled road near Goshen. It apparently -had been oiled the night before and the workmen had not finished -putting on the binder. It was thick with oil. The road makers knew it -was dangerous and put up a sign similar to that quoted above, but a big -car ahead went down a little slope leading to the oil and the driver -failed to heed the sign quickly enough, and when we caught up with him -he was in the ditch. Coming up were half a dozen other cars sliding all -around but trying to get to the ditched car to give assistance.</p> - -<p>The big car had slowed down somewhat, else it would have gone over -into the field, but it had turned completely around and was headed in -the direction whence it had come. The other cars were sliding in every -direction. When he found his car beginning to slide, the author very -cautiously stopped, for his car was just moving. On inquiring of the -driver of the skidded car, he was told that when the latter had found -himself skidding around he had jammed on the brake, and, of course, -just as might have been expected,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> the rear of the car went right -around. In going up the slight rise of ground, the author met other -cars and had to leave the crown of the road. Immediately the rear tires -began to slide and he went for some distance with the rear pair of -wheels trying to slide down into the ditch while the front pair were -holding fairly well to the road. As soon as he could get back on the -crown of the road again, of course the car straightened out all right.</p> - -<p>Any car which struck the oiled road on high speed would have turned -over or smashed against a telephone pole and probably everybody aboard -would have been hurt, if not killed; so it is wise not to be so -absorbed in entertaining one’s friends that warning signs are missed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WATCH YOUR BRAKES</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Look</span> well to the condition of the brakes on your car before starting on -a trip. See that they are in good shape even if you do not have time to -look over the engine. The brakes are more important than the engine. It -needs an engine in at least fair condition to get anywhere, but if you -do not have brakes you may get too far—too eternally far.</p> - -<p>Manufacturers of cars have recognized the importance of the brake -appliances and have given considerable attention to the improvement of -the brake, designing more efficient operating mechanism, increasing the -size of the braking surface and improving the quality of the friction -materials, and also in protecting the brakes from excessive wear due to -grit and dragging of bands when not in use.</p> - -<p>The brakes, moreover, on the average car of modern design, are -sufficient for all general use, if used intelligently and if they are -given a moderate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> amount of care. But like most other parts of cars, -some owners give them no attention whatever, and consequently there is -frequent failure and often it is a matter of life and death when the -brakes refuse to work properly.</p> - -<p>First of all, owners should understand that there are two sets of -brakes on the car, which operate independently of each other, and -each brake should be capable of holding the car at a standstill on -practically any grade, or, as the chauffeur usually puts it, “sliding -the wheels.”</p> - -<p>A recent experience with a Ford car illustrates the need of the owner -thoroughly understanding his braking system. This was a case of a -new car where the owner had not yet become very familiar with the -mechanism. He came to a very long and fairly steep hill. He released -the clutch and applied the brake as he had been taught, and got about -two-thirds of the way down the hill when the brake lining burned out -and the brake no longer held the car. Then, because he forgot what he -ought to do (or else did not know), the owner lost his head and thought -he was going to smash, and of course did. The car ran into the ditch -and upset, bent the front axle, broke the mud guards and top bows, and -mixed things up generally, but fortunately no one was hurt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> - -<p>This was all unnecessary, for on this particular car he had three other -means of braking. He could have pushed the pedal which engages the -low-speed gear and kept the car at low enough speed to negotiate the -hill in safety. Or, he could have pushed the reverse pedal, which on -this particular car would have acted as a very efficient brake. And, -also, he might have applied the emergency brake, as on any other car.</p> - -<p>As every car is equipped with two distinct sets of brakes, drivers -should learn to use first one and then the other on long grades, and -this may be helped out considerably by using the motor as a brake—that -is, by cutting off the ignition and allowing the machine to push the -engine under compression, and even more by engaging a lower gear before -cutting off the ignition, so that there is a greater leverage obtained -to retard the car. Likewise, long grades should be descended at a -comparatively slow speed in cases where the brake is at all necessary, -because the higher speed develops more heat and the brake lining is -more likely to burn out.</p> - -<p>Of course the brake lining has been improved so that it does not -actually burn out very readily, but under extreme conditions it will -become charred and lose its frictional qualities.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps one of the greatest causes of brake failure is oil. Now the oil -which gets on the brakes usually works through the rear-axle housing -from the differential gear. The owner may be a little too enthusiastic -about lubrication and may put too much oil in the differential and it -travels along the inside of the axle tube. The wheels are so placed -on the axle that this oil can get out only by working over the wheel -bearing and into the brake drum. It will often be noticed that the oil -collects mostly on the right-hand brake. This is because the crown of -the road, and perhaps the ditch alongside of the road which is used -in passing other cars, tilts the car so that the right-hand wheel is -lower than that on the left-hand side. Even where too much lubricant is -not used, it seems that some cars have a tendency to leak oil from the -right-hand wheel housing.</p> - -<p>Usually this trouble may be overcome by taking a long, thin strip of -hard felt of the proper thickness to fill the space between the axle -shaft and the axle housing, and winding around the shaft in helical -form, so that the action, when the shaft is turned, is to force the oil -back toward the differential. Of course, if the felt is not wound in -the right way it would have the opposite tendency and draw the oil out -into the wheel bearing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> - -<p>For this reason the felt should be wound, starting from the wheel end, -in a direction opposite to the forward motion of the wheel, covering -the axle for a distance of six or eight inches. The felt should be -fastened to the shaft with shellac and bound in three or four places -with cord.</p> - -<p>While oil on the brake bands is not desirable, oil on all of the -bearing points of the brake mechanism is highly desirable. Some time, -when driving in a city, take notice of the number of times the brake -is applied. Then stop to think how each action is taking place in the -brake mechanism. This ought to bring one to realize the necessity of -lubricating the bearing parts. These need more frequent oiling because -they are placed where they pick up more than the usual amount of dust -and grit. If the lubrication of these parts is neglected they are -likely to wear unduly and become so weakened that a sudden emergent -strain would mean a break; and this might happen at a time when failure -means death to the occupants of the car.</p> - -<p>Brakes of modern design are so arranged that the bands clear the drum -entirely when they are disengaged. This is done by means of springs and -other devices placed around the drum at different points. These springs -should be inspected occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> to make sure that they have not -become broken or otherwise fail in the performance of their functions.</p> - -<p>Another cause of brake failure is due to the lining wearing thin and -allowing the copper rivets, with which it is fastened to the band, to -come in contact with the brake drum. This in time scores grooves in -the drum and greatly reduces the braking effect. It is not economy, -therefore, to wear the brake linings entirely through. When they become -thin the linings should be inspected, and be replaced as soon as the -rivets begin to show wear.</p> - -<p class="padb1">The usual practice is to have four brakes, one on each rear wheel -operated by the service-brake pedal and one on each rear wheel operated -by the emergency lever. The emergency brake is designed more for -holding the car at standstill after it has been stopped, but may be -used alternately with the service brake on long grades. The service -brake should be kept in such condition that it will bring the car to a -stop within a reasonable distance at any car speed, and it should be -understood by the driver that the emergency brake is not intended to be -used to help out the service brake which holds poorly when a quick stop -is desired.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp95" id="facing098" style="max-width: 115.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing098.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption">REAR WHEEL AND BRAKE DRUM REMOVED, SHOWING EXTERNAL AND -INTERNAL BRAKE BANDS AND MECHANISM</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">Many manufacturers term the second brake the hand brake, rather than -the emergency brake,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> to discourage the idea that it is to be used to -help out when an extra quick stop is desired. Too many owners go upon -the assumption that one good brake is all that is necessary, and allow -one to get into such condition as to be useless when the other fails -unexpectedly, or when it is desirable to use the two sets alternately.</p> - -<p>As to the adjustment of brakes, it is very important, in order to get -the best braking effect—and to save wear on the tires as well—to have -both brakes of a set give about the same friction. There are two places -where adjustments may be made, one at each brake and one on the brake -linkage, usually on each side, but possibly on the single rod connected -to the pedal. By means of these two adjustments it is possible to have -the bands clear the drums when the brakes are released and at the same -time have each brake start to take hold at the same time and with equal -force. The equalizing bar helps out in small variations, but cannot be -expected to take care of the entire adjustment.</p> - -<p>When one considers the multitude of accidents because the “brake -gave way” and of the risk taken by others who fail to care for this -important bit of mechanism, it would surely suggest to the careful man -that he study the construction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> of the brake upon which he depends on a -down grade and that he give it enough attention to know that it is in -working order. If he does not value his own neck enough for that, he -should at least have a care for those who share the danger.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHY THE AUTO STEERS EASILY</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Visions</span> of disaster come to the automobile driver at the thought of -running without the steering tie rod. One thinks of wheels trying to go -in divergent directions and of ultimate destination in the ditch. As a -matter of fact, it is possible to run along quite a while at moderate -speed with only one wheel connected to the steering apparatus, and -experiments have demonstrated that this can be done at quite a lively -gait, on a speed track, whether straightaway or oval. There are several -other peculiarities about the front wheels of an automobile which are -not fully understood by automobile men, unless they have had technical -training.</p> - -<p>Most people think the front wheels of an automobile should be -perfectly true in every way; that is that they should run parallel, -but as a matter of fact they do not run parallel from any viewpoint. -The front wheels actually toe in to a slight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> degrees—that is, the -distance between the front part of the wheels should be one-quarter to -three-eighths of an inch smaller than the distance measured between the -back parts. The tire manufacturer will tell one that the wheels must be -in perfect alignment if full service is to be gotten out of the tires. -This is true in a degree, but auto manufacturers understand that there -must be a slight foregather.</p> - -<p>Theoretically there would be a wear on the tires if they were at all -out of true, but when it comes to the practical consideration of an -automobile there are certain variations of this which are necessary to -make the operation of the car safe and a matter of ease.</p> - -<p>Of course there cannot be too great a difference in the alignment, but -a very slight difference is necessary to enable the steering to be a -matter of certainty. There will be, of course, an intangible amount of -wear, but it does not cut any particular figure in the life of the tire -and it gives a stability in the steering which cannot be neglected.</p> - -<p>Perhaps it can best be illustrated by referring to two types of boats -which are familiar to most persons. One is the scow with the square -nose, which is very hard to steer either with or against the tide;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> it -is pushing flat against the water and there is no lateral pressure to -keep it steady. The pointed-bow boat, the ordinary type, has a pressure -upon each bow so that there is a constant resistance against any -extraordinary pressure from either direction. This makes it necessary -in steering to exert a certain pressure to turn the boat about. In -actual practice it keeps the boat from wobbling. The same is true -when applied to the front wheels. If they are perfectly aligned there -will be no tendency to give one way more than another and very little -pressure would tend to turn the wheels aside and make the car wobble. -Experience teaches that this actually occurs.</p> - -<p>At the automobile school, of course, there are many novices learning to -steer a car, and they are taken out by experts. Where the wheels are -actually aligned perfectly the wobbling effect, especially where the -mechanism is a little worn, is very disconcerting to the student. Now, -if the wheels toe in there is exactly the same pressure effect working -from opposite directions. Each seeks to go slightly out of true and -each offsets that tendency in the other. This naturally keeps the car -steady and the wheels pass over slight obstructions without turning -them in the slightest degree; only a rut or some large obstruction -would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> cause them to turn and this would be the case under all -circumstances.</p> - -<p>In case there is wear due to neglected lubrication or otherwise, the -wobbling tendency is especially noticeable. With the wheels toeing in -slightly this is overcome, because pressure is exerted on the knuckle -pins, keeping them firmly in place, even though there be considerable -wear. The pressure being from both sides, it naturally takes up the -play in both knuckles the same as with a chain when it is drawn tight.</p> - -<p>Nor do the front wheels run in an absolutely vertical position, for -they are set to undergather. This is done to save the tremendous strain -upon the knuckles and make it possible to have these much lighter -than would otherwise be the case. The fact of the undergather, of -course, takes the strain off the steering knuckle pins. Were the wheels -absolutely vertical they would set two or perhaps three inches outside -the knuckle. The weight line being directly through the knuckle to the -ground, there would be a leverage of two or three inches which would -put a tremendous strain directly upon the knuckle; where the wheels are -undergathered, the line of weight intersects both the knuckle and the -tread contact, removing the item of leverage completely, and the wheel -necessarily<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> bears its full proportion of the load without undue strain -upon the knuckle or pin.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the pins are inclined fore and aft, that is, the bottom is -farther forward than the top. This is to help in keeping the wheels -pointed straight ahead by making the wheels into sort of a caster, so -that they trail easily. The knuckles are directly over the center of -the wheels and the line of weight would be directly downward, but the -pins point forward. In this way, as engineers readily understand, the -line of weight is moved forward and the weight is carried ahead of the -contact point of the tire with the ground. Anyone who has ever ridden a -bicycle understands the principle of this. In the old velocipedes where -the wheel fork was vertical, it was very difficult to steer. Bicycle -manufacturers discovered that by projecting the fork forward and -transferring the weight line in advance of the wheel, they were able to -make a machine which would naturally go straight ahead. The principle -is exactly that of the caster. The roller trails along after the weight -and so moves freely, even over obstructions, where it would be hard -going if the roller were directly under the weight.</p> - -<p>Now, as a matter of fact, wheels which are set in the manner described -may run for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> considerable distance without the tie rod, which fastens -the knuckles together. It is usually understood that when the tie rod -breaks there is bound to be a smash at high speed, and under most -circumstances this might be true, but at moderate speeds it often -happens that the car runs a considerable distance, steering perfectly, -after the tie rod has been broken.</p> - -<p>The author had an experience of this kind. He was going up Riverside -Drive in New York City, toward the viaduct. After he had gone almost -across the viaduct he was startled to see what looked like the tie rod -protruding out in front of the car, although the car was moving along -with no sign of trouble. The car was stopped and it was found that the -bolt had jumped out of the knuckle on one side and that the tie rod had -actually swung out in front, and not until then had it been discovered -that there was any trouble.</p> - -<p>Going back over the route across the viaduct and some distance beyond -did not disclose the missing pin, but the conclusion was reached -that it must have come out on the hill leading to the viaduct. Yet -the wheels remained perfectly straight and the car steered properly, -although there were no very sharp turns, and the car did not go to -smash as it ought to have done in theory. It was the caster<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> effect -which saved the car from an accident. The trailing effect described -kept the wheels running straight even after the tie rod was out of -commission.</p> - -<p>Some time later it was learned that the same thing actually had -occurred in one of the big auto races. It so mystified the driver and -his mechanician that they decided to experiment. They fixed up a car -without a tie rod and started to speed up on the track. They attained -quite a high speed without mishap and slowed down and drove to the shed -as though the steering gear were regularly equipped.</p> - -<p>However, it is not recommended that any automobile owner neglect to -have his steering apparatus regularly inspected and to see that the -pins are kept tight and that the wheels do not get too much out of -alignment. The pin might drop out when going down a steep hill or when -running at high speed, and tires do wear out when the wheels are too -much out of alignment; but the instances cited show that sometimes -strict theory and actual practice do not always meet.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE ELUSIVE “JUICE”</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> takes good “juice” and lots of it to run a modern auto; not the kind -that Uncle Sam has put a ban upon, for that ran the auto into the ditch -oftener than most anything else; but something quite as hot and with at -least an equal amount of “kick” in it—the electric “juice.”</p> - -<p>Probably this is the least understood element in running a car, if one -may judge by the troubles reported. Large numbers of autoists have no -idea of the functions of the batteries and wires and switches and other -parts of the electrical equipment, and when anything goes wrong they -are helpless.</p> - -<p>In dealing with the electrical equipment of a machine the owner should -understand that a complete circuit is necessary in order to have the -current do its work; that is, starting with the battery as the source, -a wire leads the current from the battery through the switch to the -device to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> be operated, and then the current must be led back to the -battery before it will do any work. It is not sufficient simply to lead -the current to the device; if there is no way back to the battery it -will not get even as far as the switch. It won’t travel except on a -round-trip ticket.</p> - -<p>In looking for trouble electrically the first thing to inspect is -the battery. See that it is charged—has current in it. That can -be determined by using a voltmeter (for dry cells an ammeter) or a -hydrometer. Then each successive terminal from the battery should -be tested. For instance, there is a wire to the lighting switch. It -is insulated and the first place to test after making sure that the -battery is O. K. is at the switch. If there is no current there the -wire may be broken or the terminal connections poor; but whatever the -trouble may be, you have narrowed it down to one small stretch of wire.</p> - -<p>The next step would be to test where the wire leaves the switch to -go to the device to be operated. If the current gets to the switch -and does not get out of it, it is apparent that the trouble is in the -switch, or if it gets to the switch but not through the fuse, the fuse -is at fault.</p> - -<p>If the current leaves the fuse and does not get to the lamp which -the switch controls, then we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> know that the trouble is in that wire -somewhere; if it gets to the lamp but the lamp will not light, we know -it is in the lamp; if we can trace it through the lamp, but it does -not reach the battery, we know that it is the wire leading back to the -battery which is at fault.</p> - -<p>If the current is carried back through the frame of the car, as is very -often the case, frequently the ground connections are poor or there is -a break in the ground. Thus, we might attach a ground wire to a piece -of iron on the dash, and if this is of wood that piece of iron might -be insulated from the remainder of the metal work of the car and the -ground connection would not be complete.</p> - -<p>Recently the author came across some electrical troubles which were -rather mysterious to the owners of the cars, but proved to be simple -under systematic search. One man worked all of one Sunday morning, -with the help of several sympathetic owner friends trying to find out -where an extra wire on his switch should be connected. He could not get -the engine started, the horn would not blow, the headlights would not -light, the starting motor would not turn over, but the dash and tail -lights, which were in series, did light.</p> - -<p>A little experiment developed the fact that when the starting pedal was -depressed the dash light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> grew very dim. This, of course, indicated -that it was not possible to draw a very large amount of current from -the battery, or that the battery was either in a discharged condition, -or that the connections leading from it were poor. It was found that -when the wire connected to the battery terminal was moved, the light -would brighten up. This wire was disconnected and cleaned carefully -to make sure that the contact was good. When it was assembled again -no improvement was shown, so it was taken apart again and a careful -inspection showed that one end of the taper on the inside of the -terminal had a slight shoulder, which prevented the taper end of the -wire from being drawn into place snugly. Therefore a very light contact -was made and sufficient current could not pass to operate the starting -motor. This shoulder was removed with a penknife and the engine started -without difficulty. Several hours’ time would have been saved if the -owner had started to look for the trouble at the source of the current -instead of puzzling over the end of a wire that was not intended to be -connected to anything and had nothing to do with the trouble. It was -simply an extra wire for use if some new device should be installed.</p> - -<p>A week later this same man was unable to start<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> his engine and again -worked over it several hours before calling for help. This time the -lights were all right, but the engine would not start. To determine -the condition of the battery, he turned on a light and depressed the -starter pedal as before, to see if the light would dim very much under -the heavy load; as it did not, it was decided that the battery was all -right this time.</p> - -<p>The hood was open and it was observed that when the starter pedal was -depressed the fan did not revolve and therefore the engine was not -being turned over, though one could hear the starting motor buzzing -plainly. This showed that the overrunning clutch of the starting motor -was slipping. As correcting this trouble was a shop job, they cranked -the engine over by hand, but still it did not start.</p> - -<p>To make sure that a spark was being delivered, the wire leading from -the ignition coil to the high tension distributor was disconnected and -given about <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub> inch gap. As soon as this was done it was plain to see -that a spark was being delivered, and the engine started immediately -also. Making a slight gap in the secondary circuit increases the -intensity of the spark at the plug and often aids in starting a balky -motor. This was an occasion when an outside spark gap was of value. -After<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> the engine was warmed up, it was started several times without -difficulty.</p> - -<p>Another fellow who was in trouble had a “sick” horn. It sounded like -a man who has a cold clogging his vocal organs—that is, it gave a -cracking or rattling sound instead of a musical note, if the sound of -a horn can be called musical. This type of horn has a notched wheel -which revolves and strikes against an iron pin riveted into a disc. -The disc in this way is made to vibrate, giving the desired sound. An -examination showed that the pin had become loose and rattled. It was -explained to the owner what the trouble was and he was told that the -pin was of hardened steel and as it was rather difficult to rivet it, -it might loosen up again. He replied that he would not worry about -that, because now that he knew what the trouble was he could easily get -it fixed again or replace it if necessary.</p> - -<p>Another fellow had a horn which would not play because it had become -grounded and blown the fuse. The ground was removed, but as no fuse -could be obtained, a single strand of very fine wire from an ignition -cable was substituted in place of the fuse. This wire was small enough -to burn up before other short circuits could do damage to battery or -wiring.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - -<p>Still another fellow had his car laid up for a week while he tried to -find out what was the matter with it. He had sent magneto and coil to -the factory for repairs and when they were returned to him a new type -of coil was provided. He wired it up the best he knew how, but the -engine would not start. Checking the wires over very carefully, they -seemed to be placed properly, but a spark could not be obtained. Going -to the source of the current, a test of the dry cells with an ammeter -showed that they were dead. The fellow had lost a week’s use of the car -because, having decided that the trouble was at the magneto or coil, he -did not look anywhere else. He should have started at the battery to -trace the current.</p> - -<p>Another case which came under notice was where one of the headlights -failed to light. A test showed that the current came to the lamp. To -make sure the lamp was not at fault the one from the opposite side was -substituted, but it would not light. The lamp was grounded by an extra -length of wire and it worked all right. Then it was found that the -ground wire, which was located back of the reflector inside the lamp, -had become loose.</p> - -<p>Most of these troubles point to the fact that a complete circuit is -necessary to have an electrical current do its work. Therefore, when -trouble occurs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> the source of the current should be examined first and -then the current should be traced through its entire path leading from -and returning to the battery.</p> - -<p>It might be a good idea for the owner on winter evenings to get out -the wiring diagram of his car and trace the current from the battery -through each light, through the ignition system, through the horn, and -through every other electrical device used on the car, including the -generator and starting motor.</p> - -<p>Also it might be good practice for the owner to carry his wiring -diagram with him when touring, so that the garage man, if there be -trouble, may be helped to quickly locate it. But if the winter evenings -be spent wisely in studying the electrical equipment, or even the -entire car, or perhaps invested in a course of instruction at a good -school, the owner might be independent of the garage man for the most -part and besides have the satisfaction of knowing that when anything -does go wrong he can find it and in most cases fix the trouble. The -release from worry ought to be worth the time spent in learning how.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">PUTTING THE KICK IN THE SPARK</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Motors</span> are a good deal like men. Very many of them, when everything -is wide open and they are hitting it up at top speed, have excellent -performance, but spit and sputter and knock a bit when compelled to -travel at a lesser pace.</p> - -<p>This is not moralizing, but the natural deduction from the complaints -which are constantly received. A great many drivers want to know why it -is they cannot throttle down the engine; they say it will pull well at -medium or high speed, but skips at the lower speeds.</p> - -<p>Where magneto ignition is used, this often may be overcome by adjusting -the interrupter points for a little wider gap. That makes the -interrupter points open a little earlier and causes the spark to occur -when the magneto armature is in a more favorable position, and the -spark therefore has more kick in it.</p> - -<p>The interrupter points usually are adjusted for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> normal running -speed, or a little higher than medium speed. Increasing the number -of revolutions per minute of the armature causes a distortion of the -magnetic field, which tends to follow the armature. This distortion -is not so great at lower speeds. To overcome the distortion, which in -effect twists the field around so that the points do not open at the -period of greatest current potency, we must change the time when the -points open and cause the spark; therefore, to get the best spark it is -necessary to have the points open earlier. Widening the gap between the -points accomplishes this.</p> - -<p>If the engine misses at high speed, close the points a little to make -the opening come later and when in better armature position, the action -being just the reverse of the foregoing paragraph.</p> - -<p>Widening the gap of the spark plug also will help to overcome skipping -at low speeds. At low speeds a full charge of gas is not drawn in and -compression is low and temperature low in consequence; the mixture is -not so near the self-ignition point when the spark occurs as it is at -higher speeds. Therefore a better spark is needed to ignite it. By -widening the gap in the plugs the secondary current is held back until -it acquires high enough potentiality to jump the greater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> gap; so that -when it does occur an exceptionally powerful spark is obtained.</p> - -<p>This may be demonstrated with the use of a vibrating coil. Set one -of the cylinders on top of compression ready to ignite. Turn on the -current and while the vibrator will buzz the spark inside the cylinder -is not strong enough to ignite the charge. Now detach the spark-plug -wire and hold it close to the outer plug terminal and turn on the -current. The extra gap will increase the strength of the spark in that -cylinder and it will ignite the charge, starting the engine. This has -led to the use in some cases, of outside spark gap attachments.</p> - -<p>Widening the gap and getting a longer spark is not what ignites the -charge. It is simply that the greater gap causes the current to build -up to a higher pressure, or voltage, before it will jump the gap, so -that when it does occur it is of greater intensity.</p> - -<p>There are several other things about sparking not generally understood -by the novice. The general opinion is that the greater insulating -surface of a plug there is inside the cylinder the less likelihood -there is of short circuiting and consequently the more certain will be -the spark occurrence. This is only partly true; it is true so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> far as -short-circuiting is concerned; but where the surface is too great and -soot or carbon is deposited upon the insulator surface, the carbon acts -as a condenser and absorbs the secondary current. The effect is that -it will not build up a sufficiently high voltage to jump the gap. Very -heavy insulation on the secondary wires absorbs current in the same way.</p> - -<p>The fact that the spark jumps across the points of the plug when it -is in the open air does not necessarily mean that it jumps when the -points are under compression in running conditions. A current which -will cause a spark to jump a half-inch gap in the open air, will cause -it to jump a gap of only <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub> inch under normal running compression. -Failure to appreciate this often results in a man thinking his ignition -is all right when there may be a crack in the insulation so small that -it scarcely can be seen with the naked eye when cleaning the plug, or -there may be a porous spot in the porcelain, either of which would -leak current under compression. Many manufacturers test the porcelains -to see if they leak, using a spark gap of <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> inch under a very high -voltage.</p> - -<p>If there is carbon on the porcelain, the current very often will travel -through this under high compression, because there is less resistance -offered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> by the carbon than by the spark gap. It short-circuits the -plug and there is no ignition. Yet, when this same plug is removed and -tested in the open air, there will be a good spark; the resistance of -the gap in the open air would be less than the resistance offered by a -path through the carbon coating. If on testing a plug in this way there -seems to be a good spark, yet the cylinder will not fire, clean the -plug thoroughly and try it out in the cylinder. If it still does not -fire, try a plug which you know is all right and see if it fires. If it -does, you may know that the old plug leaks current somehow and probably -needs a new porcelain.</p> - -<p>It is a common error with motorists when cleaning a spark plug to -polish up the points and call it a job. What really is required is to -remove all of the carbon, which is a fair conductor of electricity, -from the porcelain or mica and get these back into the insulator class -again.</p> - -<p>The conditions which allow the adjustment of the interrupter points -in magneto ignition to accommodate certain speeds, do not arise when -battery ignition is used. Battery interrupter points are usually -adjusted for an opening of <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>64</sub> inch and the gap at the spark-plug -points must be greater usually than when magneto ignition is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> used, -because the spark given by battery systems is naturally of less volume -than that given by the magneto. Therefore the gap must be greater to -intensify the current as before described.</p> - -<p>The interrupter points sometimes become coated with an insulating -glaze, composed of oxides and dirt hammered by the action of the -movable interrupter point, or hammer. The points will have the -appearance of being all right; there will be no pits or points; -nevertheless there may be enough insulating material there to keep the -current from flowing and no spark will occur in consequence. The points -may be cleaned by inserting a very thin file between the points when -they are open and then allowing them to close on the file, being held -together with no more pressure than the spring exerts, and working the -file back and forth until the glaze is removed. It is necessary to -have a flat surface, so that care in using the file is needed, and, as -platinum is more valuable than gold at present, it will be apparent -that as little filing as possible should be done.</p> - -<p>The condenser is another point of possible trouble. The condenser -increases the volume of the spark about twenty-five times. We often -find that a very weak spark may be caused by a partial breaking down -of the condenser, or occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> to the fact that it is disconnected -at the terminal. Condensers are usually hidden away so that the novice -cannot locate troubles of this nature, but an excessive sparking at -the interrupter or vibrator points, with a very weak spark at the plug -points, indicates that the condenser is not working properly. When this -sparking occurs have an expert examine the condenser for trouble.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHAT’S THE TROUBLE WITH MY BATTERY?</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">With</span> the coming of the shorter days in the year a frequent complaint -to garage man and battery or electric-system expert has to do with the -battery, though in nine times out of ten the man with the kick does -not know that it is the battery. He will talk about the lights failing -every once in a while, or the horn refusing to honk on demand. But in -the majority of cases it is the battery which is at fault.</p> - -<p>It is more difficult to keep the battery charged at that time of the -year than it is in the summer. The reason is that the sun sets earlier, -and just as our electric light and gas bills mount at home, because we -light the lamps earlier, so it is with the auto. The driver who obeys -the law uses more current.</p> - -<p>One complaint came from an owner who was experiencing trouble with his -electric plant. The lights would not work right when he was running.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -Starting out there was light, but after running a short time there was -trouble. The lamps were fitted with dimmers and these would not work at -all times; sometimes one would light and the other fail. He went to the -garage repair man and then the dimmers would not work at all. He went -to an expert electrician, who looked over the battery and declared it -to be all right, but on the ground that he was a battery expert and not -a wiring expert he could not say why the lights would not shine and the -owner had visions of stern policemen and the possibility of having to -face a traffic judge, and he sought advice elsewhere.</p> - -<p>In the meantime his troubles multiplied. The horn—electric—refused -to honk at times and got so that it worked only after the car had been -running half an hour or so. This was the case the writer was asked to -diagnose.</p> - -<p>While trying to determine the cause, questions asked developed that -the owner was employed during most of the day and only ran his car -nights, except that he was making long trips on Saturday and Sunday, -and ran quite late into the night both days. During the week nights his -trips were short, with numerous stops. This caused frequent use of the -self-starter. He found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> it took longer to start the car, a natural -result of the cooler weather.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp91" id="facing125" style="max-width: 95.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing125.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption">THEN HE WENT TO SCHOOL TO LEARN SOME MORE ABOUT HIS CAR</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">These facts suggested that the battery was being starved; that is, that -it was not getting enough charge to keep it at its best. There seemed -to be no trouble with the wiring and the owner was told he had better -have the battery charged and see if his troubles did not end. They did. -Then he went to school to learn some more about his car.</p> - -<p>His trouble was that he did most of his running at night and as he -carefully observed the speed laws, consequently the generator did not -generate very much extra current and the battery was being recharged at -a very low rate and being discharged at a rather high rate. In other -words, he was chopping off both ends—burning both ends of his candle. -He was using an excessive amount of current and generating less than -usual because of running at night, starting often, and running slow to -observe the speed laws. Up to a certain point, the amount of current -which goes into the battery is increased in proportion to the speed of -the car.</p> - -<p>Generators are constructed so that they will deliver a normal charge to -the battery for normal running; they must not be constructed so they -will send out excessive current, or they will overcharge the battery, -and that is harmful. The sun sets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> much earlier in winter and the cool -weather makes it necessary to use the starter more. In warm weather one -little kick will start the car off; in cold weather it takes often from -half a minute to a minute.</p> - -<p>Most engines now are equipped with carburetor check and priming devices -to facilitate starting when the engine is cold, but even with these -more current is consumed in starting the engine than when it is warm.</p> - -<p>Then, too, the storage battery drops off in efficiency as the -temperature is lowered and will not deliver so much current on a full -charge as at a higher temperature. This comes at a time when there is -a greater call on the battery, and where a battery fails under such -circumstances, it is wise to get an occasional charge to help out the -generator.</p> - -<p>It is becoming the practice to take all current for lights, ignition, -and other purposes direct from the battery, using a generator to -recharge it. Inside of a year at the most the bottom of the battery -will become filled with a sediment from the plates. This causes an -internal short circuit and the battery will discharge itself inside -instead of outside. At least once a year a battery should be taken -apart and the sediment be cleaned out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></p> - -<p>Some generators are constructed so that they can be adjusted to deliver -more current on demand; that is, there is one adjustment for summer and -one for winter running. Wherever it is possible to do this it should -be done. Otherwise, when a battery loses voltage, it can be taken off -the car and be charged. It need not be necessary to leave it for a -twenty-hour charging period; if taken soon enough it can be charged in -six to ten hours, or, when the car is laid up over night. Two nights -would be enough at any rate.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact, in self-starter practice, everything is done to -the storage battery that formerly was included in the list of battery -“don’ts.” On account of the exceptional demands of self-starters, -batteries have been improved so that they stand this to some extent; -but the improvement has not kept pace with the extra demand put upon -the battery.</p> - -<p>Some of the old “don’ts” are:</p> - -<p>You should not charge the battery at a high rate when completely -discharged.</p> - -<p>It should not be charged at a high rate when almost fully charged.</p> - -<p>It should not be overcharged too often; occasional overcharge is good, -but not too often.</p> - -<p>It should not be discharged at a very high rate.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - -<p>Most self-starters are of the two-unit type; they have a generator for -recharging the battery and a motor for cranking the engine. In other -self-starters the two units are combined; the same instrument, when -current is fed to it from the battery, kicks off the motor and when -driven by the engine acts as a generator.</p> - -<p>When self-starters were first introduced they had all sorts of devices -to offset the high-current demand and regulators and cutouts to comply -with the battery-makers’ directions in recharging. These devices were -complicated and could not be depended upon, and consequently were -discontinued, and it was put up to the battery to stand the abnormal -conditions. The battery makers have been trying to offset this and to -a certain extent have succeeded, but as it is directly against former -practice—for every one of the “don’ts” is disregarded in self-starter -systems—the makers have not been able to rectify conditions entirely.</p> - -<p>On account of these conditions the life of a storage battery may be -considered to be about one and a half years, and if it lasts as long as -that it is considered to have done its work and to be entitled to be -retired.</p> - -<p>But if your battery seems to fail with the coming of short and cool -days, do not discard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> it until you have tried having it recharged, for -possibly you have simply been overworking it and not feeding it enough -current to keep it in condition.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHY GEARS STRIP</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Some</span> of the most unnecessary and expensive repairs to an automobile are -those connected with its transmission. It is not only exasperating, but -unnecessary to be told that the gears of your car are stripped, or that -the teeth are broken so that smooth running is impossible, if indeed -the car can be run at all.</p> - -<p>It is not in the permanent mesh gears, where shaft motion is turned -into axle motion, that the trouble comes. Properly set and packed the -rear axle gears never should make trouble. But it is in the shifting -gears of the transmission, where gears come to mesh at varying rates -of speed, and with the number of revolutions, load, and several -other things to complicate the situation, that there is wear and -tear—largely tear.</p> - -<p>If an automobile could run at an unvarying rate of speed, if there -were no hills which require the translation of speed into power, or if -the engine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> controls alone could give sufficient speed regulation to -cover the emergencies constantly arising, the transmission might be -simplified into a mere coupling and reverse. But simplify as you will, -there must be provision for varying speeds and these must be attained -while the car is in motion, and this means the meshing together of -finely built gears revolving so fast the teeth cannot be seen.</p> - -<p>It is no novelty to hear a grinding or clashing within the car when -a careless chauffeur starts, or when he changes from one speed to -another. If the owner knew what was going on inside to make all that -noise, a new chauffeur would have a job quickly and there would be laid -down starting, speeding, slowing down, and stopping rules as stringent -as those of the traffic policeman.</p> - -<p>The illustration gives the mechanism of a simple transmission gear -case. The engine shaft J has on the end a gear wheel A, and on the face -of the gear are four engaging teeth I. The end of the shaft J is hollow -and in this revolves one end of the transmission shaft K, which is -square. On it are two gear wheels of varying size, D and E, one having, -say, thirty teeth and the other forty. The smaller is yoked to the -larger and both slide along the square shaft when moved by a lever.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -The gear D has on its face engaging teeth I, corresponding to those on -the engine shaft gear A, and when the two are engaged the transmission -shaft revolves at the same speed as the engine shaft, giving the -highest speed of which the car is capable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image132" style="max-width: 85.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image132.jpg" alt="gear train" /> -</div> - -<p class="padt1">To provide for varying speeds, another shaft is suspended in the -transmission case, on which are other gears. If gear A has twenty -teeth, B will have, say, forty. This reduces the motion of the gear -shaft to one-half that of the engine shaft. Farther along the gear -shaft, gear F, with twenty teeth, engages gear E with forty, further -reducing the speed, so that the transmission shaft revolves one-fourth -as fast as the engine shaft, making the low gear, or slowest speed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> - -<p>When the car is standing, of course, gears E and F are not engaged, but -the engine is running in neutral—that is, no gear on the transmission -shaft is engaged, gear E being shifted just far enough to miss gear F. -To start, it is customary to disconnect the engine and move the lever -so that gears E and F engage. If the speed of the engine shaft be 600 -r.p.m. that of gear F would be 300 r.p.m., or 6000 teeth pass a given -point per minute (300 × 20)—something of a buzz-saw motion. Into this -revolving mass of teeth the forty teeth of gear E, which is at rest, -must penetrate and mesh. It does not require much of a mechanic to see -that the meshing must be quite perfect or there would be a clash and -grind that does no good to delicate machinery. So it is good practice -to allow enough time after the clutch is released for the moving shaft -to come to rest.</p> - -<p>Once the car is under way and it is desired to increase the speed, -the lever is shoved forward, moving the transmission gears forward -until gear D engages gear C. These are the same size and have, say, -thirty teeth each. But they are not moving at the same speed. Gear C, -revolving at 300 r.p.m. puts 9000 teeth per minute past the engaging -point, while gear D, moving at 150 r.p.m. puts just 4500 around per -minute. The difference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> of 4500 represents the possibilities of -clashing and breaking or stripping the gear. The wise chauffeur just -at the instant of shifting the gear, would throttle down his engine -one-half and bring the number of revolutions of the gear shaft to -approximately that of the transmission shaft, which is kept in motion -by the momentum of the car. He also will hesitate in the shift—that -is, stop for an instant in neutral before completing the shift, -to allow for adjustment. It is possible in this way to lessen the -difference in teeth speed. If it were possible to make both gears -revolve at exactly the same speed the shift would be noiseless and -frictionless. This is practically impossible in actual running, though -in theory it can be done. But they may be brought near enough to -minimize the clash.</p> - -<p>In shifting to high speed from medium, the engine should be throttled -more closely and the shift lever should hesitate again, if one would -avoid the thump and jerk commonly felt when the high gear is thrown in. -The engaging teeth of gears A and D will stand a sledge-hammer blow, -but “constant tapping wears away the hardest rock,” you know, and the -best gears made wear and break. Besides there is the jar to engine and -car to consider. Constant jerking and jumping<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> rack the mechanism, -chassis, and body and shorten the life of each, so that economy, if not -comfort, would seem to dictate care by the driver.</p> - -<p>In reversing the operation—that is, going from high to medium and -medium to low, one needs to reverse the directions given for increasing -speed. Still assuming the engine shaft to be running 600 r.p.m., gear -D would have that speed and would throw 18,000 teeth per minute (600 × -30), while gear C, as before, would be going at 9000 teeth per minute -(300 × 30). It would therefore be wise to stop in neutral, engaging -the clutch to speed the engine up, and then release the clutch before -engaging the lower gear, bringing gear C to somewhere near the speed -of gear D. In practice it is approximated by not releasing the clutch -fully when changing to lower gear, thus preventing the clutch from -reducing its speed. To accomplish this speedily, however, the car speed -must be reduced considerably before attempting to make the shift.</p> - -<p>Going on to lowest speed, gear E would now be moving at 300 r.p.m. -and gear F at 300 r.p.m., but gear E’s forty teeth move at 12,000 per -minute and gear F’s twenty teeth at 6000 p.m., to correct which one -should speed up the engine, or check the car, in the same manner as -just described.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> - -<p>In reversing, to back the car, the gear operation intensifies the -problem. In the illustration, gear G operates gear H constantly, the -action being to reverse the motion in the latter, and when gear E -engages gear H to reverse the motion of the transmission shaft and thus -back the car. In addition to the difference in speed and variance of -teeth revolutions, there is added the contrary direction of the two -gears which are to engage. To throw back on reverse even at moderate -speed menaces the gears and shakes things up uncomfortably. Fortunately -it is almost invariably necessary to fully stop the car before -reversing, and necessity of caution in backing prompts very low speed -throughout the operation.</p> - -<p>Care in operating the gears will add much to the life of the car and to -the pleasure of the owner, and chauffeurs should be instructed in the -proper handling of the speed and reverse levers. It racks one’s nerves -when riding to hear gears clash and grind on a passing car, and many of -the taxis seem to have this trouble.</p> - -<p>The chauffeurs run the cars on a slap-dash method and disregard of the -gears is a part of it all, but it costs the owner much in upkeep and -renewals.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE GEAR-SHIFTING BUGABOO</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Probably</span> the chief bugaboo of the new owner is gear shifting. This -is evident from the fact that the average motor-driving novice will -leave the gear in high when the car is slowed down practically to a -standstill, and make the engine labor in order to pick up speed again, -rather than run the risk of making a noisy shift. He has learned from -his brief experience that, in addition to the noise he creates, he does -not mesh the gears anyway, and has to start off from a standstill. -Consequently he does not shift gears, but makes the engine start on -high-speed gear.</p> - -<p>This, no doubt, is the cause in a large measure of the great popularity -of six-, eight-, and twelve-cylinder engines, since with motors of this -type the gear shift is not so necessary. There is a greater range of -speed; a greater flexibility and power may be delivered at lower speed. -Even the manufacturers of four-cylinder engines have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> designed their -motors for higher speed with greater gear reduction, which makes it -easier for the engine to pick up the load from the very lowest speed, -consequently making the car more popular with the prospective owner.</p> - -<p>Inventors are continually at work trying to devise simple methods of -bringing about an adjustment of load to speed without actually sliding -the gears into mesh, and one very popular type of car is arranged so -that no sliding of gears is necessary, and another one or two leave out -the gears entirely.</p> - -<p>However, the three-speed sliding-gear transmission seems to be the -most satisfactory, considered from all standpoints, including cost of -manufacture, ease of repair and care required, consequently the owner -should learn at once how to manipulate the gear lever with a minimum of -noise, which is largely a matter of practice.</p> - -<p class="padb1">If a man should get into a strange car he could hardly be expected to -shift the gears noiselessly under all conditions; but a man who owns a -car and drives it should very quickly learn the peculiarities of that -particular car and be able to make the required gear shifts with ease -and confidence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="facing138" style="max-width: 122.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing138.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption">CYLINDER OF STEEL, AND THE GEAR WHEEL WHICH WAS HAMMERED -FROM IT</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">Shifting gears at the proper time saves racking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> the entire mechanism -of the car. It usually is not very difficult in the average car to -shift to a higher gear, although some car owners manage to stir up -considerable noise in doing this. One of the sources of trouble in -this respect is a dragging clutch. But most cars now are equipped with -a clutch brake, and by depressing the pedal far enough this brake is -brought into play and overcomes the tendency to drag.</p> - -<p>Usually the best results can be obtained in shifting from first to -second gear by speeding the car up a very little on first, shifting -out of first and hesitating an instant in neutral and then shifting -into second. Unless the clutch-brake action is harsh the clutch pedal -should be depressed all the way in making this shift. The procedure is -the same in shifting from second to third. Care should be exercised, -however, not to speed the car up too much before shifting, and the -throttle should be in closed position and the accelerator pedal -released during the time of the shift.</p> - -<p>Changing from high to a lower gear is where the most of the trouble is -experienced and this is usually due to the fact that the car is being -driven at perhaps twenty-five to thirty miles an hour and the driver -for some reason or other thinks he is going to have use for the second -speed. Immediately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> he proceeds to shift; the result is audible for -half a mile. Usually no difficulty would be experienced in shifting to -a lower gear if the car speed is diminished sufficiently. As a general -rule, when shifting to a lower gear the speed of the car should be a -little less than when shifting to a higher, between the same relative -gears.</p> - -<p>In ordinary driving the gear need not be shifted to first speed except -when the car is brought to a standstill and on a level road the -second-speed gear need not be employed until a speed as low as five to -ten miles an hour is reached. The gear should be shifted when the car -speed has been decreased to this extent, and the driver should guard -against shifting before slowing down simply because his judgment tells -him he is going to have to use a lower gear, if he desires to make a -silent shift. There is a tendency to anticipate the necessity and then -to do it immediately and before it is required; the consequence is -noise.</p> - -<p>When climbing steep hills it is desirable to make the shift at a little -higher car speed than on the level, otherwise the car may lose so much -momentum during the operation that the engine will be unable to pick -up the load and will stall. This is a rather difficult situation which -needs special handling.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p> - -<p>In a great many cases a silent shift may be made on a hill by leaving -the throttle slightly open so that the engine speed will increase when -the clutch is released and make a very quick shift with the clutch but -partly released.</p> - -<p>After the driver becomes a little experienced he may shift from third -to second without sound at practically any car speed that the engine -is able to deliver on second gear. This may even be found of value -when climbing steep hills and in anticipating necessary shifts. To -make this shift at high speed, release the clutch, shift gear lever to -neutral notch, engage clutch, and accelerate engine speed to a point -which experience tells you is the correct engine speed for second gear -at that car speed, disengage clutch and shift into second. This is a -matter for experiment and experience.</p> - -<p>In starting the car grinding of the gears occurs because the owner has -not patience to wait the five seconds that may be necessary for the -clutch to stop spinning before meshing the gears.</p> - -<p>Another source of annoyance which often leads up to a noisy gear -change, comes from the fact that occasionally it is not possible to -bring the first-speed gears into mesh when about to start the car. -This is due to the fact that the gear teeth line up so that the gears -cannot be slid into mesh.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> This may be overcome by leaving the lever -in neutral, engaging the clutch so that one gear will spin, and then -disengage the clutch again before shifting the lever. It may need one -or two repetitions of this before accomplishing the desired result, but -a little patience will save strain on the gear and a minimum of noise -in shifting.</p> - -<p>A noiseless shift cannot be made from first to reverse or reverse to -first unless the car is at a standstill.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE MUFFLER</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Much</span> despised, detested by many automobile operators and neglected -by almost every chauffeur, and even “cut out” altogether when the -traffic policeman is not around, the muffler plainly ought not to be -so treated. It is deserving of careful consideration every once in a -while, if the owner cares much for efficiency and economy in operation.</p> - -<p>The muffler is located under the car, and being out of sight is usually -out of mind. It is therefore often neglected or misused. And yet it -ought not to be. The muffler is placed on the end of the exhaust pipe, -and its sole purpose is to silence the exhaust of the engine so that -the driver of an automobile while taking pleasure himself does not -wholly deprive others of it.</p> - -<p>Let us consider the use of the muffler. The exhaust valve opens while -the burned gas is still under a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty -pounds per square inch. If this were exhausted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> directly into the -air the resulting noise would stifle conversation in the car, annoy -everybody along the street, and quickly get the driver into trouble -with the police. The muffler prevents all this. It provides a chamber -in which these exhaust gases may expand and cool somewhat and at the -same time breaks up the pressure by allowing it to leak out slowly -through a number of very small holes, instead of letting it loose in -one “big noise.”</p> - -<p>In the early history of the automobile, mufflers were not used and -everybody for blocks around knew when an auto was coming. As the -automobiles increased in number this became a nuisance and was stopped -by law. Then they sought—indeed had been seeking—a means of stifling -the sound. In the early muffler there was trouble because the gas would -back up in the cylinder and decrease the power of the motor. It was -thought there was no way to decrease the sound without decreasing the -power; therefore the manufacturers devised a valve to “cut out” the -muffler on the car whenever extra power was desired.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the back pressure was so great as to interfere when driving -through heavy roads or up hills. The “cut-out” let the gas exhaust -directly into the air instead of going through the muffler.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> At the -present time nearly every city has a law prohibiting the use of -“cut-outs.”</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact those well posted on automobile engines understand -to-day that the “cut-out” is absolutely unnecessary on a modern car if -the muffler is kept in proper condition. Muffler manufacturers have -been able to produce a design with which there is no back pressure at -all. For this reason manufacturers discourage the use of the “cut-out” -on their cars and some of them will no longer install one except as an -“extra.”</p> - -<p>The average driver, however, does not know that his muffler needs as -careful attention as any other part of the mechanism and so he neglects -it. In these days of noiseless cars it requires a great number of very -small holes inside the muffler. These become clogged with soot or -carbon from the exhaust. The deposit collects very rapidly, especially -when the grade of oil used is poor or too much oil is used. It also -results when the carburetor is adjusted to give too rich a mixture.</p> - -<p>When these small openings become clogged, the exhaust gases cannot -escape readily and naturally the cylinder of the engine is not cleaned -at the exhaust stroke. Result: It is impossible to bring in a full -cylinder of new gas on the next<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> intake stroke. There is not a full -charge to explode and this means a loss of power to the engine.</p> - -<p>Cases are known where the throttle was opened wide without any increase -in power. Trying to find out what the matter was the driver opened the -“cut-out” and this caused the machine to accelerate very rapidly.</p> - -<p>In other cases when the engine was cranked, there would be a few -explosions, a sputter and a stop, and the reason was that the muffler -was so clogged that it was impossible to exhaust the gas from these few -explosions, the cylinder remained full of burned gas, and, of course, -could not take in a further supply. These, of course, are extreme -cases, but the writer had this experience not long ago:</p> - -<p>He was riding in a car that could hardly make headway against a strong -wind blowing. This meant frequent use of the second-speed gear, which -in itself causes an undue use of gasoline. He found on experimenting -that the muffler “cut-out” pedal could be used in place of the -accelerator pedal; that is, when the muffler “cut-out” was open the -engine had considerable more power and immediately speeded up. In fact, -he kept the “cut-out” open most of the way home and had no more trouble -in bucking the headwind. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> experience led to the discovery that the -muffler was almost totally clogged with carbon.</p> - -<p>Of course, where the engine is stopped or there is a decided decrease -in power, the owner will hunt for the trouble, and find it, perhaps, in -the muffler. He might not notice less serious cases where, while the -muffler is somewhat clogged, it does not decrease the power strikingly; -but even in these less serious cases it will often be found that the -power of the motor may be materially increased by having the muffler -cleaned. Yet it is seldom done, even when the car is supposed to be -overhauled completely. Many drivers seem to think the muffler can take -care of itself. In looking over the inspection card of a well-known -make of car it was found that no provision was made for even looking at -the muffler. The service-station inspection orders contain no mention -of the muffler.</p> - -<p>There is still another cause of the clogging of the muffler with -carbon, and that is the practice of putting kerosene in the cylinders -to clean them. The kerosene cleans the carbon from the cylinder walls -and that is what makes the trouble, for it is exhausted right into the -muffler. Some drivers understand this and when using kerosene for this -purpose open the muffler “cut-out”; this allows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> the discharge of the -greater part of the carbon into the air, but even then some of it finds -its way into the muffler and in time makes trouble.</p> - -<p>A muffler of modern design, if kept clean, needs no “cut-out” -arrangement, but if it becomes clogged it is necessary to use a -“cut-out” when the full power of the engine is needed. The consequence -may be a trip to the police station and then to the court and then a -fine to be paid. It is evident, therefore, that if one wishes to get -power out of his car on an economical basis and wishes to escape fines, -he should look after his muffler.</p> - -<p>Since instruction books, and even service-station inspection charts do -not say much about the muffler, and since it is evident that it has an -important part in the operation of the car, where the owner does not -find sufficient information concerning it from the instruction books -furnished him, he would better ask the agency to furnish him a special -muffler pamphlet, which will show its construction and care.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">YOUR BEARINGS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ever</span> stop to count up how many bearings there are about your car? If -you haven’t, you are likely to lose your bearings while you hunt for -the several hundred bearing points of the modern automobile.</p> - -<p>A bearing is a support for a moving member, so designed as to minimize -friction and receive wear, and to permit of fine adjustment.</p> - -<p>There are many types of bearings, some in which the metals are selected -with the idea of obtaining strength rather than non-friction qualities; -others have strong metal shells lined with a comparatively soft -non-friction metal. In these bearings moving members slide over each -other.</p> - -<p>In addition to this we have the so-called anti-friction bearings, in -which balls, or straight, taper, or helical rollers are used, giving a -rolling rather than a sliding contact.</p> - -<p>On the engine alone there are 102 bearings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> This is figured on the -average six-cylinder motor; some of them have more than double the -number. There are, for instance, the following:</p> - -<p>Six cylinders, 6 wrist-pin bearings, 6 crank-pin bearings, 4 main, 3 -cam shaft, 12 cam, 12 push rod, 12 valve stem, 2 fan, 2 water pump, 8 -ignition, 6 spark control, 6 carburetor control, 6 carburetor, 3 oil -pump, 4 self-starter, and 4 self-starter linkage bearings; total, 102.</p> - -<p>The first named, cylinder and piston, not generally termed bearings, -are usually of cast iron, which gives comparatively long wear and in -which the friction is not great if well lubricated. When wear does -occur at this point it is necessary to rebore and have larger pistons -fitted.</p> - -<p>The wrist-pin bearings usually are in the form of a bronze shell, -called a bushing, surrounding the wrist pin; when wear occurs it is -necessary to drive out the bushing and replace with a new one which -fits.</p> - -<p>The crank-pin bearings are usually in halves, the metal babbitt or -bronze, surrounded by a steel strap or casing. When wear occurs, -the adjustment is made by taking out thin sheets of metal, called -shims, which allow the halves to be brought closer together. The main -crank-shaft bearings are of the same type.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span></p> - -<p>The cam-shaft bearings are usually in bushing form, which must be -replaced with new ones when they become worn. The cam-follower bearings -may be just flat plates resting directly upon the cam, or rollers -running on a pin in the valve push rod. Wear in these parts would -usually be compensated for by adjusting screws on the valve push rods.</p> - -<p>The push-rod guides are sometimes made of cast iron or other metal, -with babbitt or bronze shell in bushing form, and would require -replacement when worn.</p> - -<p>The oil-pump bearings consist of a plunger working in a small cylinder, -with one end bearing against a cam, or a pair of gears driven from the -cam shaft. These bearings, being perfectly lubricated, seldom or never -require adjustment.</p> - -<p>All of the bearings considered so far are cared for by the lubricating -system of the engine, which starts when the engine starts to run, and -as long as oil is kept in the engine they are quite certain to be taken -care of, barring accidental stoppage of the oil lead.</p> - -<p>The fan usually runs on ball bearings which are lubricated with a -squirt can; being usually of the cup and cone type, they are adjusted -by tightening the cone. The water-pump bearings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> are lubricated by -compression grease cups; when the bearings become badly worn it is -necessary to drive out the bushings and replace them; generally the -shaft also will need replacing. When this shaft becomes worn out of -round, no amount of tightening of the stuffing box will prevent water -from leaking out.</p> - -<p>The valve-stem guides are sometimes bushings, but more usually are -holes bored through the cylinder casting. In the former case, when -wear occurs the bushing may be driven out and a new one, with new -valve, installed; in the latter case, the holes must be reamed true and -larger, and valves with larger stems be inserted.</p> - -<p>In the ignition system ball bearings usually are employed, with or -without means of adjustment. These are lubricated with an oil can or -packed in grease. There is one bearing of the ignition system which is -unique in that some manufacturers advise keeping it free of lubricating -substance of any kind. This is the rocker arm of the interrupter -on certain makes of magnetos. Other forms of interrupters are so -constructed that lubrication is advisable.</p> - -<p>The carburetor air-valve bearing operates better if not lubricated, -but does wear and need replacing at times. The throttle bearings may -be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> lubricated and would certainly wear longer if this were done. When -they do wear air is admitted which is noticeable at low engine speed, -causing skipping and irregular running. Then the holes in the casting -must be enlarged and larger shaft inserted.</p> - -<p>The throttle and spark-control linkage have a number of bearings, which -may be of the steel ball and socket type, or a wire bent to fit in an -eye. These pins should be frequently lubricated with a squirt can. -Usually they are not adjustable, so that parts must be replaced when -they become badly worn.</p> - -<p>The self-starter motor and generator are usually equipped with ball -bearings and are lubricated with a squirt can. Both the motor and -generator have a copper commutator on which carbon brushes bear. These -are not bearings, strictly speaking, but they do require a very slight -trace of oil if the brushes have not been soaked in oil. The commutator -becomes worn occasionally and must be smoothed up with fine sand paper, -or, if badly worn, must be removed and trued in a lathe.</p> - -<p>The other principal bearings throughout the car are usually of -ball or roller type, which may or may not be adjustable. Usually -the directions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> for the care and replacement are given in the -manufacturer’s instruction book.</p> - -<p>In the steering gear there is a plain bronze bearing or bushing in -which the shaft is set out of center, so that when wear occurs by -twisting the bushing, the sector of the steering gear may be thrown -deeper into mesh with the worm and take up the play.</p> - -<p>In the transmission gear, in which all other bearings are of the -ball or roller type, there will be found often a plain bearing on -the forward end of the square or fluted shaft called the pilot-shaft -bearing. This is one weak point in many otherwise satisfactory -transmissions. When this bearing wears, the operation becomes noisy -and the gears are difficult to shift. The transmission must be -disassembled, the bushing withdrawn and a new one pressed in.</p> - -<p>The steering-gear linkage bearings are usually of the ball and socket -type, self-adjusting by means of springs. Steering knuckle bearings are -usually bushings which may be driven out and replaced when wear occurs. -It usually is necessary to replace the pins at the same time.</p> - -<p>The universal joints of the propeller shaft become very noisy when -the bearings are worn. In modern construction these bearings are in -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> form of bushings which may be replaced at small expense. The -brake linkage has many bearings, which are clevis and pin. These are -non-adjustable, and unfortunately are not often lubricated. When wear -occurs the holes may be drilled larger and larger pins be inserted, or -the parts may be replaced entirely.</p> - -<p>Of course there are scores of other bearings in other parts of -the chassis, that with ordinary care last the life of the car. -The lubrication and adjustment are usually given in detail in the -manufacturer’s book of instructions and need no special caution other -than to advise following what is there printed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">DRIVING THE CAR</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> takes more than a knowledge of certain small levers and pedals -and a deftness in manipulating clutch and brakes and gear shifts and -steering wheel, to make an automobile driver. Because of this fact the -Automobile School of the West Side Young Men’s Christian Association, -in New York City, has formulated a set of instructions to its students -for the road lessons, which are about the most complete, yet concise, -so far published. They are copyrighted and published by permission. It -may emphasize the foregoing chapter to first quote the introductory -paragraph which otherwise would have been omitted.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The following applies particularly to the cars used in the school. -Slight variations may be found on other machines, so it is well to -get an instruction book from the manufacturers of the car you expect -to operate and follow their instructions closely.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p> - -<p><b>Before Leaving the Garage</b>—See that there is sufficient -gasoline and oil in the tanks to carry you the distance you wish to -go. Examine the radiator or tank to see that it is full of water. -Have sufficient air in the tires. All grease cups should be filled -and turned down properly. If batteries only are used, two should be -carried, and one of them fully charged. If you are carrying only one -battery, be sure that it is sufficiently charged to make the desired -run. Have on the car at least one extra shoe and three extra tubes, -with the ordinary equipment of tire pump, jack, oil gun, tire tools, -tire patches and cement, and the regular kit of other tools. A set -of non-skid chains will be found very useful on wet days; in fact -it is not safe to run without them on wet asphalt. They should not -be used however any more than is necessary, as they wear the tires -excessively. A couple of extra spark plugs should be carried to save -the trouble of cleaning a short circuited one on the road.</p> - -<p><b>Starting Crank</b>—In a gasoline automobile, it is found that -the motor must draw a supply of gas into the cylinder and compress -it before this charge can be ignited to expand and give power. It is -therefore necessary to have some means of turning the engine over -to accomplish this. The starting crank placed usually on the front -of the machine, just in front of the radiator and between the front -spring horns, is for this purpose. It is operated, as a rule, with -the right hand, and is rotated clockwise (the direction the hands of -a clock travel). When there is a self-starter provided, the starting -crank is carried in the tool box, and is used only when the starter -will not operate.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p> - -<p><b>Starting Pedal</b>—The starting pedal or button may generally -be found somewhere on the floor board. Pressing on it connects an -electric motor to the crank shaft of the engine and closes a switch -that allows current from the storage battery to flow to the motor and -crank the engine. This takes the place of the hand-starting crank.</p> - -<p><b>Clutch Pedal</b>—It is quite often desirable to run the engine -without moving the car, and it will also be found necessary at times -to bring into mesh different gears so that more power or speed may be -obtained. A clutch is, therefore, placed between the engine and the -rear wheels. It is controlled by means of a pedal placed just back -of the dash. The clutch is released by pressing on this pedal with -the left foot, and when released the engine will continue to run, -but will not deliver power to the driving wheels. When the pressure -of the left foot is released from the pedal, the clutch will become -engaged automatically by means of a stiff spring and the car will -move forward or backward, according to which gears are in mesh. If -the gears are in the neutral position, however, power will not be -applied to the car when the clutch is engaged. The clutch must be -released every time the gear-shifting lever is moved and whenever the -brake is applied.</p> - -<p>Remember, it is <b>depressing</b> or <b>pushing</b> this pedal -that overcomes the tension of the spring and <b>releases</b> the -clutch, and when no pressure is applied to the pedal, the clutch is -<b>engaged</b>.</p> - -<p><b>The Running-Brake Pedal</b>—The running brake is used for -bringing the car to a standstill. It is operated by means of a pedal -placed just back of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> dash and to the right of the clutch pedal. -To apply the brake, first release the clutch by pushing on the clutch -pedal, then push down or forward on the brake pedal with the right -foot gently but firmly until the car is stopped. After removing the -foot from the brake pedal the brake will be released automatically -by means of a spring. Use the brake gently to save discomfort to the -passengers, wear on tires and the machine in general. Do not run -close to the point where the stop is to be made and then jam the -brake on hard, but begin to apply it early and bring the car to a -standstill gradually.</p> - -<p><b>The Emergency-Brake Lever</b>—The emergency brakes are used -chiefly after the car has been stopped and the operator wishes to -leave it. They are applied by means of a lever operated by the right -hand. This lever is usually placed just forward and to the right of -the driver’s seat. It is fitted with a spring latch and when applied -will lock on, and so is very convenient in stopping on a hill or when -the car is left standing at the curb. The brake is applied by pulling -back the lever. This brake can be used alone or in connection with -the running brake for quick stops when necessary, but it should not -be used for ordinary stopping as it is usually not designed for such -work.</p> - -<p><b>Gear-Shifting Lever</b>—This lever is usually placed forward -and to the right of the operator’s seat, and to the left of the -emergency-brake lever. It is operated with the right hand. By -shifting this lever which engages different sets of gears, the -machine may be made to go forward at different speeds while the -engine turns at a practically uniform speed. It also controls the -reverse gear.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> When the car is standing, the lever should be left -in neutral position. When in this position, even if the clutch -is engaged, the machine will not move. To start the car, release -emergency brake, release the clutch with left foot, grasp the -gear-shifting lever with the right hand and shift from the neutral -position to the first speed notch, accelerate slightly, then allow -the clutch to engage slowly and the car will start. After the car -has started, release the clutch again and shift the gear lever to -the second speed notch and engage the clutch quickly but gently. -Repeat this operation for third and fourth speeds. <b>Always release -clutch when shifting this lever.</b> Whenever the car is brought to -a standstill, put the lever in the neutral position before applying -emergency brake.</p> - -<p><b>Accelerator Pedal</b>—This pedal operates the throttle on the -carburetor and regulates the amount of gas going to the engine and -thus controls the power which the motor develops. It is sometimes -placed between the clutch and brake pedals, but usually to the right -of the brake pedal and is operated by the right foot. More gas is -permitted to enter the cylinders and therefore more power is obtained -by pressing on it, and when released the throttle will be returned -to its minimum position by means of a spring. Push on the pedal very -slowly, for a slight movement greatly increases the power developed -by the motor and a too sudden application of power will strain the -whole machine. It should be pushed slightly when the clutch is -engaged to increase the power of the motor, and should be released -when the clutch is disengaged, so that the engine will not race.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -<b>The Throttle Lever</b>—This lever controls the throttle on the -carburetor the same as the accelerator pedal but it has a spring -latch, and when it is desirable to run the machine for some distance -at a nearly constant speed, this lever may be used as it will stay -where placed, thus relieving the right foot which would become tired -of holding the accelerator pedal in one position for a long time. It -is usually placed on the steering post above the steering wheel and -is operated with the right hand. <b>Do not advance throttle lever too -quickly.</b></p> - -<p><b>The Spark-Control Lever</b>—It takes some time after the spark -occurs for the gas to get thoroughly ignited and give power. It is -therefore desirable to have the spark occur earlier when the engine -is running fast, so that the gas may be thoroughly ignited at the -beginning and deliver power for full length of the working stroke. -This means that the spark when advanced actually occurs when the -piston is still traveling up on the compression stroke and so gets -the gas in the cylinder at its maximum pressure when the crank passes -top dead center. When the motor is cranked in starting it is turned -so slowly that to avoid a kick back the spark must be retarded so -that it occurs after the crank has passed top dead center. The -spark-control lever is connected with the spark-timing device, and so -controls the time at which the spark occurs in the cylinder. It is -usually placed on the steering column above the steering wheel, and -is operated with the right hand. On some cars it is moved forward and -on others backward to advance the spark. When the engine is cranked -in starting, the spark should be fully retarded. After the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> motor has -started it can usually be advanced about two-thirds, but there is no -set rule for this. In general, advance as the motor (not the car) -gains speed and retard as it slackens speed. Keep the spark advanced -as far as possible at all times but retard it if the engine labors or -knocks.</p> - -<p><b>Ignition Switch</b>—Usually placed on the dash. It is for the -purpose of closing and opening the electric circuit and thus stopping -the motor or allowing it to be started. It is generally provided -with a removable plug or a key so that the car may be safely left at -the curb. Be sure that switch is in “Off” position when the motor is -stopped.</p> - -<p><b>Steering Wheel</b>—The steering wheel is usually placed on the -left-hand side of the car directly in front of the operator’s seat. -By its means the direction of the car is controlled. When moving -forward, turning the wheel counter clockwise will cause the car to -go to the left and turning it clockwise will cause the car to go -to the right. It should be operated with the left hand only unless -steering is very hard, when both hands may be used. Grasp the wheel -firmly with one or both hands but not with a strong, nervous grip, -as this becomes very tiresome. If the hand is kept always in one -position on the wheel when only slight turns are desired, there will -be no difficulty in knowing by its position when the front wheels are -pointing straight ahead. When turning corners the position of the -hand on the wheel may be changed and both hands should be used. Do -not attempt to turn the steering wheel when the car is not moving as -this throws a very great and entirely needless strain on the whole -steering mechanism.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p> - -<p><b>Priming Device or “Choke”</b>—When the engine is cranked in -starting, it is turned so slowly that the air going in through the -carburetor has not sufficient velocity to draw the required amount -of gasoline from the spray nozzle. The mixture that goes into the -cylinder is therefore weak and cannot be exploded easily. To enrich -the mixture, a valve is placed in the carburetor air passage, to -choke off the air and feed more gasoline to the motor. This valve is -operated by a lever or button usually found on the dash or attached -to the steering column under the steering wheel. It is often combined -with a device for making the mixture richer or leaner to take care of -different weather conditions. Some engines will start nearly every -time without priming the carburetor; others must be primed every time -the engine is started. Do not prime to excess; as soon as the engine -starts, return the lever or button to the running position.</p> - -<p><b>The Gasoline Tank</b>—The gasoline tank carries the fuel that is -to be fed to the engine. It will sometimes be found under the front -seats, and may be filled by removing the cushion. In this system the -gasoline flows by gravity to the carburetor and a small hole about -the size of a pin will be found in the filler cap to allow the air -to enter as the gasoline leaves. This hole should be kept clean, -because if the air cannot enter the gasoline will stop flowing to -the carburetor and the engine will stop running. Some cars carry -the gasoline tank on the rear of the chassis under the body and air -pressure is kept on the gasoline to force it to the carburetor. This -pressure is obtained by a hand pump placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> on the dash, and is kept -constant automatically. This system differs from all others in that -there should be no hole in the filler cap of the tank and the gasket -on the cap should be kept in good condition to prevent air leakage. -A gauge will be found on the dash and by this means the pressure on -the tank can be determined. Other cars with the tank under the rear -end of the chassis have a system of drawing the gasoline by means of -a vacuum, to a small tank located by the carburetor under the hood, -from which it flows into the carburetor by gravity. Still other cars -have a gasoline tank in the cowl of the dash from which the gasoline -flows to the carburetor by gravity.</p> - -<p><b>The Lubricator</b>—The lubricating system is generally built -into the crank case of the engine. The oil is supplied through a -pipe or other opening found on the engine and a gauge or pet cock -is provided to indicate the amount of oil in the motor. The system -should be kept filled with a light to medium high-grade gas-engine -oil. The lubricating system usually oils all internal parts of the -engine only, the transmission, steering and differential gears -being lubricated by heavy oil or grease placed in their respective -housings, and all other parts of the car are taken care of by oil or -grease cups. Any oil put into the engine should be carefully strained -to remove dirt or grit.</p> - -<p><b>The Water Tank</b>—The water tank or radiator is placed on the -front of the car and should be kept filled with clear water. Any -sediment that is allowed to enter the radiator will clog it and the -engine will then overheat. During the winter it is well to fill the -radiator with some anti-freezing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> solution. Alcohol is good for this -purpose, mixed with water in the following proportions as desired.</p> - -<p class="noindent padt1 padb1">2 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 0° Fahr.<br /> -2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 10° below<br /> -3 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 20° below<br /> -4 pints wood alcohol to 1 gallon water freezes at 38° below</p> - -<p>If steam is discharged from the radiator, examine the fan directly -back of it and the water pump, and see that there is no clog in the -pipes leading to and from it.</p> - -<p><b>Tires</b>—Keep the tires free from oil and grease as they rot -the rubber. Drive very carefully in wet weather because rubber cuts -very easily when wet. Drive slowly around corners and start and stop -without jerks; also be very careful not to rub the tires against the -curb. Have all small cuts vulcanized so that moisture cannot get in -and rot the fabric. Do not run on a flat tire unless it has been -damaged beyond repair. Run slowly on the rim or wrap rope around it -if no other tire is to be had. It is very important to keep the tires -fully inflated at all times. If tires do not give satisfactory wear -report it to the manufacturer at once. When the car is to be laid up -for some time, place jacks under it to keep the weight off the tires.</p> - -<p><b>To Start the Motor</b>—Place the gear-shifting lever in the -neutral position, put the emergency brake on, retard the spark fully -or if well acquainted with the motor, to a point where the spark will -surely occur after the crank has passed top center. Open throttle -about one-third. (After getting acquainted with the machine you will -find a position for the throttle where the motor starts best.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></p> - -<p>Put the switch in “On” position. If the motor habitually starts hard, -prime the carburetor with choking or enriching lever. If car is -equipped with electric self-starter, press hard on starting button or -pedal. When the engine starts, remove foot from pedal immediately, -then close throttle and advance spark lever two-thirds. In cranking -the motor by hand, grasp some part of the car with the left hand -to steady yourself, place the feet wide apart, and stand close to -the front of the machine. Grasp the starting crank with the right -hand having it at its lowest position, or a little to the right of -this point. Push the crank in as far as it will go and turn slowly -clockwise until it engages the crank shaft. It will usually catch -when about at its lowest position. When engaged, brace yourself -firmly and pull up quickly on crank, turning it about one-half -revolution. If after repeating this operation several times the -engine does not start, it may be found necessary to spin the motor. -This means cranking for a full revolution or more. In spinning the -motor, care should be taken to always start with an up pull so as to -gain momentum for the down thrust and so reduce the danger of a kick -back to a minimum. After the engine starts, advance the spark about -two-thirds and close the throttle. If the engine has been started -on the battery and a magneto is used, switch immediately from the -battery to magneto. Do not allow the motor to race. When running -idle, it should turn over at its slowest speed.</p> - -<p><b>To Start the Car</b>—Take your place in the driver’s seat, place -left foot on clutch pedal, and press hard to release the clutch. -Keep it disengaged while with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> the right hand the emergency brake is -released and gear lever is shifted from neutral to the first speed -notch. Then with the right foot press the accelerator pedal gently -until the motor speed is increased a little and at the same time -with the left foot allow the clutch pedal to come back, until the -clutch starts to engage and the car begins to move. From this point -decrease the pressure on the clutch pedal very gradually until the -clutch is fully engaged, at the same time listening to the engine -to see that it doesn’t slow down sufficiently to stall. If it shows -signs of stalling, press accelerator pedal a little more to increase -its speed, at the same time keeping a slightly greater pressure on -the clutch pedal. Stalling the motor is the result of feeding too -little gas with the accelerator, or of not keeping pressure on the -clutch pedal during the time the clutch is engaging. The jerking of -the car comes from feeding too much gas and engaging the clutch too -suddenly. Both of these faults may be overcome by listening to the -speed of the engine and keeping it right through the proper use of -the accelerator pedal, and by releasing the pressure of the foot from -the clutch pedal very gradually from the time it starts to engage -until it is fully engaged. It is impossible to become a good driver -until the ear learns to judge the speed of the motor by its sound and -the left foot learns to engage the clutch gradually. When the clutch -has become fully engaged, press accelerator pedal slightly to speed -up the machine. As soon as it has attained fair momentum, release the -clutch and at the same time let up on the accelerator pedal. Change -gear lever immediately from first speed notch to second speed notch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -and let in the clutch quickly until you feel it take hold and then -gradually, at the same time pressing slightly on the accelerator -pedal. <i>When the clutch pedal is pushed out, the accelerator pedal -should be released; when the clutch is let in, the accelerator pedal -should be pressed slightly.</i> Change from second to third and from -third to fourth if four speeds are employed, always releasing clutch -when gear is shifted, and always accelerating slightly while the -clutch is being engaged.</p> - -<p>Do not forget that the clutch is released when the clutch pedal is -pushed out, and that it is engaged when the pedal is allowed to come -back. Run on the high-speed gear as much as possible, and when it -is necessary to drive more slowly release the clutch and apply the -brake gently until the car is brought to the desired speed. Then if -the speed of the machine is low enough to warrant it, release the -brake and, with the clutch still disengaged, change from the high -to the next lower speed notch and let in the clutch. If the car has -lost much momentum it may be necessary to change to the lowest gear -before letting in the clutch, otherwise the engine may be stalled. -Do not drive too close to other vehicles or objects before releasing -the clutch and applying the brakes as the brakes may not hold as -well as you think and you may not be able to operate them correctly -when in close quarters. If while the machine is standing it is found -impossible to move the gear lever from neutral to first or reverse, -leave the lever in neutral, allow the clutch to engage slightly, then -release it quickly and shift lever to desired notch.</p> - -<p><b>To Stop the Car</b>—Select a lamp-post, tree, or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> object -along the curb, and when still some distance from it, disengage the -clutch and apply the brake gently and get the car under control -so that you can, if you wish, stop ten feet before the object is -reached. Then, releasing the brake pressure slightly, allow the car -to drift to the object, stopping with the rear door directly opposite -the object and the car close enough to the curb to allow passengers -to alight on the sidewalk. Shift gears to neutral, apply emergency -brake, and allow clutch to engage. Be careful that the tires do not -scrape along the curb as this is very damaging. The brake should be -applied so that the car is not brought up with a jerk. This can be -accomplished easily with a little practice, as can also starting -of the car. Remember that you are driving for the comfort of the -passengers, and they can feel the jerks and jar much more than you.</p> - -<p><b>To Reverse the Car</b>—Bring it to a standstill first, then with -the clutch released place the gear lever in the reverse notch. Allow -the clutch to engage gently with the left hand only on the steering -wheel, look backward and gauge the direction by the rear end of the -car. Do not attempt to steer by watching the front wheels; always -look to the rear when going backward, to make sure the way is clear.</p> - -<p><b>Turning in Narrow Streets</b>—With the car moving slowly, first -look back to see that there is no other vehicle coming and then -turn the wheels sharply to the left as far as possible. When within -five feet more or less, depending upon the speed of the car, of -the left-hand curb, release the clutch and apply the brake gently, -at the same time turning the steering wheel quickly to the right.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -Stop turning the wheel when the car is brought to a standstill. With -the clutch still released and the brake on, shift to the reverse -gear. Then release the brake; accelerate slightly, let the clutch -in carefully, and when the car starts to move continue turning the -wheel to the right or clockwise. This will point the car in the -opposite direction. When going backward look toward the back of the -car and also up and down the street to see that no other vehicle is -approaching. After the car has traveled back a sufficient distance, -release the clutch, take foot off of accelerator pedal and apply -brake, at the same time turning steering wheel to the left until the -car stops. Then with the clutch still released and the brake still -on, shift from reverse gear to first speed gear. Take right foot -from brake pedal and accelerate slightly, allowing clutch to engage -gradually, and as soon as the car starts to move, continue turning -steering wheel to the left until the car goes straight ahead. Do not -turn the steering wheel while the car is standing. Start to turn when -the car begins to move. Do not allow tires to strike curb.</p> - -<p><b>Turning Corners</b>—Before turning a corner hold out the hand -so that any driver behind you may see it, and also look back to -make sure that he does see it. If another vehicle is close behind -you or if there is one in front coming toward you, slow up your car -and wait until it has passed before turning. When turning a corner -to the right keep as close to the curb as possible so that the car -will be on the right-hand side when you get into the side street. -When turning to the left go past the center of the street into which -you are traveling and then turn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> sharply, so that you will be on -the right-hand side of the road. Do not cut close to the left curb. -Always go around a corner at a low enough speed to make the use of -the second speed gear necessary, and reduce speed so that the gear -shifting must be done before starting to turn, not after, as this -gives better control of the car. Turning corners at a high rate -of speed puts a great strain on the tires and causes them to wear -excessively. It is also uncomfortable for the passengers. Use both -hands on the steering wheel, and if the car is found to be going -too fast check it by releasing the clutch and applying the brake -slightly. Do not shift gears before slowing the car. The idea is to -slow the car sufficiently to make shifting to a lower gear necessary.</p> - -<p><b>Climbing Hills</b>—When approaching a hill accelerate and advance -the spark, as speeding up the motor makes it more powerful and adding -momentum to the car will often carry it over hills that would need an -intermediate speed gear if an attempt is made to climb them slowly. -As the hill is reached, open the throttle fully. If the engine begins -to feel the grade and labors or knocks, retard the spark until the -knocking or laboring ceases. If the hill is a very steep one, as -soon as the engine begins to lose speed, release the clutch, remove -pressure from accelerator and, without applying the brake, shift to -a lower speed gear. Let clutch in quickly and at the same time open -accelerator wide. It will then probably be found that the spark can -be advanced without causing the engine to knock. On some hills it -may be found necessary to shift to the first speed gear, but this -should not be done<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> unless the engine will not pull the car on a -higher gear. When gears are shifted on a hill the change must be -made quickly and the clutch let in immediately, as slow work will -allow the car to lose momentum, and then when the clutch is engaged -the engine will stall. If the engine stalls, put on the emergency -brake and put gear lever in neutral notch. It will be well to place -a stone or block back of the rear wheels before cranking the motor -as the vibration of the engine may jar the emergency lever loose. In -starting again, release the clutch, put lever in first speed gear, -accelerate strongly, release the emergency brake and at the same -time let the clutch engage. This must be done quickly, otherwise the -car will start to back down the hill. With some cars it may be found -easier when starting from a standstill on a steep hill, to apply the -foot brake, release the emergency brake, engage the clutch while the -foot brake is released gradually, at the same time feeding gas to the -engine with the hand throttle. Do not attempt to climb steep hills -until you have thoroughly mastered shifting gears on the level.</p> - -<p><b>Descending Hills</b>—When descending slight grades throw off -the ignition switch and leave the gear lever in high speed with the -clutch engaged. This will cause the engine to act as a slight brake -and if necessary the running brake may be operated in connection with -it. There is no harm in applying the brake under these conditions -with the clutch engaged, because switching off the ignition causes -the engine to stop giving power. When a very steep grade is -encountered, before attempting to descend it, stop the car and shift -to second or first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> speed gear. The lower the gear used the greater -will be the braking power, and when first speed is used it is almost -impossible for the car to get beyond control. The ignition may be -switched off or on as the occasion requires. Switching it off gives -greater braking power. The clutch must be left engaged, and the -brakes may be used to help. It is well to use first one brake and -then the other in descending long grades, as too long an application -of one will cause it to heat and burn the friction material. Do not -wait until you are half way down the hill before finding out that it -is too steep for the brakes to hold the car. Make up your mind before -starting to descend and shift to first gear if necessary. Do not -allow the brakes to get in such condition that they will not hold to -the best of their ability. Never descend the hill at a high rate of -speed no matter how safe it looks. Brakes do not hold as well when -the car is going fast as they do when it is moving slowly, nor will -they stop a car as quickly going down a grade as they will going up.</p> - -<p><b>Driving in Congested Streets</b>—Procure a copy of the rules of -the road of the city in which you are driving and obey them. Keep -to the right-hand curb unless it is lined with standing vehicles, -in which case keep close to them. In overtaking another vehicle, -pass it on its left. In passing a vehicle coming in the opposite -direction go to the right of it. When stopping, the wheels must be -within six inches of the curb. Before stopping, hold your hand out -at the side of the car to warn the man who may be behind you. Do -not at any time slow down or stop without holding out your hand and -looking back to make sure that it is seen. Pedestrians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> have the -right of way at crossings, but you may warn them of your approach -by blowing the horn. However, do not make a nuisance of yourself -by using it more than necessary. When traveling in a side street, -upon coming to a main thoroughfare slow up so that you can stop -quickly, as vehicles on these streets have the right of way. When on -a main thoroughfare it is not necessary to slow up at every cross -street. Watch the traffic policeman, and when one holds up his hand, -stop; first holding out your hand to warn anyone behind you. Remain -standing until the policeman motions you to proceed. In some places -the policemen use whistles instead of motions, and the signals used -by them should be learned. Whenever it is necessary to reduce the -speed of the car considerably, release the clutch and apply the -brake. When the car is going slow enough, shift to a lower speed gear -to prevent stalling the motor when the clutch is let in. When it is -found necessary to keep behind a slow moving vehicle, shift to a -speed so low that it will not be necessary to slip the clutch. If it -is desirable to go slower than first speed gear, however, the clutch -may be slipped by keeping a slight pressure on that clutch pedal. -A great variation in speed may be obtained when in any gear by the -proper manipulation of the spark and throttle levers.</p> - -<p>Do not attempt to keep pace with other vehicles until you are an -experienced driver. When in close quarters, perform every operation -slowly as a move made slowly but surely will probably take less -time than a move made incorrectly. There is no occasion for getting -excited, as it is safe to assume that every other vehicle is under -perfect control.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> <i>Learn to shift gears without looking at the -lever, because you will need your eyes to watch the road.</i> Sit -straight in the seat: do not get hunched over the steering wheel as -this indicates a novice. Always drive into the garage on the first -speed gear.</p> - -<p><b>Washing the Car</b>—The car should be washed immediately upon -coming into the garage, before the mud has had time to dry. Do not -scour off the mud as this scratches the varnish. Use the hose with -a slow stream until the mud is well loosened, and then finish by -soaking (not rubbing) off with a sponge well wet with water. Where a -hose is not procurable the mud may be loosened with a wet sponge and -then washed off entirely by throwing pails of water on it. Be careful -that water does not go through the radiator or any other opening and -get on the engine, as this is likely to short circuit the magneto or -spark plugs and prevent the motor from running. If there is grease -on the car, soap must be used to remove it. Castile soap is the best -for this purpose. However, do not apply the soap itself to the car, -but make suds in lukewarm water. After all mud and grease has been -removed, wipe dry with a chamois skin. Wash and dry the body before -the running gear, and be careful that no grease is collected on -chamois from wheel bearings and steering-arm joints.</p> - -<p><b>Cautions</b>—Don’t twist the steering wheel when the car is -standing. Corners should be turned at slow speed to save wear on -tires. The brakes should not be applied with too much force except -in an emergency, as it is hard on tires and the machine in general. -Don’t let the motor labor or knock when ascending hills. When going -down long hills<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> use one set of brakes and then the other. Shift to -first speed gear before descending steep hills. Change from first -speed to reverse and from reverse to first only when the car is -standing. Be very careful of skidding on wet pavements. Put non-skid -chains on for wet or icy roads. Always start and stop the car without -a jerk. This constitutes good driving. Don’t forget to see that the -license pad is attached before leaving the garage. Inspect oil, -gasoline, and water tanks before making a trip and see that the -necessary tools and extra tires are in the car. Don’t let the car -stand with the motor stopped in the winter time, unless the radiator -is filled with anti-freezing solution. Look the car over thoroughly -after each run.</p> - -<p>The records of the examinations held at the school show that there -are a few points of driving which a large majority of the students do -not entirely master. This is not due to lack of instruction in the -subjects, but is rather the result of poor memory or insufficient -practice. Failure to perform these operations perfectly does not -necessarily mean that the student is not a safe driver, but it does -show that he needs more practice before being rated as an expert. -If you want to be a little better than the average driver, keep in -mind the following points, go back and read them over again in this -booklet, think about them when driving the car and try your best to -master them.</p> - -<p>When about to turn a corner, or turn in a street, or in fact whenever -swerving from a straight line, look back to see if it is safe to make -the turn, and hold out your hand to signal what you intend to do.</p> - -<p>Make sure that the spark is retarded, the gear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> lever is in neutral, -switch on, and other levers in their proper positions before cranking -the engine.</p> - -<p>When the car has been slowed down to a very low speed for any reason, -shift to a lower gear; don’t try to pick up speed on high gear. -Don’t shift to a lower gear until the car speed has been reduced -sufficiently.</p> - -<p>In New York City, traffic traveling north and south has the right of -way, therefore when crossing an avenue go slowly and make sure you -will not cut off vehicles on the avenue.</p> - -<p>When starting the car, allow the clutch pedal to come back until the -clutch begins to engage, then keep enough pressure on the pedal to -allow it to become fully engaged very gradually. Letting the clutch -engage all at once makes the car jump or the engine stall, and -observers smile knowingly. In this connection you should listen to -the engine and operate the clutch and accelerator so that the engine -is not raced or stalled.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WHERE EXTRA CAUTION IS NECESSARY</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> would seem unnecessary to give caution to the motorist where there -is an element of safety involved; it ought to be understood that -everyone entrusted with the wheel of a motor car would be interested in -his personal safety and in the safety of those in his keeping, and that -he would take all ordinary and even extraordinary precautions to keep -skin unscratched and bones unbroken and existence preserved. But it is -a fact that for a large proportion of motorists there is no such word -as “Danger,” and no such word as “Care.” Why is it?</p> - -<p>For some reason there is abroad the spirit of “take a chance,” and -it has entirely superseded the cautious foresight which was once the -American nature. Perhaps it is the changed conditions of our land which -is responsible for this. In pioneer days caution was necessary, for one -did not know behind what tree or rock lurked death in the form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> of a -savage, and there were wild animals to avoid in the forests, and even -along traveled highways; so that to look ahead, to watch for signs of -danger, and to approach points of peril with every sense alert, was -second nature.</p> - -<p>Boys who were brought up to tramp the woods or prairies were alert -also, because of hiding snakes and prowling wolves, and because of the -need for keeping track of distances and locations to prevent being -lost. We are only a generation or two from these things even at the -crowded centers of population; but the last two generations which have -grown up in the city, and millions who have come from other lands in -the same period have not this inbred caution. Men who are in peril -daily from one cause and another incident to city life, and “nothing -happens,” cannot be expected to get excited about possibilities, which -in time become so familiar as to breed contempt.</p> - -<p>The man who is in constant fear lest something fall from a tall -building upon him, or there be an explosion from beneath, or a crash of -trolley, subway, or elevated cars, with a generous complement of fire -and flood and gale added, would go crazed if he thought much on these -things. Therefore it is hard to get him to think of “safety first.” It -is rather “I should worry,” and it actually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> prolongs life, so long as -it is applied to familiar things—it keeps nerve systems from breaking.</p> - -<p>This is why it is so hard to get the city driver accustomed to caution -in places of real peril. One of the worst of these is driving over -railway tracks. Out on the Huckleberry division, where there is but one -train a day each way if luck favors the intending passengers, there is -not so much danger; but in the vicinity of all the large cities where -suburban trains run often and through trains are numerous, it behooves -the autoist to acquire speedily a belief in signs. The usual sign at a -railroad crossing is a post with two arms in the form of an X to warn -highway travelers. It matters not that there is a flagman or gates, a -due sense of caution is necessary for the driver of an auto.</p> - -<p>The railway near the writer’s old home had signs reading: “Stop, Look, -Listen”; and this should be the slogan of the driver nearing a railway -crossing today. In spite of the ringing of engine bells and blowing of -locomotive whistles and of other precautions of the railway company, it -is incumbent upon the motorist to be careful, to know that there is no -train approaching. An automobile may be stopped within a few feet and -the train sometimes takes a quarter of a mile for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> a stop; therefore -the motorist should not trust to the stopping of the locomotive, for by -that time it might be everlastingly too late. Better stop the auto at -every crossing if the noise of the motor prevents hearing whistle or -bell signals from the train.</p> - -<p>But there is a worse dereliction than failing to make sure that a train -is not at hand, and that is the devil-may-care spirit which prompts -driver to spurt up the engine and dash for the crossing to get over -ahead of the train that is in plain sight. There are few persons who -can estimate the speed of a railway train with any degree of accuracy, -even the railway employes having to check the time between known points -to estimate the speed, unless there is a speedometer. The autoist, -looking at a coming train, sees it at an angle which prevents his -comparing it with fixed objects and cannot tell if it is running ten or -sixty miles an hour as a rule.</p> - -<p>It does not do any good to talk about rights and failure to hear a -warning after the final ceremonies are over and the cemetery has -another monument, and the writer would much prefer to be a live snail -than a dead hare, and would agree to make his destination first, as -well. Neither will it do to talk about the fool-killer and his good -work; sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> others than the foolish driver are imperiled and -suffer. There is only one way to regard it and that is to resolve to -observe the ordinary rules of caution and to make sure that one is not -trying to occupy the same space as a railway train at the same time. -The train has might, if not right, you know.</p> - -<p>Equally important are the crossings of trolley lines, in these days of -high-speed trains and cars, and quite as many accidents occur at street -intersections where two main lines of travel cross, even though there -be no trolley lines. It takes so little effort and so little loss of -time to slow down until one can see the way clear, when there is no -traffic man at the crossing.</p> - -<p>But if one needs be careful of his own hide, it is quite as important -that he be careful of the other fellow’s anatomy. It is easy to say of -the pedestrian, or the man in another vehicle, let him keep out of the -way, or keep to his own side of the road; well, if he don’t, you can -keep out of his way and you will be a great deal happier at the end -of your trip than if you disregard him and there is an accident. One -hardly likes to contemplate even an unavoidable injury to another.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered, also, that the pedestrian has rights upon the -highway greater than the auto<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> driver. It is popular to talk about the -“jay-hawker” and to assume that the man on foot has few rights in the -road, whereas he has the first right, according to the United States -Supreme Court, and no amount of traffic rules and ordinances and laws -can affect his right. Without respect to the wisdom of his doing it, -the man afoot has the right to travel in the middle of the road if he -cares to, and it is the duty of the driver to keep out of his way. -Remembrance of this may save the driver damages in large amount, for -the courts will assess the careless driver, or the careful driver for -that matter, if the pedestrian is hurt and asks damages.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">AN AUTO FURNACE FOR WINTER</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Have</span> you a little hot air furnace on your car? You need one on frosty -mornings unless you want the engine to act as though it had an acute -attack of bronchitis for half or three-quarters of an hour. Maybe -you’ll also need to get out the teakettle and some more extras to get -started in proper shape. A lot of men borrow their wives’ dishrags also -to help start the cars. Great help, too.</p> - -<p>There is not a bit of foolishness about this as the man who has a car -will appreciate, if he has tried to start it with the temperature -down at the freezing point and a wind blowing that would carry off -the engine heat so fast the metal would remain cold. Probably most -other folks have noticed that a lot of cars sputter and cough and spit -and pop as though all kinds of trouble were going on inside, and the -experienced ear can detect many a six-cylinder hitting only on two of -the cylinders, while many a flivver is chug-chugging<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> away like one -of the old one-lungers of ancient auto days. Not only is this at the -start, but for blocks and even miles.</p> - -<p>Now to a novice, the new owner, the first inclination would be to cuss -the manufacturer and the engine. It isn’t the fault of the engine at -all; it is because “the gasoline doesn’t gas.” However there is a -solution of the problem, at least enough of a remedy to make life a -little happier for the owner.</p> - -<p>This condition of gas was absent for several years. In the early days -of automobile construction, before the manufacturers were able to -devise a carburetor for vaporizing gasoline under all conditions, we -had this same trouble as soon as the weather turned cold. Persistent -experiments produced a carburetor which overcame the trouble. Then -almost as soon as a carburetor was developed which would vaporize -the gasoline under adverse conditions, somehow the volatility of the -gasoline was found to have decreased.</p> - -<p>You will remember the contest between armor plate and big guns—as soon -as an impenetrable armor plate was invented, some genius would go ahead -and find a powder or gun which would shatter the impenetrable plate. -Then the armor factory would try to find something to outwit the gun<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -maker. That is the way with carburetor and gasoline. It is time for the -carburetor maker to devise a scheme to volatilize the heavy gasoline -now supplied under all conditions—particularly in cold weather. There -are signs that he is matching up to the emergency.</p> - -<p>It is true that the gasoline now sold has a greater heat-producing -quality, if only we can get it properly mixed and volatilized. It may -be that the gasoline producers, by putting heavier gasoline on the -market, have been of a real service to auto men, once we have learned -to utilize it economically and efficiently. They may have had in mind -the higher power, but they have given us a gas which is very hard to -vaporize on a frosty morning. Sometime soon, probably the carburetor -man will catch up and give us a vaporizer which will handle it. Until -they do, we will have to look for means of overcoming the difficulties -now experienced, and it is largely a question of warming up the air.</p> - -<p>In changing gasoline from liquid to vapor, considerable heat must -be supplied. When the atmospheric temperature is too low, there is -not sufficient heat in it to vaporize the gasoline sprayed into the -carburetor. When the engine is warm, the process of vaporization -goes on from the needle valve to the moment of ignition, but if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -engine is cold, the process is retarded more or less, and under some -conditions it is possible for thoroughly vaporized gasoline to be -again condensed. The man who does not understand is inclined to say -uncomplimentary things about the engine and talk about “fireproof -gasoline.” The only trouble is that the temperature is so low that we -must heat the air before we send it into the carburetor. Practically -all the carburetor manufacturers put out a “stove” to heat the air -supply, which is attached around the exhaust pipe, so that the hot air -surrounding the pipe is conveyed to the carburetor, which warms the -air entering the intake, thus supplying the heat necessary to effect -vaporization. This “stove” or gas warmer, the chauffeurs are beginning -to call a “hot-air furnace.”</p> - -<p>The process of vaporization absorbs a large amount of heat. To raise -the temperature of the liquid one degree takes a certain amount of -heat. The amount required per degree remains the same until the point -of vaporization is reached, when two hundred times that amount of heat -is required to effect vaporization. The “hot-air furnace” supplies the -extra amount of heat.</p> - -<p>A great many carburetors have the mixing chamber water-jacketed and -the water from the cooling system is circulated through it, supplying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -some heat in that way. Sometimes that in itself is sufficient, but at -present it seems advisable to use both. Neither one of these is in -operation when the engine is started; the “hot-air furnace” depends -upon the exhaust pipe being heated, and the water-jacket upon the -engine itself being heated long enough to warm up the circulating -water. So that it becomes necessary to find some means to supply heat -until these warm up.</p> - -<p>When the car is started in a warm garage the gasoline will vaporize -properly and the engine will run in good shape, but as soon as the car -goes out into the cold air it will cool the engine so that some of -the gasoline will be condensed. Therefore we close the radiator cover -partly or wholly until the engine is thoroughly warmed. If the car is -started in a cold garage, the teakettle and dishrag method must be -resorted to. Wrap the cloth around the carburetor so that it does not -cover the air intake, and pour the boiling water on the rag, taking -care that none gets in the air intake. The hot water will heat the -carburetor and intake pipe and raise the temperature of the mixture so -that the engine will run. In some cases it may be necessary even to -drain out the cooling system and fill it with hot water, so that the -combustion chamber becomes heated up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p> - -<p>As the weather becomes colder it will be found necessary, no doubt, -to close up the radiator more and more in order to keep the engine at -the required temperature. High engine temperature, up to the point -where the water in the cooling system begins to boil, is desirable from -the standpoint of efficiency, and if no trouble is experienced with -irregular running, the hotter the engine is, the larger amount of power -is developed.</p> - -<p>One manufacturer has incorporated in the radiator a shutter-like -device, by means of which the amount of air admitted may be regulated -from the driver’s seat. Doubtless others will follow, or find an -equally good substitute.</p> - -<p>Radiator covers to fit almost any car now made may be procured at -trifling expense; one may simply put a piece of cardboard over it. -Being out without a cover recently when the engine did not work right, -the author stopped when he came to a newsboy and bought a paper and -tied it over the radiator, getting home all right with this substitute.</p> - -<p>One man complained that his car would start out well and run all right -as long as he was going away from home, but as soon as he turned -homeward it would begin to act up. He wanted to know if the car had the -wanderlust. Inquiry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> developed the fact that the trips he spoke of on -the going trip were with the wind and returning against it. The added -force of the wind over the engine cooled the engine too much, and he -was advised to cover the radiator under such circumstances. He reported -no trouble after trying it.</p> - -<p>Of course, sometimes, the skipping can be overcome by enriching the -mixture by the dash control, but with the present heavy gasoline the -enriched mixture does not seem to do much good and is simply adding to -the supply of gasoline which already is refusing to vaporize. Therefore -it seems to be the stove and the dishrag for the cold engine.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE COOLING SYSTEM IN WINTER</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> there are many sections of the country where it is necessary -to put the car away for that portion of the year when the ground is -covered with snow and ice, and for that reason many cars are put in -storage, yet there are sections where this is not necessary. And -likewise, in the Northern cities, where the snow is cleared from the -streets after every storm, the improvement in carburetors and the -adoption of heating devices have made it possible to keep the car in -commission where formerly it was thought impossible.</p> - -<p>There are two things necessary if the car is to be operated in winter, -the first of which is some anti-freezing solution for the cooling -system; the second is a device for warming the mixture before admission -to the cylinders.</p> - -<p>Many things have been tried for making the cooling system freeze-proof. -The most common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> are salt, glycerin, and alcohol. Any one of these -in the proper proportion will insure against freezing. They are not -equally desirable, however. Salt has a tendency to set up electrolitic -action where iron and brass parts are combined in the cooling system, -but four pounds of salt to the gallon will give a solution which will -not freeze until seventeen degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, is reached. -Glycerin will keep the water from freezing, but it is expensive and -if rubber hose is used to connect radiator and the cylinder pipes, -glycerin will cause it to decompose rapidly.</p> - -<p>Denatured alcohol probably is the best to use, mixed with water in -proportion as the cold to be expected may demand. Twenty per cent. of -alcohol will give protection to five degrees above zero; thirty per -cent. to nine degrees below zero, and thirty-five per cent. to sixteen -degrees below. The owner must not make the error of using a mixture -which will protect him only for the average low temperature of his -locality. For thirty years the average minimum for the vicinity of New -York City was twelve degrees above zero. The man who thought he was -playing safe with a twenty-per-cent. solution would have ruined his -engine on one of the days while this material was being prepared, for -the temperature went to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> twenty below in the suburbs and to seventeen -below in the city. Unless the owner had foresight enough to drain out -the cooling solution there would have been burst radiator and pipes, -and perhaps a cracked cylinder, or at least the water-jacket, to be -replaced. Even a thirty-five per cent. solution would not have saved -the damage.</p> - -<p>Probably a combination of alcohol and glycerin will suit the particular -owner a little better than alcohol alone, since there is less -evaporation, and a single dose of glycerin will last the entire season, -only alcohol and water needing to be added to replace that boiled away -or evaporated. Half alcohol and half glycerin is the proper proportion -to be added to the water. It has one advantage, that it freezes quite -a bit lower than the alcohol alone. While there are many kinds of -solutions sold which are “guaranteed,” the owner can make his own at -less expense, even considering prices of alcohol and glycerin. The same -treatment must be given to an acetylene gas producer, since the water -will freeze in that and burst the tank.</p> - -<p>Another thing which must be taken into account in winter is the warming -of the mixture for starting so that it does not condense the moment it -strikes the cold cylinder walls. Modern cars are provided with means -for accomplishing this when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> the engine has started, but the hot-water -jacket and hot-air furnace depend upon a warmed-up engine for their -availability, and for starting other means must be devised. It may -often be wise to drain off the anti-freeze solution from the cooling -system and substitute hot water until the engine is well warmed up, -then replacing the anti-freeze mixture. There also are various devices -for heating the carburetor and intake manifold while the engine is -warming up. There is an electric heater, where one has current in the -garage and other ways of accomplishing the same thing. If no better -means is at hand a hot-water bottle about half full, so that it can be -wrapped about the manifold, may do it all right; or a cloth wrapped -about the manifold and carburetor without covering the air intake, and -a kettle of hot water, may do it satisfactorily. These methods are -considered more at length in the preceding chapter.</p> - -<p>It will doubtless be found necessary to prime the engine in starting in -cold weather, and it is wise to carry a squirt can for this purpose, -though a piece of waste saturated from the carburetor drip cock and -squeezed over the priming cup will do the trick. If there are no -priming cups it means taking out the spark plugs.</p> - -<p>For running at low temperatures it will be found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> desirable, if indeed -not necessary, to keep the anti-freeze solution from cooling too -rapidly and thus retarding combustion in the cylinders. Most engines -run better in the winter when the fan is disconnected by removing the -belt. When it becomes very cold, however, other means must be provided -in the way of radiator covers. These may be procured at any supply -house, fitted to any car. They are in various forms, usually with a -curtain which may be lifted for moderate temperatures and closed when -extremes are reached. Anything which will cover the air spaces of the -radiator may be used in an emergency, if one is caught by a sudden drop -in the temperature. A blanket, a bag, even a newspaper or wrapping -paper tied on will work properly until better provision can be made.</p> - -<p>Care of the lubrication system is needed also in cold weather, since -oil does not flow the same when cold as when warm. Most manufacturers -give a schedule of oils for different seasons and this should be -followed explicitly for best results. The owner should make sure that -the oil is feeding through the system. If there is a dash sight feed -it should be watched, for while oil does not freeze, it does get very -viscid and, like molasses, flows stiff at low temperatures. However, -winter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> lubrication has been studied by engineers for a quarter of a -century and oils which are suited to all climes and all extremes are -no novelty. The manufacturer is the best judge of the oil which will -work most satisfactorily in the machine he turns out; besides, general -advice could not be given which would apply to all cars. As a rule the -man who sells oil should not be taken as an adviser in lubrication. In -case of doubt go to the service station, if within reach, for advice.</p> - -<p>This does not mean that an owner should not substitute a different -brand of oil when he cannot get the one the manufacturer specifies; but -he should get a corresponding quality and then watch results closely -until a supply of the right kind is available. Experience and study -will be a sufficient guide for the careful owner.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">OVERHEATING THE ENGINE IN SUMMER</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> automobile engine will heat up too quickly in hot weather, just as -an individual will. No, we did not say overeat; though if you let the -engine gorge itself too long on motor fodder, it will help to overheat -as well as overeat. There are a variety of reasons for the overheating, -which it is well for the novice to understand.</p> - -<p>Those who have found it necessary during the winter to cover the -radiator and take off the fan belt and do other things to keep the -engine hot enough to run smoothly and with the proper vaporization and -firing, may find in summer that they are having as much or more trouble -in keeping the engine cool enough to run properly.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, the nearer to the boiling point we can run the -engine without actually having the water boil and steam away, the more -efficient it will be. Some engines, in fact, develop much less than the -maximum horse-power because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> they are too well cooled, and yet we hear -a great many complaints about the water boiling in the radiator and the -engine overheating.</p> - -<p>This would not occur if everything were working as the designer -intended it should. During cold weather the man who drives with a -retarded spark uses up more gasoline than necessary, but he is not -bothered with overheating. When the mercury goes up he finds that his -engine overheats and gives him trouble. He has not changed his manner -of driving, and cannot understand why there should be trouble.</p> - -<p>Driving the engine at high speed with the spark retarded is one -very good way of overheating the engine. As a matter of fact, the -battery ignition systems which are now coming more into use require -considerable manipulation of the spark-control lever, and the tendency -is, because the engine knocks at low speed, to leave the lever partly -retarded, instead of advancing it, when a higher speed is reached.</p> - -<p>With the magneto, it is the general practice to advance the lever to -three-fourths or seven-eighths of the full range right after the engine -is started and leave it there for practically all work, except very -high speeds. This may be done largely with such a system, because the -nature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> of the spark given by the magneto changes somewhat with the -speed of the engine, and the equivalent of an automatic advance and -retard of the spark occurs with the variation of speed of the motor. -With the battery system, however, there is very little change in the -nature of the spark effected by the engine speed.</p> - -<p>A frequent cause of chronic overheating may be traced to sediment in -the radiator which cuts off free radiation of the heat. This usually -may be removed by the use of a saturated solution of washing soda and -water. With the advent of summer each year it would be well to fill -the cooling system with a solution of this sort and run the engine -for several hours and then drain it off and refill the system with -clean water. If in the system used a pump is employed, one should -disconnect the upper hose from the radiator and run the engine to pump -the solution out of the system. At the same time water from a hose or -other source should be fed into the top of the radiator as fast as it -is pumped out, and thus flush the entire system, before connecting up -the hose again.</p> - -<p>Where the thermo-syphon system is used, which does not employ a pump, -this, of course, cannot be done, but one should remove both upper and -lower hose connections after running the engine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> with the solution and -wash it out with fresh water as well as possible. A hose inserted in -the upper connection probably would force all the solution out with any -collection of sediment, and the same process with the radiator ought to -clean it out.</p> - -<p>Fan belts are more likely to get out of order in hot weather than in -cold weather; perhaps this is because the engine throws oil or grease -more readily when it is warm. Belts should have grease enough to keep -them soft and pliable, of course, but too much causes slipping. They -should be wiped free of all oil occasionally. There is always a belt -adjustment and this should be tightened so that there is sufficient -tension to drive the fan at all engine speeds.</p> - -<p>Some engines have the spokes of the fly-wheel shaped to form a fan, -and where this is the case the oil pan and hood should be kept tight -so that air will be drawn through the radiator rather than through -other openings. If the radiator is not kept free from oil the outside -passages will very quickly collect dust, which will prevent a free flow -of air and cut off radiating surface, which also occurs when the front -of the radiator is smeared too thickly with paint.</p> - -<p>Pumps do wear out, but this is one of the last places to look for -trouble. The action of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> pump may be determined usually by removing -the radiator filler cap when the engine is running and noting whether -the water is circulating, but if a baffle plate is placed in the filler -opening, it cannot be seen, and a test may be made in the same manner -in which the cleaning solution is washed out, namely, by removing the -top hose from the radiator and running the engine, while supplying -water through the filler opening.</p> - -<p>With the thermo-syphon system there is very little pressure generated -and a slight obstruction will stop the flow of water. Therefore it -is more necessary to keep the system free from sediment and to see -that the gaskets at the joints are made with circular openings of the -right sizes so as not to obstruct the flow of water. Likewise water -must be kept above the top hose of the radiator in order to have any -circulation in this type of cooling system.</p> - -<p>Another cause of overheating, which it has been found very difficult to -locate, comes from carelessness in stretching the hose over the pipe. -In doing this sometimes the inner lining of the hose is loosened and -folds back, covering the opening of the pipe, so that water does not -flow freely. It looks all right from the outside, but an examination -of the inside will show that it is almost entirely clogged at the end. -Also, the lining of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> hose will often loosen up and pieces will -lodge where they cut off the circulation.</p> - -<p>Keep the engine free from carbon and keep the valve push rods adjusted -close, have the mixture as lean as possible and be sure the exhaust -from the muffler is free. Taking care of these things and seeing that -the other things mentioned are all right, will prevent most of the -overheating which troubles the novice, if, indeed, not all of it.</p> - -<p>They are things which should not be trusted entirely to chauffeur -or garage man, but the owner should learn how to take care of them -himself; then if he wants to hire it done he will know if it is being -done according to his orders and will recognize the symptoms when -anything goes wrong. It may take a little time and get one’s hands -somewhat soiled, but it pays in the long run, not alone in the saving -of labor but in the absence of annoyance when out on a trip. It is far -from pleasant to have to stop along a hot roadside to make repairs -which should have been done in the garage, with probable delay and -consequent upsetting of the schedule. Therefore, it behooves the owner -to look after these things before starting out and to learn his car so -well that he will anticipate troubles and by removing causes save time -and money.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SOME OTHER HOT-WEATHER TIPS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> are a number of other points which should be borne in mind by -auto owners with the coming of hot weather, if the most efficient -service is to be had from the car.</p> - -<p>One of the Y. M. C. A. secretaries excitedly called the school to ask -why a seemingly good tire should blow out after a short run. A few -minutes later another secretary put the same inquiry with variations. -That is, he had a tire which was rather old, but it had been inflated -for two weeks and had been running every day since inflation, when it -tested eighty pounds’ pressure. It had blown out.</p> - -<p>The first secretary had been invited by a friend to take a ride. He -had watched the tires inflated and all other bits of preparedness and -saw that nothing was overlooked, and settled down for a fine ride. The -blow-out came about five miles away.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p> - -<p>The trouble with both was that they had not taken into account the fact -that summer was at hand. Experienced drivers know that in hot weather, -whether it is according to rules or not, it is better not to keep the -tire pressure so high as during the cold months, even though it means -more wear on the tires.</p> - -<p>Considerable heat is generated by rolling a tire over the ground. This -heat expands the air in the tire and increases the pressure. In the -winter this heat is absorbed to a large extent by the cold atmosphere -and the cold and wet pavements, and therefore the pressure does not -vary so much. In the summer the roads are very hot, the air temperature -is high, and the heat generated by friction is not carried off to any -appreciable extent.</p> - -<p>On a recent summer trip the writer noticed that the car was riding -harder than usual and a test of the pressure on the tires developed the -fact that it was above normal. To find out just what the difference in -pressure would be, the pressure for each tire was taken before leaving -the garage next morning. After rolling about forty miles at an average -speed of thirty miles an hour, the pressure was again tested. It had -increased about twelve pounds on each tire.</p> - -<p>Several tire manufacturers insist that owners<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> shall not carry less -pressure on tires in hot weather, saying that the increased pressure -due to heat is not sufficient to materially affect their make. This -probably is true for new tires, or for about two-thirds of their -guaranteed life, but if the tire has been weakened, through having been -run under-inflated, or from fabric deterioration through cuts in the -tread, there is danger from the increase in pressure due to heat.</p> - -<p><i>More tires are damaged by under-inflation than by -over-inflation</i>, because the former breaks down the side -walls through running flat, in practically every case, while the -over-inflation causes a blow-out only when the tire is weak at some -point. It would be good practice, however, on hot summer days, to leave -the garage with the tire pressure about ten pounds less than that -specified by the manufacturer as being correct for his make. Any driver -ought to test out his tires after running at a good clip on a hot day -and find out just what they do. A little persistence would enable him -to understand how much his tires heat up and he could regulate the -pressure accordingly.</p> - -<p>Manufacturers of high-pressure tires resent the above advice and -declare that it is wrong. The succeeding chapter tells of definite -tests made and the owner can draw his own inferences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> and decide for -himself whether he wants <i>high</i> tire mileage, or comfort with -<i>pretty good</i> tire mileage.</p> - -<p>There are some other hot-weather points which it might be well to keep -in mind if one would get the best results from the car. One of these is -the care of the carburetor. It will be found usually that not quite so -much gasoline is required as in cold weather, and therefore the dash -adjustment may be carried a little nearer the lean, or air, side. This -not only saves gasoline, but increases the power of the motor, for a -too heavy mixture makes it run logy.</p> - -<p>It will be found also that in most cases the hot-air stove of the -carburetor may be dispensed with or adjusted. Usually provision is -made on the hot-air stoves for allowing some cold air to enter, or to -take cold air entirely. Where the carburetor is water-jacketed, there -usually is a valve that may be closed to prevent the flow of hot water. -Experiment will determine whether it is advisable to cut out the heat -entirely on the individual carburetor, since all are not benefited by -the change.</p> - -<p>The water in the storage battery will evaporate more quickly in -hot weather and where it has been necessary to replenish it once -in two weeks in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> winter, it will need to be done every week in -hot weather. This is not entirely due to evaporation from heat but -is accounted for in part by the fact that the engine starts easier -and therefore less current is used for starting; also there is more -daylight and the lamps are used less. Therefore the battery is more -often in a fully charged condition, and in this condition the charging -current causes more gas than when the battery is lower. This is due to -the chemical action which decomposes the water, the hydrogen and oxygen -gases passing off through the vent holes; the water escapes from this -cause as gas and not as vapor, as it does when there is evaporation.</p> - -<p>In hot weather city streets are generally sprinkled regularly and the -country roads are oiled some time during the season. The novice going -behind a street sprinkler, or reaching an oiled stretch of road, should -exercise particular care to prevent skidding, as he would be unlikely -to realize the danger unless he has experienced it once. This is -explained fully in the part of this book devoted to skidding.</p> - -<p>Hot weather softens grease, so that trouble may be experienced through -grease or oil seeping out of transmission or differential cases, or -from the grease cups. Many manufacturers recommend<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> a heavier grease -for summer than for winter to give the greatest efficiency. This -softening of the grease is likely to make a little ring of grease -around each cup, which will collect dust and give the car an unkempt -appearance, besides there is the possibility of some of the dust -working into the bearing. Grease cups must be kept turned down so that -the dust is forced out, and then it should be carefully wiped off.</p> - -<p>Every bearing needs additional care to keep dust out and lubricant in, -but every moment spent in this way pays dividends in expense saved -and comfort and freedom from annoyance on the road, so that the owner -will do well to take note that hot weather calls for added care and -precautions.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">HOT-WEATHER TIRE EXPANSION</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is considerable question whether the pressure on tires should -be decreased during the hot summer days. Tire manufacturers claim, -as a rule, that tires heat more on low pressure than when run at the -full pressure given by them. They claim that even a slight decrease to -offset any increase from heating, because of warmer temperature of the -air, friction, and the hot pavements, will injure the tires. On the -other hand, drivers of long experience insist that the car should be -started out with the tires softer than in cold weather. Still others -insist that the tire pressure demanded by the manufacturer makes the -tire too hard for comfort and that when the pressure is increased by -heat it makes the tire as hard as one of solid rubber. There is some -truth on both sides.</p> - -<p>There has been considerable criticism of the conclusions drawn from the -writer’s experience with tires while on a summer tour, related in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -previous chapter. He stated that there was a twelve-pound increase in -a forty-mile run. This was disputed. Tests prove that he was right and -that in city driving tires ordinarily heat up even when the conditions -are not extreme.</p> - -<p>To determine what effect the hot weather has on tires in the city, the -author drove a 3200-pound Model L Locomobile, equipped all around with -34 × 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inch tires, through the park and on Riverside Drive for -fifteen miles at ordinary city-traffic speed, which always is under -twenty miles an hour. The thermometer registered 86 degrees and the -day was partly overcast, so that the full effect of the sun on the -pavements was not obtained. The tires were inflated to full 90 pounds, -which is the pressure recommended by many manufacturers.</p> - -<p>At the end of the run, one tire registered 101 pounds, two were 100 -pounds, and one was 99 pounds. The conditions were not excessive in any -way and the weather was not abnormal, the road was smooth except for -very short stretches, the speed was low, and the tires were of ample -size for the weight of car and load.</p> - -<p>After the test run, a gauge was made to test the flattening effect on -the tire from a lowered pressure. With the car loaded it was necessary -to decrease the pressure in the tire to 65 pounds to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> have <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub> inch -bulge of the side of the tire. At 70 pounds pressure there was no -flattening perceptible by the use of the gauge.</p> - -<p>It is certain that more tires are damaged by under-inflation than by -over-inflation, also that perfect new tires will stand more than 20 -pounds over-inflation without damage to them. But it is reasonable to -believe that, if a tire has become weakened from any cause, it will -blow out quicker under increased pressure. It is also a fact that a -tire inflated to the pressure recommended by many manufacturers has -very little resiliency, and the riding qualities of the car are very -greatly impaired, and when the pressure rises slightly higher the tire -loses its chief function, that of absorbing the small road shocks. -Anyone who has had the experience of riding on hard tires knows the -discomfort of it; one might about as well ride on solid tires.</p> - -<p>But all this comes back to the question: What is under-inflation? A -tire with ten pounds less pressure than recommended probably will heat -more than when carrying a full pressure; but it will very quickly come -up to the required pressure when the car is run.</p> - -<p>As the pressure recommended by many manufacturers is the extreme so -far as comfort in riding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> is concerned, the car owner must take his -choice between comfort and tire mileage, assuming that a slightly less -pressure does decrease the life of the tire. Presumably the average -owner would rather have comfortable riding, even at the expense of tire -mileage, and we are not prepared to admit that decreased mileage would -be an inevitable result with ten pounds less pressure. Beyond question -the average man would not use a substitute for gasoline which gave him -all sorts of discomfort because it did not run the engine smoothly, -even if it gave a slightly greater mileage to the gallon.</p> - -<p>One manufacturer of fabric tires recommends 56 pounds pressure for -a 4-inch tire and guarantees 5000 miles, and makes the claim that -this pressure makes riding much more comfortable. Another well-known -manufacturer advises inflating the tire only to the point where there -is no bulge or flattening, and another type of pneumatic tire has -become very popular because it requires still less pressure and makes -riding that much more pleasurable.</p> - -<p>Where tires are hard and roads are rough, the machine jumps around so -that it is more likely to jump off the road, therefore there is an -element of safety as well as comfort involved.</p> - -<p>For all around comfort, though possibly with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> lessened tire mileage, -the conclusion is reached that a ten-pound decrease in pressure in -hot summer weather is desirable. The tire cannot be damaged much, -because after a very few minutes on really hot pavements the pressure -will equal that recommended by the most exacting manufacturer and any -overheating due to this cause would be a matter of very short duration.</p> - -<p>As was said in the previous chapter, the wise owner will test out his -car and tires and find out just the proper amount of decrease the -tires will stand. He will then have to decide whether he wants the -highest amount of tire mileage or the highest amount of comfort and act -accordingly.</p> - -<p>It is beside the argument, but a matter of fact, that a certain tire -salesman, a fellow who is quite insistent upon a certain pressure being -maintained, makes it his invariable practice to deflate his tires ten -pounds in hot weather; he wants tire mileage, too.</p> - -<p>All of which goes to show that some people do not always practice what -they preach, or take the medicine they give to others.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXII">CHAPTER XXXII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">GUARDING AGAINST FIRE</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> education of automobile owners and chauffeurs is decreasing the -number of cars which go up in smoke, but there still are cases enough -to require a word of warning as to causes and prevention. Automobile -fires sometimes come from causes not ordinarily considered under the -control of the driver. However, a little extra caution in a few matters -will render the motorist practically free from danger.</p> - -<p>Of course, the principal cause of automobile fires is from back-firing. -Without going into all the causes of back-firing, the chief one is too -lean a mixture fed to the cylinders. This will almost invariably cause -back-fire in starting. Really, the chief trouble comes in starting when -the engine is cold, and naturally this is most frequent in the winter. -When there is a back-fire a sheet of flame comes from the air intake of -the carburetor; if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> there is anything inflammable in that vicinity, it -is quite likely to take fire.</p> - -<p>Gasoline vaporizes so rapidly that if there is gasoline in the drip pan -there is almost sure to be a sufficient mixture around the carburetor -to make trouble. As a matter of fact, the drip pan under the carburetor -should be so arranged as to allow any gasoline to be drained off before -it has had time to vaporize. Indeed, there ought not to be very much -gasoline in the drip pan at any time. If it comes from a leak in the -supply pipe or the connection to the carburetor, the leak should be -repaired. If it comes from an overflow of the carburetor due to poor -seating of the float valve, that should be taken apart and cleaned -so that the float valve will seat properly. These two things are -practically the only occasion for gasoline in the drip pan.</p> - -<p>Another cause of fire may be in running for some time at extreme -speed. This usually will cause the exhaust pipe to become very hot, -sometimes to glow. The exhaust pipe in some cases is placed close to -the woodwork of the car, which may be set on fire. Particularly is this -true if the woodwork has an accumulation of grease and oil, and here -is where caution will have a beneficial effect. The owner who keeps -the woodwork free<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> from oil and grease—cleans it off regularly and -thoroughly—minimizes the danger at this point.</p> - -<p>The pipe also heats up when the engine is run with a greatly retarded -spark. Sometimes the pipe gets red-hot and it is an easy matter to -ignite the woodwork. Here again oil or grease would increase the -danger. The economical operator will not allow grease and oil to be -wasted in this way, aside from the fact that grease, oil, and gasoline -in drip pan or carburetor form a menace hard to overestimate.</p> - -<p>Fires have been started occasionally by opening the muffler “cut-out” -in starting up. This is particularly dangerous when the car is in a -garage, where usually there are grease and gasoline spilled around on -the floor, giving off fumes and creating a danger zone. Occasionally -when the car is standing in the garage the supply line will drip a -little. It may be all right when the gasoline is flowing into the -carburetor regularly, but when it stands, a tiny drip will make a -considerable mixture under the car. A leak, so small as to be unnoticed -ordinarily, when continued over night will cause enough mixture to be -dangerous. If, to aid the engine, the operator opens up the “cut-out,” -there are quite likely to be some sparks flying out. Sparks and gas -mixture are a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span> perilous combination and there is pretty sure to be -a blazing car in a moment.</p> - -<p>Sometimes in filling the gasoline tank it overflows and drips down. -Perhaps the driver, delayed by taking on gasoline, is in a hurry, so he -opens the “cut-out” and finds that making haste is often dangerous.</p> - -<p>Another cause of fires comes from short-circuiting of the ignition -or lighting systems when a storage battery is used. Occasionally a -short-circuit will heat one of the wires red-hot and burn off the -insulation. Then, if there be an accumulation of grease, oil, or -gasoline, there will be trouble.</p> - -<p>To obviate vibration, some chauffeurs pack around the battery with used -waste, which is more or less greasy. It is possible for a tool to drop -down on the battery and give off a spark, or, under vibration, a series -of sparks, sufficient to set fire to the waste. It is on record, in one -of the old-style cars, that a cushion spring wore through and dropped -down on the battery, making a spark every time the spring touched the -terminals, and eventually setting fire to the car. The remedy for all -these instances is very obvious.</p> - -<p>Another cause of fire, which has been written about a great deal, -is static electricity, which is generated when gasoline is filtered -through chamois<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> under certain conditions. Very many funnels have -a chamois strainer. Gasoline poured upon chamois creates static -electricity. It is all right if the funnel touches the gas tank, but -if it does not, a static spark is very likely to cross the gap and set -fire to the volatilizing gasoline. The remedy, of course, is either not -to use chamois or to see that there is a perfect connection between the -funnel and the tank.</p> - -<p>Since one of the chief troubles is the back-firing when the car is -started, it would be well for the owner, when starting the car in -cold weather, to enrich the mixture slightly; this will prevent the -back-firing, and when the engine is well started the mixture may be -adjusted to the proper proportion. Most cars now have a means of -enriching the mixture on the dash.</p> - -<p>It ought not to be necessary to suggest the wisdom of carrying along -one of the approved fire extinguishers, but it is a fact that very many -owners “take a chance.” The insurance companies make a reduction in the -premium when a fire extinguisher is carried, which is a pretty good -indication that they consider it a valuable accessory on the car. Some -companies insist that one be carried.</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as fires may occur even with the most careful operator, from -causes beyond his control,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> such as the accidental short-circuit, or -the carelessness of others, it may be out of place to suggest that the -owner of a valuable car, or one who really cares, insure his car. Rates -are fairly reasonable, and if insurance ever is good it surely ought to -be in the case of an automobile, where several thousands of dollars are -often centered in a very small compass.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII">CHAPTER XXXIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">DON’T RUN AWAY FROM A FIRE</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whatever</span> may be the cause of a fire in your automobile, do not run away -from it. Stay and fight the fire. Often the utmost haste is needed in -getting out of the car when a fire starts, but on the way out grab the -fire extinguisher and turn to use it. Do not be afraid that there will -be an explosion and run. There will be none, and if you work fast you -may save serious damage to the car. Keep your head and fight.</p> - -<p>The presumption is that you will have a good extinguisher on the car. -Two would be better and more in keeping with a high-priced car, both -placed where they can be gotten at instantly, for gasoline fires spread -mighty fast. The causes of fires have been pretty well discussed in -the preceding chapter, and the fact that care will prevent all but a -negligible percentage of fires. Back-fire, for instance, may be made -harmless by placing over the air intake a screen of wire gauze, such -as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> is used in a miner’s safety lamp. To prevent shutting off some -of the air and deranging the carburetor, the screen should be much -larger than the opening of the intake. It can be made in bulb shape and -clamped, soldered, or wired in position, and it ought not to require -more than average gumption to fit such a device on any carburetor. Make -sure it is safety gauze.</p> - -<p>There are several forms of gaskets advertised for this purpose, but -all so far noticed were to go between the carburetor and intake and -are too likely to cause condensation of the gasoline to be recommended -for use. Particularly in cold weather would there be a likelihood of -condensation of vaporized or partly vaporized gasoline. But with the -wire-gauze screen above described the sting of back-fire will be gone, -as no blaze could pass through it and so reach the gasoline fumes which -might be in the drip pan.</p> - -<p>One cause of fire not often mentioned because of its rarity, would be -from sparks from the magneto or generator brushes, or from the breaker -points which might be hot enough to ignite gasoline fumes and therefore -are to be guarded against.</p> - -<p>Since gasoline fumes are heavier than air usually the magneto and -generator are set high enough to be above the danger point; and where -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> magneto is between the cylinders on the V-shaped installation, -there would be no danger. On marine engines, however, high installation -is being featured lately to offset this very danger.</p> - -<p>If, after all precautions are taken, you are visited by fire, stay to -fight it. Get only far enough away to escape being burned, and then -fight and fight hard. Work the fire extinguisher for all it is worth, -for in less time than it takes to read this page the fate of your car -will have been decided.</p> - -<p>Get out of your head, first of all, the idea that there is to be an -explosion. It doesn’t happen. The first puff from the burning gasoline -is the nearest thing to an explosion you will see. After this first -puff, it is fire, not explosion, you need fear and fight. Tanks will -not explode unless empty of gasoline, or nearly so, and filled with -gasoline fumes—that is, vapor and air mixed. Water is little good in -fighting an automobile fire where gasoline and oil are burning.</p> - -<p>There are several things, however, which will quench the flames, and -which should be at hand. If you could get sand and salt in sufficient -quantity on the flames it would be effectual, but of course one -could hardly carry a sufficient quantity along. There are also tube -extinguishers filled with a dry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> compound, which under favorable -circumstances will do the trick. But the trouble is to get the compound -at the seat of the fire, and to throw it violently upon the flame is -impossible.</p> - -<p>There is one thing, however, which will actually put out a gasoline -fire, and it is such a safeguard that no owner can afford to be -without it. That is the carbon tetra-chloride compound, which is the -basis of all liquid extinguishers on the market. This, discharged -close to the seat of the flames, forms a dense smoke-like gas which -has no oxygen to feed the fire, which therefore goes out for lack of -fuel. There are many good extinguishers on the market which use the -carbon tetra-chloride mixture with other ingredients to keep it from -corroding the pump, or to add some other quality to the compound. -These extinguishers cost more than the dry compound tubes, but the -man who can afford to own a car can afford to have the necessary -appliances for its protection. One may never have occasion to use the -fire extinguishers, but it is nice to know that they are ready if the -emergency does come, for there isn’t always a fire department handy, -and if there is, generally the firemen arrive after the car is doomed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV">CHAPTER XXXIV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">DEATH IN THE GASOLINE</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Most</span> persons understand the danger of getting gasoline and fire in -close proximity, but there is another peril in gasoline which is not so -well comprehended—indeed has only come to the attention of scientists -in recent months. It is death, called petromortis, or gasoline death, -which lurks in the fumes of the burned gases from the exhaust pipe.</p> - -<p>That which comes from the exhaust is no longer inflammable. It has -served its purpose in the combustion chamber by burning with rapid -expansion, furnishing power. It has undergone chemical changes, has -been split up, the hydro-carbon uniting for the most part with the -oxygen of the air in the mixture and forming carbon monoxide and carbon -dioxide. The latter is carbonic acid gas, in which no living thing can -live. The carbon monoxide is no less deadly, and besides there is the -nitrogen from the air, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> will suffocate as well, unless it mingles -with the air freely.</p> - -<p>These three gases exuding from the exhaust pipe into a confined space, -such as a small garage, would quickly vitiate the atmosphere to a point -where, close to the floor, asphyxiation would result, and sooner or -later would fill the garage up to the point of the air intake. Then, -as oxygen-filled air could not enter the intake to form mixture, the -engine would slow down and stop.</p> - -<p>There is little danger, since the deadly gases are heavier than air, -when one is working about the garage in a standing posture, where the -breathing apparatus would be above the strata of gases and taking in -the normal air. But where one is working at the tires, or any part of -the car below the level of the gases, or under the car, he might be -overcome and die of suffocation in a few minutes.</p> - -<p>It was not until such accidents really had occurred that the attention -of the public was directed to this danger. Just recently a notable -case of death from gasoline fumes was that of a popular actor. He was -working in his garage, and because of the cold had the doors tightly -closed. Getting under the car to adjust and oil the mechanism while the -engine was running to warm it up,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> he was overcome by the gases which -could not escape from the garage, and died before being discovered.</p> - -<p>The chemical composition of the exhaust gases, according to an expert, -is as follows:</p> - -<table class="autotable" summary="exhaust gases"> -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th class="tdr normal small">PER CENT.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbonic acid gas</td> -<td class="tdr">8.70</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Oxygen</td> -<td class="tdr">2.75</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbon monoxide</td> -<td class="tdr">.30</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hydrocarbons</td> -<td class="tdr">6.55</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nitrogen</td> -<td class="tdr"><span class="u">81.70</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="tdr">100.00</td> -</tr></table> - -<p>There is much disagreement as to the quantity of carbon monoxide -necessary to be fatal. A well-known automobile trade journal recently -said that 25 per cent. would produce death in half an hour and 15 -per cent. would produce a violent headache in several hours. Other -authorities claim that as little as .5 per cent. would be fatal. It -is more probable that the large amount of suffocating gases, nitrogen -and carbonic acid gas, produces unconsciousness, and then the carbon -monoxide, attacking the blood particles, affects them so that they are -unable to take in oxygen; hence death is certain.</p> - -<p>There are several ways in which the danger may be obviated. The first -and most natural one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> is to open the garage doors when the engine is -being run, or have an opening on the level with the floor through which -the heavy fumes may escape—roll out of the garage.</p> - -<p>Another way is to provide a pipe, with flexible hose to attach it to -the exhaust pipe and leading to the outer air, so that the exhaust -would virtually be out-of-doors. This would not be expensive nor -difficult for any ingenious man to arrange. The pipe should be larger -than the exhaust nozzle and flexible metal hose of convenient length -should be attached by the use of a reducer, the other end to be forced -over the end of the exhaust, to which a short length of pipe might be -added if necessary. Three or four inches would be long enough for the -hose to attach easily. If necessary a clamp with wing nut on the bolt -could be used to hold it in place.</p> - -<p>Gasoline fumes which are not burned also have a peculiar effect when -one inhales them profusely. Years ago when on a visit to Oil City, -Pa., the writer was invited to inspect the old Imperial Refinery, one -of the plants which helped found the Rockefeller millions. One phase -of refining kerosene is to wash out the volatile elements which make -it dangerous. This is done in an agitator, where streams of water -literally wash the kerosene,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> keeping it eddying and boiling as though -a fire were under it. The top is open and around it runs a gallery from -which the process is watched. It was a favorite trick of the employes -to conduct a stranger to this gallery and steer him to the lee side -where he gets the full effect of the fumes which pass off. Most men -not used to it began to feel light-headed in a few minutes and to act -as though they had been imbibing strong waters. It is an exact simile -of the alcoholic condition, though without the after effects the next -day. To a limited degree one may acquire the same effects from gasoline -in the garage if there are large open gasoline receptacles to send off -fumes sufficient to affect one. Of course, if there were enough to do -this, a spark from any source would start a fire.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXV">CHAPTER XXXV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SHIFTING GEARS ON HILLS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most humiliating experiences which can come to an owner is -to have to ask his guests, even if it be only friend wife, to get out -and walk when a long and steep hill is partly ascended. While there -are conditions of engine which would make hill climbing hard, if not -impossible, they are due to neglect or poor adjustment, so that the -engine has not power enough to negotiate stiff grades. The owner who -keeps the motor in proper condition, in practically any make of car on -the market today, should have no trouble in making the worst hills. Yet -how often we find cars stalled on mountain roads and even on steep city -streets, and see owner and guests walking or pushing the car.</p> - -<p>Recently the writer, going from Greenwood Lake to Tuxedo, in Orange -County, New York, in a well-known make of touring car, passed six -cars of different kinds stalled at the very start of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> climb over -Sterling Mountain. The first one met was a Ford. Now there is no reason -whatever for stalling a car of this make on any hill. It is a matter of -comment that the Ford—much despised by the owner of the big car—will -take hills that some multi-cylindered and high-powered cars make much -fuss over, and do it handily. The trouble was that the driver started -at high speed and then did not know how to shift the gears properly and -the car stalled.</p> - -<p>When we reached it the Ford was stalled across the roadway and we had -to stop until the driver started the engine and backed the car to one -side. Not being familiar with the hill-climbing abilities of the car in -which he was seated, the writer inquired of our driver if it were not -better to walk awhile.</p> - -<p>“No one will ever walk while I am driving,” was the reply, “unless -something breaks. I do not go out riding to walk; besides the car will -carry us all right.”</p> - -<p>And it did. Although we had stopped at the very foot of a steep grade -fifty feet long, the car on low gear took it without a stutter, and -then coming to a lesser grade, a shift was made to second gear. We did -not use first speed more than once or twice, and then only to keep from -stalling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> on the grade when it was necessary to slow down in passing -other cars at narrow points in the road. Occasionally high speed was -possible for short stretches. When well over the top of the mountain we -stopped to let the engine cool off for probably ten minutes and then -coasted nearly all the way down the mountain side.</p> - -<p>There was no need of any of the cars stalling on this grade, though it -is long and has many very steep places; there was no sign that any of -the cars was deficient in power. The deficiency was in knowledge on the -part of the drivers.</p> - -<p>Where the driver understands gear shifting well enough to do it on -a grade, the proper way to approach a hill is on high, with the -accelerator opened enough, and spark advanced, to speed up the car. -Then when the car begins to lose speed and before it has slowed down -too much, the shift should be made to second-speed gear, which should -carry the car up any ordinary hill. If an extra steep gradient be -encountered, first speed may be necessary for that stretch.</p> - -<p>It is well just as the foot of a hill is reached to open the throttle -wide. If the engine begins to knock or otherwise labor, retard the -spark enough to overcome this. In the chapter on “Driving the Car,” -detailed instructions for the operation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> of the gears in hill climbing -and descending are given. Study these rules closely and try out your -car on short grades before attempting long and steep hills. Make sure -that you know how to operate the levers for gear shifting and then take -things easy. Do not be in a hurry. Haste makes waste.</p> - -<p>While many high-powered cars, and sometimes those of less pretentious -build, will take almost any hill on high gear, it is not always policy -to do this. Some modern motors are designed with a view to make the -climbing of hills easy, but even so, the climb made on second-speed -gear will take but a trifle longer and the car will not be submitted -to the tremendous strain of operation on high speed. It is all very -well to boast that one’s car will “take the worst hill on high,” but -a better boast would be that the car has stood up for two or three -years longer than ordinary, and care in the operation will produce that -result.</p> - -<p>The driver whose engine is not in the best of condition and which is -not delivering its full power, and especially if he is not fully versed -in shifting the gears, would better not try to take a hill of any -length or of any considerable grade on high. Indeed it is wise to shift -into second gear before starting up the grade, for nothing is more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -unpleasant than stalling the engine half way up. And he ought not to -despise low speed if necessary to negotiate the hill without straining -the engine unduly. Motoring is not just piling up mileage records or -speeding across the country as though the devil were at one’s heels. -There are a few things more desirable than miles per hour, even though -the American “Get There” spirit be abroad. Generally speaking there is -a direct relation between cost per mile and miles per hour, and while -some owners may be able to afford twenty cents and upwards per mile, -the average owner does not care to indulge regularly in such a cost -figure.</p> - -<p>When it comes to descending steep hills, the cost does not figure so -much as safety. How often one sees cars tearing down a hill with the -engine running, gear in high speed, and devil-may-care at the wheel. -If the drivers realized the slight things upon which their fate hangs -at such a time there would be more care. Ninety per cent. of all the -accidents to automobiles are the result of sheer carelessness of the -drivers; nine per cent. are from the carelessness of some other driver; -only about one per cent. can be set down to breaks of parts, blow-outs, -or other things not to be prevented by ordinary precautions.</p> - -<p>On a slight and straight hill it is all right to go<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> down on high -speed, simply shutting off the ignition so that the engine will act as -a brake, the foot brake being used if necessary; but on a steep hill it -is far wiser to shift into second-speed or even first-speed gear before -attempting to descend. The engine will exert a powerful braking force -in low-speed gear. Besides, the running and emergency brakes are to be -used alternately, so that on a long hill the brake linings will not -be burned up. Of course the clutch must be left engaged to secure the -braking effect of the engine.</p> - -<p>It is a mighty bad thing to start down a hill in high gear and then, -half way down, find that brakes will not hold, or that something has -gone wrong suddenly. Long and steep hills rarely are wide or smooth; -there are ditches and humps and rocks, sometimes, and narrow places -where there is scarce room for two cars to pass, and less than perfect -control of the car is perilous. “Better be safe than sorry” is a homely -old saw, but it is pertinent.</p> - -<p>Another thing is that the hill speedster is one of the greatest menaces -to other drivers so far found. If one cares not for his own car or -neck, at least he should have a care for the others on the hill; and -whether it is on the ascent or descent the speedster endangers every -one else going in either direction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> at the same time, except perhaps -the fellow who is following him at a safe pace. It is no comfort to -know that the mortality is highest among the speed fiends of motordom; -occasionally they raise the mortality figure of the drivers who -practice safety first.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXVI">CHAPTER XXXVI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">KEEPING THE CAR SLEEK</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> course, if one does not care for appearances, and has no pride -in the bright and shiny varnish of the body and in the absence of -rustiness of the top, and thinks because the engine is under the hood -no one will see that it has been neglected, this section will not -particularly interest the reader. But, on the other hand, if these -things count, and the owner understands that true economy consists in -keeping not only the running parts in condition, but everything else at -the top notch of perfection, then he will heed the advice herein.</p> - -<p>Just because it does not show to the passer-by, many think that the -appearance of the engine does not count; that it is not essential that -it be kept free of oil, grease, dust, and corrosion of iron and brass. -Get this idea out of the head instanter. It is false and has much to do -with breakdown and wear-out of the motor. The cleaner it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> kept the -longer will it run satisfactorily, both as to troubles and to length -of life. One may well err on the side of cleanliness rather than be -somewhat slovenly. The motor ought to be cleaned off on the outside -after any lengthy trip, or after any run when roads are dusty, or oily, -or sandy.</p> - -<p>One may be as particular as possible, yet there will be some oil or -grease on the motor exterior. Probably that which lodges upon the -cylinders will, if there is much hill climbing to heat the motor -unduly, make itself visible and smellable—visible in a thin streak of -smoke coming from the hood, and smellable to the point of offensiveness -when that streak of smoke strikes the olfactory nerves. But in most -instances it will remain upon the engine, gradually becoming a gum from -the drying up of the substance and the accretion of dust from the road. -The longer it remains the harder it is to remove it; hence when the -work is done in the garage every time the car comes in, it will take -but a few minutes and slight labor; while if allowed to accumulate, it -may mean hours’ work to get rid of the hard deposit.</p> - -<p>Sufficient instruction has been given as to the care of the working -parts of the motor, so that only the exterior need be considered at -this time. Begin at the top. First of all see that the wire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> terminals -at the spark plugs are free from corrosion and grease. They should -be dry and clean if they are to transmit the current to the plugs. -Usually the wires are carried in a tube to protect them from heat and -grease, but not always. In any event, trace along the wires to see that -oil or grease is not present upon them. Either will rot the rubber -insulation and cause a leak which will affect the ignition. Examine all -the terminals under the hood for the same purpose, and every once in a -while disconnect the wires one by one and scrape the terminals bright, -also the contact point where terminal is fastened. Replace the wires -one by one as you clean them so they will not become disarranged. See -also that there is no oil, grease, or dirt on the spark plugs, for it -might form a sufficient path for current to practically short-circuit -the plug.</p> - -<p>Wipe off the top of the cylinders and blow out accumulations of dust -from any recesses where it has collected. If there is thickened or -gummy oil upon the metal, which will not wipe off readily, saturate the -waste or cloth in gasoline at the carburetor drip cock, and it will -loosen up quickly. Gasoline is more convenient, but kerosene will do -the work better, leaving a surface less likely to rust. In the same -way clean the exterior of all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> the parts of the motor and everything -attached to it. Where the brass shows corrosion, use a cleaning -compound to remove it. Brass may be kept from corroding in wet weather -by coating it with whiting. Several good compounds also are sold for -this purpose. Bright iron parts may be kept from rusting by wiping -them with a rag dampened with a thin oil, which should be wiped off -regularly, and there never should be enough to show.</p> - -<p>The fan, fan belt, pulleys, gear casings, and other parts at the front -end collect much dust and should be kept clean. The air holes through -the radiator, also, must be kept free of dust, oil, and asphalt from -oiled roads. In fact every part under the hood needs frequent cleaning.</p> - -<p>There are some parts of the chassis and undergear which will not be -readily reached by the hose and water when cleaning the body; therefore -they should first be rubbed off and cleaned of dirt, grease, and -accumulations of asphalt from oiled roads, or mud. Do this while the -space under the car is dry, and if it is done regularly it will not -be difficult to keep this part of the car in order. The parts of the -various rods and rocker shafts, and particularly near the bearings, -should be kept clean.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span></p> - -<p>If one will make a “creeper” from which to work when getting under -the car, it will remove most of the objections which drivers have to -“getting under.” Take a board of twelve inches wide and five feet -long and mount casters which move freely under it. At one end place -an inclined head or shoulder rest a foot long and with four or five -inches’ rise. Then cover the upper side with carpet, padded to make it -comfortable. Lying down upon this, one may move about under the car -in ease and get at all the mechanism readily. It is not only good for -cleaning time, but when inspecting or oiling, or tightening up the -bolts and nuts and bearings which may be reached only from beneath the -car. It also keeps one off a wet floor or ground.</p> - -<p>Next take a hose, if one be available, and play it freely all over -the body and running gear, fenders, mud guards, wheels, with care, of -course, that the upholstery be not sprinkled too much. Do a thorough -job with the hose but do not use a powerful stream upon the highly -polished surfaces. It will not only take off dust but loosen up mud, -and the force of the spray will take off fresh accumulations of asphalt -from mud guards and chassis. Then with the hose playing ahead, use a -soft sponge to go over all the parts to remove any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> remaining dirt -and rinse down with water alone. Next, with cloth and chamois dry the -woodwork and other painted surfaces until they shine.</p> - -<p>Where mud and asphalt are dried and refractory, other means must be -taken to remove them before rinsing and drying. Mud may be softened by -holding a saturated sponge over it for a few moments. If the mud be -mixed with oil or grease so that water does not soften it, kerosene -will, and it does not take much of it. Kerosene also will soften the -asphalt which clings to the car. Grease and oil also yield to kerosene, -which should be wiped off and the painted parts polished with a -cloth dampened with linseed oil. Naturally this should be wiped off -completely so that it would not become a dust catcher.</p> - -<p>Do not use soap on the highly polished surfaces of the body. Most soaps -have free alkali—lye—in their composition, and while this makes -them cut dirt and grease fast, it injures the varnished surface, in -a short time wearing off the gloss. Washing is the better done when -the hose only is used. In the country, where a hose is not available, -the washing will be slower, since the water in a pail must be renewed -frequently and the sponge rinsed practically every stroke to rid it of -grit. Where it is possible to run a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> line from tank to the garage, or, -if there is no tank, from an elevated barrel, which can be filled with -a force pump, it should be done.</p> - -<p>There are various preparations sold for renewing the surface of auto -bodies after it begins to dull. Good gloss should last a year with -care, especially if it be wiped over occasionally with a soft cloth -dampened with a mixture of linseed oil and a little high-grade carriage -varnish—a half pint to the gallon of oil. As there is a wide variation -in both ingredients, if the mixture seems sticky when rubbed between -the fingers or when applied to the car surface, add considerably more -oil, as it is not intended as a new covering for the paint, but to -freshen up the varnish.</p> - -<p>Mohair tops need to be dusted with a moist sponge, using also soapsuds -if spotted with oil or grease. Leather and its imitations may be kept -in good condition if oiled occasionally or treated with one of the good -preparations sold. The top should be dried before folding down. After -driving through a shower let the top stay up until sun and wind have -dried it thoroughly. Care in folding will lengthen the life of the top. -Freedom from cracks and creases will mean a dry top, to insure which is -worth any amount of trouble.</p> - -<p>Keeping the car covered when in the garage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> pays, for dust will blow in -and settle over all parts. The upholstery also may be protected by slip -covers, which should be kept on during dusty trips, and be washed when -dirty. Leather cushions should be freshened the same as the top.</p> - -<p>The man who has cared for a fine carriage will know what to do with -similar parts of the automobile; others should learn how to care for -them, and understand that varnished and polished surfaces will become -dulled if the car is stored in a stable, or adjacent to stable or -barnyard. If a barn is converted into a garage, it should be thoroughly -renovated and fitted with a cement floor sloping to the center, with -a drain leading outside, so that the car may be washed there and the -water run off through the drain.</p> - -<p>In fact the owner of a car may find something to do all the time for -convenience and comfort. If he arranges things conveniently he will not -only save time but will be able to do better work, and will have the -satisfaction of knowing that he is keeping down expense and getting the -most out of his machine for the expenditure.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXVII">CHAPTER XXXVII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SOME THINGS A TOURIST SHOULD KNOW</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">These</span> are the days of the tour and to thousands more each year it means -a trip by automobile to lake or mountain, or the more pretentious visit -to the old home, or to some new, and to the tourist, undiscovered, -country. The tourist who goes by auto fully prepared for the -emergencies which may arise, unhampered by railway schedule, and who -will take time to enjoy himself, will get untold pleasure out of the -trip.</p> - -<p>The speedster knows nothing of the pleasure of touring, and the fellow -who is always worrying lest he shall not make Squedunk Corners in time -to eat and get to Possum Crossing for the night will be watching the -road map and the clock on the dash so closely that the beauties nature -has lavishly scattered about will be lost upon him, and his memory -of the trip will be a procession of eating and sleeping houses, with -trouble between them all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span></p> - -<p>The man who is starting out for the tour with a new car, which has -been tried out enough to be sure that it is in condition, need only -know that he has with him the things most likely to be needed for an -emergency, but if the car has been in service for several months or -more, he ought to give it a “once over” at least before starting.</p> - -<p>One of the things to attend to is refilling the gear cases. Both the -transmission and differential cases should be drained of all oil and -washed out carefully with kerosene. At the same time the gears should -be examined closely to see if they are in good shape. One may find one -or two teeth chipped, though not broken enough to make the condition -known by sound. It probably was too hard originally and the break is -not the fault of the driver, but it should be replaced, for it is -likely to give trouble at any time. When cleaned, the cases should be -refilled with the proper amount of new lubricant, but not too much, -because then it will work out and scatter over the car and probably get -on the brake drums and make them slip.</p> - -<p>The crank case of the engine should be drained and cleaned out with -kerosene and fresh oil be put in. If the oiling system is working -properly, it is best to let it alone and see that it is kept filled -with the proper quality of lubricant while on the road.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> Of course the -grease cups should be filled and all points which are lubricated by -oil from a squirt can should be taken care of. The wheel bearings all -should be examined to determine their condition and to see that they -are properly lubricated. If very dirty they should be cleaned and fresh -grease be applied.</p> - -<p>It is well to carry an extra gallon of engine oil in the car, also a -small can of grease. Garages are plenty, but sometimes an accident -occurs which causes a loss of the main supply of oil and makes it -impossible to drive even a mile without an extra supply. Likewise if -the gasoline tank is not provided with an emergency tank or chamber, an -extra gallon of gasoline should be carried. Convenient emergency tanks -for this purpose may be purchased at any accessory store.</p> - -<p>Both sets of brakes should be carefully examined to see that the lining -is not worn too thin and that the different pins and clevises of the -brake linkage are not worn so as to be weak and likely to give away in -touring under extraordinary pressure. Often in touring one comes upon -unexpected grades, some of them miles long, and the tourist should be -prepared for prolonged and extraordinary service.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="facing246" style="max-width: 125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing246.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption">BRAKE LEVERS AND LINKAGE, SHOWING EQUALIZING ROD AND -SPRINGS</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">Where prolonged service is required it should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> possible to use the -two sets of brakes alternately. In this connection it is well to keep -in mind that on long grades considerable braking may be done by cutting -off the ignition and allowing the car to turn the engine over in high -or intermediate gear. Keeping the car down to a rather low speed in -this manner will also be found to save burning up the brake linings.</p> - -<p>It is of the utmost necessity to keep the brake drums free from oil. -When the car is driven out into the country the crown of the road tilts -the car over, so that if there is too much oil in the differential case -it will work through the axle housing to the brake drum on the right -side. Of course this is taken care of largely as previously advised, by -winding felt around the axle, or by not having too much lubricant in -the differential, although enough is very necessary.</p> - -<p>If the engine shows any tendency to knock on the hill it would be well -to have the carbon removed before starting. It is very disagreeable -to have to take a hill on second speed that could be taken on high if -the throttle could be kept open without causing knocking. Trips may be -practically spoiled by the fact that the engine is full of carbon and -does not have sufficient power to negotiate the hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span></p> - -<p>Of course the car should be gone over systematically to see that all -nuts are tight and properly supplied with cotter pins or lock washers. -All parts should be scrutinized carefully to see that there are no -cracked or badly worn parts likely to give out under the severe strain -of touring.</p> - -<p>The compression of the engine should be tested and if found weak in -any cylinder the valves should be ground in. Spark plugs should be -made perfectly clean, magneto interrupter points cleaned and adjusted -to gauge and high-tension distributor cleaned out, and the battery -should be tested to make sure it is in normal condition. If almost -discharged, a charge should be given it from some external source. The -commutators of the generator and starting motor should be examined and -if badly scored they will need to be trued up. If the storage battery -is depended upon entirely for ignition, a set of dry cells should be -carried so that in case of entire failure of the storage battery, -ignition and lights may be had for a short time, even though the engine -has to be cranked by hand.</p> - -<p>Some annoyance may be saved by examining the springs to see if there -is a cracked leaf to be replaced. Spring repair attachments are sold, -but it depends upon the ingenuity of the individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> whether repairs of -this sort can be made upon the road.</p> - -<p>In addition to tools and the other things previously recommended to be -carried, the tourist should take at least one set of electric bulbs for -the car. Spark plugs may be cleaned with very little trouble, but it is -handier to carry two or three extra ones for quick exchange, cleaning -the ones removed at the end of the day, or at the noon stop. One or two -extra tires carried inflated and on the rims are usual, and it is wise -to have two or three extra inner tubes. If one does have tire trouble -it seems to come in bunches and it is just as well to be prepared for -the worst. The tourist who is traveling very far from garages should -carry also patches and cement.</p> - -<p>Of course each car will carry a real fire extinguisher and a tow rope. -If you do not need to be towed out of a mud hole yourself someone else -will. Be prepared. Most drivers like to have along a spool of annealed -wire, a pair of side-cutting pliers, and a roll of tire tape. It is -really wonderful what an ingenious man can do with these things. The -tools to be carried should be sufficient to do ordinary road repairs -and the outfit suggested in a previous chapter is recommended.</p> - -<p>As previously stated, it is not the man who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> rushes around and plans -maximum distances for each day’s run who gets the most out of the tour; -he makes work out of pleasure keeping up with a schedule. It is better -to allow more time for the runs, and then if one gets ahead of schedule -to lay off a half day and see the sights and keep the car in condition.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXVIII">CHAPTER XXXVIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">LITTLE KNOCKS ARE HARDLY BOOSTS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the worst things with which the autoist has to contend -mechanically is the accumulation of carbon in the cylinders, clogging -the piston rings, filling and short-circuiting the spark plugs and -causing a knock which is not only annoying, but productive of trouble -sooner or later. There are various reasons for the accumulation of -carbon, such as poor gas, defective ignition, insufficient pressure, -but few have assigned as a cause of carbon trouble and knocking a too -high cylinder compression.</p> - -<p>Too high compression occasions much of the knock ordinarily -assigned to other causes. Engines are designed with a certain size -combustion chamber, and with a chamber of that size to get a certain -compression in pounds per square inch. The nearer we get to the point -of pre-ignition without actually reaching pre-ignition, the more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -efficiently will the engine operate. Pre-ignition, of course, would -make a knock.</p> - -<p>A good many manufacturers make the compression figure just as high as -they dare, with the result that, when the carbon forms, the size of -the combustion chamber is reduced and the pressure is raised to such a -degree that it will cause pre-ignition and its resultant knock. When a -manufacturer tells the buyer that his engine is proof against carbon -and the knocking occasioned thereby, he probably is trying to offset -more serious “knocks” the car is receiving from disgruntled users.</p> - -<p>This is an instance which illustrates the point:</p> - -<p>A friend of mine has a four-cylinder engine in one of the later models -of a well-known car of high speed and power. On several occasions we -have been driving in and near the city and, after about 125 miles, we -seemed always to have trouble with knocking in climbing hills. On one -trip my friend had the carbon burned out carefully before starting. -About the time we reached the end of the trip the engine began to knock -on the hills from the collection of carbon. On our return he had the -carbon burned out again and the knock ceased.</p> - -<p>I advised him to raise the cylinders one-fourth of an inch by a fiber -gasket under each cylinder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> casting, thus increasing the size of the -combustion chamber and naturally lessening the compression. He also had -to adjust the water connection and raise the valve push rods, and a few -things of that sort. He ran the car upwards of 2000 miles after that -before it began to show any signs of knocking under severe conditions, -indicating that the cylinders needed to have the carbon removed.</p> - -<p>Where the knock is caused in this way by a slight compression increase, -it indicates that the manufacturer has put the pressure as high as -the engine will stand, and the only way to cure it is by raising the -cylinders or lowering the pistons. The gasket is the simpler method.</p> - -<p>This trouble was very obvious in one model of car used for road -instruction at the Automobile School. No amount of ordinary adjustment -and cleaning out of the carbon would keep the car from knocking after -very short service. It was taken to the service station several times -and returned with the remark that it would “be all right now.” It was -not all right. Finally the request was made to let the car remain -at the station several days and the experts would see what could be -done. When it was returned the trouble was cured. But when the expert -was asked what had been done he replied: “Nothing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> much.” He admitted -cleaning out the carbon and adjusting the carburetor. But a still hunt -was made for the corrective cause and it was discovered that fiber -gaskets had been put under the cylinders. They were camouflaged with -enamel to conceal their presence, their existence was denied, and they -were like the man without a country, “unhonored and unsung,” but they -did the trick, and until the car was retired because of old age and -decrepitude the gaskets stood between the engine and the knock. Perhaps -if that agent picks up this volume one day he will be surprised to find -that his subterfuge was discovered. It may have been his little secret.</p> - -<p>The owner who learns this remedy for knocking due to carbon and high -compression will be saved a lot of worry and be enabled to cure the -engine’s ills, or have it done at the shop. But take it from the writer -that carbon accumulation will cause any of the high compression engines -to knock, and the only way to cure it is to lessen the compression or -continually clean out carbon. Also the only simple way to lower the -compression is to raise the cylinder with a fiber gasket.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXIX">CHAPTER XXXIX<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">SOME OTHER CAUSES OF KNOCKING</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> motorist must not imagine that all knocks come from too great -compression, however, for there are “fifty-seven other varieties” of -knock to be taken into consideration. He must not take it for granted -that the cylinders are filling up with carbon if the engine starts -knocking while out on the road, nor is it a foregone conclusion that -the main bearings are loose.</p> - -<p>The knock may be from a totally different source. In fact there are so -many different kinds of knocks that even an expert cannot always tell -just where one comes from without totally dis-assembling the engine. -Even then it sometimes puzzles him a lot by its elusiveness.</p> - -<p>Most engines have a knock of some sort which annoys the driver, which -might vary from a barely perceptible click to a blow that may be heard -by persons standing on the sidewalk. A great many of the knocks do not -do any harm;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> that is, they are not causing any damage to the engine -parts; but there are some knocks which require immediate attention to -prevent the demolition of the engine or seriously damaging it. Some of -these are loose connecting-rod bearing; cylinder loose on its base; -lack of lubrication and consequent overheating; and a broken revolving -or reciprocating member, which might tear things up if allowed to run. -The spark advanced too far puts an excessive strain on the crank shaft, -and a short circuit in the ignition does the same.</p> - -<p>On the other hand there is no immediate danger if there is a piston -slap, though pretty noisy; nor is there when the oil pump gives a thump -or loud click at the valve seating. But on general principles when -there is a knock its cause should be ascertained at once and expert -advice be obtained as to whether it is dangerous. If so, it must be -fixed before running further. If it is only a minor knock the repair -can be left to a more convenient time.</p> - -<p>So many of the knocks are only a matter of annoyance; that is, they do -no more harm than to cause the driver unnecessary nerve jars and to -spoil the pleasure of riding. But he will bother the various garage men -and everybody else he can get to listen and then will not accept the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -assurance that the knock is not doing the car any harm.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact there are knocks peculiar to certain makes of -engines that the manufacturers have not seen fit to eliminate because -they are not harmful. Among these is the so-called “gas knock.” Now the -writers do not know what a “gas knock” is, and doubt if anybody else -does. But it is a common term for the kind of a knock which cannot be -located anywhere and it is laid to some action of the gas.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the knocks are hard to locate. One of the school cars needed -a new cam-shaft gear to replace a worn one which produced a knock. It -was put on, but when the engine was started it was found that there was -a worse knock than before. It took a long time to find that it was the -new gear. It fitted very tight on the shaft and had to be forced on. -Without being noticeable the forcing had cracked the hub, the crack -extending through the rim, so that two of the teeth were out of true -and had spread enough to pound when that portion of the gear came into -mesh.</p> - -<p>Another knock difficult to locate is caused by sticking exhaust valves. -One of the valve stems has been oiled, say, and this has been allowed -to burn to a nice sticky paste. Now, when the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> push rod opens the valve -and starts down the valve does not follow closely. The spring brings it -down, of course, but more slowly than it should, because of the sticky -stem, and when the stem and push rod meet there is a thump.</p> - -<p>It is ordinarily said that a lean mixture or an over advanced spark -will cause knocking. As a matter of fact they do not do anything of -the kind; but it is true that these things bring to our notice other -faults, such as a worn piston or cylinder wall and consequent side -slap, or they magnify some other worn part so that it becomes audible. -As a matter of fact it is possible to advance the spark so far that it -will try to reverse the engine and not have a particle of knock. And -it is possible to have a mixture so lean that it will hardly run the -engine yet have no knock; but if there is something else wrong it will -bring that out.</p> - -<p>Some of the causes of knocking discovered at the school have been -collated and are given for the instruction of the novice:</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Mechanical Looseness, Due to Improper Adjustment, or Wear:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="indent">Loose connecting-rod bearing, crank-pin end.</p> -<p class="indent">Crank-pin bearing out of round.</p> -<p class="indent">Main bearings of crank shaft loose.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span></p> -<p class="indent">Bearings too tight.</p> -<p class="indent">Wrist pin loose in piston.</p> -<p class="indent">Wrist pin loose in upper end of connecting rod.</p> -<p class="indent">Wrist pin not in line with crank shaft, causing side slap.</p> -<p class="indent">Piston ring loose in slot or broken.</p> -<p class="indent">Cam follower guide won.</p> -<p class="indent">Cam loose on shaft.</p> -<p class="indent">Worn cams (Flat spot).</p> -<p class="indent">Fly-wheel loose on crank shaft (old models with keyed-on wheel).</p> -<p class="indent">Fly-wheel out of balance.</p> -<p class="indent">Worn or broken timing-gear teeth.</p> -<p class="indent">Cylinder loose at its base.</p> -<p class="indent">Timing gears loose on shaft.</p> -<p class="indent">Engine loose from frame.</p> -<p class="indent">Piston too small for cylinder, causing side slap.</p> -<p class="indent">Poor push-rod adjustment—gap too great.</p> -<p class="indent">Exhaust or inlet valve sticking in guide.</p> -<p class="indent">Spark plug touching valve.</p> -<p class="indent">Magneto coupling loose.</p> -<p class="indent">Fan-belt coupling striking pulley.</p> -<p class="indent">Fan blades striking something.</p> -<p class="indent">Worn cylinder, causing side slap.</p> -<p class="indent">Bent crank shaft.</p></div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Faulty Ignition:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="indent">Spark advanced too far.</p> -<p class="indent">Spark too late, causing overheating.</p> -<p class="indent">Short circuits in ignition system causing irregular spark.</p> -<p class="indent">Spark-plug points constructed wrong, causing them to overheat.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p> -<p class="indent">Spark plug in poor position.</p> -<p class="indent">Wrong timing of ignition system; too early, too late, or wrong order.</p> -<p class="indent">Dirty distributor, misdirecting the current.</p></div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Faulty Carburetion:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="indent">Pre-ignition, due to excessive carbon deposits.</p> -<p class="indent">Rich mixture, causing overheating.</p> -<p class="indent">Lean mixture, in conjunction with worn parts.</p></div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Faulty Lubrication:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="indent">Lack of oil.</p> -<p class="indent">Lubricants of poor quality.</p> -<p class="indent">Excess of oil causing carbon deposit.</p></div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Overheating of Engine:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="indent">Fan not working.</p> -<p class="indent">Pump parts not revolving.</p> -<p class="indent">Radiator clogged.</p> -<p class="indent">Pipe lines clogged.</p> -<p class="indent">Rubber hose defective inside, blocking flow of water.</p> -<p class="indent">Ignition timed too late.</p></div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak"><i>Faulty Compression:</i></h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="indent">Engine designed with too high compression, causing pre-ignition when -throttle is wide open.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>There are, of course, many other causes which contribute to the little -noises which accompany<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> the car along the road, but the novice will -find here the most common ones, and by a process of elimination may -arrive at his particular bane; to find it naturally suggests the cure. -Therefore, stop that knocking.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XL">CHAPTER XL<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">CHASSIS KNOCKS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Does</span> your car chatter? Does it talk to you and protest against running -over holes and bumps in the road? If it does, it is a sign to which you -should pay attention, a hint that you should do away with the knocks -and clicks and chattering which annoy you and everybody else within -hearing as you run along. That is, if you can find them, for there are -some noises so obscure as to defy detection even by the expert.</p> - -<p>Such was the car which developed a sharp click whenever it was started -forward or backward. It ran quite a long time before it was possible -to discover just what and where it was. It was somewhere in the back, -but so hidden as to defy detection. The rear axle was of the floating -type, the construction in which the driving shaft is connected to the -hub of the wheel by a number of flutings on the shaft, into which -corresponding projections of the flange fitted. These had become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> worn -and allowed sufficient play to cause a noise.</p> - -<p>By walking alongside of the rear wheel while the car was being started -and stopped, it was decided that the sound came from the hub of the -wheel. The hub cap was removed and by placing the finger on the hub -flange and end of shaft at the same time the play was detected by the -sense of feeling, though it was hardly visible to the eye. The trouble -was overcome by having the shaft welded to the flange.</p> - -<p>A few days later the owner happened to be at the agency and told what -he had found.</p> - -<p>“So glad you came,” was the response, “for we have been looking for -the same kind of a click a long time ourselves and the service-station -mechanics have not been able to locate it. They thought it was in the -brake, but upon examination could see no reason for a click.”</p> - -<p>There have been cases where the wheel was keyed on, and where the keys -had acquired sufficient play to cause a continuous knocking, especially -when the machine was being driven at low speed. This sort of knocking -is more likely to occur with the four-cylinder, slow-speed engine than -with the high-speed, many-cylindered type.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p> - -<p>A mysterious knock may sometimes be traced to the torque rod, when it -becomes loose at the forward end, or to worn torque-tube bearings, and -in some cases the bolts fastening the torque rods to the rear axle -become loosened, or worn, causing a knock, especially when going over -bumps or dropping into holes.</p> - -<p>The brake rods become worn and set up a continuous clattering on rough -roads and this noise is accentuated if the tires are kept inflated at -too high a pressure. As a matter of fact the car owner has the choice -between the greatest life for his tires and accompanying rattles and -discomforts, and riding at a sufficiently low pressure to subdue these -noises and make life in a car worth living; of course there will be an -attendant higher wear of tires. Where the wear cannot be taken up by -adjustments or using new bolts or pins, often the rattle may be ended -by wiring a spiral spring to the frame and rattling part. This keeps it -taut.</p> - -<p>Worn spring-shackle bolts will not ordinarily cause knocking or -rattling, but when going over bumps or holes the rebound of the body is -sufficient to make the looseness audible. It can be overcome by having -a new bolt put in, and prevented by keeping the bolts well lubricated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p> - -<p>Worn steering-knuckle pins and tie-rod bolts will sometimes be found -responsible for knocks and rattles in the front end of the car. The -remedy is obvious and the location of the noise is not so hard to find.</p> - -<p>In addition to these we have rattles due to tools being thrown loosely -into the tool box, and sometimes from the body bolts having become -loosened. The lamps occasionally jolt loose and the license-plate -bracket is sometimes so loose that it is audible as well as visible.</p> - -<p>There are other knocks due to broken gear teeth and other broken parts, -and sometimes these broken teeth, loose nuts, bolts, or pins in gear -or differential case become wedged between the gear teeth and cause a -knocking that is not hard to locate, albeit rather expensive to repair.</p> - -<p>And then there are the knocks and rattles from the hundred or more -accessories which are attached to the chassis of many cars and which -sooner or later develop defects and noise.</p> - -<p>The up-to-date, well-designed car in perfect shape is practically -noiseless, and if a knock or rattle develops it indicates that -something is worn or out of adjustment, and needs attention. The owner -who takes care to have all parts properly lubricated and kept tight -need fear none<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> of these annoyances, and proper attention means lack -of annoyance when out touring, while slovenly habits will advertise -themselves to everyone along the road.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLI">CHAPTER XLI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">KEEPING DOWN THE AUTO UPKEEP</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">If</span> the general run of auto owners and chauffeurs do not mend their ways -city streets will be paved with a mixture of asphalt and auto parts -and country roads will be lucrative fields for the junkman. Anyone who -doubts this need but inspect the pavement at busy corners and see what -a collection of junk is strewn along, particularly at the places where -many cars make sudden stops.</p> - -<p>To illustrate: The other day a car stopped and the driver pondered what -was the matter that the engine had no power. Failing to get a solution, -as he was near a garage, he called for a mechanic to look it over.</p> - -<p>“A few minutes ago,” he said, “the engine had so much power I couldn’t -stop it when I wanted to; now I can’t make it pull at all.”</p> - -<p>“Open your throttle,” the mechanic said.</p> - -<p>“The throttle is open,” was the response.</p> - -<p>“Oh, I see,” said the workman, and he disappeared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> into the garage. In -a few minutes he reappeared with a small bolt and proceeded to connect -the throttle linkage so that the lever and accelerator pedal would open -the throttle when moved.</p> - -<p>What had happened was that through neglect the bolt had worked loose -and dropped out so that the lever did not move the throttle arm, and -advancing the lever had no effect.</p> - -<p>This bolt probably is one of those to be found imbedded in the pavement -somewhere about the city. An examination of the pavement of any of -the automobile thoroughfares will reveal nearly all the fifty-seven -varieties of auto accessory parts in the asphalt. A great many of the -bits of metal found there will be broken skid-chain links, but the -writer counted twenty-six different species of other lost parts in -crossing Fifty-seventh Street at Eighth Avenue, New York City.</p> - -<p>While counting them a driver came along and was unable to stop his car -properly—the brake did not work and he had to use the emergency brake -after nearly running over a pedestrian. He got out and found that a -pin was gone in the brake linkage. A spring cotter had worked out or -sheared off and the pin had rattled loose and dropped out.</p> - -<p>Many of the stray parts are of a similar nature;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> nuts, bolts, washers, -screws, cotter pins and the like which have worked loose because of -neglect. Their absence will doubtless account for a good many of the -rattles and squeaks which their former owner is now complaining of, and -to replace which he will pay the garage man several times their value.</p> - -<p>The average instruction book given with a car will advise the owner to -go over the car every so often and tighten up the bolts and nuts as a -precautionary measure, but usually no attention is paid to this until -the car stops or develops some unusual sound. Then a mechanic is called -in and it takes him a couple of hours to find the cause of the trouble, -while the owner stands around cursing the maker of the car.</p> - -<p>Probably a good many of these parts along the road are due to careless -mechanics who drop small parts in the dust pan and will not take the -trouble to fish them out, or leave them on the running board and after -a time they jar off to the roadway; but it shows there is a lot of -carelessness among drivers when they even lose number plates and hub -caps.</p> - -<p>A pair of brass hub caps picked up along the road and which have been -turned into ash trays are among the writer’s trophies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span></p> - -<p>The loss of the hub caps allows grit to get into the bearings and to -prevent this as far as possible by making the driver take care of them, -the prices of extra caps have been made entirely out of proportion to -their real value by some manufacturers.</p> - -<p>Some of the lost parts are of such shape that they would very readily -puncture a tire, so that they are not only a loss to the owner of the -car from which they dropped, but to the fellow who follows and picks -them up for a punctured tire.</p> - -<p>The writer has seen the pin holding in place the tie rod, which keeps -the wheels in alignment, drop out, and in another case, hunting a -knock, found the cylinder loose on the base because the nuts had been -without lock washers, or cotter pins, and had worked loose. They might -in time have worked off entirely and there would have been a “cylinder -missing.” He has also seen the entire engine loose on the frame so that -it was doing a fox trot while running.</p> - -<p>Drivers should keep watch of the non-skid chains, for they wear and -drop cross links often. The driver who wishes to avoid personal -annoyance and annoyance to everybody else within hearing distance, will -take pains to see that the cross links are never so loose that they hit -the mud<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> guards, nor have broken ends which hit. A spool of wire will -enable one to fasten broken or loose cross links to the side chains and -repair links can be put in when the garage is reached.</p> - -<p>The owner should become well acquainted with his car, so that he knows -where the different bolts and nuts are. Many will tighten up all they -know about, but do not bend their backs to get underneath where they -can see the dust-pan bolts and brake-linkage bolts. If the owner knows -where these parts are he should make it his business to see that every -bolt and pin is locked with a lock washer or cotter pin. Then he should -go over them at least once a month and tighten them up. He may be sure -he will pay several times their value and a mechanic’s time if they -are lost, so that economy is involved as well as the inconvenience of -having the car stopped on the road.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLII">CHAPTER XLII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">HUNTING TROUBLE</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ordinarily</span> the fellow who starts to hunt trouble finds it quicker -than he expected, but not so with the automobilist; when he starts to -hunt trouble—in the car—it seems to be a very demon for eluding the -searcher. Trouble will hide in a tiny piece of carbon lodged under a -valve or between spark-plug points, in a wire that has jarred loose, in -an interrupter point, a piston ring, a gas pipe—oh, in the most secret -and insignificant place—in size—and just defy one to ferret out the -demon. One learns that the insignificant things are really the most -important at times.</p> - -<p>Yet most troubles incident to the operation of a motor car may be -located very quickly if one will but go after them in a systematic way, -and not wander aimlessly about the engine and other parts. The hardest -thing a driver has to do when the engine stops or acts up is to divest -himself of the idea that he knows just what the trouble is.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> He is sure -he can fix it in a minute and he putters around a long time before he -makes up his mind that it is something else and it takes a lot of time -to prove that to some persons.</p> - -<p>The best way to go about it is to start without preconceived ideas as -to what the trouble may be, and follow a system, which is really a -process of elimination. Remember that to start a gasoline engine three -things are necessary—gasoline, compression, and a spark at the right -time, and that to keep it running it is necessary to have water for -cooling, unless it be an air-cooled engine, and oil for lubrication.</p> - -<p>If the engine stops on the road and pressing the starter pedal fails to -start it, or if one or two cylinders miss fire, the first thing to do -is to get the crank out of the tool kit and crank over the engine. If, -with the gears in neutral, the engine cranks over hard, it indicates -a lack of lubricating oil, or a lack of water, which has allowed the -engine to reach a temperature where the lubricant fails to perform its -work. If the engine turns over fairly easy, it is not necessary to look -for oil or water trouble.</p> - -<p>The next test is for compression. If the driver is not experienced -and is unable to tell simply by the resistance to the starting crank -whether<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> each cylinder has compression, he should open all petcocks -except on one cylinder and turn the crank two revolutions, noting -if there is a resistance for one-quarter of a revolution in the two -complete turns. Compression occurs only on one stroke of the piston -in the four-stroke cycle. Each cylinder should be tested in a similar -manner, opening all petcocks except on the cylinder being tested; see -if the compression is practically equal in all cylinders.</p> - -<p>If one cylinder has very weak or no compression, the trouble will be -found usually in the exhaust valve. First examine the push rod to -see if there is clearance between it and the valve when the valve is -supposed to be closed; if there is, the valve must be lifted out and -the valve and seat inspected for carbon. Sometimes a piece of carbon -will lodge on the valve seat and, due to the hammering of the valve, -will become fastened to valve or seat. For temporary repair generally -it can be scraped off with a knife, and the valve be ground in upon -reaching the garage.</p> - -<p>If the trouble is not in the exhaust valve, it might be in the inlet -valve. In some types of engines the valve head may break off and -get into the cylinder and when the piston comes up punch a hole in -the piston head. A petcock may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> be loose so that it will jar open -sufficiently to affect the compression and so cause the cylinder to -miss fire. These troubles usually are confined to one cylinder and not -to the whole engine.</p> - -<p>The gasoline is the next to be inspected. Is there any gasoline in the -bowl of the carburetor? This may be determined by inspection, opening -the drain cock, or “tickling”—flooding. If not, examine the gasoline -tank and see if there is a supply; then see if the shut-off valve in -the line leading to the carburetor is open; if so, drain the bowl of -the carburetor to get rid of water or possible dirt. To check the -possible clogging of the gasoline pipe, or carburetor screen, notice if -the bowl fills up again in a reasonable time.</p> - -<p>Do not adjust the carburetor. If the engine has been running, it -is practically certain that the carburetor has not gotten out of -adjustment. Inspect the intake pipe, or manifold, to see if it has been -loosened by vibration. If the engine still refuses to run, put about a -tablespoonful of gasoline in each cylinder and crank over the engine. -If this runs the engine for a few revolutions, it indicates that the -trouble is in the gasoline system and leaves but the spray nozzle, -which may have dirt lodged in it, or the auxiliary air valve stuck, as -the remaining causes of trouble.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> Sometimes turning the needle valve -a full turn and then turning it back exactly where it was will remove -an obstruction at that point. Care should be taken in this to get the -needle valve set as it originally was.</p> - -<p>Next inspect the ignition system. The first thing to do is to loosen -one of the wires from a spark plug and lay it so the bare end will be -<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub> inch from the base of the plug, and have someone crank the engine -by hand or with the starter. If a spark does not occur, go first to -the interrupter points and short circuit the fixed point with a screw -driver or other metal tool and see if there is a spark when the engine -is cranked. Examine the points for dirt and see if they come together -and open properly. Then examine the condition of the battery, testing -it. Examine the connectors on the battery, which sometimes jar loose; -examine the wires leading to the interrupter and switch; see if they -are loose or broken or short-circuited. This need not be done if a -spark shows at the interrupter.</p> - -<p>Examine the distributor for moisture or dirt and see if the wires -have become loose. If a magneto only is used, it is a simple matter -to see if the interrupter points are making and breaking properly and -if the distributor is clean<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> and dry. If these appear to be all right -the trouble doubtless is in the armature winding or the condenser and -cannot be repaired upon the road.</p> - -<p>The wires to the plugs may be burned or short-circuited. If, with -an apparently good spark, you have compression and there is mixture -passing into the cylinders, the trouble may be in the spark plug. To -test a spark plug it is necessary to remove it. Widen the gap to <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub> -inch and lay the plug with wire attached upon the cylinder; crank the -engine and see if a spark jumps the gap. Widening the gap is necessary -because the spark will not jump so far under compression as in the -open air. If it does not jump, the plug may have a broken insulator -porcelain or need cleaning. If uncertain about the condition of the -plug, exchange it with one in another cylinder which is working -properly. An extra set of plugs should be carried to replace those -which become dirty; cleaning should be done in the garage.</p> - -<p>This covers most of the usual troubles experienced on the road. There -are, of course, a great many other possibilities, but if these tests, -carefully made, do not disclose the cause of the trouble, the novice -had better send for a garage man. If one or two cylinders miss fire, -the trouble is most likely to be caused through lack of compression<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> or -a short-circuited spark plug. If the engine refuses to run, the trouble -is most likely to be due to lack of gasoline, or failure of battery or -magneto.</p> - -<p>The general rule given herewith should be copied and pasted under the -hood, or carried in an envelope in the tool box for ready reference. -It may save much time and trouble when far from a garage. Carefully -followed, it should locate almost any trouble likely to be experienced, -and it is the locating, not the fixing, which takes time.</p> - -<p>The chart on the next page was evolved out of the experience of years -at the school and elsewhere. It will be found a guide in hunting -trouble:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span></p> - -<table class="autotable" summary="the y. m. c. a. general trouble chart"> -<tr> -<th class="tdc normal large bord_top bord_left bord_right" colspan="3">THE Y. M. C. A. GENERAL TROUBLE CHART</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<th class="tdc normal bord_bot bord_left bord_right" colspan="3">Above all <i>remove nothing from the engine</i> except as directed to test rules.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc bord_top bord_left bord_right bord_bot" rowspan="7">Needed<br /><br />to<br /><br />Make<br /><br />an<br /><br />Engine<br /><br />Run</td> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot vertt">1. <span class="allsmcap">GASOLINE</span></td> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot"><p>Is tank full? <span class="allsmcap">ARE PIPES CLEAN</span>? -Is Carburetor clean? If Carburetor needs adjusting, do it, otherwise <span class="allsmcap">LEAVE IT ALONE</span>. Does Manifold leak?</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot vertt">2. <span class="allsmcap">COMPRESSION</span></td> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot"><p>To test—Open all petcocks except -the one on cylinder to be tested; -crank engine, noticing how strong -the compression is in each cylinder, -in turn.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot vertt" rowspan="5">3. <span class="allsmcap">IGNITION</span><br /><br /> -at<br /><br /> -the<br /><br /> -right<br /><br /> -time</td> -<td class="tdl bord_right bord_bot"><p>A. Test for a spark by taking the -wire off any plug; hold wire about <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>″ -from plug; crank engine with switch -on. Spark should jump to plug.</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_right bord_bot"><p>B. <i>Are the Batteries run down?</i> -Does the vibrator (if any) buzz? Is -timer clean? Does timer rotor make -<i>good</i> contact?</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_right bord_bot"><p>C. Are any <span class="allsmcap">WIRES</span> loose, burnt, wet, -broken, or short-circuited? Are spark -plugs clean and are points <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>50</sub>″ apart?</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot"><p>D. Does <span class="allsmcap">MAGNETO</span> armature revolve? -Is safety spark gap clean. -Are Interrupter points clean and adjusted -good contact? Is Distributor clean? -Is Distributor Rotor loose, broken, or -making poor contact?</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl bord_top bord_right bord_bot"><p>E. Check Magneto wires as per “C.”</p></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc bord_top bord_left bord_right bord_bot" colspan="3"><span class="allsmcap">NOTE</span>—Loose wires and terminals, neglected batteries, and -dirty gasoline cause much trouble.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc bord_left bord_right bord_bot" colspan="3"> -<span class="allsmcap">TO KEEP A GAS ENGINE RUNNING</span>, cooling and lubrication and -a free exhaust are necessary.</td> -</tr></table> - -<div class="chapter padt1"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLIII">CHAPTER XLIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">MORE TROUBLE</span></h2></div> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">You</span> may have your self-starting 6-, 8-, or 12-cylinder cars if you -want them, but give me a four-cylinder motor with a crank on the front -end for mine. I’ll get there ahead of you nine times out of ten.”</p> - -<p>This was the boast of a chauffeur of a big car, who called at the -school to inquire about some action of the motor which he did not -understand. His self-starter would not start. A few simple tests -narrowed the trouble to the self-starter control, and it was found in -the switch, which had become dirty. From repeated arcing the spring -had become heated and lost its temper and finally no contact was made, -or so little that it would not supply current to start the starter. -Which shows that it is a good thing to keep the temper, even in a -self-starter switch spring.</p> - -<p>This is only one instance where added conveniences have brought new -troubles to the motorist.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> The self-starter has made it possible for -many, notably women, to drive cars, who before could not because -they were not able to crank the engine. Adding cylinders has made -smoother riding cars, which drive easier as well. The greater number of -cylinders permits of a much quicker getaway in traffic. It allows the -motor to be run at a much lower speed without shifting the gears. The -motor has more power and the cars are better hill climbers; there is a -better distribution of the same amount of power.</p> - -<p>But this has made more work and worry for the chauffeur and mechanic, -in that, instead of having eight valves to grind in, he may have as -many as twenty-four, and if the double-valve idea is carried far enough -he might have as many as forty-eight. In arranging the cylinders -to procure a more even torque, in some instances it has been found -necessary to locate the valves in positions where they are not readily -accessible. In some types it is necessary almost to dismantle the -engine, and in others the valves may be reached to remove them only by -removing the mudguard.</p> - -<p>The self-starter, while undoubtedly a great convenience, has made -it necessary to take care of the battery regularly, and to keep the -generator and motor commutators in condition; has multiplied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> the -wiring—has added hundreds of wires to the car—and its numerous -regulators and other instruments are bound to need adjusting -occasionally. The extra care and the unusual troubles give the -chauffeur a lot more to worry about.</p> - -<p>The electric lights are undoubtedly brighter and better than kerosene -or acetylene installation, but they will give trouble occasionally and -the average man understands more about filling a lamp with oil than -he does about locating troubles in electric circuits. Then there are -electric warmers, electric heaters for passenger and driver, electric -cigar lighter, limousine lights, and electric horns, which make -additional wires until the traditional Philadelphia lawyer would be -totally inadequate to unravel the tangle.</p> - -<p>Suppose the ignition goes wrong and the battery seems to be all right -and no cause of trouble can be found in the magneto and its wires, and -the chauffeur is in a pickle. Along comes Mr. Man-Who-Knows and finds -that the trouble is a short circuit in a lighting installation which -impaired the ignition so that the cylinders would not fire, or fired -irregularly.</p> - -<p>The old cars did not have generators and motors; but the driver now -must know how to sandpaper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> commutators and undercut the insulation -of commutators, which is an electrical engineer’s job; and he must -be wise enough to know that these things are necessary because there -is sparking at the commutator, and the generator is not charging the -battery as it should, and the motor is not starting the engine as it -ought. This, of course, is because the brushes are overriding the -commutators when the insulation is not undercut, and the contact period -is shortened, and perhaps some of the contacts are skipped altogether -because the high speed carries the brushes over without touching the -commutator.</p> - -<p>Then, he must know, for instance, that when the lights dim while the -engine is going at low speed, it is because the reverse current cut-out -is out of adjustment and it requires a considerable discharge from the -battery into the generator in order to make the cut-out operate, when -the lights will become bright again.</p> - -<p>Also, he must know, when the volt or ammeter needle becomes erratic, -sometimes showing a big charge or a little charge or no charge at -all and then comes to normal again, that he has a loose connection -somewhere or the voltage regulator is not working properly.</p> - -<p>When he presses the button of the electric horn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> and it does not sound, -but does work right after he has kicked or pounded it, he ought to know -why his rage started it working. It was simply that the brush stuck -upon a dead contact point of the commutator, due to a dead armature -coil, and when he jammed the horn it moved the commutator until a live -contact point was against the brush and the motor started to work.</p> - -<p>There was a time when the manufacturer pointed with pride to the fact -that there were no complications on his car. There was nothing on the -dash but the ignition switch, with one wire leading to the magneto. -This followed a period when the dash had been filled up gradually with -all sorts of devices. Ways were found to do away with them.</p> - -<p>Now there are hundreds of wires and pipes tacked on to the dash, and -the other side of the dash fronting the driver is filled with dials and -gauges and switches almost without number. These all add to the comfort -of the motorist, but in the same proportion they add to the worries of -the driver. He pays the price of the comforts in added worries. Owners -also find that these added conveniences have given demand for added -technical knowledge.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLIV">CHAPTER XLIV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">DON’T TAKE THINGS FOR GRANTED</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Don’t</span> take anything for granted with your car. Don’t expect that there -is water, or gasoline, or oil, or current in the battery, unless -you have first inspected to find out. Inspect, don’t expect. There -are many bad habits in car practice, and one of them is the evil of -absent-mindedness in locating troubles in your car.</p> - -<p>The man who spent half an hour looking for his glasses, and then -discovered they were on his nose, should not be laughed at by anyone -who runs a motor car. It is only natural that this man should take it -for granted they were not on his nose, yet taking things for granted, -writes Harold F. Blanchard, in <i>Motor Life</i>, is the greatest -difficulty that the man who has to locate trouble has to face, whether -he is an amateur or an expert. A number of cases are cited to prove the -point.</p> - -<p>Everyone knows better than to crank the engine with the switch off, yet -recently we saw an average<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> motorist waste twenty minutes this way. The -ignition switch was set in the center of the lighting switch handle. -Therefore the absolute position of the ignition switch key varied -according to what lights were on—hence the error; yet this motorist -looked all over his engine before he discovered his trouble. Probably -being absent-minded had something to do with it; he had just left his -office for the day and was on his way home, which demonstrates that the -thoughtless or preoccupied man is much more likely to make unrightful -assumptions than the alert man.</p> - -<p>Recently an old automobile mechanic was riding on an interurban car -when the latter was held up by a motor car stalled across the tracks. -There was a big crowd around the machine trying frantically to push it -out of the way. For some reason the rear wheels were locked. No amount -of effort would budge the car and it was too large to lift and carry.</p> - -<p>The mechanic got off and watched the proceedings. He found that the -gear lever was stuck in low gear, and inquiry as to whether the -trouble was due to jammed gears or some other serious defect could not -be answered by the owner or any of his helpers. He began to wonder -where the trouble was while the others struggled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> but being old in -the game, the thought flashed across his mind: “Take nothing for -granted.” Therefore the first question to determine was whether the -whole difficulty might not be solved by pushing out the clutch. This -seemed too easy—too good to be true. He hesitated to suggest it, but -the more he thought about it the more he became convinced, and finally -he mustered up enough courage to slip behind the wheel and command -the resting crowd to push. The car glided off, to the astonishment of -everyone. It developed that the owner of the car had become excited -when he stalled the engine on the crossing with the lever stuck in low. -In his feverish haste he tried to push the car off instead of shoving -out his clutch and starting the motor, and as the crowd collected they -accepted the locked condition of the rear wheels as something which -could not be remedied.</p> - -<p>A motorist of ten years’ experience bought a used car. He took delivery -of it late one rainy afternoon. The former owner told him the car was -complete, the only thing missing being the key to the tool box, which -he promised to mail him early the next day. The motorist got a couple -of friends and started for a ride. Finally they stopped for dinner. -When they came out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> the owner put his foot on the starter pedal, -but it stuck. He pulled up the floor boards but could not reach the -mechanism. The only way was to crawl under the car and this was out of -the question because of the mud. They looked for the crank under the -rear-seat cushion and under the front-seat cushion, but could not find -it. Quite naturally they concluded it must be in the locked tool box -or else the former owner had neglected to include this very important -item. They tried to locate a car of the same make in some neighboring -garages without success. They jacked the car up and tried to crank it -by turning a rear wheel, but the compression was too great, so they -tossed the jack into the tonneau and started in search of someone who -would tow the car to start it. Eventually they got the engine going. -When they reached the garage the owner slipped his hand into the -tonneau and he pulled out—not the jack—but the crank!</p> - -<p>The worst is to come. The next morning a mechanic who had been in -the business long enough to know better than to make unwarranted -assumptions was called in. He pressed down the pedal without success, -then for no logical reason but simply because automobiles were second -nature to him he pulled up and the pedal came. Then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> he pushed and the -starter worked. The owner was nonplussed. Later he admitted that he had -thought of pulling up on the pedal but <i>assumed</i> it would do no -good.</p> - -<p>A few years ago, when expanding clutches were more popular, a motorist -found one day that his clutch was slipping. He had a vague idea that -there must be some means for adjusting the clutch to cure this trouble, -but he looked in vain for a nut or a screw or a bolt which might do -the trick. True, there was a small screw in the fly-wheel rim, set -almost flush with the edge of the rim and locked by a tiny spring -wire which rested in the milled slot in the screw. But he limped to a -garage on low gear and held consultation with the entire force. They -examined the car carefully and decided there was no way to adjust the -clutch. They suggested a new lining or strips of metal under the old -lining to swell it out so that it would grip. The former was out of the -question because of the time it would take, so the latter was tried. -The makeshift worked all right for a few miles, and then the clutch -slipped more than ever. In desperation he called the agent up on the -long distance, and was informed that his troubles would be over if he -would give that innocent-looking screw a couple of turns. It sounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -like black magic, but he went back and tried it, and his troubles ended.</p> - -<p>An owner who was very particular about having his car in the best of -condition found that the compression in the first cylinder was weak -although the valves had just been ground. He removed the exhaust valve -and found it in perfect condition. Then he took out the intake valve, -although he felt foolish while doing it. It was in excellent shape but, -just to be on the safe side and because he did not know what else to -do, he ground it anyhow. The trouble was no better. Neither did the -difficulty seem to be due to too small a clearance between valve stems -and push rods, because the clearance was the prescribed amount on both -intake and exhaust valves. He concluded that it must be the rings. -Either they were gummed or broken. Flooding the cylinder with kerosene -did not improve the condition, so a pint of very heavy oil was put -in with the idea that this would temporarily stop any leaks between -cylinder and piston, but the compression was no better. Several times -during the hunt he was tempted to increase the clearance between valve -stems and push rods, not for any sensible reason, because the clearance -was correct, but simply in desperation. It seemed about the only thing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -left to do—it was the only thing he had not tried. But his “common -sense” said no, so he took his car to the service station. The first -thing they did was to increase the clearance on the intake valve, and -the trouble was cured. The reason for doing this was that there was a -high spot on the back of the intake cam which would open the valve a -slight amount on the compression stroke. The clearance was increased to -a point where the high spot had no effect.</p> - -<p>One day a motorist had serious magneto trouble. The engine missed and -finally stopped. It was necessary to take the magneto to an expert to -have it repaired. The very day the magneto was replaced the car started -missing again and it looked as if the work had not been properly done. -Finally the engine refused to go further. A passing farm wagon was -hailed and the car brought home—seven miles. The magneto was returned -to the shop, but nothing wrong was found. Yet when it was replaced the -car still refused to run. A telephone talk with the nearest agent, -forty miles away, showed that the trouble might be in the carburetor -and a search showed that it was—the low speed jet was clogged. To -prove the truth of this suspicion the engine was primed and ran -perfectly except at low speed. When the car<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> first stalled, it occurred -to the owner that it might be a good idea to prime the engine, but he -dismissed the thought because he was so certain the trouble was in the -magneto, and without a better reason than it was too much work to prime -the engine because there were no priming cups.</p> - -<p>A similar trouble in that it was of a dual nature was experienced with -a car which had just had the valves ground and the carbon removed. -After the work was done the engine could not be started. Investigation -showed there was no spark. No short-circuits could be found in the -wiring. The breaker points were examined and after filing and adjusting -them the engine started on the first turn. Fortunately the man who -did this job knew how to proceed—he made no guesses or assumptions. -In this he was different from the owner whose experience was related -elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The last two instances show something it is very important for everyone -to realize, although this is a diversion, namely, that repair men are -often blamed for tampering with cars without cause. The preceding -incident was pure coincidence. The breaker points gave out entirely -when the engine was shut off prior to grinding the valves.</p> - -<p>The various incidents which have been related<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> prove that it is not -wise to take anything for granted. It seems like a simple rule, but -only those who have tried to follow it will find out how hard it is. -It is also important to bear in mind that it is not wise to use too -much logic in hunting trouble, for the solution is often far from -logical. It is well to reason as carefully as possible, but if the -solution is still to be found it often happens that it is obtained by -some illogical act. Follow the general-trouble rule in an orderly way, -therefore, and do not take anything for granted.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLV">CHAPTER XLV<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">BLOWING YOUR OWN HORN</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> course it is your horn and you have a right to do anything you want -to do with it—except make a nuisance of yourself to others—and you -can toot it to your heart’s content when off in some wilderness; but if -you desire to live in peace and harmony with your neighbors and with -your fellow travelers in this vale of tears, you will have a care when -and where you toot your toots.</p> - -<p>In olden days it was compulsory to have bells on the horse when drawing -a sleigh, which was supposed to be noiseless. The bells were to give -warning of the sleigh’s approach around a curve or over the hill. This -was the only vehicle to have a warning tone, except the fishman or -the junk cart, and their noise was inviting—ostensibly—rather than -warning, though often it ought to have been the latter.</p> - -<p>Soon after the coming of the bicycle it became apparent that some means -of signalling its approach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> must be had. Now singularly enough in -the light of present-day understanding, the bicycle bell or horn was -not to warn people to get out of the way. It was to warn folks that -you were looking out for them and that, unless they stepped suddenly -in your path, they might feel assured that you would not run into -them. Everybody understood that the pedestrian had first right to the -road. Bicycle riders practiced strenuously the ways to avoid the man -afoot—most of them.</p> - -<p>With the coming of the automobile the use of horns was continued, early -electrics and some others using a bell. They were the continuance of -the bicycle warning, and when the automobile was popularizing itself it -was understood that the bell or horn was merely to prevent others from -walking into danger. The autoist saw to it, so far as he could, that -the man, woman, or child went safe.</p> - -<p>Came another generation and the universal use of the automobile for -pleasure, business, and transportation uses, and all of a sudden people -began to talk about the rights of the autoist, and the horn began to -peremptorily order folks to get out of the way or get run over. There -is not the slightest doubt in the mind of the writer that the present -attitude of autoists in general is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> due to the mistaken notion that -they have rights in the roadway part of the street and the pedestrian’s -rights are confined to the sidewalks and crossing walks; nor that this -notion was bred by the police regulations of traffic which sought to -protect the pedestrian by herding him off the road to the side walks -and permitting him at intervals to cross the road. It is noticeable, -however, that not one arrest for refusing to keep off the roadway has -ever been made—or at least sustained by court. The policeman may frown -at the man who tries to go contrary to the traffic rule, but that is -all.</p> - -<p>Out of this misunderstanding there has come such a constant use of -horns as to make it a continual nuisance on thickly traveled streets -and even on much traveled highways in the country. And the nuisance is -not from the necessary signaling to other cars or vehicles, but the -unnecessary tooting the driver does because he wants everybody to know -that he is coming and to understand that they must get out of the way -for him.</p> - -<p>Now a certain amount of signaling is needed in driving, but it is -possible to drive through the thick traffic of New York City from the -Battery to Harlem without tooting the horn half a dozen times—that is -if one is a careful and well-instructed driver.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span></p> - -<p>Watch other drivers and pedestrians and do not blow the horn after they -have seen you, or if their direction and speed of travel is such that -they will be out of your way before you get to them. If not seen, sound -the horn once and be ready to stop. As a matter of fact the foot should -instinctively go to the brake pedal each time the hand goes to the -horn. But if you are seen by the other person why blow the horn at all?</p> - -<p>If one is driving along a country road and desires to pass another car -going in the same direction, it is customary to sound the horn once -that the driver ahead may not turn his car in front of you, and so -that, if needed, he may turn to the right to let you pass on the left. -He is the judge as to when and where he will turn, since he can see -ahead better and knows what obstructions are to be avoided. With few -exceptions he will, when signaled, immediately give way; if he does -not, and it is fair to presume that he heard the signal, it is polite -to wait a moment before again signaling your desire.</p> - -<p>One also should signal just before reaching the top of a hill, -particularly if the road be a narrow one, that anyone coming up on -the other side may know of your presence and be guided accordingly; -likewise the signal should be given before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span> coming to a cross-roads, -unless there is a plain view of both roads for a sufficient distance to -make sure that a collision is not likely.</p> - -<p>Occasionally one will catch up to a farmer’s load of hay, and the -signal will not be heard, and it becomes necessary to toot a number of -times, but this is rare. In meeting a wagon or another auto it is not -necessary to sound the horn unless it is apparent that the other driver -does not see you, or is keeping to the crown of the road, expecting you -to do all the turning out. Well, even then, sometimes, it is better to -do it, at that.</p> - -<p>As a rule, it is easier on one’s temperament, and safer in the long -run, to let the fellow who wants all the road have it; therefore when -you hear a speed fiend coming, his presence announced by vociferous -tooting of the horn and perhaps punctuated by shouting, or oaths, draw -to one side and slow up. It costs little either in time or effort, and -if it happens to be a load of drunken, irresponsible loafers you will -be safe. At the same time, if you have influence with the police and -other officials, call their attention to persons who thus disregard -others and see that they are fined and their licenses taken. For the -meekness advised, in letting them have their own way, is but that you -may survive to do a piece of good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> work for the country at large by -bringing before the law those who violate all principles of courtesy -and rules of the road.</p> - -<p>Blow your own horn, if you want to, but blow it discreetly; let others -blow, too, and heed the warning, lest you come to grief with them.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLVI">CHAPTER XLVI<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">WOMEN AS DRIVERS</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> 5.19 had stopped at Lonesomehurst, and the grating sound of the -Klaxon had caused more than one commuter to wish there were a law -against harsh noises. To Cholly Subbubs, however, it had a welcome -tone, and he grabbed for his bundles and umbrella, saying while he -dashed to the door and swung off the train as it pulled out:</p> - -<p>“Sorry, boys; finish the game tomorrow. Wife’s here with the car for -me.”</p> - -<p>His partners at whist saw him step into a smart car driven by Mrs. -Subbubs, who turned it about and took the road parallel with the track -and for several miles gave race to the train, while sundry passengers -uttered wise sayings as to the folly of a woman trying to run an auto.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A woman can run a car as well as a man [one of the commuters finally -averred, as an answer to the criticism of the wiseacres]. I expect my -wife<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> will be at the next station and we will have a twenty-five-mile -spin before dinner. It will blow off all the grouch, and blow out of -my lungs all the bad air I have had to breathe today, and give me an -appetite that would do credit to a man who has been toting bricks up -a ladder rather than selling bonds.</p> -</div> - -<p>He had told the story of the new era of automobiling which has come to -the metropolis. Wife, the chauffeur! Now what is happening about New -York City is an old story in some parts of the country, but the latest -wrinkle in suburban travel about these parts is for friend wife to meet -the train two or three stations up the line and take tired hubby for -a ride on the way home. Having learned to run the car, she had been -taking him to the station and meeting him at night. One night he was -startled to hear her familiar signal on the horn—he knows his master’s -voice—some distance from the home station, looked out of the window -and just had time to swing off on the station platform. Now he is keen -for that sound. Probably every commuter train which leaves the city -each evening in pleasant weather has several such scenes.</p> - -<p>It is not a fad, either, but the solution of the fresh-air problem for -pent-up business men; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> relaxation from the daily cares and just -the most delightful visit with each other that devoted ones can have. -In the summer evenings there is time for a long ride before dining; in -the cooler evenings of fall and winter, when dark comes before hubby -is due, good roads still are inviting and the crisp air rejuvenates -one and creates an appetite which is alarming, the high cost of living -considered.</p> - -<p>Women in the East began to take an interest in running an automobile -about the time the self-starter was put on the market, three or four -years ago. Cranking is not a feminine job and old models of cars bore -no semblance in convenience and ease of handling to those now on the -market; they are more reliable and dependable than the ancient makes.</p> - -<p>Then, too, women in New York are used to being waited upon. They are -not of the aggressive type, and do not care for man’s work; while -in the West they are more self-reliant. That is only natural, since -the western women have been thrown more upon their own resources; -having helped the men subdue prairie and forest and desert, the -younger generation has not departed from their footsteps. There are -self-reliant women in New York, of course, but of a different type, -and one would hardly expect them to want<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> to own or operate a car -themselves; but they are beginning to, by the thousands.</p> - -<p>Another reason for the slowness of women to take up auto driving is -that New York City is not a place for pleasure driving; but in the -suburbs they are taking it up rapidly, as the increasing daytime -honk-honk indicates. In the city it is unnecessary, for there is every -convenience for shopping or calling at beck and call—taxis, buses, and -rent cars. These things are not to be had so largely in the suburbs, -and when hubby is at business and the chauffeur is at his grandmother’s -funeral, or has too heavy a load of “Oh, be joyful,” for safety or -pleasure, it is a case of stay at home, or learn to run the thing -for herself. She learns, and then does not have to worry about the -chauffeur going around the corner for a highball while she is calling.</p> - -<p>So far as mastering the mechanical and technical details of a car, -women seem to be just as apt as most men, if they take it seriously -enough. The fact that mechanical talent is not limited to the male sex -is indicated by the numerous automobile developments which are the -product of the feminine brain.</p> - -<p>The Y. M. C. A. Automobile School has been taking women pupils for -three years and among<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> the four hundred graduates have been every type, -from the society debutante to the mature matron, chorus girl, actress, -and a few who desired to become professional chauffeurs—“Jit Chicks” -they call them in Philadelphia—with a lot of applications from school -teachers. It does not appear why so many of that class have taken the -course, but one of the instructors says that most of them are learning -so that at vacation time they can take their car instead of the ocean -steamer or railroad train and spend two months “seeing America.” One -of them, however, declares that she intends to become a professional -chauffeur during vacation, so that she can make money while enjoying a -full relaxation from her ordinary labor. She teaches at an exclusive -club-colony center and will run her car there.</p> - -<p>When the first woman applicant came, it caused some of the instructors -to gasp:</p> - -<p>“Why, a woman cannot understand an engine.”</p> - -<p>“Only because they never have tried,” was the response. “Give me a -chance—I’ll show you.”</p> - -<p>“But you would get all dirty. The men have to crawl under the cars and -get covered with grease and grime,” was objected.</p> - -<p class="padb1">“If they get any dirtier than I did this morning when I had to clean -out the kitchen stovepipe,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> was the comeback, “then I’ll give up; -grease has no fearsomeness for a housewife.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="facing305" style="max-width: 111.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/facing305.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption">SHE IS ACCUMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF AN INTRICATE -MACHINE—AND SHE IS FASCINATED</p></div> - -<p class="padt1">Of course the director gave in, as man ever has yielded to woman, and -today the women’s department of the school is a fixture, for woman has -demonstrated that she can understand machinery and wires and things and -learn how to pilot a car and do all sorts of other stunts with it.</p> - -<p>It is no child’s play to which the woman student is ushered when -beginning the course. She goes right at a machine and first of all has -to learn what the array of bolts and valves and belts and wires is for. -The women put on big aprons—or overalls—and gloves, and with sleeves -rolled up start to dissect one of the cars as a doctor does a cadaver. -From starting crank to differential and from spark plug to oil sump it -all has to come down, and, worse yet, has to be put together again. -The dainty young thing in dimity—under the jumper—gets her arms -greasy and a splotch on her nose, but she doesn’t care a bit, for it -all washes off and she knows that back of the nose she is accumulating -something that won’t wash off—a knowledge of an intricate machine—and -she is fascinated.</p> - -<p>She has to learn about tires, too; how to take them off and repair and -replace them. It is just a bit odd to see a woman patching an inner -tube as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> handily and as daintily as though she were embroidering a bit -of Christmas frumpery; but really she handles the shears to cut the -patch a lot more readily than most men, and she puts the patch in place -as carefully as though she were mending the seat of her young hopeful’s -rompers.</p> - -<p>When the student has mastered the mechanical part and has overcome -all the “queering” the instructor can devise, she is taken out for -road experience. When she has the car ready, supplied with gasoline, -lubricating oil, water for the radiator, and all the other things which -make for safety and successful operation, and has cranked the engine, -unless there is a self-starter, then, with hands and feet engaging the -steering wheel, levers, and pedals, the momentous hour has come when -the machine is to be under her control. The instructor is provided -with a duplicate set of levers for an emergency. Lessons begin in the -quiet streets, gradually emerging into those busier, until at last -Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street, the busiest intersection in the -metropolis, is reached.</p> - -<p>The women always enjoy that. Never one but shows she is having the time -of her life at that corner. They are expected to lose their heads and -“go up in the air,” but they do not. They are not so reckless as men, -are quicker to grasp a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> situation, and do not “take a chance” as men -do. Alertness is an attribute of most women, also intuition, and these -are qualities needed by an auto driver.</p> - -<p>The era of low-priced cars undoubtedly has had something to do with -the influx of women into auto driving. Thousands to whom a high-priced -car with liveried chauffeur must ever be a dream, are able to have a -moderate or low-priced car for the whole family. Mother will not let -her sons and daughters distance her in anything, so she learns too.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be the cause, it is a fact that the women of the country -are taking up the auto seriously. There already are too many in the -city streets to excite even casual notice, but in the suburbs, where -there is an almost total absence of men during the daytime, every car -you meet has a woman at the wheel. There is no indication, however, -that man has been relegated to the care of the nursery. He still is -too valuable as a producer for that—producer of gasoline and tires -and what not. But the chauffeur who drives for a living must take -account of the woman at the wheel, for it means lessened opportunity; -still, the use of trucks is increasing, and woman is not likely to be a -competitor there—not yet.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLVII">CHAPTER XLVII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">MISCELLANEOUS RULES</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Below</span> are given a number of rules for doing things about an automobile, -which may help the novice remember the instructions heretofore given -by the agent from whom he bought the car, or obtained at the service -station, in the manufacturer’s book of instructions, or elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">FOUR THINGS TO DO BEFORE LEAVING THE GARAGE</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Be sure there is plenty of water.</p> - -<p>Be sure there is plenty of gasoline.</p> - -<p>Be sure there is plenty of oil.</p> - -<p>Be sure there is plenty of air in the tires.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">FIVE THINGS TO DO BEFORE CRANKING THE ENGINE</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Be sure the emergency brake is set.</p> - -<p>Be sure the gear-shift lever is in neutral position.</p> - -<p>Retard the spark fully.</p> - -<p>Open the gas hand throttle about one-third.</p> - -<p>Throw switch to battery position.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">THREE THINGS TO DO AFTER CRANKING</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Close the throttle until the engine idles.</p> - -<p>Advance the spark about two-thirds.</p> - -<p>Switch from battery to magneto.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">TO ADJUST A CARBURETOR</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Adjust the needle valve at low speed—engine idling.</p> - -<p>For high speeds adjust the auxiliary air valve.</p> - -<p>(Owners should learn the make-up of their carburetor before -attempting to adjust it, and should first watch someone who knows how -to do it.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">TO ADJUST CAM SHAFTS WHICH TIME VALVE OPENING AND CLOSING</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Make sure that push-rod adjustment is right—that a thin card will -pass between push rod and valve stem when valve is closed.</p> - -<p>Determine direction of rotation of cam shafts.</p> - -<p>Set fly wheel so that the mark 1 T. C. (top center) registers with -pointer.</p> - -<p>Turn fly wheel until mark 10° P. T. C. (past top center) registers -with pointer.</p> - -<p>Rotate exhaust cam shaft in proper direction until the exhaust valve -of No. 1 cylinder has just closed.</p> - -<p>Rotate inlet cam shaft until inlet valve of No. 1 cylinder is just -about to open.</p> - -<p>Mesh the gears and lock them in place.</p> - -<p>If No. 1 cylinder is right the others must be.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">RULE FOR TIMING THE MAGNETO</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Find the firing order of the engine.</p> - -<p>Turn crank shaft of engine and note directions in which armature and -distributor of magneto should revolve.</p> - -<p>Set No. 1 cylinder on beginning of power stroke by watching exhaust -valve just close and then turning crank one complete revolution.</p> - -<p>Set fly wheel so that mark No. 1. T. C. registers with pointer.</p> - -<p>Retard spark fully—by moving breaker box in same direction as arrow -points or armature rotates, as far as it will go.</p> - -<p>Rotate armature in proper direction until interrupter points are just -about to open.</p> - -<p>In this position mesh gears and lock magneto to base.</p> - -<p>At this point prove your work by advancing spark. If points are right -they will open.</p> - -<p>Notice what point in distributor the rotor is touching. This goes to -No. 1 cylinder.</p> - -<p>Wire distributor in firing order of the engine.</p> - -<p>(The distributor always rotates in opposite direction to the -armature.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">RULES FOR CARE OF CLUTCH</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>To remedy a harsh gripping leather-faced cone clutch, apply neatsfoot -oil or castor oil to leather face.</p> - -<p>To remedy a slipping leather-faced cone clutch, apply fuller’s earth -or French talc to leather facing. In rare cases a little gasoline may -be used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></p> - -<p>To remedy a harsh gripping multiple disc clutch that runs in oil, add -engine oil to the mixture.</p> - -<p>To remedy a slipping multiple disk clutch running in oil, add -kerosene to the mixture.</p> - -<p>Too little spring tension will cause slipping.</p> - -<p>Once every 100 miles turn down all grease cups on the clutch.</p> - -<p>Once every 500 miles apply neatsfoot oil to a leather-faced clutch.</p> - -<p>Once every 1000 miles drain a multiple disc clutch and clean -thoroughly with kerosene and renew the oil.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">RULES FOR CARE OF TRANSMISSION AND DIFFERENTIAL</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It must be kept half filled with very heavy oil. (Consult -manufacturer’s instructions.)</p> - -<p>Once every 500 miles inspect and replenish lubricant if need be.</p> - -<p>Once every 5000 miles drain case, clean thoroughly with kerosene, and -renew lubricant.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">RULES FOR CARE OF OTHER PARTS</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Once every 1000 miles pack universal joint with very heavy grease.</p> - -<p>Once every 250 miles use oil can freely and turn down all grease cups -on torsion and radius rods.</p> - -<p>Pack the wheel hubs with grease every 1000 miles.</p> - -<p>Pack the steering worm housing with medium grease every 500 miles.</p> - -<p>Oil the steering mechanism every 100 miles and turn down all grease -cups.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span></p> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">LUBRICATION TIME-TABLE</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Lubricate as often as is necessary. The safest rule always is to -follow the manufacturer’s instructions.</p> - -<p>Every 100 miles: Use oil can freely; turn all grease cups down two or -three turns.</p> - -<p>Be sure that these parts are well lubricated: Steering apparatus, -clutch, spring-shackle bolts, crank handle, fan, valve-rocker arms, -wheel hubs.</p> - -<p>Every 250 miles: Give same care to braking apparatus, emergency -brake, and gear-shift levers, and rocker shafts, water pump, torsion -and radius rods. Clean force-feed oil system.</p> - -<p>Every 500 miles: Inspect transmission and differential cases and -refill if necessary; pack steering worm housing; apply neatsfoot oil -to cone clutch facing; clean gravity and circulating splash systems.</p> - -<p>Every 1000 miles: Pack universal joints, ball and socket boots, hub -caps; oil magneto, electric motor, electric generator; clean disc -clutch; clean splash system; lubricate spring leaves by jacking up -frame of car, spreading leaves apart, and putting graphite mixed with -gasoline between leaves.</p> - -<p>Every 5000 miles: Drain transmission and differential cases and clean -with kerosene and renew lubricant; clean wheel bearings and repack -hubs with grease.</p> - -<p>Give all bearings a careful inspection and take up all play.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">CARE OF STORAGE BATTERY</h3></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Keep electrolite over top of plates by adding distilled water.</p> - -<p>Keep top of battery clean and metal parts covered with vaseline to -prevent corrosion.</p> - -<p>Keep holes in vent plugs open.</p> - -<p>Never leave battery standing in a discharged condition.</p> - -<p>Make sure it is tightly fastened on car.</p> - -<p>Examine battery once a week in summer; every two weeks in winter.</p> - -<p>Take hydrometer readings at these times; never take hydrometer -reading immediately after adding water; wait fifteen minutes for -water to mix with electrolite.</p> - -<p>If one cell always needs water examine for leaky container.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">INDICATIONS OF A DISCHARGED BATTERY</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Starting motor cranks engine slowly or not at all.</p> - -<p>Lamps burn dimly or not at all.</p> - -<p>Lamps burn brightly when first turned on but soon dim.</p> - -<p>Electric horn weak.</p> - -<p>Low specific gravity of electrolite.</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">CAUSES OF DISCHARGED BATTERY</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Generator not charging battery.</p> - -<p>Generator belt slipping.</p> - -<p>Wires short-circuited or grounded.</p> - -<p>Plates not covered with electrolite.</p> - -<p>Defective or leaky cell.</p> - -<p>Excessive lamp load.</p> - -<p>Excessive use of lamps when engine is stopped.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span></p> - -<p>Car not being run fast enough to charge at sufficient rate.</p> - -<p>Using starter too much.</p> - -<p>Cut-out not working properly.</p> - -<p>Broken or loose connection between generator and battery.</p> - -<p>(Storage battery efficiency in winter is half that of summer.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="section"> -<h3 class="nobreak">LOCATING TROUBLES IN LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYSTEM</h3></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>If no charge shows on dash meter when engine is running at speed -equal to 15 m. p. h., connect good ammeter in series with dash meter; -if this meter shows proper charging rate, trouble is with dash -meter; if it also shows no charge, connect voltmeter with generator -terminals. If it indicates a very high voltage, generator is O. K. -and trouble is between generator and battery.</p> - -<p>Test cut-out and examine all connections and wires.</p> - -<p>If lights light when engine is stopped, trouble is between generator -and ammeter. If lights do not light, trouble is between ammeter and -battery.</p> - -<p>If no, or low, voltage is indicated, trouble is with the generator, -regulator, or wire between generator and regulator.</p> - -<p>If starting motor will not crank engine, make sure battery is O. -K., connections bright and clean, commutator and brushes in good -condition, and that starting switch makes good contact. Crank engine -by hand to make sure some mechanical defect is not preventing engine -from turning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p> - -<p>If starting motor spins but does not crank engine, pinion or drive -gear may be loose, chain broken, or overrunning clutch slipping. If a -Bendix drive, pinion may stick in worm due to dirt in threads.</p> - -<p>If none of the bulbs light, examine connection at battery, ammeter, -lighting switch, and wires between those units for breaks; also all -the bulbs may be burned out.</p> - -<p>If a grounded system, examine ground connection at frame.</p> - -<p>If only one bulb fails to light, trouble must be in its own circuit. -Take trouble lamp or voltmeter and test at contacts of connector -at lamp. If you get current at this point, trouble is with bulb or -contact pins sticking, or not long enough. If you do not get current -at this point, examine fuses, connections at lighting switch and -connectors; also wire for breaks.</p> - -<p>As a short circuit on the car generally shows its presence by its -effect on battery, preventing it from holding a charge, if meter -shows discharge all the time, remove wire from meter or battery. If -needle remains on discharge, needle is stuck; if it drops to zero, -there is a short circuit or cut-out does not open.</p> - -<p>A short circuit beyond the lighting switch will not show on the meter -until switch is turned to circuit in which short circuit is located. -This will cause lights to dim and show a heavy discharge on meter.</p> - -<p>As there are other circuits whose current does not pass through -meter, a short circuit in them would not be indicated on meter, but -would be indicated by running down of battery. To locate, remove<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> all -bulbs, also all wires from one of the battery terminals. Connect one -side of the trouble lamp to battery terminal and the other side of -lamp to wires removed. Any current leaving the battery must now pass -through the trouble lamp causing it to light.</p> - -<p>1—If trouble lamp lights when lighting switch is turned off, short -circuit is either in starting motor-circuit, generator circuit (or -cut-out does not open), horn circuit, or in wires between lighting -switch and battery, or in ignition circuit. Eliminate one circuit -after another until trouble lamp goes out. Then examine circuit on -which it goes out for short.</p> - -<p>2—If trouble lamp lights only when lighting switch is on, short -circuit is in circuit beyond lighting switch. Examine circuit -indicated on face of switch when in position that trouble lamp -lights, as switch can be divided into sections. Eliminate one section -after another until trouble lamp goes out; then examine this circuit -for short.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XLVIII">CHAPTER XLVIII<br /> -<br /> - -<span class="small">THE GOLDEN RULE OF MOTORING</span></h2></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> volume does not pretend to set a standard of manners for owners of -automobiles, nor does it profess to be a first-aid course in courtesy, -much less suggest lessons in gentlemanliness, which might as well be -called gentleness at once; yet there is sad need of instruction in all -these things, if one may judge by the experiences of the road and of -the inn and garage stops along the way.</p> - -<p>Now the writer believes that the American citizen is a gentleman to -the manor born, of natural right and disposition, and that he does not -leave his manners at home, as he is supposed to leave his religion at -the church door. A gentleman in the drawing-room will be a gentleman on -the highway. He will not be a boor because the man he happens to meet -is one, not even if the majority are.</p> - -<p>Why is it, then, that there is an utter absence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> of courtesy, or -if there be an occasional display of good nature it but emphasizes -the lack of it in general? Undoubtedly this is a fair statement of -conditions in and about the metropolis. It is not true to anywhere -near the same extent in the Western country, and “Western” ought to be -understood in this connection as anything west of the Alleghany range.</p> - -<p>The writer has been astounded on several occasions in Denver and other -Western cities at the really human spirit of the drivers. They actually -stopped of their own accord to let the writer, a pedestrian at the -time, cross the street, and did it in so gracious a way as to make it -seem a real pleasure. Picture that on Fifth Avenue, New York City, or -upon any of the highways out of the metropolis on a Sunday or holiday -in warm weather.</p> - -<p>But it is not alone in the attitude of the driver toward the pedestrian -that there is remissness, but in the behavior toward other drivers that -there is need for improvement. What is easier than to cheerfully make -way for the man who wishes to pass by, or to turn aside as much as may -be necessary for the other car we meet; to slow up at the intersection, -instead of spurting to get ahead of the other fellow, and making him<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> -jam on the brakes to avoid a collision? Why is it necessary to try to -get the best of the other fellow, as though driving were a contest of -wits and that skill on the road consisted in “beating the other fellow -to it?”</p> - -<p>Perhaps the answer to all this criticism is that in and about New York, -where there is a dense population, there are thousands of drivers who -are not from the ranks of the well-bred, by which is not meant the -wealthy. The low price of cars and the thousands of used cars on the -market has put them at the disposal of the butcher boy and the hod -carrier and bell hop, and they seem to have the idea that the driver -of a car possesses superior rights over others and must assert it. Out -in the land where folks have a chance to open their lungs and breathe, -a broader view of life is held. It is a fact, however, that the -well-to-do families of the East are more and more requiring of their -drivers that they follow the golden rule and not the Eben Holden brand. -You remember Eben’s version: “Do unto others what they are trying to do -unto you, and do it fust.”</p> - -<p class="padb1">Secretary of State Francis M. Hugo, of New York, recently delivered -an address to a group of students in which he said a number of -pertinent things concerning the operation of cars, based<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> upon his own -experiences. It is so good that it is reprinted here:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>It is not too much to say that the future of motoring largely depends -upon the behavior of motorists and their drivers toward the public. -As fewer owners of large touring machines drive their own cars -nowadays in proportion to the number driven than used to be the case, -it is, therefore, mainly the behavior of their drivers on the road -that is important. The subject of the training of the motor man is -consequently worth much attention, and that the automobile community -as a whole realizes this is evident not only by the establishment -of various schools, where the mechanical side of the profession is -taught to the future driver, but by the efforts of various clubs and -associations, notably of the Y. M. C. A., who have started schools -all over the country to help in this training.</p> - -<p>For the past few years, those who drive motor cars for wages have -been called “chauffeurs,” a word against which a protest should -always be made on the double ground of etymology and nationality. To -begin with, the word in reality means “stoker.” On the foot plate -of a French locomotive the driver is called “mechanicien,” while -the fireman is designated as the “chauffeur.” In the case of motor -cars propelled by steam, the word “chauffeur” may thus be held to be -remotely correct, but on the ordinary car propelled by the internal -combustion engine or by electric power, there is no sense in the -term. In the best<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> French circles also, the word “mechanicien” is -always used to designate the driver of a car and the word “chauffeur” -even in France is said to be becoming obsolete.</p> - -<p>The motorman, as he will, therefore, be called, is very often the -subject of much discussion and sometimes of irrational abuse. Of -course, there are black sheep in this profession, as in every other, -but one is glad to place on record that black sheep were far more -numerous five years ago than they are now. No one who observes -without prejudice the behavior of motor-car drivers in New York City -and elsewhere can help being struck with the careful way in which -private motor cars are now driven, the neatness and cleanliness of -the men themselves, and the vast improvement which has taken place -in their general manners. Formerly, it was thought to be the highest -mark of the profession that a motorman should be dirty in every -respect, and a greasy cap, black hands and face, oily clothes and, -as a rule, a half-smoked dirty cigarette in the side of his mouth, -combined with a contemptuous scowl at every passer-by, was not an -uncommon sight.</p> - -<p>This state of things, however, has changed for the better. -Occasionally a specimen of the primeval driver is met with, and -even now the habit of cigarette smoking when in charge of a car is -supposed, by the younger and less intelligent men of the profession, -to confer an air of knowledge coupled with disdain. In course of -time this form of swagger will die out also. The manners, moreover, -of many motormen to their employers and to their fellow servants -have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> not in the past been all that could be desired, but as stated -before, their general behavior is markedly improving, and it must be -remembered that, motormen are greatly superior in intelligence to -most of their predecessors.</p> - -<p>It need hardly be noted here that much depends upon the way the -motorman has been trained. When automobiling was just beginning the -only person available who even half knew the somewhat complicated -machine of the early days was the mechanic trained for a few months -in the shop where the car had been manufactured. He was master of the -situation because he alone had working knowledge of its parts. No one -in those days thought for one moment of a motorman from the viewpoint -of good driving. The owner of the car, above all, desired to possess -a good mechanic, for breakdowns were numerous and varied and half of -the expenses of motoring were necessitated by renewals of parts or -adjustments due to ordinary wear and tear. Nowadays serious or even -insignificant breakdowns are rare, and there is hardly a first-class -make of car in the market which will not run many thousands of -miles without anything being necessary in the way of repairs and -adjustments. Those which are necessary are, moreover, of the simplest -kind. There is no longer, therefore, the same necessity for the -motorman to be what is called a really good mechanic, so long as he -understands the general principle on which the engine works and the -arrangement of the gears.</p> - -<p>The majority of motor-car owners have, therefore, changed in their -requirements. They do not want a man who is primarily a skilled -mechanic, but they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> do ask for a skillful driver, and on this wise -alternative in the chief qualifications demanded lies a good deal of -the reason for the great change which has taken place in the behavior -of the motorman in the city and out of it. It may be remarked that -an excellent mechanic is not necessarily a good driver, though he -may be so in certain cases. What is required in the driver besides -the general knowledge of the machinery is a knowledge of the customs -and courtesies of the road and the habits of traffic, the possession -of the qualities of alertness, foresight, and consideration for -others. Above all, he should have a temperate frame of mind, an -abstinence not only from drunkenness, but drinking in any but a most -moderate sense. The driver of an ordinary wagon is conspicuous by his -ignorance of the way to drive and his want of consideration of other -traffic. He is the most persistent moving obstruction which exists. -The motor-car driver, on the other hand, has to be the best driver -on the highway if he is to drive without offense to the public and -danger to them and himself, for he has to conduct a vehicle which is -more valuable than any other and far and away more speedy though more -handy, and, therefore, whose meeting with and overtaking of other -vehicles is many times more rapid. In addition to these, he has to -consider other dangers of the road to which other vehicles are not so -liable and which come from the construction of its surface.</p> - -<p>The complete motorman should have a working knowledge of the -different materials of which roads are made, of their comparative -tendency to cause skidding, and of the perils which arise from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -excessive and badly laid street-car tracks. He must know and -continually practice the courtesies of the road and learn its manners -and customs. He must be observant and realize that children hanging -on the rear of wagons are liable to drop off suddenly and run across -his path. He must be on the look-out for pedestrians, stupid, drunk, -or deaf, for wagons on the wrong side of dangerous corners, and to be -prepared to find vehicles in charge of sleepy drivers who will often -do the wrong act on awakening. It will, therefore, be seen that the -motorman to be really good has to be the best driver on the road and -that the standard demanded must necessarily be high. He must possess -exceptional qualities as compared with the horse driver. The question -is, therefore, all important—What are the best methods of training -such a man?</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that many of the schools which are teaching -elementary mechanics to the would-be motorman are excellent in their -way. But there are many which are nothing but frauds. Reports have -frequently been made to the State where a man has complained bitterly -of having put down $25 or $50 in return for which nothing but most -elementary instruction has been given and this often in the worst -possible way. There has been no teaching in traffic rules or on the -road, or, if given, so little as to be of no use. But at other places -pains are taken, and, by diagrams in the class-room and practical -teaching on the road much has been taught. There are also nowadays -hand-books galore which teach the construction, repair, the common -faults and likely failings of the gasoline engine from A to Z. The -mechanical side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> may, therefore, be said to have been amply provided -for.</p> - -<p>But this is only the less important, though necessary, part of the -training of the modern motorman. What is really needed is that -some school should teach manners on the road and the habits of -traffic,—in short, train its men for the road. There should also -be problems of difficult but ordinary situations in traffic set -in a written examination, the correct solution of which should be -obligatory before the motorman could be said to be property trained. -It is not, perhaps, easy to see at first how this sort of instruction -can be given on the present scale of fees, but the schools in the -future, which devote a large part of their attention to teaching the -rules of the road and its customs and courtesies will assuredly turn -out the best class of drivers, who will be in the greatest demand.</p> - -<p>To begin with, the habits of horse-drawn vehicles should be studied. -It is a liberal education to take a journey, for instance, on the -top of a Fifth Avenue motor bus and watch the way in which the -driver drives his unwieldly vehicle through the streets of New York. -Other bus drivers also are rapidly becoming his equal, and let it be -acknowledged that nothing but the hard school of practical, every-day -experience in New York City streets, assisted by police supervision -and the fear of dismissal for carelessness or accident, could produce -such able drivers.</p> - -<p>Again, the expert taxicab driver might be taken as an example of a -faster class of motor traffic. The would-be first-class motorman -when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> being trained would thus have the experience of horse vehicles -and pedestrians, and have noted carefully what usually happens and -have tried to understand their point of view. This is one of the -first steps which should be taken in training the driver of the swift -mechanical vehicle. Then example might be given of the proper way to -drive cars around corners, both right-handed and left-handed, and -the best manner of the ascending and surmounting steep gradients or -negotiating high bridges. Driving at night should also be practiced, -and prospective drivers should learn to distinguish the faint glow -on the road ahead which designates the presence of a motorcycle and -other signs denoting persons or vehicles. Map reading should also be -a part of his instruction.</p> - -<p>And there is yet one other thing which the motor-driving school -should inculcate, though it could not technically teach the -motorman—that is, good manners to his employer and his employer’s -friends. To be rough and rude is a disgrace to any class, and it -is the mark of a man who is either not certain of himself or is -afflicted with an innate bad temper. It is not, and never can be, a -sign of superiority. A respectful and civil attitude not only makes -the path of life easier, but is in itself a strong recommendation. -Little things which do not at first seem to matter, and are merely -more in the nature of courtesy than servile attentions, should be -observed. A civil salute when the owner first addresses the motorman, -the readiness to help in any little matter, such as carrying a bag to -the station, or the thought of a rug to cover the lap, and similar -little courtesies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> are the sign of the man who, if considerate in -these little matters, is likely to be considerate in others more -important. It also establishes him firmly in the estimation of his -employer.</p> - -<p>To sum up, the perfect motorman, though he should possess as -much knowledge of mechanics as possible, should, above all, be a -considerate driver, well versed in the manners and courtesies of -the road and the habits of traffic. And in addition, he should try -to be well mannered, as more and more motor-car owners are becoming -convinced that, besides knowledge, “Manners maketh the Motorman.”</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">A</li> - -<li class="indx">Accelerate while clutch is being engaged, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accelerator, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accelerator pedal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">what it does, where placed, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Accessories, electric, cause trouble, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Air in tires, plenty of, before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alcohol, in freeze-proof solution, how much to use, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Alignment, why wheels are not set in perfect, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ammeter, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">needle erratic, cause of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Anti-freezing solution, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary in winter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">best to use, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">composition of, depends on temperature, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sometimes wise to replace with hot water to start engine, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Armature, increasing speed of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Armature winding, trouble in, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asphalt, dried, how to remove from car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asphyxiation from gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Automobile, value of, what it depends on, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">schools, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">half knowledge of, an obstacle, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description and essentials of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to pull out when stuck, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">steering compared with steering of boats of different types, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">setting of wheels compared with bicycle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">will steer with broken tie rod, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to start with engine running, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to stop, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to reverse, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">may be kept in commission in many cold places the year round, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">any modern make, if kept in good condition will climb worst hill, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prepare for a tour, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble hunting must be systematic, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble, best way to find, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not a fad, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Automobile body, how to care for gloss of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Automobile fires, causes of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Auxiliary air valve, adjust for high speeds, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Axle, rear, description, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">forward, description and location, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Axle shaft, rear, wind felt around, to keep oil away from brake lining, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">B</li> - -<li class="indx">Back-firing, cause of fires, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to prevent, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span> Bands, brake, how arranged, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Batteries, two should be carried, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battery, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">source of current, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessity of first testing, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ignition, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">be sure it is sufficiently charged before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must be filled oftener in hot weather, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">packed around with waste, sometimes causes fire, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect, in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for care of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">indications and causes of a discharged, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battery and coil ignition system, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battery to magneto, switch from, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Battery trouble, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">more difficult to keep charged in winter, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">instance of starving battery, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must not be overcharged, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">less efficiency in cold weather, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">now furnishes all current used, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sediment in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">can be charged overnight, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">former battery “don’ts,” <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">average life of battery, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bearings, crank, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication of wheel, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">definition, different types, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of engine, form and construction, how oiled, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of ignition system, form and lubrication, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carburetor and throttle, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spark-control, starter, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">steering-gear, transmission propeller shaft, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">other, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">need additional care in summer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tight, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grit in, due to loss of hub cap, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Belts fan, troubles, how to care for, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bicycle, setting of wheel compared with automobile, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Boats of different types, steering of, compared with steering of automobile, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bolts, dropped from cars, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, cause squeaks, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examination of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">brake-linkage, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dust-pan, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must know location of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tighten, once a month, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bottle, rubber hot-water, for heating carburetor, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake, use of engine as a, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">running, when needed, how operated, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">emergency, its use, how operated, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake bands, how arranged, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake drums, description and location, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how injured, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep free from oil, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake-lever, emergency, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake lining, can be ruined, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil on, its cause, the results, how to prevent, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wears thin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when necessary to replace, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rivets of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to save, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake linkage, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bolts, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake mechanism, oiling of, important, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake pedal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brake rods, worn, cause clattering, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brakes, affect tires, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">badly or unevenly adjusted, cause skidding, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">more important than the engine, manufacturers constantly improving, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must be continually watched, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">other means of braking, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, on hills, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span>oil in lining, what causes it, how to prevent it, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication necessary, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">failure of lining, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hand and foot, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustment of both, for best effect, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect both sets before touring, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use two sets alternately, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brass, remove corrosion from, with cleaning compound, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to keep from corrosion, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Breaker points cause trouble, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bulbs, electric light, extra set, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bursting of radiator, pipes, and water-jacket prevented by proper freeze-proof solution, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">C</li> - -<li class="indx">Cam, loose, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">follower guide causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shafts to adjust, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cams, worm, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbon, on valves, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">secondary current absorbed by, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">acts as a condenser, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">short circuits spark plug, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in engine causes over-heating, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remove, before touring, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes knocking, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reduces size of combustion chamber, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bits of, in unusual places, cause trouble, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on valve seats, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbon dioxide, in gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">monoxide, in gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonic acid gas, in gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carburetor, location, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">what it does, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">float, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustment to limit gasoline supply, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affected by weather, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">varieties of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test for, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustment of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">poor adjustment of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">priming, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">works worst in cold weather, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">manufacturers constantly improving efficiency of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">desired which will vaporize heavy gasoline in cold weather, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stove and water-jacket both needed for cold weather, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">will work better if hot air is first introduced, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">“stove” put out by many manufacturers, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">with water-jacketed mixing chamber, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">devices for heating, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hot weather treatment, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to adjust a, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">learn construction before attempting to adjust, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caster effect of inclined knuckle pins, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Castor oil for harsh-gripping clutch, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cautions, miscellaneous important, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chains, cross, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">non-skid, how to adjust, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">often drop links, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chain tool, convenience of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chamber, combustion, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chamois skin, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Charge, of gasoline and air, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in combustion chamber, how fired and when, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chart, Y. M. C. A., general trouble, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chassis, construction of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">position of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to clean, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Chauffeur,” real meaning “stoker,” <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chauffeurs, faults of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must now have technical electrical knowledge, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span>show generally an increase</li> -<li class="isub1">in neatness and cleanliness and improvement in manners, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Choke, or priming device, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Circuit, breaker, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">complete necessary, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">secondary, gap in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">secondary, heavy insulation absorbs current, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clattering caused by worn brake rods, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cleaning car, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaner it is kept, longer it will run satisfactorily, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil and grease should be removed from outside of engine, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from wire terminals and spark plugs, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from cylinders, remove corrosion from brass, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep iron parts from rusting, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fan, fan belt, pulleys, and casings, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chassis and parts under car, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to make a “creeper” to lie on while working under car, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning the body with hose and water, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">drying with chamois and cloth, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to remove dried mud and asphalt, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">do not use soap, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use running water if possible, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">preparations for renewing varnished surface, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning and treatment of the top, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep car covered in garage, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">slip covers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fumes from stable or barnyard will dull varnish, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">barn used for garage should be renovated, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clearance between valve stems, and push rods causes trouble, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Click caused by rear driving shaft, instance of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Climbing hills, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clogging of muffler, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cloth, use of, in cleaning car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clutch, cone, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">multiple disc, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">location of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pedal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lever lubrication of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affects tires, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">where placed, its purpose, how it works, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to use with accelerator pedal, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use in hill-climbing, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engage gradually, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">expanding, instance connected with, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for care of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clutch pedal, where placed, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cold weather, starting, in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Combustion, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Combustion chamber, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">charge in, how fired and when, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reduced in size by carbon, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Commutators, driver must know how to sandpaper, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and to undercut the insulation of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sparking at the, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Complications on car, increase comfort, but add to worries, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compression, how maintained, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too high, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to start engine, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tests in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when it occurs, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compression chamber, instance of stopping knocking by increasing size, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compression stroke, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Condenser, may need examination, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cone clutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Congested streets, driving in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Connecting rod, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearing, causes knock, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> Connection, loose, results of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Connector, battery, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Conveniences, added, have made more trouble, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cooling, principle of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">different system, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corners, how to turn, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cotter pins, supply to all nuts before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lost in street, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, causes squeaks, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Courtesy in motoring, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">more noticeable in the West than in the East, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, in ill-bred drivers, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">speech by Hon. Francis M. Hugo, general requirements and desirable qualities of men who are trusted to run automobiles on the public roads, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Covers for radiator, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">where placed and carried, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">missing, instance of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank bearings, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank case, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to be drained, cleaned, and refilled before touring, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank-pin bearings cause knocking, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank shaft, revolutions in complete cycle, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearing causes knocking, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bent, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crank the engine, how to, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cranking engine, no use when switch is off, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">five things to do before, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">three things to do after, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Creeper, to lie on in working under car, how to make, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crossings, railway, extra care necessary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crown of the road causes slipping, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Current, electric, course of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">break in, order of tests to find, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">more used in starting in winter, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cut-out, object, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">now prohibited and unnecessary, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sometimes causes fires when opened in garage, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cut-out, reverse current, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cuts in tires, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cycle of the engine, number of strokes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cylinders, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">importance of testing, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">size of, in relation to air taken in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper power from each, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">worn oval, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">outside kept free from oil and grease, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">raised by fiber gasket, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose on base, causes knock, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">worn causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose due to lost washers or pins, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test for compression, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">D</li> - -<li class="indx">Dashboard, wires and pipes, dials and gauges and switches on, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Death from gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Descending hills, use of engine as a brake, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Differential, location and purpose of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">housing, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for care of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Disc clutch, multiple, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distance between cars, necessary to keep enough, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Distributor, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dirty, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Doors of garage left open when engine is running, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drivers must look out for pedestrians, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drive shaft, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Driving, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in congested streets, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drums, brake, description and location, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how injured, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span>keep free from oil, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dry cells may be carried while touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dust pan, parts drop into, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">E</li> - -<li class="indx">Electric, bulbs, extra set needed while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lights and accessories cause trouble, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrical, equipment, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble, tests for, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">systems, knowledge of, necessary to operate and care for a modern car, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electricity, static, causes fires, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrolite, replenish with water, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Electrolitic action set up by salt in freeze-proof solution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Emergencies, be prepared for, with proper tools, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Emergency brake, lever, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to be set, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="engine">Engine, three things necessary to start, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">three things necessary to keep running, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">location of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cycle, number of strokes in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">power in, how secured, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, as a brake, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gap in secondary circuit helps to start, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skips at low speeds, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">missing at high and low speeds, how to overcome, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearings, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to start, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prevent stalling, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">speed of, learn to judge by sound, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stalls on a hill, what to do if, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">missing due to cold weather, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">higher temperature to the boiling point of water, best for efficiency, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">efficiency of, improved by covering radiator when running against the wind, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">two things necessary to operate in winter, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">freeze-proof solution, what to use, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">priming in cold weather, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to start, sometimes necessary to substitute hot water for anti-freezing solution, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">runs better in winter when fan is disconnected, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">radiator cover necessary in cold weather, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheating in summer causes trouble, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">knocking at high speed, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheats when driven at high speed with spark retarded, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheating caused by sediment in radiator, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheating caused by careless stretching of hose, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheating rarely caused by pump, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep free from carbon to prevent overheating, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">will climb worst hills, if kept in good condition, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remove oil and grease from outside, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remove carbon before touring, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">knocks from too high compression caused by carbon, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">knocking stopped by raising cylinder, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose on frame, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, due to lost washers or pins, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil and water necessary to keep running, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conditions existing in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stalled on crossing, instance of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">five things to do before cranking, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Engine oil, for multiple disc clutch, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Equipment, which may be purchased separately, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">electrical, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>extra, to be carried on car, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exhaust, steam from, in cold weather, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exhaust pipe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">may set fire to car, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fumes from, cause death, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to prevent, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">composition of fumes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exhaust stroke, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Exhaust valves, sticking, cause knock, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carbon in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Expansion of charge, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Expense of upkeep, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Explosion, none, from gasoline, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Extinguisher, fire, necessary, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dry and liquid, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">F</li> - -<li class="indx">Fan, disconnect in cold weather, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">formed by spokes of fly-wheel, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">collects dust, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fan belts, troubles of, how to care for, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">collects dust, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coupling, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fan blades cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Feed systems, gravity, pressure, and vacuum, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Felt, use of, to prevent oil on brake linings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fence rail as jack, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">File, interrupter point, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fire, causes of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extinguisher necessary, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">don’t run away from, stay and fight hard, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to put out, use sand, salt, or patent extinguisher, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extinguisher while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">First-aid kit, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Five things to do before cranking engine, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Float in carburetor, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fly wheel, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spokes of, forming fan, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">out of balance, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Force, how produced in a gasoline engine, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Force-feed lubrication, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Four things to do before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Freeze-proof solution, for engine, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">composition of, depends on temperature, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">best to use, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">home-made, cheapest and just as efficient, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sometimes wise to replace, with hot water to start engine, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fresh-air problem, solution of, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuel supply systems, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tank, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuller’s earth for slipping clutch, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fumes of gasoline cause death, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chemical changes, composition of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">heavier than air, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intoxication from, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fumes from stable or barnyard affect polished auto bodies, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Furnace,” hot-air for warming air before it enters carburetor, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fuse, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">substitute for, in horn, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">G</li> - -<li class="indx">Gap in secondary circuit, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Garage doors, leave open while engine is running, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Garage, what to do before leaving, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">opening near floor for escape of gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gaskets, intake manifold, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dented or jammed, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span>under cylinders increase size of -compression chamber, and stop knocking, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gas knock, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gasoline, and air, charge of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">under what conditions it explodes, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proportion of vapor to air to produce good combustion, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes of excessive use of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustment of carburetor to limit supply of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">needs oxygen for complete consumption, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water in, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">strainer for, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">different qualities of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cost of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">economy of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loss through leaking, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">excess of, indicated by black smoke, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affects tires, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine supply before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">feed systems, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">teakettle and dishrag method of vaporizing, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">volatility of, decreasing, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">present supply has higher heat-producing quality when vaporized, but heavier, harder to vaporize in cold weather, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">heat necessary to change from liquid to vapor, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stove makes vaporization easier, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when vaporized, sometimes condenses again in cold engine, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stove and water jacket both needed in cold weather, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">vaporizes properly in a warm garage, some condenses in cold air, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unnecessary amount used by retarded spark, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">less required in hot weather than in cold, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in drip-pan, cause of fire, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">burns, does not explode under normal conditions, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">will not explode unless vaporized, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fire, how to put out, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fumes, of, cause death, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chemical changes, composition of fumes of, <a href="#Page_224">224-226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fumes of, heavier than air, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid fumes of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intoxication from fumes of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loosens up grease and oil in cleaning car, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extra supply when touring, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to start engine, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect, in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">used for slipping clutch, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gasoline tank, where placed, how gasoline supply is maintained, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gas-pipe, carbon in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gear, low-speed, as a brake, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">high-speed, run on as much as possible, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">always turn corners on second speed, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gear casings, collect dust, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">refill before touring, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gear shifting, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary for proper adjustment of load to speed, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">noiseless shifting desirable, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how best to shift from first to second, and second to third, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how best to shift from third to second, and second to first, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when to go back to second, to first, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">don’t shift too soon, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in hill climbing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to make a silent shift on a hill, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">what makes gears grind, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid a noisy shift to first on starting, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on hills, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on an up grade, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">starting up hill, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">which gear is best to use, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">avoid straining car by careful choice of gears, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gears to use descending hills, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>no speeding on hills, perfect control of car necessary, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gear-shifting lever, where placed, how operated, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to move, when stuck in neutral, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">place in neutral, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gear-shifting pedals, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gears, purpose of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble comes in the shifting gears, not in the transmission, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grinding or clashing detrimental, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">diagram and explanation of three-speed gears, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to start, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to increase speed, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to decrease speed, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to reverse, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">care necessary, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, in hill-climbing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine before touring, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Generator, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must not overcharge battery, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustable for summer and winter, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glycerin in freeze-proof solution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Gravity fuel supply, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grease, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affects tires, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">heavier quality needed in summer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extra supply when touring, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grease cups, turn down, before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greasing car, rules for, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grinding and clashing of gears, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ground connections, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ground wire, loose, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guides, valve push-rod, enclosed in housings, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">H</li> - -<li class="indx">Headlight trouble, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Heat, much, necessary for vaporization of gasoline, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">High-speed gear, run on, as much as possible, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">High-tension magneto system, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hill-climbing, how to shift gears, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of throttle, spark, and gears, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">what to do if engine stalls, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of clutch, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">blowing horn when, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hills, descending, use of engine as a brake, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of brakes on, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the steepest can be made by any modern car which is in good condition, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horn blowing, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how it has arisen, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">much of it unnecessary, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">blowing not necessary after others have seen you, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">while passing and turning, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on hills, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when others are passing, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horn trouble, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hose, careless stretching of, causes overheating, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">defective, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hose and water, how to use in cleaning car, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hot weather, over-inflation of tire, instance of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">expands air in tires, giving greater pressure, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Housings, differential, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for valve push-rod guides, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hub of rear wheel needs inspection when keyed to shaft, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hub caps, loss of, allows grit to get into bearings, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hugo, Hon. Francis M., speech by, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydro-carbon in burning gasoline, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydrometer, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for readings, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">I</li> - -<li class="indx">Ignition, switch, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">magneto, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">battery, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>prevented by short-circuiting due to carbon, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">switch, where placed, its use, how operated <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, when braking with engine, on hills, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wrongly timed, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ignition system, kinds, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">work of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearings, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">requires many changes of spark lever, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for locating trouble in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inflation, tire, under, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">increased by hot weather, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lower pressure needed in hot weather, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper degree of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inlet valve, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble in, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Inspect, don’t expect, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instruction book, manufacturer’s, importance of fully mastering, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instructions, importance of following, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insulation, heavy, on secondary wires absorbs current, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insurance premium lower when extinguisher is carried, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Intake manifold, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gaskets, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">leaky, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Intake valve, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Interrupter point file, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Interrupter points, adjusting, to overcome engine missing at high or low speed, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carbon in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, angle, used in chassis, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Iron parts, how to keep from rusting, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">J</li> - -<li class="indx">Jack, importance of handle, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of fence-rail as a, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jerking, how to overcome, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jet, low speed, clogged, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joints, universal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">K</li> - -<li class="indx">Kerosene, can be used for cleaning out the sump, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loosens up grease and oil, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for cleaning car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for multiple disc clutch, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Kit, first-aid, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knocking, of engine, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">prevented by removal of carbon, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too high compression, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by cam-shaft gear, sticking exhaust valves, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stopped by increasing size of compression chamber, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">many causes for, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">some need immediate attention, some do not, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose connecting rod bearing, loose cylinder,</li> -<li class="isub1">lack of lubrication, spark advanced too far, short circuit, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not caused by lean mixture, or over-advanced spark, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by mechanical looseness due to improper adjustment or wear, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by faulty ignition, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by faulty carburetion, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by faulty lubrication, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by overheating of engine, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by faulty compression, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knocks in the chassis, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knuckle-pins, how kept in place and relieved of weight, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inclined fore and aft, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Knuckles, steering, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">L</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamps, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leaks of oil and gasoline, sources of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lever, spark timing, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">emergency brake, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span>throttle,</li> -<li class="isub1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clutch, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gear shifting, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">emergency brake, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spark control, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighting switch, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lighting system, rules for locating troubles in, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lights dim, what makes the, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linings, brake, can be ruined, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oil on, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wear thin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">when necessary to replace, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linkage, brake, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Links, loose cross, how to fasten, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linseed oil, use of, in cleaning car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lubrication, systems, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">why needed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">most common system, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">troubles, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessity of frequent inspection, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">needed in many minor places, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">steering knuckles, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">universal joint, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clutch and brake levers, self-starter and accelerator, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spring shackles, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wheel bearings, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spring leaves, valve push-rod guides, overhead valves, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of brakes important, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">system how made and supplied, its care, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in cold weather, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper oil necessary, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">heavier grease needed in summer, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect before touring, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">time table, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lubricants, poor, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">M</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetic field, distortion of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magneto, high-tension, systems, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ignition, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">manipulation of spark lever when using, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coupling causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">trouble,</li> -<li class="isub1">instance of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for timing, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Manifold, intake, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">leaky, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Mechanicien” French term for driver of a car, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mechanics, careless, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Misfiring, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mixing chamber, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mixture, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rich and lean, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">thin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">weak, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">anti-freezing, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">warming device, necessary in winter, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too rich or too lean calls attention to other parts which are causing knocking, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Motor, <i><a href="#engine">see</a></i> Engine</li> - -<li class="indx">Motor, starting, <i><a href="#selfstarter">see</a></i> Self-starter</li> - -<li class="indx">Motorist, absent-mindedness in—bad habit, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Motoring, future of, depends upon behavior of motorists toward the public, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Motorman” best term for driver of an automobile, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mud, dried, how to remove from car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muffler, purpose of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">often neglected or misused, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its uses, and advantages, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">original object of the cut-out, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cut-out now prohibited and unnecessary, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">needs careful attention, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clogging prevents escape of gases, and brings loss of power, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">instance of bad effect of clogging, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">usually no provision made for inspection, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kerosene clogs, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">special information sometimes necessary, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> Multiple disc clutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">N</li> - -<li class="indx">Neatsfoot oil for harsh gripping clutch, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Needle valve, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjust at low speed, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nitrogen in gasoline fumes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Noise, in the chassis, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from torque rod, from worn brake rods, from worn spring-shackle bolts, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from worn steering knuckle-pins, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from tools and accessories, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from broken gear teeth and other parts, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Non-skid, tires, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chains, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">devices, which to use under various conditions, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chains often drop links, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nuts, tighten before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, cause squeaks, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examination of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">must know location of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">O</li> - -<li class="indx">Oil, effect of absence of, in lubrication, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">things which wear it out and make necessary to replace, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how often to drain out, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">things which affect its lubricating value, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the combustion chamber, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to prevent, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">waste of, through leakage, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affects tires, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the brake lining, cause, results, how to prevent, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine supply of, before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper, necessary for cold weather, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">take car maker’s advice, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on fan belts, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remove from exterior of engine, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry reserve supply when touring, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lack of, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">excess of, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to keep engine running, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oil feed sight, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oil level, how to correct when too high, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oil pump, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oil the car, when to, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oiled roads dangerous, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to take at low speed, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">during summer season, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Outlet valves, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Overheating, caused by sediment in radiator, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rarely caused by pump, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by careless stretching of hose, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by carbon in engine, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Over-inflation of tire, in hot weather, instance of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">makes riding uncomfortable, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Owner, originality, initiative, and ingenuity of, important, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">should learn how to do many things himself, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">P</li> - -<li class="indx">Pail, folding, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Parts dropped in streets, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lost, puncture tires, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Passengers, drive for the comfort of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Passing others, blowing horn while, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pedals, gear-shifting, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">starting, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">brake, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clutch, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">accelerator, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reverse, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pedestrians have right of way everywhere, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Pep,” <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Petcocks, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> Pin, tie rod, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe, exhaust, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exhaust, may set fire to car, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attach to exhaust in garage, to lead fumes to outer air, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe lines, clogged, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipes, leaky supply, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prevent bursting of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piston head, hole punched in, by valve head, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Piston rings, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grooving and drilling to release surplus oil, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">leaky, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prevent working around, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">loose, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carbon in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pistons, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too small, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pliers, carry while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plug, spark, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cracks or porosity in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extra set while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to test in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Policemen, don’t run away from, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Power, stroke, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how connected to wheels, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how secured in engine, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessity of pressure to get, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper, from each cylinder, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pre-ignition, caused by increase of pressure in combustion chamber, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Premium on fire insurance lower when extinguishers carried, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pressure, necessity of, for power, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on tires increases in hot weather, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on tires test for increase in, in hot weather, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper for tires, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in combustion chamber, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pressure fuel system, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Priming, how done, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in cold weather, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Propeller-shaft bearings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pump, oil, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overheating rarely caused by, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">parts of, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pump type of cooling system, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Puncture caused by lost parts, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Push-rod adjustment causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Push-rods, clearance between valve stems and, causes trouble, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">R</li> - -<li class="indx">Radiator, location of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine, before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sediment in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to remedy discharge of steam from, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">adjustable device to regulate admittance of air, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">covers, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cover partly or wholly in cold weather, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">if covered, improved efficiency of engine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bursting of, to prevent, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water boiling in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clogged, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Radius rods, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Railway crossings, extra care necessary, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rattles, causes of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reverse the car, how to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reverse pedal, use of, as a brake, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reversing, shifting of gears in, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rings, piston, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rivets of brake lining, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Road rules, of Y. M. C. A., <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">local, must be obeyed, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roads, oiled, dangerous, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to take at low speed, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">generally sprinkled or oiled during summer season, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roads, signs along, importance of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span>parts found along, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roadway, crown of the, causes slipping, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rod, radius, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">torque, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tie, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">connecting, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotary motion, how obtained, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rubber hose decomposed by glycerin in freeze-proof solution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rules, importance of following, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">miscellaneous, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Running brake, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">S</li> - -<li class="indx">Safety devices, best necessary, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Salt in freeze-proof solution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schools, automobile, manufacturers’ for purchasers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">danger of being taught at inefficient or fraudulent institutions, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screws, absence of, causes squeaks, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Secondary current absorbed by carbon, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sediment, in battery causing short-circuit, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in radiator, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx" id="selfstarter">Self-starter, pedal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">types of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Service stations, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shaft, crank, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">drive, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rear, in driving causes click, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shifting gears, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on hills, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on an up grade, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">starting uphill, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">choice of gears, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">avoid straining car, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">descending hills, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Short circuiting, causes fires, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shut-off valve, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sight oil feed, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Signs along the road, importance of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skidding, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">effects of, on car, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in winter, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">turning corners, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rear wheel, how to stop, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">street-car tracks, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">uneven brakes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unequal distribution of weight, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">best prevented by care, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">due mostly to excessive speed, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by crown of road, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by turning corners at high speed, by sharp turn of steering-wheel, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stopped by turning steering-wheel, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skipping sometimes overcome by enriching the mixture, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Smoke, its sources, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remedies, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to tell from what it comes, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">black, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Soap, not to be used on polished surfaces of car, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spark, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">why advanced and retarded and how, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intensity of, increased by gap in secondary circuit, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">has more kick, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">very weak, perhaps caused by condenser, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, in hill-climbing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">retarded, uses unnecessary gasoline, and overheats engine, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">greatly retarded indirectly causes fires, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">retard to prevent knocking on hills, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">over advanced does not cause knocking, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too late causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at right time, necessary to start engine, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test for in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fully retarded, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">advance two-thirds, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spark-control bearings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spark lever, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spark plugs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span>widening gaps of, to prevent engine missing, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">insulating surface inside cylinder, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cracks in, insulation, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">testing of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">short-circuited by carbon, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep free from oil and grease, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry when touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">points of, cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carbon between points of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to test in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sparking at commutator, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sparks from commutators cause fires, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Speed, how to shift gears in increasing or decreasing, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of engine, learn to judge by sound, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">running at extreme, cause of fires, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Speeds, number of, in gears, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spindles, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Splash lubrication, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pan, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sponge, use of, in cleaning car, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spray nozzle, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spray valve, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spring leaves, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spring repair attachments, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spring-shackle bolts sometimes make noise, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spring shackles, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Springs, examine before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Squeaks, causes of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stalling engine, how caused, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">what to do, on a hill, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Starter, switch, trouble in, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a great convenience, but a source of trouble, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pedal sticking, instance of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">makes automobile available to women, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Starting, motor, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pedal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">systems, types, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">crank, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engine, three things necessary, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steam, from exhaust in cold weather, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to remedy discharge from radiator, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering, of automobile compared with steering of different type of boats, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">with broken tie rod, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering gear, out of true, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bearings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering knuckles, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering-shaft, worm on, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering tie rod, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Steering wheel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stop, how to, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Storage battery, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stove, supplied by many manufacturers to heat air before it enters carburetor, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">may be dispensed with in hot weather, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strain, how taken off knuckle pins, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Streets, how to turn in narrow, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">driving in congested, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Strokes, suction, compression, power, and exhaust, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Suburbs of any city, the place for automobiling, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Suction stroke of engine, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sump, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Supply pipes, leaky, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Switch, lighting, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ignition, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">self-starter, trouble in, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">thrown to battery position, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">System, importance of, in locating trouble, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a process of elimination, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Systems, cooling, kinds, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ignition, kinds, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication, kinds, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fuel supply, kinds, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">T</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> Talc French, for slipping clutch, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tank, fuel supply, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gasoline, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tape, tire, carry, while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature, high, to the boiling point of water, but for efficiency of engine, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Terminals, electric, testing of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tests for electrical troubles, examples of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thermo-syphon type of cooling system, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Things to do, four before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">five, before cranking engine, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">three after cranking, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Throttle, purpose, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, in hill-climbing, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">open, in starting, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">close, till engine idles, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Throttle bearings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Throttle lever, its use, where placed, how operated, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tie rod, must not be bent, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">broken, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tie rod pin, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timing, correct, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timing gears, to adjust, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timing gear teeth cause knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timing, ignition, wrong, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tire pressure, tests of increase due to running in hot weather, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tire repair materials, carry, while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tire-valve tool, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tires, purpose and location, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">abuse of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">deterioration of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cuts in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">affected by steering gear, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by clutch, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by brakes, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by oil, grease, gasoline, and wet weather, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">general cost of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">storing, in winter, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">porosity of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep clean, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">non-skid, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine, before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how to care for, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">expand in hot weather, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pressure test of, after hot weather running, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">under-inflation and over-inflation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inflated too hard make riding uncomfortable, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">weakened from any cause blow-out quicker, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proper pressure for, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extra, carry on car, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">puncture caused by lost parts, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tool for tire valves, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tools, furnished with car, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for emergencies, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">too many better than too few, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">additional, desirable, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to be carried on car, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tops, how to clean and care for, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Torque rod, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">causes knocks, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Touring, what to do before, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">refill gear case, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine gears, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">drain, clean, and refill crank case, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attend to lubrication, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extra oil, grease and gasoline on car, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">examine brakes, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keep brake drums free from oil, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">have carbon removed, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tighten nuts and inspect all parts, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test compression, grind in valves, inspect ignition system, recharge battery, dry cells should be carried, examine springs, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">things which should be carried, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tow rope, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fastened to post and rear wheel, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Traffic, driving in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules give pedestrian right of way, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>rules should be taught by auto schools, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Transmission, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rules for care of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Transmission gear bearings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trolley crossings, extra care necessary, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trouble, hunting must be systematic, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a process of elimination, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the first thing to do, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">indications when engine turns over easily or hard, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">compression tests, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exhaust valves, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inlet valve, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect gasoline, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect carburetor, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inspect ignition system, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>; <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chart, Y. M. C. A., <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the self-starter switch, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caused by added conveniences, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">necessary to almost dismantle complex types of engines, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">made by starter, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">made by electric lights and accessories, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by complicated electric systems and wiring, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tubes, how to keep, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry extra while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turn buckle, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turn, in narrow streets, how to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">corners, how to, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Turning, blowing horn when, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">U</li> - -<li class="indx">Universal joints, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Upholstery, protect with slip covers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">V</li> - -<li class="indx">Vacuum fuel supply, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valve head, punches hole in piston head, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valve push-rod guides enclosed in housings, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lubrication of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valve-stems, clearance between push rods and, causes trouble, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valve, needle, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spray, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sticking causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">auxiliary air, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shut off, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Valves inlet, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">outlet, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">overhead, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">leaky, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carbonized, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exhaust, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inlet, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vaporization of gasoline absorbs much heat, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">best in cold weather when stove and water jacket are both used, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Velocipede, setting of wheel compared with automobile, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vibration, effects of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Voltmeter, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">W</li> - -<li class="indx">Washers, supply to all nuts before touring, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, causes squeaks, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lock, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Washing automobile, what to use, how to do it, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waste, carry on car, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">packed around battery has caused fires, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water, in cylinder and crank case, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">where placed, its care, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">boiling in radiator, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">evaporates from battery quicker in hot weather, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of no use in fighting gasoline fires, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">running, should be used in cleaning car whenever possible, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">needed, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">take on before leaving garage, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water jacket, on mixing chamber of gasoline, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to prevent bursting of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> Wet weather affects tires, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wheel, fly, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">steering, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wheels, how front are made to converge and undergather, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">how power is connected to, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">why not parallel, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">set to undergather, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">setting of, compared with bicycle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wheel bearings, lubrication of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wind sometimes cools the engine too much when traveling against, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wire, spool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extra wire for additional device, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carry while touring, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to fasten cross link, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wire gauze, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wire terminals, keep free from oil and grease, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wires to plugs, inspect, in case of trouble, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wiring diagram, knowledge of, important, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wobbling, tendency to overcome by converging of wheels, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Women as drivers, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Eastern and Western compared, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as apt as men at mastering details, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Y. M. C. A. Auto School, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">all types, pupils, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">take cars apart and assemble them, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">road instruction for, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">have the main qualities needed for drivers, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">taking up the auto seriously, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wood, block of, to put under jack, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Worm on steering shaft, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wrist pin, out of line or loose, causes knocking, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Y</li> - -<li class="indx">Yokes, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Y. M. C. A. Automobile School, road rules, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">general trouble chart, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">women as pupils, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li> -</ul> - -<div class="transnote chapter"><p>Transcriber’s Notes:</p> - -<p class="noindent padt1 padb1">The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the -original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been -corrected.</p></div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUTNAM'S AUTOMOBILE HANDBOOK ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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