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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4592a86 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #65808 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65808) diff --git a/old/65808-0.txt b/old/65808-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3f29e88..0000000 --- a/old/65808-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1854 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pecan Diseases and Pests and Their Control, -by David W. Rosburg - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Pecan Diseases and Pests and Their Control - -Author: David W. Rosburg - D. R. King - -Release Date: July 9, 2021 [eBook #65808] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PECAN DISEASES AND PESTS AND THEIR -CONTROL *** - - - - - MP-313 - NOVEMBER 1958 - - - - - PECAN DISEASES AND INSECTS - AND THEIR CONTROL - - - TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ... - TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE - College Station, Texas - - - - - Key to Pecan Diseases - - - DISEASES OF THE LEAVES - Olive spots on underside page 5 Scab - Downy, buff, or greenish-yellow lesions page 7 Downy Spot - Small, reddish-brown to gray spots on page 6 Brown Leaf Spot - underside - Dark brown to black lesions on veins page 6 Vein Spot - and stems - Tiny white tufts of fungal growth on page 9 Articularia Leaf Mold - underside - Small olive green velvety spots. By page 7 Leaf Blotch - midsummer, black pimple-like dots - appear in the spots - Leaflets yellowish, mottled, narrowed page 8 Rosette - and crinkled with reddish-brown spots, - may be perforated - Broomy type of twig growth, bunching of page 8 Bunch Disease - leaves - DISEASES OF THE NUTS - Small black sunken or raised spots page 5 Scab - which may fuse to cover entire surface - of shuck - Pink spore masses on shuck surface page 9 Pink Mold - DISEASES OF THE ROOTS - Galls of various sizes on larger roots page 7 Crown Gall - Splitting and deterioration of bark of page 10 Cotton Root Rot - infected roots, strands of buff-colored - fungal growth may be present - NONPARASITIC PLANTS ON THE LIMBS AND BARK - Whitish-gray mosslike masses on the bark page 9 Lichens - Accumulations of grayish strands page 9 Spanish Moss, Ball Moss - hanging from limbs and twigs or - ball-like growth on limbs and branches - - - - - Key to Pecan Insects - - - INSECTS ATTACKING THE NUTS - Olive-green caterpillars up to ½ inch page 10 Pecan Nut Casebearer - long feeding in the nuts, or later in - the season, in the shucks - White caterpillars up to ⅜ inch long page 11 Hickory Shuckworm - tunneling in the shucks - White legless grubs feeding in the nuts page 12 Pecan Weevil - in late summer - Green or brown bugs sucking the sap page 12 Stink Bugs and Plant - from the nuts Bugs - INSECTS ATTACKING THE FOLIAGE - Soft-bodied yellow insects producing page 13 Aphids - honeydew or small black insects causing - yellow blotches on the foliage - Tiny green arthropods in webs near the page 13 Mites - midrib, leaves appear scorched - Caterpillars feeding in gray cases page 14 Pecan Leaf Casebearer - about ½ inch long in the spring; small - winding blotches produced in the leaves - in the summer - Olive-green caterpillars tunneling in page 10 Pecan Nut Casebearer - the shoots in the early spring - Tiny caterpillars in light brown page 15 Pecan Cigar Casebearer - cigar-shaped cases about ¼ inch long - Galls on the leaves, twigs and nuts page 14 Pecan Phylloxera - Leaves eaten in the early spring by a page 14 Sawfly - light green caterpillar which leaves - the midribs and veins intact - Beetles feeding on the foliage at night page 15 May Beetles - Caterpillars in large white webs page 15 Fall Webworm - encasing entire branches - Caterpillars with long soft hairs page 16 Walnut Caterpillar - feeding in colonies on the foliage - without producing webs - Dark gray, active caterpillars up to 3 page 16 Pecan Catocala - inches long feeding on the foliage in - early spring - Masses of frothy white foam enclosing page 16 Pecan Spittlebug - tiny, light green insects in the spring - Tiny greenish caterpillars feeding in page 16 Pecan Bud Moth - the terminals and axils of the buds on - young pecan trees - INSECTS ATTACKING THE LIMBS, TRUNK AND TWIGS - Beetle girdling twigs and limbs in late page 17 Pecan Twig Girdler - summer and fall - Holes about ⅛ inch in diameter in dying page 17 Red-shouldered - limbs Shot-hole Borer - White borers with an enlargement behind page 17 Flatheaded Borers - the head tunneling underneath the bark - of trunk and limbs - Limbs encrusted with scales, which page 18 Obscure Scale - closely resemble the color of the bark - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Key to Pecan Diseases 2 - Key to Pecan Insects 2 - Spray Schedule for the Control of Pecan Diseases and Insects 4 - Introduction 5 - Pecan Diseases and Their Control 5 - Scab 5 - Brown Leaf Spot 6 - Vein Spot 6 - Leaf Blotch 7 - Crown Gall 7 - Downy Spot 7 - Bunch Disease 8 - Rosette 8 - Lichens 9 - Articularia Leaf Mold 9 - Pink Mold 9 - Spanish and Ball Moss 9 - Cotton Root Rot 10 - Pecan Insects and Their Control 10 - Pecan Nut Casebearer 10 - Hickory Shuckworm 11 - Pecan Weevil 12 - Stink and Plant Bugs 12 - Aphids 13 - Mites 13 - Pecan Leaf Casebearer 14 - Pecan Phylloxera 14 - Sawflies 14 - May Beetles 15 - Pecan Cigar Casebearer 15 - Fall Webworm 15 - Walnut Caterpillar 16 - Pecan Catocala 16 - Pecan Spittlebug 16 - Pecan Bud Moth 16 - Twig Girdler 17 - Red-shouldered Shot-hole Borer 17 - Flatheaded Borers 17 - Obscure Scale 18 - Application of Fungicides and Insecticides 18 - Spray Equipment 18 - Literature Cited 19 - - - - - SPRAY SCHEDULE FOR THE CONTROL OF PECAN DISEASES AND INSECTS - - - Name of spray and Insect or Spray materials, Remarks - time of application disease to be per 100 gallon - controlled - - Prepollination Scab, downy Zineb,[A] 2 pounds If phylloxera is a - spray, when first spot, vein spot problem, see page - leaves are 14. - one-third grown - First cover spray, Scab, downy Zineb, 2 pounds - when tips of small spot, vein - nuts have turned spot, leaf - brown and nut blotch, brown - casebearer eggs are leaf spot - observed - Pecan nut 3 pounds 50 percent - casebearer, wettable DDT, or 1 - pecan leaf pound 25 percent - casebearer wettable parathion, - or 1 pint nicotine - sulfate plus 2 - quarts summer oil, - or 5 pounds 40 - percent wettable - toxaphene, or 3 - pounds 25 percent - wettable malathion - Rosette Zinc sulfate, 2 If rosette is a - pounds problem, include - zinc sulfate in - spray. - Second cover spray, Scab, downy Zineb, 2 pounds - 3 to 4 weeks after spot, vein Zinc sulfate, 2 - first cover spray spot, leaf pounds - blotch, brown - leaf spot - Rosette - Third cover spray, Scab, brown Zineb, 2 pounds If aphid or mite - 3 to 4 weeks after leaf spot, infestations are - second cover spray liver spot, severe, use - aphids, mites insecticides - recommended on page - 13. - Walnut If walnut - caterpillar, caterpillars or - fall webworm fall webworms are a - problem, use - insecticides - recommended on - pages 15 and 16. - Rosette Zinc sulfate, 2 - pounds - Fourth cover spray Pecan weevil 6 pounds 50 percent For control of - wettable DDT weevils, apply - spray when as many - as three weevils - can be jarred from - a tree. If scab is - present add 2 - pounds zineb to DDT - spray. - -[A]Zineb. Zinc ethylene bis dithiocarbamate. Manufactured by Rohm & Haas - Co., trade name Dithane Z-78: E. I. DuPont Co., trade name Parzate. - - - - - Pecan Diseases and Insects and Their Control - - - David W. Rosberg and D. R. King - - Respectively, associate professor, Department of Plant Physiology and - Pathology, and associate professor, Department of Entomology. - -The pecan tree must be protected from attack by the many destructive -diseases and insects that affect it to produce a bountiful nut crop. - -The diseases that affect the pecan, especially those caused by fungi, -are rapidly spread throughout the trees in an orchard in the early -spring. During this season of frequent rains, the spores of the disease -fungi germinate and invade the young tender tissues of the shoots, -leaves and nuts. Under conditions of prolonged damp weather, when the -humidity remains high, the disease organisms reproduce at a rapid rate -and cause severe shedding of leaves and nuts. - -Pecans are attacked by more than 20 species of insects that cause damage -to leaves, nuts, twigs, buds, branches and even the bark. The -development of commercial pecan acreages has provided ideal conditions -for the increase in severity of both disease and insect damage because -of the abundant food supply in a concentrated planting of pecans. In its -natural habitat the pecan is less subject to the devastations of -diseases and insects. - -The many destructive insects and diseases must be controlled for -successful pecan production. The pecan grower must also understand the -nature and habits of the various disease and insect pests that threaten -his crop and use certain cultural practices which help to reduce damage -from diseases and insects. - - - - - _Pecan Diseases and Their Control_ - - -The diseases which affect the pecan are of four different types: namely -fungus, bacterial, virus and physiological. The fungus diseases, the -most numerous and widespread, are caused by small microscopic molds. -Approximately 12 different fungus organisms cause harmful diseases of -the pecan. - -The bacterial disease organisms, unlike the disease producing fungi, are -single celled and can be seen only under a microscope. Bacterial -diseases are fewer and of less economic importance than fungus diseases. - -Virus diseases are caused by extremely small agents which can be seen -only under special ultra-microscopes such as the electron microscope. -Plant viruses are protein substances, but their exact nature is unknown. - -Physiological disorders (sometimes called physiological diseases) are -caused by a variety of environmental conditions. A physiological -disorder in a pecan tree may result from infertile soil, excessive -moisture, or the absence or degree of available nutritional mineral -elements to the growing tree. These various environmental factors have -special adverse effects, manifested by specific symptoms caused by -insufficient levels of a given nutritional mineral element or elements, -which are easily corrected by supplying the tree the necessary mineral -elements either through soil application or foliage sprays. - - -SCAB - -Pecan scab, caused by the fungus _Cladosporium effusum_ (Wint.) Demaree, -is the most destructive disease of pecans in Texas. The fungus invades -the young rapidly growing shoots and leaves and later the developing -nuts. Severely infected nuts on highly scab-susceptible varieties fall -or fail to develop, resulting in a total nut crop loss. Early season -defoliation often occurs in seasons of frequent rains and high humidity -which facilitate the rapid development and spread of the scab fungus. - -The scab fungus overwinters in infected shoots and in old shucks and -leaves in the trees. In the spring when temperature and moisture -conditions become favorable, the fungus begins to grow in the shoot -lesions, old leaves and shucks, and within a few days produces great -numbers of spores. These spores are spread by wind and rain to newly -developed leaves where they germinate and invade the tender tissues, -initiating primary infection. The fungus produces a great abundance of -spores on the surface of these primary infection sites and spreads -throughout the tree and infects young shoots, leaves and nuts. - -On the leaves, primary infection lesions occur on the lower leaf -surfaces and are characteristically olive brown, somewhat elongated in -shape and vary in size from a barely discernible dot to lesions -one-fourth inch or more in diameter. Frequently, adjacent lesions -coalesce, forming large very dark lesions. Primary scab lesions commonly -occur on or along the leaflet veins but often may be found between the -veins on the underleaf surface. On the nuts, scab lesions appear as -small black dots, which are elevated or sunken in older infections. -Adjacent lesions on the nuts may coalesce forming large sunken black -lesions, Figure 1. When infection is severe, the entire nut surface is -black in appearance, development is arrested and the nuts drop -prematurely. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Scab lesions on leaves and nuts of Delmas - variety. Note concave lesions and overall scabby appearance of - severely infected nuts.] - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Infected nuts.] - -Pecan varieties vary in their susceptibility to scab disease. Among the -highly susceptible varieties are: Burkett, Delmas, Schley, Moore, -Halbert and most western varieties. Moneymaker, Success and Curtis are -moderately resistant. Mahan, Stuart and Desirable varieties are highly -resistant to the scab fungus. However, this character of resistance -varies, depending on the area of the state, local environmental -conditions and the particular strain of the scab fungus present. - -Scab disease development is favored by rainy periods and cloudy days -when the humidity remains high and leaf surfaces are wet. Under these -conditions, spores of the fungus in contact with the wet leaf surface of -a pecan leaflet or nut germinate rapidly, invade the tender tissues and -initiate infection within 6 hours. Lesions resulting from these -infection sites, become visible to the naked eye within 7 to 14 days, -depending on environmental conditions. A period of warm dry weather -after infection occurs may retard lesion development. - -_Control._—The control of pecan scab disease depends primarily on the -protection of tender leaf, nut and shoot surfaces with proper -application of an effective fungicide. A protective film of fungicide -chemical prevents scab fungus infections by killing the spores -immediately after their germination, thereby preventing invasion of -susceptible tissues. Unfortunately, once the fungus has invaded the -tissues it becomes protected from chemical attack and produces spores in -great abundance. Therefore, thorough coverage of leaf, nut and shoot -surfaces with a fungicide chemical must be maintained to prevent -secondary infections, ([6], [10], [11]). - -Sanitation measures, such as removal of old attached shucks and leaf -stems in trees and plowing or disk harrowing under fallen leaves and -shucks help reduce primary infections. See spray schedule, page 4, for -scab disease control. - - -BROWN LEAF SPOT - -The brown leaf spot disease fungus _Cercospora fusca_ (Heald and Walf) -Rand affects only mature leaves and usually does not appear until the -latter part of May or mid-June. Primary lesions develop on the lower -leaf surfaces as small dots, which gradually enlarge and become reddish -brown with a grayish cast. The shape of the lesions may be circular or -irregular, especially where two or more lesions develop adjacent to one -another, Figure 2. In seasons favorable for brown leaf spot development -pecan trees may be completely defoliated within 3 to 4 months if the -disease is not controlled. Most pecan varieties which are maintained in -a vigorous state of growth are resistant to brown spot disease. - -_Control._—See spray schedule, page 4. - - -VEIN SPOT - -Vein spot disease is caused by the fungus _Gnomonia nerviseda_. The -symptoms of the disease are similar to the leaf lesion symptoms of scab -disease, but vein spot disease, unlike scab disease, affects only the -leaves. Lesions of vein spot disease develop on the veins or stems of -leaflets and leaves, are usually less than one-fourth inch in diameter -and are characteristically dark brown to black. Leaflets and leaf stems -which are severely affected drop, resulting in premature defoliation. - -The fungus lives in fallen leaves over the winter. The following spring -when temperature and moisture conditions are favorable, spores formed in -special structures called perithecia are forcibly discharged into the -air and carried by wind currents to the newly formed spring foliage, -initiating primary infections. - -_Control._—See spray schedule, page 4. - - -LEAF BLOTCH - -Leaf blotch disease is caused by the fungus _Mycosphaerella dendroides_ -(Cke.) Demaree and Cole. The disease occurs mainly in trees of poor -vigor, which may be due to neglect, infertile soil, rosette or -overcrowding. Nursery trees are particularly susceptible to the disease. - -The fungus overwinters in fallen leaves. In the early spring, large -numbers of spores produced in the old leaves on the ground are carried -by wind currents to the young leaves in the tree, where they germinate -and rapidly invade the tender leaf tissue. - -The disease symptoms first appear on the undersurface of mature leaves -in early summer, as small olive-green velvety spots. By midsummer black -pimplelike dots become especially noticeable in the leaf spots after the -surface spore masses have been removed by wind and rain, giving the -diseased areas of the leaves a black, shiny appearance. When the disease -is severe, infected leaflets are killed, which causes defoliation of the -trees in late summer or early fall and results in reduced tree vigor and -increased susceptibility to disease and insect attack. - -_Control._—Leaf blotch disease can be controlled effectively in the -early spring by disking under old fallen leaves that harbor the fungus -pathogen. - -In areas where a spray program for the control of scab disease is -carried out, leaf blotch usually is not a damaging disease. In -localities where leaf blotch disease occurs in the absence of other -pecan diseases, two applications of fungicide will control the disease -effectively. The first spray should be applied after pollination when -the tips of the nutlets have turned brown and the second spray -application should be made 3 to 4 weeks later. See spray schedule, page -4. - - -CROWN GALL - -Crown gall disease, caused by the bacterium _Agrobacterium tumefaciens_ -(E. F. and Town.) Conn., often is damaging to pecan trees. Nursery trees -as well as trees in bearing pecan orchards are susceptible to the -disease. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. Brown leaf spot diseased pecan leaflet - showing typical symptoms. Lesions are circular to irregular in - shape.] - -The development of galls is confined primarily to larger roots near the -base of the tree trunk, although small roots may become infected and -galls develop on them. The smaller galls are under the soil surface and -cannot be detected unless the soil is carefully removed from around the -roots, Figure 3. Large galls, often 10 to 18 inches in diameter, develop -on larger roots and may protrude well above the surface of the soil. - - [Illustration: Figure 3. Crown gall disease symptoms on young - infected pecan tree.] - -Galls on nursery trees develop at or below the soil surface on the -taproot and larger secondary roots. - -_Control._—All infected nursery trees should be dug and immediately -burned. Crown gall-diseased orchard trees sometimes can be saved by -digging the soil from around large roots and removing the exposed galls. -Where galls were removed, the damaged root surfaces should be painted -with a creosote-coal tar mixture (one part creosote to three parts coal -tar) to prevent spread of the disease[9]. Cultivation of the soil around -the trunk base of infected trees should be avoided to prevent root -wounds and spreading of the crown gall pathogen. - - -DOWNY SPOT - -Downy spot disease, caused by the fungus _Mycosphaerella caryigena_ -(Ell. and Ev.) Damaree and Cole, attacks all pecan varieties. Only -leaves are susceptible to the disease. Primary infection of new leaves -in the spring occurs from spores produced in specialized fruiting bodies -in old overwintered leaves. The downy spots appear usually during the -summer months on the lower surfaces of leaflets. The downy character of -the lesions is due to the production by the fungus of thousands of -minute spores on the surface of each spot. The spores are spread by wind -and rain to adjacent leaves and to neighboring trees. After spore -dissemination is complete, the lesions visible from both leaf surfaces -are one-eighth to one-fourth inch in diameter and greenish yellow. Later -in the season the lesions turn brown due to the death of the leaf cells -in the diseased area. - -Moneymaker and Stuart varieties are most susceptible to downy spot -disease although all pecan varieties are moderately to slightly -susceptible. - -_Control._—Disk under old fallen leaves in the early spring before the -leafbuds begin to swell. This practice covers the leaves with soil and -prevents the discharge of spores into the air, thereby controlling -primary infection of new leaves. In seasons when heavy rains make early -spring disking impossible, downy spot disease can be controlled by -spraying the trees as indicated in the spray schedule on page 4. - - -BUNCH DISEASE - -Although the cause of bunch disease is not known, evidence indicates it -is an infectious disease, which suggests that the causal agent may be a -virus. - -Trees affected with bunch disease show the bunching symptom, which is -due to excessive growth of slender succulent twigs from lateral buds -that normally remain dormant. In moderately affected trees one or -several branches will show the “bunch” growth symptom. Bunching in -severely affected trees may involve all main branches which produce -thick masses of sucker-like growth and few, if any, nuts. - -Observations indicate that the Stuart variety is the most resistant to -bunch disease. - - [Illustration: Figure 4. Rosette die-back symptoms of pecan tree - showing severe zinc deficiency.] - -_Control._—There is no known effective control for bunch disease. Early -detection of the first symptom of bunch and pruning out of the affected -branch may prevent spread of the disease throughout the tree. When the -tree is severely affected, and limbs are involved, the tree should be -destroyed to protect nearby healthy trees from infection. - -For propagation purposes, all bud or scion wood should be taken only -from bunch disease-free trees. - - -ROSETTE - -Rosette is a nutritional deficiency disease caused by certain soil -conditions which make zinc unavailable to the pecan tree. All pecan -trees require zinc for growth. - -Trees showing the first symptom of zinc deficiency have yellowed tops. -The individual leaflets when examined are yellowish and mottled. The -next season the foliage may be yellowish and the leaflets narrowed and -crinkled. More severely affected trees produce foliage which is a -yellowish to reddish-brown overall color, and the leaflets are very -narrow with reddish-brown spots and may be perforated. Shoots are much -shortened and the leaves are produced in compact bunches of dense -foliage. - -Trees affected by rosette for several seasons have many dead shoots and -small branches from the dying-back of each season’s growth, Figure 4. -Such trees are greatly stunted, of poor vigor and produce few, if any, -nuts. - -_Control._—Rosette is controlled readily by applying zinc sulfate to the -tree either as a foliage spray or in the dry form as a soil application. -Where a disease and insect spray control program is being carried out, -zinc sulfate may be added to the spray mixture. - -Foliage spray. Two pounds zinc sulfate (36 percent) per 100 gallons of -water. - -First application: after pollination when tips of nutlets turn brown. - -Second application: 3 to 4 weeks later. - -Third application: 3 to 4 weeks later. - -Soil application. Application of zinc sulfate to the soil, particularly -in a large orchard is a more expensive operation, but it provides longer -protection against rosette. - -In highly alkaline soils, or soils that readily fix zinc and make it -unavailable to the tree, foliage spray applications of zinc sulfate are -more economical because of the excessive rates required to supply -available zinc through the soil. - -Rate of application of zinc sulfate: Mildly rosetted trees—apply 5 -pounds zinc sulfate (36 percent) annually for 2 to 3 years. Severely -rosetted trees—apply 5 to 10 pounds zinc sulfate (36 percent) annually -until rosette symptoms disappear. - -Time and method of application: Apply zinc sulfate to the soil around -trees in late February or early March. Broadcast zinc sulfate under the -tree from the trunk to several feet beyond the limb canopy. Disking, -harrowing, or any operation that mixes the zinc sulfate with the soil, -is desirable to prevent washing away and surface soil fixing of zinc. - - -LICHENS - -Lichens commonly are found growing on the branches and trunks of pecan -trees, especially in humid areas and river bottom orchards having poor -air drainage. - -Lichens are nonparasitic to the pecan tree, but merely attach themselves -to the bark surfaces. Lichens grow equally well on rocks, fence posts, -bricks and other objects. There are several types of lichens that occur -on pecan trees, none of which are damaging except perhaps in appearance -to the trees in cases of extremely heavy infestations, Figure 5. - - [Illustration: Figure 5. Lichens commonly found on the bark of pecan - trees. Left, a fan-shaped type. Right, an erect-branched type.] - -_Control._—The occurrence of lichens in trees regularly sprayed with -copper-containing fungicides is rare. - - -ARTICULARIA LEAF MOLD - -Articularia leaf mold caused by the fungus _Articularia quercina_ (PK) -Hoehn is a disease of minor occurrence and importance. The disease -occurs most commonly following rainy periods and in areas of high -relative humidity in the leaves of trees of poor vigor. - -The fungus produces on the lower surfaces of the leaves a conspicuous -growth of white tufts which contain masses of spores, Figure 6. - - [Illustration: Figure 6. Articularia leaf mold fungus, showing white - tufts on lower leaf surfaces of pecan leaflets.] - -_Control._—Articularia leaf mold does not occur in trees or in orchards -which have been sprayed for disease control. - -A single application of fungicide such as zineb at 2 pounds per 100 -gallons of water when the disease is first detected is usually -sufficient to control Articularia leaf mold disease. - - -PINK MOLD - -Pink mold, _Cephalothecium roseum_ Corda, usually occurs on nuts -infected with the scab fungus. The pink mold fungus apparently enters -the nuts through scab lesions on the shucks and continues to produce -masses of pink spores on shuck surfaces until late fall. The fungus -sometimes invades the kernel of thin-shelled pecan varieties causing -“pink rot” which is characterized by an oily appearance of the nut shell -and a rancid odor. - -_Control._—Pink mold rarely occurs on the shucks of nuts in the absence -of scab disease. In areas where scab disease control is regularly -practiced pink mold is not a problem. - - -SPANISH AND BALL MOSS - -Spanish moss, _Tillandsia usneoides_, and Ball moss, _Tillandsia -recurvata_ L., are not parasitic to the pecan tree and are similar to -lichens in that they both derive their food from the air, rain or -atmospheric moisture. - -Neglected orchards in areas of high humidity or poor air drainage are -most troubled with Spanish moss and Ball moss. When large and excessive -growths of Spanish moss develop in pecan trees, the shading effect to -the leaves is detrimental to tree vigor, bearing and growth, Figure 7. - -_Control._—The Spanish moss plant like the pecan tree requires sunlight -for vigorous growth. A pecan tree kept in a vigorous state of growth -produces dense foliage that effectively shades accumulations of Spanish -moss and retards its growth. - -Spanish moss is not a problem in pecan trees in orchards which are -sprayed with fungicide for disease control. Both Spanish moss and Ball -moss can be controlled by spraying pecan trees with 6 pounds of lead -arsenate per 100 gallons of water[3]. Do not allow livestock to graze in -orchards sprayed with lead arsenate. - - -COTTON ROOT ROT - -Cotton root rot disease is caused by the fungus _Phymatotrichum -omnivorum_ (Shear) Dvgg., a soil-inhabiting pathogen that attacks a wide -range of host plants including the pecan. - -The roots of the pecan tree are invaded during the summer when growth of -the fungus in the soil is most active. The infected roots are killed, -disrupting the transportation of water to the leaves, Figure 8. Trees -diseased by cotton root rot produce yellow foliage, and shedding of -leaflets occurs during dry periods. Diseased trees usually die 1 to 3 -years after becoming infected. - - [Illustration: Figure 7. Spanish moss accumulation in pecan trees - reduces vigor from excessive shading.] - - [Illustration: Figure 8. Cotton root infected with cotton root rot - fungus. Note the splitting and general deterioration of the root.] - -_Control._—An effective control for cotton root rot disease has not been -developed. - -New orchards should not be planted in soil having a history of cotton -root rot disease. - - - - - _Pecan Insects and Their Control_ - - -PECAN NUT CASEBEARER - -The pecan nut casebearer, _Acrobasis caryae_ Grote, is the major pest of -pecans in Texas. Early in the spring, the overwintered generation feeds -first in the buds and then in the developing shoots, causing them to -wilt and die. Succeeding generations feed on the nuts during the late -spring and summer, Figure 9. Severe infestations may destroy the entire -crop of pecans. - -The adult is a light gray moth which is about one third inch in length. -The wings are gray, and the forewings have a ridge of dark scales across -them about one-third the distance from the base. The moths fly at night -and spend the day in concealment. - -The young larvae are white to pink, but later become olive gray to green -and attain a length of about one-half inch. - -This insect passes the winter as a partially grown larva in a tiny -silken cocoon called a hibernaculum, which is usually attached to a bud, -Figure 10. In the spring, the larvae feed for a short time on the buds, -after which they tunnel in the developing shoots until they reach -maturity, Figure 11. Pupation usually occurs in these burrows, and the -moths emerge in late April and May. - -Two or 3 days after the adults emerge, they deposit eggs on the tips of -the nuts, Figure 12. Each female may deposit from 50 to 150 eggs. The -eggs, which are just visible to the naked eye, are greenish white when -they are deposited but assume a reddish appearance a few days later. The -first-generation larvae hatch from the eggs in 4 or 5 days and migrate -to the buds below the nuts to feed. After a day or two, they enter the -nuts, usually at the base, and feed in them, each larva frequently -destroying an entire cluster. Bits of frass and webbing may be observed -projecting from the injured nuts. Upon reaching maturity, the larvae -pupate in the nuts and emerge as adults in June and early July. - - [Illustration: Figure 9. Injury to nuts caused by first generation - larvae of the pecan nut casebearer.] - -The adults deposit eggs in grooves on the tips or bases of the nuts. -Second-generation larvae which hatch from these eggs also feed in the -nuts. Less injury is produced by this generation because the nuts are -larger and each larva requires only one or two nuts to complete its -development. Pupation takes place in the hollowed out nuts, Figure 13, -and the moths emerge from late July to early September. - -A third generation usually follows, but the shells of the nuts have -become hard, and only a few of them are penetrated by the larvae. -Instead, they feed in the shucks. A number of third-generation larvae -construct hibernacula, while the remainder pupate and appear as adults, -emerging from late August to October. These adults deposit eggs, which -hatch into fourth-generation larvae. If nuts are available, their shucks -constitute the principal food of the larvae of this generation. In the -absence of nuts, the larvae feed on buds and leaf stems. Overwintering -hibernacula are constructed by the partially grown larvae by the middle -of November[2]. - -_Control._—The necessity for control of this pest may be determined by -examination of the trees when the shoots appear in the spring. If a -number of them are wilted, the following control measures probably will -be required. - -A spray application should be made when eggs of the first generation -appear on the tips of the young nuts in late April or May. The period of -egg deposition usually coincides with the completion of pollination, at -which time the tips of the nuts turn brown. Satisfactory control may be -obtained by using any of several insecticides. See spray schedule, page -4. - -Ordinarily, only one application of spray is required to control the nut -casebearer. However, if trees surrounding the treated area are not -sprayed, moths may enter the sprayed area and a serious infestation of -second-generation larvae may develop. Under these circumstances, a -second spray may be required in June or early July when -second-generation eggs are deposited[6], [11]. - - -HICKORY SHUCKWORM - -The hickory shuckworm, _Laspeyresia caryana_ (Fitch), frequently causes -severe injury to pecans. In the late summer and fall the shucks are -tunneled out. As a result, the nuts are slower to mature and the kernels -do not develop properly. The shucks stick to the nuts and fail to open, -thus increasing the difficulty of harvest. - -The adult shuckworm is a dark, grayish-black moth with a wing span of a -little over one-half inch. The larva is white with a light brown head. -It attains a length of three-eighths inch at maturity. - -The winter is passed by the larvae in fallen pecan or hickory shucks. -They pupate in late winter and emerge as adults during the spring. The -adults deposit eggs principally on hickory trees on the leaves and young -nuts, and the larvae feed in developing nuts in early summer. - -Succeeding generations develop in pecan shucks. Before pupating, the -larvae cut a hole to the outside, and then spin a cocoon. When the moth -emerges, the empty pupal skin is left projecting from the hole and can -be seen afterward on the shuck. As many as five generations may be -completed each year before the last generation larvae go into -hibernation. - -_Control._—No economical chemical control for the shuckworm has been -developed. Cultural measures will aid in reducing populations. Plowing -during July and August to turn under the infested shucks is relatively -effective. The larvae are unable to mature in the decaying shucks, and -the adults cannot emerge from the soil. Care should be taken to -completely cover the fallen shucks, but the depth of plowing should be -regulated or damage to the roots will result. - - [Illustration: Figure 10. Location of overwintering cocoons, or - hibernacula, of the pecan nut casebearer.] - - -PECAN WEEVIL - -The pecan weevil, _Curculio caryae_ (Horn), is a late-season pest of -pecans in Texas. In years when severe infestations occur, this insect -may destroy a large portion of the pecan crop. The kernels are eaten out -by the larvae. - -The adult is a brownish weevil which is about three-eighths inch long. -The female has a snout which is as long as the body; the male’s is -somewhat shorter. - -The weevil appears in late August and early September. After the nut -kernels have hardened, the female chews a hole in the shell and deposits -her eggs in little pockets in the nuts. Creamy white grubs hatch from -the eggs and feed inside the nuts during the fall, attaining a length of -about three-fifths inch. When they reach maturity, the grubs chew a hole -about one-eighth inch in diameter in the shell, emerge from the nut and -drop to the ground in late fall and early winter. They burrow in the -soil to a depth of 4 to 12 inches and construct a cell. Some individuals -remain in the larval stage until the following fall when pupation -occurs. Other larvae do not transform to pupae until the succeeding -year. The adults appear during the summer, following pupation. The -entire life cycle requires from 2 to 3 years, most of this time being -spent in the soil. - - [Illustration: Figure 11. Overwintered larva of the pecan nut - casebearer and characteristic injury to the developing shoots.] - -_Control._—Frequently, certain trees in the orchard are more heavily -infested than others, since the adults usually do not go far from the -tree upon which they developed. The time at which insecticide -applications should be made to control this insect can be determined by -jarring the trees. Begin checking the first week in August. A large -sheet should be placed under a tree and the limbs jarred with a padded -pole. The weevils drop to the ground and remain motionless for a short -period, at which time they may be counted. When three or more weevils -are jarred from each tree, an application of spray containing 6 pounds -of 50 percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water should be -made[8]. - - [Illustration: Figure 12. Eggs of the first generation pecan nut - casebearer deposited on the tips of the young nuts.] - - -STINK AND PLANT BUGS - -The adults of several species of stink bugs and plant bugs suck the sap -from young pecan nuts causing an injury known as black pit, in which the -interior of the nuts turns black. The injured nuts fall from the trees -before the shells harden. - -Feeding by the insects after shell hardening, Figure 14, produces brown -or black spots on the kernels. Areas affected taste bitter, but the -remainder of the kernel is unaffected. - -Stink bugs are familiar to everyone. Plant bugs resemble them and are -usually shades of brown, smaller and narrower in body outline. - -Plant bugs and stink bugs overwinter in the adult stage in debris on the -ground. In the spring, the adults are attracted to growing vegetation -such as cover crops or weeds, where they deposit their eggs. The -immature bugs develop on low-growing vegetation. When they reach -maturity, their wings are fully developed and they fly to pecan trees. A -few eggs may be deposited on pecan trees, but the young bugs apparently -are unable to develop on them. Only the adults are present in sufficient -number to inflict economic injury. There may be as many as four -generations each year. - -_Control._—Although certain insecticides will control these pests, the -number and frequency of spray applications necessary for control would -not be economical. - -Care should be taken to keep weeds down in the orchard during the -growing season. Winter cover crops should be plowed down early in the -spring so they will not be attractive to the adults coming out of -hibernation. If this operation is delayed, the bugs will leave the cover -crop when it is removed and migrate to the trees in large numbers. - - -APHIDS - -These soft-bodied insects appear during the summer and fall. They suck -the sap from the leaves, causing them to turn yellow or brown and fall -to the ground. Heavy infestations may cause defoliation in the late -summer reducing the nut crop in the current and succeeding year. - -The black pecan aphid, _Melanocallis caryaefoliae_ (Davis), is about -one-sixteenth inch long when full grown, robust and greenish black. Its -back is decorated with tubercles. - -Bright yellow blotches up to one-fourth inch in diameter appear around -the punctures produced by the feeding of this insect. - -The yellow aphids, _Monellia_ spp., which attack pecans inflict injury -similar to that caused by the black pecan aphid. However, the large -yellow blotches on the leaves do not result from their feeding. A sticky -substance called “honeydew” is secreted by these insects creating an -ideal medium for sooty mold fungus to develop[5]. - -Both black and yellow aphids overwinter in the egg stage in crevices in -the bark. In the spring the eggs hatch, and the aphids begin feeding on -the leaves. Many generations are completed each year. Only females, -which may be wingless or winged, are produced during the growing season. -The winged individuals fly to different parts of the tree or to other -trees. In the fall, males and females appear and eggs are deposited -under the bark. - - [Illustration: Figure 13. Pupa of the second generation of the pecan - nut casebearer in a hollowed out nut.] - -Usually, these insects are not present in sufficient numbers to cause -serious injury until mid or late summer. Infestations earlier in the -season rarely assume damaging proportions. As is the case with mites, -aphid populations may increase, following the application of certain -insecticides applied for the control of the pecan nut casebearer or -following treatment with bordeaux mixture for pecan scab disease -control. - - [Illustration: Figure 14. Southern green stink bug on developing - nuts.] - -_Control._—When damaging infestations appear, the trees should be -sprayed with either 1 pound of 12 percent gamma BHC wettable powder; or -1 pint of 40 percent nicotine sulfate plus 3 pounds of soap; or 1 pound -of 25 percent parathion wettable powder[9]. - - -MITES - -These tiny pests attack the leaves usually on the underside causing -irregular brown areas to appear. Trees which are heavily infested appear -scorched and may lose their leaves in late summer or fall. - -Mites usually are light green and are just large enough to be seen -without the aid of a hand lens. They are wingless and feed principally -on the underside of the leaves along the midrib. Colonies of them -produce webs in which molted skins and eggs may be found. The life cycle -of mites is very short and several generations occur each year. Large -populations may develop during the late summer and fall. - -The use of certain insecticides for the control of the pecan nut -casebearer or bordeaux mixture for scab control frequently contributes -to increases in mite populations later in the season. - -_Control._—Mites may be controlled in three ways when damaging -infestations develop. An application of 2 pounds of wettable sulfur per -100 gallons of water may be made; 6 pounds of wettable sulfur per 100 -gallons of water may be added to the spray applied for the control of -the nut casebearer; and repeated applications of zineb included in a -regular spray schedule for pecan scab control will effectively control -mites. However, a single application of zineb is not effective[7]. - - -PECAN LEAF CASEBEARER - -On occasion, this insect, _Acrobasis juglandis_ (LeB.), develops to -damaging numbers and causes economic injury. Early in the spring the -larva feeds on unfolding leaves and buds. It may prevent leaf -development for weeks, resulting in a greatly decreased yield of nuts. - -The adult is a dark gray moth marked with brown. Its forewings, which -have a spread of about two-thirds inch, are gray with black blotches. -There is a reddish mark near the base of the forewings. - -The immature larva is brown, but changes to dark green as it develops to -a length of one-half inch. It has a shiny, brownish black head and is -enclosed in a gray case which completely covers the body and is borne in -a position nearly perpendicular to the leaf on which the larva is -feeding. - -The pecan leaf casebearer overwinters as an immature larva in a -hibernaculum around a bud. It emerges in late March or early April as -the buds open. The larvae mature in April, May and June and transform -into pupae within their gray cases, Figure 15. The moths are present -from May until early August. Eggs are deposited during this period on -the underside of the leaves. The larvae which hatch from these eggs -develop slowly, and do not attain a length of more than one-sixteenth -inch during that season. They construct little winding cases in which -they live. Their feeding produces irregular blotches on the leaf -surface, Figure 16. Before the leaves drop in the fall, the larvae -migrate to the buds, and construct their overwintering hibernacula. Only -one generation is completed each year. - -_Control._—Control of this insect is accomplished by spraying for the -pecan nut casebearer. See spray schedule, page 4. The insecticides -recommended for nut casebearer control also reduce infestations of the -leaf casebearer. - - [Illustration: Figure 15. Overwintered larvae of pecan leaf - casebearer in their cases.] - - [Illustration: Figure 16. Summer injury to the leaves by the pecan - leaf casebearer.] - - -PECAN PHYLLOXERA - -The pecan phylloxera, _Phylloxera devastatris_ Perg., and the pecan leaf -phylloxera, _P. notabilis_ Perg., produce galls on the new growth of -pecans. Leaves, twigs and nuts may be affected. - -The galls are conspicuous swellings, Figure 17, which attain a size of -from one-tenth to 1 inch in diameter. They are caused by a soft-bodied -insect which is closely related to aphids. - -The winter is passed in the egg stage in crevices in the bark. In the -spring, the egg hatches and the tiny nymph feeds on the tender, young -growth, apparently secreting a substance which stimulates the plant -tissues to develop into galls. - -After the nymph reaches maturity, a number of eggs are deposited inside -the gall. The young nymphs of the succeeding generation develop within -the gall, which splits open in 1 to 3 weeks, liberating them. Several -generations follow during the summer and fall, as long as there is fresh -young growth on the tree. From 4 to 5 weeks are required for each -generation[4]. - -_Control._—The dormant oil spray recommended for obscure scale control -will prevent the development of phylloxera. If dormant oil is not -applied, use 2 pints of nicotine sulfate plus 6 pounds of soap; 3 pounds -of 25 percent malathion wettable powder; or two and a half pounds of 10 -percent gamma isomer BHC wettable powder per 100 gallons of water when -the leaves are one-third grown. - - -SAWFLIES - -Sawfly larvae, _Periclista_ sp. and others, feed on the foliage of -pecans during April and early May. The larvae, which are light green, -chew holes in the leaves. Usually the midrib and veins are left intact, -giving the leaflets a lacy appearance, Figure 18. - -The adults closely resemble wasps, except that they are not -“wasp-waisted.” - - [Illustration: Fig. 17. Developing galls of the pecan phylloxera. - Note the open gall on the lower leaf.] - -_Control._—The larvae may be controlled with an application of 2 pounds -of 50 percent DDT wettable powder or 1 pound of 25 percent parathion -wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. - - [Illustration: Figure 18. Sawfly injury to pecan foliage.] - - -MAY BEETLES - -Many species of May beetles may damage pecans early in the spring. The -beetles appear only at night and spend the day concealed beneath the -surface of the soil. They feed on the young leaves and prevent the -foliage from developing. - -Beetles of the most common species are one-half to three-fourths inch -long and shiny dark brown. They are attracted to lights and are observed -commonly on porches or screen doors at night. The larvae are the -grubworms, or white grubs, which feed in the soil on the roots of many -plants. - -The female beetle deposits eggs in the soil, where the larva develops. -Most species require two summers for the larva to mature. Pupation is -accomplished in a cell which is constructed in the ground in the fall of -the second year. The beetles emerge the following spring. Both larvae -and adults may be found in the soil during the winter. - -_Control._—May beetles are usually a problem in orchards which are not -cultivated because the larvae feed on the roots of the sod cover. -Cultivation of the orchard periodically will reduce the food supply of -the grubs, and smaller infestations of adults will appear the following -year. Where cultivation is not feasible, sprays will control the adults. -Apply 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder; 4 pounds of lead -arsenate; or 1 pound of 25 percent parathion wettable powder per 100 -gallons of water when damage by this insect is severe[9]. - - -PECAN CIGAR CASEBEARER - -The pecan cigar casebearer, _Coleophora caryaefoliella_ (Clem), may be -damaging in some years. The larva feeds on the leaves, producing tiny -holes. It constructs a light brown, cigar-shaped case about one-fourth -inch in length which encases it throughout development. - -_Control._—The spray applied for control of the nut casebearer will -usually prevent significant injury by the cigar casebearer. See spray -schedule, page 4. - - -FALL WEBWORM - -The webs produced by the fall webworm, _Hyphantria cunea_ (Drury), are -familiar to everyone. Leaves are eaten by the larvae which live in -loosely woven, dirty white webs, Figure 19. - -The adult is a white moth which may have black or brown spots on the -forewing. Its wings have a span of about 1 inch. - -The larvae are pale yellow spotted with black. They attain a length of 1 -inch when full grown and are covered with long black and white hairs. - -The insect overwinters as a pupa in lightly woven cocoons in debris on -the soil or under the bark. In the spring the adults emerge and lay -masses of greenish white eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars which -hatch from the eggs feed on the leaves in colonies under webs which they -construct. After feeding for a month to 6 weeks, the larvae crawl down -the tree and pupate in loose cocoons in debris, under bark, or in loose -soil. Adults appear during the summer and deposit eggs for the second -generation. The larvae of this generation feed extensively until fall, -crawl down the tree and pupate for the winter. - -_Control._—Light infestations on a few trees can be eliminated by -pruning out the affected branches and burning them. If this method of -control is not practicable, the trees should be sprayed with 2 pounds of -50 percent DDT wettable powder; 1 pound of 25 percent parathion wettable -powder; or 3 pounds of lead arsenate per 100 gallons of water[9]. - - [Illustration: Figure 19. Web of the fall webworm on a pecan limb.] - - -WALNUT CATERPILLAR - -During the spring and summer, the walnut caterpillars, _Datana -integerrima_ G. & R. and others, may strip the leaves from branches or -entire small trees. The adult is a moth with a wingspan of 1½ to 2 -inches. The forewings are light brown with darker wavy lines. The -hindwings are lighter in color without lines. - -The immature larva is reddish brown with narrow yellowish lines that -extend the length of the body. The full-grown larva is almost black with -two grayish lines on the back and two on the sides. Many long, soft gray -hairs are distributed over the body. - -This insect overwinters in the pupal stage in the soil. The adult -emerges in the spring and deposits eggs in masses on the underside of -the leaves, Figure 20. The larvae feed in colonies on the leaves for -about 3 weeks. At periodic intervals, the groups of larvae move to the -trunk to molt and, after shedding their skins, they return to the leaves -to feed until the next molt. They do not encase themselves in webs. -There are two generations each year, the first appearing in late spring -and early summer, the second in later summer and fall. Larvae of the -second generation complete development and crawl down to pupate in the -soil. - -_Control._—When these insects become abundant enough to defoliate -portions of the tree, they may be controlled by applying a spray -containing 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder; 3 pounds of lead -arsenate; or 1 pound of 25 percent parathion wettable powder per 100 -gallons of water. - - [Illustration: Figure 20. Walnut caterpillar adults and egg mass on - a pecan leaflet.] - - -PECAN CATOCALA - -Several species of catocalas, Figure 21, among them _Catocala maestosa_ -Hlst., may strip the leaves of pecans in the spring leaving only the -midribs. The caterpillars are very dark gray and attain a length of -about 3 inches when full grown. They are very active when disturbed and -move with a looping motion. Both the caterpillars and the moths are well -camouflaged. When they rest on the trees during the day, their color so -harmonizes with the color of the bark that they are frequently -indistinguishable. - -_Control._—One application of 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder -per 100 gallons of water controls this pest. Although the majority of -catocala larvae reach maturity before the time to spray for the nut -casebearer, a number of them will be killed when the recommended spray -is applied for the latter insect. - - -PECAN SPITTLEBUG - -In the spring and early summer a number of buds and small nuts may be -covered with foamy white masses. Inside these masses are several small -insects called spittlebugs, _Clastoptera obtusa_ (Say). The white froth -is produced probably to maintain an artificial high humidity, which is -required for development. The adults resemble leafhoppers and fly -actively during the summer. - -This insect has not been known to cause any significant injury on pecans -in Texas. - - -PECAN BUD MOTH - -The pecan bud moth, _Gretchena bolliana_ (Sling.), damages nursery stock -and freshly top-worked pecans. The greenish larvae feed in the axils of -the newly set buds and in the terminals of young trees, causing -extensive branching. There are several generations each year. - - [Illustration: Figure 21. Moth of the pecan catocala.] - -_Control._—This insect may be controlled by applying a spray containing -2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. - - -TWIG GIRDLER - -The adult twig girdler, _Oncideres cingulata_ (Say) (_O. texana_ of some -authors), girdles twigs and branches, weakening them so that they fall -off or die on the tree, Figure 22. This insect is active during the late -summer and early fall. Many twigs may be found on the ground under a -severely infested tree. Secondary branching may occur and the number of -bearing twigs is reduced. - -The twig borer is a grayish brown beetle one-half to five-eighths inch -in length with a broad gray band over the middle of the wing covers. Its -head is reddish brown and bears a pair of long antennae, which extend -beyond the abdomen on the male. - -The larva is a white legless grub about three-fourths inch long when it -reaches maturity. - -This insect overwinters as a partially grown larva in a twig on the tree -or ground. It develops rapidly in the spring feeding in the twig. -Following pupation, the adult emerges in late August or early September. -The female systematically girdles twigs and deposits eggs in the severed -portion since the larva is unable to develop in healthy sapwood. The -eggs hatch in a few weeks into larvae which remain small until the -following spring when they complete development, pupate and emerge as -adults in the late summer and fall. There is one generation annually, -although some individuals require 2 years to mature[1]. - -_Control._—Infestations may be reduced by removing girdled branches from -the trees and the ground and burning them. - -Chemical control is also effective. The trees should be sprayed with 4 -pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water when -the first injured branches are observed in late August or early -September. Two or three applications at 2-week intervals may be required -for most effective control[9]. - - -RED-SHOULDERED SHOT-HOLE BORER - -The red-shouldered shot-hole borer, _Xylobiops basilare_ (Say), and -other shot-hole borers also injure trees in a devitalized condition. The -larvae feed in wood, pupate and emerge as adults through round holes -about one-eighth inch in diameter in the bark. Many of these holes may -be observed in close proximity to each other. - -_Control._—Since this insect feeds on dying or dead wood, prunings and -dead limbs should be removed from the orchard and burned. - -Adequate fertilizer and water will keep trees in a healthy condition and -prevent injury by this pest. - - -FLATHEADED BORERS - -The flatheaded apple tree borer, _Chrysobothris femorata_ (Oliv.), and -other species of flatheaded borers attack unhealthy or recently -transplanted pecan trees by burrowing in the bark and sapwood of the -large branches and trunk. Their presence is indicated by the appearance -of darkened, depressed areas in the bark from which traces of frass may -protrude. When these portions of the bark are removed, shallow winding -burrows packed with sawdust may be observed. The burrows usually are on -the sunny side of the trunk or branch, but may extend completely around -and penetrate the wood to a depth of 2 inches. Young trees may be -girdled by this insect. - -The adult beetle is about one-half inch long, broad and blunt at the -head end and tapering to a point posteriorly. Its wing covers, which -have a metallic sheen, are dark colored and corrugated. - -The larva, or borer, which is legless and yellowish white, attains a -length of 1¼ inches when full grown. Immediately behind the head is a -broad, flattened expanded area from which the insect takes its name. - -The winter is passed by larvae in varying stages of development within -the tree. In the spring, they change to pupae in their burrows, emerging -as adults during the spring and summer. The female beetles deposit their -eggs in cracks or bruises in the bark. The larvae which hatch from these -eggs feed during the remainder of the season and pass the winter. There -is only one generation each year. - - [Illustration: Figure 22. Adult twig girdler and characteristic - injury to twig.] - -_Control._—The beetles are attracted to trees or areas of trees in a -devitalized condition, induced by transplanting, drouth, sunscald, -bruises or poor growing conditions. The trees must be kept in a healthy, -vigorous condition by proper fertilization and watering. On young or -transplanted trees, wrapping the trunks in early spring before the -adults appear is the only effective control known for these insects. -Injury can be prevented by thoroughly wrapping the entire trunk from -ground level to the branches with heavy paper or other wrapping -material. The wrapping should be tied securely with twine and should be -maintained on the tree for 2 years. Regular observations should be made -to see that the twine does not girdle the tree. - -In older trees, the borers can be removed with a sharp knife. Care -should be taken to injure as little of the healthy wood as possible. If -the wound is extensive, it should be trimmed and then painted with a -commercial tree paint or with a mixture of one part creosote and three -parts coal tar. Dead and dying limbs and trees should be removed from -the orchard each year and burned before the following spring. If they -are not burned, the borers in them may mature and re-infest surrounding -trees. Commercial tree borer preparations are of little value in -controlling this insect. - - -OBSCURE SCALE - -The obscure scale, _Chrysomphalus obscurus_ (Comst.), is a pest of -considerable importance, particularly in the more arid portions of the -State. The tiny insect under its scale covering sucks the sap from the -limbs and branches, causing them to lose their leaves and die back from -the tips. The tree is so devitalized by the feeding of this insect that -it is made vulnerable to attack by wood borers. - -The scale covering over a full-grown female is about one-eighth inch -long and is usually dark gray, and closely resembles the bark of the -tree. Infested limbs appear to have had wood ashes sprinkled over them, -Figure 23. Numerous pits appear in the bark where the insects feed, -producing a roughened appearance. - - [Illustration: Figure 23. Severe infestation of obscure scale on a - pecan twig.] - -The winter is passed by the female scales under their coverings on the -bark. Eggs laid in the spring hatch into tiny, salmon-colored crawlers -which move about for a short time, then settle down and insert their -beaks. While they are feeding, a scale covering develops which is made -up of secreted wax and cast skins. - -The females never move again from the spot they have selected, but the -adult males develop wings and emerge from their scale coverings to mate -with the females. Only one generation is produced each year. - -_Control._—When damaging populations develop, a spray application of 3½ -gallons of 97 percent miscible dormant oil per 100 gallons of water -during the dormant season will keep this pest under control. - - - - - _Application of Fungicides and Insecticides_ - - -When possible, fungicides for disease control and insecticides for -insect control should be combined in the spray tank and applied to the -trees in one operation. The spray materials should be applied evenly and -thoroughly to all the leaf and nut surfaces to provide a chemical -barrier to disease organisms and insects. Do not neglect the tops of the -trees. Diseases and insects can harbor and multiply in all unsprayed -areas of the tree. - -Thorough coverage with spray materials is essential for effective -control. As a guideline, apply approximately 1 gallon of spray mixture -for each foot of tree height. Apply 20 gallons to a 20-foot tree and 40 -gallons to a 40-foot tree, etc. - - - - - _Spray Equipment_ - - -Various types of spray machines for application of fungicides and -insecticides to pecan trees are available. The spray machines employ -either a high pressure hydraulic pump, high pressure centrifugal pump or -low pressure high air velocity systems. All the machines are portable -and are equipped with a gasoline engine or operate from a truck or -tractor power takeoff shaft. - -For pecan spraying, a tank having a minimum capacity of 300 gallons is -desirable. The pump should deliver 20 to 30 gallons per minute and -maintain a pressure of 400 to 600 pounds per square inch while -operating. A spray gun which is adjustable to produce a mist spray for -spraying small trees or the lower canopy of large trees and a narrow -stream that will reach the tops of tall trees is essential. - -For safety and durability high pressure rubber hose having an inside -diameter of three-fourths inch should be used with all high pressure -spray machines. - - - - - _Literature Cited_ - - -[1]Bilsing, S. W., 1916; Life history of the pecan twig girdler. Journal - Econ. Ent. 9:110-115. - -[2]Bilsing, S. W., 1927; Studies on the biology of the pecan nut - casebearer. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 347, 71 - pp. - -[3]Bilsing, S. W., 1941; An economical method of removing Spanish moss - (_Tillandsia usenoides_) and Ball moss (_Tillandsia recurvata_) from - trees. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Progress Report 747. - -[4]Dobbins, Traber Norman, 1932; The biology of the pecan phylloxera. - Master’s Degree Thesis, Texas A. and M. College. - -[5]Dorman, Harvey S., 1934; The life history of the yellow pecan aphid - _Monellia nigropunctata_ Granovsky. Master’s Degree Thesis. Texas A. - and M. College. - -[6]King, D. R. and David W. Rosberg, 1955; Experiments for the control - of pecan insects and diseases, 1954. Texas Agricultural Experiment - Station Progress Report 1786. - -[7]King, D. R. and David W. Rosberg, 1956; Control of _Tetranychus - hicoriae_ McG. on pecans. Journal Econ. Ent. 49 (3):404-5. - -[8]Nickels, C. B., 1952; Control of the pecan weevil in Texas. Journal - Econ. Ent. 45 (6): 1099-1100. - -[9]Osburn, M. R., A. M. Phillips, William C. Pierce, and John R. Cole, - 1954; Insects and diseases of the pecan and their control. USDA - Farmers Bulletin 1829, 56 pp. - -[10]Rosberg, David W., 1950; Control of pecan diseases in 1950. Texas - Agricultural Experiment Station Progress Report 1330. - -[11]Rosberg, David W. and D. R. King, 1954; Pecan disease and insect - control experiments in Texas, 1953. Texas Agricultural Experiment - Station Progress Report 1671. - - - - - _Your County_ EXTENSION AGENTS - - - [Illustration: Extension agents] - -can furnish you the latest information on farming, ranching and -homemaking. They represent both The Texas A. & M. College System and the -United States Department of Agriculture in your county. - -Most county extension agents have their offices in the county courthouse -or agriculture building. They welcome your visits, calls or letters for -assistance. - -This publication is one of many prepared by the Texas Agricultural -Extension Service to present up-to-date, authoritative information, -based on results of research. Extension publications are available from -your local agents or from the Agricultural Information Office, College -Station, Texas. - - -Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics. The Texas -A. & M. College System and United States Department of Agriculture -cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May -8, 1914, as amended, and June 30, 1914. - -10M-3-59. Reprint. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PECAN DISEASES AND PESTS AND THEIR -CONTROL *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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} -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -p.biblio { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; margin-top:0; font-size:90%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:4.7em; text-indent:0em; text-align:justify; } -span.attr { font-size:80%; font-family:sans-serif; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pecan Diseases and Pests and Their Control, by David W. Rosburg</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Pecan Diseases and Pests and Their Control</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: David W. Rosburg and D. R. King</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 9, 2021 [eBook #65808]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PECAN DISEASES AND PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL ***</div> -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Pecan Diseases and Insects and Their Control" width="600" height="790" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="jr1"><span class="smaller"><span class="ss">MP-313</span></span> -<br /><span class="smaller"><span class="ss">NOVEMBER 1958</span></span></p> -<h1><span class="ss">PECAN DISEASES AND INSECTS -<br /><span class="smaller">AND THEIR CONTROL</span></span></h1> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION ... -<br />TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE -<br />College Station, Texas</span></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Key to Pecan Diseases</span></h2> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">DISEASES OF THE LEAVES</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Olive spots on underside </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_5">page 5</a> </td><td class="l">Scab</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Downy, buff, or greenish-yellow lesions </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_7">page 7</a> </td><td class="l">Downy Spot</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Small, reddish-brown to gray spots on underside </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_6">page 6</a> </td><td class="l">Brown Leaf Spot</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Dark brown to black lesions on veins and stems </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_6">page 6</a> </td><td class="l">Vein Spot</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Tiny white tufts of fungal growth on underside </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_9">page 9</a> </td><td class="l">Articularia Leaf Mold</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Small olive green velvety spots. By midsummer, black pimple-like dots appear in the spots </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_7">page 7</a> </td><td class="l">Leaf Blotch</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Leaflets yellowish, mottled, narrowed and crinkled with reddish-brown spots, may be perforated </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_8">page 8</a> </td><td class="l">Rosette</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Broomy type of twig growth, bunching of leaves </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_8">page 8</a> </td><td class="l">Bunch Disease</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">DISEASES OF THE NUTS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Small black sunken or raised spots which may fuse to cover entire surface of shuck </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_5">page 5</a> </td><td class="l">Scab</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pink spore masses on shuck surface </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_9">page 9</a> </td><td class="l">Pink Mold</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">DISEASES OF THE ROOTS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Galls of various sizes on larger roots </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_7">page 7</a> </td><td class="l">Crown Gall</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Splitting and deterioration of bark of infected roots, strands of buff-colored fungal growth may be present </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_10">page 10</a> </td><td class="l">Cotton Root Rot</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">NONPARASITIC PLANTS ON THE LIMBS AND BARK</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Whitish-gray mosslike masses on the bark </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_9">page 9</a> </td><td class="l">Lichens</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Accumulations of grayish strands hanging from limbs and twigs or ball-like growth on limbs and branches </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_9">page 9</a> </td><td class="l">Spanish Moss, Ball Moss</td></tr> -</table> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Key to Pecan Insects</span></h2> -<table class="center"> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">INSECTS ATTACKING THE NUTS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Olive-green caterpillars up to ½ inch long feeding in the nuts, or later in the season, in the shucks </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_10">page 10</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Nut Casebearer</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">White caterpillars up to ⅜ inch long tunneling in the shucks </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_11">page 11</a> </td><td class="l">Hickory Shuckworm</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">White legless grubs feeding in the nuts in late summer </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_12">page 12</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Weevil</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Green or brown bugs sucking the sap from the nuts </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_12">page 12</a> </td><td class="l">Stink Bugs and Plant Bugs</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">INSECTS ATTACKING THE FOLIAGE</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Soft-bodied yellow insects producing honeydew or small black insects causing yellow blotches on the foliage </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_13">page 13</a> </td><td class="l">Aphids</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Tiny green arthropods in webs near the midrib, leaves appear scorched </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_13">page 13</a> </td><td class="l">Mites</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Caterpillars feeding in gray cases about ½ inch long in the spring; small winding blotches produced in the leaves in the summer </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_14">page 14</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Leaf Casebearer</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Olive-green caterpillars tunneling in the shoots in the early spring </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_10">page 10</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Nut Casebearer</td></tr> -<tr class="pbtr"><td colspan="5"> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Tiny caterpillars in light brown cigar-shaped cases about ¼ inch long </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Cigar Casebearer</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Galls on the leaves, twigs and nuts </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_14">page 14</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Phylloxera</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Leaves eaten in the early spring by a light green caterpillar which leaves the midribs and veins intact </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_14">page 14</a> </td><td class="l">Sawfly</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Beetles feeding on the foliage at night </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> </td><td class="l">May Beetles</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Caterpillars in large white webs encasing entire branches </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> </td><td class="l">Fall Webworm</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Caterpillars with long soft hairs feeding in colonies on the foliage without producing webs </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_16">page 16</a> </td><td class="l">Walnut Caterpillar</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Dark gray, active caterpillars up to 3 inches long feeding on the foliage in early spring </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_16">page 16</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Catocala</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Masses of frothy white foam enclosing tiny, light green insects in the spring </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_16">page 16</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Spittlebug</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Tiny greenish caterpillars feeding in the terminals and axils of the buds on young pecan trees </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_16">page 16</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Bud Moth</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="3" class="l">INSECTS ATTACKING THE LIMBS, TRUNK AND TWIGS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Beetle girdling twigs and limbs in late summer and fall </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_17">page 17</a> </td><td class="l">Pecan Twig Girdler</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Holes about ⅛ inch in diameter in dying limbs </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_17">page 17</a> </td><td class="l">Red-shouldered Shot-hole Borer</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">White borers with an enlargement behind the head tunneling underneath the bark of trunk and limbs </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_17">page 17</a> </td><td class="l">Flatheaded Borers</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Limbs encrusted with scales, which closely resemble the color of the bark </td><td class="l"><a href="#Page_18">page 18</a> </td><td class="l">Obscure Scale</td></tr> -</table> -<h2 id="toc" class="center">CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c1">Key to Pecan Diseases</a> 2</dt> -<dt><a href="#c2">Key to Pecan Insects</a> 2</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3">Spray Schedule for the Control of Pecan Diseases and Insects</a> 4</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4">Introduction</a> 5</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5">Pecan Diseases and Their Control</a> 5</dt> -<dd><a href="#c6">Scab</a> 5</dd> -<dd><a href="#c7">Brown Leaf Spot</a> 6</dd> -<dd><a href="#c8">Vein Spot</a> 6</dd> -<dd><a href="#c9">Leaf Blotch</a> 7</dd> -<dd><a href="#c10">Crown Gall</a> 7</dd> -<dd><a href="#c11">Downy Spot</a> 7</dd> -<dd><a href="#c12">Bunch Disease</a> 8</dd> -<dd><a href="#c13">Rosette</a> 8</dd> -<dd><a href="#c14">Lichens</a> 9</dd> -<dd><a href="#c15">Articularia Leaf Mold</a> 9</dd> -<dd><a href="#c16">Pink Mold</a> 9</dd> -<dd><a href="#c17">Spanish and Ball Moss</a> 9</dd> -<dd><a href="#c18">Cotton Root Rot</a> 10</dd> -<dt><a href="#c19">Pecan Insects and Their Control</a> 10</dt> -<dd><a href="#c20">Pecan Nut Casebearer</a> 10</dd> -<dd><a href="#c21">Hickory Shuckworm</a> 11</dd> -<dd><a href="#c22">Pecan Weevil</a> 12</dd> -<dd><a href="#c23">Stink and Plant Bugs</a> 12</dd> -<dd><a href="#c24">Aphids</a> 13</dd> -<dd><a href="#c25">Mites</a> 13</dd> -<dd><a href="#c26">Pecan Leaf Casebearer</a> 14</dd> -<dd><a href="#c27">Pecan Phylloxera</a> 14</dd> -<dd><a href="#c28">Sawflies</a> 14</dd> -<dd><a href="#c29">May Beetles</a> 15</dd> -<dd><a href="#c30">Pecan Cigar Casebearer</a> 15</dd> -<dd><a href="#c31">Fall Webworm</a> 15</dd> -<dd><a href="#c32">Walnut Caterpillar</a> 16</dd> -<dd><a href="#c33">Pecan Catocala</a> 16</dd> -<dd><a href="#c34">Pecan Spittlebug</a> 16</dd> -<dd><a href="#c35">Pecan Bud Moth</a> 16</dd> -<dd><a href="#c36">Twig Girdler</a> 17</dd> -<dd><a href="#c37">Red-shouldered Shot-hole Borer</a> 17</dd> -<dd><a href="#c38">Flatheaded Borers</a> 17</dd> -<dd><a href="#c39">Obscure Scale</a> 18</dd> -<dt><a href="#c40">Application of Fungicides and Insecticides</a> 18</dt> -<dt><a href="#c41">Spray Equipment</a> 18</dt> -<dt><a href="#c42">Literature Cited</a> 19</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">SPRAY SCHEDULE FOR THE CONTROL OF PECAN DISEASES AND INSECTS</span></h2> -<table class="center"> -<tr class="th"><th>Name of spray and time of application </th><th>Insect or disease to be controlled </th><th>Spray materials, per 100 gallon </th><th>Remarks</th></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Prepollination spray, when first leaves are one-third grown </td><td class="l">Scab, downy spot, vein spot </td><td class="l">Zineb,<a class="fn" id="fr_A" href="#fn_A">[A]</a> 2 pounds </td><td class="l">If phylloxera is a problem, see <a href="#Page_14">page 14</a>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">First cover spray, when tips of small nuts have turned brown and nut casebearer eggs are observed </td><td class="l">Scab, downy spot, vein spot, leaf blotch, brown leaf spot </td><td class="l">Zineb, 2 pounds</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Pecan nut casebearer, pecan leaf casebearer </td><td class="l">3 pounds 50 percent wettable DDT, or 1 pound 25 percent wettable parathion, or 1 pint nicotine sulfate plus 2 quarts summer oil, or 5 pounds 40 percent wettable toxaphene, or 3 pounds 25 percent wettable malathion</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Rosette </td><td class="l">Zinc sulfate, 2 pounds </td><td class="l">If rosette is a problem, include zinc sulfate in spray. </td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Second cover spray, 3 to 4 weeks after first cover spray </td><td class="l">Scab, downy spot, vein spot, leaf blotch, brown leaf spot </td><td class="l">Zineb, 2 pounds<br />Zinc sulfate, 2 pounds</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Rosette</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Third cover spray, 3 to 4 weeks after second cover spray </td><td class="l">Scab, brown leaf spot, liver spot, aphids, mites </td><td class="l">Zineb, 2 pounds </td><td class="l">If aphid or mite infestations are severe, use insecticides recommended on <a href="#Page_13">page 13</a>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Walnut caterpillar, fall webworm </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">If walnut caterpillars or fall webworms are a problem, use insecticides recommended on pages <a href="#Page_15">15</a> and <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Rosette </td><td class="l">Zinc sulfate, 2 pounds </td><td class="l"> </td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fourth cover spray </td><td class="l">Pecan weevil </td><td class="l">6 pounds 50 percent wettable DDT </td><td class="l">For control of weevils, apply spray when as many as three weevils can be jarred from a tree. If scab is present add 2 pounds zineb to DDT spray.</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_A" href="#fr_A">[A]</a>Zineb. Zinc ethylene bis dithiocarbamate. Manufactured by Rohm & Haas Co., trade name Dithane Z-78: E. I. DuPont Co., trade name Parzate.</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small"><span class="large">Pecan Diseases and Insects and Their Control</span></span></h2> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">David W. Rosberg</span> and <span class="sc">D. R. King</span></p> -<blockquote> -<p>Respectively, associate professor, Department of Plant -Physiology and Pathology, and associate professor, Department -of Entomology.</p> -</blockquote> -<p>The pecan tree must be protected from attack -by the many destructive diseases and insects that -affect it to produce a bountiful nut crop.</p> -<p>The diseases that affect the pecan, especially -those caused by fungi, are rapidly spread throughout -the trees in an orchard in the early spring. -During this season of frequent rains, the spores -of the disease fungi germinate and invade the -young tender tissues of the shoots, leaves and -nuts. Under conditions of prolonged damp -weather, when the humidity remains high, the -disease organisms reproduce at a rapid rate and -cause severe shedding of leaves and nuts.</p> -<p>Pecans are attacked by more than 20 species -of insects that cause damage to leaves, nuts, -twigs, buds, branches and even the bark. The -development of commercial pecan acreages has -provided ideal conditions for the increase in severity -of both disease and insect damage because -of the abundant food supply in a concentrated -planting of pecans. In its natural habitat the -pecan is less subject to the devastations of diseases -and insects.</p> -<p>The many destructive insects and diseases -must be controlled for successful pecan production. -The pecan grower must also understand -the nature and habits of the various disease and -insect pests that threaten his crop and use certain -cultural practices which help to reduce damage -from diseases and insects.</p> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small"><i>Pecan Diseases and Their Control</i></span></h2> -<p>The diseases which affect the pecan are of -four different types: namely fungus, bacterial, -virus and physiological. The fungus diseases, the -most numerous and widespread, are caused by -small microscopic molds. Approximately 12 different -fungus organisms cause harmful diseases -of the pecan.</p> -<p>The bacterial disease organisms, unlike the -disease producing fungi, are single celled and can -be seen only under a microscope. Bacterial diseases -are fewer and of less economic importance -than fungus diseases.</p> -<p>Virus diseases are caused by extremely small -agents which can be seen only under special ultra-microscopes -such as the electron microscope. -Plant viruses are protein substances, but their -exact nature is unknown.</p> -<p>Physiological disorders (sometimes called -physiological diseases) are caused by a variety of -environmental conditions. A physiological disorder -in a pecan tree may result from infertile -soil, excessive moisture, or the absence or degree -of available nutritional mineral elements to the -growing tree. These various environmental factors -have special adverse effects, manifested by -specific symptoms caused by insufficient levels -of a given nutritional mineral element or elements, -which are easily corrected by supplying -the tree the necessary mineral elements either -through soil application or foliage sprays.</p> -<h3 id="c6">SCAB</h3> -<p>Pecan scab, caused by the fungus <i>Cladosporium -effusum</i> (Wint.) Demaree, is the most destructive -disease of pecans in Texas. The fungus -invades the young rapidly growing shoots and -leaves and later the developing nuts. Severely infected -nuts on highly scab-susceptible varieties -fall or fail to develop, resulting in a total nut -crop loss. Early season defoliation often occurs -in seasons of frequent rains and high humidity -which facilitate the rapid development and spread -of the scab fungus.</p> -<p>The scab fungus overwinters in infected shoots -and in old shucks and leaves in the trees. In the -spring when temperature and moisture conditions -become favorable, the fungus begins to grow in -the shoot lesions, old leaves and shucks, and within -a few days produces great numbers of spores. -These spores are spread by wind and rain to newly -developed leaves where they germinate and invade -the tender tissues, initiating primary infection. -The fungus produces a great abundance of -spores on the surface of these primary infection -sites and spreads throughout the tree and infects -young shoots, leaves and nuts.</p> -<p>On the leaves, primary infection lesions occur -on the lower leaf surfaces and are characteristically -olive brown, somewhat elongated in -shape and vary in size from a barely discernible -dot to lesions one-fourth inch or more in diameter. -Frequently, adjacent lesions coalesce, forming -large very dark lesions. Primary scab lesions -commonly occur on or along the leaflet veins but -often may be found between the veins on the underleaf -surface. On the nuts, scab lesions appear -as small black dots, which are elevated or sunken -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -in older infections. Adjacent lesions on the nuts -may coalesce forming large sunken black lesions, -<a href="#fig1">Figure 1</a>. When infection is severe, the entire -nut surface is black in appearance, development -is arrested and the nuts drop prematurely.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="548" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 1. Scab lesions on leaves and nuts of Delmas variety. Note concave lesions and overall scabby appearance -of severely infected nuts.</p> -</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p03a.jpg" id="ncfig1" alt="Figure 1. Infected nuts." width="500" height="553" /> -</div> -<p>Pecan varieties vary in their susceptibility to -scab disease. Among the highly susceptible varieties -are: Burkett, Delmas, Schley, Moore, Halbert -and most western varieties. Moneymaker, -Success and Curtis are moderately resistant. Mahan, -Stuart and Desirable varieties are highly -resistant to the scab fungus. However, this character -of resistance varies, depending on the area -of the state, local environmental conditions and -the particular strain of the scab fungus present.</p> -<p>Scab disease development is favored by rainy -periods and cloudy days when the humidity remains -high and leaf surfaces are wet. Under -these conditions, spores of the fungus in contact -with the wet leaf surface of a pecan leaflet or -nut germinate rapidly, invade the tender tissues -and initiate infection within 6 hours. Lesions resulting -from these infection sites, become visible -to the naked eye within 7 to 14 days, depending -on environmental conditions. A period of warm -dry weather after infection occurs may retard -lesion development.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The control of pecan scab disease -depends primarily on the protection of tender -leaf, nut and shoot surfaces with proper application -of an effective fungicide. A protective -film of fungicide chemical prevents scab fungus -infections by killing the spores immediately after -their germination, thereby preventing invasion of -susceptible tissues. Unfortunately, once the fungus -has invaded the tissues it becomes protected -from chemical attack and produces spores in great -abundance. Therefore, thorough coverage of leaf, -nut and shoot surfaces with a fungicide chemical -must be maintained to prevent secondary infections, (<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a>, <a class="fn" id="fr_10" href="#fn_10">[10]</a>, <a class="fn" id="fr_11" href="#fn_11">[11]</a>).</p> -<p>Sanitation measures, such as removal of old -attached shucks and leaf stems in trees and -plowing or disk harrowing under fallen leaves -and shucks help reduce primary infections. See -spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>, for scab disease control.</p> -<h3 id="c7">BROWN LEAF SPOT</h3> -<p>The brown leaf spot disease fungus <i>Cercospora -fusca</i> (Heald and Walf) Rand affects only mature -leaves and usually does not appear until the -latter part of May or mid-June. Primary lesions -develop on the lower leaf surfaces as small dots, -which gradually enlarge and become reddish -brown with a grayish cast. The shape of the lesions -may be circular or irregular, especially -where two or more lesions develop adjacent to -one another, <a href="#fig2">Figure 2</a>. In seasons favorable for -brown leaf spot development pecan trees may be -completely defoliated within 3 to 4 months if the -disease is not controlled. Most pecan varieties -which are maintained in a vigorous state of -growth are resistant to brown spot disease.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—See spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c8">VEIN SPOT</h3> -<p>Vein spot disease is caused by the fungus -<i>Gnomonia nerviseda</i>. The symptoms of the disease -are similar to the leaf lesion symptoms of -scab disease, but vein spot disease, unlike scab -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -disease, affects only the leaves. Lesions of vein -spot disease develop on the veins or stems of leaflets -and leaves, are usually less than one-fourth -inch in diameter and are characteristically dark -brown to black. Leaflets and leaf stems which -are severely affected drop, resulting in premature -defoliation.</p> -<p>The fungus lives in fallen leaves over the winter. -The following spring when temperature and -moisture conditions are favorable, spores formed -in special structures called perithecia are forcibly -discharged into the air and carried by wind currents -to the newly formed spring foliage, initiating -primary infections.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—See spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c9">LEAF BLOTCH</h3> -<p>Leaf blotch disease is caused by the fungus -<i>Mycosphaerella dendroides</i> (Cke.) Demaree and -Cole. The disease occurs mainly in trees of poor -vigor, which may be due to neglect, infertile soil, -rosette or overcrowding. Nursery trees are particularly -susceptible to the disease.</p> -<p>The fungus overwinters in fallen leaves. In -the early spring, large numbers of spores produced -in the old leaves on the ground are carried -by wind currents to the young leaves in the tree, -where they germinate and rapidly invade the tender -leaf tissue.</p> -<p>The disease symptoms first appear on the undersurface -of mature leaves in early summer, as -small olive-green velvety spots. By midsummer -black pimplelike dots become especially noticeable -in the leaf spots after the surface spore masses -have been removed by wind and rain, giving -the diseased areas of the leaves a black, shiny appearance. -When the disease is severe, infected -leaflets are killed, which causes defoliation of the -trees in late summer or early fall and results in -reduced tree vigor and increased susceptibility to -disease and insect attack.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Leaf blotch disease can be controlled -effectively in the early spring by disking under -old fallen leaves that harbor the fungus pathogen.</p> -<p>In areas where a spray program for the control -of scab disease is carried out, leaf blotch usually -is not a damaging disease. In localities where -leaf blotch disease occurs in the absence of other -pecan diseases, two applications of fungicide will -control the disease effectively. The first spray -should be applied after pollination when the tips -of the nutlets have turned brown and the second -spray application should be made 3 to 4 weeks -later. See spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c10">CROWN GALL</h3> -<p>Crown gall disease, caused by the bacterium -<i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> (E. F. and Town.) -Conn., often is damaging to pecan trees. Nursery -trees as well as trees in bearing pecan orchards -are susceptible to the disease.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/p03d.jpg" alt="" width="338" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 2. Brown leaf -spot diseased pecan -leaflet showing typical -symptoms. Lesions are -circular to irregular in -shape.</p> -</div> -<p>The development of galls is confined primarily -to larger roots near the base of the tree trunk, -although small roots may become infected and -galls develop on them. The smaller galls are under -the soil surface and cannot be detected unless -the soil is carefully removed from around the -roots, <a href="#fig3">Figure 3</a>. Large galls, often 10 to 18 inches -in diameter, develop on larger roots and may protrude -well above the surface of the soil.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/p03e.jpg" alt="" width="345" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 3. Crown gall -disease symptoms on -young infected pecan -tree.</p> -</div> -<p>Galls on nursery trees develop at or below the -soil surface on the taproot and larger secondary -roots.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—All infected nursery trees should be -dug and immediately burned. Crown gall-diseased -orchard trees sometimes can be saved by digging -the soil from around large roots and removing -the exposed galls. Where galls were removed, -the damaged root surfaces should be painted with -a creosote-coal tar mixture (one part creosote to -three parts coal tar) to prevent spread of the -disease<a class="fn" id="fr_9" href="#fn_9">[9]</a>. Cultivation of the soil around the -trunk base of infected trees should be avoided to -prevent root wounds and spreading of the crown -gall pathogen.</p> -<h3 id="c11">DOWNY SPOT</h3> -<p>Downy spot disease, caused by the fungus -<i>Mycosphaerella caryigena</i> (Ell. and Ev.) Damaree -and Cole, attacks all pecan varieties. Only -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -leaves are susceptible to the disease. Primary infection -of new leaves in the spring occurs from -spores produced in specialized fruiting bodies in -old overwintered leaves. The downy spots appear -usually during the summer months on the -lower surfaces of leaflets. The downy character -of the lesions is due to the production by the fungus -of thousands of minute spores on the surface -of each spot. The spores are spread by wind and -rain to adjacent leaves and to neighboring trees. -After spore dissemination is complete, the lesions -visible from both leaf surfaces are one-eighth to -one-fourth inch in diameter and greenish yellow. -Later in the season the lesions turn brown due to -the death of the leaf cells in the diseased area.</p> -<p>Moneymaker and Stuart varieties are most -susceptible to downy spot disease although all pecan -varieties are moderately to slightly susceptible.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Disk under old fallen leaves in the -early spring before the leafbuds begin to swell. -This practice covers the leaves with soil and prevents -the discharge of spores into the air, thereby -controlling primary infection of new leaves. -In seasons when heavy rains make early spring -disking impossible, downy spot disease can be -controlled by spraying the trees as indicated in -the spray schedule on <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c12">BUNCH DISEASE</h3> -<p>Although the cause of bunch disease is not -known, evidence indicates it is an infectious disease, -which suggests that the causal agent may -be a virus.</p> -<p>Trees affected with bunch disease show the -bunching symptom, which is due to excessive -growth of slender succulent twigs from lateral -buds that normally remain dormant. In moderately -affected trees one or several branches will -show the “bunch” growth symptom. Bunching in -severely affected trees may involve all main -branches which produce thick masses of sucker-like -growth and few, if any, nuts.</p> -<p>Observations indicate that the Stuart variety -is the most resistant to bunch disease.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="400" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 4. Rosette die-back symptoms of pecan tree -showing severe zinc deficiency.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—There is no known effective control -for bunch disease. Early detection of the first -symptom of bunch and pruning out of the affected -branch may prevent spread of the disease -throughout the tree. When the tree is severely -affected, and limbs are involved, the tree should -be destroyed to protect nearby healthy trees from -infection.</p> -<p>For propagation purposes, all bud or scion -wood should be taken only from bunch disease-free -trees.</p> -<h3 id="c13">ROSETTE</h3> -<p>Rosette is a nutritional deficiency disease -caused by certain soil conditions which make zinc -unavailable to the pecan tree. All pecan trees -require zinc for growth.</p> -<p>Trees showing the first symptom of zinc deficiency -have yellowed tops. The individual leaflets -when examined are yellowish and mottled. -The next season the foliage may be yellowish and -the leaflets narrowed and crinkled. More severely -affected trees produce foliage which is a -yellowish to reddish-brown overall color, and the -leaflets are very narrow with reddish-brown spots -and may be perforated. Shoots are much shortened -and the leaves are produced in compact -bunches of dense foliage.</p> -<p>Trees affected by rosette for several seasons -have many dead shoots and small branches from -the dying-back of each season’s growth, <a href="#fig4">Figure 4</a>. -Such trees are greatly stunted, of poor vigor and -produce few, if any, nuts.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Rosette is controlled readily by applying -zinc sulfate to the tree either as a foliage -spray or in the dry form as a soil application. -Where a disease and insect spray control program -is being carried out, zinc sulfate may be -added to the spray mixture.</p> -<p><b>Foliage spray.</b> Two pounds zinc sulfate (36 -percent) per 100 gallons of water.</p> -<p>First application: after pollination when tips -of nutlets turn brown.</p> -<p>Second application: 3 to 4 weeks later.</p> -<p>Third application: 3 to 4 weeks later.</p> -<p><b>Soil application.</b> Application of zinc sulfate to -the soil, particularly in a large orchard is a more -expensive operation, but it provides longer protection -against rosette.</p> -<p>In highly alkaline soils, or soils that readily -fix zinc and make it unavailable to the tree, -foliage spray applications of zinc sulfate are more -economical because of the excessive rates required -to supply available zinc through the soil.</p> -<p>Rate of application of zinc sulfate: Mildly -rosetted trees—apply 5 pounds zinc sulfate (36 -percent) annually for 2 to 3 years. Severely rosetted -trees—apply 5 to 10 pounds zinc sulfate -(36 percent) annually until rosette symptoms -disappear.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">9</div> -<p>Time and method of application: Apply zinc -sulfate to the soil around trees in late February -or early March. Broadcast zinc sulfate under the -tree from the trunk to several feet beyond the -limb canopy. Disking, harrowing, or any operation -that mixes the zinc sulfate with the soil, is -desirable to prevent washing away and surface -soil fixing of zinc.</p> -<h3 id="c14">LICHENS</h3> -<p>Lichens commonly are found growing on the -branches and trunks of pecan trees, especially in -humid areas and river bottom orchards having -poor air drainage.</p> -<p>Lichens are nonparasitic to the pecan tree, -but merely attach themselves to the bark surfaces. -Lichens grow equally well on rocks, fence -posts, bricks and other objects. There are several -types of lichens that occur on pecan trees, -none of which are damaging except perhaps in -appearance to the trees in cases of extremely -heavy infestations, <a href="#fig5">Figure 5</a>.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/p04d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="382" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 5. Lichens commonly found on the bark of pecan -trees. Left, a fan-shaped type. Right, an erect-branched -type.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The occurrence of lichens in trees -regularly sprayed with copper-containing fungicides -is rare.</p> -<h3 id="c15">ARTICULARIA LEAF MOLD</h3> -<p>Articularia leaf mold caused by the fungus -<i>Articularia quercina</i> (PK) Hoehn is a disease of -minor occurrence and importance. The disease -occurs most commonly following rainy periods -and in areas of high relative humidity in the -leaves of trees of poor vigor.</p> -<p>The fungus produces on the lower surfaces of -the leaves a conspicuous growth of white tufts -which contain masses of spores, <a href="#fig6">Figure 6</a>.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/p04e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="506" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 6. Articularia leaf mold fungus, showing white -tufts on lower leaf surfaces of pecan leaflets.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Articularia leaf mold does not occur -in trees or in orchards which have been sprayed -for disease control.</p> -<p>A single application of fungicide such as zineb -at 2 pounds per 100 gallons of water when the -disease is first detected is usually sufficient to -control Articularia leaf mold disease.</p> -<h3 id="c16">PINK MOLD</h3> -<p>Pink mold, <i>Cephalothecium roseum</i> Corda, -usually occurs on nuts infected with the scab fungus. -The pink mold fungus apparently enters the -nuts through scab lesions on the shucks and continues -to produce masses of pink spores on shuck -surfaces until late fall. The fungus sometimes -invades the kernel of thin-shelled pecan varieties -causing “pink rot” which is characterized by an -oily appearance of the nut shell and a rancid -odor.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Pink mold rarely occurs on the -shucks of nuts in the absence of scab disease. In -areas where scab disease control is regularly -practiced pink mold is not a problem.</p> -<h3 id="c17">SPANISH AND BALL MOSS</h3> -<p>Spanish moss, <i>Tillandsia usneoides</i>, and Ball -moss, <i>Tillandsia recurvata</i> L., are not parasitic -to the pecan tree and are similar to lichens in -that they both derive their food from the air, -rain or atmospheric moisture.</p> -<p>Neglected orchards in areas of high humidity -or poor air drainage are most troubled with -Spanish moss and Ball moss. When large and excessive -growths of Spanish moss develop in pecan -trees, the shading effect to the leaves is detrimental -to tree vigor, bearing and growth, <a href="#fig7">Figure 7</a>.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The Spanish moss plant like the pecan -tree requires sunlight for vigorous growth. -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -A pecan tree kept in a vigorous state of growth -produces dense foliage that effectively shades accumulations -of Spanish moss and retards its -growth.</p> -<p>Spanish moss is not a problem in pecan trees -in orchards which are sprayed with fungicide for -disease control. Both Spanish moss and Ball -moss can be controlled by spraying pecan trees -with 6 pounds of lead arsenate per 100 gallons -of water<a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a>. Do not allow livestock to graze in -orchards sprayed with lead arsenate.</p> -<h3 id="c18">COTTON ROOT ROT</h3> -<p>Cotton root rot disease is caused by the fungus -<i>Phymatotrichum omnivorum</i> (Shear) Dvgg., -a soil-inhabiting pathogen that attacks a wide -range of host plants including the pecan.</p> -<p>The roots of the pecan tree are invaded during -the summer when growth of the fungus in -the soil is most active. The infected roots are -killed, disrupting the transportation of water to -the leaves, <a href="#fig8">Figure 8</a>. Trees diseased by cotton -root rot produce yellow foliage, and shedding of -leaflets occurs during dry periods. Diseased trees -usually die 1 to 3 years after becoming infected.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="643" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 7. Spanish moss accumulation in pecan trees -reduces vigor from excessive shading.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/p05a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="299" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 8. Cotton root infected with cotton root rot fungus. -Note the splitting and general deterioration of the root.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—An effective control for cotton root -rot disease has not been developed.</p> -<p>New orchards should not be planted in soil -having a history of cotton root rot disease.</p> -<h2 id="c19"><span class="small"><i>Pecan Insects and Their Control</i></span></h2> -<h3 id="c20">PECAN NUT CASEBEARER</h3> -<p>The pecan nut casebearer, <i>Acrobasis caryae</i> -Grote, is the major pest of pecans in Texas. Early -in the spring, the overwintered generation feeds -first in the buds and then in the developing -shoots, causing them to wilt and die. Succeeding -generations feed on the nuts during the late -spring and summer, <a href="#fig9">Figure 9</a>. Severe infestations -may destroy the entire crop of pecans.</p> -<p>The adult is a light gray moth which is about -one third inch in length. The wings are gray, -and the forewings have a ridge of dark scales -across them about one-third the distance from -the base. The moths fly at night and spend the -day in concealment.</p> -<p>The young larvae are white to pink, but later -become olive gray to green and attain a length -of about one-half inch.</p> -<p>This insect passes the winter as a partially -grown larva in a tiny silken cocoon called a hibernaculum, -which is usually attached to a bud, -<a href="#fig10">Figure 10</a>. In the spring, the larvae feed for a -short time on the buds, after which they tunnel -in the developing shoots until they reach maturity, -<a href="#fig11">Figure 11</a>. Pupation usually occurs in these -burrows, and the moths emerge in late April and -May.</p> -<p>Two or 3 days after the adults emerge, they -deposit eggs on the tips of the nuts, <a href="#fig12">Figure 12</a>. -Each female may deposit from 50 to 150 eggs. -The eggs, which are just visible to the naked eye, -are greenish white when they are deposited but -assume a reddish appearance a few days later. -The first-generation larvae hatch from the eggs -in 4 or 5 days and migrate to the buds below -the nuts to feed. After a day or two, they enter -the nuts, usually at the base, and feed in them, -each larva frequently destroying an entire cluster. -Bits of frass and webbing may be observed -projecting from the injured nuts. Upon reaching -maturity, the larvae pupate in the nuts and -emerge as adults in June and early July.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/p05c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="305" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 9. Injury to nuts caused by first generation larvae -of the pecan nut casebearer.</p> -</div> -<p>The adults deposit eggs in grooves on the tips -or bases of the nuts. Second-generation larvae -which hatch from these eggs also feed in the -nuts. Less injury is produced by this generation -because the nuts are larger and each larva requires -only one or two nuts to complete its development. -Pupation takes place in the hollowed -out nuts, <a href="#fig13">Figure 13</a>, and the moths emerge from -late July to early September.</p> -<p>A third generation usually follows, but the -shells of the nuts have become hard, and only a -few of them are penetrated by the larvae. Instead, -they feed in the shucks. A number of third-generation -larvae construct hibernacula, while -the remainder pupate and appear as adults, -emerging from late August to October. These -adults deposit eggs, which hatch into fourth-generation -larvae. If nuts are available, their shucks -constitute the principal food of the larvae of this -generation. In the absence of nuts, the larvae -feed on buds and leaf stems. Overwintering hibernacula -are constructed by the partially grown -larvae by the middle of November<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a>.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The necessity for control of this pest -may be determined by examination of the trees -when the shoots appear in the spring. If a number -of them are wilted, the following control -measures probably will be required.</p> -<p>A spray application should be made when -eggs of the first generation appear on the tips -of the young nuts in late April or May. The period -of egg deposition usually coincides with the -completion of pollination, at which time the tips -of the nuts turn brown. Satisfactory control may -be obtained by using any of several insecticides. -See spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<p>Ordinarily, only one application of spray is -required to control the nut casebearer. However, -if trees surrounding the treated area are not -sprayed, moths may enter the sprayed area and -a serious infestation of second-generation larvae -may develop. Under these circumstances, a second -spray may be required in June or early July -when second-generation eggs are deposited<a class="fn" href="#fn_6">[6]</a>, -<a class="fn" href="#fn_11">[11]</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c21">HICKORY SHUCKWORM</h3> -<p>The hickory shuckworm, <i>Laspeyresia caryana</i> -(Fitch), frequently causes severe injury to pecans. -In the late summer and fall the shucks -are tunneled out. As a result, the nuts are slower -to mature and the kernels do not develop properly. -The shucks stick to the nuts and fail to -open, thus increasing the difficulty of harvest.</p> -<p>The adult shuckworm is a dark, grayish-black -moth with a wing span of a little over one-half -inch. The larva is white with a light brown -head. It attains a length of three-eighths inch -at maturity.</p> -<p>The winter is passed by the larvae in fallen -pecan or hickory shucks. They pupate in late -winter and emerge as adults during the spring. -The adults deposit eggs principally on hickory -trees on the leaves and young nuts, and the larvae -feed in developing nuts in early summer.</p> -<p>Succeeding generations develop in pecan -shucks. Before pupating, the larvae cut a hole -to the outside, and then spin a cocoon. When the -moth emerges, the empty pupal skin is left projecting -from the hole and can be seen afterward -on the shuck. As many as five generations may -be completed each year before the last generation -larvae go into hibernation.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—No economical chemical control for -the shuckworm has been developed. Cultural -measures will aid in reducing populations. Plowing -during July and August to turn under the infested -shucks is relatively effective. The larvae -are unable to mature in the decaying shucks, and -the adults cannot emerge from the soil. Care -should be taken to completely cover the fallen -shucks, but the depth of plowing should be regulated -or damage to the roots will result.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/p05d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="461" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 10. Location of overwintering cocoons, or hibernacula, -of the pecan nut casebearer.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<h3 id="c22">PECAN WEEVIL</h3> -<p>The pecan weevil, <i>Curculio caryae</i> (Horn), is -a late-season pest of pecans in Texas. In years -when severe infestations occur, this insect may -destroy a large portion of the pecan crop. The -kernels are eaten out by the larvae.</p> -<p>The adult is a brownish weevil which is about -three-eighths inch long. The female has a snout -which is as long as the body; the male’s is somewhat -shorter.</p> -<p>The weevil appears in late August and early -September. After the nut kernels have hardened, -the female chews a hole in the shell and deposits -her eggs in little pockets in the nuts. Creamy -white grubs hatch from the eggs and feed inside -the nuts during the fall, attaining a length of -about three-fifths inch. When they reach maturity, -the grubs chew a hole about one-eighth inch -in diameter in the shell, emerge from the nut and -drop to the ground in late fall and early winter. -They burrow in the soil to a depth of 4 to 12 -inches and construct a cell. Some individuals remain -in the larval stage until the following fall -when pupation occurs. Other larvae do not transform -to pupae until the succeeding year. The -adults appear during the summer, following pupation. -The entire life cycle requires from 2 to 3 -years, most of this time being spent in the soil.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="597" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 11. Overwintered larva of the pecan nut casebearer -and characteristic injury to the developing shoots.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Frequently, certain trees in the orchard -are more heavily infested than others, since -the adults usually do not go far from the tree -upon which they developed. The time at which -insecticide applications should be made to control -this insect can be determined by jarring the -trees. Begin checking the first week in August. -A large sheet should be placed under a tree and -the limbs jarred with a padded pole. The weevils -drop to the ground and remain motionless for a -short period, at which time they may be counted. -When three or more weevils are jarred from each -tree, an application of spray containing 6 pounds -of 50 percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons -of water should be made<a class="fn" id="fr_8" href="#fn_8">[8]</a>.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/p06a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="402" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 12. Eggs of the first generation pecan nut casebearer -deposited on the tips of the young nuts.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c23">STINK AND PLANT BUGS</h3> -<p>The adults of several species of stink bugs and -plant bugs suck the sap from young pecan nuts -causing an injury known as black pit, in which -the interior of the nuts turns black. The injured -nuts fall from the trees before the shells harden.</p> -<p>Feeding by the insects after shell hardening, -<a href="#fig14">Figure 14</a>, produces brown or black spots on -the kernels. Areas affected taste bitter, but the -remainder of the kernel is unaffected.</p> -<p>Stink bugs are familiar to everyone. Plant -bugs resemble them and are usually shades of -brown, smaller and narrower in body outline.</p> -<p>Plant bugs and stink bugs overwinter in the -adult stage in debris on the ground. In the -spring, the adults are attracted to growing vegetation -such as cover crops or weeds, where they -deposit their eggs. The immature bugs develop -on low-growing vegetation. When they reach maturity, -their wings are fully developed and they -fly to pecan trees. A few eggs may be deposited -on pecan trees, but the young bugs apparently -are unable to develop on them. Only the adults -are present in sufficient number to inflict economic -injury. There may be as many as four -generations each year.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Although certain insecticides will -control these pests, the number and frequency of -spray applications necessary for control would -not be economical.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<p>Care should be taken to keep weeds down in -the orchard during the growing season. Winter -cover crops should be plowed down early in the -spring so they will not be attractive to the adults -coming out of hibernation. If this operation is -delayed, the bugs will leave the cover crop when -it is removed and migrate to the trees in large -numbers.</p> -<h3 id="c24">APHIDS</h3> -<p>These soft-bodied insects appear during the -summer and fall. They suck the sap from the -leaves, causing them to turn yellow or brown and -fall to the ground. Heavy infestations may cause -defoliation in the late summer reducing the nut -crop in the current and succeeding year.</p> -<p>The black pecan aphid, <i>Melanocallis caryaefoliae</i> -(Davis), is about one-sixteenth inch long -when full grown, robust and greenish black. Its -back is decorated with tubercles.</p> -<p>Bright yellow blotches up to one-fourth inch -in diameter appear around the punctures produced -by the feeding of this insect.</p> -<p>The yellow aphids, <i>Monellia</i> spp., which attack -pecans inflict injury similar to that caused -by the black pecan aphid. However, the large -yellow blotches on the leaves do not result from -their feeding. A sticky substance called “honeydew” -is secreted by these insects creating an -ideal medium for sooty mold fungus to develop<a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a>.</p> -<p>Both black and yellow aphids overwinter in -the egg stage in crevices in the bark. In the -spring the eggs hatch, and the aphids begin feeding -on the leaves. Many generations are completed -each year. Only females, which may be -wingless or winged, are produced during the -growing season. The winged individuals fly to -different parts of the tree or to other trees. In -the fall, males and females appear and eggs are -deposited under the bark.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/p06d.jpg" alt="" width="356" height="501" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 13. Pupa of the -second generation of the -pecan nut casebearer in -a hollowed out nut.</p> -</div> -<p>Usually, these insects are not present in sufficient -numbers to cause serious injury until mid -or late summer. Infestations earlier in the season -rarely assume damaging proportions. As is -the case with mites, aphid populations may increase, -following the application of certain insecticides -applied for the control of the pecan nut -casebearer or following treatment with bordeaux -mixture for pecan scab disease control.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/p06e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="406" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 14. Southern green stink bug on developing nuts.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—When damaging infestations appear, -the trees should be sprayed with either 1 -pound of 12 percent gamma BHC wettable powder; -or 1 pint of 40 percent nicotine sulfate plus -3 pounds of soap; or 1 pound of 25 percent parathion -wettable powder<a class="fn" href="#fn_9">[9]</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c25">MITES</h3> -<p>These tiny pests attack the leaves usually on -the underside causing irregular brown areas to -appear. Trees which are heavily infested appear -scorched and may lose their leaves in late summer -or fall.</p> -<p>Mites usually are light green and are just -large enough to be seen without the aid of a hand -lens. They are wingless and feed principally on -the underside of the leaves along the midrib. Colonies -of them produce webs in which molted skins -and eggs may be found. The life cycle of mites -is very short and several generations occur each -year. Large populations may develop during the -late summer and fall.</p> -<p>The use of certain insecticides for the control -of the pecan nut casebearer or bordeaux mixture -for scab control frequently contributes to increases -in mite populations later in the season.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Mites may be controlled in three -ways when damaging infestations develop. An -application of 2 pounds of wettable sulfur per -100 gallons of water may be made; 6 pounds of -wettable sulfur per 100 gallons of water may be -added to the spray applied for the control of the -nut casebearer; and repeated applications of zineb -included in a regular spray schedule for pecan -scab control will effectively control mites. However, -a single application of zineb is not effective<a class="fn" id="fr_7" href="#fn_7">[7]</a>.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div> -<h3 id="c26">PECAN LEAF CASEBEARER</h3> -<p>On occasion, this insect, <i>Acrobasis juglandis</i> -(LeB.), develops to damaging numbers and causes -economic injury. Early in the spring the larva -feeds on unfolding leaves and buds. It may prevent -leaf development for weeks, resulting in a -greatly decreased yield of nuts.</p> -<p>The adult is a dark gray moth marked with -brown. Its forewings, which have a spread of -about two-thirds inch, are gray with black -blotches. There is a reddish mark near the base -of the forewings.</p> -<p>The immature larva is brown, but changes to -dark green as it develops to a length of one-half -inch. It has a shiny, brownish black head and is -enclosed in a gray case which completely covers -the body and is borne in a position nearly perpendicular -to the leaf on which the larva is feeding.</p> -<p>The pecan leaf casebearer overwinters as an -immature larva in a hibernaculum around a bud. -It emerges in late March or early April as the -buds open. The larvae mature in April, May and -June and transform into pupae within their gray -cases, <a href="#fig15">Figure 15</a>. The moths are present from -May until early August. Eggs are deposited during -this period on the underside of the leaves. The -larvae which hatch from these eggs develop slowly, -and do not attain a length of more than one-sixteenth -inch during that season. They construct -little winding cases in which they live. -Their feeding produces irregular blotches on the -leaf surface, <a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a>. Before the leaves drop -in the fall, the larvae migrate to the buds, and -construct their overwintering hibernacula. Only -one generation is completed each year.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Control of this insect is accomplished -by spraying for the pecan nut casebearer. -See spray schedule, <a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>. The insecticides -recommended for nut casebearer control also reduce -infestations of the leaf casebearer.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="357" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 15. Overwintered larvae of pecan leaf casebearer -in their cases.</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/p07a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="358" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 16. Summer injury to the leaves by the pecan -leaf casebearer.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c27">PECAN PHYLLOXERA</h3> -<p>The pecan phylloxera, <i>Phylloxera devastatris</i> -Perg., and the pecan leaf phylloxera, <i>P. notabilis</i> -Perg., produce galls on the new growth of pecans. -Leaves, twigs and nuts may be affected.</p> -<p>The galls are conspicuous swellings, <a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a>, -which attain a size of from one-tenth to 1 -inch in diameter. They are caused by a soft-bodied -insect which is closely related to aphids.</p> -<p>The winter is passed in the egg stage in crevices -in the bark. In the spring, the egg hatches -and the tiny nymph feeds on the tender, young -growth, apparently secreting a substance which -stimulates the plant tissues to develop into galls.</p> -<p>After the nymph reaches maturity, a number -of eggs are deposited inside the gall. The young -nymphs of the succeeding generation develop -within the gall, which splits open in 1 to 3 weeks, -liberating them. Several generations follow during -the summer and fall, as long as there is fresh -young growth on the tree. From 4 to 5 weeks -are required for each generation<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a>.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The dormant oil spray recommended -for obscure scale control will prevent the development -of phylloxera. If dormant oil is not -applied, use 2 pints of nicotine sulfate plus 6 -pounds of soap; 3 pounds of 25 percent malathion -wettable powder; or two and a half pounds of 10 -percent gamma isomer BHC wettable powder per -100 gallons of water when the leaves are one-third -grown.</p> -<h3 id="c28">SAWFLIES</h3> -<p>Sawfly larvae, <i>Periclista</i> sp. and others, feed -on the foliage of pecans during April and early -May. The larvae, which are light green, chew -holes in the leaves. Usually the midrib and veins -are left intact, giving the leaflets a lacy appearance, -<a href="#fig18">Figure 18</a>.</p> -<p>The adults closely resemble wasps, except that -they are not “wasp-waisted.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/p07c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="402" /> -<p class="pcap">Fig. 17. Developing galls of the pecan phylloxera. -Note the open gall on the lower leaf.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The larvae may be controlled with -an application of 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT -wettable powder or 1 pound of 25 percent parathion -wettable powder per 100 gallons of water.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/p07d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="510" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 18. Sawfly injury to pecan foliage.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c29">MAY BEETLES</h3> -<p>Many species of May beetles may damage pecans -early in the spring. The beetles appear only -at night and spend the day concealed beneath the -surface of the soil. They feed on the young leaves -and prevent the foliage from developing.</p> -<p>Beetles of the most common species are one-half -to three-fourths inch long and shiny dark -brown. They are attracted to lights and are observed -commonly on porches or screen doors at -night. The larvae are the grubworms, or white -grubs, which feed in the soil on the roots of many -plants.</p> -<p>The female beetle deposits eggs in the soil, -where the larva develops. Most species require -two summers for the larva to mature. Pupation -is accomplished in a cell which is constructed in -the ground in the fall of the second year. The -beetles emerge the following spring. Both larvae -and adults may be found in the soil during the -winter.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—May beetles are usually a problem -in orchards which are not cultivated because the -larvae feed on the roots of the sod cover. Cultivation -of the orchard periodically will reduce the -food supply of the grubs, and smaller infestations -of adults will appear the following year. Where -cultivation is not feasible, sprays will control the -adults. Apply 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable -powder; 4 pounds of lead arsenate; or 1 -pound of 25 percent parathion wettable powder -per 100 gallons of water when damage by this insect -is severe<a class="fn" href="#fn_9">[9]</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c30">PECAN CIGAR CASEBEARER</h3> -<p>The pecan cigar casebearer, <i>Coleophora caryaefoliella</i> -(Clem), may be damaging in some -years. The larva feeds on the leaves, producing -tiny holes. It constructs a light brown, cigar-shaped -case about one-fourth inch in length -which encases it throughout development.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The spray applied for control of the -nut casebearer will usually prevent significant -injury by the cigar casebearer. See spray schedule, -<a href="#Page_4">page 4</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c31">FALL WEBWORM</h3> -<p>The webs produced by the fall webworm, <i>Hyphantria -cunea</i> (Drury), are familiar to everyone. -Leaves are eaten by the larvae which live in -loosely woven, dirty white webs, <a href="#fig19">Figure 19</a>.</p> -<p>The adult is a white moth which may have -black or brown spots on the forewing. Its wings -have a span of about 1 inch.</p> -<p>The larvae are pale yellow spotted with black. -They attain a length of 1 inch when full grown -and are covered with long black and white hairs.</p> -<p>The insect overwinters as a pupa in lightly -woven cocoons in debris on the soil or under the -bark. In the spring the adults emerge and lay -masses of greenish white eggs on the leaves. The -caterpillars which hatch from the eggs feed on -the leaves in colonies under webs which they construct. -After feeding for a month to 6 weeks, the -larvae crawl down the tree and pupate in loose -cocoons in debris, under bark, or in loose soil. -Adults appear during the summer and deposit -eggs for the second generation. The larvae of -this generation feed extensively until fall, crawl -down the tree and pupate for the winter.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Light infestations on a few trees -can be eliminated by pruning out the affected -branches and burning them. If this method of -control is not practicable, the trees should be -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -sprayed with 2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable -powder; 1 pound of 25 percent parathion -wettable powder; or 3 pounds of lead arsenate -per 100 gallons of water<a class="fn" href="#fn_9">[9]</a>.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="554" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 19. Web of the fall webworm on a pecan limb.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c32">WALNUT CATERPILLAR</h3> -<p>During the spring and summer, the walnut -caterpillars, <i>Datana integerrima</i> G. & R. and -others, may strip the leaves from branches or -entire small trees. The adult is a moth with a -wingspan of 1½ to 2 inches. The forewings are -light brown with darker wavy lines. The hindwings -are lighter in color without lines.</p> -<p>The immature larva is reddish brown with -narrow yellowish lines that extend the length of -the body. The full-grown larva is almost black -with two grayish lines on the back and two on -the sides. Many long, soft gray hairs are distributed -over the body.</p> -<p>This insect overwinters in the pupal stage in -the soil. The adult emerges in the spring and -deposits eggs in masses on the underside of the -leaves, <a href="#fig20">Figure 20</a>. The larvae feed in colonies on -the leaves for about 3 weeks. At periodic intervals, -the groups of larvae move to the trunk to -molt and, after shedding their skins, they return -to the leaves to feed until the next molt. They do -not encase themselves in webs. There are two -generations each year, the first appearing in late -spring and early summer, the second in later summer -and fall. Larvae of the second generation -complete development and crawl down to pupate -in the soil.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—When these insects become abundant -enough to defoliate portions of the tree, they -may be controlled by applying a spray containing -2 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder; 3 -pounds of lead arsenate; or 1 pound of 25 percent -parathion wettable powder per 100 gallons -of water.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="551" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 20. Walnut caterpillar adults and egg mass on -a pecan leaflet.</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c33">PECAN CATOCALA</h3> -<p>Several species of catocalas, <a href="#fig21">Figure 21</a>, among -them <i>Catocala maestosa</i> Hlst., may strip the -leaves of pecans in the spring leaving only the -midribs. The caterpillars are very dark gray and -attain a length of about 3 inches when full grown. -They are very active when disturbed and move -with a looping motion. Both the caterpillars and -the moths are well camouflaged. When they rest -on the trees during the day, their color so harmonizes -with the color of the bark that they are -frequently indistinguishable.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—One application of 2 pounds of 50 -percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of -water controls this pest. Although the majority -of catocala larvae reach maturity before the time -to spray for the nut casebearer, a number of them -will be killed when the recommended spray is applied -for the latter insect.</p> -<h3 id="c34">PECAN SPITTLEBUG</h3> -<p>In the spring and early summer a number of -buds and small nuts may be covered with foamy -white masses. Inside these masses are several -small insects called spittlebugs, <i>Clastoptera obtusa</i> -(Say). The white froth is produced probably -to maintain an artificial high humidity, -which is required for development. The adults -resemble leafhoppers and fly actively during the -summer.</p> -<p>This insect has not been known to cause any -significant injury on pecans in Texas.</p> -<h3 id="c35">PECAN BUD MOTH</h3> -<p>The pecan bud moth, <i>Gretchena bolliana</i> -(Sling.), damages nursery stock and freshly top-worked -pecans. The greenish larvae feed in the -axils of the newly set buds and in the terminals -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -of young trees, causing extensive branching. -There are several generations each year.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/p08c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="368" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 21. Moth of the pecan catocala.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—This insect may be controlled by -applying a spray containing 2 pounds of 50 percent -DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of -water.</p> -<h3 id="c36">TWIG GIRDLER</h3> -<p>The adult twig girdler, <i>Oncideres cingulata</i> -(Say) (<i>O. texana</i> of some authors), girdles twigs -and branches, weakening them so that they fall -off or die on the tree, <a href="#fig22">Figure 22</a>. This insect is -active during the late summer and early fall. -Many twigs may be found on the ground under -a severely infested tree. Secondary branching -may occur and the number of bearing twigs is -reduced.</p> -<p>The twig borer is a grayish brown beetle one-half -to five-eighths inch in length with a broad -gray band over the middle of the wing covers. -Its head is reddish brown and bears a pair of -long antennae, which extend beyond the abdomen -on the male.</p> -<p>The larva is a white legless grub about three-fourths -inch long when it reaches maturity.</p> -<p>This insect overwinters as a partially grown -larva in a twig on the tree or ground. It develops -rapidly in the spring feeding in the twig. -Following pupation, the adult emerges in late -August or early September. The female systematically -girdles twigs and deposits eggs in the -severed portion since the larva is unable to develop -in healthy sapwood. The eggs hatch in a -few weeks into larvae which remain small until -the following spring when they complete development, -pupate and emerge as adults in the late -summer and fall. There is one generation annually, -although some individuals require 2 years -to mature<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a>.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Infestations may be reduced by removing -girdled branches from the trees and the -ground and burning them.</p> -<p>Chemical control is also effective. The trees -should be sprayed with 4 pounds of 50 percent -DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water -when the first injured branches are observed in -late August or early September. Two or three -applications at 2-week intervals may be required -for most effective control<a class="fn" href="#fn_9">[9]</a>.</p> -<h3 id="c37">RED-SHOULDERED SHOT-HOLE BORER</h3> -<p>The red-shouldered shot-hole borer, <i>Xylobiops -basilare</i> (Say), and other shot-hole borers also -injure trees in a devitalized condition. The larvae -feed in wood, pupate and emerge as adults -through round holes about one-eighth inch in diameter -in the bark. Many of these holes may be -observed in close proximity to each other.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—Since this insect feeds on dying or -dead wood, prunings and dead limbs should be -removed from the orchard and burned.</p> -<p>Adequate fertilizer and water will keep trees -in a healthy condition and prevent injury by this -pest.</p> -<h3 id="c38">FLATHEADED BORERS</h3> -<p>The flatheaded apple tree borer, <i>Chrysobothris -femorata</i> (Oliv.), and other species of flatheaded -borers attack unhealthy or recently transplanted -pecan trees by burrowing in the bark and sapwood -of the large branches and trunk. Their -presence is indicated by the appearance of darkened, -depressed areas in the bark from which -traces of frass may protrude. When these portions -of the bark are removed, shallow winding -burrows packed with sawdust may be observed. -The burrows usually are on the sunny side of the -trunk or branch, but may extend completely -around and penetrate the wood to a depth of 2 -inches. Young trees may be girdled by this insect.</p> -<p>The adult beetle is about one-half inch long, -broad and blunt at the head end and tapering to -a point posteriorly. Its wing covers, which have -a metallic sheen, are dark colored and corrugated.</p> -<p>The larva, or borer, which is legless and yellowish -white, attains a length of 1¼ inches when -full grown. Immediately behind the head is a -broad, flattened expanded area from which the -insect takes its name.</p> -<p>The winter is passed by larvae in varying -stages of development within the tree. In the -spring, they change to pupae in their burrows, -emerging as adults during the spring and summer. -The female beetles deposit their eggs in -cracks or bruises in the bark. The larvae which -hatch from these eggs feed during the remainder -of the season and pass the winter. There is only -one generation each year.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="405" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 22. Adult twig -girdler and characteristic -injury to twig.</p> -</div> -<p><i>Control.</i>—The beetles are attracted to trees or -areas of trees in a devitalized condition, induced -by transplanting, drouth, sunscald, bruises or -poor growing conditions. The trees must be kept -in a healthy, vigorous condition by proper fertilization -and watering. On young or transplanted -trees, wrapping the trunks in early spring before -the adults appear is the only effective control -known for these insects. Injury can be prevented -by thoroughly wrapping the entire trunk from -ground level to the branches with heavy paper or -other wrapping material. The wrapping should -be tied securely with twine and should be maintained -on the tree for 2 years. Regular observations -should be made to see that the twine does -not girdle the tree.</p> -<p>In older trees, the borers can be removed with -a sharp knife. Care should be taken to injure as -little of the healthy wood as possible. If the -wound is extensive, it should be trimmed and then -painted with a commercial tree paint or with a -mixture of one part creosote and three parts coal -tar. Dead and dying limbs and trees should be -removed from the orchard each year and burned -before the following spring. If they are not -burned, the borers in them may mature and re-infest -surrounding trees. Commercial tree borer -preparations are of little value in controlling this -insect.</p> -<h3 id="c39">OBSCURE SCALE</h3> -<p>The obscure scale, <i>Chrysomphalus obscurus</i> -(Comst.), is a pest of considerable importance, -particularly in the more arid portions of the -State. The tiny insect under its scale covering -sucks the sap from the limbs and branches, causing -them to lose their leaves and die back from -the tips. The tree is so devitalized by the feeding -of this insect that it is made vulnerable to -attack by wood borers.</p> -<p>The scale covering over a full-grown female -is about one-eighth inch long and is usually dark -gray, and closely resembles the bark of the tree. -Infested limbs appear to have had wood ashes -sprinkled over them, <a href="#fig23">Figure 23</a>. Numerous pits -appear in the bark where the insects feed, producing -a roughened appearance.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/p09a.jpg" alt="" width="492" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Figure 23. Severe infestation of obscure scale on a pecan twig.</p> -</div> -<p>The winter is passed by the female scales under -their coverings on the bark. Eggs laid in the -spring hatch into tiny, salmon-colored crawlers -which move about for a short time, then settle -down and insert their beaks. While they are -feeding, a scale covering develops which is made -up of secreted wax and cast skins.</p> -<p>The females never move again from the spot -they have selected, but the adult males develop -wings and emerge from their scale coverings to -mate with the females. Only one generation is -produced each year.</p> -<p><i>Control.</i>—When damaging populations develop, -a spray application of 3½ gallons of 97 -percent miscible dormant oil per 100 gallons of -water during the dormant season will keep this -pest under control.</p> -<h2 id="c40"><span class="small"><i>Application of Fungicides and Insecticides</i></span></h2> -<p>When possible, fungicides for disease control -and insecticides for insect control should be combined -in the spray tank and applied to the trees -in one operation. The spray materials should be -applied evenly and thoroughly to all the leaf and -nut surfaces to provide a chemical barrier to disease -organisms and insects. Do not neglect the -tops of the trees. Diseases and insects can harbor -and multiply in all unsprayed areas of the -tree.</p> -<p>Thorough coverage with spray materials is -essential for effective control. As a guideline, -apply approximately 1 gallon of spray mixture -for each foot of tree height. Apply 20 gallons to -a 20-foot tree and 40 gallons to a 40-foot tree, -etc.</p> -<h2 id="c41"><span class="small"><i>Spray Equipment</i></span></h2> -<p>Various types of spray machines for application -of fungicides and insecticides to pecan -trees are available. The spray machines employ -<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span> -either a high pressure hydraulic pump, high -pressure centrifugal pump or low pressure high -air velocity systems. All the machines are portable -and are equipped with a gasoline engine or -operate from a truck or tractor power takeoff -shaft.</p> -<p>For pecan spraying, a tank having a minimum -capacity of 300 gallons is desirable. The pump -should deliver 20 to 30 gallons per minute and -maintain a pressure of 400 to 600 pounds per -square inch while operating. A spray gun which -is adjustable to produce a mist spray for spraying -small trees or the lower canopy of large trees -and a narrow stream that will reach the tops of -tall trees is essential.</p> -<p>For safety and durability high pressure rubber -hose having an inside diameter of three-fourths -inch should be used with all high pressure -spray machines.</p> -<h2 id="c42"><span class="small"><i>Literature Cited</i></span></h2> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>Bilsing, S. W., 1916; Life history of the pecan -twig girdler. Journal Econ. Ent. 9:110-115.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>Bilsing, S. W., 1927; Studies on the biology -of the pecan nut casebearer. Texas Agricultural -Experiment Station Bulletin 347, 71 pp.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>Bilsing, S. W., 1941; An economical method -of removing Spanish moss (<i>Tillandsia usenoides</i>) -and Ball moss (<i>Tillandsia recurvata</i>) -from trees. Texas Agricultural Experiment -Station Progress Report 747.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Dobbins, Traber Norman, 1932; The biology -of the pecan phylloxera. Master’s Degree -Thesis, Texas A. and M. College.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>Dorman, Harvey S., 1934; The life history -of the yellow pecan aphid <i>Monellia nigropunctata</i> -Granovsky. Master’s Degree Thesis. -Texas A. and M. College.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>King, D. R. and David W. Rosberg, 1955; -Experiments for the control of pecan insects -and diseases, 1954. Texas Agricultural Experiment -Station Progress Report 1786.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_7" href="#fr_7">[7]</a>King, D. R. and David W. Rosberg, 1956; -Control of <i>Tetranychus hicoriae</i> McG. on pecans. -Journal Econ. Ent. 49 (3):404-5.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_8" href="#fr_8">[8]</a>Nickels, C. B., 1952; Control of the pecan -weevil in Texas. Journal Econ. Ent. 45 (6): -1099-1100.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_9" href="#fr_9">[9]</a>Osburn, M. R., A. M. Phillips, William C. -Pierce, and John R. Cole, 1954; Insects and -diseases of the pecan and their control. -USDA Farmers Bulletin 1829, 56 pp.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_10" href="#fr_10">[10]</a>Rosberg, David W., 1950; Control of pecan -diseases in 1950. Texas Agricultural Experiment -Station Progress Report 1330.</div> -<div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_11" href="#fr_11">[11]</a>Rosberg, David W. and D. R. King, 1954; -Pecan disease and insect control experiments -in Texas, 1953. Texas Agricultural Experiment -Station Progress Report 1671.</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<h2 id="c43"><span class="small"><i>Your County</i> <span class="sf">EXTENSION AGENTS</span></span></h2> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/p10.jpg" id="ncfig2" alt="Extension agents" width="500" height="168" /> -</div> -<p>can furnish you the latest information on farming, -ranching and homemaking. They represent -both The Texas A. & M. College System and the -United States Department of Agriculture in your -county.</p> -<p>Most county extension agents have their offices -in the county courthouse or agriculture building. -They welcome your visits, calls or letters for -assistance.</p> -<p>This publication is one of many prepared by the -Texas Agricultural Extension Service to present -up-to-date, authoritative information, based on -results of research. Extension publications are -available from your local agents or from the -Agricultural Information Office, -College Station, Texas.</p> -<hr class="dwide" /> -<p>Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics. The Texas A. & M. College System and United States -Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended, -and June 30, 1914.</p> -<p>10M-3-59. Reprint.</p> -<h2 id="trnotes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Silently corrected a few typos.</li> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PECAN DISEASES AND PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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