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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 07:55:55 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 07:55:55 -0800 |
| commit | 1ff4e8c2564007ec8fc3b16665cda22f3d8733e9 (patch) | |
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| parent | 555ee2180e0527c255d672c9428f4dadcd735c35 (diff) | |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2bb3f85 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67156 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67156) diff --git a/old/67156-0.txt b/old/67156-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 658f697..0000000 --- a/old/67156-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13261 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Salve Venetia, gleanings from Venetian -history; vol. II, by Francis Marion Crawford - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Salve Venetia, gleanings from Venetian history; vol. II - -Author: Francis Marion Crawford - -Release Date: January 13, 2022 [eBook #67156] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - available at The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVE VENETIA, GLEANINGS FROM -VENETIAN HISTORY; VOL. II *** - - - [Illustration: THE ANGELS OF THE SALUTE] - - - - - SALVE · VENETIA - - GLEANINGS - FROM VENETIAN HISTORY - - BY - - FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD - - _WITH 225 ILLUSTRATIONS BY JOSEPH PENNELL_ - - IN TWO VOLUMES - - VOL. II - - - NEW YORK - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. - 1906 - - _All rights reserved_ - - COPYRIGHT, 1905, - BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. - - Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1905. Reprinted - January, 1906. - - - Norwood Press - J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. - Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - I. THE ARISTOCRATIC MAGISTRACIES AT THE BEGINNING - OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 1 - - II. GLEANING FROM VENETIAN CRIMINAL HISTORY 51 - - III. VENETIAN DIPLOMACY 77 - - IV. THE ARSENAL, THE GLASS-WORKS, AND THE LACE-MAKERS 95 - - V. CONCERNING SOME LADIES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 117 - - VI. A FEW PAINTERS, MEN OF LETTERS, AND SCHOLARS 132 - - VII. THE TRIUMPHANT CITY 168 - - VIII. THE HOSE CLUB--VENETIAN LEGENDS 189 - - IX. THE DECADENCE 207 - - X. THE LAST HOMES--THE LAST GREAT LADIES 232 - - XI. THE LAST CARNIVALS--THE LAST FAIRS--THE LAST FEASTS 266 - - XII. THE LAST MAGISTRATES 288 - - XIII. THE LAST SBIRRI 310 - - XIV. THE LAST DOGES 334 - - XV. THE LAST SOLDIERS 348 - - XVI. THE LAST DIPLOMATISTS 361 - - XVII. THE LAST HOUR 380 - -XVIII. CONCLUSION 412 - -THE DOGES OF VENICE 421 - -TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DATES IN VENETIAN HISTORY 425 - -INDEX 433 - - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - -PLATES - -The Angels of the Salute _Frontispiece_ - -The Last Rays, St. Mark’s _To face page_ 35 - -Palazzo Ressonico ” 72 - -Steamers coming in ” 96 - -Afterglow, the Grand Canal ” 134 - -Venice from the Garden ” 140 - -Entrance to the Sacristy, Frari ” 149 - -Campiello delle Ancore ” 208 - -The Salute from the Riva ” 246 - -Fondamente Nuove ” 313 - -From San Georgio to the Salute ” 326 - -Ponte Canonica ” 356 - -Out in the Lagoon ” 382 - - -IN TEXT - - PAGE - -S. Maria degli Scalzi, Grand Canal 1 - -Hall of the Great Clocks, Ducal Palace 7 - -Hall of the Pictures, Ducal Palace 9 - -The Stair of Gold, Ducal Palace 13 - -Rio S. Atanasio 20 - -S. Samuele 30 - -On the Zattere 39 - -Rio del Rimedio 41 - -Mouth of the Grand Canal 51 - -The Rialto at Night 53 - -From the Balcony of the Ducal Palace 54 - -The Columns, Piazzetta 55 - -The Salute from the Giudecca 61 - -A Garden Wall 69 - -Palazzo Dario 83 - -Calle Beccheria 85 - -Ponte del Cristo 95 - -S. Michele 99 - -Venice from Murano 100 - -The Duomo Campanile, Murano 101 - -Murano, looking towards Venice 103 - -Murano 104 - -The House of Beroviero, Murano 105 - -The Palaces 109 - -The Rialto Steps 112 - -Noon on the Rialto 113 - -At the Rialto 115 - -Evening off S. Georgio 117 - -Casa Weidermann 125 - -The Grand Canal in Summer 132 - -Euganean Hills from the Lagoon, Low Tide 135 - -House of Tintoretto 145 - -House of Aldus 147 - -S. Giacomo in Orio 157 - -Doorway of the Sacristy, S. Giacomo in Orio 159 - -Fondamenta Sanudo 161 - -A Holiday on the Riva 168 - -Door of the Carmine 174 - -Interior of the Carmine 177 - -Campo behind S. Giacomo in Orio 181 - -The Piazza 185 - -Pigeons in the Piazza 187 - -Sotto Portico della Guerra 189 - -Ponte S. Antonio 193 - -S. Zobenigo 197 - -Ponte dell’ Angelo, Giudecca, Old Wooden Bridge 202 - -Rio S. Sofia, Night 207 - -Santa Maria Formosa 211 - -Grand Canal looking towards Mocenigo Palace 217 - -The Fondamenta S. Giorgio, Redentore in Distance 222 - -Steps of the Redentore 224 - -The Nave of S. Stefano 229 - -The Riva from the Dogana 232 - -Campo S. Bartolomeo, Statue of Goldoni 233 - -SS. Giovanni e Paolo 243 - -Night on the Riva 244 - -Rio della Toresela 253 - -A Narrow Street, near the Academy 259 - -Grand Canal 266 - -Church of the Miracle 271 - -The Procession of the Redentore 276 - -Near the Fenice 286 - -Grand Canal from the Fish Market 288 - -S. Barnabò 289 - -Instituto Bon, Grand Canal 293 - -When the Alps show Themselves, Fondamenta Nuove 300 - -Café on the Zattere 301 - -The Dogana 303 - -Rio della 310 - -Rio S. Stin 313 - -Rio della Guerra 318 - -Via Garibaldi 325 - -The Pesaro Palace, Grand Canal 334 - -Marco Polo’s Court 339 - -Ponte della Pietà 344 - -From the Public Garden at Sunset 348 - -Boat-Builders 353 - -The Vegetable Market 355 - -Fondamenta Weidermann 357 - -The Salute from S. Giorgio 361 - -From the Ponte della Pietà 365 - -On the Way to Fusina, from the Mouth of the Brenta 369 - -A Lonely Canal 374 - -Evening 380 - -The Salute from the Lagoon 385 - -From the Ponte S. Rocco 397 - -Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo 403 - -So-called House of Desdemona 407 - -Sails 412 - -A Gateway 413 - - - - - SALVE · VENETIA - -[Illustration: S. MARIA DEGLI SCALZI, GRAND CANAL] - - - - -I - -THE ARISTOCRATIC MAGISTRACIES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY - - -Like other aristocracies, the Venetian government rarely destroyed or -altogether abolished any office or regulation which had existed a long -time. When a change was needed the duties or powers of one or more of -the Councils were extended, or a committee of the Council of Ten was -appointed and presently turned into a separate tribunal, as when the -Inquisitors of State were created. - -In one sense the government of Venice had now existed in a rigid and -unchangeably aristocratic form during two centuries, and that form never -changed to the very end. But in another sense no government in the world -ever showed itself more flexible under the pressure of events, or better -able to provide a new legislative weapon with which to combat each new -danger that presented itself. This double character of an administration -which inspired awe by its apparent immutability and terror by its -ubiquity and energy, no doubt had much to do with its extraordinarily -long life; for I believe that no civilised form of government ever -endured so long as that of Venice. - -It is therefore either frivolous or hypocritical to seek the causes of -its ultimate collapse. It died of old age, when the race that had made -it was worn out. It would be much more to the point to inquire why the -most unscrupulous, sceptical, suspicious, and thoroughly immoral -organisation that ever was devised by man should have outlasted a number -of other organisations supposed to be founded on something like -principles of liberty and justice. Such an inquiry would involve an -examination into the nature of freedom, equity, and truth generally; but -no one has ever satisfactorily defined even one of those terms, for the -simple reason that the things the words are supposed to mean do not -anywhere exist; and the study of that which has no real existence, and -no such potential mathematical existence as an ultimate ratio, is -absolutely futile. - -The facts we know about the Venetian government are all interesting, -however. It had its origin, like all really successful governments, in -the necessities of a small people which held together in the face of -great dangers. It was moulded and developed by the strongest and most -intelligent portion of that people, and the party that modelled it -guessed that each member of the party would destroy it and make himself -the master if he could, wherefore the main thing was to render it -impossible for any individual to succeed in that. The individual most -likely to succeed was the Doge himself, and he was therefore turned into -a mere doll, a puppet that could not call his soul his own. The next -most probable aspirant to the tyranny would be the successful -native-born general or admiral. A machinery was invented whereby the -victorious leader was almost certain to be imprisoned, fined, and exiled -as soon as his work was done and idleness made him dangerous. Pisani, -Zeno, Da Lezze are merely examples of what happened almost invariably. -If a Venetian was a hero, any excuse would serve for locking him up. - -Next after the generals came the nobles who held office, and lastly -those who were merely rich and influential. They were so thoroughly -hemmed in by a hedge of apparently petty rules and laws as to their -relations with foreigners, with the people, and with each other, that -they were practically paralysed, as individuals, while remaining active -and useful as parts of the whole. No one ever cared what the people -thought or did, for they were peaceable, contented, and patriotic. Every -measure passed by the nobles was directed against an enemy that might at -any moment arise amongst themselves, or against the machinations of -enemies abroad. Of all Italians the Venetians alone were not the victims -of that simplicity of which I have already spoken. They believed in -nothing and nobody, and they were not deceived. They were not drawn into -traps by the wiles of the Visconti as Genoa was, and as many of the -principalities were; they were not cheated out of their money by royal -English borrowers as the Florentines were; they were not led away out of -sentiment to ruin themselves in the Crusades as so many were; on the -contrary, their connection with the Crusades was very profitable. For a -long time they could be heroes when driven to extremities, but they -never liked heroics; they were good fighters at sea, because they were -admirable merchant sailors, but on land they much preferred to hire -other men to fight for them, whom they could pay off and get rid of when -the work was done. - -Like other nations, their history is that of their rise, their -culmination, and their decline. Like other nations, Venice also -resembled the living body of a human being, of which it is not possible -to define with absolute accuracy the periods of youth, prime, and old -age. But we can say with certainty that each of those stages lasted -longer in the life of Venice than in the life of any other European -state, perhaps because no one of the three periods was hastened or -interrupted by an internal revolution or by the temporary presence of a -foreign conqueror. - -It can be said, however, that Venice was, on the whole, at the height of -her glory about the year 1500, and it would have needed a gift of -prophecy to foretell the probable date of the still distant end. At that -time the Great Council was more than ever the incarnation of the State, -that is, of the aristocracy; and every member of the great assembly had -a sort of ‘cultus’ for his own dignity, and looked upon his family, from -which he derived his personal privileges, with a veneration that -bordered on worship. The safety and prosperity of the patrician houses -were most intimately connected with the welfare of the country; a member -of the Great Council would probably have considered that the latter was -the immediate consequence of the former. As a matter of fact, under the -government which the aristocrats had given themselves, it really was so; -they were themselves the State. - -It was therefore natural that they should guard their race against all -plebeian contamination. From time to time it became necessary to open -the Golden Book and the doors of the Great Council to certain families -which had great claims upon the public gratitude, as happened after the -war of Chioggia; but the book was opened unwillingly, and the door of -the council-chamber was only set ajar; the newcomers were looked - -[Sidenote: _Rom. iv. 469._] - -upon as little better than intruders, and the ‘new men,’ while they -were invested with the outward distinctions of rank before the law, were -not received into anything like intimacy by their colleagues of the -older nobility. - -It is a law of the Catholic Church that baptism creates a relationship, -and therefore a canonical impediment to marriage, between the baptized -person or his parents on the one hand, and the godfathers and godmothers -on the other, as well as between each of the godparents and all the -rest. But it was the custom of Venice to have a great many godfathers -and godmothers at baptisms, and the nobles were therefore obliged by law -to choose them from the burgher and artisan classes. It was perfectly -indifferent that a young patrician should contract a spiritual -relationship with a hundred persons--there were sometimes as many -godparents as that--if these persons were socially so far beneath him -that he must lose caste if he married one of them; but it was of prime -importance that the law should forbid the formation of any spiritual -bond whereby a possible marriage between two members of the aristocracy -might be prevented, or even retarded. Every parish priest was therefore -required to ask in a loud voice, when he was baptizing a noble baby, -whether there were any persons of the same social condition as the -infant amongst the godparents. If he omitted to do this, or allowed -himself to be deceived by those present, he was liable to a very heavy -fine, and might even be imprisoned for several months. - -The Avogadori now replaced their old-fashioned register by the one -henceforth officially known as the Golden Book, in which were entered -the marriages of the nobles and the births of their children. Every -noble who omitted to have his marriage registered within one week, or -the birth of his children within the same time, was liable to severe -penalties. But the - -[Illustration: HALL OF THE GREAT CLOCKS, DUCAL PALACE] - -names of women of inferior condition who married nobles were not entered -in those sanctified pages, since the children of a burgher woman could -not sit in the Great Council. Nevertheless, it happened now and then -that a noble sacrificed the privileges - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Dog._] - -of his descendants for the present advantage of a rich dowry; and as -this again constituted a source of anxiety for the State, the amount of -a burgher girl’s marriage portion was limited by law to the sum of two -thousand ducats. - -The young aristocrats received a special education, to fit them for -their future duties and offices. We have already seen that young men not -yet old enough to sit in the Great Council were admitted to its meetings -in considerable numbers, though without a - -[Sidenote: _Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien de Venise, 67._] - -vote. The instruction and education of young nobles were conducted -according to a programme of which the details were established by a -series of decrees, and especially by one dating from 1443; and in the -Senate very young noble boys were employed to carry the ballot-boxes, in -which office they took turns, changing every three months. There were -probably not enough noble children to perform the same duty for the -Great Council, which employed for that purpose a number of boys from the -Foundling Asylum. - -The young nobles were brought up to feel that they and their time -belonged exclusively to the State, and when they grew older it was a -point of honour with them not to be absent from any meeting of the -Councils to which they were appointed. Marcantonio Barbaro, the -patrician whose life M. Yriarte has so carefully studied, missed only -one meeting of the Great Council in thirty years, and then his absence -was due to illness. When one considers that the Great Council met every -Sunday, and on every feast day except the second of March and the -thirty-first of January, which was Saint Mark’s day, such constant -regularity is really wonderful. - -[Illustration: HALL OF THE PICTURES, DUCAL PALACE] - -During the summer the sittings were held from eight in the morning until -noon, in winter from noon to sunset; this, at least, was the ordinary -rule, but the Doge’s counsellors could multiply the meetings to any -extent they thought necessary, and we know that when a doge was to be -elected the Great Council sometimes sat fifty times consecutively. - -The public were admitted to the ordinary sittings of the Great Council, -and in later times one could even be present wearing a mask, as may be -seen in certain old engravings. But no outsiders were admitted when an -important subject was to be discussed, and on those occasions a number -of members were themselves excluded. If, for instance, the question -concerned the Papal Court, all those who had ever avowed their sympathy -for the Holy See, or who had any direct relations with the reigning -Pope, or who owed him any debt of gratitude, were ordered to leave the -hall. Such persons were called ‘papalisti,’ and were frequently shut out -of the Great Council in the sixteenth century, a period during which the -Republic had many differences with Rome. - -In 1526, for instance, the Patriarch of Venice laid before the Great -Council a complaint against the Signors of the Night, who refused to set -at liberty a certain priest arrested by them, or even to inform the -ecclesiastical authorities of the nature of his misdemeanour. That would -have been one of the occasions for excluding the ‘papalisti.’ The -Patriarch seems to have been a hot-tempered person, for on finding that -he could get no satisfaction from the Great Council, he excommunicated -the Venetian government and everybody connected with it, and posted the -notice of the interdict on the columns of the ducal palace. The matter -was patched up in some way, however, for on the morrow the notice -disappeared. - -The Senate met twice a week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays. I find among -their regulations a singular rule by which the beginning of every speech -had to be delivered in the Tuscan language, after which the speaker was -at liberty to go on in his own Venetian dialect. - -[Sidenote: _Fulin, Studii, Arch. Ven. I. 1871 (unfinished)._] - -I have already spoken at some length of the Council of Ten; it is now -necessary to say something of the Inquisitors of State, to whom the Ten -ceded a part of their authority in the sixteenth century. - -In the first place, the Inquisitors of State never had anything to do -with the ‘Inquisition,’ nor with the ‘Inquisitors of the Holy Office,’ a -tribunal, oddly enough, which was much more secular than ecclesiastic, -and which belongs to a later period. - -Secondly, the so-called ‘Statutes of the Inquisitors of State,’ -published by the French historian Daru, in good faith, and translated by -Smedley, were - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vi._] - -afterwards discovered to be nothing but an impudent forgery, containing -several laughable anachronisms, and a number of mistakes about the -nature of the magistracies which prove that the forger was not even a -Venetian. - -Thirdly, the genuine Statutes have been discovered since, and are given -at length by Romanin. They do not bear the least resemblance to the -nonsense published by Daru. No one except Romanin would have attempted -to whitewash the Inquisitors and the Council of Ten, and even he is -obliged to admit that for ‘weighty reasons of state’ they did not -hesitate to order secret assassinations; but they were not fools, as the -‘Statutes’ of Daru make them appear. - -The proof that the Statutes published by Romanin are genuine consists in -the fact that two independent copies of them have been found; the one, -written out by Angelo Nicolosi, secretary to the Inquisitors, with a -dedication to them dated the twenty-fifth of September 1669; the other, -a pocket copy, written out in 1612, with his own hand, by the Inquisitor -Niccolò Donà, nephew of the Doge Leonardo Donà. The Statutes in these -two copies are identical; the earlier one, which belonged to Donà, -contains also a number of interesting memoranda concerning the doings of -the tribunal in that year. - -Lastly, it is conjectured by Romanin that the author of the forgery that -imposed on Daru and others was no less a personage than Count Francesco -della Torre, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire. He died in Venice -in 1695. - -These facts being clearly stated, we can pass on to inquire how and why -the court of the Inquisitors of State was evoked, it being well -understood that although they were not the malignant fiends described by -Daru, who seems to have had in his mind the German tales of the -‘Wehmgericht,’ yet, in the picturesque language of their native Italy, -‘they were not shinbones of saints’ either. - -Most historians consider that ‘Inquisitors of the Council of Ten’ were -first appointed by that Council - -[Illustration: THE STAIR OF GOLD, DUCAL PALACE] - -in 1314, and it is generally conceded that they did not take the title -‘Inquisitors of State’ and begin to be regarded unofficially as a -separate tribunal till 1539. The mass of evidence goes to show that -these two dates are, at least, not far wrong, and during more than two -hundred years between the two, the members of the committee were called -indifferently either the ‘Inquisitors,’ or the ‘Executives’ of the Ten. - -They were at first either two, or three; later they were always three, -and they were commissioned to furnish proofs against accused persons, -and occasionally to make the necessary arrangements for secretly -assassinating traitors who had fled the country and were living abroad. -At first their commission was a temporary one, which was not renewed -unless the gravity of the case required it. Later, when they became a -permanent tribunal of three, two of their number were always regular -members of the Council of Ten, and were called the ‘Black Inquisitors,’ -because the Ten wore black mantles; the third was one of the Doge’s -counsellors, who, as will be remembered, were among the persons always -present at the meetings of the Ten, and he was called the ‘Red -Inquisitor’ from the colour of his counsellor’s cloak. - -The fourteenth century was memorable on account of the great -conspiracies, and it is at least probable that after 1320 the secret -committee of the Ten became tolerably permanent as to its existence, -though its members were often changed. Signor Fulin has discovered that -during a part of the fifteenth century they were chosen only for thirty -days, and that the utmost exactness was enforced on those who vacated -the office. A long discussion took place at that time as to whether the -month began at the midnight preceding the day of the Inquisitor’s -election, or only on the morning of that day; since, in the latter case, -an Inquisitor at the end of his term would have the right to act until -sunrise on the thirty-first day, whereas, in the other, he would have to -resign his seat at the first stroke of midnight. The incident is a good -instance of the Venetian manner of interpreting the letter of the law. - -So long as the tribunal was merely a committee depending on the Ten it -had no archives of its own, and whatever it did appeared officially as -the act of the Council, of which the Inquisitors were merely executive -agents. They were dismissed at the end of their month of service with a -regular formula:-- - -‘The Inquisitors will come to the Council with what they have found, and -the Council will decide what it thinks best with regard to them.’ - -In those times they received no general authorisation or power to act on -their own account, and their office must have been excessively irksome, -since a heavy fine was exacted from any one who refused to serve on the -committee when he had been chosen. Though they were not, as a rule, men -of over-sensitive conscience, they felt their position keenly and served -with ill-disguised repugnance, well knowing that they were hated as a -body even more than they were feared, and that their lives were not -always safe. - -In early times their actual permanent power was very limited, though the -Ten could greatly extend it for any special purpose. For instance, they -could not, of their own will, proceed even to a simple arrest; they -could not order the residence of a citizen to be searched; and they -could not use torture in examining a witness, without a special -authorisation from the Ten on each occasion. - -Their work then lay almost wholly in secretly spying upon suspected -persons; and it often happened that when such an one was at last -arrested the whole mass of evidence against him was already written out -and in the hands of the Ten. It also certainly happened now and then -that a person was proved innocent by the Inquisitors who had been -suspected by the Ten, and who had never had the least idea that he was -in danger. - -The machinery did not always work quickly, it is true, especially after -the accused was arrested and locked up. Trials often dragged on for -months, so that when the culprit was at last sentenced to a term of -prison, it appeared that he had already served more than the time to -which he was condemned. This abuse, however, led to a vigorous reform by -a series of stringent decrees, the time of inquiry was limited, for -ordinary cases, to three days, and for graver matters to a month, and -ruinous fines were imposed on Councillors and Inquisitors who were not -present at every sitting of the Court. - -It was towards the close of the sixteenth century that the Inquisitors, -being then elected for the term of a year, were given much greater power -than theretofore. Though they were still closely associated with the -Ten, they now had a sort of official independence, including the right -to a method of procedure of their own, with secret archives quite -separate from those of the Ten. The year 1596 is generally given as the -date at which the separate tribunal was definitely created, with -permanent instructions to watch over the public safety, and to detect -all plots and conspiracies that might threaten the ‘ancient laws and -government of Venice.’ - -It cannot be said that the procedure of the Ten, or of the Inquisitors, -was arbitrary, and the supreme Venetian tribunals have not deserved all -the obloquy that has been heaped upon them; but at a time when the most -inhuman methods were used to obtain evidence, they certainly did not -give an example of gentleness. - -Signor Fulin, to whose recent researches all students of Venetian -history are much indebted, says, with perfect truthfulness, that torture -was by no means used with moderation. He cites a document signed by the -Ten and the Inquisitors, dated the twenty-fifth of April 1445:-- - -‘We have received a humble petition from Luigi Cristoforo Spiaciario, -sentenced to two years’ imprisonment and ten years of exile for -unnatural crimes. The said convict has passed two years in prison -according to his sentence, and five years more in the corridors of the -prisons, because his feet having been burnt and his arms dislocated by -torture, he could not leave Venice. The said convict petitions that, out -of regard for so much suffering, he may be pardoned the last five years -of his condemnation.’ - -The same writer also tells us that in spite of the precautions which -were supposed to be taken, torture often ended in death; and in the -archives of the Ten there are instances of horrible mutilations besides -public decapitations, secret stranglings, and hangings and poisonings; -there are also some cases of death inflicted by drowning, though these -were less frequent than has been supposed; and lastly, the quiet waters -of the canals have more than once reflected the blaze of faggots burning -round the stake. - -Romanin’s industry has left us an exact list of the official drownings -that took place between 1551 and 1604, a period of fifty-three years. As -it is not long, I append it in full. The list is made out from the -register of deaths which is preserved in the church of Saint Mark’s. - - In 1551 there were secretly drowned 2 persons - 1554 “ “ 2 “ - 1555 “ “ 2 “ - 1556 “ “ 3 “ - 1557 “ “ 4 “ - 1558 “ “ 1 “ - 1559 “ “ 8 “ - 1560 “ “ 7 “ - 1569 “ “ 6 “ - 1571 “ “ 4 “ - 1573 “ “ 7 “ -From 1574 to 1584 “ “ 12 “ - 1584 to 1594 “ “ 55 “ - 1594 to 1600 “ “ 50 “ - 1600 to 1604 “ “ 40 “ - --- - Total number of drowned 203 during 53 years - === - -The last person who suffered death by drowning was a glass-blower of -Murano in the eighteenth century. - -Before going on to say a word about the prisons in the sixteenth century -it is as well to call attention to the fact that the Inquisitors of -State twice found themselves in direct relations with the English -government; once, in 1587, when they called the attention of England to -a conspiracy which was brewing in Spain; and again, a few years later, -in connection with the tragedy of Antonio Foscarini in which they played -such a deplorable part. Is it not possible that there may be some -documents in the English Record Office bearing upon those circumstances, -and likely to throw more light upon the tribunal of the Inquisitors? - -In connection with the prisons, I take the following details, among many -similar ones, from documents found by Signor Fulin in the archives of -the Inquisitors of State. He says, in connection with them, that they -are by no means exaggerated. One of the most characteristic is a case -dated towards the end of the fifteenth century, and it will serve as an -example, since it is known that no great changes were made in the -management of the prisons until much later. - -‘There has been found in the prisons a youth named Menegidio -Scutellario, whom the Council of Ten had sentenced to twenty-five blows -of the stick, which he received, and to a year’s imprisonment. He was -transferred from the new prisons to the one called Muzina, where he -contracted an extremely painful inflammatory disease which has produced -running sores. He has several on his head, and his face is much - -[Illustration: RIO S. ATANASIO] - -swollen. Moreover, this boy is shut up in the prison with twenty-five -men of all ages, which is very dangerous for him from a moral point of -view. A widow, who says she is his mother, comes every day to the Palace -begging and imploring that her son may not be left in this abominable -prison, lest he die there, or at least learn all manner of wickedness in -the company of so many criminals. We consequently order that in view of -the justice of these complaints the boy be kept in the corridor of the -prisons till the end of his year.’ - -As in the Tower of London, so also in the gloomy dens of the Pozzi, -former prisoners have left short records of themselves. For instance: - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali Urb._] - -‘1576, 22 March. I am Mandricardo Matiazzo de Marostega’; ‘Galeazze -Avogadro and his friends 1584’; and lower down the following misspelt -Latin words, ‘Odie mihi, chras tibi (_sic_)’--‘My turn to-day, to-morrow -yours.’ - -Occasionally some daring convict succeeded in escaping from those deep -and secure prisons. In his journal, under the fifth of August 1497, -Marin Sanudo writes:-- - - It has happened that in the prisons of Saint Mark a number of - convicts who were to remain there till they died have plotted to - escape; they elected for their chief that Loico Fioravante, who - killed his father on the night of Good Friday in the church of the - Frari. There was also Marco Corner, sentenced for an unnatural - crime; Benedetto Petriani, thief, and many others. On the evening - of the fourth, when the jailers were making their usual rounds, the - prisoners succeeded in disarming and binding them, and went on from - one prison to another, their numbers increasing as they went, till - they reached the last (novissima); there they found arrows and - other arms, and began to discuss a plan of escape. Now it chanced - that two Saracens who were amongst them wished to get out more - quickly, without waiting for the deliberations of their comrades. - One of them was almost drowned in the canal, the other took fright - and began to cry out for help. A boat of the Council of Ten which - was just passing picked up the half-drowned man; the fact that he - was a Saracen suggested that he might be a fugitive, and he was - frightened into confessing. The plot was now revealed and the guard - was immediately informed. On the following morning the chiefs of - the Ten, Cosimo Pasqualigo, Niccolò da Pesaro, Domenico Beneto, - went to the prisons with a good escort, but they could not get in, - for the prisoners defended themselves. Then wet straw was brought, - and it was lighted in order that the smoke might suffocate them. - And they were advised to yield before the order of the Council of - Ten was repeated thrice, for otherwise they would all be hanged. - Marco Corner was the first to surrender, and after him all the - others. They were taken back, each to his prison, under a closer - watch. - -In Marco Corner’s case the love of liberty must have been strong, for in -the same journal of Sanudo we find that in little more than a year after -their unsuccessful attempt at flight, he and some companions actually -succeeded in getting out and made their exit through the hall of the -Piovego, that is to say, through the Doge’s palace. Their numbers were -considerable, and six of them were sentenced to imprisonment for life. -During the night they reached the monastery of Saint George, and at dawn -they were already beyond the confines of Venetian territory. - -Having disposed of the Inquisitors of State, I shall now endeavour to -explain the position and duties of the Inquisitors of the Holy Office, -with whom the ordinary reader is very apt to confound them. - -In the first place, the Holy Office in Venice was a much milder and more -insignificant affair than it was at that time in other European states. -In Venice it seems to have corresponded vaguely to the modern European -Ministry of Public Worship. There are some amusing stories connected -with it, but no very terrible ones so far as I can ascertain. - -The Republic had long resisted the desire of the Popes to establish a -branch of the Holy Inquisition in Venice, but by way of showing a -conciliatory spirit, while maintaining complete independence, the -government had created a magistracy which was responsible for three -matters, namely, the condition of the canals, the regulation of usury, -and--of all things--cases of heresy. It is perfectly impossible to say -why three classes of affairs so different were placed under the control -of one body of men. Considering the gravity of the Venetian government -we can hardly suppose that it was intended as a piece of ironical wit at -the expense of the Holy See. It may, at all events, be considered -certain that the Savi all’ Eresia, literally the Wise Men on Heresy, of -the thirteenth century, had not accomplished what was expected of them, -since in 1289 the government recognised the necessity of establishing a -special court to deal with affairs of religion, presided over, at least -in appearance, by a person delegated for that purpose from the Vatican. -The Holy Office was thereby accepted in Venice, but with restrictions -that paralysed it. - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Stud. e Ric._] - -The tribunal was, in principle, composed of three persons, the Apostolic -Nuncio, the Patriarch, and the Father Inquisitor, all three of whom had -to be approved by the Republic. As a first step towards hindering them -from acting rashly, they were strictly forbidden to discuss or decide -anything whatsoever, except in the presence of three Venetian nobles, -who were appointed year by year, and preserved their ancient title of -Wise Men on Heresy. Next, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ii. 252, and viii. 348._] - -the Holy Office was not allowed to busy itself about any religious -matter except heresy, in the strictest sense; it could not interfere in -connection with any violation of the laws of the Church, not even in -cases of sorcery or blasphemy, for magicians fell under the authority of -the Signors of the Night, and blasphemers were answerable to the -Executives against Blasphemy. - -These laws had not changed in the sixteenth century, and the Holy Office -had less to do than most of the contemporary tribunals. An examination -of the documents preserved in its archives shows that from the year 1541 -to the fall of the Republic there were three thousand six hundred and -twenty trials, of which fifteen hundred and sixty-five fell in the -sixteenth century, fourteen hundred and ninety-seven in the seventeenth, -and only five hundred and sixty-one in the eighteenth. In the majority -of cases the testimony was declared insufficient; in others, the accused -hastened to abjure their errors. Sometimes, however, we find long -trials in the course of which torture was used as by the other -tribunals, and in these cases the end was frequently a sentence of death -or a condemnation to the galleys. - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Stud. e Ric., and Cecchetti, Corte di Roma._] - -No heretic was ever burned alive in Venice; death was inflicted by -strangling, beheading, or hanging. Each Doge promised, indeed, on his -election, to burn all heretics, but it is amply proved that only their -dead bodies or their effigies were really given to the flames. - -[Illustration: - -A: Clerk of the Exchequer -B: Commissioner of the Inquisition -C: The Patriarch’s Vicar General -D: The Nuncio’s Auditor -E: The Father Inquisitor -F: The Patriarch -G: The Pope’s Nuncio -H: A Venetian Senator -I: A Venetian Senator -J: A Venetian Senator - - A B C D E F G H I J -Door used by the +-++-++-++-++-++-++-++-++-++-++-+ -Father Inquisitor, the | ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ | -Nuncio’s Auditor, the | | Door used by the -Patriarch’s Vicar, -+ /-------------------------\ +- Patriarch, the -the Commissioner |Court of the Holy Office | Nuncio, and the -of the Inquisition, -+ \-------------------------/ +- three Senators. -and the Clerk of | | -the Exchequer. | | - +-------------------------------+ -] - -The tribunal of the Holy Office sat in a very low vaulted room in the -buildings of Saint Mark’s, which was reached by a narrow staircase after -passing through the Sacristy. The Court had no prisons of its own. -Persons who were arrested by it, or sentenced by it to terms of -imprisonment, were confined in the prisons of the State, probably in -those of the Ponte della Paglia. It is likely that the Court had at its -disposal two or three cells near its place of sitting, for the -detention of the accused during the trials. Signor Molmenti has -ascertained precisely how the members of the tribunal were placed, and -has published a diagram which I here reproduce for the benefit of those -who like such curious details. - -As will be seen by the diagram, one half of the personages used one -entrance, and the rest came in by the other. Until the year 1560, the -Inquisitor himself was a Franciscan monk, but afterwards he was always a -Dominican. - -The hall was gloomy and ill-lighted, the furniture poor; it did not -please the Republic to spend money for the delectation of a court which -it did not like. - -It was here that two famous trials took place in the sixteenth century, -namely, that of Giordano Bruno, the renegade monk, dear to Englishmen -who have never read the very scarce volume of his insane and filthy -writings, and that of the celebrated painter Paolo Veronese. The -contrast between these two documents is very striking, but both go to -prove that the Holy Office in Venice was seldom more than a hollow sham, -and that its proceedings occasionally degenerated towards low comedy. - -Having escaped from Rome, Giordano Bruno left the ecclesiastical career -which he had dishonoured in - -[Sidenote: _Previti, Vita di Giordano Bruno._] - -every possible way, and wandered about in search of money and glory. In -the course of time he came to London, where his coarseness and his loose -life made him many enemies. Thence he went on to Oxford, where, by -means of some potent protection, he succeeded in obtaining the privilege -of lecturing on philosophy; but the university authorities were soon -scandalised by his behaviour and frightened by the extravagance of his -doctrines; in three months he was obliged to leave. He revenged himself -by writing a libel called ‘La Cena delle Ceneri,’ in which he described -England as a land of dark streets in which one stuck in the mud -knee-deep, and of houses that lacked every necessary; the boats on the -Thames were rowed by men more hideous than Charon, the workmen and -shop-keepers were vulgar and untaught rustics, always ready to laugh at -a stranger, and to call him by such names as traitor, or dog. In this -pleasing pamphlet the Englishwoman alone escapes the writer’s -foul-mouthed hatred, to be insulted by his still more foul-mouthed -praise. One may imagine the sort of eulogy that would run from the pen -of a man capable of describing woman in general as a creature with -neither faith nor constancy, neither merit nor talent, but full of more -pride, arrogance, hatred, falseness, lust, avarice, ingratitude and, -generally, of more vices than there were evils in Pandora’s box; one -might quote many amenities of language more or less senseless, as, for -instance, that woman is a hammer, a foul sepulchre, and a quartan fever; -and there are a hundred other expressions which cannot be quoted at all. - -Towards 1591, the patrician Giovanni Mocenigo, an enthusiastic collector -of books, found in the shop of a Dutch bookseller a little volume, -entitled _Eroici Furori_, which contains some astrological calculations -and some hints on mnemonics. The purchaser asked who the author might -be, learned from the bookseller that it was Giordano Bruno, entered into -correspondence with him, and at last invited him to Venice. - -Bruno, it is needless to say, accepted the invitation eagerly, as he -accepted every thing that was offered to him, but it was not long before -Mocenigo regretted his haste to be hospitable. He had begun by calling -his visitor his dear master; before long he discovered the man to be a -debauchee and a blasphemer. Now it chanced that Mocenigo had sat in the -tribunal of the Holy Office as one of the three senators whose business -it was to oversee the acts of the Father Inquisitor, and he was not only -a devout man, but had a taste for theology. He began by remonstrating -with Bruno, but when the latter became insolent, he quietly turned the -key on him and denounced him to the Holy Office. A few hours later the -renegade monk was arrested and conveyed to prison. He was examined -several times by the tribunal, but was never tortured, and as the judges -thought they detected signs of coming repentance they granted him a -limit of time within which to abjure his errors. But the trial did not -end in Venice, for the Republic made an exception in this case and soon -yielded to a request from the Pope that the accused should be sent to -Rome. He was ultimately burnt there, the only heretic, according to the -most recent and learned authorities, who ever died at the stake in -Italy. He was in reality a degenerate and a lunatic, who should have -ended his days in an asylum. - -M. Yriarte has published in the appendix to his study of the Venetian -noble in the sixteenth century the verbatim report of the proceedings of -the Holy Office on the eighteenth of July 1573. The prisoner at the bar -was Paolo Veronese. I quote the following from M. Yriarte’s -translation:-- - - REPORT of the sitting of the Tribunal of the Inquisition on - Saturday July eighteenth, 1573. - - This day, July eighteenth, 1573. Called to the Holy Office before - the sacred tribunal, Paolo Galliari Veronese residing in the parish - of Saint Samuel, and being asked as to his name and surname replied - as above. - - Being asked as to his profession:-- - - Answer. I paint and make figures. - - Question. Do you know the reasons why you have been called here? - - A. No. - - Q. Can you imagine what those reasons may be? - - A. I can well imagine. - - Q. Say what you think about them. - - [Sidenote: _The Supper in the house of Simon, Paolo Veronese; - Accademia, Room IX._] - - A. I fancy that it concerns what was said to me by the reverend - fathers, or rather by the prior of the monastery of San Giovanni e - Paolo, whose name I did not know, but who informed me that he had - been here, and that your Most Illustrious Lordships had ordered him - to cause to be placed in the picture a Magdalen instead of the dog; - and I answered him that very readily I would do all that was - needful for my reputation and for the honour of the picture; but - that I did not understand what this figure of Magdalen could be - doing - - [Illustration: S. SAMUELE] - - here; and this for many reasons, which I will tell, when occasion - is granted me to speak. - - Q. What is the picture to which you have been referring? - - A. It is the picture which represents the Last Supper of Jesus - Christ with His disciples in the house of Simon. - - Q. Where is this picture? - - A. In the refectory of the monks of San Giovanni e Paolo. - - Q. Is it painted in fresco or on wood or on canvas? - - A. It is on canvas. - - Q. How many feet does it measure in height? - - A. It may measure seventeen feet. - - Q. And in breadth? - - A. About thirty-nine. - - Q. In this Supper of our Lord, have you painted (other) persons? - - A. Yes. - - Q. How many have you represented? And what is each one doing? - - A. First there is the innkeeper, Simon; then, under him, a carving - squire whom I supposed to have come there for his pleasure, to see - how the service of the table is managed. There are many other - figures which I cannot remember, however, as it is a long time - since I painted that picture. - - Q. Have you painted other Last Suppers besides that one? - - A. Yes. - - Q. How many have you painted? Where are they? - - A. I painted one at Verona for the reverend monks of San Lazzaro; - it is in their refectory. Another is in the refectory of the - reverend brothers of San Giorgio here in Venice. - - Q. But that one is not a Last Supper, and is not even called the - Supper of Our Lord. - - A. I painted another in the refectory of San Sebastiano in Venice, - another at Padua for the Fathers of the Maddalena. I do not - remember to have made any others. - - Q. In this Supper which you painted for San Giovanni e Paolo, what - signifies the figure of him whose nose is bleeding? - - A. He is a servant who has a nose-bleed from some accident? - - Q. What signify those armed men dressed in the fashion of Germany, - with halberds in their hands? - - A. It is necessary here that I should say a score of words. - - Q. Say them. - - A. We painters use the same license as poets and madmen, and I - represented those halberdiers, the one drinking, the other eating - at the foot of the stairs, but both ready to do their duty, because - it seemed to me suitable and possible that the master of the house, - who as I have been told was rich and magnificent, should have such - servants. - - Q. And the one who is dressed as a jester with a parrot on his - wrist, why did you put him into the picture? - - A. He is there as an ornament, as it is usual to insert such - figures. - - Q. Who are the persons at the table of Our Lord? - - A. The twelve apostles. - - Q. What is Saint Peter doing, who is the first? - - A. He is carving the lamb in order to pass it to the other part of - the table. - - Q. What is he doing who comes next? - - A. He holds a plate to see what Saint Peter will give him. - - Q. Tell us what the third is doing. - - A. He is picking his teeth with his fork. - - Q. And who are really the persons whom you admit to have been - present at this Supper? - - A. I believe that there was only Christ and His Apostles; but when - I have some space left over in a picture I adorn it with figures of - my own invention. - - Q. Did some person order you to paint Germans, buffoons, and other - similar figures in this picture? - - A. No, but I was commissioned to adorn it as I thought proper; now - it is very large and can contain many figures. - - Q. Should not the ornaments which you were accustomed to paint in - pictures be suitable and in direct relation to the subject, or are - they left to your fancy, quite without discretion or reason? - - A. I paint my pictures with all the considerations which are - natural to my intelligence, and according as my intelligence - understands them. - - Q. Does it seem suitable to you, in the Last Supper of our Lord, to - represent buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs, and other such - absurdities? - - A. Certainly not. - - Q. Then why have you done it? - - A. I did it on the supposition that those people were outside the - room in which the Supper was taking place. - - Q. Do you not know that in Germany and other countries infested by - heresy, it is habitual, by means of pictures full of absurdities, - to vilify and turn to ridicule the things of the Holy Catholic - Church, in order to teach false doctrine to ignorant people who - have no common sense? - - A. I agree that it is wrong, but I repeat what I have said, that it - is my duty to follow the examples given me by my masters. - - Q. Well, what did your masters paint? Things of this kind, perhaps? - - A. In Rome, in the Pope’s Chapel, Michel Angelo has represented Our - Lord, His Mother, St. John, St. Peter, and the celestial court; and - he has represented all these personages nude, including the Virgin - Mary, and in various attitudes not inspired by the most profound - religious feeling. - - Q. Do you not understand that in representing the Last Judgment, in - which it is a mistake to suppose that clothes are worn, there was - no reason for painting any? But in these figures what is there that - is not inspired by the Holy Spirit? There are neither buffoons, - dogs, weapons, nor other absurdities. Do you think therefore, - according to this or that view, that you did well in so painting - your picture, and will you try to prove that it is a good and - decent thing? - - A. No, my most Illustrious Sirs; I do not pretend to prove it, but - I had not thought that I was doing wrong; I had never taken so many - things into consideration. I had been far from imagining such a - great disorder, all the more as I had placed these buffoons outside - the room in which Our Lord was sitting. - - These things having been said, the judges pronounced that the - aforesaid Paolo should be obliged to correct his picture within the - space of three months from the date of the reprimand, according to - the judgments and decision of the Sacred Court, and altogether at - the expense of the said Paolo. - - Et ita decreverunt omni melius modo. (And so they decided - everything for the best!) - -The existing picture proves that Veronese paid no attention to the -recommendations of the Court, for I find that it contains every figure -referred to. - -After this brief review of the more serious offices of the Republic, I -pass on to speak of a tribunal which, though in reality much less -serious, gave itself airs of great solemnity, and promulgated a great -number of laws. This was the Court of the ‘Provveditori delle Pompe,’ -established in the sixteenth century to deal with matters of dress and -fashion. As far back as the end of the thirteenth century, the ‘Savi,’ -the wise men of the government, had feebly deplored the increase of -luxury. Their plaintive remarks were repeated at short intervals, and on -each occasion produced some new decree against foolish and unreasonable -expenditure. - -[Illustration: THE LAST RAYS, ST. MARK’S] - -The length of women’s trains, the size and fulness of people’s sleeves, -the adornment of boots and shoes, and all similar matters, had been most -minutely studied by these wise gentlemen, and the avogadors had their -hands full to make the regulations properly respected. One day a lady -was walking in the square of Saint Mark’s, evidently very proud of the -new white silk - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, vita Priv._] - -gown she wore. She was stopped by two avogadors who gravely proceeded to -measure the amount of stuff used in making her sleeves. It was far more -than the law judged necessary. The lady and her tailor--there were only -male dressmakers in Venice in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries--were both made to pay a fine heavy enough to make them regret -the extravagance of their fancy. I quote this story from Signor -Molmenti. Marin Sanudo tells of another similar regulation in his -journal under the month of December 1491: ‘All those who hold any office -from the State, and those who are finishing their term of service, are -forbidden to give more than two dinner-parties to their relations, and -each of these dinners shall not consist of more than ten covers.’ - -At weddings it was forbidden to give banquets to more than forty guests. -Some years later another regulation was issued on the same subject. It -was decreed ‘that at these wedding dinners there shall not be served -more than one dish of roast meats and one of boiled meats, and in each -of these courses there shall not be more than three kinds of meat. -Chicken and pigeons are allowed.’ - -For days of abstinence, the magistrates take the trouble to inform -people what they may eat, namely, two dishes of roast fish, two dishes -of boiled fish, an almond cake, and the ordinary jams. Of fish, sturgeon -and the fish of the lake of Garda are forbidden on such days, and no -sweets are allowed that do not come under one of the two heads -mentioned. Oysters were not allowed at dinners of more than twenty -covers. The pastry-cooks who made jumbles and the like, and the cooks -who were to prepare a dinner, were obliged to give notice to the -provveditors, accompanied by a note of the dishes to be served. The -inspectors of the tribunal had a right to inspect the dining-room, -kitchen, and pantry, in order to verify all matters that came under -their jurisdiction. - -As if all this were not enough, considerable fines were imposed on those -who should adorn the doors and outer windows of their houses with -festoons, or who should give concerts in which drums and trumpets were -used. In noting this regulation in his journal, Sanudo observes that the -Council of Ten had only succeeded in framing it after meeting on three -consecutive days in sittings of unusual length. One is apt to connect -the Council of Ten with matters more tragic than these; and one fancies -that the Decemvirs may have sometimes exclaimed with Dante-- - - Le leggi son, ma chi pon mano ad esse? - -(‘There are laws indeed, but who enforces them?’) - -The Council judged that there was only one way of accomplishing this, -namely, to create a new magistracy, whose exclusive business it should -be to make and promulgate sumptuary laws. For this purpose three nobles -were chosen who received the title of Provveditori delle Pompe. - -M. Armand Baschet, whose profound learning in matters of Venetian law is -beyond dispute, is of opinion that the new tribunal helped Venice to be -great, and hindered her from being extravagant. I shall not venture to -impugn the judgment of so learned a writer, yet we can hardly forbear to -smile at the thought of those three grave nobles, of ripe age and -austere life, who sat down day after day to decide upon the cut of -women’s gowns, the articles necessary to a bride’s outfit, and the -dishes permissible at a dinner-party. - -‘Women,’ said their regulations, ‘shall wear clothes of only one colour, -that is to say, velvet, satin, damask, of Persian silk woven of one -tint; but exception is made from this rule for Persian silk of changing -sheen and for brocades, but such gowns must have no trimming.’ - -Shifts were to be embroidered only round the neck, and it was not -allowed to embroider handkerchiefs with gold or silver thread. No woman -was - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Less._] - -allowed to carry a fan made of feathers worth more than four ducats. No -gloves were allowed embroidered with gold or silver; no earrings; no -jewellery in the hair. Plain gold bracelets were allowed but must not be -worth more than three ducats; gold chains might be worth ten. No -low-neck gowns allowed! - -Jewellers and tailors and dealers in luxuries did their best to elude -all such laws, but during a considerable time they were not successful, -and it is probable that the temper of the Venetian ladies was severely -tried by the prying and paternal ‘Provveditori.’ The only - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, vita Privata._] - -women for whom exceptions were made were the Dogess and the other ladies -of the Doge’s immediate family who lived with him in the ducal palace. -His daughters and grand-daughters were called ‘dozete,’ which means -‘little dogesses’ in Venetian dialect, and they were authorised to wear -what they liked; but the Doge’s more distant female relations had not -the same privilege. - -At the coronation of Andrea Gritti, one of his nieces appeared at the -palace arrayed in a magnificent gown of gold brocade; the Doge himself -sent her home to put on a dress which conformed with the sumptuary laws. -Those regulations extended to intimate details of private life, and even -affected the furnishing of a noble’s private apartments. There were -clauses which forbade that the sheets made for weddings and baptisms -should be too richly embroidered or edged with too costly lace, or that -the beds themselves should be inlaid with gold, mother-of-pearl, or -precious stones. - -Then the gondola came into fashion as a means of getting about and at -once became a cause of great extravagance, for the rich vied with each -other in adorning their skiffs with the most precious stuffs and -tapestries, and inlaid stanchions, and the most marvellous allegorical -figures. - -In the thirteenth century the gondola had been merely an ordinary boat, -probably like the modern ‘barca’ of the lagoons, over which an awning -was rigged as a protection against sun and rain. The gondola was not a -development of the old-fashioned - -[Illustration: ON THE ZATTERE] - -boat, any more than the modern racing yacht has developed out of a Dutch -galleon or a ‘trabacolo’ of the Adriatic. It had another pedigree; and I -have no hesitation in saying, as one well acquainted with both, and not -ignorant of boats in general, that the Venetian gondola is the caïque of -the Bosphorus, as to the hull, though the former is rowed in the -Italian fashion, by men who stand and swing a sweep in a crutch, whereas -the Turkish oarsman sits and pulls a pair of sculls of peculiar shape -which slide in and out through greased leathern strops. The gondola, -too, has the steel ornament on her stem, figuring the beak of a Roman -galley, which I suspect was in use in Constantinople before the Turkish -conquest, and which must have been abolished then, for the very reason -that it was Roman. The ‘felse,’ the hood, is a Venetian invention, I -think, for there is no trace of it in Turkey. But the similarity of the -two boats when out of water is too close to be a matter of chance, and -it may safely be said that the first gondola was a caïque, then -doubtless called by another name, brought from Constantinople by some -Greek merchant on his vessel. - -In early times people went about on horses and mules in Venice, and a -vast number of the small canals were narrow and muddy streets; but as -the superior facilities of water over mud as a means of transportation -became evident, the lanes were dug out and the islands were cut up into -an immense number of islets, until the footways became so circuitous -that the horse disappeared altogether. - -In the sixteenth century there were about ten thousand gondolas in -Venice, and they soon became a regular bugbear to the unhappy -Provveditori delle - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Less._] - -Pompe, who were forced to occupy themselves with their shape, their -hangings, the stuff of which the ‘felse’ was made, the cushions, the -carpets, and the number of rowers. The latter were soon limited to two, -and it was unlawful to have more, even for a - -[Illustration: RIO DEL RIMEDIO] - -wedding. The gondola did not assume its present simplicity and its black -colour till the end of the seventeenth century, but it began to -resemble what we now see after the edict of 1562. - -As usual, a few persons were exempted from the sumptuary law. The Doge -went about in a gondola decorated with gold and covered with scarlet -cloth, and the foreign ambassadors adorned their skiffs with the richest -materials, the representatives of France and Spain, especially, vying -with each other in magnificence. To some extent the youths belonging to -the Compagnia della Calza--the Hose Club before mentioned--were either -exempted from the law, or succeeded in evading it. Naturally enough, the -sight of such display was odious to the rich noblemen who were condemned -by law to the use of plain black; and on the whole, the study of all -accounts of festivities held in Venice, down to the end of the Republic, -goes to show that the Provveditori aimed at a most despotic control of -dress, habits, and manners, but that the results generally fell far -short of their good intentions. They must have led harassed lives, those -much-vexed gentlemen, not much better than the existence of ‘Jimmy-Legs’ -on an American man-of-war. - -Now and then, too, the government temporarily removed all restrictions -on luxury, as, for instance, when a foreign sovereign visited Venice; -and then the whole city plunged into a sort of orgy of extravagance. -This happened when Henry III. of France was the guest of the Republic. -Such occasions being known and foreseen, and the nobles being forced by -the Provveditori to save their money, they spent it all the more -recklessly when they were allowed a taste of liberty--like a child that -breaks its little earthenware savings-box when it is full of pennies. - -One naturally returns to the Doge after rapidly reviewing such a legion -of officials, each of whom was himself a part of the supreme power. What -was the Doge doing while these hundreds of noble Venetians were doing -everything for themselves, from directing foreign politics to spying -upon the wardrobes of each other’s wives and auditing the accounts of -one another’s cooks? - -It would be hard to ask a question more embarrassing to answer. It would -be as unjust to say that he did nothing as it would be untrue to say -that he had much to do. Yet the Venetians themselves looked upon him as -a very important personage in the Republic. In a republic he was a -sovereign, and therefore idle; but he was apparently necessary. - -I am not aware that any other republic ever called its citizens -subjects, or supported a personage who received royal honours, before -whom the insignia of something like royalty were carried in public, and -who addressed foreign governments by his own name and title as if he -were a king. But then, how could Venice, which was governed by an -oligarchy chosen from an aristocracy, which was the centre of a -plutocracy, call herself a republic? It all looks like a mass of -contradictions, yet the machinery worked without breaking down, during -five hundred years at a stretch, after it had assumed its ultimate form. -If a modern sociologist had to define the government of Venice, he -would perhaps call it a semi-constitutional aristocratic monarchy, in -which the sovereign was elected for life--unless it pleased the electors -to depose him. - -What is quite certain is that when the Doge was a man of average -intelligence, he must have been the least happy man in Venice; for of -all Venetian nobles, there was none whose personal liberty was so -restricted, whose smallest actions were so closely watched, whose -lightest word was subject to such a terrible censorship. - -Francesco Foscari was not allowed to resign when he wished to do so, nor -was he allowed to remain on the throne after the Council had decided to -get rid of him. Even after his death, his unhappy widow was not allowed -to bury his body as she pleased. Yet his was only an extreme case, -because circumstances combined to bring the existing laws into play and -to let them work to their logical result. - -From the moment when a noble was chosen to fill the ducal throne, he was -bound to sacrifice himself to the public service, altogether and till he -died, without regret, or possible return to private life, or any -compensation beyond what might flatter the vanity of a vulgar and -second-rate nature. Yet the Doges were very rarely men of poor -intelligence or weak character. - -At each election, fresh restrictions were imposed by ‘corrections’ of -the ducal oath. M. Yriarte says very justly that the tone of these -‘corrections’ is often so dry and hard that it looks as if the Great -Council had been taking measures against an enemy rather than editing -rules for the life of the chief of the State. He goes on to say, -however, that the principle which dictated those decrees protected both -the Doge and the nobility, and that the object at which each aimed was -the interest of the State. He asks, then, whether those binding -restrictions ever prevented a strong personality from making itself -felt, and whether the long succession of Doges is nothing but a list of -inglorious names. - -It may be answered, I think, with justice, that the Doges of illustrious -memory, during the latter centuries of the Republic’s existence, had -become famous as individual officers before their elevation to the -throne. The last great fighting Doge was Enrico Dandolo, the conqueror -of Constantinople, who died almost a hundred years before the closure of -the Great Council. In the war of Chioggia, Andrea Contarini’s oath not -to return into the city till the enemy was beaten had the force of a -fine example, but the man himself contributed nothing else to the most -splendid page in Venetian history. - -There were Doges who were good historians and writers, others who have -been brave generals, others like Giovanni Mocenigo who were good -financiers; but the fact of their having been Doges has nothing to do -with the reputation they left afterwards. The sovereignty, when it was -given to them, was a chain, not a sceptre, and from the day they went up -the grand staircase as masters, their personal liberty of thought and -action was more completely left behind than if they had entered by -another door to spend the remainder of life in the prisons by the Ponte -della Paglia, beyond the Bridge of Sighs. - -At the beginning of the fifteenth century the Doge Michel Steno was told -in open Council to sit down and hold his peace. No change in the manners -of the counsellors had taken place sixty years later when - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Moro.’ Rom. iv. 319._] - -the Doge Cristoforo Moro objected to accompanying Pius the Second’s -projected crusade in person, and was told by Vittor Cappello that if he -would not go of his own accord he should be taken by force. - -It is hard to imagine a more unpleasant position than that of the chief -of the State. Suppose, for instance, that by the choice of the Council -some post or dignity was to be conferred on one of his relatives, or -even on one of his friends; he was literally and categorically forbidden -to exhibit the least satisfaction, or to thank the Council, even by a -nod of the head. - -[Sidenote: _Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien, 359, and Marin Sanudo._] - -He was to preside at this, and at many other ceremonies, as a -superbly-dressed lay figure, as a sort of allegorical representative of -that power with which every member of the government except himself was -invested. And as time went on this part he had to play, of the living -allegory, was more and more defined. He was even deprived of the title -‘My Lord,’ and was to be addressed merely as ‘Messer Doge,’ ‘Sir Doge.’ -From 1501 onward he was forbidden to go out of the city, even for an -hour in his gondola, without the consent of the Council, and if he -disobeyed he had to pay a fine of one hundred ducats; he was not allowed -to write a letter, even to his wife or his children, without showing it -to at least one of his six counsellors, and if he disobeyed he was to -pay a fine of two hundred ducats, and the person, his wife or his own -child, to whom the letter was addressed, was liable to be exiled for -five years. - -After 1521 the Doge was never allowed to speak without witnesses with -any ambassador, neither with the foreign representatives who came to -Venice, nor with Venetian ambassadors at home on business or leave; and -when he spoke with any of them in public, he was warned only to make -commonplace remarks. - -The Dogess never had any official position in Venice, but during the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries she was made use of as an ornamental -personage at public festivals. After that time she returned to the -retirement in which the wives of the early Doges had lived. An outcry -was raised against the custom of crowning her when she entered the ducal -palace, and from that time forth she never appeared beside her husband -on state occasions; and if any foreign ambassador, supposing that he was -acting according to the rules of ordinary court etiquette, asked to be -presented to her, she was bound to refuse his visit. - -Everything in the life of the Doge was regulated by the Great Council. -That august assembly once even remonstrated with the so-called sovereign -because the Dogess bore him too many children. If any one hesitates to -believe these amazing statements he may consult Signor Molmenti’s recent -historical work, _La Dogaressa_, which is beyond criticism in point of -accuracy. - -At certain fixed times the Doge was allowed the relaxation of shooting, -but with so many restrictions and injunctions that the sport must have -been intolerably irksome. He was allowed or, more strictly speaking, was -ordered to proceed for this purpose, and about Christmas time, to -certain islets in the lagoons, where wild ducks bred in great numbers. -On his return he was obliged to present each member of the Great Council -with five ducks. This was called the gift of the ‘Oselle,’ that being -the name given by the people to the birds in question. In 1521, about -five thousand brace of birds had to be killed or snared in order to -fulfil this requirement; and if the unhappy Doge was not fortunate -enough, with his attendants, to secure the required number, he was -obliged to provide them by buying them elsewhere and at any price, for -the claims of the Great Council had to be satisfied in any case. This -was often an expensive affair. - -There was also another personage who could not have derived much -enjoyment from the Christmas shooting. This was the Doge’s chamberlain, -whose duty it was to see to the just distribution of the game, so that -each bunch of two-and-a-half brace should contain a fair average of fat -and thin birds, lest it should be said that the Doge showed favour to -some members of the Council more than to others. - -By and by a means was sought of commuting this annual tribute of ducks. -The Doge Antonio Grimani - -[Sidenote: _Portrait of Antonio Grimani kneeling before Religion, -Titian; Sala delle Quattro Porte._] - -requested and obtained permission to coin a medal or the value or a -quarter or a ducat, equal to about four shillings or one dollar, and to -call it ‘a Duck,’ ‘Osella,’ whereby it was signified that it took the -place of the traditional bird. He engraved upon his medal figures of -Peace and Justice, with the motto ‘Justitia et Pax osculatae sunt,’ -‘Justice and Peace have kissed one another,’ in recollection of the -sentence he had undergone nineteen years previously as Admiral of the -fleet defeated at Parenzo. In 1575 the Doge Luigi Mocenigo engraved upon -his Osella the following inscription referring to the victory of -Lepanto: ‘Magnae navalis victoriae Dei gratia contra Turcos’; the -reverse bears the arms of the Mocenigo family, a rose with five petals. -Later, in 1632, the Doge Francesco Erizzo was the first to replace his -own effigy kneeling before Saint Mark by a lion. In 1688 Francesco -Morosini coined an Osella bearing on the obverse a sword, with the motto -‘Non abstinet ictu,’ and on the reverse a hand bearing weapons, with the -motto ‘Quem non exercuit arcus.’ In 1684 Marcantonio Giustiniani issued -an Osella showing a winged lion rampant, bearing in the one paw a single -palm, and in the other a bunch of palms, with the motto ‘Et solus et -simul,’ meaning that Venice would be victorious either alone or joined -with allies. - -The successor of Antonio Grimani, Andrea Gritti, chose for his Osella -to have himself represented as kneeling - -[Sidenote: _Andrea Gritti, praying, Tintoretto; Sala del Collegio._] - -before Saint Mark; the reverse bore his name with the date. - -But fresh trouble now arose. It came to pass that some nobles sold their -medals or used them for money, and disputes even took place as to the -true value of the ducal present. The Council of Ten was obliged to -examine seriously into the affair. As it appeared certain that it would -be impossible to avoid the use of medals as money, it was decided to -replace them definitely by a coin having regular currency. - -[Illustration: MOUTH OF THE GRAND CANAL] - - - - -II - -GLEANINGS FROM VENETIAN CRIMINAL HISTORY - - -The records of the different tribunals of Venice are a mine of -interesting information, and it is to be wondered that no student has -devoted a separate volume to the subject. I shall only attempt to offer -the reader a few gleanings which have come under my hand, and which may -help to give an impression of the later days of the Republic. - -There were two distinct classes of criminals in Venice, as -elsewhere--namely, professional criminals, who helped each other and -often escaped justice; and, on the other hand, those who committed -isolated crimes under the influence of strong passions, and who -generally expiated their misdeeds in prison or on the scaffold. - -Though the professionals were infinitely more dangerous than the others, -it is a remarkable fact that they enjoyed the same sort of popularity -which was bestowed upon daring highwaymen in England in the coaching -days. They were called the ‘Bravi,’ they were very rarely Venetians by -birth, and they had the singular audacity to wear a costume of their -own, which was something between a military uniform and a mediæval -hunting-dress. One might almost call them condottieri in miniature. They -sold their services to cautious persons who wished to satisfy a grudge -without getting into trouble with the police, and they drew round them -all the good-for-nothings in the country. ‘Bandits’--that is, in the -true interpretation of the word, those persons whom the Republic had -banished from Venetian territory--frequently returned, and remained -unmolested during some time under the protection of one of these bravi. -The most terrible and extravagant crimes were committed in broad day, -and the popular fancy surrounded its nefarious heroes with a whole cycle -of legends calculated to inspire terror. - -The government cast about for some means of checking the evil, and hit -upon one worthy of the Inquisitors of State. The simple plan consisted -in giving a free pardon for all his crimes to any bravo who would kill -another. We even find that a patrician of the great house of Quirini, -who had been exiled for killing one of Titian’s servants, obtained leave -to come back and live peacefully in Venice by assassinating a - -[Illustration: THE RIALTO AT NIGHT] - -bravo. It is easy to imagine what crimes could be committed under this -law, and the government soon recognised the mistake and repealed it in - -[Sidenote: _Pinelli, Raccolta di Leggi Crim._] - -1549, in order to protect ‘the dignity of the Republic, and the goods -and lives of its subjects.’ - -Thereafter the bravi and the bandits led more quiet lives, and returned -to their former occupations. - -There existed at that time a statue of a hunchback modelled by the -sculptor Pietro di Salò, which had been used to support a ladder, or -short staircase, by which the public criers ascended the column of the -Rialto, in order to proclaim banns of marriage and other matters - -[Illustration: FROM THE BALCONY OF THE DUCAL PALACE] - -which were to be made public. From 1541 to 1545 thieves were usually -sentenced to be flogged through the city from Saint Mark’s to the -Rialto, where the ceremony ended by their being obliged to kiss the -statue of the hunchback. In order to get rid of this degrading absurdity -a small column was set up near by, surmounted by a cross, in order that -‘sinners might undergo their sentence in a Christian spirit.’ - -On the sixteenth of December 1560, the Council of Ten met to discuss the -question of the bravi. It was now admitted that the government no longer -had isolated criminals to deal with, but regular bands of ruffians -continually - -[Illustration: THE COLUMNS, PIAZZETTA] - -on the look-out for adventures. The Ten published an edict by which all -bandits were formally warned that any one who exercised the profession -of a bravo, whether a subject of the Republic or not, would be taken and -led in irons to the place between the columns of the Piazzetta, where -his nose and ears would be carved off. He would then be further -sentenced to five years at the oar on board one of the State galleys, -unless some physical defect made this impossible for him, in which case -he was to have one hand chopped off and to be imprisoned for ten years. -In passing, I call - -[Sidenote: _Horatio Brown, Venetian Studies._] - -attention to the fact that life between decks on a State galley cannot -have been pleasant, since five years of it were considered equivalent to -the loss of a hand and ten years of imprisonment. - -These terrific penalties inspired little or no fear, for the bravi were -infinitely quicker and cleverer than the sbirri of the government, and -were very rarely caught. Besides, they had powerful supporters and -secure refuges from which they could defy justice, for they were -sheltered and protected in the foreign embassies, where they knew how to -make themselves useful as spies, and occasionally as professional -assassins, and it was not an uncommon thing to see a sbirro standing -before the French or the Spanish embassy and looking up at a window -whence some well-known bravo smiled down on him, waved his hat, and -addressed him with ironical politeness. The picture vividly recalls -visions of a cat on top of a garden wall, calmly grinning at the frantic -terrier below. - -Then, too, the bravi were patronised by the ‘signorotti’ of the -mainland, a set of rich, turbulent, and licentious land-owners, who -could not call themselves Venetian nobles and would not submit to be -burghers, but set themselves up as knights, and lived in more or less -fortified manors from which they could set the police at defiance. They -employed the bravi in all sorts of nefarious adventures, which chiefly -tended to the satisfaction of their brutal tastes. - -It was a second period of transition, as Molmenti very justly says, and -in the beginning of the decadence the knight had already ceased to be -knightly. Those rough lordlings were neither without fear nor without -reproach, says the learned Italian writer, but were altogether without -remorse, and if they were ever bold it was only in breaking the law. -From time - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, Condanne Capitali._] - -to time one of them was caught perpetrating some outrageous crime, and -was dragged barefooted, in a long black shirt and black cap, to the -scaffold, as an awful example, there to be flogged, hanged, and -quartered. Such horrors had long ceased to have any effect in an age -that saw blood run in rivers. By way of increasing the disgrace of a -shameful death, a gibbet was set up which was so high that the victim -had to mount thirty-two steps, and it was painted scarlet. The first -miscreant who adorned it was one of the chiefs of the sbirri himself, -who had used his position to protect a whole gang of thieves with whom -he divided the plunder. - -I abridge from Signor Molmenti’s work the following story, in which more -than one type of - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Banditi e Bravi._] - -the sixteenth-century criminal makes his appearance. - -The village of Illasi is situated in a rich valley in the territory of -Verona. At the end of the sixteenth century its castle was inhabited by -a certain Count Geronimo and his beautiful lady, Ginevra. From time to -time the couple introduced a little variety into their solitude by -receiving Virginio Orsini who, though a Roman noble, was in the service -of Venice as Governor of Verona. He was, I believe, a first cousin of -that Paolo Giordano Orsini who murdered his wife Isabella de’ Medici in -order to marry Vittoria Accoramboni. I have told the story at length in -another work. - -Virginio, the Governor, fell in love with the Countess Ginevra before -long; but she, though strongly attracted to him, tried hard to resist -him, would not read his letters, and turned a deaf ear to his pleadings. - -On a certain Saturday night, when Count Geronimo was away from home and -Ginevra sat by the fire in her own chamber, having already supped and -said her prayers, the curtain of the door was raised and two men came -in. The one was Grifo, the man-at-arms whom the Count trusted and had -left to guard her; the other was Orsini. Ginevra sprang to her feet, -asking how the Governor dared to cross her threshold. - -‘Madam,’ he said, coming near, ‘as you would not answer my letters, I -determined to tell you face to face that if you will not hear me you -will be my ruin.’ - -‘Sir,’ answered the Countess, ‘that is not the way to address a lady of -my condition. You are basely betraying my noble husband, who entertains -for you both friendship and esteem.’ - -Here Grifo joined in the conversation and began to persuade the Countess -that every noble lady of the time had her ‘confederate knight.’ No doubt -he knew that she loved Orsini in spite of herself, and when he had done -speaking he went away, and the two were alone together in the night. - -An hour later Virginio took his leave of her, and now he told her with -words of comfort that he would presently send her poison by the hand of -Grifo, that she might do away with her husband; for otherwise he must -soon learn the truth and avenge himself on them all three. But Ginevra -was already stung by remorse. - -‘I have dishonoured my husband for you,’ she answered. ‘But I will not -do the deed you ask of me. It is better that I should myself die than -that I should do murder.’ - -‘In that case,’ answered Orsini, ‘I myself must put him beyond the -possibility of harming you.’ - -Thereupon he left her; but she was tormented by remorse, until at last -she went to her husband and told him all, and entreated him to kill her. -He would not believe her, but thought she had gone mad, though she -repeated her story again and again; and at last he rose and went and -found Grifo, the traitor, and dragged him to her room. - -‘Is it true,’ she asked, ‘that you brought the Governor here to my -chamber unawares?’ - -The man denied it with an oath. Then Ginevra snatched up a dagger and -set the point at Grifo’s breast. He saw that he was lost, and told the -truth, and then and there the woman whose ruin he had wrought did -justice on him and was avenged, and stabbed him again and again, that he -died. - -There ends the story, for that is all we know. After that the chronicle -is silent, ominously silent; and when the castle of Illasi was -dismantled a walled niche was found in one of the towers, and within the -niche there was a woman’s skeleton. That is known, surely; but that the -bones were those of the Countess Ginevra there is no proof to show. - -I should say that Grifo belonged to the type of the bravi, so that the -crimes of passion which his betrayal - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Vecchie Storie._] - -caused were connected, through him, with those of the professional type. -But others were committed, then as now, in passion, quick or slow. As an -example of them, here is a story from another of Signor Molmenti’s -exhaustive works. - -It is first mentioned by the Bishop Pietro Bollani in a letter addressed -to his noble friend Vincenzo Dandolo, in the month of July 1602:-- - -‘A certain Sanudo, who lives in the Rio della Croce, in the Giudecca, -made his wife go to confession day before yesterday evening; and she was -a Cappello by birth. During the following night, at about the fifth hour -(one o’clock in the morning at that season according to the old Italian -sun-time), he killed her with a dagger-thrust in the throat. He says -that she was unfaithful, but every one believes that she was a saint.’ - -We learn that the poor woman was thirty-six, and that Giovanni Sanudo -had been married to her eighteen years. The Council of Ten ordered his -arrest, but he had already escaped beyond the frontier, and he was -condemned to death in default and a prize of two thousand ducats was -offered for his head. - -[Illustration: THE SALUTE FROM THE GIUDECCA] - -He had left five children in Venice, three boys and two girls; and the -oldest, a daughter christened Sanuda, addressed a petition to the Ten -which is worth translating:-- - - Most Serene Prince (the Doge), Most Illustrious Sirs (the Ten), and - most merciful my Masters (the Counsellors, the High Chancellor, and - the Avogadors): - - Never did unfortunate petitioners come to the feet of your Serenity - and of your most excellent and most clement Council, more worthy of - pity than we, Sanuda, Livio, Aloïse, Franceschino and Livio second, - the children of Messer Giovanni Sanudo; misfortune has fallen upon - our house because our father having been accused of taking our - mother’s life, the justice of your Serenity and of your most - excellent Council has condemned him to death; wherefore we, poor - innocent children, have lost at once our father and our mother, and - all our possessions; and we assure you with tears that we should - have to beg our bread unless certain charitable souls helped us. - Therefore I, the unhappy Sanuda, who have reached the age of - eighteen years, and my brothers and sisters who are younger than I, - shall all be given over to the most abject poverty and exposed to - the greatest dangers unless your Serenity and your most excellent - Council will consent to help us for the love of religion and - justice. And so, in order to prevent five poor and honest children - of noble blood from perishing thus miserably, we prostrate - ourselves at the feet of your Serenity and of your most Illustrious - Lordships, imploring you, by the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, - to allow our unhappy father to come back to Venice for two years, - that he may provide for the safety of his family and especially of - his daughters, whose honour is exposed to such grave peril in that - state of neglect in which they are now living. We pray that the - good God may grant your Serenity and your Lordships long and happy - life. - -The Council of Ten was apparently moved by the appeal. It answered the -petition by the following resolution:-- - -‘The case of Sanuda, Livio, Aloïse, Franceschino, and Livio second, -brothers and sisters, the children of Giovanni Sanudo, condemned to -death by this Council on July twenty-ninth, is so serious; the petition -of these poor children is so humble, so honest and so reasonable, that -it behooves the piety and clemency of our Council to grant the said -Giovanni Sanudo a safe-conduct, good for two years, in order that during -this period he may provide for the future of his family.’ - -Sanudo came back, and before the two years had expired he obtained a -prolongation of the grace for two years more, at the end of which time -he presented another petition worded in the same manner, which was also -granted; and so on from two years to two years until 1621, nineteen -years after the crime, he being still technically under sentence of -death. - -Now, however, he obtained a formal pardon from his wife’s family, the -Cappello. This curious document reads as follows:-- - - In the name of God and of the Holy Trinity, March thirtieth, 1621. - - I, Carlo Cappello, son of the late Pietro Cappello, considering the - weakness and the lamentable vicissitudes to which humanity is - subject, and desirous of forgiving the shortcomings and misdeeds of - others, in order that the Lord our God may protect me also, and - desiring, too, the full pardon of every sin: do forgive my - brother-in-law, Giovanni Sanudo, the offences he may have - committed against me, promising henceforth to bear him neither - hatred nor malice, and I pray God to grant us both a good Easter - and the pardon of every sin. - - (Signed) CARLO CAPPELLO. - PIETRO CAPPELLO. - LIVIO CAPPELLO. - - - -Having obtained forgiveness of his wife’s family, Giovanni Sanudo now -looked about for a means of extorting a final pardon from the Council of -Ten. There existed in the Venetian states a small town, called Sant’ -Omobono, which had received, as the reward of some ancient service -rendered to the Republic, the privilege of setting at liberty every year -two outlaws or two bravi. Sanudo succeeded in winning the good graces of -the municipality, and was then presented by the mayor and aldermen to -the Signory as one of the yearly candidates for a free pardon. The -Council of Ten then permanently ratified its decree of immunity, and -Giovanni Sanudo was once more a free man. Considering the usual -character of the Council, it is hard not to surmise that it had found -some cause for regretting the sentence it had passed. The poor murdered -woman had confessed and received absolution before death: may we not -reasonably suppose that, after all, there had been something to confess? - -There is ground for believing it possible that Shakespeare may have used -the original murder as part of the groundwork of his _Othello_. If we -compare the dates and glance at the history of Italian literature, we -may reasonably conclude that Shakespeare, after perhaps planning his -tragedy on a tale of Giraldi’s, was much struck by the details of -Sanudo’s crime, and especially by the murderer’s wish that his wife -should confess before dying. - -Mr. Rawdon Brown supposed the poet to have used another incident, -related by Marin Sanudo in his voluminous journal, but the hypothesis -involves an anachronism. _Othello_ is thought by good authorities to -have been first played in London in the autumn of 1602, only a few -months after the crime in the Giudecca; whereas Mr. Rawdon Brown’s -heroine was not murdered until thirteen years later. - -The legend of the Fornaretto belongs to the beginning of the sixteenth -century, a hundred years earlier. Travellers will remember being told by -their guides how a poor little baker’s boy, who was carrying bread to a -customer on a January morning in 1507, stumbled over the body of a noble -who had been stabbed by an unknown hand. The sheath of the dagger lay on -the pavement, and the boy was imprudent enough to pick it up and put it -into his pocket, for it was richly damascened and very handsome. The -police found it upon him, it was considered to be conducive -circumstantial evidence, the poor boy confessed under torture that he -had committed the crime, and he was hanged on his own confession. - -A few days later the real murderer was arrested and convicted; and -thereafter, in recollection of the tragic injustice that had been done, -whenever the magistrates were about to pass a sentence of death, they -were admonished to remember the poor Fornaretto. - -By way of making the story more complete, the guide usually adds that -the little lamp which always burns before an image of the Blessed Virgin -on one side of the Basilica was lighted as an offering in expiation of -the judicial murder, and that it is for the same reason that a bell is -rung during twenty minutes on the anniversary of the baker boy’s -execution. - -Strangely enough, there is hardly a word of truth in this story. The -only record in the archives of the Ten which faintly suggests it is the -trial and execution of a baker named Pietro Fusiol, who had murdered a -man of the people in January 1507, and there is no reference to any -mistake on the part of the court. The ringing of the bell and the little -lamp which burns day and night before the image, are a sort of _ex voto_ -offerings left by certain seamen in recollection of a terrible storm -from which they escaped. - -I pass on to speak of the political prisoners of the Republic, who were -not by any means all treated alike, since some of them were confined in -places of tolerable comfort, whereas others were treated little better -than common criminals. - -[Sidenote: _Dr. Heinrich Thode, Der Ring des Frangipane._] - -The story of Cristoforo Frangipane shows that political delinquents were -not judged according to any particular code, and that each case was -examined as being entirely independent from any other. - -I must recall to the reader that during the league of Cambrai the -Emperor Maximilian was commissioned to win back Friuli, Istria, and -other provinces annexed by the Republic. Though the league had been -formed in great haste, Venice was not taken by surprise, for it had long -been apparent that the European powers desired her destruction and -dismemberment. - -[Sidenote: _Venice defying Europe, Palma Giovane; Sala dei Pregadi, -ducal palace._] - -During the war which followed the Venetian army was at one time under -the orders of Bartolomeo d’ Alviano, and that of the Emperor was -commanded by Cristoforo Frangipane. Now the Frangipane family held lands -in fee from Venice as well as from the Emperor, and owed feudal service -to both; so that the Republic was justified in considering Cristoforo as -a traitor according to feudal law, since he was in command of a hostile -army. - -A learned German student, Doctor Heinrich Thode, has discovered and told -with great charm the following story concerning the imperial general. In -1892, Doctor Thode being then in Venice, certain peasants of the village -of Osopo, near Pordenone, showed him a gold ring of marvellous -workmanship and in the style of the sixteenth century, which they had -found in a field. The ring consisted of two spirals, one within the -other, which could be taken apart, so that a lock of hair or a relic -could be placed between them. On the outer spiral of the ring were -engraved the words, ‘Myt Wyllen deyn eygen,’ which may be translated, -‘By mine own will thine own.’ Doctor Thode bought the ring, but for a -long time could make nothing of it. At last, however, his industry was -rewarded by the discovery of an interesting passage in the almost -inexhaustible diary of Marin Sanudo, of which I shall abridge the -substance as much as possible. - -At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Emperor Maximilian met in -Augsburg a very beautiful girl named Apollonia von Lange, with whom he -fell deeply in love. He caused her to come to the Court of Vienna, where -she behaved so admirably that, according to the chronicler, all the -Austrian nobles wished to marry her. As a matter of fact she was married -in 1503 to the Count of Lodron, who happens to be the very person whom -the Cappelletti of Verona wished to marry to their Juliet in spite of -her promise to Romeo Montecchi. - -The Count of Lodron died soon after his marriage, leaving no children. -The Emperor continued to extend to the young widow his honourable -protection, and in 1514 he married her to his favourite general -Cristoforo Frangipane. It was no doubt on this occasion that the warrior -received from her the ring of which the motto answered a question that -had often been on his lips. He might, indeed, reasonably have supposed -that she was marrying him in deference to the Emperor’s wishes; he must -have asked her if this were true, and no doubt more than once she -answered, ‘Of my own will I am thine own.’ The marriage had scarcely -taken place when Frangipane was obliged to take command of the imperial -army and to leave his wife. The first battle of the campaign was fought -near Pordenone in the Venetian territory. Marin Sanudo narrates that on -that day Frangipane lost a precious - -[Illustration: A GARDEN WALL] - -relic, a fact which he considered to be of bad augury for the future. - -Only a few days later, when reconnoitring the position of the enemy, he -was climbing over a boulder which overlooked the valley. It either gave -way with him, or else some large piece of stone rolled against him and -threw him down. The accident was seen from a distance, and it was at -once reported to Venice that he was dead. But he was only wounded, and -was carried in a litter to Goritz, whither his wife hastened at once. -Under her loving care he soon recovered, but before he was able to ride -again the Venetians took the town and made him prisoner. He was conveyed -to Venice, and was confined in the tower of the ducal palace which -overlooked the Ponte della Paglia. In his confinement he kept up a -constant correspondence with his wife, which, it is needless to say, was -carefully examined by the government; every letter which came or went -was read aloud before the Senate, so that Marin Sanudo had ample -opportunity to copy the documents for his journal, as he frequently did. - -The beautiful Apollonia was in a state bordering on despair, the grief -of the separation preyed upon her mind, and she fell into a state of -terrible languor and depression. Amongst many tender messages she makes -mention of the ring. - -‘As for the ring,’ she wrote, ‘most gracious and beloved husband, let me -tell you that the one ordered of John Stephen Maze should be a little -smaller than the old one, and on it must be engraved the words with -which I answered the question you asked me, and which is graved on the -ring I always wear on my finger. I wish you to wear the ring in memory -and for love of me, but as we have no good jewellers here, I entreat you -to order it yourself.’ - -In the face of such evidence it is hardly possible to doubt that the -ring found at Osopo is the identical one given to Frangipane by his -bride, and is the ‘relic’ which he lost in his first engagement with the -Venetians. - -The correspondence of the loving couple, passionate and sad, continued -during six months, at the end of which time Apollonia wrote to the -Signory imploring permission to share her husband’s prison; but this was -refused her, though her request was supported by the warmest -recommendations from the Emperor himself. Exasperated, Frangipane -attempted to escape from prison, but his plan was discovered, and he was -only the more closely watched. Apollonia now requested the favour of a -safe-conduct that she might, at least, come to Venice as a traveller and -visit her husband; this also was refused, not once only, but again when -she wrote a second time. - -There was now but one thing left for her to do, and she determined to -risk coming to Venice without a safe-conduct. She arrived in the depth -of winter in 1516, with four maids of honour, her chamberlain, her -physician, and twenty-two servants. As the Council of Ten was ashamed to -imprison her it placed her in the keeping of the patrician Dandolo, who -was the general inspector of the ducal prisons, and he placed at her -disposal his palace on the Grand Canal, which is now the Hôtel Danieli. -She took up her quarters there on the thirteenth of January with her -suite, and on the twentieth she appeared before the Doge and his -counsellors arrayed in a magnificent silk gown and a black satin mantle -lined with sable; a heavy gold chain hung down upon her bosom, and a -golden coif was set upon her hair in the German fashion; three young -girls dressed in black cloth followed her, one after the other, and an -old duenna, the physician, and the chamberlain brought up the rear. - -The fair Countess addressed the Doge with feminine eloquence and tact. -She began by rendering thanks for the kindness and consideration shown -to her husband, and she requested permission to see him twice a week. -She argued that this permission was absolutely necessary to her, for she -said that she was very ill, and that the treatment ordered by her doctor -was of such a nature that she entirely declined to submit to it except -in the presence of her husband. The Doge and his counsellors had never -had to face such arguments before; they felt themselves absolutely -powerless, and yielded at once. - -But on the morrow old Dandolo, the inspector of prisons, appeared before -them in a condition of indescribable dismay and excitement. He said that -when the Countess was at last in her husband’s prison, on the previous -evening, she had made such a scene in order to be allowed to stay all -night that he, Dandolo, had yielded much against his will and had left -the couple together. And now, in the morning, he had found the - -[Illustration: PALAZZO RESSONICO] - -Countess still in bed, declaring that she was dangerously ill, and -demanding that her doctor should be sent to her without delay. - -The Doge and his counsellors were in a quandary, and Dandolo was tearing -his hair. Sanudo informs us that ‘there was much noise in the council’ -that morning, and it is easy to believe that he was telling the truth. -Almost half of the grave magistrates were in favour of leaving the -Countess with her husband; the rest, with a very small majority, voted -that she must quit the prison. The motion passed, but it was one thing -to decide what she should do, and quite another thing to make her do it. -She declared that since she was inside the tower, no power on earth -should get her out of it, and she defied the Doge, the Council of Ten, -and all their works. Before such portentous obstinacy the government of -Venice retired in stupefaction, and she was left in peace. - -But she was human, after all, and under prolonged imprisonment her -health broke down, and she was obliged to leave the tower each year to -go to the waters of Abano; but even then she refused to go out until a -formal promise had been given her that she should be allowed to return -immediately after the cure. - -No doubt it was owing to her presence that Frangipane’s confinement -became by degrees less rigorous, and that he was even allowed to watch -the procession of Corpus Domini from the balcony of the Library. - -Apollonia had come in January 1516, and the pair were not liberated -till more than two years later. Germany, France, and Venice signed a -truce of five years, and agreed to exchange prisoners and give hostages -on the thirty-first of July 1518. Francis I. asked that Germany should -hand him over Frangipane as security for keeping the peace, promising -that he should not be imprisoned, but should be merely a prisoner of the -King on parole. It was not freedom yet, but such a change was more than -welcome, and the negotiations with the Signory for Frangipane’s delivery -were completed on the third of September. The words he wrote in the -embrasure of the window of his prison may still be read, says Dr. Thode, -who copied the inscription which I reproduce:-- - - Fo inchluso. qua. in. torise ... fina.. terzo - zorno de. setembro. del. M.D. XVIII. io. Christoforo. Frangepanibus - Chonte. de. Veglia. Senia. et Modrusa - Et io. Apollonia. Chonsorte. de sopradicto signor. chonte. - Vene. far. chompagnia. a. quelo. adi. XX. Zenar. MDXVI perfina - sopra dicto setembro. Chi mal. e. ben. non. sa. patir. a. grande - honor. may. poi. venir. anche. ben. ne. mal. de. qui. per. - sempre. non. dura. - -I translate literally as follows:-- - - I was shut up here in the Torrisella till the third day of - September of 1518, Christopher of the Frangipane, Count of Veglia, - Senia, and Modrusa. And I, Apollonia, wife of the aforesaid lord - Count, came to keep him company on the twentieth of January 1516 - until the said September. ‘Who cannot bear good and ill fate, Will - never come to honour great.’ Also, Nor good nor evil lasts for ever - here. - -Frangipane seems to have written this record during one of his wife’s -absences at Abano, being perfectly sure that he was about to be set at -liberty. But there had been a hitch in the negotiations. Venice was not -ready to hand him over, and meanwhile, when Apollonia came back she was -refused admittance. Dandolo again offered her a home in his palace, and -did all he could to help her. Frangipane, deprived of her comforting -presence, fell ill and went almost mad. Even the Doge himself supported -his request to be allowed to be taken to a private dwelling. It was in -vain; but Apollonia was at last allowed to return to her husband. They -left no means untried to obtain the fulfilment of the treaty, and at -last Dandolo became so exasperated with the Council of Ten that he -resigned his post of inspector of prisons, telling the councillors to -their faces that of twelve thousand prisoners who had been in his -keeping, first and last, Frangipane was the only one who had been able -to complain of injustice. - -The Ten accepted his resignation almost without comment, and replaced -him by two nobles. Then the couple tried to escape, but were discovered -and again separated. At last the government consented to ask the King of -France what was to be done with his hostage, whom he seems to have quite -forgotten. He answered by requesting that Frangipane should be sent to -Milan and handed over to the French governor, De Lautrec. - -The loving pair were allowed to meet in the prison again, two days -before the departure, but Apollonia was not permitted to follow her -husband to Milan, and a heart-rending farewell took place at -Lizzafusina, on the frontier. Having reached his destination, the -unlucky Frangipane found himself in a much worse prison than the one he -had occupied so long in Venice. Again his faithful wife succeeded in -joining him, to share his captivity. But her strength was far spent, and -she died on the fourth of September 1519, in the fortress of Milan; and -soon afterwards Frangipane succeeded at last in escaping by sawing -through the bars of his window and letting himself down by a rope. - -[Illustration] - - - - -III - -VENETIAN DIPLOMACY - - -Before quitting the subject of Venetian official life, I must devote a -few pages to the diplomacy of the Republic, which has remained famous in -history. - -The kings of France often confided diplomatic missions to the clergy, -but the Venetian diplomatists were always laymen, without a single -exception. The Signory constantly professed the most devout faith in -Catholic dogma, and as constantly exhibited the most profound distrust -of the popes. The Vatican was, indeed, the chief object of the -government’s suspicion. From the fifteenth century onward, any noble -who entered holy orders lost his seat in the Great Council, and I have -already explained that during the discussion of matters relating to -Rome, - -[Sidenote: _Cecchetti, Corte Romana._] - -all the ‘papalisti’ were ordered to withdraw. When Sixtus V. was elected -Pope in 1585, and the Republic sent four ambassadors together to -congratulate him, the sixteen nobles who attended the mission were most -carefully chosen from among those who never could be ‘papalisti.’ - -In answer to any criticism of her methods, Venice was almost always able -to bring forward the unanswerable argument of success; but the pages -which record her diplomatic relations with other powers are not the -fairest in her history. Her dealings with her neighbours were regulated -by strictly business principles; and ‘business’ is, I believe, the art -of becoming legally possessed of that which is not our own. - -The marvellous accuracy with which the Venetian ambassadors related to -their government the details of what they observed abroad is proverbial, -and has been a godsend to students of history, such as M. Yriarte, to -whom the world is so much indebted for his study of Marcantonio Barbaro. - -The post of foreign representative was a most honourable one, but there -were overwhelming responsibilities connected with it. In early times, -when diplomatic relations were less close and less continuous, the -Republic had sent permanent embassies only to Rome and Constantinople; -to other capitals special envoys were only despatched when some matter -was to be discussed. But in the sixteenth century Venice had -ambassadors everywhere, and each week brought long letters from all -countries teeming with details, not only of political or military -events, but concerning social festivities, manners, customs, court -intrigues, and every sort of gossip. - -These letters were read aloud on Saturday to the Senate, which thus -assisted at a sort of consecutive series of lectures on the history of -the times; and as it was customary to choose the ambassadors from among -the senators, it was tolerably sure that when chosen they would always -be well informed, up to the latest moment. - -The missions of the Republic were limited to a residence of two years in -any one foreign capital; but this short time was amply sufficient to -bring about the financial ruin of the ambassador if he was not very -rich. It was his duty to display the most boundless magnificence for the -greater glory of the Republic, and his expenses bore no proportion to -his salary. - -The following instructions, according to M. Yriarte, were given to -Marcantonio Barbaro on his departure for the court of France:-- - -‘You are to keep eleven horses for your service, including those of your -secretary and his servant, and four mounted messengers. You will - -[Sidenote: _Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien._] - -receive for your expenses two hundred gold ducats monthly (about £1800 -yearly), of which you are not required to render an account. You will -receive a thousand gold ducats for presents, and three hundred for the -purchase of horses, harness, and saddle cloths.’ - -The Secretary of Embassy was also named by the Senate, and though the -attachés might be chosen by the ambassador, his choice had to be -confirmed by the government. He was not allowed to take his wife with -him, as her presence might have distracted him from business, and also -because it might possibly have been a little prejudicial to the keeping -of secrets; but he was allowed to take his cook. These same instructions -appear as early as the thirteenth century. - -Modern diplomatists, and especially Americans, will be interested to -know that the post of ambassador was so little desired as to make it -necessary to impose a heavy fine on any noble who refused it when he was -appointed; and it actually happened more than once that men paid the -fine rather than ruin themselves altogether in the service of their -sordid government. Once having left Venice, however, no resignation was -allowed, and the ambassador dared not return unless he was ordered to do -so. Requests for leave were very rare, and were only made under the -pressure of some very exceptional circumstances. Such a petition was -considered so serious a matter that when one arrived from abroad all -persons related to the ambassador were ordered to leave the Senate, lest -their presence should interfere with the freedom of discussion; but the -request was never granted unless two members of the family would swear -that the reasons alleged in the petition were genuine. - -Legend assures us that each ambassador received, together with his -credentials, a box full of gold coin and a small bottle of deadly -poison. This is childish nonsense, of course, so far as the portable -realities were concerned, but ambassadors were instructed to hesitate at -nothing which could accomplish the purpose of the State, neither at -spending large sums which would be placed at their disposal when -necessary, nor at what the Senate was good enough to call measures of -exceptional severity--namely, murder. - -The most important post in Venetian diplomacy was the embassy at -Constantinople, where the chief of the mission enjoyed the title of -Bailo, together with the chance of making a fortune instead of losing -one. The Bailo of Constantinople and the ambassador to the Pope took -precedence over all other Venetian diplomatists, and they were expected -to make an even greater display, especially at the pontifical court. The -four ambassadors sent to congratulate Sixtus V. on his election had each -four noble attachés, four armed footmen, and five-and-twenty horses, and -the one of the four who was already the resident in Rome was indemnified -for his expenses in order that he might appear as magnificently as his -three newly arrived colleagues. - -On their return from a foreign mission the envoys of the Republic were -bound to appear at the chancery of the ducal palace, and to inscribe -their names there in a special register; and within a fortnight they -were required to render an account of what they had seen and learnt -abroad, and of the affairs with which they had dealt. These accounts, -called ‘relazioni,’ were brief recapitulations of their weekly letters -to the Senate; the first phrases were always written in Latin, but the -body of the discourse might be in Italian, or even in dialect. The -ambassador presented himself in full dress, wearing his crimson velvet -mantle and bringing the manuscript of his speech, which he afterwards -handed to the High Chancellor; for as early as the fifteenth century all -public speeches were required to be written out, in order that they -might be preserved exactly as they had been spoken, or rather read, for -it was not even allowable to recite them by heart. I need hardly add -that no stranger was ever admitted to hear an ambassador’s account of -his mission, and the senators swore a special oath of secrecy for the -occasion, even with regard to the most insignificant details. - -Any one who examines a number of these documents will soon see that they -all begin with a portrait of the sovereign to whom the envoy was -accredited, and there is often a great deal about the royal family, its -surroundings, tastes, and habits. Almost invariably also the account -ends with a list of the presents and titles or decorations bestowed upon -the ambassador at the close of his mission, and all these he was -required to hand over intact to the Signory. Not uncommonly, however, -the presents were returned to him; but as no foreign titles could be -borne by Venetians, the recipient of them was usually created a Knight -of the Golden Stole, the only heraldic order recognised by the Republic -and in the gift of the government. - -It would be curious to examine into the first causes - -[Illustration: PALAZZO DARIO] - -of the relations between Venice and the other European states. It was -the exchange of raisins for wool which obliged England and Venice to -send each other permanent diplomatic missions. Up to that time only -occasional special envoys had been necessary. The first time that -England addressed a letter to the Signory she employed as her official -agent a Neapolitan monk, the Bishop of Bisaccia, chaplain to King -Robert, and this was in 1340. The envoy came to say that King Edward the -Third of England had the honour to inform the Doge Gradenigo that he had -defied Philippe de Valois to say that he was the anointed of the Lord. -The envoy further stated that the two rivals were about to invoke the -judgment of God, either by going unarmed into a den of wild beasts, who -would of course respect the Lord’s anointed and promptly devour the -pretender, or else by ‘touching for King’s Evil.’ Beginning in the - -[Sidenote: _Rawdon Brown, Archives._] - -fifteenth century there is a long list of English ambassadors and -ministers resident in Venice. The last English diplomatic representative -in Venice was Sir Richard Worsley, of whom I shall have occasion to -speak hereafter. - -All the foreign diplomatists in Venice were constantly on the look-out -for the arrival of the special mounted messengers attached to each -foreign embassy. These were celebrated throughout Europe for their speed -and discretion. In the fifteenth century they were thirty-two in number, -and formed a small guild which was under the protection of Saint -Catharine; and they were almost all natives of Bergamo, a city which is -still singularly noted for the honesty and faithfulness of its -inhabitants, and which even now furnishes Venice with trusty -house-porters and other servants of whom responsibility is required. - -[Illustration: CALLE BECCHERIA] - -In the _Souvenirs_ of M. Armand Baschet, I find that the courier who -brought the news of the signing of the treaty of Cambrai from Blois to -Venice covered the distance in eight days, the best previous record to -Paris, which is about the same distance, having been nine, and the usual -time employed being fifteen. The employment of State courier could be -bought and could be left by will. - -Each ambassador of the Republic seemed to possess a part of the -marvellously universal vision that belonged to the Council of Ten. Mr. -Rawdon Brown made a special study of the weekly letters of the Venetian -ambassadors in England, and found, for instance, that one of the -Republic’s representatives succeeded in regularly copying the letters -which Queen Elizabeth wrote to her lovers, which were therefore read -aloud to the Senate with the greatest regularity, together with many -other curious details of English court life. - -I shall give two specimens, translated from the weekly letters in the -Albèri collection. In 1531 the patrician Ludovico Falier came to render -an account of his mission to the Court of Henry VIII. He expresses -himself as follows, concerning that King and the English:-- - - In order that my discourse may be better understood I shall divide - it into two chief parts, of which the one concerns my journey, and - the other the most puissant King Henry VIII., and the manners and - customs of his country from the year 1528 to 1531.... On the tenth - of December I reached Calais [he had left Venice in the middle of - October, but had travelled by short stages with a numerous suite]; - it is a city of the French coast which belongs to the most serene - King of England, as I shall have occasion to repeat hereafter. - There I went on board a vessel to cross the ocean, which after - behaving furiously during the passage at last threw me upon the - English shore. I therefore arrived at Dover much more tired by - these few hours of navigation than by a journey of ninety days on - dry land. Having rested a little at Dover I got on horseback to go - to London. At St. George’s I met my most illustrious predecessor - Venier with several personages of the Court, including the most - reverend the Cardinal (Thomas Wolsey), and we all entered the city - together, and they accompanied me to my house. I was ordered almost - at once to go to the Cardinal, in order to kiss his hand, for this - ceremony always preceded that of an audience with the King; such is - the power of this prince [of the Church]. On leaving his apartment - I was conducted to his most serene Majesty, with whom I then had - the interview which I described in detail in my letter to your - Signory and to this glorious Senate. - -The ambassador goes on to speak in the past tense of Cardinal Wolsey, -who had fallen into disgrace in the interval. He goes on to speak of the -Queen, who was then Catharine of Aragon. - - My lady the Queen is small of stature, and plump, and has an honest - face; she is good and just, affable and pious. She speaks fluently - Spanish, Flemish, French, and English. Her subjects love her more - than they ever loved any Queen; she is five and forty years old, - and she has already lived thirty-five years in England. - -The ambassador speaks of the King next. - - God has united in King Henry VIII. beauty of soul with beauty of - body, so that every one is astonished by such wonders ... he has - the face of an angel, for it would not be enough to say that he is - handsome; he resembles Cæsar, his look is calm, and contrary to - English fashion, he wears his beard; who would not admire so much - beauty accompanied with so much strength and grace? He rides very - well, jousts and handles a lance with great skill; he is a very - good shot and an excellent tennis player. He has always cultivated - the extraordinary qualities with which nature has adorned him from - his birth, for he thinks that nothing is more unnatural than a - sovereign who cannot dominate his people by his moral and physical - qualities. - -And here the ambassador seems to have thought that he had gone rather -far, for he finds something to say about Henry’s less admirable -characteristics. - - Unhappily this prince, so intelligent and reasonable, is given up - to idleness, has allowed himself to be led away by his passions, - and has left the government of the State in the hands of a few - favourites, the most powerful of whom was the Cardinal, until he - fell into total disgrace. Since then, from having been generous, he - has become miserly, and whereas formerly all those who treated of - affairs with him went away satisfied and covered with gifts, he now - allows all to leave the Court with discontent. He makes a show of - great piety, hears two low masses every day, and high mass also, on - feast days. He gives to the poor, to orphans, widows, young girls, - and infirm persons, and for these charities he gives his almoner - ten thousand ducats yearly. He is beloved by all. He is forty years - of age and has reigned twenty-two. - -Falier speaks next of the climate of Great Britain and the products of -the country, and gives a long description of a brewery. He briefly but -sufficiently describes the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and -gives some account of the British Constitution. He gives also a -statement of the King’s sources of income with their amount, and the -accuracy of the figures suggests that he must have got access to papers -not intended for his perusal. - - His Majesty may count upon over five hundred thousand ducats - [£375,000] a year, divided as follows:-- - - Ducats. -From the Crown (Lands) 190,000 -Customs 150,000 -Vacant Benefices 40,000 -Privy Seal 10,000 -Rebels (Confiscations, etc.) 50,000 -Lands on the Continent 10,000 -Fines for Crimes 25,000 -Royal Guards 50,000 - _______ - Total 525,000 - ======= - - I cannot tell exactly what he gets from taxes, but from information - which I have endeavoured to obtain from grave and experienced - persons, His Majesty exacts from his subjects about a million of - ducats; for the six millions of ducats which he had inherited from - his father were all spent in the wars with France, Flanders, and - Scotland. His Majesty usually spends 425,000 ducats for his Court, - which consists of five hundred men; namely, twenty-six - chamberlains, of whom one is Treasurer of the Chamber [keeper of - the privy purse?], one is a Majorduomo called a ‘Steward,’ his - assistant, who carries a little white stick as a sign of his - dignity; the Treasurer General, who pays all accounts; the - accountant who distributes [the payments]; the ‘cofferers’ in - charge of the said accounts; the Master of the Horse who has the - management of the royal stables. There are three hundred horses, - between Arabs, Turkish horses and racers, hackneys and others. His - Majesty has also eight chaplains, of whom one distributes his - charities, and there are many persons for his service of whom I do - not speak in detail lest I should fatigue Your Serenity. His - Majesty has always in his pay three hundred halberdiers who are on - guard by tens at a time for the King’s person, and pass the night - in the private antechamber. - - His Majesty spends as follows:-- - - Ducats. -For the Maintenance of his Court 100,000 -Presents 120,000 -Horses 20,000 -Parks, and Packs of Hounds 50,000 -Soldiers who guard the Fortresses 30,000 -His Majesty’s Chamber (Privy Purse) 30,000 -Buildings 10,000 -Charities 10,000 -Embassies and King’s Messengers 40,000 -Expenses of the Queen (Catharine of Aragon), and - the Princess (Mary) 30,000 - ------- - Total 440,000 - ======= - - In case of war his Majesty could arm four thousand light horse and - sixty thousand infantry. The latter would fight in the - old-fashioned way, with bow, sword, shield, helmet, and with pikes - of one or two points which are excellent against charges of - cavalry. They are now beginning to use guns and artillery. The - English do not fear death. As soon as the battle commences, they - provoke the enemy and charge furiously; in very quick engagements - they are generally victorious, but they often yield if the war - drags on. They have not the slightest fear of Frenchmen, but they - are much afraid of the Scotch. - - During forty days they are obliged to serve in the army without - receiving pay; after that time they receive three crowns and a half - for a period of service determined beforehand. The fleet consists - of one hundred and fifty vessels. - - It now only remains for me to tell you who are the friends of the - King, and what consequences his divorce might have, and I shall - then add a few words on the most Reverend the Cardinal York. - - Since the affair of the divorce has come up [Falier is writing in - 1531, and Henry VIII. married Anne Boleyn the next year] the Pope - [Clement VII.] is not in his Majesty’s good graces. If the Holy - Father will not grant the King permission to divorce, the result - will be a very great advantage for the English crown, and a great - danger to the Roman Church, for the King will detach himself from - the latter, and will seize all the revenues of the ecclesiastical - benefices; this will yield the Crown more than six million ducats - [£4,500,000]. - -Falier was not mistaken, unless, perhaps, in his figures. He proceeds to -speak of the relations between England and all the other European -states, after which he returns to the question of the divorce, -expressing himself in a very singular way for a Catholic. It must be -remembered, however, that he was a Venetian, and therefore a man of -business first, and a baptized Christian afterward. - - The Englishman [Henry VIII.] must necessarily divorce, for he - wishes to have a legitimate son, and he has lost all hope of one - being born to him by the Lady Catharine [of Aragon]. He will - therefore marry his favourite [Anne Boleyn] the daughter of the - Earl of Vuilcer (_sic_) [Wiltshire--note the Venetian’s phonetic - spelling!] as soon as possible. He will have trouble, for the - faction that is for the Queen will rise. - -It is quite clear that Venetian diplomatists did not indulge themselves -in sentiment, and the information they presented to the Senate was as -brutally frank and coldly precise as a medical diagnosis. They sought -for facts and did not philosophise about them. Here is Falier’s opinion -of Cardinal Wolsey:-- - - The King and the kingdom were in his hands, and he disposed of - everything as the King himself might have done, or the Pope. All - the princes were obliged to bow down to him. He received one - hundred and fifty thousand ducats yearly over and above the gifts - which he had from the English and the foreign princes. He counted - much on France, with which kingdom he kept up extremely - affectionate relations. His court was magnificent, more magnificent - than the King’s. He spent all his income, he was very proud, and he - wished to be adored like a god rather than respected as a prince. - -In connection with the great Cardinal, I shall translate a passage of -the letter in which Falier had informed the Senate of his disgrace. The -fragment has some value also, from the light it throws on the -comparative values of coins at that time. It must be remembered that the -value of the gold ducat never changed to the last, while that of all -other European coins varied greatly. - - The King of England has had the Cardinal put in prison, has - deprived him of the government, and has confiscated all his - property. His fortune is valued at forty thousand pounds English, - equal to twenty thousand of our grossi [the silver mark], or two - hundred thousand [silver] ducats; in these forty thousand pounds - must be included thirty thousand pounds English in cash, that is, - fifteen thousand of ours or one hundred and fifty thousand - [silver] ducats. His real estate has also been confiscated, - consisting of his Archbishopric, which brought him a very large - sum. - -At the risk of wearying my readers I give a short extract from the -report of another ambassador to England, Jacopo Soranzo, which was read -before the Senate on the ninth of August 1554 (Queen Mary then -reigning). The Venetian expresses his surprise at the way in which -trials by jury were conducted in England. - - Crimes are tried before twelve judges who may not leave the court, - nor eat, nor drink, until they all agree, without one exception, on - the sentence to be passed.... When sentence has been passed, the - judges execute it immediately, but without ever resorting to the - mutilation of a member or exile. If the accused is innocent, he is - acquitted; if he is guilty, he is condemned to death. - - I need not lay stress on the defective form of such trials; your - Lordships see for yourselves how reprehensible such a mode of - procedure is, for it often happens that eleven persons who wish to - acquit the accused decide to condemn him to death in order to be of - the opinion of the twelfth, who is determined to bear starvation - till this verdict is given. - -Before closing this chapter it is worth while to note that if the -Venetian ambassadors abroad succeeded in knowing almost everything that -was happening, the - -[Sidenote: _A. Bashet, Archives._] - -government took good care that foreign representatives residing in -Venice should not follow their example. They were never told anything in -the way of news, and though honours and privileges were heaped upon -them, they were kept at arm’s length. As far back as the fourteenth -century there was a law forbidding all patricians to have any -acquaintance or social intercourse with any foreign representative -except under the most exceptional circumstances, and M. Baschet has -found material in the Archives sufficient to prove that the foreign -ambassadors lived in something very like the seclusion of exile, and -were altogether banished from all intercourse with the upper classes. -The same writer adds that the diplomatists resented this rude exclusion, -and that the practice of it made the Republic not a few enemies. - -To such a criticism Venice would have answered, as usual, by the -argument of success on the whole during many centuries. Those who care -to examine the point more closely may read M. Baschet’s interesting work -on the Secret Chancery. - -[Illustration: PONTE DEL CRISTO] - - - - -IV - -THE ARSENAL, THE GLASS-WORKS, AND THE LACE-MAKERS - - -The old Arsenal is such a museum of shadows nowadays that it is hard to -realise what it once meant to the Venetians. Six hundred years ago, the -sight of it inspired one of Dante’s most vivid descriptions of activity, -and I have sometimes wondered whether in his day the three -dwelling-houses of the Provveditors were already nick-named Heaven, -Purgatory, and Hell, as they were always called at a later date. - -The Arsenal was founded in the twelfth century, and from the very first -was one of the institutions most jealously watched over by the -government. In the sixteenth century it had grown to be a vast enclosure -of docks and basins, protected by a crenellated wall, and having but one -entrance, which was guarded by sentinels. In the interior, the houses of -the Provveditors had grown to be three great palaces, built round a -courtyard, each officer occupying one of them during the thirty-two -months of his term of office. - -The Provveditors were nobles, of course, but they must necessarily have -been men who thoroughly understood nautical matters, for it was their -duty to oversee all work done in the place, to the minutest details, and -they had absolute control of all the vast stores accumulated for -building and fitting the fleet of the Republic. Every manufactured -article was stamped with the arms of the Republic as soon as it was made -or purchased, and not a nail, not a fathom of rope, not a yard of canvas -could be brought out of the storehouses without the consent of one of -the Provveditors. If anything was found outside the walls of the Arsenal -with the public mark on it, the object was considered by law to be -stolen, an inquiry was made, and if the culprit who had committed the -misdemeanour could be caught, he was condemned to the galleys. - -In order to enforce the rigid regulations the government not only -required all three Provveditors to inhabit constantly the palaces -assigned to them, but insisted that one of them should remain day and -night within the - -[Illustration: STEAMERS COMING IN] - -boundaries of the yard, during a fortnight, without going out at all. -This service was taken in turn, and the official who was on duty was -called the ‘Patron di Guardia.’ Into his hands all the keys were given -every evening when work was over. - -The artisans of the government ship-yard were the finest set of men in -Venice, and their traditions of workmanship and art were handed down in -their families from father to son for generations, as certain -occupations still are in Italy. I know of a man-servant, for instance, -whose direct ancestors have served those of the family in which he is -still a servant for more than two hundred years without a break. In the -Venetian Arsenal, it sometimes happened that an old man was foreman of a -department in which his son was a master smith or carpenter, and his -grandson an apprentice. - -There was something military in the organisation, which bound the -artisans very close together, for they trained themselves in fencing and -gymnastics, and also in everything connected with extinguishing fires -and saving wrecks or shipwrecked crews, for in any case of public danger -it was always the ‘Arsenalotti’ who were called in. They were sober and -courageous and excessively proud of their trade, and the government -could always count on them. Twice, towards the end of the sixteenth -century, the ducal palace took fire, and would have burnt down but for -the prodigious energy of the workmen from the government docks. On the -first occasion they proudly refused the present of five hundred ducats -which the Doge offered them, but gratefully accepted an invitation to -dine with him in a body; and as they numbered over fifteen thousand the -Doge did not save money by the arrangement. Three years later, all their -efforts could not hinder the hall of the Great Council from burning, and -priceless works of art by such men as the two Bellini, Titian, -Tintoretto, and Pordenone were destroyed in a few moments. But the -Arsenalotti saved the rest of the building, and again refused any -recompense for their services. - -When Henry III. of France came to Venice, the Arsenal employed about -sixteen thousand men, and could count on a budget of two hundred and -twenty-four thousand gold ducats, of which one hundred and twenty-four -went to pay the wages of the workmen, and the rest was expended for -materials. Those were large sums in the sixteenth century, but Venice -looked upon the Arsenal as the mainspring of her power, and spared -nothing to keep it in a state as near perfection as possible. In the -long struggle with Genoa, the enemy used every art to bring about its -destruction, but always in vain. The men who guarded the docks were -absolutely incorruptible. In the sixteenth century it seemed as if the -pure blood of the old Venetians ran only in their veins, and as if they -alone still upheld the noble traditions of loyalty and simplicity which -the founders of the Republic had handed down from braver days. - -Next to the construction of her war-ships and merchant fleets, one of -the most important matters to the commerce of Venice was the -manufacture of glass, which brought enormous profits to the State and to - -[Illustration: S. MICHELE] - -individuals, as is usually the case when a valuable product is made out -of cheap materials by processes which are secret, and therefore have the -effect of a monopoly. - -As early as the fourteenth century the government had understood the -immense importance of the art, and the glass-blowers of Murano were -protected and favoured in a most especial way. As in one part of France, -a sort of nobility was inherent in the occupation, and an early law -sanctioned the marriage of a master - -[Illustration: VENICE FROM MURANO] - -glass-blower’s daughter with a patrician by allowing their children to -be entered in the Golden Book. - -The glass-works were all established in the island of Murano, as their -presence in the city would have caused constant danger of fire at a time -when many of the houses were still built of wood, and the whole -manufacture was subject to the direct supervision of the Council of Ten, -under whose supreme authority Murano governed itself as a separate city, -and almost as a separate little republic. Not only were the -glass-blowers organised in a number of guilds according to the special - -[Illustration: THE DUOMO CAMPANILE, MURANO] - -branches of the profession, such as bead-making, bottle-blowing, the -making of window-panes and of stained glass, each guild having its own -‘mariegola’ or charter; but over these the Muranese had their own Great -Council and Golden Book, in which the names of one hundred and -seventy-three families were inscribed, and their own Small Council, or -Senate. The Ten gave Murano a ‘Podestà,’ but he had not the power which -similar officers exercised in the other cities and islands of the -Dogato, and it is amusing to see that the people of Murano treated him -very much as the Venetians themselves treated their Doge. He was -required to be of noble blood; he was obliged by law to spend three days -out of four in Murano; he was forbidden to go to Venice when important -functions were going on; he could not interfere in any affair without -the permission of both the Councils of Murano, and altogether he was -much the same sort of figure-head as the Doge himself. On the other -hand, Murano supported a sort of consul in Venice with the title of -Nuncio, whose business it was to defend the interests of the island -before the Venetian government. - -Neither the Missier Grande, the chief of the Venetian police, nor the -‘sbirri,’ were allowed to exercise their functions on the island. -Offenders were arrested and dealt with by the officers of the Murano -government, and were handed over to the Venetian supreme government only -in extreme cases, most trials taking place on the island. - -The heraldic arms of Murano displayed on an azure field a cock with red -legs, wearing a crown of silver. - -In the sixteenth century the population was about thirty thousand souls, -and the little city had a great reputation for the beauty of its -churches and especially of its gardens, in which quantities of exotic -plants and flowers were cultivated. - -The two most powerful families amongst the glass-blowers were those of -Beroviero and Ballarin. I have told at length in the form of a romance -the true story - -[Illustration: MURANO, LOOKING TOWARDS VENICE] - -of Zorzi Ballarin and Marietta Beroviero, availing myself only of the -romancer’s right to be the apologist of his hero. The facts remain. -Angelo Beroviero, a pupil of Paolo Godi, the famous mediæval chemist, -worked much alone in his laboratory, noting the results of his -experiments in a diary which became extremely valuable. By some means -this diary came into the hands of Zorzi Ballarin, so-called by his -comrades on account of his lameness. He loved Marietta, and she loved -him, but he was poor, and moreover, as far as I have been able to -ascertain, he was of foreign birth, and could therefore not become a -master glass-blower. When he found himself in possession of the precious - -[Illustration: MURANO] - -secrets, he used his power to extort Beroviero’s consent, he married -Marietta, obtained the full privileges of a master, lived a highly -honourable life, and became the ancestor of a distinguished family, one -of whom was a Venetian ambassador, as may be read in the inscription on -his tomb in Murano. Beroviero’s house, with the sign of the Angel, is -still standing in Murano, and I think the ancient glass-works nearly -opposite were probably his. As for Zorzi Ballarin, I daresay that the -process by which he really got possession of the diary was not strictly -legal, but love has excused worse misdeeds than that, and Beroviero does -not seem to have suffered at all in the end. If there had been any -foundation for the spiteful story some chroniclers tell, - -[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF BEROVIERO, MURANO] - -a man of Beroviero’s power and wealth could have had Zorzi imprisoned, -tortured, and exiled without the slightest difficulty. - -Venice was almost as famous for her lace as for her glass. On the -admittedly doubtful authority of Daru and Laugier, Smedley gives an -anecdote of the Emperor Frederick III. for what it is worth. It at least -illustrates the fact that all foreigners did not esteem Venetian glass -as highly as the Venetians themselves. When Frederick visited the city -on his way to Rome, he was most magnificently entertained, and amongst -other presents offered to him was a very beautiful service of Murano -glass. The Emperor was not pleased with the gift, which, to his -barbarous ignorance, seemed of no value; he ordered his dwarf jester to -seem to stumble against the table on which the matchless glass was set -out, and it was all thrown to the ground and smashed to atoms. ‘If these -things had been of gold or silver, they could not have been broken so -easily,’ said the imperial boor. - -In contrast with this possibly true story of the fifteenth century, I -find that the lace collar worn by Louis XIV. at his coronation was made -in Venice, and was valued at an enormous sum. He afterwards bribed -Murano glass-blowers to settle in France. - -In those times, more or less as now, women made lace at home, and -brought the results of their long and patient labour to the dealers, who -bought and sold it at a fabulous profit. A few specimens of the finest -lace of the sixteenth century are still in existence, and are worn on -great occasions by Italian ladies whose ancestresses wore them more than -three hundred years ago; but the art of making such lace is extinct. -Glance only, for instance, at a picture by Carpaccio, in the Museo -Civico of Venice, representing two patrician ladies of the fifteenth -century, one of whom wears white lace on her gown. It is of the kind -known as ‘point coupé’ or cut point, and is the same which Francesco -Vinciolo taught the French a hundred years later when it was no longer -thought fine enough, in Venice, for ornamenting anything but sheets and -pillow-cases. It is inimitable now. Or look at the exquisite lace of -network stitch with which Gentile Bellini loved to adorn the women he -portrayed. Yet in the sixteenth century still further progress had been -made, and the ‘air point’ was created, which surpassed in fineness -anything imagined before then, and for which fabulous prices were paid. -The collar of Louis XIV. was of this point, and it is said that as no -thread could be spun fine enough for it, white human hair was used. -There is also a story to the effect that the Emperor Joseph II., who -ascended the throne in 1765, ordered a set of air point worth the -improbable, though not very great price of 77,777 francs. As neither -Austrians nor Venetians used the franc, the story is most likely of -French origin. - -Another lace greatly valued in Venice was the ‘rose point,’ which is -probably the best known of the ancient laces. It was preferred, for -collars, both by high officials and great ladies, and the Dogesses often -used it for their veils. The Doge Francesco Morosini possessed some -wonderful specimens of it, which I am told are still in the possession -of his descendants. - -One more stitch was invented in the sixteenth century, which oddly -enough obtained the generic name of ‘Venetian point.’ There is a pretty -story about it. A sailor, says the legend, came home from a long voyage -and brought his sweetheart a kind of seaweed known to botanists by the -name of _Halimedia Opuntia_, of which the little branches were so fine -that the people called the plant ‘Siren’s hair.’ The man sailed again on -another voyage, and the girl, full of loving and anxious thoughts for -him, occupied herself by copying the dried plant with her needle, and in -so doing created the Venetian point. - -The minister Colbert introduced it into France a century later, under -Louis XIV., and gave it his own name; and the King and the Republic -quietly quarrelled about this French infringement of a Venetian -monopoly. In the end, the Inquisitors of State issued a decree which was -intended to recall errant and erring Venetian lace-workers and -glass-blowers to the security of their homes:-- - -‘All workmen or artisans who carry on their trade in foreign countries -shall be ordered to come back; should they disobey, the members of their -families shall be imprisoned, and if they then return, they shall be -freely pardoned and again employed in Venice. But if any of them persist -in living abroad, messengers shall be sent to kill them, and when they -are dead their relations shall be let out of prison.’ - -The glass-blowers who were to be murdered were men, but the lace-makers -were women, and the decree, which was made about 1673, is a fine -instance of Venetian business principles, since the killing of men and -women by assassination was a measure introduced solely for the -protection of trade. - -Coloured bobbin lace was also made in Venice, with dyed silk thread and -threads of gold, in the fifteenth century, and Richard III. of England -desired his queen to wear it on her cloak at their coronation in 1483. - -The modern Burano lace was first made after the - -[Illustration: THE PALACES] - -end of the Republic, and is almost the only sort which is now -manufactured in any quantity. Some of the finer points are imitated, it -is true, and are vastly advertised, advertisement having taken the place -of assassination in business methods as a means of creating a fictitious -monopoly; but in spite of some really good pieces of needlework wrought -with great care--as advertisements--the mass of the work turned out is -of a cheap and commercial character. - -The policy of Venice with regard to her manufactures was one of -protection, as has been seen, and the result was on the whole very -satisfactory to the people as well as to the great merchants. Very heavy -duties were levied on almost all imported articles, and among the very -few excepted were the silk fabrics from Florence known by the name of -‘ormesini.’ This material was in such common use in Venice that the -local silk weavers could not meet the demand for it. One of the reasons -why the working people of Venice were always satisfied was that they -were almost always prosperous; the price of labour was high, while that -of necessities was relatively low, and the people accordingly lived in -comfort without excessively hard work. - -On the other hand, some of them were always extravagant, as some of the -nobles were, and some were unfortunate; and though there was no -pauperism, there were many families of hopelessly poor persons. In a -measure the hospitals, hospices, and orphan asylums provided for those -in want, but in Venice, as in modern cities, the candidates for charity -were always just a little more numerous than the shares into which -charity could divide herself. - -There were also those who, if not exactly poor, were in difficulties, -the class that for ever feeds the pawnbroker and the small money-lender. -The Republic exercised the strictest supervision over these industries, -and few cities in the world ever turned a harder face against the -inroads of the Hebrews. It was with the greatest unwillingness and with -many precautions that Jews were ever admitted into the city at all, and -a special code provided the most extraordinary and cruel penalties for -the most ordinary misdemeanours when committed by them. They were forced -to wear a special dress with a large patch of yellow on the chest, and -they could only follow the meanest occupations. In mediæval Rome it was -the business of the Jews to bury the Christian dead, but it often -happened that the Pope’s private physician was a Hebrew. I do not find -that in Venice they were ever forced to be gravediggers for the poor, -but they were forbidden to act as physicians except for their own sick. -Both Church and State rigorously forbade their intermarriage with -Christians, and, so far as the happy ending of the love story is -concerned, Lorenzo and Shylock’s daughter could never have married. More -than once, before the sixteenth century, the Jews were expelled from -Venice and made to live in Mestre, which seems to have been their -regular headquarters, but they were allowed to come into the city during -the time of certain public fairs. If they prolonged their stay beyond -the limit, however, they became liable to fine or imprisonment. Some of -these measures had been partly relaxed by the middle of the sixteenth -century, but the Jews never enjoyed anything like equality with the -other citizens. - -Oddly enough the money-lender of the lower classes in Venice was the -wine-seller, whom the people called the Bastionero. In the wine-shop it -was customary to pawn objects for wine and money - -[Illustration: THE RIALTO STEPS] - -simultaneously, one-third of the value being given in wine, which was -generally watered. If the pledge were not redeemed within three months, -the amount to be paid for getting it back was increased, and again at -the end of the next three months, and so on, until, - -[Illustration: NOON ON THE RIALTO] - -at the end of the year, the original sum lent was doubled. If it was not -paid, the wine-seller had a right to sell the object for what it would -bring. - -A modern Eastern proverb says that one Greek can cheat any ten Jews, but -that one Armenian can cheat ten Greeks. Considering that Venice had a -distinctly oriental character during the Middle Ages, and since we know -that the small money-lending wine-sellers were not Jews, I suspect that -they were principally Greeks and Armenians, the more probably so as we -know that great quantities of Greek and Armenian wine were imported into -Venice, and that those wines will bear a good deal of watering. The -latter is an important point, for it is manifest that when the pledge -was redeemed within the first three months, the lender’s profit was the -difference between the nominal and the real value of the wine which -formed one-third of the loan. - -The government which tolerated this ignoble occupation exhibited the -most extraordinary prejudice against the government pawnbroking offices -which were common in other Italian cities. Historians have in vain -endeavoured to discover why this prejudice went so far that, in 1524, -the Council of Ten published a decree threatening with death on the -scaffold any one who should even propose the creation of such an -establishment. Without entering into any ingenious speculation, it seems -possible that the Venetians, who were wise if not virtuous, considered -that while it was impossible to prevent the poor from borrowing small -sums on their little possessions, to authorise such borrowing by making -the government the lender would greatly increase the temptations of -that more shiftless class to whom borrowing seems to be a prime -necessity of existence. - -[Illustration: AT THE RIALTO] - -The centre and heart of all this activity, good and bad, was the bridge -of the Rialto. We find it hard to realise that until near the end of -the sixteenth century it was still built of wood with a movable -drawbridge in the middle to admit the passage of larger vessels. -Carpaccio, who lived in the fifteenth century, has left us a faithful -representation of it as it remained for nearly a hundred years -afterwards. It would be interesting to place beside that picture -Turner’s lost painting of the same subject, a very beautiful canvas -which I have twice had the good fortune to see in the course of its more -than mysterious peregrinations. I last heard of it, though not -certainly, as being in the south of France. - -The present bridge was begun after infinite hesitation in 1588, and was -built after the designs of Antonio da Ponte, whose name was certainly -prophetic of his career. Twelve thousand elm piles had to be driven into -the soil on each side of the canal to a depth of sixteen feet to make -the foundations of the arch. The construction occupied three years, and -is said to have cost 250,000 ducats, presumably of silver. The bridge as -it stands is a remarkable piece of work, and would be beautiful if the -hideous superstructure of shops could be removed. It is interesting to -note that fifty years before its completion, Michelangelo offered the -Doge Andrea Gritti a plan for a bridge, as is amply proved by the -existence of a picture in the Casa Buonarotti in Florence representing -the subject. - -[Illustration: EVENING OFF S. GEORGIO] - - - - -V - -CONCERNING SOME LADIES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY - - -The clever modern Italian playwright, Signor Martini, makes one of his -witty characters say that there are ‘women,’ but that there is no such -thing - -[Sidenote: _Martini, ‘Chi sa il giuoco non l’ insegni.’_] - -as ‘woman’ in the abstract. In other words, ‘women’ are a fact, but -‘woman’ is a myth. Though this may be a little paradoxical, there are -certainly distinct types of women in each class of life. The smart -society woman of to-day and the labourer’s wife, like the Venetian -patrician lady of the sixteenth century and the fisher-wives of -Chioggia, have in common only their sex, their weaknesses and their -sufferings; there is very little resemblance between their virtues, and -none at all between their joys. - -The noble ladies of Venice in the sixteenth century were as idle and -frivolous as Orientals. The fact must be admitted by any one who studies -the times; and if it is not of a nature to please those who idealise -that period, it may be partly excused by the consideration that the -Venetian nobleman treated his womankind very much as a Turk treats his -harem. He was not jealous, as lovers understand jealousy; granted a -certain degree of beauty and a dowry of a certain value, he cared very -little whom he married. When Kugler, the famous art critic, says of -Titian’s picture of the Schiava, the Slave, in the Barberini Gallery in -Rome, that the name is utterly meaningless, he shows that he knew -nothing of Venetian life. The slave in the sixteenth century not seldom -meant everything, where the wife meant nothing; and if the wives were -idle and frivolous, we must remember that when they were young and -good-looking, they often found themselves in competition with beautiful -Georgian and Circassian women for their masters’ favour. Where women are -plentiful, beautiful, and not clever, the men who love them are rarely -jealous. But those grave and magnificent Venetians, who had not a -scruple in politics, nor in matrimony, were excessively sensitive about -anything which touched their technical honour, and it seemed to them -altogether safer and wiser to teach their wives and daughters what they -were pleased to call ‘habits of domestic seclusion.’ To be plain, they -encouraged them to stay at home; and sometimes, by way of making -obedience easier, they locked them up. M. Yriarte says with partial -truth that their ‘seclusion’ was that of the harem, not that of the -classic gynaeceum; he did not realise that the latter was nothing but a -harem too, and that if the Greeks kept their wives at home, it was that -they might sup undisturbed in the society of Phryne. - -The influence of the East on everything connected with private life in -Venice increased with the Renascence, and is even more perceptible then -than during the nominal domination of the Byzantine Empire, when Roman -traditions still had great force, and new currents of thought reached -Venice from the Lombards. - -Yet in one respect there was nothing oriental about the Venetian noble -of the sixteenth century. When he ordered his women to appear in public -at all, he sent them out adorned like those miraculous images which are -covered with ‘ex voto’ offerings, and they mixed in the crowd that -filled the Piazza of Saint Mark’s, shoulder to shoulder with the -shameless free. - -The Venetian gentleman, so sensitive about his technical honour, was not -even displeased when the chronicler, the reporter of his day, confounded -ladies and courtesans in pompous praise of their beauty and dress. One -of the nobleman’s principles seems to have been that a woman was never -in danger in public, nor when her door was locked on the outside and the -key was in her husband’s pocket, but that any intermediate state of -partial liberty was fraught with peril. - -At home the Venetian ladies suffered the pains of boredom in common with -the Georgians and Circassians, who not infrequently lived under the same -roof, but who presumably saw something more of their masters. The young -mother had not even a resource in her children, for it was necessary -that the latter should be brought up to be precisely like their fathers -and mothers, and in order to accomplish this the fathers kept the boys -with themselves, and made them serve in the Senate when they were still -quite small; whereas it seems that the girls were brought up largely in -convents, such as that of the Vergini, lest they should learn too well -from their mothers what it meant to be the wife of a member of the Great -Council. - -Does any one remember, in all the portraits of Venetian ladies by -Carpaccio, Tintoretto, Veronese, or Titian, to have seen a mother -accompanied by her little child? There is the conventional flower, there -is the jewel, there is often the lap-dog; but the child is as -conspicuously absent as the effigy of Brutus at Junia Tertia’s funeral. -Children were born and were splendidly baptized; but after that they had -no part in their mothers’ lives. And the ladies themselves had no great -part in Venetian social life, except on its great occasions of baptisms, -marriages, and funerals, or in public ceremonies, when they appeared in -a body, by order of the Ten, in their richest clothes and as a part of -the decoration. It is no wonder that they had few friends and were bored -to extinction. - -As a specimen of what a young and noble Venetian girl could become if -emancipated, one cannot do better than take Bianca Cappello. She was - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali._] - -born in 1548 in the magnificent palace which her father, Bartolommeo -Cappello, had built for himself near the Ponte Storto. Her mother died -when Bianca was a little child, a misfortune which probably had no very -great influence on the girl’s education or character, seeing how little -the Venetian ladies occupied themselves with their children. She -received the usual teaching, and learned to read and write after a -fashion, and such of her letters as have been preserved show that her -writing was anything but good. No doubt she had the usual number of pet -birds and lap-dogs to play with, and plenty of sweetmeats, and when she -was sixteen she was very like other girls of her class and age. - -In Italy young girls are taught not to look out of the window in town. -Bianca was terribly bored, and she looked out of the window. Opposite -her father’s palace was a house occupied by two Florentine burghers, -uncle and nephew, Bonaventuri by name, who represented the great Tuscan -banking-house of Salviati. - -Bianca looked out of her window, dreaming, no doubt, of the dancing -lessons which she would be allowed to have when she should be married, -and of other similar and harmless frivolities; and young Pietro -Bonaventuri also looked out of the window, neglecting his ledgers. - -The girl was very lonely and excessively bored. She never left the -palace except to go with her father - -[Sidenote: _Galliccioli, iii. 210._] - -to their villa in Murano for a few weeks in the fine season. She was not -even taken to church, because, some eighty years, earlier, a young girl -called Giovanna di Riviera, when going to mass with her mother on the -morning of the third of March 1482, had been picked up and literally -carried off by a too enterprising lover. After that, young girls of good -birth were not allowed to go to church, and mass was said for them in a -little chapel at home. - -Bianca was so terribly bored that she began to make signs to Pietro from -her window. She had nothing else to do. One of her most important -occupations was to sun her hair on the high ‘altana.’ That was a real -pleasure, for the palace was gloomy, though it was new, and her room -felt like a prison cell; but she could not be always sunning her hair. - -The young banker’s clerk responded to her signals of distress with -alacrity, and a dumb love affair began, apparently highly approved by -the youth’s uncle, who was a man of business. On the night - -[Sidenote: _1564._] - -between the twenty-eighth and the twenty-ninth of December the two -eloped and got away from Venice without being caught. - -Bartolommeo Cappello’s appeal to the Council of Ten is extant. I give -the most interesting part of it:-- - -‘I shall here expose, and not without tears, the cruel and atrocious -deed of which I was the victim on the night of December the -twenty-ninth. The scoundrel Pietro Bonaventuri, with the consent of his -uncle, Giovanni Battista, and of accomplices whom I know not ... entered -my house, which is almost opposite his, and carried off my only -daughter, sixteen years old; he first took her to his house and then hid -her from place to place, to my great dishonour and that of all my -family.’ - -The document goes on in a strain of lamentation, and ends with the -request that the Council of Ten should set a price on the head of the -seducer, and bring the girl back to be locked up in a convent; and the -unhappy father offered a prize of six thousand lire to any one who would -bring him Pietro Bonaventuri, alive or dead. The letter expresses more -hatred of the lover than sorrow for the lost child. - -The Ten proceeded in the matter without delay; Pietro’s uncle was thrown -into prison, and died there soon afterwards of a putrid fever. Bianca’s -woman-servant and the latter’s husband, who was a gondolier, and who -had, of course, both been acquainted with the plan of her flight, were -arrested and tortured; as for Pietro and Bianca, they had been already -some time in Florence, where they learned that they had both been -condemned to death by default. The Ten had proceeded against the -insignificant banker’s clerk with terrible energy. - -But Bianca, who had been so dreadfully bored, now had too much to do. -Pietro’s affairs did not prosper, and after selling the jewels she had -brought with her, she was obliged to work with her hands in his house, -which was not at all what she had bargained for. Chance favoured her, -however, and she helped chance as well as she could, and succeeded in -attracting the notice of Francesco de’ Medici. He was the son of Cosmo, -the Grand Duke, and the brother of Isabella, then not yet drowned in her -own basin by Paolo Giordano Orsini, and of Cardinal Ferdinando, who -afterwards poisoned his brother and became Grand Duke. Francesco lost -his heart to the beautiful Bianca, and she had no objection to winning -it; Pietro Bonaventuri, who was a man of business instincts, but not -sufficiently cautious, had no objection either. But old Cosmo, the Duke, -was much scandalised by his son’s behaviour, though he himself had been -accused of nothing less than loving his own daughter Isabella, and he -remonstrated with Francesco. - -‘You know,’ he said, ‘that I do not wish to weary you with preaching, -but when things go too far you must learn what I think of you.’ - -Francesco learned, but does not seem to have been much affected by the -knowledge, for he presently installed Bianca and her complaisant husband -almost under the same roof with his wife. Pietro, however, was really so -superfluous that he was soon suppressed, after which his widow occupied -an official position in - -[Illustration: CASA WEIDERMANN] - -the court of Tuscany as the acknowledged mistress of the heir to the -throne. Francesco now attempted to get a reversal of the sentence -passed on Bianca by the Council of Ten, and employed an influential -person to plead the cause; but it was thought improper that such a case -should be treated in the name of old Cosmo while he insisted on ignoring -Bianca’s existence. Cosmo died in 1574, but still nothing was done. - -It may be doubted whether any woman in Bianca’s situation ever went to -such extremes of treachery and effrontery. Her victim, the gentle -Archduchess Giovanna of Austria, Francesco’s wife, died at last in 1578, -possibly without being helped out of the world, and Francesco married -Bianca secretly two months later; but the marriage was not announced to -the people until the year of mourning was over. Bianca was Grand Duchess -of Tuscany. - -The effect of the news in Venice was magical. The Senate made the -following curious declaration:-- - -‘The Grand Duke of Tuscany having deigned to choose as his consort the -lady Bianca Cappello, of noble Venetian family, endowed with such great -qualities that we judge her worthy of that dignity, it is but right that -our Republic should exhibit its satisfaction at the honour conferred -upon it by this important and prudent decision of the said Grand Duke. -We therefore decree that the aforesaid illustrious and puissant lady, -Bianca Cappello, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, be declared the adopted and -beloved daughter of our Republic.’ - -Bianca’s father, who, being a good Venetian, was almost as good a man -of business as Salviati’s murdered clerk, and much more prudent, wrote a -letter full of touchingly tender feeling to the daughter whom he had -cursed so loudly and so long; he and his sons, Bianca’s brothers, were -made Knights of the Golden Stole, and all the records of the scandalous -trial that had taken place fifteen years earlier were burnt. Bianca’s -public marriage and coronation took place on the twelfth of October -1579, and the Republic sent two ambassadors and the patriarch Grimani to -show the Grand Duchess that all old scores were forgotten. She was -thirty-one years old. - -We know even more than is necessary of Bianca’s life and intrigues. She -survived her triumph eight years, till she and her ill-gotten husband -died of poison within a few hours of each other; but whether the drug -was administered by the Cardinal Ferdinando, Francesco’s brother, or -whether the two meant to give it to him and took it by mistake, is not -clear. He himself declared that he had not poisoned anybody. It is at -least certain that he would not allow Bianca to be interred in the -Medici vault, but had her privately buried in the crypt of San Lorenzo. - -The Venetian Republic did not go into mourning for its ‘well-beloved -adopted daughter,’ since it was best not to quarrel with the Cardinal -Grand Duke, who had probably suppressed her, though his physician made -an autopsy and assured the public that she had died of frightful -excesses of all sorts. - -The moral of this unpleasing tale is that the manner of bringing up -Venetian girls in the sixteenth century was not of a kind to develop -their better instincts, for there is nothing to show that Bianca -Cappello was very different from other girls of her time, except in the -great opportunities for doing harm which fell to her share. - -Probably the most enjoyable weeks of a noble Venetian girl’s life were -those which preceded her marriage, and were chiefly spent in the -preparation of her wedding outfit. The age was eccentric as to dress; it -was the time of the huge Elizabethan ruffle and hoops; in Venice it was -especially the time of clogs. - -The latter had been introduced in the fourteenth century on account of -the mud in the still unpaved - -[Sidenote: _Urbain de Gheltof, Calzature._] - -streets, and they continued to be worn and grew to monstrous dimensions -after their usefulness had very much decreased. It became the rule that -the greater the lady was, the higher her clogs must be, till they turned -into something like stilts, and she could no longer walk except leaning -on the shoulders of two servants. In China, the Chinese men, as -distinguished from the Tartars, encourage the barbarous breaking of -girls’ feet, because it makes it impossible for them to gad about the -town when they are older, and still less to run away. The Venetian -noblemen approved of clogs for the same reason. - -M. Yriarte tells how a foreign ambassador, who was once talking with the -Doge and his counsellors in 1623, observed that little shoes would be -far more convenient than the huge clogs in fashion. One of the -counsellors shook his head in grave disapproval as he answered: ‘Far too -convenient, indeed! Far too much so.’ - -The civic museum in Venice contains two pairs of clogs, one of which is -twenty inches in height, the other seventeen. Some were highly -ornamented, and the Provveditori alle Pompe made sumptuary regulations -against adorning them with over-rich embroidery or with fine pearls. At -the same time, shoemakers were warned that they would be liable to a -fine of twenty-five lire for any pair of clogs not of proper dimensions -and becoming simplicity. Yet they continued to be worn of extravagant -size and excessively ornamented till the end of the seventeenth century, -when they suddenly sank to nothing, so that a clever woman of the time -complained that the Venetian ladies were beginning to wear shoes no -thicker than a footman’s. - -They were especially affected by the nobles, for the burgher class wore -them of much more moderate size. Altogether the life of the burghers’ -wives was far more enjoyable; they occupied themselves with music and -painting; they held gatherings at which men and women really exchanged -ideas, and ‘academies’ at which women with a turn for poetry or science -could compare themselves with the most gifted men of Venice. - -The most alive of the noble women of the sixteenth century, the one of -whom we have the most vivid impression, was assuredly Bianca Cappello, -who was a monster of iniquity. The others, who had not her -opportunities for great crime, all seem like lay figures, or common -odalisques, who lived a sensuous existence that was never disturbed by -an idea. But the burgher women amused themselves, and thought, and -wrote, and sometimes even allowed themselves a little sentiment. - -As for the women of the people, we know nothing about them, as there are -no documents regarding them, but it seems probable that they were, on -the whole, both happy and honest. - -There was one more category of women in Venice, as elsewhere, a class -that numbered eleven thousand six hundred and fifty-four members, -towards the end of the century, all young, many of them fair, all -desirous of pleasing, and all, strange to say, present at every public -festival--the class of those who were outside of class, the gay and -shameless free. A Venetian of those days made a catalogue ‘of all the -chief and most honoured courtesans of Venice ... their names ... the -lodgings where they live ... and also the amount of the money to be paid -by noblemen and others who desire to enter into their good graces.’ This -list is dedicated ‘to the most magnificent and gracious Madam Livia -Azzalina, my most respected patroness and lady ... the princess of all -Venetian courtesans.’ Moreover, at the end of the pompous dedication, -the writer, who signs only his initials, adds that he kisses the gay -lady’s ‘honoured hands.’ - -Some authors, taking this for a catalogue made out by the government, -inform us that the Venetian Senate always gave courtesans the title of -‘deserving.’ Lord Orford refuted this calumny in a curious pamphlet -quoted by Mr. Horatio Brown in his valuable and delightful _Venetian -Studies_. The catalogue contains two hundred and fifteen names; at -number two hundred and four stands the name of the famous Veronica -Franco--‘that skilled writer of the sonnet and curiously polished verses -which say so little and say it so beautifully,’ says Mr. Brown. - -Tassini tells an anecdote in point. Two gentlemen were walking one day -over the bridge near the Church of Saint Pantaleo, and they were -confiding to each other their conjugal troubles. ‘Do you know who is the -only honest woman in Venice?’ asked one of them. ‘There she is!’ He -painted to a little marble head which is still visible in the front of a -house below the bridge. The story went the rounds, and the bridge itself -was re-christened ‘Il Ponte di Donna Onesta.’ - -The elegance of the gay ladies was incredible, and it was in order to be -distinguished from them that respectable women little by little adopted -the black silk gown and veil which they wore to the end of the Republic. -The veil was black for married women and white for young girls. - -I find in some statistics for the year 1581 the following statement as -to the women of the better classes. There were 1659 patrician ladies, -1230 noble girls, 2508 nuns, and 1936 women of the burgher class. What -could they do against 11,654? The note adds that all the others were -women of the people. - -[Illustration: THE GRAND CANAL IN SUMMER] - - - - -VI - -A FEW PAINTERS, MEN OF LETTERS, AND SCHOLARS - - -According to some trustworthy authorities, Raphael, Martin Luther, and -Rabelais were born in the same year. The fact that they were certainly -contemporaries with each other and with many other men of genius of -contradictory types is one of the principal features of that most -contradictory age. Signor Molmenti compares the gifts of Carpaccio and -the two Bellini to rays that warm and gladden, those of Titian and -Tintoretto to lights that dazzle but give no heat. In two centuries that -immense change in art had taken place; from having spoken to the soul it -had come to appeal to the eye. - -The best painters of the fifteenth century touch us, and remain -impersonal to us. What do we know, for instance, of Carpaccio’s dreams -or struggles or sufferings while he was painting his great picture of -Saint Ursula and her maiden company? We gaze upon those virgin faces, -those crowns of martyrdom, those tenderly smiling women’s lips, those -almost childlike gestures, and they touch us deeply. Perhaps we should -like to ask them the secret of Carpaccio’s melancholy soul. But the lips -move not, nor do the eyes answer; the eleven thousand maidens seem -rather to beckon us away to that place of refreshment, light and peace, -where we may hope that the great painter’s sadness ended at last. They -tell us not of him, nor of themselves, but of heaven. - -A hundred years have gone by, and still artists paint pictures; but they -tell us no longer of anything but their own selves, their own lives, -their own passions. It is the world that has changed; perhaps it is not -faith that is gone, faith the evidence of things unseen, but most -assuredly belief has taken flight and left men sceptical, the belief -which is the mother of all bright dreams, and which must see in order to -believe, if only in imagination, and, believing, cannot fail to see. - -The time had come when the artists were interesting for their own sakes -as well as for what they did, and when the reporter-chronicler thought -it worth while to note every anecdote of their daily lives, to put down -the names of their models, to tell us who sat to them for their -Madonnas. And those names are mostly names of good and honest women, and -we know to a nicety why they chose this face for one purpose and that -for another. There is an end of all the legends of saintly heads begun -by the artist and finished before morning by an angel’s hand. There is -an end, too, of dreams of refreshment, light and peace. The artists of -the sixteenth century are the most human of mankind, the most subject to -humanity’s passions, its weaknesses and even its madness, and their -works bear the stamp of the sensuous naturalism in which they lived. - -The patrician Alvise Pisani possessed a beautiful house at San Cassian, -standing on a tongue of land called Biri Grande. From the embrasured -windows Murano could be seen, and the island of San Cristoforo, and of -Pace; beyond these, in the distance, rose the tall tower of Torcello, -and a dark line along the water marked the forest of the distant island -called Deserto; to the left rose the Euganean Hills, to the right -stretched a long beach of gleaming sand. The fishermen used to say that -when the mysterious glow spread over the waters of the lagoon at night, -the Fata Morgana had floated up the Adriatic and was bathing in the -dark. - -[Illustration: AFTERGLOW, THE GRAND CANAL] - -All those things might be seen from the windows of Alvise Pisani’s -house; and there dwelt Titian, no longer the thoughtless gallant of his -earlier days, but grave now, stately and magnificent. Violante is -forgotten, he lives honourably with his wife Cecilia, but he - -[Illustration: EUGANEAN HILLS FROM THE LAGOON, LOW TIDE] - -still keeps his love of conversation, his luxurious tastes, his lordly -manner; and now he feels himself the equal of the great of the earth, -and it amuses him to exchange letters with princes. For secretaries he -has poets, historians, and even a cardinal; he is the Titian who will -allow an emperor to stoop for the brush that has fallen from his hand. -But few men ever had such grace and winning charm, and his house is -ever open to his countless friends, a place of gathering, of wit and of -good talk, where ladies are received, some of whom a later age will call -blue-stockings, ladies who are members of learned academies, and ladies -that play the lute. - -Such was Titian, and such the house in which he was rarely alone. He had -among many friends two at least with whom he was really intimate, the -sculptor Sansovino, and Pietro Aretino the man of letters. The former -was the friend of his heart and of his artistic intelligence; the latter -he himself regarded as a sort of wild beast whom he had tamed and whom -he kept to frighten his rivals and his enemies. He could not let a day -go by without seeing both, and the three were generally together. If one -of them was asked to dinner, he invariably begged his host to invite the -other two. - -They certainly did not resemble one another. Aretino was an adventurer -who had tried most things: in his boyhood he had forged and stolen; in -his young prime he had been a renegade monk, and then a courtier; in his -maturity, to use one of his own expressions, he earned his living by the -sweat of his ink. The Grand Duke of Tuscany had hired a house for - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under Carbon._] - -him at the Riva del Carbon, for sixty soldi yearly, on the Grand Canal, -and it was there that he followed an occupation which procured him all -the necessaries and some of the luxuries of life. He made it his -business to address the most abjectly flattering panegyrics to eminent -persons, and even to sovereigns like Francis I. and the Emperor Charles -V., and they rewarded him with presents of money or old wine. Or if some -unlucky aspirant to office was in need of popularity or favour, Aretino -quietly explained to him that a little article from his own pen could -make or mar success; and there was nothing to be done but to pay, and to -pay handsomely. Between the composition of one libel and the next, the -amiable Tuscan lived riotously on his latest earnings with his two -daughters Adria and Austria; in plain language he was a blackmailer, a -voluptuary, a man of the highest taste, and of the lowest tastes. - -No one loved him, but he was generally feared, and was therefore much -sought after. His house was - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali._] - -always full, and it was said that it was impossible to go there without -meeting a scholar, a soldier, and a monk. He himself said pleasantly -that the steps of his house were as much worn by the feet of visitors as -the pavement before the Capitol was by the cars of triumphing Roman -generals. Nor was it only those that could pay blackmail who mounted the -stairs. The man was full of contradictions; the poor crept up to his -door and did not return empty-handed. Aretino was charitable. - -He could not bear to see a child crying for cold or hunger, nor to see -men or women sleeping shelterless in the streets, and often he took in -under his roof pilgrims and poor wandering gentlemen. On Easter day he -never failed to feed eighteen little beggar children at his table. But -when he was tired of his visitors, rich or poor, he took refuge with -Titian at San Cassian, for Titian was the only human being whom he loved -sincerely, and all the resources of his venomous wit and cruel pen were -at the disposal of this one friend. As for Titian’s other friends, -Aretino spared them, but the artist’s enemies he harassed without mercy. - -He was a physical coward, of course, as all such men are. He hated -Jacopo Tintoretto for two reasons, first, because his growing reputation -was beginning to be a source of anxiety to Titian, and secondly, because -he was too poor to be blackmailed and too proud to show himself in -Titian’s house with the threadbare clothes which his wife, good soul, -made him wear for economy’s sake. Aretino accordingly abused him, and -Tintoretto heard of it and determined to put an end to it in his own -way. - -One day he met Aretino in the street, stopped him, and proposed to paint -his portrait. The blackmailer was delighted, as the picture would cost -him nothing and would certainly be valuable, and he at once made an -appointment to go to Jacopo’s studio. On the appointed day he appeared -punctually, and seeing an empty canvas ready for the portrait, sat down -in a becoming attitude. But the painter’s turn had come. ‘Stand up!’ he -said, and Aretino obeyed. Then Tintoretto pulled out a long -horse-pistol. ‘What is this?’ asked Aretino, alarmed. ‘I am going to -measure you,’ replied the artist, and he proceeded to measure his -adversary by the length of the pistol. ‘You are two pistols and a half -high,’ he observed; ‘now go!’ and he pointed to the door. Aretino was -badly frightened, and lost no time in getting out of the house; and from -that day he neither wrote nor spoke any word that was not flattering to -Jacopo Tintoretto. - -Aretino received another lesson one day from the famous Andrea Calmo. -The latter was an extremely original personage, half man of letters, -half actor, whose improvised speeches in the character of Pantaloon were -so remarkable as to give rise to the mistaken belief that he had -invented that mask. He also wrote open letters to prominent men, as -Aretino did, and published them, and as his were quite as libellous as -the Tuscan’s, and sometimes even more witty, they had - -[Sidenote: _Love’s Labour’s Lost, Act iv. sc. 2 (Cambridge edition, -1863)._] - -an immense success. In fifty years they went through fifty editions, and -there is positive proof that Shakespeare was acquainted with them, for -he quotes a line and a half from one of Calmo’s works:-- - - Venetia, Venetia, - Chi non ti vede non ti pretia. - -Calmo’s chief virtue was neither patience nor forbearance, and it -appears that Aretino irritated him exceedingly. One day his nerves could - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Studi, and Nuovi Studi._] - -bear no longer with the Tuscan, and he gave vent to his feelings in an -ironical open letter addressed to the object of his dislike. Here is a -fragment of it:-- - -‘You are not a rational, natural human being, but aërial, celestial, -deified, a devout man and a calm one, esteemed by all, adorned with -every treasure and with all the virtues that no one being possesses, -from the East to the West. You are the temple of poetry, the theatre of -invention, a very sea of comparisons--and you behave in such a manner as -to scare even the dead!’ - -Titian’s other friend, Jacopo Sansovino, the celebrated architect, was -also a Tuscan by birth, but was of quite another stamp. His youth had -been wild, but he had then married a woman of great beauty and -refinement whose name was Paola, and who completely dominated him. The -couple were often seen at the house at San Cassian, as Titian and -Cecilia his wife often visited them in their dwelling in Saint Mark’s -Square close by the clock tower. - -Sansovino was handsome still, and rather a fashionable person, but -excitable withal and a brilliant talker; his life had been saddened for -some length of time by the wild doings of his son, but to his great -relief the young man at last took to literature and the art of printing. -The Sansovino couple also made their house the general meeting-place of -many friends, as Titian did. - -Though Jacopo was a Tuscan, Venice made every effort to monopolise his -time and industry after he had become famous throughout Italy, and he -was appointed the official architect of Saint Mark’s. He was charged -with the erection of the Mint and the Library, and of - -[Illustration: VENICE FROM THE GARDEN] - -a new Loggia to replace the very simple one in which the patricians had -been accustomed to gather before the meetings of the Great Council, ever -since the thirteenth century. How well he succeeded in that, the -beautiful construction which fell with the Campanile amply showed. - -While he was at work on the Library, Titian was called to Rome to -execute an important commission, and set out in the certainty that on -his return he should find the building finished and his friend covered -with glory. The construction grew indeed, and was soon finished, with -its two stories, of Doric and Ionic architecture, and the balustrade -that crowns the edifice, and the really royal staircase, and all the -rest. - -But unhappily, on the night of the eighteenth of December 1545, the -vault of the main hall fell in, with no apparent reason. Instantly all -Sansovino’s rivals raised a terrific outcry, accusing him of having -neglected the most elementary rules of his art, and asserting that the -accident was altogether due to his negligence and incapacity. The -zealous magistrate whose duty it was to oversee the construction of -public buildings did not even wait for a proper warrant, but seized -Sansovino instantly and sent him to prison. - -Paola was in despair, and when the news was generally known, early on -the following morning, the indignation of the architect’s friends knew - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali._] - -no bounds. In a few hours Aretino wrote a consoling letter to Paola, -another to Titian, explaining to him what had happened, and a series of -libellous articles against every architect in Venice except Sansovino -himself. No one escaped who could be supposed to have uttered a single -word against the reputation of the artist in trouble. There was a -certain architect called Sanmichele, a man of great piety--greater -perhaps than his talent--a frequenter of Titian’s house, a rich man, -too, such as Aretino delighted to fleece. Possibly also the good old -artist’s character was irritating to the evil Tuscan, who could not see -why a man should be both distinguished and virtuous, nor why Sanmichele -should have a special mass said when he was about to begin an important -work. One of Aretino’s favourite tricks was to use the most frightful -language before the mild old man, till the latter, having exhausted -entreaty and finding reproach useless, was driven to buy the -blasphemer’s silence with a handsome present of rare old wine. - -The occasion of Sansovino’s imprisonment seemed to Aretino an excellent -opportunity for venting his spleen against the devout artist, and at the -same time for obtaining a lucrative return for his industry. He -therefore accused Sanmichele of being the direct cause of his friend’s -arrest, and the abuse heaped upon him was so virulent and so persistent -that its victim was obliged to have recourse to the usual bribe, which -this time consisted of a fine basket of fish. - -Sansovino’s friends soon triumphed, for they were many and powerful. I -do not know whether a vaulted ceiling only just constructed can suddenly -collapse and fall in of itself without some fault on the part of the -architect, but Sansovino was unanimously declared to be entirely -innocent, and the unlucky magistrate who, with some show of reason, had -ordered his arrest was thrown into prison in his place. - -His brilliantly successful career continued until he was eighty years of -age, when, being too old for work, he was succeeded in the post of -architect to the Republic by the celebrated Palladio. After that he -lived eleven years longer in the society and friendship of Titian, who -was two years older then he. On the register in the church of San Basso -is to be found the following entry: ‘On November the seventh 1570 died -Jacopo Sansovino, architect of the Church of Saint Mark; he was -ninety-one years old and he died of old age.’ - -Aretino’s life had come to an abrupt close fourteen years earlier. I -find in Tassini under the name ‘Carbon,’ Aretino’s place of residence, a -statement of the singular fact that Aretino’s death was predicted a few -months before it took place, though he was at that time perfectly well. -The author of the _Terremoto_, addressing the Tuscan man of letters, -says: ‘In this year LVI thou shalt - -[Sidenote: _1556._] - -die; for the appearance of the star to the Wise Men at the birth of Our -Lord was held to be a great sign, and I now hold the comet of this year -to be a little sign which comes on thy account, because thou art against -Christ.’ In that year Aretino actually died. It is said that his death -was caused by his falling off his chair when convulsed with laughter at -an abominable story, and though there may be some exaggeration about the -tale, the physiognomy of the man might justify it. No one regretted -him. In the State Archives of Florence a letter from a Venetian has been -found which says: ‘The mortal Pietro Aretino was taken to another life -on Wednesday evening at the third hour of the night by a (literally) -cannonade of apoplexy, without leaving any regret or grief in any decent -person. May God have pardoned him.’ - -Titian died six years after Sansovino, surviving to be the last of the -triad of inseparable friends. He was then ninety-nine years of age, and -was carried off by the plague when, judging from the picture he was -painting at the time of his death, he was still in full possession of -his amazing powers. Of all the victims of the terrible epidemic, amongst -tens of thousands of dead, he was the only one to whom the Republic -granted a public funeral. - -If we ask what was the ‘social standing’ of Titian and of some of the -most famous Venetians, we shall find that they were simple members of a -Guild, and were reckoned with the working men. The Golden Book was the -register of the nobles, the Silver Book was reserved for the class of -the secretaries, that is, of the burghers or original citizens; but he -who exercised an art such as painting, sculpture, or architecture, -belonged to the people. Like the commonest housepainter, or the painter -of gondolas and house furniture, Titian and Tintoretto were subject to -the ‘Mariegola,’ or charter of their Guild, and had to pass through the -degrees of apprentice and fellow-craftsman before becoming masters. - -The law was that ‘no painter, either Venetian or foreign, should be -allowed to sell his paintings unless he was inscribed on the register of -painters and had sworn to conform to the rules of that art,’ in other -words, to the charter of the Guild. Furthermore, if - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF TINTORETTO] - -he sold his work anywhere except in his shop, he was liable to a fine of -ten lire. - -We know that neither Titian nor any of the great artists of his time -rebelled against these regulations. They were all their lives ‘brethren’ -of their Guild, and every one of them was obliged to obey the chief of -the corporation in all matters concerning that fraternity, though he -might be a mere painter of doors and windows. It was not until the -eighteenth century that the artist painters organised themselves in a -separate body called the College of Painters. The examination of Paolo -Veronese, which I have translated in speaking of the Holy Office, shows -clearly enough what a poor opinion the authorities had of artistic -inspiration. - -Many writers, amongst whom Monsieur Yriarte is an exception, have told -us that literature and the sciences were not cultivated with any success -in Venice during the sixteenth century. It is at least true that the few -who occupied themselves with those matters displayed qualities not far -removed from genius. - -It was very common for the great Venetian nobles to play patron to -poets, painters, and architects, and almost every name that became -famous in the arts and sciences recalls that of some patrician or -secretary who protected the artist, the writer, or the student. The -Republic was often the refuge of gifted men whom political or personal -reasons had exiled from their homes. Roman, Tuscan, and Lombard -celebrities spent their lives in Venice and added their glory to hers. -Who remembers that Aldus Manutius was a Roman? Or that Gaspara Stampa, -who is always counted as one of the best of Venetian poets, was born in -Milan? The Venetians, too, showed a wonderful tact in the degree of the -hospitality they accorded. One need only compare the reception Petrarch -met with in the fourteenth century, which was nothing less than royal, -with the good-natured toleration shown to Pietro Aretino two hundred -years later. The Republic’s treatment of the two men is the measure of -the distance that separates the immortal poet from the brilliant and -vicious pamphleteer. If the latter spent some agreeable years in Venice, -that was due much more to the protection of a few friends than to any -privileges granted him by the government. - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF ALDUS] - -There were certainly a great many intellectual centres in Venice at that -time, and one might fill many pages with the names of the so-called -academies that were founded and that flourished for a time. Almost every -special tendency of human thought was represented by one of them, from -the Aldine, devoted enthusiastically to classic Greek, to those -academies which adorned their emptiness with such titles as ‘The -Seraphic,’ ‘The Uranian,’ and the like, and which gave themselves up to -the most unbridled extravagance of taste. Of such follies I shall only -quote one instance, which I find in Tassini under the name ‘Bernardo.’ - -In the year 1538 the will of that academician was opened. He therein -directed his heirs to have his body washed by three famous physicians -with as much aromatic vinegar as would cost forty ducats, and each -physician was to receive as his fee three golden sequins absolutely -fresh from the mint. The body was then to be wrapped in linen clothes -soaked in essence of aloes, before being ‘comfortably’ laid to rest in a -lead coffin and enclosed in one of cypress wood. The coffin was then to -be placed in a marble monument to cost six hundred ducats. The -inscription was to enumerate the actions and virtues of the deceased in -eight Latin hexameters, of which the letters were to look tall to a -spectator placed at a distance of twenty-five feet. The poet who -composed the verses was to receive one sequin for each. Moreover, the -history of the dead man’s family was to be written out in eight hundred -verses, and seven psalms were to be composed after the manner of the -Psalms of David, and twenty monks were to sing them before the tomb on -the first Sunday of every month. - -We read without surprise that this will was not executed to the letter, -and the tolerably reasonable monument erected to Pietro Bernardo by his -descendants, - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE SACRISTY, FRARI] - -twenty years after his death, may still be seen in the church of the -Frari. - -There were also academies which bore names, devices, and emblems of a -nature that might well shock and surprise us, were they not the natural -evidences of that coming decadence, moral and artistic, whereof all -Italy, and Venice in particular, already bore the germs. - -Amongst the great names that belong to the end of the fifteenth century, -as well as to the sixteenth, hardly any has more interesting -associations for scholars than that of Aldus Manutius. - -The founder of the great family of scholars and printers was born at -Sermoneta in the Pontifical States in 1449, and was over forty years old -when he finally established himself in Venice. - -[Sidenote: _Firmin-Didot, Alde Manuce._] - -He had been tutor in the princely family of Pio, where he had educated -the eldest son, and he himself added the name to his own, though he did -not transmit it to his descendants. - -One of the legends about the origin of printing tells that it was -invented in the Venetian city of Feltre, by a certain Castaldi, who was -robbed of his invention by Germans, presumably Faust and Guttenberg. -There is probably no foundation for this tale, but it is certain that -the Venetians brought the art of printing to something near perfection -within a few years of its creation, and that the government protected it -by laws of singular wisdom and great severity, in an age when the idea -of copyright was in its infancy. - -Aldus was neither a money-maker nor a man given up to ambition; he was -a true artist, and cared only for perfecting his art. When he first -invented the italic type he was almost beside himself with delight, and -instantly applied to the Council of Ten for letters patent to forbid any -imitation of his work during ten years. The petition is curious, for -Aldus went as far as to suggest to the Ten the penalties to be incurred -by any one who defrauded him of his rights, and they were by no means -light. - -He dreamed of never allowing any work to leave his press which was less -than perfect at all points. When he meditated the printing of a Greek -classic, he gathered about him all the most conscientious men of letters -in Venice; such men as Sabellico and Sanudo, the highly accomplished -Cardinal Bembo, and Andrea Navagero all worked at comparing the best -texts, in order to produce one that should be beyond criticism. In the -course of such profound study, learned discussions arose and conclusions -were reached which were destined to influence all scholarship down to -modern times. Little by little, and without any artificial encouragement -or intention, the workshop of Aldus became the gravest of classical -‘academies’; a vast amount of work was done there, and a very small -number of books were very wonderfully well printed. - -In two years five publications appeared, among which was the first Greek -edition of Aristotle’s works. That Aldus might have done better is -possible, and every reader of ancient Greek must deplore the selection -of type he made for printing in that language. It is ugly, unpractical, -and utterly inartistic, but such was the man’s influence that he imposed -it upon scholars, and it is by far the most commonly used type to this -day. Aldus might have done better; but, on the other hand, the -unquestionable fact stands out that no one, in those days, did half so -well, and that if his Greek type is unpleasing, his italic is beautiful -and has never been surpassed; finally, good copies of his best -publications bring high prices at every modern sale. - -He and his friends were busy men, and spent whole days shut up together, -thereby rousing much curiosity, and attracting many unwelcome visitors. -At last Aldus was wearied by their importunity, and the loss of time -they caused became a serious matter. He composed the following notice -and put it up outside his press:-- - -‘Quisquis es, rogat te Aldus etiam atque etiam: ut si quid est quod a se -velis perpaucis agas, deinde actutum abeas: nisi tanquam Hercules -defesso Atlante, veneris suppositurus humeros. Semper enim erit quod et -tu agas, et quotquot huc attulerunt pedes.’ - -I quote the Latin from Didot. It is hardly worthy of the editor, -printer, and publisher of Aristotle, but Aldus himself printed it in the -preface, addressed to Andrea Navagero, which precedes the edition of -Cicero’s _Rhetoric_, published in 1514. Here is a translation of it:-- - -‘Whoever you are, Aldus begs you again and again, if you want anything -of him, to do your business with few words and then to go away quickly; -unless, indeed, you come as Hercules to tired Atlas, to place your -shoulders under the burden. For there will always be something to do -even for you, and for as many as bend their steps hither.’ - -The story even goes so far as to say that Erasmus came one day to -Aldus’s door with the manuscript of his _Adagia_ under his arm, but that -he was disconcerted by the notice and was going away, when the great -printer himself caught sight of him and made him come in. - -Aldus, who was not a Venetian, was not a man of business, and did not -grow rich by his work. He gave his time lavishly, for no true artist, -such as he was, ever said that time was money; and his expenses were -very heavy, not the least being that incurred for the fine cotton paper -he got from Padua. On the other hand, he hoped to encourage learning and -to disseminate a general love of the classics. Some of his prices, -however, were very high; for instance, a complete Aristotle sold for -eleven silver ducats, which Didot considers equal to over ninety francs -in modern French money. But a copy of the Musæus, which would perhaps -sell to-day for forty pounds sterling, could be bought for a little more -than one ‘marcello.’ - -Aldus had established himself in Venice about 1490. Eight years later, a -visitation of the plague decimated the population, and the great printer -himself sickened of it. Believing himself all but lost, he vowed that if -he recovered he would abandon his art, which would be by far the -greatest thing he could give up, and would enter holy orders. He -recovered, but the sacrifice was greater than he could make, though he -was a good man, of devout mind. He at once addressed a petition to the -Pope, begging to be released from his vow, and M. Didot discovered in -the Archives of the Council of Ten the favourable answer returned by -Alexander VI., who, it will be remembered, was the Borgia Pope, of evil -fame. It was, of course, addressed to the Patriarch, and it reads as -follows:-- - - Venerable Brother: - - Our beloved son Aldus Manutius, a citizen of Rome, set forth to us - some time ago that when the plague was raging he, being in danger - of death, took an oath that if he escaped he would enter the holy - orders of priesthood. Seeing that since he has recovered his - health, he does not persist in his vow, and seeing that in his - condition of poverty he cannot subsist otherwise than by the work - of his hands, whereby he earned his living, now therefore he - desires to remain a layman, and we have granted his petition. We - commission you therefore and command your fraternity to absolve in - our name the said Aldus from the vow he took, if he humbly requests - you to do so, and if things stand as he says, requiring of him a - return by such other acts of piety as it shall seem good to your - conscience to impose, and this if there be no other obstacle. - - Given in Rome, August the eleventh, 1498, in the sixth year of our - Pontificate. - -It is characteristic of the far-reaching power of the Council of Ten -that this curious document should have been found in their Archives. - -One year after having been released from his vow, Aldus married Maria, -daughter of Andrea Torresano. I do not knew whether an attachment which -perhaps dated from before the plague could have had anything to do with -the great printer’s aversion to fulfilling his vow; if so, the world is -deeply indebted to his wife. There was, however, a considerable interval -in his career after 1498, during which no books were issued by the -Aldine press, and those belonging to the first period have a much higher -value than the rest. - -Possibly children were born to the couple and died between the time of -their marriage and the birth of their son Paulus Manutius in 1512, three -years before the death of his father Aldus. The dates show the absurdity -of the story that Aldus brought up his son to be a scholar and a printer -like himself. He died when that son, who was destined to be famous also, -was less than four years old. He breathed his last on the sixth of -January 1516, being not yet sixty-seven years old, surrounded by his -faithful friends and his manuscripts. Owing to his having married so -late, and to his son not having been born till thirteen years after his -marriage, the lives of the father and son cover the period between 1449 -and 1574, no less than one hundred and twenty-five years. - -Prince Pio, his former pupil and one of the most distinguished members -of the Aldine Academy, claimed the honour of burying him at Carpi, a -feudal holding of the Pio family. His body was carried thither with -great pomp, and he was laid in state in the church of Saint Patrinian, -surrounded by books, and was finally buried in the Prince’s family -vault. - -Another and very original type of scholar was Marin Sanudo, whose name -occurs so constantly in all writings that deal with the sixteenth -century in Venice. He was of a patrician family, and - -[Sidenote: _Marin Sanudo, Diario; Mutinelli, Annali._] - -was so early predisposed to observe and note everything of interest that -when he was only eight years old he copied the inscriptions which -Petrarch had written under the pictures in the hall of the Great -Council, and it is thanks to his childish industry that we know the -nature of those great works which were destroyed in the fire of 1474. - -As the child grew up he cultivated the habit of making notes of all he -saw and heard; and, though he strictly adheres to the principle of -relating daily events briefly and clearly, he constantly reveals himself -to us as a man of broad views and keen sight, cautious, slightly -sceptical, and thoroughly independent. As soon as he had attained the -required age he was admitted to the Council, and he kept a journal of -everything that happened there. It is surprising to find that a -government which knew everything should allow any one such full liberty -to make notes. Possibly the value of his work was not at first -understood, but when it was, the manner in which appreciation showed -itself was not flattering to the chronicler. - -The Republic always employed a regular official historian whose business -it was to narrate the deeds and misdeeds of the government in a manner -uniformly pleasant to Venetian vanity. One of the most successful -writers in this manner was the untrustworthy Sabellico, and when he died -Marin Sanudo aspired to succeed him, being in poor circumstances, and -having on several occasions rendered services to the Republic. But to -his infinite mortification Cardinal Bembo was appointed to the post, -and, as if to add insult to injury, Sanudo was requested to place his -valuable diaries at the disposal of the new public historian. Sanudo was -deeply hurt, as may be imagined, but he was poor and in debt, and the -paternal government of his business-like country easily drove him to the -wall. For the use of his diary, and for his promise to bequeath it to -the State at his death, he accepted a pension of one hundred and fifty -ducats (£112) yearly. This small stipend was not enough to lift him out -of poverty. The expense of the paper which he used for his notes was a -serious item in his little budget, and the binder’s bill was a constant -source of anxiety. He was often obliged to borrow money, and once he was -imprisoned for debt. On the latter occasion he made the following entry -in his journal:-- - -‘December eighteenth, 1516.--On this day in the morning a dreadful thing -happened to me. I was going to Saint Mark’s to hear mass as usual when I -was recognised by that traitor Giovanni Soranzo, to whom I have owed a -hundred ducats for ten years, and forty-seven for a debt before that. -Now I had solemnly promised that I would pay him the money, but in order -to shame me he had me imprisoned till next day in San Cassian. I vow to -be avenged upon him with my own hands.’ - -Having vented his wrath on paper, Sanudo promptly forgot his sombre -vows of vengeance. For many years afterwards he went backwards and -forwards - -[Illustration: S. GIACOMO IN ORIO] - -between the ducal palace and his own house at San Giacomo in Orio, where -he had collected books and prints to a very great value. He was almost -forgotten until very recent times, when he was rediscovered in his -diary, and treated with the honour he deserves by his own countrymen. - -There was no university in Venice, but the government encouraged those -teachers who established themselves in the city and gave instruction in -their own homes. In this way they formed little schools which quarrelled -with each other over definitions, syllogisms, and etymologies in the -most approved fashion. There is a good instance of one of these -miniature civil wars in connection with the historian Sabellico. He was - -[Sidenote: _Cicogna, Iscrizioni, i. 341._] - -ferociously jealous of a certain learned priest called Ignatius, who -taught literature, as he did, and had many more scholars. In his -lectures Sabellico attacked Ignatius furiously, and did his best to -destroy his reputation. The priest on his side held his tongue, and -waited for a chance of giving his hot-headed adversary a lesson. At last -Sabellico published a very indifferent work, of which the priest wrote -such a keen criticism that the book was a dead failure. The State -historian’s rage broke out in the most violent invectives, and from that -time Ignatius was his nightmare, and the mere mention of his name drove -him into uncontrollable fury, until, dying at last, Sabellico realised -that his hatred of the priest had been the mortal sin of his life, and -on his deathbed he sent for him and asked for a reconciliation. Ignatius -freely pardoned him, and even delivered a very flattering funeral -oration over his body a few days later. - -A distinguished man of this period who deserves mention was Federigo -Badoer, who may almost be said - -[Illustration: DOORWAY OF THE SACRISTY, S. GIACOMO IN ORIO] - -to have been educated in the printing press of Aldus, and afterwards -became the friend of Paulus Manutius. Like all Venetian nobles, he -learned from his boyhood how he was to serve the State, and became -acquainted with the working of its administration, and he was soon -struck by the condition of the Code. The laws had multiplied too much, -and were often obscure, and the whole system was in great need of -revision. Badoer conceived the idea of founding an academy for the -purpose of editing and printing the whole body of - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali._] - -Venetian Law; the Council of Ten gave him their approval, and he founded -the Academy of ‘La Fama’--of Fame--with the singularly inappropriate -motto, ‘I fly to heaven and rest in God.’ The printing of the new Code -was entrusted to Paulus Manutius. - -My perspicuous reader, having recovered from his astonishment at the -unexpected liberality of the Council of Ten, has already divined that -such a fit could not last long, and that Badoer and his noble academy -were doomed to failure. Badoer was not rich enough to bear the expense -of such an undertaking alone, and the Ten had no intention of helping -him. Moreover, he and the scholars of his academy kept up a continual -correspondence with doctors of law in other countries. It would have -seemed narrow-minded, however, to suppress the academy by a decree; it -was more in accordance with the methods of the Council to accuse Badoer -of some imaginary misdeed for which he could be brought to trial. -Accordingly, though he had sacrificed his own fortune in the attempt, he -was accused of having embezzled the academy’s funds, and in three years -from the time of his setting to work the - -[Illustration: FONDAMENTA SANUDO] - -academy was crushed out of existence, and he was a ruined man. - -Another shortlived but celebrated literary society was that of the -‘Pellegrini,’ the ‘Pilgrims,’ whose pilgrimage led them only from their -solemn palaces in Venice to the pleasant groves of Murano, and was -performed by moonlight when possible. The pilgrims were Titian, -Sansovino, Navagero, Gaspara Stampa, the old Trifone, Collaltino di -Collalto, and some others, and it is very unlikely that their evening -meetings had any object except pleasant converse and intellectual -relaxation. We know something about the lovely Gaspara and Collalto, at -all events, and it can be safely said that they were more pleasantly -occupied than in conspiracy, and that what they said to each other -concerned neither the Doge nor the Council of Ten. - -Though there was no university in Venice, the Republic possessed one of -the most renowned in Europe by right of having conquered and annexed -Padua; and it is interesting to note that because that great institution -of learning was not situated in Venice itself, it was allowed a degree -of liberty altogether beyond Venetian traditions. - -Padua was temporarily obliged to submit to Louis XII. of France at the -beginning of the sixteenth century, but the Republic took it again in -1509, and from that date until 1797 there was never the least -interruption in the academic courses. The only influence exercised upon -the university by the Venetian government was intended to give it a more -patriotically Venetian character. In earlier times the Bishop of Padua -had been _ex officio_ the Rector of the university; he was now deprived -of this dignity, which was conferred jointly on three Venetian nobles, -who were elected for two years, and were required to reside in Venice -and not in Padua, lest they should be exposed to influences foreign to -the spirit of the Republic. Their title was ‘Riformatori dell’ -Università,’ and great care was exercised in choosing them. They were -also the official inspectors of the Venetian schools and of the national -libraries, and it was their business to examine candidates for the -position of teachers in any authorised institution. - -They were no doubt terrible pedants, inwardly much dignified by a sense -of their great responsibilities, and to this day, in northern Italy, it -is said of a man who wearies his family and his acquaintances with -perpetual ‘nagging’--there is no dictionary word for it--that he is like -a ‘Riformatore’ of the University of Padua, though the good people who -use the phrase have no clear idea of what it means. - -These three patricians had an official dress of their own, which was a -long robe, sometimes black and - -[Sidenote: _Yriarte, Vie; Rom. iv. 449._] - -sometimes of a violet colour, changing according to some regulation -which is not known, but always made with sleeves of the ‘ducal’ pattern; -and they put on a black stole over it. If one of them was a Knight of -the Golden Stole, as often happened, his robe was of velvet and his -stole was of cloth of gold. - -The Holy See was not much pleased by the way in which the Republic -treated the Bishop of Padua, and constantly complained that the students -of the University were allowed too much license to express opinions -that ill accorded with Catholic dogma. Like all commercial countries, -Venice was Protestant in so far as any direct interference of the -Vatican was concerned. Mr. Brooks Adams was, I think, the first to point -out the inseparable connection between Protestantism and commercial -enterprise, in his extraordinary study, _The Law of Civilization and -Decay_. The peculiarity of Venice’s religious position was that it -combined an excessive, if not superstitious, devotion to the rites of -the Church with something approaching to contempt of the Pope’s power. - -The University of Padua was resorted to by students of all nations, -including many English gentlemen. In the Archives of the Ten a petition -has been found signed by a number of foreign students in Padua to be -allowed to wear arms, and we find that the - -[Sidenote: _Rom. iv. 449, note 5._] - -necessary permission for this was granted in 1548 to Sir Thomas Wyatt, -‘a Knight of the English Court,’ Sir---- Cotton, Sir John Arundel, -Christopher Mayne, Henry Williams, and John Schyer (?). - -It is amusing to find that the French students in Padua excelled in -fencing, riding, dancing, and music, but apparently not in subjects more -generally considered academic. - -I cannot close this chapter without saying a few words about Galileo -Galilei, who was for some time in the employ of the Republic. I quote -from his life, written by his pupil Viviani, but not published till -1826. - -After lecturing in Pisa for three years Galileo was appointed by the -Venetian government to be professor of mathematics in Padua for a term -of six years, during which he invented several - -[Sidenote: _1592._] - -machines for the service of the Republic. Copies of his writings and -lectures of this time were scattered by his pupils throughout Italy, -Germany, France, and England, often without his name, for he thought -them of such little importance that he did not even protest when -impostors claimed to be the authors of them. During this period, says -Viviani, he invented ‘the thermometers (_sic_) ... which wonderful -invention was perfected in modern times by the sublime genius of our -great Ferdinand II., our most serene reigning sovereign ...,’ the -Cardinal Grand Duke who poisoned his brother and Bianca Cappello. - -At the end of his term Galileo was re-appointed for six years more, and -during this time he observed a comet in the Dragon, and made experiments - -[Sidenote: _1599._] - -with the magnet. He was re-appointed again and again with an increase of -salary. - -In April or May, in 1609, when he was in Venice, it was reported that a -certain Dutchman had presented Maurice of Nassau with a sort of eyeglass -which made distant objects seem near. This was all that was known of the -invention, but Galileo was so much interested by the story that he -returned to Padua at once, and in the course of a single night succeeded -in constructing his first telescope, in spite of the poor quality of the -lenses he had, and on the following day he returned to Venice and -showed the instrument to his astonished friends. After perfecting it he -resolved to present it to the reigning Doge, Leonardo Donà, and to the -whole Venetian Senate. - -I translate literally the letter he wrote to the Doge to accompany the -gift. - - Most Serene Prince: Galileo Galilei, your Serenity’s most humble - servant, labouring assiduously and with all his heart not only to - do his duty as lecturer on mathematics in the University of Padua, - but also to bring your Serenity some extraordinary advantage by - means of some useful and signal discovery, now appears before you - with a new device of eyeglass, the result of the most recondite - theories of perspective; the which [invention] brings objects to be - visible so near the eye and shows them so large and distinct, that - what is distant, for instance, nine miles, seems as if it were only - one mile away, a fact which may be of inestimable service for every - business and enterprise by land and sea; for it is thus possible, - at sea, to discover the enemy’s vessels and sails at a far greater - distance than is customary, so that we can see him two hours and - more before he can see us, and by distinguishing the number and - nature of his vessels, we can judge of his forces and prepare for a - pursuit, or a battle, or for flight. In the same manner, on land, - the quarters and the defences of the enemy within a strong place - can be descried from an eminence, even if far away; and even in the - open country, it is possible with great advantage to make out every - movement and preparation; moreover, every judicious person will - clearly perceive many uses [for the telescope]. Therefore, deeming - it worthy to be received and considered very useful by your - Serenity, he [Galileo] has determined to present it to you, and to - leave it to your judgment to determine and provide concerning this - invention, in order that, as may seem best to your prudence, others - should or should not be constructed. And this the aforesaid Galilei - presents to your Serenity as one of the fruits of the science which - he has now professed in the University of Padua during more than - seventeen years, trusting that he is on the eve of offering you - still greater things, if it please the Lord God and your Serenity - that he, as he desires, may spend the rest of his life in the - service of your Serenity, before whom he humbly bows, praying the - Divine Majesty to grant you the fulness of all happiness. - -The letter is not dated, but on the twenty-fifth of August 1609 the -Signory appointed the astronomer professor for life, with ‘three times -the highest pay ever granted to any lecturer on mathematics.’ - -It was in Padua that Galileo invented the microscope, observed the -moon’s surface, and the spots on the sun, discovered that the milky way -and the nebulæ consist of many small fixed stars, discovered Jupiter’s -moons, Saturn’s rings, and the fact that Venus revolves round the sun, -‘and not below it, as Ptolemy believed.’ - -Much has been written of late about Galileo, but most of what has -appeared seems to be founded on this life by his pupil Viviani. - -[Illustration] - - - - -VII - -THE TRIUMPHANT CITY - - -When Philippe de Commines came to Venice in 1495 as ambassador of -Charles VIII. he wrote: ‘This is the most triumphant city that ever I -saw.’ - -He meant what he said figuratively, no doubt, for in that day there was -something overwhelming about the wealth and splendour, and the vast -success of the Republic. But he meant it literally too, for no state or -city of the world celebrated its own victories with such pomp and -magnificence as Venice. - -The Venetians had never been altogether at peace with the Turks, in -spite of the treaty which had been made soon after the fall of -Constantinople; - -[Sidenote: _Daru; Rom._] - -but when Venice herself was threatened by all the European powers -together, it was with the highest satisfaction that she saw the Moslems -attack her old enemies the Hungarians. Yet her joy was of short -duration, for the Emperor soon made peace with the Sultan. It will be -remembered that the Imperial throne had then already been hereditary in -the Hapsburg family for many years. - -The character of Turkish warfare in the Mediterranean was always -piratical, of the very sort most certain to harass and injure a maritime -commercial nation like Venice, and the latter began to lose ground -steadily in the Greek archipelago, and now found herself obliged to -defend the coasts of the Adriatic against the Turks as she had formerly -defended them against the pirates of Narenta. From time to time a -Turkish vessel was captured, and hundreds of Christian slaves were found -chained to the oar. - -There were also other robbers along the Dalmatian coast, who exercised -their depredations against Turks - -[Sidenote: _Niccolò da Ponte triumphs over the Usocchi; Tintoretto, Hall -of the Great Council._] - -and Christians alike, with admirable equity. These were the so-called -‘Usocchi,’ a name derived from a Slav root meaning to ‘leap out’--hence, -those who had escaped and fled their country and were outlaws. - -About this time the island of Cyprus had fallen in part under Turkish -domination. The Turks had - -[Sidenote: _Cicogna, Iscr. Ven. iii. 134._] - -made a piratical descent upon Nicosia, and had carried off all the women -who were still young enough for the Eastern market. But one of these, a -heroine whose name is lost, fired the ship’s powder-magazine and saved -herself and her companions from outrage by causing the instant death of -every soul on board. This was in the latter half of the sixteenth -century. - -Thirsting for vengeance, the Venetians now eagerly joined Philip II. of -Spain in the league proposed by the Pope. The three fleets were to meet -at Messina, and much precious time was lost, during which the Turks -completed their conquest of Cyprus, which was heroically defended by -Marcantonio Bragadin. His fate was horrible. His nose and ears were cut -off, and he was obliged to witness the death of his brave companions, -Tiepolo, Baglione, Martinengo, and Quirini. They were stoned, hanged, -and carved to shreds before his eyes, and a vast number of Venetian -soldiers and women and children were massacred before him during the -following ten days. At last his turn came to die; he was hung by the -hands in the public square and slowly skinned alive. It is said that he -died like a hero and a saint, commending his soul to God, and forgiving -his enemies. - -The ferocious Mustapha, by whose orders these horrors were perpetrated, -ordered his skin to be stuffed and had it carried about the streets, -under a red umbrella, in allusion to the arms of the Bragadin family. -The hideous human doll - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Seb. Venier._] - -was then hoisted to the masthead of Mustapha’s ship as a trophy and -taken in that way to Constantinople. - -But in his lifetime Bragadin had ransomed a certain man of Verona from -the Turks, and had earned his undying gratitude. This Veronese, hearing -of his benefactor’s awful end, swore to bring home his skin, since -nothing else remained, and with incredible skill and courage actually -entered the Turkish arsenal at Constantinople, where the trophy was -kept, stole it and brought it home. It is related that the skin was -found as soft as silk and was easily folded into a small space; it is -preserved in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo. - -The vengeance of the league was slow, but it was memorably terrible; in -1571 Don John of Austria, a stripling of genius, scarcely six and twenty -years of age, commanded the three fleets and led Christianity to victory -at Lepanto. - -[Sidenote: _Lepanto, A. Vicentini; ducal palace._] - -One of the decisive battles of the world checked the Mohammedan power -for ever in the Gulf of Corinth, and the blood of eighty thousand Turks -avenged the inhuman murder of Bragadin and the self-destruction of the -captive Venetian women. - -Not many days later, on the eighteenth of October 1571, the great ‘Angel -Gabriel,’ a galley of war, came sailing into the harbour of Venice, full - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Seb. Venier._] - -dressed with flags, and trailing in her wake long line of Turkish -standards, and turbans and coats. Then the cannon thundered, and the -crew cried ‘Victory! Victory!’ and the triumphant note went rolling over -Venice, while Onofrio Giustiniani, the commander of the man-of-war, went -up to the ducal palace. Then the people went mad with joy, and demanded -that all prisoners should be set free in honour of the day; and the -Council allowed at least all those to be liberated who were in prison -for debt. Then, too, the people cried ‘Death to the Turks!’ and would -have massacred every Mussulman in the Turks’ quarter; but to the honour -of Venice it is recorded that the government was strong enough to hinder -that. - -And then the Doge, Aloise Mocenigo, found his way through the closely -packed crowd to the Basilica, - -[Sidenote: _Aloise Mocenigo, praying, Tintoretto; Sala del Collegio._] - -and fifty thousand voices sang ‘Te Deum laudamus Domine,’ till the -triumphant strain must have been heard far out on the lagoon. During -four days processions marched through the streets and hymns of victory -and thanksgiving were sung; the greatest battle of the age had been -fought and won on the feast of Saint Justina, who was one of the patrons -of Venice. In return for her military assistance an enthusiastic and -devout people resolved to set up a statue of her in the Arsenal and to -build her a church in Padua, as she already had one in Venice. - -Religious obligations being thus cancelled, the universal rejoicing -manifested itself in civic pageantry, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vi. 317._] - -and, to use a modern expression, the Venetians held a general exhibition -of their treasures. The square of the Rialto was draped with scarlet -cloth, on which were hung the pictures of the most famous masters, at a -time when some of the greatest that ever lived were alive in Venice and -at the height of their glory. In the midst of the square a trophy was -raised, composed of Turkish arms and banners, turbans, slippers, jewels, -and all sorts of ornaments taken from the slain. From the jewellers’ -lane to the bridge a canopy of blue cloth covered with golden stars was -spread high across the way, the most precious tapestries were hung on -the walls of the houses, the shops showed all their most artistic wares -in their windows. The German quarter was so crammed with beautiful -objects that it seemed one great enchanted palace. To increase the -general gaiety, the government made a special exception and allowed -masks in the streets. - -When it is remembered that Venice really obtained little or no immediate -advantage from the battle of Lepanto, her frenzy of triumph may seem -exaggerated; yet it was moderate compared with the reception Rome gave -to the commander of the Papal fleet, Marcantonio Colonna. The Venetian -captain, Sebastian Venier, was not present, and there was not the least -personal note in the rejoicings; that, indeed, would have been very -contrary to the usual behaviour of the Republic towards her own sons, -for if they failed she disowned them or put them to death, and if they -succeeded it was her motherly practice to disgrace them as soon as -possible, and generally to find an excuse for imprisoning them, lest -they should grow dangerous to herself. - -We cannot help reproaching her for that; yet out of her magnificent -past comes back ever that same answer: she succeeded, where others -failed. She bred - -[Illustration: DOOR OF THE CARMINE] - -such men as Enrico Dandolo, Vittor Pisani, Carlo Zeno, and Sebastian -Venier, yet she was never enslaved by one of her own children. Rome -served her Cæsar, and her many Cæsars; France, her Bonaparte; Russia, -her Ivan Strashny, the Terrible; Spain, her Philip II.; England, her -Richard III.--and her Cromwell, Protector and Tyrant. But Venice was -never subject to any one Venetian man beyond the time needed to compass -his destruction and death, which was never long, and sometimes was -awfully brief. - -Venier did not return to Venice till long after the battle of Lepanto, -and his presence was necessary in the Archipelago in order to protect -such colonies as were left to the Republic. - -[Sidenote: _Venier returns in triumph, Palma Giovane; Sala dei -Pregadi._] - -For though the Turks had suffered a disastrous defeat, final in the -sense that their advance westwards was checked as effectually as the -spreading of the Moorish conquest had been by Charles Martel at -Poitiers, yet they were still at the height of their power in -Constantinople, and were strong on the eastern side of the dividing line -which was now drawn across the Mediterranean, and which marked the -eastern limit of Christian domination. When Venier returned, the Turks -were absolute masters of the island of Cyprus, and Venice was already -beginning to pay what was really a war indemnity, destined to reach the -formidable sum of three hundred thousand ducats. As Montesquieu truly -says, it looked as if the Turks had been the victors at Lepanto. - -Three years after that battle Venice was again adorned in her best to -greet Henry III. of - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vi. 341._] - -France, who visited the city in July 1574, the year of his accession. -The King was to make his entry on the eighteenth, and he was requested -to stop at Murano on the previous evening, in the - -[Sidenote: _Horatio Brown, Venetian studies._] - -Palazzo Cappello, which was all hung with silk and cloth of gold in his -honour. Forty young nobles were attached to his person and sixty -halberdiers mounted guard, dressed in yellow and blue, which were -regarded by the Venetians as his colours, and wearing a - -[Sidenote: _Henry III. visits Venice, A. Vicentino; Sala delle Quattro -Porte._] - -cap with a white tuft for a cockade. Their weapons were taken from the -armoury of the Council of Ten. There were also eighteen trumpeters and -twelve drummers dressed in the King’s colours. - -Henry III. was still in mourning for his brother Charles IX., and -appeared very plainly clad in the midst of all this display. The -chronicles have preserved the details of his costume; he wore a brown -mantle that fell from his neck to his feet, and beneath it a violet -tunic of Flemish cloth with a white lace collar. He also wore long -leathern boots, perfumed gloves, and an Italian hat. - -The night was passed in feasting, during which the French and the -Venetians fraternised most closely, and on the following morning a huge -galley was ready to take the King to Venice by way of the Lido. - -On the high poop-deck a seat was placed for the King, covered with cloth -of gold; on his right sat the Papal Nuncio, who was the Cardinal San -Sisto, then came the Dukes of Nevers and Mantua; on his left the Doge -and the Ambassadors. Four hundred rowers pulled the big vessel over, and -fourteen galleys followed bringing the Senators and many others. To -amuse the King during the short passage, the glass-blowers of - -Murano had constructed on rafts a furnace in the shape of a marine -monster that belched flames from its jaws and nostrils, while the most -famous workmen blew beakers and other vessels in the beast’s body, of -the finest crystal glass, for the King and his suite. - -Just when he might be thought to be weary of this spectacle a long array -of decorated boats began to manœuvre before his eyes, with sails set and -banners flying. These belonged to the various guilds and were -wonderfully adorned. One represented a huge dolphin; on its back stood -Neptune driving two winged steeds, while four aged boatmen in costume -stood for the four rivers of the Republic, Brenta, Adige, Po, and Piave. -Some of the boats had arrangements for sending up fireworks, others were -floating exhibitions of the richest and most marvellous tapestries and -stuffs. - -The royal vessel, instead of proceeding straight to Venice, went round -by the Lido to the landing of Saint Nicholas, where the State architect -Palladio had erected a triumphal arch which Tintoretto and Paolo -Veronese had covered with ten beautiful paintings. Here the King was -invited to leave his galley in order to go on board the Bucentaur. -Tintoretto was in the crowd, looking out for a chance of sketching the -King, precisely as a modern reporter hangs about the docks and railway -stations to get a snapshot at royalty. Tintoretto did not disdain the -methods of a later time either; he succeeded in exchanging his -threadbare cloak for the livery of one of the Doge’s squires or footmen, -by which trick he managed to get on board the Bucentaur. Once there he -made a sketch in pastels of the King which pleased the royal treasurer, -De Bellegarde, and the latter persuaded his master to sit to the artist -for a full-length portrait, which was presented to the Doge on the -King’s departure, in recollection of the visit. - -During the following days nothing was omitted which might amuse the -Sovereign or tend to strengthen the pleasant impression he had already -received. Every sort of Venetian game was played, and all the -traditional contests of strength and skill between Niccolotti and -Castellani were revived, and with such earnestness on both sides as to -lead to a fresh outbreak of their hereditary hate. Two hundred men -fought with sticks at the Ponte del Carmine, as savagely as if the -safety and honour of their wives and children depended on the result. At -the most critical moment the fisherman Luca, the famous chief of the -Niccolotti, fell into the canal, his followers were momentarily thrown -into disorder by the accident, and the Castellani won the day. - -Afterwards a banquet was given to the King, of which the remembrance -remains alive amongst the people to our own time. The gondoliers and -fishermen of to-day describe the feast, its magnificence, the beauty of -the patrician ladies, the splendour of the service, as if they were -speaking of something that happened yesterday instead of more than ten -generations ago. - -The tables were set in the hall of the Great Council for three thousand -persons. The King sat in the middle of the hall under a golden canopy. -We are told that the bill of fare set forth twelve hundred different -dishes, and that all the company ate off solid silver plates, of which -there were enough for all without having recourse to the reserve which -had been set up for show on a huge sideboard at the end of the hall. -After the feast, the King assisted at the performance of the first opera -ever given in Italy, composed by the once famous master Zarlino da -Chioggia. - -The banquet and the music must have occupied several hours; yet we are -amazed to learn that so short a time sufficed for putting together a -whole galley, of which Henry had seen the pieces, all taken apart, just -before sitting down to table. When he left the ducal palace, he saw to -his stupefaction the vessel launched into the canal on rollers, and -towed away towards the Lido. - -Not surfeited by the official amusements offered him by the Republic, -the King diverted himself on his own account and went about the city in -disguise, - -[Sidenote: _Mut. Annali._] - -like Otho of old. The government had directed the jewellers and -merchants to have in readiness their finest wares in order that when the -King sent for them, he might buy objects worthy of the reputation of the -Venetian shops; and the shopkeepers inquired with feverish anxiety when -they were to go to the Palazzo Foscari. - -But Henry preferred to go out shopping himself. One morning the jeweller -at the Sign of the Old Woman on the Rialto Bridge was visited by a noble -stranger, who inquired the price of a marvellously chiselled golden -sceptre: apparently the Venetian jewellers kept sceptres in stock in -case a king should look in. The price of this one was twenty-six -thousand ducats, or between eighteen and nineteen thousand pounds, -which seems dear, even for a sceptre. But the noble stranger was not at -all surprised, thought the matter over for a few seconds, nodded -quietly, and ordered the thing to be sent to the Foscari palace, to - -[Illustration: CAMPO BEHIND S. GIACOMO IN ORIO] - -the inexpressible joy of the jeweller, who knew the address well enough. - -At that time there dwelt in Venice a branch of the famous Fugger family -of Augsburg, the richest bankers of the sixteenth century. They owned -all - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Annali._] - -the district of the city round the church of San Giacomo, and had even -protected themselves by a sort of wall. There they had built a bank, a -hospital, and houses for their numberless retainers, and they lived in a -kind of unacknowledged principality of their own which was respected -both by the State and the people. - -The family had the most magnificent traditions of hospitality. When the -Emperor Charles V. passed through Augsburg in the earlier part of the -same century, he lodged in the Fuggers’ house, and as it was winter, his -hosts caused his fires to be made only of aromatic wood imported as a -perfume from Ceylon. Henry III. visited the Fuggers in Venice, and they -were neither surprised by his unannounced visit nor unprepared to -receive a royal guest. - -While in Venice the King spent much of his time with Veronica Franco, -the celebrated poetess and courtesan. She, on her side, fell deeply in - -[Sidenote: _Tassini._] - -love with the man who was to be the worst of all the French kings. But -he was only twenty-three years old then, he was half a Medici by blood, -and all of one by his passionate nature. Veronica loved him with all her -heart, and amidst all the evil he did there was at least one good -result, for when he was gone she would not be consoled, nor would she -ever look on another man, but mended her life and lived in a retirement -to which she sought to attract other penitent women. - -She had a picture of the King painted, and no doubt he was vividly -present in her thoughts when she wrote the following sonnet, which is -attributed to her, and which I do into prose for greater accuracy:-- - - Begone, deceiving thoughts and empty hope, - Greedy and blind desires, and bitter cravings, - Begone, ye burning sighs and bitter woes, - Companions ever of my unending pain. - - Go memories sweet, go galling chains, - Of a heart that is loosed from you at last, - That gathers up again the rein of reason, - Dropped for a while, and now goes forth in freedom. - - And thou, my soul, entangled in so many sorrows, - Unbind thyself and to thy divine Lord - Rejoicing turn thy thoughts; - - Now bravely force thy fate, - Break through thy bonds; then, glad and free, - Direct thy steps in the securer way! - -In order to give my readers some idea of what was done to furnish the -Palazzo Foscari for Henry’s visit, I quote some items of the expenditure -from the _Souvenirs_ of Armand Baschet:-- - -‘Crimson silk and gold hangings, fifty-eight pieces making three hundred -and seven braccia and a half at a ducat for each braccio and twelve -inches. White silk and silver stuff; shot-silk and silver stuff; white -satin with gold lines, etc. Cushions of brocade embroidered with gold -and of blue velvet with gold and fringes etc. at forty ducats each. A -bed quilt with gold lines and scarlet checks, twenty ducats. Yellow -damask with little checks at one ducat the braccio. A rep rug of gold -edged with blue velvet and lined with red silk, sixty ducats. A -tablecloth of silver and gold brocade with white and gold fringe, -thirty-four ducats. Green and blue velvet for the floor, at one ducat -the braccio. Complete hangings for a room of yellow satin with gold and -silver fringe and gold lace, over seven hundred and thirty ducats.’ - -Further, we find for the royal gondolas the following items:-- - -‘Felse of scarlet satin, one hundred and fifty-six ducats. A boat’s -carpet of violet Alexandria velvet; a felse of the same velvet lined -with silk, fifty-five ducats. Another velvet carpet of the same colour, -two canopies, one of violet satin fringed and embroidered with gold, the -other of white satin, and two cushions of scarlet satin and gold.’ - -These things were put away in boxes, an inventory was taken, and they -were valued at four thousand two hundred sequins, or more than three -thousand pounds. The King on his side was generous. When he went away he -presented each of the young noblemen who had attended him with a chain -worth a hundred ducats, and gave a collar worth three hundred to his -host, Foscari. The captain of his guard received a silver basin and ewer -worth a hundred crowns. For the halberdiers of the guard there were -three hundred crowns, eighty for the trumpeters and sixty for the -drummers. His Majesty left a thousand crowns for the workmen of the -Arsenal, two hundred for the rowers of the Bucentaur, one hundred for -the major-domo, and fifty to the chief steward of the house. - -The Duke of Savoy, who accompanied the King of France, also left some -splendid presents. To the wife - -[Illustration: THE PIAZZA] - -of Luigi Mocenigo, in whose house he had been staying, he gave a belt -composed of thirty gold rosettes, ornamented with fine pearls and -valuable precious stones. The Duke was doubtless unaware that as soon as -he was gone the handsome ornament would have to be handed over to the -Provveditori delle Pompe, not to be worn again unless a special and -elaborate decree could be obtained for the purpose. - -In the first year of the reign of Sixtus V. Japan sent ambassadors to -the Pope ‘to recognise him officially as Christ’s vicar on earth.’ These - -[Sidenote: _1585. Rom. vi. 387._] - -personages, who were converts to Christianity, were received with -demonstrations of the greatest joy and esteem when they visited Venice, -and were regaled with spectacles which were partly religious in -character and partly secular. A procession was organised against which -the Pope himself protested in the most formal manner; but the Republic -paid no more attention than usual to this expression of papal -displeasure. It was always the dream of Venice to be Roman Catholic -without Rome. - -The Japanese envoys looked on while all the clergy of the city passed in -review before them, as well as all the guilds bearing the images of -their - -[Sidenote: _Giustina Renier Michiel, Origini._] - -patron saints and their standards; these were followed by cars carrying -enormous erections of gold and silver vessels, built up in the form of -pyramids, and of columns, stars, eagles, lions, and symbolic beasts. -Other cars came after these with platforms, on which actors represented -scenes from the lives of saints, even including martyrdom. The - -[Illustration: PIGEONS IN THE PIAZZA] - -Japanese may have been more amazed than edified by these performances. - -The Venetians always loved processions, and it is to one of these -pageants that the pigeons of Saint Mark’s owe their immunity. As early -as the end of the fourteenth century it was the custom to make a great -procession on Palm Sunday, in the neighbourhood of Saint Mark’s. A canon -of the Cathedral deposited great baskets on the high altar, containing -the artificial palms prepared for the Doge, the chief magistrates, and -the most important members of the clergy. The Doge’s palm was prepared -by the nuns of Sant’ Andrea, and was a monument of patience. The leaves -were plaited with threads of palm, of gold, of silver, and of silk; and -on the gilded handle were painted the arms of the Doge. According to the -appointed service the procession began immediately after the -distribution of the palms; and while the choir chanted the words -‘Gloria, laus et honor’ of the sacred hymn, a great number of pigeons -were sent flying from different parts of the façade down into the -square, having little screws of paper fastened to their claws to prevent -them from flying too high. The people instantly began to catch the -birds, and a great many were actually taken; but now and then, one -stronger than the rest succeeded in gaining the higher parts of the -surrounding buildings, enthusiastically cheered by the crowd. Those who -had once succeeded in making their escape were regarded as sacred for -ever with all their descendants. The State provided them with food from -its granaries, and before long, lest by some mistake any free pigeons -should be caught on the next Palm Sunday, the Signory decreed that other -birds than pigeons must be used on the occasion. - -[Illustration: SOTTO PORTICO DELLA GUERRA] - - - - -VIII - -THE HOSE CLUB--VENETIAN LEGENDS - - -In the fourteenth century, life in Venice was simple and vigorous, and -found its civic expression in the formation of the Guilds which united -in - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Vita Privata. Sansovino. Galliccioli, ii. 267, -269. Mutinelli, Lessico._] - -close and brotherly bonds men of grave and energetic character, devoted -to their country and to its advantage. In the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries the tendencies of the later Venetians took visible shape in -brotherhoods of joyous and not harmless amusement, and chiefly in that -known as the ‘Compagnia della Calza,’ in plain English the ‘Hose Club.’ - -The learned Professor Tomassetti of the University of Rome, whose -authority in all that concerns the Middle Ages in Italy is indisputable, -informs me that he believes the right of wearing hose of two or more -colours, as one leg white and one leg red, or quartered above and below -the knee, belonged exclusively to free men, and that the fashion was -adopted by them in order that they might be readily distinguished from -the serf-born, in crowds and in public places. This is, indeed, the only -reasonable explanation of the practice which has ever been offered, and -is borne out by a careful examination of the pictures of the time. The -‘Hose Club’ distinguished themselves and recognised one another by their -hose, which were of two colours, one leg having at first a peacock -embroidered on it, whence the whole company was sometimes nicknamed ‘The -Peacocks.’ - -The Doge Michel Steno, who painted his four hundred horses yellow, and -had been concerned in the libel against the nephew of Marin Faliero, - -[Sidenote: _1400._] - -had been counted among the gayest youths of his day; and when he was -elected the rich young men of Venice, knowing by hearsay from their -fathers that he had been wild in his youth, determined to celebrate the -accession of a former dandy in a manner suited to their own tastes. They -agreed upon the dress which afterwards became famous, and each paid a -sum of two thousand ducats into a general fund which was entirely spent -in pageantry, banqueting, and masquerades. - -They had not at first intended the Club to be permanent, but when the -anniversary of the Doge’s coronation came round in the following year, -they met again to consider the advisability of prolonging an institution -which made such an agreeable contrast to the general gravity of Venetian -life. - -They now composed a sort of charter or constitution, which would have -made the heads of the artisan Guilds tremble with indignation, and might - -[Sidenote: _1401._] - -well have caused the fathers of Venetian families to look even more -grave than usual. - -The Club was to be always a Company of twenty members, chosen for four -years only; for as soon as a young Venetian married, or took his seat in -the Great Council, he put on the long gown of older years and more -dignified habits, which effectively eclipsed his brilliant legs from the -public gaze. Each Company was to choose its name, an emblem, and a -motto. There were to be officers, a president, a secretary, and a -treasurer; and as the Venetians had a mania for sanctioning even the -most frivolous doings by means of some religious exercise, each Company -was to have a chaplain to celebrate a solemn mass at the admission of -each young scapegrace who joined. The chaplain also administered the -oath which every Companion was bound to take on admission. - -The smallest infraction of the rules entailed a heavy fine, and the -fines were, of course, periodically spent in riotous amusements. As for -the dress, the hose always remained a part of it, but the greatest -latitude was allowed in the matter of colour and embroidery, or other -ornamentation. - -The formation of the joyous Companies was a natural reaction after the -huge efforts, the strenuous labours, the awful dangers that had filled -the fourteenth century, and had placed Venice high among the European -powers. From the foundation of the first of the Company, that of the -‘Peacocks,’ to the dispersion of the ‘Accesi,’ the ‘Ardent,’ which was -the last, a hundred and eighty-six years went by, which may be called -six generations, during which forty-three Companies succeeded each -other, and the ‘Hose Club’ became famous throughout Europe for its -extravagance, and for the fertility of its festive inventions. - -It made it its especial business to adorn with its presence in a body -the public baptisms of noble children, and important weddings, the -visits of illustrious personages, and even elections where there was -much at stake. When a foreign sovereign stopped in Venice, he asked to -be made an honorary member of the Company, he sometimes adopted its -dress, and he took home with him its emblem and its motto. - -The most famous of all the Companies was that of the ‘Reali,’ the -‘Royals,’ which was in existence about the year 1530. The members wore a -red - -[Sidenote: _Cicogna, Iscr. iii. 366._] - -stocking on the right leg, and a blue one on the left, which was -embroidered on one side with large flowers of violet colour, and on the -other the emblem of the Company, which was a cypress, over which ran -the motto, ‘May our glorious name go up - -[Illustration: PONTE S. ANTONIO] - -to heaven.’ The members wore a vest of velvet embroidered with gold and -fine pearls, and the sleeves were fastened on by knots of ribband of -different colours, a fashion permitting the wearer to display his shirt -of gossamer linen, exquisitely embroidered. - -A leathern or a gilded girdle was worn too, ornamented with precious -stones, and over the shoulder was carelessly thrown a short mantle of -cloth of gold, or damask, or brocade, with a hood thrown back, in the -lining of which was seen again the emblematic cypress. - -Last of all the ‘toga,’ the great cloak, was red, and was fastened at -the neck by a small golden chain, from the end of which a handsome jewel -hung down below the ear, over one shoulder. The boots were of -embroidered or cut leather, and were made with very thin soles. - -Venice had to thank the Companions of the Hose Club for some of the -first real theatrical performances ever given, which gradually led to -the creation of the ‘ridotti,’ and were more or less aristocratic -gambling clubs in connection with the theatres. We read that in 1529 the -Companions played a comedy with immense success in the house of one of -the Loredan family. In the following year the Duke of Milan visited the -city, and the Club determined to out-do all its previous festivities. A -Giustiniani was then the president of the ‘Royals,’ and he appeared with -a deputation before the Doge and the Signory. After announcing that the -Club had determined to produce the spectacle of a naval combat, he -requested the government to lend for the purpose forty of the light -war-pinnaces from the Arsenal. As if this were nothing unusual, he went -on to ask for the use of the hall of the Great Council for a dance, of -the Library for a supper, and of the Square of Saint Mark’s for a -stag-hunt. - -The Hose Club evidently had large ideas. The Doge, however, granted all -that was necessary for the naval show, but said that he should have to -think over the other requests! - -It is needless to say that the ladies of Venice had their share in the -gay doings of the Club, first as invited guests only, but later as -honorary Companions, wearing the emblem embroidered on their sleeves and -on the scarlet ‘felse’ of their gondolas, until the sumptuary laws -interfered. - -There were times when the Signors of the Night and the Council of Ten -thought fit to limit the Club’s excessive gaiety, and it was found -necessary to issue a decree which strictly prohibited any of the eleven -thousand light ladies of the city from being received as Companions, or -asked to its entertainments; for, oddly enough, the reputables do not -seem to have resented the presence of the disreputables in the sixteenth -century. - -Now and then the Companions fell out among themselves. Marin Sanudo, in -his diary, mentions that in February 1500 the Companions - -[Sidenote: _Marin Sanudo, iii. I, 39._] - -dined in the house of Luca Gritti, son of late Omobono; and after dinner -Zuan Moro, the treasurer of the Club, went out with Angelo Morosini, -Andrea Vendramin, and Zacaria Priuli; and they quarrelled about a -matter concerning which I refer my scholarly reader to his Muratori, and -Zuan Moro was wounded in the face, and turned and gave his assailants as -good as he had got, to the infinite scandal of the whole city, for these -Companions were all the young husbands of beautiful women, and they -disfigured each other! - -We learn also from Sanudo that the Companions frequented the parlours of -nunneries as well as the palaces of their noble relations and friends, -and that in 1514, for instance, they played a comedy by Plautus in the -convent of Santo Stefano. The Company of the ‘Sempiterni,’ the -‘Eternals,’ wished to give a performance of Pietro Aretino’s ‘Talanta’ -in one of the monasteries, but this was more than the monks could -endure, which will not surprise any one who has read Aretino’s works; -they might as well have proposed to give one of Giordano Bruno’s obscene -comedies; and perhaps they would, if he had then already lived and -written. Refused by the monks, the Companions hired a part of an -unfinished palace on the Canarregio for their performance. - -At first sight, what surprises us is the impunity enjoyed by these young -gentlemen of pleasure, and we ask what the three ‘Wise Men on Blasphemy’ -were doing. They were the Censors of the Republic, and it is amusing to -note that they acted in regard to licensing plays precisely as the -modern English government censorship does, for whereas they allowed a -scandalous piece by Aretino to be performed unchallenged, they most -strictly forbade the presentation of any biblical personage or subject -on the stage. The stories of Judith, of Jephthah’s daughter, and of -Samson were those of which the wise magistrates most particularly -disapproved, I know not why. - -The first theatre Venice had was built by the Companions - -[Illustration: S. ZOBENIGO] - -in 1560 after the designs of Palladio, of wood, in the court of the -monastery of the Carità, but after a few years it took fire, and the -monastery itself was destroyed with it. - -I find that the Companions were great ‘racket’ players; but I apprehend -that by ‘rackets’ the chroniclers intended to describe court tennis, -which was played in Venice, whereas in most other Italian cities the -game of ‘Pallone’ was the favourite, and has survived to our own time. -It is played with a heavy ball which the player strikes with a sort of -wooden glove, studded with blunt wooden pins and covering most of the -forearm. - -To return to the question of the large freedom and impunity granted to -the Club by the government, the reason of such license is not far to -seek. Young men who spend their time in a ceaseless round of amusement -do not plot to overthrow the government that tolerates them. The -Signory, on the whole, protected the Companions even in their wildest -excesses, and no doubt believed them to be much more useful members of -society than they thought themselves, since their irrepressible gaiety -and almost constant popularity helped to keep the people in a good -humour in times of trouble and disturbance. - -At the time of the league of Cambrai, for instance, when Pope Julius -II., the Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of -Aragon agreed to destroy the Venetian Republic, and when it looked as if -they must succeed, the Company of the ‘Eternals’ produced a mummery -which was highly appreciated both by the government and the population. - -They gave a sumptuous feast, after which the dining-hall was, as by -magic, turned into an improvised theatre. In the middle of the stage - -[Sidenote: _1510. Rom. v. 246._] - -sat a young noble who personated the King, splendidly arrayed in the -Byzantine fashion, and attended by his counsellors, his chancellor, and -his interpreter. Before him there came in state one who played the Papal -Legate, dressed as a bishop in silk of old-rose colour, and he presented -a brief and his credentials; whereupon, after crowning and blessing the -King, he observed that he should like to see a little dancing, and two -of the Companions at once danced for him with two of the fairest ladies. -The Legate was followed by the Ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, and -the Ambassadors of France, Spain, Hungary, and Turkey arrived in turn; -each spoke in the language of his country, and his speech was -interpreted to the King. Last of all came the Ambassador of the Pigmies -mounted on a tiny pony accompanied by four dwarfs and the professional -buffoon Zanipolo. We must suppose the speeches to have been very witty, -and the dwarfs and buffoons highly comic, since this incomprehensible -nonsense was a stupendous success and was talked of long afterwards. - -The taste for these ‘momarie,’ literally ‘mummeries,’ grew in Venice. -Marin Sanudo describes one which was produced in the Square of Saint -Mark’s on the Thursday before Lent in 1532. I translate a part of the -list of the masks, to give an idea of the whole. - -First, the goddess Pallas Athene with her shield and a book in her hand, -riding on a serpent. - -Second, Justice riding on an elephant, with sword, scales, and globe. - -Third, Concord, on a stork with sceptre and globe. - -Fourth, Victory on horseback, with sword, shield, sceptre, and palm. - -Fifth, Peace riding a lamb, and holding a sceptre with an olive branch. - -And so on. Then Ignorance, riding an ass, and holding on by the tail, -met Wisdom and fought and was beaten. And Violence appeared on a -serpent, and Mars on a horse, and Want on a dog with a horn full of -straw for its emblem. And Violence was soundly beaten by Justice, -Discord by Concord, and Mars by Victory, and Abundance drove Want from -the field. - -Such were the shows that amused the Venetians, while written comedy was -slowly growing out of infancy. - -The Companions of the Hose Club revenged themselves cruelly on any one -of their own number who - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under Osteria della Campana._] - -showed signs of meanness. Sanudo tells the following anecdote. Alvise -Morosini, one of the ‘Eternals,’ on the occasion of his marriage with a -daughter of the noble house of Grimani, gave his fellow-Companions a -very meagre dinner. Not long afterwards they got into the Grimani palace -and carried off two magnificent silver basins; these were placed in the -hands of professional buffoons who paraded the city with them, informing -the public that the bridegroom meant to pawn them to pay for the dinner -which the Companions were going to eat at the sign of the Campana -instead of the dinner which they should have eaten at the Palazzo -Morosini, and also to pay for wax torches for taking home the fair -ladies who were to be asked to the feast. - -The paternal and business-like government of Venice, seeing how much the -Companions contributed to the national gaiety, allowed them to -transgress the sumptuary laws which were so binding on every one else. -For instance, ordinary mortals were forbidden to ask guests to more than -one meal in the twenty-four hours, but the Companions eluded the -law--with the consent of the police--by keeping an open table all night, -so that breakfast appeared to be only the end of supper. Even in the -matter of the gondolas, the rule was that the ‘felse’ should be of black -cloth, yet the Companions covered theirs with scarlet silk and the -Provveditori delle Pompe had nothing to say. - -Then, suddenly, the government had a fit of morality, and in 1586 the -Hose Club was abolished by law, all privileges were revoked, and the -decree was enforced. Venice lost some amusement and much beautiful -pageantry, and gained nothing in morality. It was not very long before -the grave senators who objected to the Companions were seen in their -scarlet togas presiding over authorised gambling establishments in the -‘ridotti.’ - -The Venetians were an imaginative people who delighted in fables, -amusing, terrible, or pious, as the case might be. Their stories differ -from those of other European races in the Middle Ages by the total -absence of the element of chivalry upon which most other peoples -largely depended for their unwritten fiction. One can make almost -anything of a business man except a knight. - -Near the Ponte dell’ Angelo in the Giudecca stands a house which shows -great age in spite of much - -[Illustration: PONTE DELL’ ANGELO, GIUDECCA, OLD WOODEN BRIDGE] - -modern plastering. The windows are gothic, of the - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Angelo.’_] - -ogival design, and on the façade there is an image of the Virgin with -the infant Christ in her arms. Higher up, a bas-relief represents an -angel standing with outstretched wings as if he were about to fly away -after blessing with his right hand the globe he holds in his left. - -In the year 1552 this house was inhabited by a barrister of the ducal -court who professed unbounded devotion to the Madonna, and practised the -most indelicate methods of improving his fortunes. - -One day the lawyer asked to dinner a holy Capuchin monk who enjoyed the -highest reputation for sanctity. Before sitting down to table he -explained to the good friar that he had a most wonderful servant in the -shape of a learned ape, that kept his house clean, cooked for him, and -did his errands. The holy man at once perceived that the ape was no less -a personage than the Devil in disguise, and asked to see him; but Satan, -suspecting trouble, hid himself till at last he was found curled up in -his master’s bed, trembling with fright. - -‘I command thee,’ said the monk, ‘in the name of God, to say why thou -hast entered this house.’ - -‘I am the Devil,’ answered the ape, seeing that prevarication would be -useless, ‘and I am here to take possession of this lawyer’s soul, which -is mine on several good grounds.’ - -The monk inquired why the Devil had not flown away with the soul long -ago, but the fiend replied that so far it had not been possible, because -the lawyer said ‘Hail, Mary,’ every night before going to bed. Thereupon -the Capuchin bade the Devil leave the house at once; but the Devil said -that if he went he would do great damage to the building, as the -heavenly powers had authorised him to do. But the monk was a match for -him. - -‘The only damage you shall do,’ said the friar, ‘shall be by making a -hole in the wall as you leave, which shall be a witness of the truth of -what we have seen and heard and of the story we shall tell.’ - -The Devil obeyed with alacrity and disappeared through the wall with a -formidable crash, after which the lawyer and his guest sat down to -table, and the monk discoursed of leading a good life; and at last he -took the table-cloth and wrung it with both hands, and a quantity of -blood ran out of it which he said was the blood the lawyer had wrung -from his clients. Then the sinner began to shed tears and promised to -make full reparation, and he told the monk that if the hole in the wall -were not stopped up, he feared the Devil would come in by it again. So -the friar advised him to place a statue of the Madonna before the hole -and an angel over it, to scare the Devil away. And so he did. - -Another Venetian legend of slightly earlier date tells how there was -once in the confraternity of Saint John - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘San Lio.’_] - -the Evangelist a man who led a bad life, to the great scandal of all who -knew him. One of the brethren having died, the Superior hoped to touch -the heart of that wicked man by asking him to bear the Cross in the -funeral procession. ‘I will neither walk in the procession to-day,’ -answered the sinner, ‘nor do I wish to be so accompanied when the Devil -carries me off.’ After some time he died, and the brethren proceeded to -bury him, walking in procession after the Cross; but when they reached -the bridge of San Lio it became so heavy that it was impossible to lift -it from the ground, much less to carry it. The Superior now remembered -the words of the blasphemer, and told the story to the brethren while - -[Sidenote: _Picture representing the scene, Mansueti; Accademia delle -belle Arti._] - -they halted. So they all decided that the Cross must not follow the -procession, and thereupon it instantly became light again, and was -carried back to the chapel of Saint John the Evangelist. - -The fireside is the natural place for telling stories, and there is -certainly some connection in the human mind between firelight and the -fabulous. Dante tells that in his time the women of Venice consulted the -fire in order to know the future. When a girl was engaged to be married -she appealed to one of the burning logs, and decided from the augury -whether she was to be happy or unhappy. Those who wanted money struck -the log with the tongs, calling out softly, ‘Ducats! ducats!’ If the -sparks flew out abundantly there was some hope that a rich relation -might die and leave the inquirer a legacy. When the sparks were few and -faint, poverty was prophesied. - -Unlike all other Italians, who believe that hunchbacks bring good luck, -the Venetians feared them excessively. A Venetian proverb says, ‘Leave -three steps between thyself and those whom God has marked, eight if it -is a hunchback, and twenty-eight if the man be lame.’ - -One of the pretty superstitions of Venetian mothers was that if they -took their little children out before dawn on Saint John’s Day, the -twenty-fourth of June, so that the morning dew might dampen their cheeks -and hair, they would have lovely complexions and golden locks. There are -old Venetian lullabies that promise babies the midsummer dew. - -[Illustration: RIO S. SOFIA, NIGHT] - - - - -IX - -THE DECADENCE - - -The seventeenth century, like the fourteenth, was one of transition; but -whereas the earlier period was one of improvement, the latter was one of -decay. When time at last began to do its work upon the Republic, Venice -had been independent nine hundred years; she was still at the height of -her glory, still in the magnificence of her outward splendour, but the -long-strained machinery of government was beginning to wear out. At the -commencement of the seventeenth century all Italy seemed to be -threatened by war; the peace - -[Sidenote: _1598. Rom. vii. 5._] - -patched up between Philip II. of Spain and Henry IV. of France at -Vervins had been of an unsatisfactory and precarious nature; the Holy -See was more and more on its guard against the Protestant powers, and -Spain took advantage of this in order to sow discord between the court -of Rome and other governments. Venice was especially involved in these -difficulties, because she had signed in 1589 a commercial treaty with -the Grisons which had greatly displeased Spain, the latter being then in - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vi. 412._] - -possession of Milan. The Republic was accused of being too obliging to -Protestants, and her enemies assured the Pope that she had seriously -endangered the safety of the Catholic Church by allowing the English -ambassador to have an Anglican Church service in his private oratory. -The complaints of Clement VIII. and Paul V. were received with stony -indifference by the Republic, which never had the slightest respect for -Rome. The latter had many causes of complaint. Venice had been granted -in former times the privilege of trying priests for ordinary crimes in -the ordinary courts, on condition that the Patriarch should sit among -the judges. Little by little the Venetian government stretched this -privilege to make it apply to all suits whatsoever brought - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 43, notes._] - -against ecclesiastics, and in most cases the Patriarch was not even -represented. It chanced, at the very time when the Pope had - -[Illustration: CAMPIELLO DELLE ANCORE] - -complained of the liberty granted to the English ambassador, that two -priests were accused of an abominable crime, and were tried like -ordinary delinquents. This encroachment upon the bulls of Innocent VIII. -and Paul III. took place just when the Senate was passing a law which -greatly restricted the holding of property by the clergy. As if these -facts were not enough to show the Pope that the Venetian flock intended -to manage its own corner of the Catholic fold in its own way, the -government, on the death of the Patriarch, named as his successor a -member of the house of Vendramin, and merely announced the fact to the -court of Rome, although the old canonical law required that in cases -where governments were authorised to appoint their bishops, the latter -should be examined and approved by the Pope’s delegates. - -Spain took advantage of all these circumstances to bring about a -complete rupture between Venice and - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 45, 50-51._] - -the Holy See. Paul V. now hesitated no longer, and discharged a major -excommunication against the whole Venetian State. This measure produced -little impression on the Senate, and none at all on the Doge Leonardo -Dandolo. He declared openly that the sentence was unjust, and therefore -null and void. The Capuchin, Theatin, and Jesuit orders closed their -churches in obedience to the Pope, and were immediately expelled from -Venetian territory by the government. The Pope’s wrath was as tremendous -as it was futile, and it is impossible to say how far matters might -have gone if Henry IV. had not used his influence to bring about a -reconciliation. It was his interest to do so in order that Venice, being -friendly to him, might in a measure balance the power of hostile Spain, -and he sent the Cardinal de Joyeuse to Italy to try and obtain from the -Pope some concession which - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 53._] - -might facilitate an act of submission on the part or the Republic. Spain -was playing a double game as usual, but the Cardinal was too much for -the Spanish diplomatists, and he brought about an arrangement by which -Venice handed over to the Pope the two priests who were on trial, and - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 64._] - -permitted the Patriarch to undergo the examination required by the -canonical law. On his side the Pope exempted from that examination all -future Patriarchs. - -It is a singular fact that the usually docile Venetian population -greatly resented the attitude taken by the government towards the Holy -See. The Doge himself was hissed and howled at when he went to the -church of Santa Maria Formosa on the Feast of Candlemas. ‘Long live the -Doge Grimani, the father of the poor,’ yelled the rabble, for Grimani -had been a man of exemplary piety and had been dead and buried for some -time. ‘The day will come when you shall wish to go to church and shall -not be able!’ screamed others. Even after the reconciliation with the -Pope, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 251._] - -Spain did not cease to conspire against the Republic, and while -persecuting the Catholics in Valtellina tried to make out that the -Republic was allied with the Protestant powers because it opposed those -persecutions. - -It is impossible to speak of the quarrels between Venice and Rome -without mentioning the monk Paolo Sarpi who played so large a part in -them. At the - -[Illustration: SANTA MARIA FORMOSA] - -time when the attitude of the Pope made it clear that serious trouble -was at hand, the Signory felt the need of consulting a theologian in -order to give her resistance something like an orthodox shape. There was -at that time in Venice a monk well known for his profound learning and -austere life. He had entered the order of the Servites as a novice at -the age of thirteen, and was now fifty-four years old. In more than -forty years - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 73, 77._] - -his love of retirement and study and his profound devotion had suffered -no change. He was brought from his seclusion by an order from the Senate -to give his opinions on the burning questions of the moment. Fra Paolo -Sarpi vigorously sustained the cause of the Republic, and was at once -denounced to the Pope as a sectarian and a secret partisan of the -Protestants. Fanatics attempted to assassinate him, and the government -spread the report that the murder - -[Sidenote: _Statue of Fra Paolo Sarpi erected in 1812 in the church of -Santa Fosca, near the spot where he narrowly escaped assassination, -Marsili._] - -had been attempted by the court of Rome. These reports further -exasperated the Vatican against him, while the Republic supported him -all the more obstinately and consulted him on every occasion. He was -installed in a little house in the Square of Saint Mark’s in order to be -within easy reach of the ducal palace, and the severest penalties were -threatened for any attempt against his life. - -In spite of these precautions two more attempts were made to assassinate -him, and he was heard to say that death would be preferable to the -existence which the government obliged him to lead. Nevertheless he -lived sixteen years in the service of the Republic. The unbounded -confidence which was placed in him is amply proved by the fact that he, -and he only, in the history of the Council of Ten, was allowed free -access to its archives, a privilege which, oddly enough, proved fatal to -him; for it was while working on his own account amongst those documents -that he caught a cold from which he never recovered, and he died three -months afterwards in the winter of 1622. On the fourteenth of January he -felt his end approaching, and the news was at once known throughout the -city. The Signory at once sent for Fra Fulgenzio, his most intimate -friend. ‘How is Fra Paolo?’ inquired the Ten. ‘He is at the last -extremity,’ answered the monk. ‘Has he all his wits?’ ‘As if he were -quite well,’ answered Fra Paolo’s friend. - -Immediately three questions regarding an important affair were sent to -the dying man, who concentrated his mind upon them and dictated the -answers with marvellous clearness and precision. His last words were a -prayer for his country’s enduring greatness. ‘Esto perpetua!’ he prayed -as he closed his eyes for ever. - -The government gave him a magnificent funeral, and ordered the sculptor -Campagna to make a marble bust of him for the church of the Servites; -but the Venetian ambassador in Rome advised the Republic not to rouse -the Pope’s anger again by such a tribute to the great monk’s memory. We -are not called upon to decide upon the orthodoxy of Fra Paolo’s -opinions, but he was undeniably one of the greatest and most gifted -Italians of the seventeenth century. - -The troubles with Rome, and the general excommunication which had -brought them to a crisis, had disturbed the confidence of the Venetian -people in their government more than anything that had happened for -years; and soon afterwards matters were made worse by the terrible -judicial murder of Antonio Foscarini, in which England was deeply -concerned. - -Foscarini was a fine specimen of the patriotic Venetian noble, devoted -to his country, imbued with the most profound respect for the -aristocratic caste to which he belonged, haughty and contemptuous -towards most other people, as the following anecdote shows. He was in -Paris as ambassador when Maria de’ Medici, the wife of Henry IV., was -crowned, and as he had only recently arrived he was not acquainted with -all his diplomatic colleagues when he met them in the church of Saint -Denis. After the ceremony he bowed to the Spanish Ambassador, who -inquired who the stranger was who saluted him. Foscarini introduced -himself. ‘Oh,’ exclaimed the Spaniard, ‘the Ambassador of the -Pantaloons!’ ‘Pantaloon’ was a Venetian theatrical mask, and the word -had become a contemptuous nickname for the Venetians. But the Spaniard - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, St. e Ric._] - -had counted without his host, for Foscarini fell upon him then and -there. He described what he did in a letter to his government: ‘I loaded -the Spanish Ambassador with vigorous blows and kicks, as he deserved.’ - -A Venetian, Pietro Gritti, who was in Foscarini’s suite, wrote a letter -at the same time in which he said that his chief kicked the Spanish -Ambassador down the whole length of the court. - -Foscarini was afterwards ambassador in England, and the long series of -circumstances which led to his tragic end dates from that period. He was -still young, he was inclined to be fond of amusement, and for some -unknown reason the secretaries of embassy who were sent with him hated -him and calumniated him in the basest manner, accusing him to the -Council of Ten of being a Protestant in secret, and of carrying on a -treacherous correspondence with the Spanish government. But there was -worse than this. A famous French spy, La Forêt, bribed Foscarini’s -valet, Robazza, got access to the ambassador’s rooms when he was out, -and copied his most important letters for the French government. - -His second secretary of embassy, Muscorno, obtained leave to return to -Venice on pretence of visiting his father who was ill, and when -Foscarini was suddenly recalled he found the ground prepared for an -abominable action against him. He himself, his valet, and his chaplain -were all imprisoned, and his trial for high treason began. It proceeded -very slowly, but he was acquitted after having been in prison three -years, for Robazza confessed his treachery without being tortured. -Having been declared innocent of high treason, Foscarini had little -difficulty in disproving some minor accusations that were brought -against him; and a few weeks after his release he appeared before the -Senate to give an official account of his embassy in England. Muscorno, -who had accused him falsely, was condemned to two years’ imprisonment in -a fortress; Robazza, the valet who had been bribed, had his right hand -struck off and was exiled for twenty years. - -James I. of England sent Foscarini especial congratulations, and he was -again employed in important affairs. Unhappily, however, Muscorno had a -successor worthy of him in the person of Girolamo Vano, a professional -spy in the service of the Republic. If by any chance the smallest State -secret was known abroad, it was always insinuated by Foscarini’s enemies -that he was responsible for divulging it, and it was quite in keeping -with the ordinary practice of the Venetian government to employ spies to -watch a man who had been once suspected, even though he had been -declared innocent and was again in high office. - -The spy Vano took advantage of Foscarini’s friendship, or affection, for -the English Countess of Arundel, as a means of making out a strong case - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 183._] - -against him. Foscarini had known her in London, and she had afterwards -made long visits to Venice, in order to be near her sons, who were -making their studies at the university of Padua. At her house Foscarini -often met the Envoy of Florence and the secretaries of the Spanish and -Austrian embassies. - -She did not spend all her time in Venice, however, but was often many -months in England. It was when she was returning to Venice after one of -these absences that she was stopped at some distance from the city by a -messenger from the English ambassador, Sir Henry Wotton, who entreated -her to turn back. The unfortunate Foscarini had been convicted of high -treason and strangled, and his corpse was that very morning hanging -between the two red columns of the fatal window in the ducal palace. -Lady Arundel’s name had been connected during the trial with that of -the condemned man, and the ambassador was anxious to save her any -possible trouble. - -But she was not of the sort that turns back from danger at such times, -and that very evening she reached - -[Illustration: GRAND CANAL, LOOKING TOWARDS MOCENIGO PALACE] - -the English Embassy and demanded an audience of the Doge; it was with -the greatest difficulty that she could be made to understand the -impossibility of being admitted until the next morning, and she -reluctantly retired for the night to her hired house, that Mocenigo -palace which was afterwards successively inhabited by Lady Mary Wortley -Montagu and by Lord Byron. - -On the morrow the ambassador went with her to the ducal palace, and she -must have passed below the window from which the body of her friend had -hung all the previous day. She was admitted to the presence of the -Signory, and the Doge made her sit on his right hand. She now learned -that she was believed to have allowed Foscarini to use her house as a -place from which to carry on intrigues with foreign courts. Sir Henry -Wotton spoke in the Countess’s defence, and proved that her relations -with Foscarini had always been of the most honourable character, and -that the two had not met for many months. England’s star was in the -ascendant, Elizabeth had reigned, and it was not good to contradict an -English ambassador nor to speak lightly of an English lady. The Doge -made the Countess his most humble excuses and promised to send them to -her husband, the Earl Marshal, through the Venetian ambassador in -London. - -The Senate took cognisance of the affair also, and voted a small sum of -money to be expended in a present of comfits and wax to the Countess, -this being the custom for all persons of quality who appeared before the -Signory. But that was all. Lady Arundel had exculpated herself, but so -far Foscarini’s guilt seemed to be so incontrovertibly proved, that Fra -Paolo Sarpi refused to accept a legacy which the unhappy patrician had -left him in his last will. - -But as time went on the whole of Vano’s fabricated evidence began to go -to pieces. The Inquisitors of State themselves seem to have been the -first to suspect that they had made a mistake, and before long the -dreadful truth was only too clear. Foscarini - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 196; Armand Baschet, Arch. 631._] - -had been perfectly innocent and had been murdered by justice. It was not -a case that could be hushed and put out of the way, either, for too many -people knew what had happened. - -The Council of Ten made amends: let us give them such credit as we can -for their public repentance, without inquiring too closely what pressure -was brought to bear upon them by the public, and not improbably by -England. Monsieur Baschet becomes lyric in his praise of their -magnanimity. For my part, I do not think it would have been safe for the -Council to try and hide its mistake. The Ten apologised amply before the -world: that is the important matter. Monsieur Baschet gives the original -text of the apology, of which I translate a part from the Italian:-- - -‘Since the Providence of our Lord God has disposed, by means truly -miraculous and incomprehensible to human intelligence, that the authors -and promoters of the lies and impostures machinated against our late -beloved and noble Antonio Foscarini should be discovered ..., it behoves -the justice and mercy of this Council, whose especial business it is, -for the general quiet and safety to protect the immunity of the honour -and reputation of families, to rehabilitate as far as possible those who -lie under the imputation of an infamous crime ...,’ and so on. - -The Ten also decreed that an inscription should be set up in the church -of Sant’ Eustachio, recording the error of the court, a unique example -of such a public and enduring retractation. - -Other circumstances occurred to prove that organisation of the Venetian -tribunals was beginning to wear out. Too many conflicting regulations -had been introduced, and there were too many magistracies. Venice was -‘over-administered,’ as generally happens to old countries, and -sometimes to new ones that are too anxious to be scientifically -governed. The jurisdictions of the different officials often encroached -upon one another. The three Inquisitors of State were frequently at odds -with the other seven members of the Council of Ten, and in the confusion -which this caused it was impossible that the laws should be as well -administered as formerly. - -About this time a grave case enlightened the public as to certain abuses -of which the existence had not - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 210, 215, 223, 229._] - -been previously suspected. The Council of Ten was always charged with -the duty of seeing that the Doge performed to the letter the promises of -the ‘Promission ducale.’ These solemn engagements were several times -violated by the Doge Corner for the advantage of his sons. He allowed -one of them to accept the dignity of the Cardinalate while two others -were made senators, but as the Council of Ten did not like to interfere, -one of its heads, Renier Zeno, took upon himself to impeach the Doge. -The latter was accused of illegal acts in contradiction with the -‘Promission,’ and the question was taken up by the whole aristocracy and -discussed before all the different Councils. The opposite parties were -fast reaching a state of exasperation, when one of the Doge’s sons -attempted the life of Renier Zeno. He and his accomplices were merely -exiled to Ferrara, and the lenity of the sentence sufficiently shows the -weakness of the government. - -At the same time Renier Zeno was arbitrarily forbidden, contrary to all -law, to call into question the conduct of the courts in general, but he -was too proud and energetic to submit to such despotism, and what it -pleased the Council of Ten to call his ‘pride’ served his adversaries as -a pretext for accusing him. The Council had the imprudence to condemn -him to ten years’ imprisonment in the fortress of Cattaro; but this was -too much, and the Ten were soon forced to revoke the sentence as -completely as they had annulled that of the unfortunate Foscarini. But -the world saw, and the prestige of the Council was gone; the government -cast about in vain for some means of restoring it, and could find -nothing to do except to make a few reforms and changes in its old system -of spying and repression. - -Ever since the fourteenth century there had been a locked box with a -slit in it, placed in a public part of the ducal palace, into which any -one might drop an anonymous written accusation against any one else, -from the Doge down. Little by little the use of this means of -‘informing’ developed, until it had now become common to try cases on -the mere strength of such unsupported accusations. The boxes were -called the Lions’ Mouths on account of the shape they had taken, and -there was much talk about them when it was attempted to reform the Code -of Laws in the seventeenth century. A decree of the year 1635 restored -the old regulations as to the nature of the misdeeds which might be thus -denounced. - -[Illustration: THE FONDAMENTA S. GIORGIO, REDENTORE IN DISTANCE] - -It was decided that if the accusation was signed, four-fifths of the -judges must agree before the case could be brought to trial; if the -information was anonymous there could be no trial without the consent of -the Doge, his counsellors, and the chiefs of the Ten to bring the case -before the Great Council, and the trial could not be opened unless it -were voted necessary by five-sixths of the assembly. These measures -were no doubt prudent, but it was the system itself that was at fault; -any Venetian was authorised by it to take upon himself the duties of a -detective, and was encouraged to spy on his neighbours, because the -courts generally rewarded the informer after a conviction. - -It is always a fault in a government to make laws unchangeable like -those of the Medes and Persians, and some authors have said that the -Venetian Republic never looked upon any of its decrees as immutable. -This is true as regards the form, for no government ever remodelled its -laws more often in their text. Sometimes the same decree appears in more -than one hundred shapes, but neither the spirit nor the point of view is -modified. A law passed against the freemasons in the eighteenth century -is conceived in precisely the same spirit as the decrees against the -conspirators in the days of Baiamonte Tiepolo and Marin Faliero; the -last Missier Grande of the police was very like the sbirri of the Middle -Ages in character and in methods. The Republic was growing old; the tree -might still bear fruit, but the fruit it bore had no longer within it -the seeds of future life. - -It cannot be denied that Venetian diplomacy was better of its kind than -Venetian magistracies. During the thirty years’ war, for instance, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 275._] - -Venice never once lost sight of the great object it had in view, which -was to abase the closely related powers of Spain and Austria, while -skilfully avoiding any action which might bring about reprisals. - -On the other hand, it was impossible to remain neutral in the war of -succession to the Duchy of Mantua, in which Carlo Gonzaga, Duke - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 276._] - -of Nevers, was supported by France, and Ferrante Gonzaga by the Emperor. -As Austria’s - -[Illustration: STEPS OF THE REDENTORE] - -enemy, Venice naturally backed the former. Venice furnished him -abundantly with money and soldiers, and between the month of November -1629 and the month of March following, spent six hundred and -thirty-eight thousand ducats to support the party which was defending -the cause of Italian independence against the Empire. Austria -nevertheless succeeded, and got the better of the formidable coalition; -but though the Imperials took possession of Mantua at the time, they -were obliged to give it up to Carlo Gonzaga soon afterwards, in April -1631, by the treaty of Cherasco. - -About the same time Venice suffered another terrible visitation of the -plague, and more than thirty-six thousand persons perished in the city - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 302._] - -alone. On a similar occasion in 1575 the Venetians had vowed a church to -the Redeemer if the plague was stayed, and the church they built is that -of the Redentore; in 1630 a church was vowed to the Blessed Virgin, -under the name of the Madonna della Salute. This was at first only a -wooden - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 306._] - -building, in which a great thanksgiving took place on the first of -November. The present church was not finished until 1687. - -Amongst the many circumstances which hastened the decadence of the -Republic during the seventeenth century was the terrible war in Crete. -In - -[Illustration: _Quadri, 275._] - -that memorable struggle with the Turks for the possession of the island -the Venetians displayed much of their old heroism and good generalship, -but the Republic was no longer young, and could not make such gigantic -efforts with impunity; Venice was permanently weakened by that last -great war. It originated in a piece of rash imprudence on the part of -the Knights of Malta, who seized a number of Turkish vessels; it lasted -twenty-five years, and it cost the Republic her best generals and her -bravest soldiers, besides vast sums of money. Yet the enthusiasm was -boundless; mindful of Enrico Dandolo and Andrea Contarini, the aged Doge -Francesco Erizzo determined to take command himself, but death overtook -him on the eve of his departure. - -Prodigies of valour were performed. Tommaso Morosini, with a single -ship, victoriously resisted the attack of forty-five Turkish galleys, -but lost his life in the engagement. Lorenzo Marcello took eighty-four -Turkish vessels and their crews with a far inferior force, but like -Morosini he was killed in the fight. Ten thousand Turks were slain and -five thousand were taken prisoners. - -Europe looked on in amazement and admiration, and many brave captains -and soldiers thought it an honour to serve under the standard of Saint -Mark. There were more Germans and Frenchmen among these volunteers than -soldiers of other nations, and Louis XIV. himself hoped to associate his -name with the campaign. He sent the Duc de Beaufort with a considerable -fleet, twelve of his best regiments, and a detachment of the Guards, -besides a great number of volunteers under the command of the Duc de -Noailles. Yet all was in vain, and after a quarter of a century of -fighting Venice was obliged to yield Crete to the Turks. - -The peace was of no long duration, for the Turks attacked Austria next, -and, though the brave Sobieski drove them away from Vienna, they allied -themselves with the Hungarians, and became so dangerous to the Empire -that the Pope himself was in anxiety for the safety of Christianity in -general. Exhausted by her long war in Crete, the Republic attempted to -decline all requests that she should join a league against the Turks, -but was at last obliged to yield, and war was renewed in the Archipelago -and the Peloponnesus. - -Francesco Morosini, the same general who a few years earlier had been -obliged to evacuate Crete after the most heroic efforts, was placed in - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 490._] - -command of the Venetian forces and commissioned to drive the Turks from -the islands of Santa Maura and other strong places in the Ionian Sea. On -the eleventh of August 1687 a swift felucca brought to Venice news that -Morosini had taken Patras and Corinth, besides Santa Maura. In joyful - -[Sidenote: _Bust of Francesco Morosini, Hall of the Council of Ten._] - -enthusiasm the Senate forthwith voted the victor a bronze bust, which -was placed in hall of the Council of Ten, with the standard taken from -the Turks. It bears the inscription:-- - - FRANCISCO MAUROCENO - Peloponnesiaco adhuc viventi - Senatus. - -Another monument in Venice recalls the glorious war of the Peloponnesus. -After having taken Athens, Morosini hastened to the Parthenon, for he - -[Sidenote: _Quadri, 302; Rom. vii. 491._] - -appears to have been a man of highly cultivated tastes. To his -inexpressible disappointment he found the temple half ruined, for the -Turks had used it as a powder magazine, and a Venetian bomb had blown it -up. Morosini was so much overcome that he broke out into lamentations -over a loss which nothing could replace. But there amidst piles of ruins -he saw two splendid lions of marble from Pentelicus, which he at once -caused to be placed on board his vessel, rather to save them, perhaps, -than to exhibit them as trophies. In Venice they were set up on each -side of the gate of the Arsenal. - -Morosini was one of the few Venetian generals who was not made to suffer -for his success. When - -[Sidenote: _1688. Rom. vii. 504._] - -at the very height of his triumph he learnt that he was elected Doge, -and though he had little success in the campaign after that, and was -even dangerously ill, he was magnificently received when he returned to -Venice. Pope Alexander VIII., Ottoboni, sent him the staff and military -hat which it was customary to give to generals who had distinguished -themselves in war against infidels. But it was clear that in his absence -nothing could be accomplished, and he soon obtained permission of the -government to take command of the Venetian forces once more. His -departure on the twenty-fourth of May 1693 was a sort of national -festivity. The Senate went to fetch him in his own apartment, and a long -procession accompanied him to Saint Mark’s. Preceded by halberdiers, -singers, files of servants in liveries of scarlet velvet and gold, many -priests, canons, and the Patriarch himself, besides the traditional -silver trumpets, the Doge walked between the Pope’s nuncio and the -French ambassador. He wore the full dress of a Venetian -commander-in-chief, which was of gold brocade with a long train. But -even in his glory the Venetians noticed with displeasure and suspicion -that he carried in his hand the staff of the General, which he evidently -preferred to the sceptre of the Doge, and which suggested to the crowd -the thought that he might seize the supreme power. - -[Illustration: THE NAVE OF S. STEFANO] - -On the following day he embarked upon the Bucentaur, which took him on -board his flagship amidst the applause of the crowd, the pealing of the -church bells, and a salute of artillery from the fort of Saint Nicholas -on the Lido, as his vessel got under way. - -The expedition proved of little advantage to the Republic, and cost -Morosini his life, for his health was undermined by the fatigues of his -previous campaigns, and he died in the Greek province of Romania, where -he had hoped to rest for a few weeks. His body was brought back to -Venice, and buried with great pomp in the church of Santo Stefano. - -The war went on under his successor, Silvestro Valier, but it now -entered upon a new phase, for the Czar Peter the Great threatened the -Turks on their northern frontier, while the Venetian fleet held them in -check in the south. A treaty of peace was signed at Carlowitz in 1699, -by which the Republic kept her conquests in the Morea as far as the -isthmus of Corinth, including the islands of Egina, Santa Maura, and -other less important places. Dalmatia was also left to her, but she was -obliged to withdraw her troops from Lepanto and Romania on the north -side of the Gulf of Corinth. - -From all this it is clear that the military spirit was still alive in -Venice, when the administration had almost - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vii. 370, 371, 487; Quadri, 293._] - -completely broken down. Nothing gives the measure of the situation -better than the fact that in order to meet the expenses of the war in -Crete any Venetian who would engage to support a thousand soldiers for -one year, or any foreigner who would support twelve hundred for the same -period, was allowed thereby to have and hold all the privileges of -nobility. This speculation was never sanctioned by law, and was even -rejected by the Great Council when proposed, but it was nevertheless -actually practised, and a number of seats in the Great Council were -sold to the highest bidder. The government went one step farther, and -sold the office of procurator of Saint Mark. The decadence had reached -the point of decay. - -[Illustration: THE RIVA FROM THE DOGANA] - - - - -X - -THE LAST HOMES--THE LAST GREAT LADIES - - -Two men, a painter and a dramatist, have left us the means of knowing -exactly what the eighteenth century - -[Sidenote: _Pictures of Venetian life by Longhi; Accademia, Room XIV., -and Museo Correr, Rooms II. and IX._] - -was in Venice. It is not a paradox to say that Longhi painted comedies, -and that Goldoni wrote portraits. Both were Venetians, and they had the -courage to depict and describe respectively the glaring faults of their -own people, not realising, perhaps, that the general corruption was -beyond remedy, and that the end was at hand. - -[Illustration: CAMPO S. BARTOLOMEO, STATUE OF GOLDONI] - -Look at Longhi’s ‘Fortune-Teller’ or ‘Dancing-Master,’ at his ‘Tailor,’ -his ‘Music-Master,’ or his ‘Toilet,’ and you may see precisely what the -Republic was when it died of old age; there are all the successions of -light colours, as in a pastel-painter’s box; you can hear the high -running laughter that rings from rosy lips, you can guess what dreams of -pleasure fill those pretty heads, and yet there is something sad about -it all; unless one belongs to that little band of human beings who love -the eighteenth century, it sets one’s teeth on edge--like the dance -music in the ‘Ballo in Maschera,’ danced while Riccardo is dying. -Something rings false; I think there is too much discrepancy between -what we see or read and what we really know about that time. About other -centuries, even the nineteenth and twentieth, we can still have -illusions, but the eighteenth was all a sham that went to pieces with -the French Revolution. - -As for the position of women at that time, it was never lower. They were -dolls, and nothing more. They were perhaps more neglected in the -sixteenth century, but, at least in theory, there was still some respect -for them. In the eighteenth they existed only to adorn places of -amusement, theatres, and gambling houses. The biographer of that -remarkable woman, Giustina Renier Michiel, says they were so little -esteemed that it seemed useless to teach them anything, and he adds that -the Signory looked upon an educated woman as a being dangerous to -society and the State. - -Most young girls of noble family were brought up in convents, where the -most crass ignorance accompanied the loosest ideas of morality. The -greater number of these convents were only nominally connected with the -ecclesiastical authorities. In practice - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 351._] - -they were controlled by lay inspectors, ‘Provveditori sopra Monasteri,’ -who were commissioned by the government to superintend the morals of -convents in general, but found it much more diverting to help in -undermining them. - -While the girls were being brought up in such places, their father was -chiefly preoccupied in assuring and increasing the fortune which was to -be inherited by his eldest son. The natural consequence of this was that -the marriage portions of the daughters became smaller and smaller, so -that it was found hard to marry them at all, and much less troublesome -to leave them in their convents for life. Each of the fashionable -convents was a little court of noble ladies; in the one, Her Most -Reverend Excellency the Mother Abbess was a Rezzonico; in another, the -Noble Dame Eleonora Dandolo was Mistress of the Larder. - -The scholars did not leave the convent at all while their education -lasted, but nothing was neglected which could amuse them, and their -principal lessons were in dancing, singing, and reciting verses. In -Carnival, the convent parlours were turned into theatres or ballrooms; -dames and cavaliers danced the minuet or the ‘furlana’; ‘Punch,’ -‘Pantaloon,’ and ‘Pierrot’ vied with each other to make the bevies of -aristocratic young ladies laugh at jests they should never have -understood. - -Even during the rest of the year the convents were what would now be -called brilliant social centres, to - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 92._] - -which married women came accompanied by their officially recognised -‘cicisbei,’ while young gentlemen of leisure flirted with the - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 61-62._] - -scholars. It was even common for the girls to keep up a regular -correspondence with their admirers. - -Take the following passage which I translate from Goldoni’s -autobiography, a book which may - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xix._] - -be trusted and is singularly free from exaggeration. The adventure -happened to him in Chioggia. - - I had always cultivated the acquaintance of the nuns of Saint - Francis, where there were some very beautiful scholars, and the - Signora B. (one of the nuns) had one under her direction who was - very lovely and very rich and amiable. She would have been exactly - to my taste, but my youth, my condition, and my want of fortune did - not allow me to entertain any illusions. - - However, the nun did not refuse me hope, and when I went to see her - she always made the young lady come down to the parlour. I felt - that I should become attached to her in good earnest, and the - governess (the nun) seemed glad of it; and yet I could not believe - it possible. But one day I spoke to her of my inclination and of my - timidity; she encouraged me and confided the secret to me. This - young lady had good qualities and property, but there was something - doubtful about her birth. ‘This little defect is nothing,’ said the - veiled lady; ‘the girl is well behaved and well brought up, and I - will be surety to you for her character and conduct. She has a - guardian,’ she continued, ‘and he must be won over, but leave that - to me. It is true that this guardian, who is very old and ruined in - health, has some pretensions as to his ward, but he is wrong, - and--well, as I am also interested in this--leave it to me,’ she - repeated, ‘and I will manage for the best.’ I confess that after - this talk, after this confidence and this encouragement, I began to - think myself happy. The Signorina N. did not look unkindly on me, - and I considered the matter as settled. All the convent had noticed - my inclination for the pupil, and there were some young ladies who - knew the intrigues of the parlour and had pity on me, and explained - to me what was happening; and this is how they did it. The windows - of my room were precisely opposite the belfry of the convent. In - building it there had been placed in it several casements of cloudy - glass through which one could vaguely make out the outlines of - people who came near them. I had several times noticed at those - apertures, which were oblong, both figures and gestures, and in - time I was able to understand that the signs represented letters of - the alphabet, and that words were formed, and that one could talk - at a distance: almost every day I had half an hour of this mute - conversation, in which, however, we conversed properly and - decently. - - By means of this hand-alphabet I learned that the Signorina N. was - very soon to be married to her guardian. Angry at the Signora B.’s - way of acting, I went to see her during the day in the afternoon, - quite determined to show her all my displeasure. She is sent for, - she comes, she looks steadily at me, and perceiving that I am - angry, guessing what had happened, she does not give me time to - speak but is the first to attack me vigorously, with a sort of - transport. - - ‘Well, sir,’ she said to me, ‘you are displeased, I see it in your - face’--I tried to speak, but she does not hear me, raises her voice - and goes on--‘Yes, sir, the Signorina N. is to be married, and she - is going to marry her guardian.’ I tried to raise my voice too. - ‘Hush, hush,’ she cries, ‘listen to me; this marriage is my doing: - after having reflected upon it, I helped it on, and on your - account I wished to hasten it.’ ‘On my account?’ I said. ‘Hush,’ - she replied, ‘you shall understand the conduct of a prudent woman - who has a liking for you. Are you,’ she went on, ‘in a position to - take a wife? No, for a hundred reasons. Was the Signorina to wait - your convenience? No, she had not the power to do so; it was - necessary to marry her; she might have married a young man and you - would have lost her forever. She marries an old man, a man in his - decline and who cannot live long; and though I am not acquainted - with the joys and disappointments of marriage, yet I know that a - young wife must shorten the life of an old husband, and so you will - possess a beautiful widow who will have been a wife only in name. - Be quite easy on this point, therefore; she will have improved her - own affairs, she will be much richer than she is now, and in the - meantime you will make your journey. And do not be in any anxiety - about her; no, my dear friend, do not fear; she will live in the - world with her old fellow and I shall watch over her conduct. Yes, - yes! She is yours, I will be surety to you for that, and I give you - my word of honour----’ - - And here comes in the Signorina N. and approaches the grating. The - nun says to me with an air of mystery, ‘Congratulate the young lady - on her marriage!’ I could bear it no longer; I make my bow and go - away without saying more. I never saw either the governess or her - pupil again, and thank God it was not long before I forgot them - both. - -After reading such stories and looking into the archives of the -‘Superintendents of Convents,’ it is easy to understand that Pope -Gregory XIII. - -[Sidenote: _Rom. vi. 360._] - -should have exclaimed bitterly, ‘I am Pope everywhere except in Venice’; -and more than one of his successors in the eighteenth century had cause -to repeat his words. The Church protested in vain against the abuse of -the veil by Venetian ladies, for the State protected them on the -specious pretext of superintending their morals, and the remonstrances -of the popes and of the patriarchs of Venice were not even heard within -the walls of those sham cloisters. With such a system of education and -such examples the bankruptcy of morality was merely a question of time. -The number of marriages diminished amongst the aristocracy, and when a -young man made up his mind to matrimony he consulted nothing but his -financial interests. - -The expenses of a fashionable marriage were considerable. There were -always several festive ceremonies in the bride’s house. The first was -the - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 86; Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xxvi._] - -signature of the contract; the second, which followed soon afterwards, -was a gathering of all the relations and friends of the two families -with a sort of standing collation, and it was on this occasion that the -future bridegroom gave his betrothed the first present, which was -generally a big diamond set in other stones, and was called the -‘ricordino,’ the ‘little remembrance.’ - -A few days before the wedding the two families and their friends met -again, and if the man’s mother was still alive it was she who gave the -bride a pearl necklace; otherwise the duty fell to one of his near -female relations. This pearl necklace was thought absolutely -indispensable for the honour of the family, and the bride was bound to -put it on at once and to wear it till the end of the first year of her -marriage. Where it would have caused financial difficulty it was simply -hired for the time, and was returned to the jeweller at the end of the -year. - -After her marriage every well-born woman took a ‘cicisbeo’ or ‘cavalier -servente.’ These cavaliers were in most cases, especially at the -beginning - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 13._] - -of the century, neither young, nor handsome, nor the least lover-like, -though there were - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Grassi.’_] - -exceptions to the rule. The choice of them was often the occasion of the -first conjugal dispute, and a lady of the Condulmer family retired to a -convent for life because her husband objected to the cavalier whom she -wanted. - -The serving cavalier accompanied his lady on all occasions, for the -husband never did, and the two were - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 207, 303, and ix. II; Molmenti, Vita Priv._] - -seen everywhere together, and especially under the felse of the gondola; -for ladies never used the gondola uncovered, even on beautiful summer -evenings. And they were perpetually out, so that grave historians inform -us that they only spent a few hours of the night in their palaces, and -during the day the time they needed for dressing. When required, the -‘cicisbeo’ waited on his lady instead of her maid; her smallest caprices -were his law, and she dragged him after her everywhere, to mass, -benediction, and the sermon. ‘The object of mass is to go to walk,’ said -Businallo in one of his satires, after saying that the proper purpose of -pilgrimages was to make a great deal of noise. - -Not unfrequently the cicisbei were mere adventurers who pretended to be -great nobles from other Italian cities, and to have left their homes in -consequence of some misfortune. - -Goldoni wrote a comedy called ‘Il Cavaliere e la Dama’ on the subject of -the ‘cicisbei,’ whom he calls ‘singular beings, martyrs to gallantry, -and slaves to the caprices of the fair sex.’ In speaking of this piece, -in his autobiography, he observes that he could not have printed the -word ‘cicisbeatura’ on the bill for fear of offending the numerous class -whom he intended to satirise. - -He goes on to say of his play that a man is presented who is the husband -of one lady and the serving cavalier of another, and the mutual -satisfaction of the two women is exhibited. ‘A married woman,’ Goldoni -says, ‘complains to her cicisbeo that one of her lacqueys has been -disrespectful to her; the cavalier answers that the man should be -punished. “And whose business is it but yours to see that I am obeyed -and respected by my servants?” cries the lady.’ - -The playwright no doubt heard the speech in actual life. The cavalier -was the real master of the house in many families, yet now and then a -husband could be jealous, though not in the least in love. - -Goldoni says that there were husbands who put up with their wives’ -cavaliers in a submissive spirit, but that there were others who were -enraged - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, vol. ii. chap. x._] - -by those strange beings, who were like second masters of the house in -disorganised families. - -It is certain that the Venetian ladies cared more for gambling than for -adornment, or anything else. In the morning they wore a dress of more or -less rich stuff, but always black, and when they went out they wore a -long scarf, also black, which they disposed with much grace upon their -heads, crossed upon their bosom, and knotted loosely behind the waist. -This dress went by the general name of ‘Cendaleto,’ and it was the -custom to apply the appellation also to those who wore it. They said, -for instance, that there were so many ‘Cendaleti’ at a ceremony, meaning -that number of ladies. Giustina Renier Michiel, the historian of all -that was left of grace and beauty in Venice, says that the scarf had the -magic power of making the plainest women pretty. - -Though dress was simple enough on ordinary occasions, conforming to -certain rules, yet on gala occasions the latest fashions were consulted. - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 303._] - -In earlier times Venice had set the fashion for the world, and -beautifully dressed dolls had been sent by the Venetian women’s tailors -as models to Paris. In the eighteenth century Paris sent dolls to -Venice. These dolls were exhibited at the fair of the Ascension, near -the entrance to the Merceria, and took the place of fashion-plates and -dressmakers’ journals. The men wore the cut-away coat, breeches, silk -stockings, shoes with buckles, wigs, and three-cornered hats, then -common throughout Italy and France; but they had invented a singular -fashion of their own, which was that of throwing a light mantle of -velvet, satin, or cloth over their hat and wig. It was called the -‘velada,’ and was adorned with embroidery, lace, or a fringe. In the -end, it was sometimes made of lace only. As the law did not allow any -member of the Great Council to appear in public without his toga, the -nobles introduced a fashion which soon became common in all classes; -they wore a black or white mask, - -[Illustration: SS. GIOVANNI E PAOLO] - -and covered themselves entirely with a black silk mantle having a hood, -on the top of which they - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Lessico; G. R. Michiel, i. 283._] - -placed the three-cornered hat. This garment was nothing, in fact, but a -domino. Of course the women soon discovered the advantages of a dress in -which they could not only disguise themselves but could even pass for -men. The ‘Cendaleto’ remained as the proper dress for going out in the -morning, but in the afternoon and evening, at - -[Illustration: NIGHT ON THE RIVA] - -the theatre, at the ridotti, or in the piazza, the mask and domino -became indispensable, and men and women wore precisely the same -three-cornered hat. - -It was soon noticed, however, that the domino did not tend to improve -the public morals, and a decree was issued limiting its use to the -period between the first Sunday in October and Advent Sunday, and during -Carnival and the festivities which took place at the Ascension. - -The women, no doubt, amused themselves in various ways, not excepting -that form of diversion in which women have such marked advantages over -men; but their chief enjoyment, if not their principal occupation, was -gambling. Games of chance were played for very high stakes in the -ridotti, which were gaming-clubs, not much better than the ‘hells’ of -modern cities. The most celebrated was that connected with the theatre -of San Moisè, which the government protected as a useful social -institution. A patrician, generally a senator, presided in his toga at -the tables, in order to see that there was no cheating. The singular -rule of admission was that one must be either noble or masked, and the -consequence was that the Venetian ridotti were frequented not only by -the Venetians themselves, but by half the gamblers, adventurers, and -blacklegs in Europe. - -King Frederick IV. of Denmark once visited San Moisè disguised in a -domino, and won a large sum of money from a Venetian noble who was - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Ridotto.’_] - -risking the last remains of his fortune. On being told the -circumstances, he pretended to stumble, upset the table with all the -money on it, and disappeared, leaving the embarrassed gentleman to pick -up his gold again, which he did with marvellous alacrity. The number of -players at San Moisè was so great that in 1768 the government enlarged -the place, using for the purpose the proceeds of property confiscated -from the nuns, which terribly scandalised the population and provoked -some bitter epigrams. At the ridotto the most illustrious patrician -ladies quarrelled for places at the table with ladies of no character at -all, and a contemporary observes that in order to pay their gambling -debts and continue to - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 54._] - -amuse themselves, they were reduced to the last extremity. He adds that -they played from the hour of tierce, which is half-way between dawn and -noon at all times of the year. - -In 1780, when the Republic had but a few years more to live, the two -ridotti of San Moisè and San - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 303, and ix. II._] - -Cassian, which had been protected and superintended by the government, -were suppressed, but the only result was that a new class of -gaming-houses came into existence called Casini, which were much worse -in character than the old establishments. Ruined nobles borrowed -enormous sums from usurers, and even from plebeians, sharing the -winnings with the lender when successful, and being entirely at his -mercy if they lost. Some women kept private Casini of their own, to -which they invited - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -men and women; and while they played at Pharaoh, Basset, and Biribissi -within, the gondoliers played Morra at the landing outside. - -Venice slept little, and was devoured day and night by the fever of -pleasure. The lighting of the city - -[Illustration: THE SALUTE FROM THE RIVA] - -was paid for by the proceeds of the lotto, which had been introduced in -1734. Goldoni says that the shops were always open until ten o’clock - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xxxv._] - -at night, while a great many did not close till midnight, and some never -shut at all. In Venice, he continues, you would find eatables exposed -for sale at midnight exactly as at midday, and all the eating-houses -were open. It was not the custom to give many dinners or suppers in -Venetian society, but a few such occasions have remained famous, and the -invited guests appear to have behaved with as little restraint as if -they had been in a common eating-house. A certain noble, of the Labia -family, once gave a supper at which he showed all his finest plate, and -the guests could not refrain from admiring the magnificent chiselled -pieces of gold and silver that covered the table. Suddenly, as the -gaiety increased, the master of the house jumped up and began to throw -the plates and dishes through the open windows into the canal, -accompanying this mad proceeding with one of the worst puns ever made in -the Italian - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Labia.’_] - -language, or rather in the Venetian dialect: ‘L’abia o non l’abia, sarò -sempre Labia’--the words mean, ‘Whether I have it or not I shall always -be Labia.’ - -The conditions of married life in the decadence were such amongst the -nobles that it is best not to inquire too closely as to what went on. In - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 303; Mutinelli, Ult. 86._] - -a great number of cases husband and wife were like strangers to each -other, and the children were utterly neglected, when there were any. -When divorce becomes common, the family, which is the first of social -institutions, soon ceases to exist, and no country has ever shown -vitality or long endurance where society was not based on the relations -of father, mother, and children to each other. There never was any -divorce law in Italy, but there was, and is, such a thing as the -annullation of marriage. In Venice, between 1782 and 1796, the Council -of Ten registered two hundred and sixty-four applications for -annullation, and the great part of them were admitted. - -As generally happens when a form of government is exhausted and is about -to go to pieces, the Venetian - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 71._] - -people retained ideas of morality longer than the wealthy burghers or -the worn-out nobility; the wives of the artisans necessarily lived more -at home than their richer sisters, and were generally able to keep their -husbands. The love of pleasure was too universal to admit of excepting a -whole class from its influence, and to the last the working people seem -to have been very prosperous under the old government; but their -amusements were harmless and their pleasures innocent compared with -those of the upper thousands. The women of the people organised their -diversions with a good deal of system, forming groups among themselves, -each of which had a presidentess and a treasuress, who collected the -subscriptions, kept the money in safety, and made out the accounts when, -at intervals, the little fund was drawn upon for excursions and parties -of pleasure, to which men were not invited. - -On the morning of one of those appointed days, the women and girls met -at the landing from which they were to start, all dressed very much -alike. Those who belonged to the class of the better artisans wore a -rather dark cotton skirt, a blouse of scarlet cloth, a chintz apron with -a design of large flowers, and lastly, a white linen kerchief called the -‘niziol,’ which was to them what the black ‘cendal’ was to the Venetian -ladies; and from ‘niziol’ the word ‘nizioleto’ was formed, like -‘cendaleto,’ and meant a pretty woman or girl of the people. Of course, -when they met for a day’s pleasure they wore whatever ornaments they -possessed. - -The women of the poorest class wore over the dark skirt a very wide -apron which covered it entirely when let down, but which they pulled up -over their heads like a sort of hood when they went out. - -The fathers, husbands, and brothers of the women came with them as far -as the boat, but left them then, as the people would have thought it -highly - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 18._] - -improper that decent women should amuse themselves in the company of the -other sex. Yet for their protection two elderly men of unexceptionable -character went with them, as well as the necessary rowers, and it was a -common practice to be rowed about for a time before leaving the city, -singing songs together. - -The principal diversions of the day were the picnic, which was a solid -affair, a dance, generally the country ‘villotta,’ accompanied by the -singing of couplets, and the return to Venice in the boat, illuminated -with festoons of little coloured lanterns. At the landing they parted, -dividing what was left of the provisions, lest anything should be lost, -and no doubt each good wife did her best to bring home a few titbits for -the men of her household, if only to make them envy her for being a -woman. I find no record of what the men did with themselves on picnic -days, but it must have been very quiet in the house, and they may have -felt that there were compensations even for being left at home. - -Another time of gaiety was the evening after a regatta. Then the houses -of the winners were decked with garlands of green, and the doors were -open to every friend; the silk flag, which was the token of victory, was -hung in a conspicuous place for all visitors - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 318._] - -to admire, and when it grew late they all sat down to a plentiful -supper, which on those occasions generally consisted principally of -several dishes of fish washed down with copious draughts of the island -wine. The last homes of Venice, in any real sense, were the homes of the -working people. - -Life in the country did little to bring the members of a noble family -nearer together, but there was a good deal of it, such as it was. At a -time when France set the fashions, which she was before long to impose -on the greater part of Europe, every rich Venetian noble dreamt of -making a little Versailles of his own villa. The residences of the -Marcello, the Corner, the Gradenigo, the Foscarini, and the Pisani, on -the road to Treviso and on the banks of the Brenta, were so many little -courts, in which every element was represented from the sovereign to the -parasite, from the parasite to the buffoon, and the lesser nobles -imitated the greater throughout a scale which descended from the sublime -to the ridiculous. The villas themselves were often decorated by the -greatest artists. In the hall of the Pisani’s country-house at Strà, for -instance, Tiepolo had painted a wonderful picture representing the -reception of Henry III. in Venice. - -In going from the city to the villas, people went by water as far as it -was possible, and each family had a sort of light house-boat for this -purpose, - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Ult. 112, 116._] - -called a ‘burchiello,’ and fitted with all possible comfort. The -travellers dined and supped sumptuously on board, and spent most of -their time in playing cards; and when the end of the journey was reached -a long round of pleasures and amusements began, in which the ‘cicisbei’ -played an important and, one would think, a terribly fatiguing part. -They were assisted by regular relays of parasites who were invited for a -few days at a time, and who were expected to pay with ready flattery and -story-telling for the hospitality they received. - -Eating then played a much larger part in what was called pleasure than -we moderns can well understand. We are ourselves no great improvement - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Vita Priv._] - -on our fathers, in respect of manly virtue, faith in things divine, or -honesty when it does not happen to be the best policy; but as an age of -men we are not greedy of food. The Venetians were. Not only did they -employ French cooks and spend much time in considering what things to -eat, but their dinners were so interminably long, and the courses they -ate were so numerous, that they found it convenient to use three -dining-rooms in succession for the same meal, the first being for the -soup and the beef, the second for the roast meats and vegetables, and -the third for the pudding and dessert. - -The Venetians were near their end when they ceased to be men of business -and turned into gamblers and spendthrifts. All this extravagance, -especially in the country, led to financial embarrassment at the end of -the season; and in order to satisfy the creditors who then appeared in -force, it was necessary to rackrent the peasants or to sell property and -produce at ruinous prices. In one of his comedies Goldoni makes a ruined -nobleman say again and again to his steward, ‘Caro vecchio, fè vu’--‘My -dear old man, manage it yourself.’ The expression was so true to life -that not one but a number of nobles complained to the government that -they were being publicly libelled by a playwright. - -Everything was in a state of decay already approaching ruin. When the -Princess Gonzaga came to Venice - -[Sidenote: _Archivio Stor. Ital. fourth series, vol. xvi. p. 180._] - -she had such an abominable reputation that no Venetian lady had the -courage to present her to the society of the capital. At last, however, -the Signora Tron, the wife of a procurator of Saint Mark, offered to do -so. She introduced the Princess with these historic words: ‘Ladies, -this is the - -[Illustration: RIO DELLA TORESELA] - -Princess Gonzaga. She belongs to an illustrious family. As for the -rest, I will not answer for her, nor for you, nor for myself.’ - -She was wise in refusing to answer for herself, at all events, for she -was accused of setting a higher price on - -[Sidenote: _Horatio Brown, Sketches._] - -her box at the theatre than on herself. ‘That is true,’ she answered, -‘for I sometimes give myself for nothing.’ - -It is comprehensible that where great ladies talked like this, a burgher -dame should have put up her - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 82._] - -daughter’s honour at a lottery, for which the tickets were sold at a -sequin, about fifteen shillings, each. - -The decadence was turning into final degeneration, and everything morbid -was hailed with enthusiasm. - -[Sidenote: _Carrer, Annali, 34._] - -Two lovers committed suicide, for instance, and immediately -handkerchiefs were sold everywhere adorned with a death’s head in one -corner, and embroidered in the middle with the lovers’ initials -surrounded with stains of the colour of blood. - -The average Venetian lady was at once ignorant and witty, yet here and -there one succeeded in cultivating her mind by reading and intercourse -with the famous foreigners who spent much time in Venice at the end of -the eighteenth century. Giustina Renier Michiel was undoubtedly the most -remarkable and admirable Venetian woman of her times. She was born in -1755, the daughter of Andrea Renier, afterwards Doge, and the niece of -Marco Foscarini. At the age of three she was sent to a convent of -Capuchin nuns at Treviso; at nine she was brought back to Venice and -placed in a fashionable boarding-school kept by a Frenchwoman, where -she learned French badly, and Italian not at all. But the girl was a -born bookworm, and even in her school succeeded in reading a vast number -of books, and in filling her girlish imagination with a vast store of -ideals. She naturally hated complication and prejudice, and aspired to -be simple and just. Like many women of independent mind, she could not -help associating dress with moral qualities and defects; and when she -was old enough to please herself, she always wore a long straight -garment of woollen or white linen, according to the season, and adorned -her beautiful hair with a crown of roses. Such a costume might surprise -us nowadays, but she loved flowers, and deemed that to wear them brought -her nearer to nature. If she was obliged to wear fashionable clothes for -some public occasion, she spoke of them as a disguise, and hastened to -‘take off her mask and domino,’ as she expressed it, as soon as she -reached home. ‘Molière may say that a Countess is certainly something,’ -she wrote in French to a friend; ‘he should have written that a Countess -is very little, or a Count either!’ She often used to say: ‘I should -like to know why every one does not try to please me, since it would -take so little to succeed!’ One of her hobbies was not to give trouble, -and she pushed this admirable virtue so far that one day, when her frock -caught fire, she would not call any one, but rolled herself on the -carpet till the flames were extinguished. - -She had a great admiration for the Cavalier Giustiniani, the same who -faced Bonaparte so bravely a few years later, but she did not marry him. - -She is said to have been very beautiful, but short, a fact which -disturbed her unnecessarily, to judge by a note found in one of the -commonplace books in which she copied passages from her reading and -wrote out her own reflections. ‘A monarch who was rather famous in the -last century,’ she wrote with child-like simplicity, ‘forbade his -soldiers to marry short women; on the other hand, he rewarded them if -they married gigantic women. Can it be because people fear that short -women will turn out more mischievous than tall ones?’ - -At the age of twenty she was married to Marcantonio Michiel, and a few -months later she accompanied him to Rome, where her father, Andrea -Renier, was ambassador. She made a profound impression on Roman society, -and soon went by the name of ‘Venerina Veneziana,’ the little Venetian -Venus. In Rome she met the genial poet Monti, then very young, and -recommended to the Venetian ambassador by Cardinal Braschi. To fill her -idle hours, the industrious little lady studied engraving on wood. - -Not long after her return from Rome her paternal uncle was elected Doge. -He was not a very estimable personage, and as he had married a dancer -whom the people refused to accept as the Dogess, his niece Giustina did -the honours of the ducal palace when occasion required. - -In her early youth she began several literary works, among which a -rather inaccurate translation of some of Shakespeare’s plays has come -down to us. She was a literary personage, however, when still young, and -the drawing-rooms of the Palazzo Michiel were frequented by all that was -most distinguished in Venice, as well as by the best of the foreign -element. Giustina, like all women who succeed in gathering intellectual -people about them, encouraged the discussion of all sorts of subjects -from the broadest point of view. At that time she was slightly inclined -towards the new order of ideas, and boasted of being somewhat -democratic; but if this was true, it did not prevent her from sincerely -lamenting the fall of the Republic a few years later. - -On the twelfth of May 1797, after the fatal session which ended the -history of Venice, a few nobles gathered at her house to mourn over the -sudden end. While they sat together, heavy-hearted and conversing in -broken sentences, they heard the rabble in the street below, howling at -those whom it called the assassins of Saint Mark. The little group -upstairs understood the danger, and after a moment’s silence Giustina -called upon them to save the city at least, if they could no longer save -the Republic. Her cousin Bernardino Renier was there, and was -temporarily charged with seeing to the safety of the city. The only -means he could think of for preventing pillage was violence, and he -swept the streets with artillery. - -For a while Giustina cherished the vain hope that Bonaparte would help -Venice to rise from her ashes. That fact explains why she was willing to -receive in her house the handsome, fair-haired Marina Benzon, who -danced round the tree of liberty in the Square of Saint Mark’s with the -‘Carmagnola’ on her head, on the day that saw the Venetian flag replaced -by the Phrygian cap of liberty. It explains, too, why Giustina was in - -[Sidenote: _1809._] - -the square ten years later, when Napoleon came to Venice a second time. -It was a singular meeting enough. - -When the Emperor was passing his troops in review in the square, -Bernardino Renier pointed out his cousin Giustina, who was in the crowd -looking on, and Napoleon at once sent two officers to bring her to him. -The story is that the Emperor planted himself before her with his arms -crossed and his legs apart. - -‘What are you celebrated for?’ he asked roughly. - -‘I, sire? Celebrated?’ cried the lady. - -‘Yes, you. But to what do you owe your celebrity?’ - -‘To friendship, no doubt, which attributes to me an importance I do not -possess.’ - -‘What have you written?’ demanded the Emperor. - -‘Little things not worth mentioning,’ answered Giustina. - -‘Verse or prose?’ - -‘In prose, sire. I never was able to write a verse in my life.’ - -‘Ah, then you improvise, you improvise, do you?’ - -‘I wish I could, sire! for I should have an excellent opportunity to-day -of covering myself with glory!’ - -‘Come, what have you written?’ asked the Emperor impatiently. - -‘A few translations.’ - -[Illustration: A NARROW STREET, NEAR THE ACADEMY] - -‘Translations?’ - -‘Of tragedies,’ answered Giustina. - -‘The tragedies of Racine, I suppose?’ - -‘I beg your majesty’s pardon, I have translated from the English.’ - -The eye-witnesses of this meeting say that when the Emperor received -this answer he turned on his heel and left the high-born lady standing -there. - -The final state of Giustina’s mind was somewhat contradictory, for her -frankly democratic dreams had faded away, yet there remained an -unlimited indulgence for the most contradictory opinions which were -sometimes expressed in her presence, together with the greatest -indignation against those who judged Venice by modern standards, whether -they were Venetians or foreigners. She seemed to make it her duty to -prevent anything from disturbing the ghost of the defunct Republic. - -When Chateaubriand made his first visit to Venice - -[Sidenote: _1806._] - -he had the bad taste to write an article in the _Mercure de France_, -from which I translate a few extracts:-- - - TRIESTE, July thirtieth, 1806.--In Venice there had just been - published a new translation of the _Génie du Christianisme_. This - Venice, unless I am mistaken, would please you as little as it - pleases me. It is a city against nature; one cannot take a step - without being obliged to get into a boat, or else one is driven to - go round by narrow passages more like corridors than streets! The - Square of St. Mark alone is by its general effect worthy of its - reputation. The architecture of Venice, which is almost altogether - Palladio’s, is too capricious and too varied; it is as if two or - three palaces were built one upon the other. And the famous - gondolas, all black, look like boats that carry coffins; I took the - first one I saw for a corpse on the way to burial. The sky is not - our sky beyond the Apennines. Rome and Naples, my dear friend, and - a bit of Florence, there you have all Italy. There is, however, one - remarkable thing in Venice, and that is the number of convents - built on the islands and reefs round the city, just as other - maritime cities are surrounded with forts which defend them; the - effect of these religious monuments seen at night over a calm sea - is picturesque and touching. There are a few pictures left by Paolo - Veronese, Titian.... - -Giustina was filled with indignation on reading these lines, which were -signed by an author whose sentimentalism had found an echo in her heart. -A lady who admired Foscolo’s _Jacopo Ortis_ would naturally be pleased -with the _Génie du Christianisme_. The attack on her beloved native city -seemed all the more unkind for that, and she hastened to reply in a long -letter written in French, which she published in Pisa in the _Giornale -dei Letterati_. She answered Chateaubriand categorically, concluding -with the following words:-- - - I know that you have promised to return here; come then, but come - in a mood less sad, in a spirit less weary, with feelings less - cold.... I do not flatter myself that you will exclaim with that - Neapolitan poet that Venice was built by the gods, but I hope at - least that you will find here something more interesting than the - convents on the islands and the translation of your works. - -Giustina had been in her grave eighteen years when Chateaubriand -returned to Venice, with a spirit indeed less weary, and allowed -himself to grow enthusiastic, and wrote a beautiful description of the -city in his _Mémoires d’Outre Tombe_. - -At one time Napoleon ordered a species of inquiry to be made on the -following and similar questions:--What are the prejudices of the -Venetians? What are their political opinions? What are their dominant -tastes? The well-known and learned writers, Filiasi and Morelli, were -commissioned to answer these inquiries, but they refused on the ground -that such questions admitted no answer. Giustina’s interest and ambition -were roused at once, and during several weeks she worked hard at a book -on moral statistics which has never been published, but which, no doubt, -suggested to her the excellent work she afterwards produced on the -origin of Venetian feasts, a book which I have often quoted in these -pages. She worked at this with enthusiasm, bent on evoking in the minds -of future generations the memory of beautiful and touching ceremonies -long disused when the Republic fell. In that age which loved epithets -and classic parallels, the lady who had been nicknamed in Rome the -little Venetian Venus was now called the Venetian Antigone. Indeed, she -made it her business to defend Venice and Venetian history too. But as -she grew old her enthusiasm got the better of her, and she wrote such -terrible answers to people who made small mistakes that she could not -always get her articles printed. In particular, the tragedian Niccolini -published in 1827 a tragedy upon the story of Antonio Foscarini, in -which he held up the court that condemned and executed that innocent -man to execration, but by methods not honestly historical. Giustina was -now over seventy years of age, but she wrote such a furious article on -Niccolini’s play that no one dared to publish it. - -She was fond of Englishmen, and called them the Swallows, because they -came back to Venice at regular intervals, and she used to say that -England seemed to her the sister of the ancient Republic of Venice. She -had known the Duke of Gloucester when he was a mere child, and when he -returned to Venice in 1816 his first visit was for her. I translate the -note she wrote in answer to his message announcing his visit:-- - - A message from H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester, delivered at the - theatre last night, and saying that he wished to honour the Michiel - with his presence, has filled her with lively exaltation. She much - desired to see him again. If H.R.H. had not become the great Prince - he is in virtue of his birth; if he were still that amiable little - boy whom she so often embraced, she would have let him know by this - time that she desired to embrace him affectionately. And indeed she - might have said so now, since the difference of ages is always the - same. Then he was a child and she was young and pretty; now he is - young and charming and she is a little old woman, and also somewhat - deaf. There might therefore still be the purest innocence in the - sweetest embrace. But setting aside this jesting, which is indeed - too familiar, H.R.H. will please to accept in advance the thanks of - Giustina Renier Michiel for the honour which he intends to do her - this evening, and she is impatiently awaiting that desired moment. - -Though Giustina had begun life by giving signs of being emancipated, -she behaved with the greatest devotion to her daughter and her -grandchildren. ‘I have hardly any company but that of children,’ she -wrote to a friend. ‘I think very highly of their patience, since there -is between me and them the same distance of age which exists between -them and me. I find I have nothing in common with them but the taste for -“anguria,” and this is a good argument for the truth of what I say.’ - -Her most intimate friend was Isabella Teodochi Albrizzi. This lady was -born in Greece, and was a passionate worshipper of the beautiful; her -taste in all matters seems to have been more delicate than Giustina’s -and her character was much more gay and forgetful. Giustina lived in the -past, Isabella in the present. Everything about Giustina was Venetian, -the mantilla she wore on her head, the furniture she had in her house, -the refreshments she offered her friends; to the very last everything -connected with her belonged to the eighteenth century. With Isabella -Albrizzi nothing, on the contrary, was Venetian, nothing was durable; at -one moment the French taste ordered her furniture, her bibelots, and her -books, and provided her with subjects of conversation; at another, -everything about her was English. ‘When you left the Michiel’s -drawing-room you had learned to love Venice,’ says her biographer; ‘when -you left Madame Albrizzi’s drawing-room you had learned to love Madame -Albrizzi.’ - -They died nearly at the same time. Giustina breathed her last at the age -of seventy-seven on April sixth, 1832, surrounded by her grandchildren -and her friends. Andrea Maffei wrote that the death of Giustina Michiel -was indeed a public loss. ‘To the excellence of her mind she united in a -high degree the beauty of her character, and I know of no writer who -more dearly loved his country than she.’ - -[Illustration] - - - - -XI - -THE LAST CARNIVALS--THE LAST FAIRS THE LAST FEASTS - - -No people ever combined business with pleasure so advantageously as the -Venetians, and few governments have understood as well as theirs how to -make use of amusement in managing the people; indeed, the method was so -convenient that at last the Signory preferred it to all others, and took -most pains to promote the public gaiety just when the Republic was on -the verge of dissolution. There is something unnatural - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 213._] - -in the contrast between the outward life and the inward death of Venice -in those last years; something that reminds one of the strangest tales -ever told by Hoffmann or Edgar Poe. - -Never dull, even at the last, all Venice went mad with delight at the -feast of the Ascension, when the great fair was held. It will be -remembered that Pope - -[Sidenote: _1177._] - -Alexander III., on the occasion of his visit to Venice, issued a brief -granting numerous indulgences to all persons who would pray in the -basilica of Saint Mark between the hour of Vespers on the eve of -Ascension Day and Vespers on the day itself; and the brief concluded by -invoking the malediction of heaven on any one who should oppose this -practice or destroy the document itself. - -With their usual keen eye for business, the Venetians saw at once that -while their souls were profiting by the much-needed indulgence, their -pockets could be conveniently filled without vitiating that state of -grace which is especially necessary during such religious exercises. -Many strangers from the mainland would visit the city on the -anniversary, and by holding out a rational and sufficient inducement -they could be made to come again, in greater numbers, year after year. -Nothing was so sure to attract a rich class of pilgrims as a great -annual fair, and to make their coming absolutely certain it was only -necessary to suspend the duties on imported wares during eight days. - -The first Ascension Fair was held in the year 1180, when Orio -Mastropiero was Doge, and it was a vast financial and popular success. -Merchants of all the nations of the earth spread out their merchandise -for sale in booths and tents, and under every sort of improvised -shelter. For more than a week the Square of Saint Mark’s was a vast -bazaar of little shops, following the most irregular and winding lanes, -just wide enough for two persons. Every merchant, foreign or Venetian, -was free to set up his booth as he pleased and where he pleased, and -there were thousands of them, in each of which at least one person had -to sleep at night. The effect of it all must have been vastly -picturesque, as many things were when effect was never thought of. - -The annual fair was held in this same way for about five hundred years, -during which time it did not occur to any of the Signory that the -contrast between the amazing irregularity of the bazaar and the solemn -symmetry of the surrounding architecture was disagreeable. - -[Sidenote: _1678._] - -Then in the Barocco age came artificial taste and set things to rights, -and the Senate issued a decree ordering that the shops should be set up -in straight lines, and by squares, like Chicago; and it seems to me that -about that time the Ascension Fair turned itself into the first -Universal Industrial Exhibition. From that time there was a commission -established to which all exhibitors were required to send a detailed -list of their merchandise. There were no prizes and no medals, yet I -have no doubt but that the result was much the same, and that certain -houses of merchant-manufacturers made their reputations and their -fortunes on the strength of the impression they created at the Venetian -Fair. - -It was destined to be still more like a modern exhibition. In 1776 the -Signory commissioned an architect to put up a vast oval building of -wood, like a double portico, looking both inwards and outwards, and -almost filling the Square of Saint Mark’s. It was very practically -arranged, for to those who sold the more valuable objects shops were -assigned on the inside of the oval, where they were better protected, -and the shops on the outside, facing the porticoes of the Procuratie, -were filled with the more ordinary wares, which would naturally attract -more buyers from the lower classes. - -On this occasion painters and sculptors exhibited their work, and -Canova, who was then but nineteen years old, is said to have shown one -of - -[Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, vol. i. 279._] - -his earliest groups. But we learn without surprise that the products -offered for sale by Venetians - -[Sidenote: _Marble Group, Daedalus and Icarus, Accademia, Room XVII._] - -were of inferior quality, and that there was a bad contrast between the -showy architectural shops and the poor wares they contained. The end was -at hand, and Venetian manufacture was dead. - -But the people cared not for that, and were as gay and happy over the -Fair as their ancestors had been hundreds of years ago. It mattered -nothing to them; if the wares were poor, the charlatans who cried them -up were wittier than ever. There was one in particular, a certain Doctor -Buonafede Vitali of Parma, who employed four celebrated actors, one of -whom was Rubini, famous in Goldoni’s companies; they were dressed in the -four Italian theatrical masks, and by their clever improvisations and -witty sallies they advertised the doctor’s miracles, and amused the -clients that waited to be cured by him. - -There were professional jesters, too, who joked on their own account, -and there was usually somewhere a black African buffoon-contortionist; -and there were long-legged tumblers, called ‘guaghe,’ absurdly dressed -as women, who kept the crowd laughing, and while the people looked on -they chewed the pods of carobs, which were sold off trays with nuts and -other things by the Armenians who moved about in the throng. In the -motley multitude nobles and magistrates - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -and foreign ambassadors elbowed each other, and great ladies and light -ladies, all effectually disguised under the ‘tabarro,’ the ‘bauta,’ and -the mask, which were allowed in public during the Fair. - -The Espousal of the Sea was the great ceremony of the week, and the one -which most directly recalled the visit of Alexander III. It was last -performed by the last Doge in 1796, the six-hundred-and-eighteenth time, -I believe, since its institution, and all the ancient ceremonial was -carefully followed. - -On the eve of the Ascension, the Bucentaur was hauled out of the Arsenal -and anchored off the Piazzetta - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Lessico._] - -in full view of the delighted population. It was no longer the ‘Busus -aureus,’ built by the Senate in 1311, and towed by a small boat from -Murano, called the ‘peota.’ In four hundred years new ones had been -constructed several times, and the last - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF THE MIRACLE] - -Bucentaur was built in 1728. It was about one hundred and fifteen feet -over all, with twenty-two feet beam, and was twenty-six feet deep from -upper poop-deck to keel. In length and beam it had therefore about the -dimensions of a fair-sized schooner yacht, but it was vastly higher out -of water, and was flat-bottomed, so as to draw very little. The -consequence was that even in smooth water it might have been laid over -by a squall, and it was never used except in absolutely fine weather. It -was rowed by one hundred and seventy-eight free artisans from the -Arsenal, who swung forty-two oars, each of which, however, according to -the model now preserved, consisted of three, linked and swung together -in one rowlock. The rowers occupied what we should call the main deck, -and the upper deck was fitted up - -[Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, Origini, i. 197._] - -as one long cabin or saloon, taking the whole length of the vessel, but -rising by a step at the after end, and having a small window at the -stern from which the Doge threw out the ring in the course of the -ceremony. His throne was further raised by two steps. Over the cabin -were spread enormous draperies of crimson velvet, ornamented with gold -fringe, gold lace, and gold tassels. In the stern, within the cabin, was -figured a marine Victory with appropriate trophies, and two carved -babies, of the rotund and well-creased breed dear to the eighteenth -century, supported a huge shell as a canopy over the throne. The fair -Giustina Michiel’s description of the decorations makes one’s blood run -cold. Prudence and Strength stood sentinels at the Doge’s elbows. In the -ceiling of the saloon Apollo smiled upon the nine Muses, pleased to -consider the Bucentaur as his temple; the Virtues were inappropriately -present, too, and with more reason the Arts, or Occupations, of -Shipbuilding, Fishing, Hunting, and the like. The saloon had no less -than forty-eight windows, from which the numerous party of ambassadors, -magistrates, and distinguished strangers who accompanied the Doge could -see all that went on. Lastly, the vessel’s figurehead was a colossal -wooden statue of Justice, ‘protecting goddess of every well-regulated -government,’ says the lady Giustina, and therefore as inappropriate -there as the Virtues themselves. - -At the hour of tierce, which was somewhere near eight o’clock in the -morning at Ascension, all the bells began to ring, except, I think, that -solemn one that tolled while condemned men were being led to death; and -excepting, too, that one of lighter tone, the ‘Bankrupt’s Bell,’ which -was rung every day for half an hour about noon, during which time -debtors might walk abroad and sun themselves without being arrested. - -Then the Doge came from his palace preceded by his squires, and the -silver trumpets, and the standards, and the bearer of the ducal sword, -and the - -[Sidenote: _Carrer, Annali._] - -Missier Grande, who was nothing more nor less than the head constable of -Venice; and after his Serenity came the High Chancellor, the Pope’s -Nuncio, the ambassadors, and the principal magistrates. When all were on -board the Bucentaur, a salute of artillery gave the signal of departure, -and the huge oars began to swing and dip; and after the big barge came -the smaller one of the ‘Doge’ of the fishermen, the Niccolotti, the -little ‘peota’ of the Murano glass-blowers, and the barges and boats of -the Signory, and all the gondolas of Venice, richly draped for that one -day. So all moved slowly out; and when they passed the statue of the -Virgin before the Arsenal all the people sang, and sent up prayers and -invocations with suppliant gestures ‘to the Great Mother of Victories,’ -and the sailors cheered and yelled. Then they went on to Saint Helen’s -island. - -There the Patriarch was waiting with his flat boat, and the monks of -Saint Helen served him a collation of chestnuts and red wine, which, at -eight or nine o’clock in the morning, was cruelly ungastronomic; and the -Patriarch gave his sailors bread and fresh broad beans in the shell. - -The Patriarch sent acolytes to the Doge with a nosegay of Damascus -roses; and his flat boat having been taken in tow by the Bucentaur, and -another boat in which a choir sang the hymns composed for the occasion, -they all moved out towards the open sea. - -Then, in profound silence, the Doge opened the little stern window -behind his throne, and the Patriarch, - -[Sidenote: _Horatio Brown, Venice._] - -who had come on board, poured holy water into the sea and prayed, -saying, ‘Lord, vouchsafe calm and quiet weather to all them that journey -by sea’; after which prayer the Patriarch handed the ring to the Doge, -who dropped - -[Sidenote: _Carrer, Annali._] - -it into the sea just where the holy water had been poured, saying, ‘We -espouse thee, O Sea, in token of perpetual sovereignty.’ - -The guns of the fortresses thundered out a salute, and all the thousands -of spectators cheered for Saint Mark, and all the young men waved flags; -then the whole company began to throw flowers, freshly cut, from boat to -boat, and the Patriarch presented great silver dishes full of flowers to -the Doge; and all went ashore at San Nicola on the Lido to hear the -pontifical high mass, after which every man went home to his own house. - -That was the ceremony at which the Venetians assisted in 1796, little -guessing that they saw it for the last time. A few months later a vandal -mob - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 305; Mutinelli, Lessico and Ult._] - -beached the Bucentaur on the island of San Giorgio Maggiore, and -stripped it of all its ornaments, to burn them and get the gold. The -hull was then armed with four heavy old guns, and was turned into a sort -of floating battery and sailors’ prison at the entrance of the harbour. -On her stern was painted her new name ‘Idra,’ the Hydra, and there she -rotted for years. A few fragments of the old vessel are now preserved in -the Arsenal. More than two hundred men worked at reducing the Bucentaur -and the two big carved boats of the Signory to the democratic standard -of beauty. - -The last pilot of the Bucentaur was Andrea Chiribini, who, like all his -predecessors, called himself ‘admiral,’ and was a ruffian not worth the -rope with - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult.; Bembo, Ben. 265._] - -which he should have been hanged when he was young. He was one of the -worst types in the Venetian revolution; and after living all his life on -the bounty of the Signory, he was the first to help in breaking up the -Bucentaur, and in sacking the Arsenal. In order to reward him for these -noble acts of patriotism, and in the absence of appropriate funds, he -was given a magnificent carved jewel of oriental chalcedony from the -treasure of Saint Mark. The talisman did not bring the fellow luck. -After wandering about for nearly thirty years, living more or less -dishonestly by his wits, - -[Illustration: THE PROCESSION OF THE REDENTORE] - -he presented himself one day in 1826 at one of the asylums for the poor, -where he spent a day; but when towards evening he was requested to put -on the dress of the establishment, he flew into such a terrible rage -that he had fever all night, and had to be watched. On the following -morning he shook the dust from his feet and departed, declaring that a -gentleman like himself could not live among such brigands. During two -years the workmen of the Arsenal subscribed to give him a pittance; at -the end of that time, feeling that his days were numbered, he consented -to enter the little hospice of Saint Ursula, which a pious person of the -fourteenth century had founded for the perpetual support of three poor -old men. - -It is said that the last Carnival of Venice was the gayest in all her -history, and fully realised the condition of things described by Goldoni -some years earlier in his comedy _La Mascherata_. I translate the -couplet into prose:-- - - Here the wife and there the husband, - Each one does as best he likes; - Each one hastens to some party, - Some to gamble, some to dance. - Provided every one in Carnival - May do exactly as he chooses, - It would not seem a serious matter - Even to go raving mad. - -A good many different traditional and legendary feasts amused the -Venetians in old times, but the only one that has survived to our own -day is - -[Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, iii. 389._] - -the Festa del Redentore, the feast of the Redeemer, which was instituted -as a thanksgiving after the cessation of the plague in 1576, and is kept -even now both as a civil and religious holiday. The serenades, -illuminations, and feasts in the island of the Giudecca certainly -delight the Venetian populace of to-day as much as in the times when the -old flag of Saint Mark floated over everything, and the little movable -kitchens on wheels were adorned with the symbols of the Evangelist -prettily outlined with flowers on a ground of green leaves. - -The central point of all amusement in Carnival was the theatre, for the -Venetians always had a passion for spectacles, and, at a time when the -worst possible taste debased the stage throughout Italy, the reform -which has since raised the Italian theatre so high began in Venice with -Goldoni’s comedies. Properly speaking, there was no dramatic art in -Italy before him. As I have explained in speaking of the sixteenth -century, the Hose Club founded the first theatre, but most of the -performances were what we still call mummeries, in which more or less -symbolic personages said anything witty or profound that occurred to -them, or talked nonsense in the absence of inspiration. Pantaloon was -the national mask of Venice, and was always supposed to be a doctor who -became involved in the most astonishing adventures. Valaresso, a man of -taste in those days, produced a play that ended with a battle supposed -to be fought behind the scenes. In his satire the poet makes the -prompter appear upon the stage carrying a little lamp. ‘Ladies and - -[Sidenote: _Aureli, Vita del Pergolesi._] - -gentlemen,’ he says, ‘I see that you are expecting some one to bring you -news of the battle; but it is of no use to wait, for every one is dead.’ -Thereupon he blows out his lamp, and goes off to bed. - -In his memoirs Goldoni explains the rules then followed by dramatic -authors. He had occasion to - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, i. xxviii._] - -learn them himself when he read his first piece, _Amalasunta_, to Count -Prata, director of one of the large theatres in Milan. - - ‘It seems to me,’ said the Count, ‘that you have studied tolerably - well the _Poetics_ of Aristotle and the _Ars Poetica_ of Horace, - and that you have written your composition according to the true - principles of tragedy. Then you did not know that a musical drama - is an imperfect work, subject to rules and traditions which have no - common sense, it is true, but which must be followed to the very - letter. If you had been in France you might have thought more of - pleasing the public, but here you must please actors and actresses, - you must satisfy the composer of the music, you must consult the - scene-painter; everything has its rules, and it would be a crime of - _lèse majesté_ against the art of playwriting to dare to break them - or not to submit to them. Listen to me,’ he continued, ‘I am going - to point out to you some rules which are unchangeable, and which - you do not know. Each of the three principal characters in the - drama must sing five airs--two in the first act, two in the second - act, and one in the third. The second actress and the second “man” - soprano can only have three, and the third parts must be satisfied - with one, or two at the most. The author of the words must provide - the musician with the different shades which form the chiaroscuro - of the music, taking good care that two pathetic airs shall not - follow each other. It is also necessary to separate with the same - care showy airs, airs of action, of undefined character, minuets, - and rondeaux. One must be especially careful to give no airs of - affection or movement nor showy airs nor rondeaux to the second - parts. These poor people must be contented with what is assigned to - them, for they are not allowed to make a good figure.’ - -Count Prata would have said more, but Goldoni stopped him, for he had -heard quite enough. He went home in that state of mind which some young -authors have known, and obtained a sort of morbid satisfaction from -burning his manuscript. - - ‘As I was poking the pieces of my manuscript together to complete - the burning,’ he says, ‘it occurred to me that in no case had any - disappointment made me sacrifice my supper. I called the waiter, - and told him to lay the cloth and bring me something to eat at - once.... I ate well, drank better, went to bed and slept with the - most perfect tranquillity.’ - -Goldoni was of the strong, to whom is the race. - -[Sidenote: _Portrait of Goldoni, P. Longhi; Museo Civico, Room IX._] - -From the ashes of his Amalasunta rose comedies that reformed the Italian -stage. - -The composers were not much better off than the playwrights. - - ‘The modern master,’ says Marcello, ‘must make his manager give him - a large orchestra of violins, hautboys, horns, - - [Sidenote: _Teatro alla moda, Benedetto Marcello, quoted by - Molmenti in Nuovi Studi._] - - and so forth, saving him rather the expense of the double basses, - as he need not use these except for giving the chords at the - beginning. The Symphony is to consist of a French time, or - _prestissimo_ of semiquavers in major, which as usual must be - succeeded by a _piano_ of the same key in minor, closing finally in - a minuet, gavotte, or jig, again in the major, thus avoiding - fugues, _legature_, themes, etc., etc., as old things outside of - the modern fashion. He will endeavour to give the best airs to the - prima donna, and if he has to shorten the opera he will not allow - the suppression of airs or roundels.’ - -The same master observes wittily that the authors of the words to -accompany this sort of music generally excused themselves from reading -the works of older writers, on the ground that the latter had not been -able to read their successors, but had, nevertheless, done very well. -When the playwright or musician had succeeded in pleasing the actors, -the actresses, the manager, the scene-painter, and all the rest of the -company, he still had to please the Council of Ten, not to mention the -Inquisitors of State and the Inquisitors of the Holy Office, for they -all had something to say in the censorship of the theatre. - -The infamous Jacopo Casanova, who amongst a number of ignoble -occupations acted as a confidant or spy to the Council of Ten, called -attention - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 300._] - -in 1776 to a piece called _Coriolanus_, which was being given in the -theatre of San Benedetto. It appears to have been a sort of pantomime, -which presented on the stage a starving population, a cruel nobility, -the unjust condemnation of Coriolanus, the tears of Virgilia and -Volumnia, everything, in short, which, according to the scrupulous -Casanova, could pervert the Venetian people; and the Inquisitors -accordingly suppressed the piece. - -Sometimes these gentlemen shut up the provincial theatres altogether for -a time with a view to stopping the advance of modern ideas. Here is an -edict relating to these measures of prudence, signed by the Doge one -year before the fall of the Republic. The first paragraph is in Latin, -the rest is in Italian. - - Ludovicus Manin, by the grace of God Doge of Venice, - - [Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi._] - - to the noble and wise man, Federicus Bembo, by his commission - Podestà and Captain of Mestre, Fid. Dil. Sal. et Dil. Aff. [_Fideli - dilecto salutem et dilectionis affectum._] - - Seeing that the Austrian troops now coming down from Friuli are - about to enter the Trevisan province, to which some of the French - troops may also move, and it being according to the zealous - forethought of the government to remove all inducements which give - individuals of the troops the desire to come still nearer to these - lagoons, the Council of Ten, considering that one inducement might - be the reopening of the theatre, orders you to put it off as long - as may seem best to the prudence of the Heads of the said Council. - - Given in our Ducal Palace on the twenty-seventh of September in the - fifteenth year of the Indiction, 1796. [I find that the year of the - Indiction does not correspond with the date.] - -There was another magistracy which also had to do with the theatres. The -‘Provveditori di Commun’ - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Lessico, ‘Teatro.’_] - -fixed the price of the libretto of the play. It was Council of Ten, -however, that named the hour at which the performance was to begin and -end. - -The lighting of the theatres was wretched and the boxes were completely -dark, which appears to have - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi._] - -given the ladies a considerable sense of security, for I find that in -1756 the noble dame Pisani Grimani, who owned the theatre of San -Benedetto, was forbidden by the Inquisitors of State to stand at the -door of her box in a costume which might ‘produce grave disorder.’ - -In 1776 the government made an effort to limit such extreme views of -comfort in warm weather, and an edict was issued commanding ladies to -wear modest dresses, with domino and hood, at the theatre. The noble -ladies Maria Bon Toderini and Elisabetta Labia Priuli were put under -arrest in their own houses in the following year for having, in their -boxes, thrown back their hoods and allowed them to slip down upon their -shoulders. - -The musicians’ desks were lighted with candles of Spanish wax, from -Segovia in Castile. The stage was illuminated by lamps fed with olive -oil. In the dim house there seems to have been a good deal of rough -play, and the patricians in the boxes occasionally threw -‘projectiles’--possibly hard sweet-meats are meant--at the people in the -pit. The lights were put out as soon as the curtain fell on the last -act, and the spectators groped their way out in the dark as they could, -helped by the big brass lanterns which the gondoliers brought to the -door when they came to wait for their masters. - -Plays were not advertised at all. A small bill giving the name of the -play and the names of the authors was pasted up in the Piazzetta, and -another was to be seen at the Rialto, but that was all. It was the -business of the State to provide foreign ambassadors and ministers with -boxes, and a vast deal of care was bestowed on this matter, which was -full of difficulties; for the boxes were generally the property of -private families that did not at all like to give them up. But the -government always reserved the right to take any boxes it chose for the -use of the Diplomatic Corps. In Venice, the smallest affairs were always -conducted according to a prescribed method, and there was a regular rule -by which the boxes were distributed. The document has been found by -Signor Molmenti in the Archives of the Inquisitors of State, docketed -and labelled: ‘Theatres. Foreign Ambassadors. Boxes.’ Here it is:-- - - The Ambassadors present themselves with a formal request - (memoriale) to the Most Excellent Council. By the latter, through a - Secretary of the Senate, His Serenity is requested to draw the lots - for the boxes of each. He puts into the ballotbox the numbers of - all the boxes on that row which corresponds to the rank of the - Minister who applies, and he draws one number. The proscenium boxes - are excepted, and the balcony, the boxes occupied by other - Ministers, and the one that belonged to the Minister who last went - away. Afterwards, by the method explained hereinafter, notice (of - the number drawn) is sent to the Minister, the owner (of the box), - and the Council. - - When the Minister does not like the box drawn for him, he lays - before the Council his request that it may be changed, and by the - same method His Serenity is requested to draw again. In that case - he only puts in the numbers of the boxes opposite which are free, - he draws again and sends the notices to that effect, informing the - owner of the second box that he may use the one first drawn. - -When the box was at last drawn and had been accepted by the Minister, -the owner of it received a notice in the following form:-- - - This day ... (date). By order of the Most Excellent Savi - (literally, ‘Wise Men’) notice is given to Your Excellency the - Noble Sir, etc., etc.... (or Noble Dame, or Your Illustrious - Worship, or other proper title), that His Serenity has drawn Box - No.... Row ... in the ... theatre belonging to Your Excellency (or - other title) for His Excellency the Ambassador (or Minister) of -..., and this notice is sent you for your guidance. - -The feelings of the box-owner, dispossessed by this formal nonsense, may -be guessed, for the indemnity paid by the ambassadors was very small. - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Lessico._] - -It seems that even the Council anticipated that he would use bad -language, for the underling who took him the notice was a -Comandator-Portier, and was made to wear a red cap with the arms of the -Republic as a badge ‘to protect him against abuse’! - -In 1791, when a company formed of nobles undertook to build the Fenice -Theatre, using part of the ruins of the old theatre of San Benedetto, -they presented to the Doge a memorandum concerning the boxes for the -Diplomatic Corps, of which I give an extract for the sake of its -monumental absurdity, translating the terms quite literally:-- - - The reverend Company of the New Theatre is disposed to meet the - public commands with submissive obedience, and will therefore at - all times venerate whatsoever Your Serenity may be pleased to - prescribe.... - - In order to continue the building begun, it is necessary to sell - the new boxes which have been added to those which formed the last - theatre, and the greatest profit that may be hoped for lies in - those situated in the first and second rows; but, as those places - are subject to the dispositions above alluded to, which take from - the owners the use of their own boxes, without fixing the measure - of the corresponding indemnity, the sale of those boxes would be - rendered impossible in the present state of things, to the - incalculable damage of the sinking company, which would thus see - removed the hope of soon finishing the building begun, or else - would be put to new and enormous expense which would cause to - vanish those expectations of profit which the Sovereign Clemency - of the Most Excellent Council of Ten had benignly permitted the - Company to entertain. - -[Illustration: NEAR THE FENICE] - -The memorandum ends with the rather startling statement that the -pretensions of the ambassadors, if admitted, would cause the Company to -lose eleven thousand ducats. - -The Doge, who afterwards showed small alacrity to act when the country -was in mortal danger, was apparently much moved on receiving the -Company’s petition, and forthwith summoned the Senate to consider the -weighty matter; it is true that if he had done anything for the -petitioners without appealing to that body, he would have been naturally -suspected of being a shareholder. - -The Senate decided that, without making any change in the method of -drawing boxes, and without prejudice to the existing system in any other -theatre, ambassadors should pay owners one hundred and sixty’ ducats for -boxes in the first row, and that ministers should pay eighty ducats for -those in the second; whereby, said the Senate, which still preserved -traditions of business, the owners of the said boxes would be getting -four per cent on the money they had invested. - -The construction of the famous Fenice lasted twenty months, and the new -theatre opened with an opera by Paisiello on a libretto by Alessandro -Pepoli. - -[Illustration: GRAND CANAL FROM THE FISH MARKET] - - - - -XII - -THE LAST MAGISTRATES - - -The philosophical reader will naturally ask what elements composed the -Great Council of the Venetian Republic at a time when France was on the -brink of the Revolution, and all Europe was about to be shaken by the -explosion of the first new idea that had dawned on mankind since -Christianity. I shall try to answer the question. - -[Illustration: S. BARNABÒ] - -There were three classes of men in the Council: first, the ancient -aristo-plutocracy which, though with a few - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 7._] - -additions to its numbers, and though itself divided into two parties, -had on the whole steered the Republic through eleven hundred years of -history; secondly, a number of families, mostly of ‘new men,’ though -they had sat in the Council four hundred years and more, but who had all -been more or less occupied with the legal profession since they had -existed; thirdly and lastly, the poor nobles called the ‘Barnabotti,’ -from the quarter of San Barnabò, where most of them were lodged at the -public expense. - -The first category generally held the posts of highest dignity, many of -which implied a salary by no means small, but never sufficient to pay -for the display which the position required, according to accepted -customs. The traditional splendour which the Venetian ambassadors of the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had inaugurated was dear to the -Senate, and had come to be officially required, if not actually -prescribed in so many words. These great families had long been -accustomed to play the leading parts, and as the business spirit which -had made Venice the richest power in Europe died out, their pride was -often greater than their sense of responsibility. These and many other -causes lowered the standard according to which young Venetians had been -brought up during centuries to understand the administration of their -country; and the result was that they were not fit to fill the offices -to which they were called, and therefore handed over their work to -private secretaries, who were generally ambitious and intriguing men. -To be a member of the Great Council had now only a social value, like -those hereditary coats of arms in which there had once been such deep -meaning. Throughout ages the aristocracy of Venice had differed -altogether from the nobility of other countries, but as decadence -advanced to decay, and decay threatened destruction, the Venetian -senator grew more and more like the French marquis of the same period. - -In an access of greatness Louis XIV. is reported to have said, ‘L’état -c’est moi!’ but the State continued to exist without him. The Venetian -nobles might have said with much more truth, and perhaps with more -reasonable pride, ‘We nobles are the Republic!’ For when they -degenerated into dolls, the Republic soon ceased to exist. - -The second category of nobles comprised by far the sanest and most -intelligent part of the aristocracy, and it was generally from their -ranks that the Quarantie were chosen, as well as the ‘Savi,’ and those -magistrates from whom special industry and intelligence were required, -or at least hoped. - -The Barnabotti had nothing in common with the two other classes, except -their vanity of caste, which was so infinitely far removed from pride. -As I have said, they owed their name to the parish - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 308._] - -which most of them inhabited. Their nobility was more or less recent and -doubtful, and almost all had ruined themselves in trying to rival the -richer families. The majority of them had nothing but a small pension, -paid them by the government, and barely sufficient to lift them out of -actual misery. It was especially for them - -[Sidenote: _Horatio Brown, Venice, 109; Rom. ix. 7._] - -that the College of Nobles had been founded, in which their sons were -educated for nothing, with all the usual imperfections of gratuitous -education. Like the ‘New Men’ of the fourteenth century, they felt that -an insurmountable barrier separated them from the older and richer -classes, and the humiliations to which they were often exposed by the -latter kept alive in them the sort of hatred which was felt in other -parts of Europe by the agricultural population for the owners of the -land. Their poverty and rancorous disposition made them especially the -objects of bribery when any party in the Great Council needed the -assistance of their votes against another. - -The better sort of Venetians were well aware of the evils that were -destroying the governing body. In 1774 a member of the Council made a -speech on the subject, in which he said that the greatest damage the -Republic had suffered had been caused by the action of time; it lay in -the already very sensible diminution in the numbers of the Great -Council, which was, in fact, the government itself. He pointed out that -within one century a large number of patrician families had become - -[Sidenote: _Cecchetti, quoting Arch. Ven. iii. 435._] - -extinct, and that the condition of the aristocracy must clearly continue -to go from bad to worse. It could not be otherwise, since marriages were -yearly becoming less numerous. A family was looked upon as a calamity, -because it meant a division of fortune, and therefore interfered with -those ancient traditions of almost royal - -[Illustration: INSTITUTO BON, GRAND CANAL] - -magnificence which appealed to the vanity of younger men. - -The speech to which I have alluded was delivered not very many years -after the time when a number of seats in the Grand Council had been sold -in order to meet the expenses of the Turkish war. In 1775, in order to -increase the numbers of the Council, it was proposed to admit to it -forty noble families from the provinces, provided they could prove that -they had a yearly income of ten thousand ducats. The proposal was -energetically opposed by a Contarini. If the sons of ancient families -showed so little zeal for the public welfare, he argued, what could be -expected of strangers? Was it wise to display to all Europe the evils -from which the Republic was suffering? Moreover, even if the bill were -passed, would it be easy to find forty families willing to leave their -homes and establish themselves in the capital to the great damage of -their fortunes? And if they were found, would their admission not result -in impoverishing the provinces by the amount of their incomes which -would be spent in Venice? It was luxury and extravagance that were -ruining the country, he said. - -A lively discussion followed. ‘Beloved sons,’ cried one old noble, ‘for -us who are old there may be a little of the Republic left, but for you -children it is completely finished!’ The bill passed, but Contarini had -been right; only about ten families asked to be inscribed in the Golden -Book. - -Satirists and lampooners made merry with the proceedings of the Great -Council. After the stormy sittings just referred to, the caricatures of -the five patricians entrusted with framing measures of reform were to -be seen everywhere in the city, and a copy of the cut is still in the -Archives. It - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 211._] - -represents the most eloquent and zealous of the committee, Alvise Emo, -urging his horse against an enormous marble column; two of his -colleagues follow him in a post-chaise and observe his movements with a -spy-glass; a fourth, who is lame, is trying to follow the carriage on -foot, and the fifth comes after him, beating him to make him mend his -pace. - -On the twenty-second of May 1779 the secretary of the Inquisitors of -State wrote to his brother Giuseppe Gradenigo, then in France: ‘If these -gentlemen do not seriously think of taking measures to meet the events -which are brewing, if they do not introduce some order into the affairs -of the army and navy, the Republic will be lost as soon as an enemy -appears on land or by sea.’ - -This letter was prophetic. The idleness and indolence of the nobility -were such that it was hard to obtain an attendance at meetings of the -Great Council or the Senate. The members were accustomed to spend their -nights in gambling-dens and cafés, and it was a hard matter for them to -get up in the morning. Their physicians recommended rest, which they -indeed needed; and as they could not take any at night, they devoted a -large part of the day to following the doctor’s advice. Yet as it was -necessary that the government should go on in some way, it became -habitual to leave everything to the Savi of the Council, who on their -part fell into the habit of not always rendering an account of what -they did. By obligingly saving their colleagues the trouble of getting -out of bed, they made themselves the arbiters of the Republic’s final -destiny. - -With regard to the other magistracies, a few anecdotes will give a good -idea of what they had become. My readers know that the Avogadori enjoyed -very great consideration, and that it was their business to see that all -the tribunals did their work smoothly and regularly. One of these -important officers, Angelo Quirini, who was at the same time one of the -most distinguished members of the Senate, exhibited his power and -courage by banishing from Venice a little milliner who had made a -mistake in trimming certain caps for a great lady in whom he was -interested. From her exile the woman wrote a protest to the Inquisitors -of State, who did her justice and recalled her. Quirini now lost his -temper with these gentlemen and swore that they were encroaching upon -his rights, just at this time a - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 104._] - -rich member of the parish of San Vitale departed this life, and the -sacristans prepared to bury his body; but the deceased belonged to a -confraternity called La Scuola Grande della Carità, and his brethren -claimed the right of burying him to the exclusion of the parish -sacristans. The Inquisitors of State and the Council of Ten took the -matter up; the Provveditori alla Sanità, who were the health officers, -declared that the matter concerned them only; the elders and judges of -the guilds and corporations took part in the discussion, and a general -quarrel ensued, which was only brought to a close by the authority of -the Council of Ten. But this did not please Angelo Quirini, who -violently attacked the Council and began to give himself the airs of a -popular tribune, though not possessing the popularity which is essential -for the position. The people, in fact, would have none of him. One night -the Council of Ten caused him to be quietly taken from his palace and -carried off under a good escort to the fortress of Verona. The matter -now had to be brought before the Great Council, and a regular trial was -held to ascertain how the Council of Ten and the Inquisitors were in the -habit of performing their duties. - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 108._] - -During several days the Corregitori received all the complaints that -were handed in, and examined the archives of the two tribunals. Those of -the Ten were found to be in perfect order, but those of the Inquisitors -were in the utmost confusion. - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 114._] - -The whole city discussed the affair excitedly, and nothing else was -spoken of in the streets, in the cafés, and in drawing-rooms. It was the -first time in history that the tribunal of the Inquisitors of State had -been put under an inquiry, and this tremendous result had been produced -because a little milliner had made a cap that did not fit. - -Endless discussions followed. A number of patricians declared that if -the Council of Ten and the Inquisitors of State were abolished, they -themselves would not stay another day in Venice, as there would no -longer be any check on the violence and the intrigues of men of their -own class: a confession which suddenly exhibits the whole aristocracy -in its true light. - -Others proved beyond all question that a tribunal which was particularly -charged with the preservation of the State from danger could not always - -[Sidenote: _1762._] - -do its work with the miserable tardiness of the other magistracies, and -they recalled the many cases in which the Ten had saved Venice. - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 136-137._] - -One of the debates was prolonged for five consecutive hours. At last the -Conservative party carried the day. - -The wild enthusiasm of the population, on learning that the Ten and the -Inquisitors were to remain in existence, shows well enough what the -people thought; their only protection against the nobles lay in the two -tribunals. Six thousand persons waited in the Square of Saint Mark’s to -learn the result of the contest, and when it was known proceeded to burn -fireworks before the palaces of the nobles who had been the chief -speakers in defence of the Ten--Foscarini, Marcello, and Grimani. The -populace then declared that it would set fire to the houses of the -nobles who had tried to do away with the only institution they still -feared, and the palaces of the Zen and the Renier were only saved from -fire and pillage by the energetic intervention of the Inquisitors of -State, whose office those aristocrats had attempted to abolish. - -I know of no more convincing answer to the numerous dilettante -historians who have accused the Council of Ten of oppressing the -people. - -If the Council and the Inquisitors were in need of an excuse for -occasionally overstepping their powers in order to act quickly, they had -a good one in the absurdly cumbrous system of the magistracies, as they -existed in the eighteenth century. As a curiosity, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 399._] - -I give a list or the principal magistracies, taken by Romanin from an -almanack of 1796, the last year of the Republic:-- - -The Doge’s Counsellors 6 -Savi of the Council 16 -Procurators of Saint Mark 9 -‘Criminal’ Quarantia 40 -‘Old’ Civil Quarantia 40 -‘New’ Civil Quarantia 40 -Colleges of the XXV. and the XV. 40 -Senate 60 -‘Zonta,’ supplementary to Senate 60 -Council of Ten 10 -Inquisitors (of Ten) 3 -Avogadori of the Commonwealth 3 - --- - Total 327 - -besides the whole of the Great Council, which consisted of all nobles -over twenty-five years of age, and of the younger men chosen by lot to -sit without a vote. - -And these are only the principal magistracies. The secondary ones -comprised over five hundred officials, divided between something like -one hundred and thirty offices, such as Provveditors, or inspectors of -some forty different matters, from artillery to butchers’ shops, from -‘Ancient and Modern Justice’ to oats: Savi, Inquisitors of all matters -except religion, Auditors, Executors, Correctors, Reformers, Deputies, -and Syndics; a perfect ant-hill of officials who were perpetually in one -another’s way. - -Here is an instance of the manner in which ordinary justice was -administered, even by the Council of Ten. - -[Illustration: WHEN THE ALPS SHOW THEMSELVES, FONDAMENTA NUOVE] - -On the sixth of March 1776 a patrician called Semitecolo, who was a -member of one of the Quarantie, and therefore a magistrate, was walking -in the Fondamenta Nuove when he saw a big butcher named Milani -unmercifully beating a wretched peddler of old books. He stopped and -expostulated; the butcher took his interference ill, and delivered a -blow with his fist which caused the blood to gush abundantly from the -magistrate’s nose. Semitecolo was taken into a neighbouring house, and -the butcher walked off. - -Still covered with blood, Semitecolo hastened to lay the matter before -the Council of Ten, demanding the - -[Illustration: CAFÉ ON THE ZATTERE] - -arrest of Milani. But Pier Barbarigo, who was one of the Capi for the -week, while sympathising deeply, excused himself from arresting the -culprit, on the ground that a detailed account of the affair signed by -witnesses must be laid before the Council; and, moreover, the Council -was busy just then, he said, owing to the arrival of the Pope’s Nuncio, -and there would be no meeting on the next day. Semitecolo could not -even get an order to have the butcher watched by the police, and the -culprit had full time and liberty to leave Venice before anything was -done. Note that he himself did not expect impunity, but only a very long -delay before his arrest was ordered. - -The public followed the affair and was indignant, and freely criticised -the Ten in public places; whereupon the Inquisitors ordered all the -cafés to be closed two hours after dark. This was especially galling to -the Venetians, who were fond of sitting up late, and loved the bright -lights of the cafés. - -One morning a notice appeared on the walls, drawn up in the following -terms:-- - -‘The Guild of the Night-Thieves wishes to thank his Excellency the -“Capo” Barbarigo for having provided them with much more sufficient and -convenient - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 399._] - -means of earning their bread during the present hard times.’ - -The Inquisitors’ ordinance was soon modified so as to allow the cafés to -remain open till midnight. - -As for the minor courts, Goldoni, who was brought up to be a lawyer, -says that there were nearly as many different ones as there were -different kinds of suits possible. They paralysed each other, and could -not have worked well even if they had been honest. - -But they were not. An Avogador acquitted a man accused of theft. The -Signors of the - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 143._] - -Night--the chiefs of police--who had committed the accused for trial -believed him guilty and determined to examine the papers relating to -the trial. - -[Illustration: THE DOGANA] - -With this intention they made a search in the house of the Avogador and -confiscated the private accounts in which he set down the profit and -loss of his judicial industry; for he was a very careful man. Surely -enough, the Signors found an entry of one hundred and fifty sequins -(£112. 10s.) received for acquitting the thief. - -About the same time there was a very beautiful dancer called the Cellini -at the theatre of San Cassian. - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 144._] - -A magistrate who exercised the righteous functions of an ‘Executor -against Blasphemy’ became anxious to get into her good graces, but as -she would have nothing to do with him, he brought an accusation against -her in his own court, tried her, and condemned her to a severe penalty. -But she appealed to the Council of Ten, proved her innocence, and was -acquitted. Thereupon the Venetians began to swear ‘by the holy Virgin -Cellini.’ - -With such a state of things in Venice, it was only to be expected that -the condition of justice in the provinces should be still worse. When - -[Sidenote: _Mut. Ult._] - -Goldoni was Secretary to the Chancery of Feltre, in the Venetian -territory, there was a huge scandal about a whole forest cut down and -sold without any order or authority from the government. An inquiry was -attempted and begun; it was found that more than two hundred persons -were implicated, and as it soon became apparent that the same thing had -been done before them, within the century, it was judged better to draw -a veil over the whole affair. - -This naturally encouraged others. In 1782 the Provveditor Michiel -informed the Senate that the Podestà of the city of Usmago had calmly -pocketed the price of an oak forest, which he had asked leave to cut -down on pretence of using the funds for repairing his official -residence. - -Finally, a number of posts, especially in the ducal household, were -openly sold; in the last years of the Republic even the office of a -procurator of Saint Mark could be bought. - -In close connection with the magistracies and the legal profession -generally, I give the following amusing extract from Goldoni’s memoirs. - -He begins by telling us that although he had been entered at a lawyer’s -office for two years, he left it fitted for the profession in eight -months, - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, i. 23._] - -because the administration interpreted the two years to mean the dates -of two consecutive years, without any regard to the months. Young -Goldoni then took a lodging in the lawyers’ quarter near San Paterniano, -and his mother and aunt lived with him. - - I put on the toga belonging to my new station (he continues), and - it is the same as that of the Patricians; I smothered my head in an - enormous wig and impatiently awaited the day of my presentation in - the Palace. The novice must have two assistants who are called in - Venice Compari di Palazzo [‘Palace godfathers’]. The young man - chooses them amongst those of the old lawyers who are most friendly - to him.... - - So I went between my two sponsors to the foot of the grand - staircase in the great courtyard of the Palace, and for an hour - and a half I made so many bows and contortions that my back was - broken and my wig was like a lion’s mane. Every one who passed - before me gave his opinion of me; some said, Here is a youth of - good character; others said, Here is another Palace sweeper; some - embraced me, some laughed in my face. To be short, I went up the - stairs and sent the servant to find a gondola, so as not to show - myself in the street in such a dishevelled state, naming as a place - of meeting the Hall of the Great Council, where I sat down on a - bench whence I could see every one pass without being seen by any - one. During this time, I reflected on the career I was about to - embrace. In Venice there are generally two hundred and forty - lawyers entered on the register; there are ten or twelve of the - first rank, about twenty who occupy the second; all the others are - hunting for clients; and the poorer Procurators gladly act as their - dogs on condition of sharing the prey.... - - While I was thus alone, building castles in the air, I saw a woman - of about thirty approaching me, not disagreeable in face, white, - round, and plump, with a turned-up nose and wicked eyes, a great - deal of gold on her neck, her ears, her arms, her fingers, and in a - dress which proclaimed that she was a woman of the common class, - but pretty well off. She came over and saluted me. - - ‘Sir, good day!’ - - ‘Good day, Signora!’ - - ‘Will you allow me to offer you my congratulations?’ - - ‘For what?’ - - ‘On your entrance into the Forum; I saw you in the courtyard when - you were making your salaams. Per Bacco! Sir, your hair is nicely - done.’ - - ‘Isn’t it? Am I not a handsome young fellow?’ - - ‘But it makes no difference how your hair is done; Signor Goldoni - always cuts a good figure.’ - - ‘So you know me, Signora?’ - - ‘Did I not see you four years ago in the land of the lawyers, in a - long wig and cloak?’ - - ‘True; you are right, for I was then in the house of the - Procurator.’ - - ‘Just so; in the house of Signor Indrie’ [Goldoni’s uncle]. - - ‘So you know my uncle too?’ - - ‘In this part of the world I know every one, from the Doge to the - last copyist of the Courts.’ - - ‘Are you married?’ - - ‘No.’ - - ‘Are you a widow?’ - - ‘No.’ - - ‘Oh--I do not dare ask more!’ - - ‘All the better.’ - - ‘Have you any business?’ - - ‘No.’ - - ‘From your appearance I took you for a well-to-do person.’ - - ‘I really am.’ - - ‘Then you have investments?’ - - ‘None at all.’ - - ‘But you are very well fitted out; how do you manage to do it?’ - - ‘I am a daughter of the Palace, and the Palace supports me.’ - - ‘That is very strange! You say you are a daughter of the Palace?’ - - ‘Yes, sir; my father had a position in it.’ - - ‘What did he do?’ - - ‘He listened at the doors and then went to take good news to those - who were expecting pardons, or verdicts, or favourable judgments; - he had capital legs and always got there first. As for my mother, - she was always here, as I am. She was not proud, she took her fee, - and undertook some commissions. I was born and brought up in these - gilded halls, and, as you see, I also have gold on me.’ - - ‘Yours is a most singular story. Then you follow in your mother’s - footsteps?’ - - ‘No, sir. I do something else.’ - - ‘That is to say?’ - - ‘I push lawsuits.’ - - ‘Push lawsuits? I do not understand.’ - - I am as well known as Barabbas. It is very well understood that all - the lawyers and all the Procurators are my friends, and a number of - people apply to me to obtain advice for them and counsel for - defence. Those who come to me are generally not rich, and I look - about amongst the novices and the unemployed [lawyers] who want - nothing but work in order to make themselves known. Do you know, - sir, that though you see me as I am, I have made the fortunes of a - round dozen of the most famous lawyers in the profession. Come, - sir, courage, and if you are willing, I shall make yours too.’ - - It amused me to listen to her, and as my servant did not come, I - continued the conversation. - - ‘Well, Signorina, have you any good affairs on hand now?’ - - ‘Yes, sir, I have several, indeed I have some excellent ones. I - have a widow who is suspected of having occultated her monkey; - another who wishes to prove a marriage contract got up after the - fact; I have girls who are petitioning for a dowry; I have women - who wish to bring suits for annulment of marriage; I have sons of - good families who are persecuted by their creditors; as you see, - you need only choose.’ - - ‘My good woman,’ I said, ‘so far I have let you talk; now it is my - turn. I am young, I am about to begin my career, and I desire - occasions for showing myself and obtaining occupation; but no love - of work nor fancy for litigation could make me begin with the - disgraceful suits you offer me.’ - - ‘Ha, ha!’ she laughed, ‘you despise my clients because I warned you - that there was nothing to earn; but listen! My two widows are - rich, you will be well paid, and shall be even paid in advance, if - you wish.’ - - I saw my servant coming in the distance; I rose and answered the - chattering woman in a fearless and resolute tone. - - ‘No, you do not know me, I am a man of honour....’ - - Then she took my hand and spoke gravely. - - ‘Well done! Continue always in the same mind.’ - - ‘Ah!’ I exclaimed, ‘you change your tone now?’ - - ‘Yes,’ she replied, ‘and the tone I take now is much better than - the one I have been using. Our conversation has been somewhat - mysterious; remember it and see that you speak to no one about it. - Good-bye, sir. Always be wise, be always honourable, and you will - be satisfied with the result.’ - - She went away, and I was left in the greatest astonishment. I did - not know what all this meant; but I learned later that she was a - spy and had come to sound me; yet I never knew, nor wished to know, - who sent her to me. - -[Illustration: RIO DELLA SENSA] - - - - -XIII - -THE LAST SBIRRI - - -It is worth while to glance at the agents of the police, of the Council -of Ten, and of the Inquisitors of State - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Lessico._] - -at the end of the Republic. The two Councils had six in their service, -called the Fanti de’ Cai, the footmen of the Heads, and one of them was -at the beck and call of the Inquisitors. This particular one was the -famous Cristofolo de’ Cristofoli, whose name is connected alike with -all the tragedies and the comic adventures of the last days. - -He was a sort of general inspector of freemasons, rope-dancers, -circus-riders, antiquaries, bravi, and gondoliers, and he exercised in -his manifold functions all the civility of which a detective can -dispose. He was a giant in body, a jester and a wit by nature, a -combination certainly intended for the stage rather than the police. - -His especial bugbear was freemasonry, together with all the secret -societies which were then largely in the pay of France, employed by her -to promote general revolution. A manuscript preserved in the Museo -Correr gives an account of the first discovery of a Lodge. - -A patrician named Girolamo Zulian, says this document, when returning -one night from a meeting of the Lodge left upon the seat of his gondola -a piece of paper on which were drawn certain incomprehensible signs. The -gondoliers found the paper, and supposed that the symbols were those of -some kind of witchcraft. One of the men took the scrap to a monk he knew -and begged him to decipher the signs, or at least to give his advice as -to what should be done with the thing, as it might be fatal even to -destroy a spell of black magic. The monk told the gondolier to take it -to the Inquisitors of State. The man did so, and one of them kept him in -a garret of his house, to protect him against any possible vengeance on -the part of the secret society, and Cristofolo de’ Cristofoli was -commissioned to clear up the mystery. On the following night he raided -the house indicated by the gondolier with thirty Sbirri, and found there -assembled a large meeting of the brethren, one of whom had the presence -of mind to throw into the canal the heavy register containing a complete -list of their names. Cristofoli took a quantity of papers, however, -together with the paraphernalia of the Lodge, and he afterwards, says -the manuscript, dictated from memory the names of the persons he had -seen at the meeting. But he must have made mistakes, since several of -the persons he designated are known to have been absent from Venice on -foreign missions at the date of the raid, May sixth, 1785. - -Another manuscript, published by Dandolo, gives a different account of -the affair, under the same date. It was copied by the famous Cicogna, -and is amusing for its language:-- - - It was the anniversary of the feast of the principal Protector of - this most serene dominion, Saint Mark the Evangelist, April the - twenty-fifth, 1785, when it was discovered that the public Arsenal - of Venice had been treacherously set on fire; the fire was - eventually discovered by a certain woman, who was rewarded for life - [_i.e._ with a pension] by the public munificence; and by the - discovery of it, a fire was prevented which might have been fatal - to a large part of the city, and which was not to have broken out - till the night following the twenty-fifth, but which showed itself - after noon on account of an extraordinary wind which had - temporarily arisen from the east and which blew with fury all day. - - Such an accident, as fatal as its prevention by the Evangelist - -[Illustration: FONDAMENTE NUOVE] - - Saint Mark was miraculous, not only moved the public vigilance to - guard that public edifice under more jealous custody, but also [to - watch] all the quarters of the city; to this end multiplying - watchmen and spies, in order to discover, if that - - [Illustration: RIO S. STIN] - - might be possible, the perpetrators of such an horrible and - terrifying felony. - - In the inquiries, it was observed by trustworthy spies on the night - of the [date omitted in the original] May, that a certain palace - situated in Riomarin, in the parish of San Simon Grande, was - entered from time to time after midnight by respectable-looking - persons, for whom the door was opened at the simple signal of a - little tap. Information of this being given to the Supreme - Tribunal, the latter ordered the most circumspect inquiries; when, - on the same morning, information was given to the Secretary of the - said Supreme Magistracy by a certain ship’s carpenter that having, - on commission of N. N., finished making a large wardrobe, he - inquired of that cavalier where he was to bring it in order to set - it up properly; and that he had been told to bring it to a certain - palace in Riomarin and to leave it in the entrance (gateway) of the - same, and that he would be sent for later to place it where it was - to go; that seeing several days go by without receiving that - notice, and yielding to curiosity, he stole near in the night to - see if the wardrobe were still in the entrance of the palace, where - he had placed it, and he convinced himself that it had been taken - elsewhere; and being displeased with this, because some other - workman might have handled his work, and guessing from a hint of - the gentleman’s that the wardrobe had been intended to be placed - against the windows of a balcony, and observing in this palace a - balcony of just about the length of the wardrobe made by him, he - tried to get into the apartment above the one where the balcony was - [let to some one], explaining to the people who lived in that house - that his suspicion induced him to ask their permission to make a - hole with a gimlet, in order to see whether his wardrobe had been - put up where he guessed it must be; and that he had obtained - consent to this request, because the lodgers in that second - apartment had conceived some curiosity to know who the persons - might be who met there only at night time; that therefore he betook - himself to that dwelling on the night of the fourth of May, having - previously made a hole, and stopped there till the first-floor - apartment was opened, and he saw that after midnight a hall was - lighted up which was hung with mourning and furnished with a - throne covered with blue cloth and with other symbols of death, and - here and there were disposed small lanterns, and persons also - sitting here and there, dressed in black robes; so that at this - horrid sight he was terrified, and he heard him who sat on the - throne say these very words: ‘Brethren, let us suspend our meeting, - for we are watched’; and in that room he saw indeed his wardrobe - placed against a balcony. - - And that he left the lodgers in that second apartment in - consternation, and he himself, full of amazement and terror, and - still surprised by the novelty of the things, and supposing, in his - simplicity, that witchcraft was practised there and the works of - the devil, he was scandalised, and went to the parish priest of San - Simon Grande, his confessor, and that having told him all he had - seen, heard, and observed, he (the priest) advised him to quickly - lay before the government all that he had chanced to see and hear. - - The good man did so, and told all to the Secretary of the - Inquisitors of State. A warrant was therefore issued on that same - morning of the sixth of May by the Supreme Tribunal to its own - officer Cristofoli, to go thither (to Riomarin), accompanied by the - Capitan Grande and twenty-four men. Having entered that apartment, - where he surprised a nobleman who guarded the place, he - (Cristofoli) discovered a lodge of freemasons. - - Emanuele Cicogna [the distinguished historian] copied this on the - twenty-fourth of August 1855, from two codices existing in his - collection. - -On the following day, the Inquisitors publicly burned the black -garments, the utensils, the ‘conjuring books,’ as they are described, -and - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -all the booty Cristofoli had confiscated, while the populace, believing -that it was all a case of witchcraft, danced round the fire and cheered -for Saint Mark. - -The persons implicated were treated with the greatest indulgence, and -Malamani observes that in the whole affair it was the furniture that got -the worst of it. - -About the same time Cristofoli made a vain attempt to arrest the -notorious Cagliostro. - -This man, whose real name was Giuseppe Balsamo, was born in Palermo on -the eighth of June 1743. His youth was wild and disreputable. He tried -being a monk, but soon tired of it, and threw his frock to the nettles, -as the French say, in Caltagirone, in Sicily; after that he lived by -theft, by coining false money, and by every sort of imposture. In Rome -he married a girl of singular beauty, Lorenza Feliciani, who became his -tool in all his intrigues. - -The French freemasons made use of the singularly intelligent couple to -propagate the doctrines of the revolution. Pretending to change hemp -into silk, and every metal into gold, and selling marvellous waters for -restoring the aged to youth and beauty, the two got into many excellent -houses, changing their names and their disguises whenever they were -compromised. - -Balsamo arrived in Venice in 1787 or 1788, under the name of Count -Cagliostro, and began an active revolutionary campaign, to the great -annoyance - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 31._] - -of the Inquisitors, who fancied they had suppressed the whole movement -when Cristofoli had discovered the famous Lodge. He was less fortunate -this time. He tracked the Count everywhere, but could get no substantial -evidence against him, till he suddenly came upon positive proof that the -impostor had stolen a thousand sequins from a rich merchant of the -Giudecca. And then, at the very moment when the great policeman was sure -of his game, the man disappeared as into thin air and was next heard of -beyond the Austrian frontier. - -The chief of the Sbirri had better luck when he raided the Café -Ancilotto, which was a favourite place of meeting for the -revolutionaries. They - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Ancilotto.’_] - -tried to open a reading-room there, furnished with all the latest -revolutionary literature, but Cristofoli got wind of the plan, called on -the man who kept the café, and informed him that the first person who -entered the ‘reading-room’ would be invited to pay a visit to the -Inquisitors of State. After that, no one showed any inclination to read -the French papers. In connection with Cristofoli, we also come upon the -curious fact that he arrested, at the Café - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘Caffetero.’_] - -of the Ponte dell’ Angelo, a number of Barnabotti, who were preaching -suspicious doctrines. As usual, the poor nobles were the class most -easily bribed and most ready to betray their country. - -Cristofoli was occasionally entrusted with missions more diplomatic than -the arrest of revolutionaries. He was sometimes sent to present his -respects to great nobles who did not guess that they had attracted the -eyes of the police. - -It was the business of the Inquisitors to watch over the artistic -treasures of the capital. During the last year of the Republic a number -of nobles sold precious - -[Illustration: RIO DELLA GUERRA] - -objects to strangers, such as paintings and statues, of which the -government much regretted the loss to the city. A few measures were -passed for preventing this dispersion of private collections, but it -happened only too often that priceless things were suddenly gone, -leaving no trace of their destination, except in the pockets of the -former owners. - -The Grimani family possessed some magnificent statues and a wonderful -library of rare books, inherited from Cardinal Domenico Grimani, who -died in 1523. Shortly before the fall of - -[Sidenote: _Statue of M. Agrippa; Museo Correr._] - -the Republic a foreigner bought the statue of Marcus Agrippa; the boat -which was to take it on board an outward bound ship was at the door of -the palace, and the men who were to take it down from its pedestal and -box it were ready, when Cristofolo Cristofoli appeared at the entrance, -gigantic and playful. - -He walked straight to the statue, took off his cap to it and bowed -gravely before he delivered his message to the marble: ‘The Supreme -Tribunal of the Inquisitors, having heard that you wish to leave this -city, sends me to wish a pleasant journey, both to you and his -Excellency Grimani.’ - -‘His Excellency Grimani’ did not relish the idea of exile; the workmen -disappeared, the boat was sent away, and the statue remained. It was -destined to be left as a gift to the city by another Grimani, less -avaricious than ‘His Excellency.’ - -In spite of his good-humour, Cristofoli inspired terror, and his mere -name was often - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Studi e Ricerche._] - -used to lend weight to practical jokes. It is related, for instance, of -the famous Montesquieu, the author of the _Esprit des Lois_ and the -friend of King Stanislaus Leczinski, that when he was making notes in -Venice his friend Lord Chesterfield managed to cause a mysterious -message to be conveyed to him, warning him to be on his guard, as the -Chief of the Ten employed spies to watch him, and Cristofoli was on his -track. And thereupon, says the story, the excellent Montesquieu burned -all his most compromising notes, and fled straight to Holland with the -remainder of his manuscripts. - -The Council of Ten and their Sbirri had not yet done with the Bravi. -They were numerous in the provinces, and when they were caught they were -tried and hanged in Venice. The ‘Signorotti’--the rich landowners, who -were not Venetian nobles, but called themselves ‘knights’--were many and -prosperous, and were the professional murderers’ best clients. Indeed, -the Venetian mainland provinces and much of Lombardy presented a case of -arrested development; at the end of the eighteenth century they had not -emerged from the barbarism of the early fifteenth. - -The lordlings entertained Bravi, and when there was no more serious -business on hand, they laid wagers with each other as to the courage of -their hired assassins. A bet of this kind was made and settled in 1724 -between an Avogadro and a Masperoni, two country ‘knights’ who lived on -their estates in the province of Brescia. One evening the two were -discussing the character of a ruffian whom Masperoni had just taken into -his service. His new master maintained that the fellow was the bravest -man in the ‘profession.’ Avogadro, on the other hand, wagered that he -would not be able to traverse the road between his master’s castle and -Lumezzane, which belonged to Avogadro. Masperoni took the bet, and -explained the situation to the man. The latter, feeling that his -reputation was at stake, started at once, carrying on his shoulder a -basket of fine fruit as a present from Masperoni to his friend, and he -took his way across the hills of Valtrompia. When he was a few miles -from Lumezzane he was met by two well-armed fellows, who ordered him to -turn back, but he was not so easily stopped. He set down his basket, and -in the twinkling of an eye killed both his adversaries, after which he -quietly pursued his journey. - -Avogadro was very much surprised to see him, and asked with curiosity -what sort of trip he had made. - -‘Excellent,’ he answered. ‘I met a couple of good-for-nothings who -wanted to stop me, but I killed them, and here I am.’ - -Avogadro, filled with admiration, gave him a purse of gold and sent him -back to Masperoni with a letter of congratulation. - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Banditi, 289._] - -Incidents of this kind occurred long afterwards, even after the fall of -the Republic. The name of Cristofoli is associated with that of Count -Alemanno Gambara in a story which could not be believed if the documents -that prove it were not all preserved in the various archives, and -principally in those of the Inquisitors. - -The Gambara family was of Lombard origin, and had always been very -influential in the neighbourhood of Brescia. The race had produced fine -specimens of all varieties--soldiers, bishops, cardinals, murderers, and -one woman poet, besides several bandits, traitors, and highwaymen. In -the late sixteenth century two brothers of the family, Niccolò and -Lucrezio, had a near relative, Theodora, an orphan girl of fourteen -years and an heiress, who was in charge of a guardian. On the -twenty-second of January 1569 the two brothers went to the guardian and -ordered him to give up the girl. On his refusal they threw him down his -own stairs, wounded his people who tried to defend him, broke down the -door of the girl’s room, and carried her off. - -I only quote this as an instance of the family’s manners. The last scion -of the race who lived under the Republic, and who outlived it, was Count -Alemanno, a young monster of perversity. He was born after his father’s -death at the castle of Pralboino, on a feudal holding belonging to his -house. His mother was soon married again to Count Martinengo Cesaresco, -and she took the boy with her to her new home. He was naturally violent -and unruly; at fifteen he was an accomplished swordsman, and was -involved in every quarrel and evil adventure on the country side. When -still a mere boy his conduct was such as to give the government real -trouble, and the authorities imposed a guardian upon him in the person -of a priest of his family, who was instructed to teach him the ordinary -precepts of right and wrong; but the clergyman soon announced that he -was not able to cope with his young relative, and the Council of Ten -learned that the boy’s violent character showed no signs of improvement. - -He was now arrested, brought to Venice, and confined in one of the -Piombi, his property being administered under the direction of the -government. The Inquisitors of State examined the record of the -complaints laid against him, and concluded that his faults were due to -his extreme youth; they therefore ordered him to reside within the -fortress of Verona, but gave him control of his fortune. - -The Captain of Verona, knowing the sort of prisoner he had to deal with, -and being made responsible for him, sent for an engineer and asked his -opinion as to the possibilities of escape for a prisoner who was not -locked up in a cell. The engineer wrote out a careful criticism of the -fortress, concluding with an extremely practical remark: ‘With good -means of escape,’ he observed, ‘a man may escape from any place, but -without means it is not possible to escape at all.’ - -The Captain, only partially reassured, set to work to convert his -prisoner, and sent him a good priest to teach him his Catechism and -exhort him to the practices of Christianity; but the young Count would -have neither exhortation nor religious instruction. The Council of Ten -now sent him to the fortress of Palma for a change of air, and the -commander of that place inherited the feverish anxiety about his charge -which had tormented the Captain of Verona. He did not consult an -engineer, however, and one morning the prisoner was not in his room, -nor in the fortress, nor anywhere in the neighbourhood of Palma. - -The Inquisitors now sent Sbirri in all directions throughout the -Venetian territory. They could not catch Alemanno, but he wearied of -eluding them, and judged that he could get better terms by submitting to -the Inquisitors. He did so, using the offices of his aunt, Countess -Giulia Gambara, who was married to a gentleman of Vicenza. The Podestà -of the latter city sent an officer and six soldiers to the place -designated by Alemanno, and he surrendered, and was taken first to -Padua, and then to Venice. As soon as he landed at the Piazzetta he was -put in charge of Cristofoli and the Sbirri, who took him before the -Inquisitors. - -They exiled him to Zara, and wrote to the Governor of Dalmatia: ‘We -desire him to have a good lodging.... See that he frequents persons of -good habits, thanks to whom he may not wander from the right path on -which he has entered, and in which we wish him to continue.’ - -The Inquisitors, good souls, so mildly concerned for the wild boy’s -moral welfare, were soon to learn what Alemanno considered the ‘right -path,’ for the Governor of Dalmatia kept them well informed. Before long -they learned that a certain fisherman, who had refused to let the -Count’s butler, Antonio Barach, have a fine fish which was already sold -to another client, had been seized, taken into the Count’s house, and -severely beaten. - -But the Inquisitors were inclined to be clement and paid no attention -to the accounts of his doings. In 1756 he was authorised to return to -his domains of - -[Illustration: VIA GARIBALDI] - -Pralboino and Corvione, and his real career began. His first care was to -engage as many desperate Bravi as he could find. One of these having had -a little difficulty with the police, and having been killed during the -argument, Alemanno captured a Sbirro, and so handled him that he sent -him back to his post a cripple for life. - -Scarcely a year after his return from Zara, he rode through the town of -Calvisano, and without answering the Customs officer, whose duty it was -to ascertain if he were carrying anything dutiable, he galloped on and -escaped recognition. His servant, who followed him at a little distance, -was stopped, and as he answered the Customs men very rudely he was -locked up in jail. But when the officer in charge learned who the man -was, his fright was such that he not only set him at liberty at once, -but conversed with him and treated him in the most friendly manner. - -The young Count was of course delighted to learn that his name spread -terror amongst government officials, and by way of showing what he could -do, he sent fifteen of his Bravi to Calvisano with orders to besiege the -Customs men. In the fighting that followed, one of the latter was killed -and their officer narrowly escaped. - -The Council of Ten now interfered, and summoned Count Alemanno Gambara -to appear before them, and if he refused, the local authorities were -ordered to take him and send him by force. Instead of obeying, he -fortified his two castles, increased the numbers of his band of Bravi, -and defied the law. With his ruffians at his back he rode through the -length and breadth of the Brescian territory as he pleased, and once -even traversed - -[Illustration: FROM SAN GEORGIO TO THE SALUTE] - -the city itself with his formidable escort. No one dared to meddle with -him. His neighbours in the country were completely terrorised, and he -and his head ruffian, Carlo Molinari, committed the wildest excesses. - -Alemanno seems to have especially delighted to watch the effect of -fright on his victims. One day his men chased a priest of Gottolengo and -three friends, who had been shooting in the woods not far beyond the -boundary of the estate of Corvione. The fugitives succeeded in reaching -the church of Gottolengo, in which they took refuge, barricading the -door against their pursuers. But the Bravi starved them out, and they -were obliged to surrender unconditionally. They were then led out to a -lonely field and were exhorted to commend their souls to God, as they -were about to be killed and buried on the spot. Alemanno watched their -agony with delight, concealed behind a hedge. When he was tired of the -sport, he came out of concealment and ordered his men to beat and kick -them back to Gottolengo. - -A retired colonel lived quietly on a small estate near one of Gambara’s. -His servants accidentally killed one of the Count’s dogs; he had them -taken, cruelly beaten, and sent back to their master after suffering -every indignity. The colonel thought of lodging a complaint with the -Council of Ten, but on reflection he gave up the idea as not safe, for -Gambara’s vengeance would probably have been fatal to any one who -ventured to give information of his doings. No one was safe within his -reach, neither man, nor woman, nor child. A volume might be filled with -the list of his crimes. - -At last, in 1762, the municipality of the town of Gambara, from which he -took his title, resolved to petition the Council of Ten for help and -protection against him. When he learned that this was their intention, -he rode into the town with his escort, and halting in the market-place -addressed the citizens; his threats of vengeance were so frightful, and -he was so well able to carry them out, that the chief burghers fell upon -their knees before him, weeping and imploring his forgiveness. - -One day several Sbirri traversed some of his land in pursuit of a -smuggler who sought his protection. He met them smiling, and cordially -invited them to spend a night under his roof. With the childlike -simplicity which is one of the most endearing characteristics of most -Italians, they fell into the trap. On the next day, a cart loaded with -greens entered Brescia, and stopped opposite the house of the Venetian -Podestà. The horses were taken out and led away, without exciting any -remark, and the cart remained where it had been left, till the foul -smell it exhaled attracted attention. It was unloaded, and underneath -the greens were found the bloody corpses of the Sbirri who had accepted -Gambara’s hospitality. - -This time the Inquisitors of State took matters seriously, and sent a -squadron of cuirassiers and a detachment of Sbirri, under the command of -an officer called Rizzi, to arrest him and his henchman Molinari. Rizzi -came to Pralboino and broke down the gates, but the two men were already -gone, and the expedition ended in the confiscation of a few -insignificant letters found in Alemanno’s desk. - -He had understood that he must leave Venetian territory for a time, and -riding down into the Duchy of Parma he sought the hospitality of his -friend, the Marchese Casali, at Monticelli. He next visited Genoa, and -judging that it was time to settle in life, he married the Marchesa -Carbonare, whom he judged, with some reason, to be a woman worthy of his -companionship. - -They returned together to Monticelli, where they led a riotous existence -for some time. Being one day short of money, Alemanno stopped the -messengers who were conveying to Venice the taxes raised in Brescia, and -sent them on after giving them a formal receipt for the large sum he had -taken from them. But this was too much for the Duke of Parma, who now -requested the couple to spend their time elsewhere than in his Duchy. - -They consulted as to their chances of getting a free pardon for the -crimes the Count had committed on Venetian territory and against the -Republic, and the Countess addressed a petition to the Doge which begins -as follows: ‘Every penitent sinner who sincerely purposes to mend his -life obtains of God mercy and forgiveness; shall I, Marianna Carbonare, -the most afflicted wife of Count Alemanno Gambara, not feel thereby -encouraged to fall upon my knees before the august Throne of your -Serenity?...’ And much more to the same effect. - -Another petition signed by both was addressed to the Inquisitors, and a -third, signed only by Alemanno, to the Doge and the Inquisitors -together. In this precious document he calls them ‘the most perfect -image of God on earth, by their power.’ - -The object of these petitions was that the Count might be sent into -exile, anywhere, so long as he were not shut up in a fortress, a -sentence which would soon kill him, as he was in bad health. - -He had certainly committed many murders and had killed several servants -of the Republic in the performance of their duties; and he had stolen -the taxes collected in Brescia. Amazing as it may seem, his petition was -granted, and he was exiled to Zara for two years, after which he was -allowed to come to Chioggia on the express condition that he should not -set foot outside the castle, and should see no one but his wife and son. -He remained in Chioggia just a year, from the twenty-fifth of September -1777, to the twenty-sixth of September 1778, after which the Inquisitors -were kind enough to give him his liberty if he would present himself -before their Secretary, which he did with alacrity. - -My readers need not be led into a misapprehension by the touching -unanimity which the loving couple exhibited in the petitions they -signed. They never agreed except when their interests did, and were soon -practically separated in their private life. The Countess took Count -Miniscalchi of Verona for her lover, while Alemanno showed himself -everywhere with the Countess of San Secondo. In the end they separated -altogether, and the son, Francesco, remained with his father, who -educated him according to his own ideas. - -So far as can be ascertained, the man never changed the manner of his -life. After his pardon he returned to his estates in the province of -Brescia, where he found his old friends, who were few, and the -recollections of his youth, which were many. In a short time Pralboino -and Corvione were once more dens of murderers and robbers as of old, and -as in former days he had been helped in his blackest deeds by Carlo -Molinari, his chief Bravo, so now he was seconded by his steward, -Giacomo Barchi, who kept the reign of terror alive in the country when -it pleased the Count to reside in Venice. - -He was sleeping soundly in his apartment in the capital one morning -towards the end of March 1782, after having spent most of the night at a -gambling house by the Ponte dell’ Angelo--he never slept more than four -hours--when he was awakened by an unexpected visit from Cristofolo de’ -Cristofoli, who requested him to appear at once before the Secretary of -the Inquisitors. An examination of conscience must have been a serious -affair for Alemanno, and not to be undertaken except at leisure; and it -appears that on this occasion he really did not know what he was to be -accused of doing. The Secretary of the Inquisitors merely commanded him -not to leave the city on pain of the Tribunal’s anger, and on the -morrow he learned that his steward Barchi had also been arrested. - -For some reason impossible to explain, nothing was done to either, and -before long even the steward was set at liberty. The Inquisitors -confined themselves to threatening the two with ‘the public indignation’ -and their own severest measures, if the Count did not dismiss his Bravi -and ‘reform his conduct.’ - -After that, history is silent as to his exploits. He was no longer -young, and even the zest of murder and rapine was probably beginning to -pall on his weary taste. We know that he sincerely mourned the fall of -the Republic which had been so consistently kind to him, and he never -plotted against the government. He could not but feel that it would have -been an exaggeration to accuse it of having been hard on him. - -His son Francesco, on the contrary, turned out to be one of the most -turbulent of revolutionaries, and helped to lead the insurrection at -Bergamo. But for the intervention of Bonaparte himself, he would have -been killed by the inhabitants of Salò, who remained faithful to the -Republic, when they repulsed the insurgents. He was one of the five -delegates whom the city of Brescia sent to Bonaparte, to name him -president of the Cisalpine Republic. He died in 1848, after having -written a life of his father, which was published eleven years later in -Trieste. One cannot but feel that in composing a memoir of his parent, -filial piety led him too far. - -In concluding this chapter, which has dealt with criminals, I shall -take the opportunity of observing that the places in which criminals -were confined in Venice shared in the general decay of everything -connected with the government. In the seventeenth century and earlier -all prisoners had been carefully kept separate according to their -misdeeds; in the eighteenth, mere children were shut up with adult -criminals, and debtors were confined with thieves. In the women’s -prisons lunatics were often imprisoned with the sane, a state of things -that led to the most horrible scenes. - -The gaolers of the Pozzi and the Piombi did not even keep the prisons -clean, and the state of the cells was such that I do not care to disgust -the reader by describing it. In the other prisons, or attached to them, -a regular tavern was tolerated and perhaps authorised, as a place of -gathering for the prisoners, and here games of chance were played, even - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -such as were forbidden elsewhere in the city. The archives of the Ten -show how many crimes were committed in the very places where men were -confined to expiate earlier offences. As for the gaolers, they were one -and all corruptible. One of the Savi, the patrician Gritti, denounced to -the Senate, in 1793, a gaoler who let the healthiest and most airy cells -to the highest bidders. - -[Illustration: THE PESARO PALACE, GRAND CANAL] - - - - -XIV - -THE LAST DOGES - - -Between the beginning of the eighteenth century and the end of the -Republic eleven Doges occupied the throne. Of these the only one who -might - -[Sidenote: _1700-1797._] - -have saved the government or retarded its fall was the very one who -reigned the shortest time. Let us say that if he had lived, he might -have so far restored the strength of the ancient aristocracy as to admit -of its perishing in a struggle instead of dying of old age. - -This Doge was Marco Foscarini, who was elected on the thirty-first of -May 1762, and died on the thirty-first of the following March. He was a -man whose integrity was never questioned, even by - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 142._] - -the revolutionaries, and he accepted the Dogeship with the greatest -regret. He was a man of letters, and the endless empty ceremonial of the -ducal existence obliged him to leave unfinished his noble work on -Venetian literature. Even had the Doge’s action not been hopelessly -paralysed by the hedge of petty regulations that bristled round him, -Foscarini’s experience of affairs in the course of occupying many -exalted posts had left him few illusions as to the - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 302._] - -future of his country. ‘This century will be a terrible one for our -children and grandchildren,’ he wrote some time after his election. - -Like many of the Doges he was a very old man when he was elected, and -was over eighty-eight years of age when he died, apparently much -surprised at finding himself at his end, though not unprepared for it. -He complained that his physicians had not told him how ill he was, and -he asked for a little Latin book, _De modo bene moriendi_, which had -been given him by his friend Cardinal Passionei; presently he tried to -dictate a few reflections to his doctor, but was too weak, and expired -whispering, ‘My poor servants!’ He had apparently not provided for them -as he would have done if he had not been taken unawares. - -His successor was Aloise IV. Mocenigo, who had been Ambassador to Rome -and to Paris. His election was celebrated in a manner that recalled the -festivities of the sixteenth century. A secretary was sent to the -Mocenigo palace to announce the news to - -[Sidenote: _1763._] - -his family, and the Dogess took four days in which to complete her -preparations, after which she came to the ducal palace accompanied by -her two married nieces, her sisters, her mother, all her own female -cousins, and all those of her husband; and this battalion of noble women -in their gondolas was followed down the Grand Canal by an innumerable -fleet of gondolas and boats. All the male relations were waiting at the -landing of the Piazzetta to escort the ladies to the palace, where the -Dogess, seated on a throne, received the homage of the electors and of -all the nobility. She did not wear the ducal insignia on that day. In -the evening there was a ball, which she opened with one of the -Procurators of Saint Mark. - -A series of festivities began on the following day, at which she -appeared in a memorably magnificent dress: a long mantle of cloth of -gold, like the Doge’s own, with wide sleeves lined with white lace, -opened to show a skirt and body all of gold lace-work; a girdle of -diamonds encircled her waist; her head-dress was a veil, arranged like a -cap, but the two ends hung down to her shoulders, and were picked up and -fastened to her back hair by two diamond clasps. - -On three consecutive evenings there were balls at the palace, and at -each the Dogess danced only one minuet, with a Procurator of Saint Mark, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 148._] - -as etiquette required when there were no foreign princes in Venice. - -This reminds one of old times; it is even true that in some ways the -display at the ducal palace was greater than it had ever been. The -banquets especially took the importance of - -[Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, i. 289._] - -public spectacles, and were always five in number, given at the feasts -of Saint Mark, the Ascension, Saint Vitus, Saint Jerome, and Saint -Stephen, after the last of which the distribution of the ‘oselle’ took -place, representing the ducks of earlier days, as the reader will -remember. At these great dinners there were generally a hundred guests; -the Doge’s counsellors, the Heads of the Ten, the Avogadors and the -heads of all the other magistracies had a right to be invited, but the -rest of the guests were chosen among the functionaries at the Doge’s -pleasure. - -In the banquet-hall there were a number of sideboards on which was -exhibited the silver, part of which belonged to the Doge and part to the -State, and this was shown twenty-four hours before the feast. It was -under the keeping of a special official. The glass service used on the -table for flowers and for dessert was of the finest made in Murano. Each -service, though this is hard to believe, is said to have been used in -public only once, and was designed to recall some important event of -contemporary history by trophies, victories, emblems, and allegories. I -find this stated by Giustina Renier Michiel, who was a contemporary, was -noble, and must have often seen these banquets. - -The public was admitted to view the magnificent spectacle during the -whole of the first course, and the ladies of the aristocracy went in -great numbers. It was their custom to walk round the tables, talking -with those of their friends who sat among the guests, and accepting the -fruits and sweetmeats which the Doge and the rest offered them, rising -from their seats to do so. The Doge himself rose from his throne to -salute those noble ladies whom he wished to distinguish especially. -Sovereigns passing through Venice at such times did not disdain to -appear as mere spectators at the banquets, which had acquired the -importance of national anniversaries. - -Between the first and the second courses, a majestic chamberlain shook a -huge bunch of keys while he walked round the hall, and at this hint all -visitors disappeared. The feast sometimes lasted several hours, after -which the Doge’s squires presented each of the guests with a great -basket filled with sweetmeats, fruits, comfits, and the like, and -adorned with the ducal arms. Every one rose to thank the Doge for these -presents, and he took advantage of the general move to go back to his -private apartments. The guests accompanied him to the threshold, where -his Serenity bowed to them without speaking, and every one returned his -salute in silence. He disappeared within, and all went home. - -During this ceremony of leave-taking, the gondoliers of the guests -entered the Hall of the banquet and each carried the basket received by -his master - -[Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, Origini i. 302._] - -to some lady indicated by the latter. ‘One may imagine,’ cries the good -Dame Michiel, ‘what curiosity there was about the destination of the -baskets, but the faithful gondoliers regarded mystery as a point of -honour, though the basket was of such - -[Illustration: MARCO POLO’S COURT] - -dimensions that it was impossible to take it anywhere unobserved; happy -were they who received these evidences of a regard which at once touched -their feelings and flattered their legitimate pride! The greatest -misfortune was to have to share the prize with another.’ - -The reign of Aloise Mocenigo was the one in which the question of -reforms was the most fully discussed, but many of the discussions turned -on theories, and though a few led to the passage of measures which -somewhat affected commerce and public instruction, no real result was -produced. The Republic, I repeat, was dying of old age, which is the -only ill that is universally admitted to be incurable. - -At the death of Mocenigo, three candidates were proposed for the ducal -throne, namely, Andrea Tron, Girolamo Venier, and Paolo Renier. If the -people had been consulted, Venier would have been acclaimed, though I do -not pretend to say that his election would have retarded the end. -Nothing is easier than to speculate about what ‘the people’ might have -done at any given point in history; nothing is harder than to guess what -they are going to do; nothing, on the whole, is more certain than that -the voice of the people never yet turned the scale at a great moment in -a nation well out of its infancy. No one pretends nowadays that the -French revolution was made by ‘the people.’ - -The many in Venice were vastly surprised to hear of Paolo Renier’s -candidacy, for he had a very indifferent reputation; to be accurate, the -trouble was that it was not indifferent, but bad. He was, indeed, a man -of keen penetration, rarely eloquent, and a first-rate scholar. He knew -Homer by heart, and he had translated Plato’s _Dialogues_, which latter -piece of work might partly explain, without excusing, - -[Sidenote: _R. viii. 240, 241; Mutinelli, Ult._] - -his deplorable morals; but it was neither from Plato nor from Homer that -he had learned to plunder the government of his country. One of his -contemporaries, Gratarol, described him as possessing ‘the highest of -talents, the most arrogant of characters, and the most deceptive of -faces.’ - -It was commonly reported in Venice that when he had been Bailo at -Constantinople he had taken advantage of the war between Turkey and -Russia, under Catherine the Great, to enrich himself in a shameful -manner, and the ninety thousand sequins he made on that occasion -afterwards served him, according to popular report, for bribing the -Barnabotti in the Great Council in order that the forty-one electors -chosen might be favourable to him. He was certainly not the inventor of -this plan, but he is generally said to have just outdone his -predecessors in generosity, without overstepping the limits of strict -economy. The general belief is that he bought three hundred votes at -fifteen sequins each, which was certainly not an excessive price. It -appears, too, that he distributed money to the people in order to soothe -the irritation his candidacy caused. If all these accusations were not -clearly proved, they were at least the subject of contemporary satire. - -A certain priest in particular wrote biting verses on him, in Venetian -dialect, describing the righteous anger of the late Marco Foscarini’s -ghost at the election of such a successor. The shade of the honourable - -[Sidenote: _Malamani._] - -man tears off the ducal insignia in disgust, and bitterly reproaches -Venice. - -‘Ah, foolish Venice!’ it exclaims, ‘a Renier is Doge of our country, one -who with ribald heart and iniquitous words sought to undo that tribunal -which defends our country from all evil! Ah, mad Venice! Now indeed I do -repent me of having been Doge one year! Strike my name from the series -of the Doges, for I disdain to stand among traitors.’ - -After his election Paolo Renier had his first ‘osella’ coined with a -peculiarity in the superscription which irritated the public. The words -ran: ‘Paulus Reinerius principis munus,’ his name being in the -nominative case, a grammatical mistake which had always been regarded as -the special privilege of kings and emperors. - -He made money of everything, by selling posts, franchises, and licenses -to beg at the door of the Basilica of Saint Mark. The Dogess was - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -not a person likely to increase her husband’s popularity, for she had -been a rope-dancer, and never appeared at public ceremonies. As I have -explained elsewhere, it was the Doge’s niece who did the honours of the -palace, Dame Giustina, who was beloved and esteemed by all Venetians, -but ‘the Delmaz,’ as the Doge’s wife was called, interfered in a hundred -details of the administration. - -It is told, for instance, that the priest of the church of San Basso -used to have the bell rung for mass very early in the morning, and that -it had a peculiarly harsh and shrill tone which disturbed the Dogess’s -slumbers. She sent for - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘San Basso’; also Molmenti, Vecchie Storie._] - -him and promised to make him a canon of Saint Mark’s if he would only -have the bell moved, or not rung. The good man promised and went away -delighted, but when, after a time, the canonry was not given to him, he -began ringing again, and doubtless enjoyed the thought that every stroke -set the faithless Dogess’s teeth on edge. - -The people revenged themselves on the Renier family for its many -misdeeds in scathing epigrams, and when at last the Doge lay dying in -long agony, the - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -gondoliers said that his soul refused to leave without being paid. The -truth is that as his death took place in Carnival week, on February -eighteenth, 1789, it was decided to keep his death a secret not only -over Ash Wednesday, but until the first Monday in Lent, in order not to -disturb the merrymaking, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 300._] - -nor the reaction which was supposed to follow it; and he was buried -without much ceremony and with no display in the church of the -Tolentini. - -The candidates proposed for election to succeed him were numerous, but -not of good quality. One of them, Sebastiano Mocenigo, was such a bad - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii, 301._] - -character that when he had been in Vienna as Ambassador the Empress -Maria Teresa had asked the Republic to recall him. The truth was that -the few who were fit for the Dogeship would not accept it, or were -opposed by the whole body of the corruptible. - -[Illustration: PONTE DELLA PIETÀ] - -As a specimen of what went on during the election of the last Doge of -Venice, I subjoin an official list of what were considered the -legitimate expenses of the electors. The figures are from Mutinelli - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult._] - -and may be trusted. They are given in Venetian ‘lire,’ one of which is -considered to have been equal to half a modern Italian ‘lira,’ or French -franc. - - Ven. Lire. -Bread, wine, oil, and vinegar 29,421 -Fish 24,410 -Meat, poultry, game 20,370 -Sausages, large and small 3,980 -Preserved fruits and candles 47,670 -Wines, liquors, coffee 63,845 -Spices, herbs, fruit, flowers 6,314 -Wood and charcoal 31,851 -Utensils hired, worn, and lost 41,624 -Small expenses 45,327 -Given to footmen and to workmen of the guilds 63,583 -Tobacco and snuff 4,931 -Poem ‘La Scaramuccia’ (The Skirmish) 48 -Almanacks 8 -Game of Rocambole (said to have been a kind of Ombre) 550 -Nightcaps 450 -Felt caps 56 -Socks 16 -Black silk wig-bags 48 -French, German, and Spanish snuff-boxes 3,077 -Combs ‘à la royale,’ for wigs, and for caps 2,150 -Essence of rose, carnation, lavender, and vanilla; - olive gum and gold powder 173 -Rouge 9 -One rosary 15 - ------- - Total 389,926 - ======= - -Romanin, probably with another copy of the account which he does not -give in items, and writing earlier than Mutinelli, makes the sum a -little smaller. In any case it is certainly one of the most -extraordinary bills ever brought in by a Republic for electing its -chief. - -In view of modern methods it will interest some - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 302, note._] - -of my readers to see how the expenses of Venetian elections increased -towards the end, according to Romanin:-- - - Ven. Lire. -Election of Carlo Ruzzini in 1732 68,946 - “ Aloise Pisani “ 1734 70,629 - “ Pietro Grimani “ 1741 70,667 - “ Francesco Loredan “ 1752 134,290 - “ Marco Foscarini “ 1762 120,868 - “ Aloise Mocenigo “ 1763 125,234 - “ Paolo Renier “ 1779 222,410 - “ Ludovico Manin “ 1789 378,387 - -Greatly increased expenditure for successive elections during half a -century can only mean one of two things, the approach of a collapse, or -the imminence of a tyranny. The greater the proportionate increase from -one election to the next, the nearer is the catastrophe. The election of -the last Doge of Venice cost five and a half times as much as that of -Carlo Ruzzini. It would be interesting to know what proportion Julius -Cæsar’s enormous expenses, when he was elected Pontifex Maximus, bore to -those of a predecessor in the same office fifty years earlier. - -The Venetian electors who managed to consume, or make away with, nearly -eight thousand pounds’ worth of food, drink, tobacco, and rose-water in -nineteen days, chose an honest man, though a very incompetent one, and -the public showed no enthusiasm for the new Doge, in spite of the great -festivities held for his coronation. The Venetian people, too, preserved -their artistocratic tendencies to the very last, and always preferred a -Doge of ancient lineage to one who, like Manin, came of the ‘New men.’ - -He was not fortunate in his choice of a motto for his first ‘osella.’ -He, who was to dig the grave of Venetian liberty, chose the single word -‘Libertas’ for the superscription on his first coin; and on that which -appeared in the last year but one of the independence of Venice were the -words ‘Pax in virtute tua,’ which, as Mr. Horatio Brown has pointedly -observed, ‘reads like a mocking epitaph upon the dying Republic.’ - -Manin was a weak and vacillating man, though truthful, generous to a -fault, and not a coward. As Doge, he was bound hand and foot, and only a -man of great character could have broken through such bonds to strike -out an original plan that might have prolonged his country’s life. He -gave his fortune without stint, but the idea of giving anything else did -not occur to him. Before the tremendous storm of change that broke with -the French revolution and raged throughout Europe for years, he bowed -his head, and Venice went down. No man is to be blamed for not being -born a hero; nor is the mother of heroes in fault when she is old and -can bear them no more. - -[Illustration: FROM THE PUBLIC GARDEN AT SUNSET] - - - - -XV - -THE LAST SOLDIERS - - -During the eighteenth century Venetian diplomacy succeeded in preserving -the Republic’s neutral position in spite of the great wars that agitated -Europe. Her only war was with the Turks, and it was disastrous. - -Early in the century the Turks attacked the Peloponnesus, and Venice -lost her richest colonies in rapid - -[Sidenote: _1715._] - -succession. Her navy was no longer a power, and she was almost without -allies, for the European powers were exhausted by the recent war of the -Spanish succession, and though Malta and the Pope befriended her, the -help they could give was insignificant. It was not until the Turks -attacked Hungary that she received any efficient assistance; by uniting -her forces with those of the Empire she obtained some success, and the -desperate courage of Marshal Count von Schulenburg, a Saxon general in -the Venetian service, saved Corfu. The Turks, beaten at sea by the -Venetians, and on the Danube by the Hungarians at Temesvar, made peace, -and the treaty of Passarowitz put an end to the war. - -[Sidenote: _1718._] - -But Venice had for ever lost the Peloponnesus, Crete, and other valuable -possessions. - -After this disastrous struggle, it was impossible to preserve any -further illusions as to the future. Venice felt that she was in full -decadence, and only endeavoured to hide its outward signs. Instead of -trying to beat against the current, she allowed herself to drift; things -went from bad to worse, and before long the army, the navy, and the -Arsenal were completely disorganised, though their expenses had not in -the least diminished. A contemporary says that a regiment looked like a -company, and a - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 150 sqq._] - -company like a corporal’s guard, whereas the Republic was paying for -regiments with their full complement of men. - -The service of the hired troops was beneath contempt. In Padua the -students of the - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 176._] - -University defied the garrison. On one occasion, in a hideous orgy, they -accidentally or intentionally did to death a pretty beggar girl; but -when a detachment of Croatian soldiers attempted to arrest the culprits, -the students treated them with such utter contempt that their commander -was terrified, fled with his men to the safety of the barracks, and -bolted and barred the doors. - -If such things happened on Venetian territory one may fancy what the -state of things was in the colonies. Corfu was supposed to be defended -by a company of Venetian soldiers and two companies of Albanians. From -1724 to 1745 the latter were represented by two men, a major and a -captain, whose sole business was to draw the pay of the whole force. The -two officers embezzled the sums allowed for the men’s food and uniforms, -and the pay was sent to the soldiers, who lived in their own homes in -the mountains. No trouble was taken even to identify them, and when one -died it was customary for another to take his name and receive his pay. -The two companies thus literally earned immortality, and the names on -the rolls never changed. Several Albanians who drew their pay as -Venetian mercenaries enrolled themselves also in the so-called ‘Royal -Macedonian’ regiment, in the service of the King of Naples, and were -never found out by the Republic. In twenty-one years these imaginary -troops cost Venice 54,300 sequins, or over £40,000. - -The colonial garrisons economised their gunpowder by abolishing all -target practice, and consisted chiefly of utterly untrained old men who -were absent most of the time. The fortresses were not more serviceable -than the troops that were supposed to defend them. On the mainland, the -frontier fort of Peschiera was half dismantled, the drawbridges had - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. and Tassini, under ‘Bombardiere.’_] - -long rusted in their positions and could, not be raised, and the -ramparts were so overgrown with trees and shrubs as to be impassable; at -one time the fort did not even possess a flag to show its nationality. -Ninety of its guns had no carriages; the gunners lived quietly at their -homes in Venice, and if they ever remembered that they were supposed to -be soldiers it was because the government dressed them up on great -occasions as a guard of honour for the ducal palace. Their number was -between four and five hundred. - -As for the fort of Corfu, it was robbed by a common thief. In 1745, a -certain Vizzo Manducchiollo promised the Turks two good guns, one of - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 169._] - -bronze and one of iron. With the help of his gang he scaled the wall of -the Raimondo Fort one night, carried off the cannon, and sold them to -the Turks for twenty-seven sequins. - -The workmen of the Arsenal in Venice, who had formerly been the -best-organised body of men in the Republic, had completely come to grief -in the eighteenth century. The Arsenal was supposed to be governed by a -voluminous code of laws, most of which were now either altogether -disregarded, or were administered with culpable leniency. The disorder -was incredible. Every son of a workman in the Arsenal had an hereditary -right to be employed there, but the officials who were in command did -not take any means of checking the men’s attendance; they paid so much a -head for every workman on the payroll, according to his age, whether he -ever appeared except on pay-days or not. In this way the State paid out -vast sums to men who only entered the gates once a month to draw their -wages for doing nothing. Many of them had other occupations, at which -they worked regularly and industriously. Some were even actors, and one -of the cleverest ‘Pantaloons’ was officially known as one of the -best-paid Arsenal hands. The six hundred apprentices who were supposed -to attend the technical schools attached to the different departments of -the yard, only looked in now and then. When the time came for them to -pass for the certificate of master workman they paid the sum of -thirty-four Venetian lire, in consideration of which the Examiners -pronounced them competent. In this way, as Mutinelli - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 145, 153._] - -truly says, ignorance became hereditary, as employment in the Arsenal -already was, and the yard became a mere monument of former generous -initiative, very expensive to maintain. - -At the fall of the Republic, Bonaparte seized and sent to France a large -number of vessels. When the Arsenal was sacked in 1797 it was - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 162, note 2, and 304._] - -found to contain 5293 pieces of artillery, of which 2518 were of bronze, -and the rest of iron; and at the last there were brought from the docks -ten ships of seventy guns, eleven of seventy-six, one of fifty-five, -thirteen of forty-two, two of thirty-two, twenty-three galleys, one -floating howitzer battery, two ‘cutters,’ whatever the Italian writer -may have meant, - -[Illustration: BOAT-BUILDERS] - -twelve gunboats, three brigs of sixteen to eighteen guns, one -fore-and-aft schooner, seven galleons and as many ‘zambecchi,’ five -feluccas, many boats armed with grenade mortars, ten floats with two -guns, and one floating-battery of seven guns. - -If these vessels were not all badly built, they were certainly badly -fitted out and badly sailed when they went to sea. The Provveditori and -Inquisitors Extraordinary, sent from time to time by the Senate to -inspect the fleet, complained that they found neither good carpenters -nor good sailors. One frigate, which had a nominal crew of one hundred -and fifty-seven men, the _Concordia_, was found to have barely thirty, -and not able seamen at that. As for the convicts who pulled the oars on -the war-galleys, they were kept half-clothed and shelterless when -ashore; but being only carelessly guarded they often ran away, and not -unfrequently succeeded in finding employment, under assumed names, in -the smaller ports of the Republic. Some are known to have become -house-servants. Nevertheless the overseer of each gang regularly -pocketed the money allowed for their food and clothing. - -In 1784 it was proved that for a long time from sixty to seventy -thousand fagots of wood and an immense number of barrel staves had -disappeared yearly, no one knew how. The workmen of the Arsenal did not -think it necessary to buy firewood when it could be had for nothing. - -In 1730, the Provveditor Erizzo was ordered to one of the Eastern -colonies on an important mission, with several large vessels. Almost at -the moment of starting, the officers of one of these galleys came and -begged him to give them a captain not belonging to the - -[Illustration: THE VEGETABLE MARKET] - -navy, as they should not otherwise feel safe to go to sea. - -Yet at this very time Goldoni wrote that every one sang in Venice: -‘They sing in the squares, in the streets, on the canals; the -shopkeepers - -[Sidenote: _Goldoni, i. chap. xxxv._] - -sing as they sell their wares; the workmen sing as they leave their -work; the gondolier sings while he waits for his master. The -characteristic of the nation is its gaiety.’ - -In the midst of this laughing decadence, in the very depth of this gay -and careless disintegration of a country’s body and soul, we come across -one devoted, energetic character, a fighting man of the better days, who -reminds us of what Venice was in her greatness. - -Angelo Emo was great, considering the littleness of Venice in his time. -If we compare him with Vittor Pisani, Carlo Zeno, or Sebastian Venier, -he seems small as a leader; but as a plain, brave man, he is not dwarfed -by comparison with men who were colossal in an age of giants. - -He was born in 1731, and was brought up by his father to dream of older -and greater times, and to know more of his country’s history than most - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 289._] - -youths of his day. He travelled early and far, often employed on -business of the State, and he was able to compare the condition of -Venice with that of other European countries, especially England and -France, in regard to military and naval matters. - -He was not yet thirty years old when the government sent him to Portugal -to study the means of reviving the commercial relations between that -kingdom and Venice. Sailing down the Adriatic, he put into Corfu, -probably for fresh provisions; but on learning - -[Illustration: PONTE CANONICA] - -that many intrigues were already on foot to deprive - -[Illustration: FONDAMENTA WEIDERMANN] - -him of his mission, he set sail again at once for the Mediterranean in -order to be beyond reach of recall. He passed the Straits of Gibraltar, -but fell in with a gale of wind in the ocean which nearly put an end to -his sailing for ever. The Venetian vessels were not remarkable for their -seaworthiness at best, and ocean weather was almost too much for Emo’s -ship. He himself describes the frightful confusion in the storm, and the -difficulty he had in managing his men. To make matters worse, the -freshwater tanks were sprung and most of the supply was lost, so that -water was served out in rations, while the food consisted principally of -what the British sailor terms ‘salt horse.’ Then the vessel lost her -rudder, and things looked badly; but the gale moderated and died out at -last, and the ship brought to near a wooded coast, whence Emo was able -before long to get a tree, which was rough hewn to serve as a rudder, -and he got his vessel into port at last, ‘with the admiration and -applause of every one,’ says Romanin, after describing the affair of the -jury-rudder as only a landsman can describe an accident at sea. - -His mission to Portugal was successful, and Emo returned to Venice; but -when he tried to direct the attention of the government to reforms of -which the army and navy stood in urgent need, he could obtain no -practical result, so that when he was - -[Sidenote: _1784._] - -placed in command of a fleet, with orders to punish the Bey of Tunis and -the Algerian pirates, he was well aware that his force was by no means -what it appeared to be to the inexperienced public. In the course of the -campaign his largest ship, _La Forza_, ill-equipped and worse -officered, sank before his eyes off Trapani, and none of the other -vessels could be relied on to do any better. Yet with such material and -such men he sustained a conflict that lasted three years, and if he was -unable to destroy the Bey of Tunis, he at least humbled him, brought - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 150, and Rom. viii. 294._] - -him to terms, and obtained from him a formal treaty engaging to put down -piracy on the African coast. France profited much by the result of this -expedition, and one of the last documents signed by Louis XVI. before he -fell was a letter to the Doge Manin, in which Angelo Emo was praised to -the skies for the good work he had done. - -The Admiral was rewarded with the title of Cavaliere, the only one the -Republic ever conferred, and with the office of Procurator of Saint -Mark’s, but I cannot find that his advice as to reforms was ever -listened to. A few years later, the Bey of Tunis broke his promise in -regard to piracy, and Emo was again sent with a fleet to chastise him, -but was suddenly taken ill in Malta, and died in a few days. He was -poisoned, it is said, by Condulmer, his principal lieutenant, who at -once succeeded him as admiral. - -The last Venetian fighting man was of average height and lean, and -stooped a little; he - -[Sidenote: _Statue of Emo, Canova; Arsenal._] - -was pale, his forehead was broad, and he had blue eyes and black -eyebrows, particularly thick and bushy. His mouth was strong, but the -lips were thick and coarse. - -His remains were carefully embalmed in Malta and were brought home to -Venice on his flagship, the _Fama_--‘fame’--which came to anchor on the -twenty-fourth of May 1792. The body was followed from the mole to Saint -Mark’s by the clergy, the schools, the magistracies, and a vast -concourse of people. The funeral mass was sung in the presence of the -Doge, and the vast procession wended its way to the church of the -Serviti. To the martial sound of drums and the solemn roar of the minute -gun, Venice laid her last captain to rest beside his fathers. - -[Illustration: THE SALUTE FROM S. GIORGIO] - - - - -XVI - -THE LAST DIPLOMATISTS - - -During the seventeenth century the Republic had no doubt of her own -military strength, but nevertheless trusted much to her diplomacy; in -the eighteenth the latter was the last good weapon left her of the many -that had once been in her armoury, and skilled as her diplomatic agents -were, their efforts could not prevent her from spoliation by the Turks, -whose simple rule was to take first and to talk about rights -afterwards. - -In a measure, too, Venice’s position as a neutral power was dearly -bought, and more than once in the war of the Spanish succession her -territory was the - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 5, sqq._] - -scene of fighting between French and Germans. The same skill kept her -out of the field during the quarrels for the succession of Parma, of -Tuscany, of Poland, and of Austria, and obtained for Venetian -Ambassadors a place of honour in the congresses that resulted in the -treaties of Utrecht, Vienna, and Aix-la-Chapelle. - -During the American war of independence, there were constant diplomatic -relations between the Republic and the American deputies who came to -France for the congress of Versailles. The Venetian archives contain a -letter signed by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson, by -which the Americans hoped to lay the foundations of a commercial treaty; -but owing to the excessive caution of Venice the attempt had no result. -The Republic of the Adriatic had almost always looked eastward for her -trade, and distrusted the new world which she had declined to help to -discover. The original letter, written in the English language, and -addressed to the Venetian Ambassador in Paris, Daniele Dolfin, has not -been published, I believe; and I shall not insult the memory of such -writers by attempting to turn Romanin’s - -[Sidenote: _Rom. viii. 229, 230._] - -translation back into their language. The letter explains that the three -signers are fully empowered by their government to negotiate a friendly -treaty of commerce, and will be glad to enter upon the negotiation as -soon as the Venetian Ambassador is properly authorised to do so; in -signing they use the form, ‘your most obedient, humble servants.’ For -the benefit of any American who may wish to get at the original, I may -add that Romanin found the letter in the Archives of the Senate, with -the despatches from France of Daniele Dolfin, envelope 261. - -A letter from another Venetian Ambassador in Paris, Cappello, -prophetically dated July fourteenth, 1788, exactly one year before the -destruction - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 153._] - -of the Bastille, to the very day, sounds the first warning alarm of the -approaching revolution; few writers have better summed up the condition -of the French monarchy when it was on the brink of the abyss, and no -diplomatist could have given his own country better advice. - -The Committee of the Savi, who concentrated all power into their own -hands, did not even communicate this letter to the Senate. Cappello -spoke still more clearly when he made his formal report in person, on -returning from his mission and after leaving Paris just when the King -was to be asked to sign the Constitution, a document for which the -Ambassador confesses that he can find no name. ‘It is not a monarchy,’ -he says, ‘for it takes everything from the monarch; it is not a -democracy, because the people are not the legislators; it is not that of -an aristocracy, for the mere name is looked upon in France not as -treason against the King, but as treason against the nation.... The -National Assembly began by encroaching upon all powers, and by -confounding within itself all the attributes of sovereignty, usurping -the administrative functions from the executive power, and from the -judiciary the right of judging criminal cases.’ - -It is easy to understand the impression made by such a report, in the -course of which the Ambassador narrated the scenes that took place in -Versailles and at the Tuileries after the night of October sixth, 1789. -The aristocratic Venetian Republic sympathised profoundly with the dying -French monarchy; but it was impossible to believe that such a state of -things would last long, and the government was painfully surprised by -the letter in which Louis XVI. announced that he accepted the situation. -That letter is in existence. In it the King declares that he has -accepted the new form of government ‘of his own free will; that the -National Assembly is only a reform of the ancient States General, and -will ensure the happiness of the nation and the monarchy.’ The King -adds, as if to hide his weakness from himself, that what is called a -‘revolution’ is mostly only the destruction of a mass of prejudices and -abuses which endanger the public wealth, and that he was therefore proud -to think that he should leave his son something; better - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 178._] - -than the crown as he had inherited it from his ancestors, namely, a -constitutional monarchy. - -This letter, with its artificial enthusiasm, is dated March fourteenth, -1791, three months before the King’s flight and his arrest at Varennes, -and less than two years before his murder on the scaffold. - -[Illustration: FROM THE PONTE DELLA PIETÀ] - -Cappello’s successor as Ambassador in Paris, Alvise Pisani, continued to -keep his government informed of what occurred. On the twenty-fifth of -September 1791, Louis XVI. addressed another letter to his ‘most dear -friends, allies, and confederates,’ the Venetians, in which he expresses -the certainty that they will be rejoiced to hear of his having signed -the Constitution, which had so greatly shocked Cappello. In spite of the -painful impression produced by these documents, it was necessary to -answer them, if only as a matter of etiquette. - -The position of the Republic was a difficult one. Prudence required the -strictest neutrality as to the affairs of other nations; but the mere -fact that every one recognised this as Venice’s only possible position -exposed her to perfidious and secret attacks of all sorts. France -maintained a vast number of secret agents to propagate revolutionary -doctrines in the Venetian territory, and at the same time lost no -opportunity of trying to pick a quarrel with the Republic, by insulting -her flag. On the twenty-ninth of November 1792, the captain of a French -man-of-war, bearing a Spanish name, the _Buenos Ayres_, asked permission -to land with eight men on the Venetian shore, but refused to submit to -the regulations of the Health Office. His request was refused. Thereupon -he proceeded to abuse the Venetian government from the deck of his ship. -He wound up by declaring that there was no such thing existing as a -Sovereign Government, that all men were equal, and that he was a -magistrate, as good as any senator. He chose to land, and he would land -if he chose. A Venetian galley hindered him - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 219._] - -from doing so, but as he made off he cried out: ‘You will change your -minds in a year!’ - -Poor France! She herself was to learn a century later that all men are -equal--in the eyes of German Jews. - -At that time Austria allied herself with Piedmont to oppose the French -invasion which was imminent, and the Venetian Envoy at the court of -Turin continually advised his government to join this league, which -alone could save the Republic and the other Italian powers. - -The Committee of the Savi who had absorbed the government of Venice -simply by saving trouble to all the other officials, allowed the Senate -to - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 195._] - -discuss this proposition, probably because they understood its vast -importance. But the Senate declared for strict neutrality, and the Savi -felt that after this they were free to do as they pleased, and from that -time they decided according to their own judgment as to the question of -showing any despatch to the Councils or of suppressing it in order to -avoid public discussions. - -Nevertheless, they felt the danger of the moment enough to recall the -Venetian vessels stationed at Malta and Corfu, in order to defend the -approaches to Venice, a measure which displeased France on the ground -that it was a preparation for hostilities. Thus the success of the -French army in Savoy obliged the Savi to call in the Senate again, to -discuss the public safety. The ‘fathers of their country’ were at that -time mostly in their country places, thoroughly enjoying themselves; but -they too must have felt that there was danger in the air, for they -answered the summons of Francesco Pesaro, the presiding Savio for the -week. A lively discussion took place, but once more neutrality was voted -by a strong majority, and the government of the Savi now entered upon a -course of half measures more dangerous in reality than any one mistake -could have been. Permission was granted to the Imperial troops to -transport provisions from Trieste to Goro, and with a last revival of -the business spirit the Republic violated the neutrality she had voted -by selling corn and oats to the Austrians. At this the Venetian -Ambassador withdrew to London for safety, leaving his secretary in -charge. - -An incident now occurred in Venice - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 203._] - -which was calculated to bring matters to a crisis. - -The French Ambassador, who had quitted Venice, had left in charge of the -Embassy a certain Monsieur Henin, who had taken as his private secretary -a priest called Alessandri. On the twenty-ninth of December 1792 this -priest was sent for in haste by the Superior of the bare-footed -Carmelites of the monastery of San Geremia, close to the palace occupied -by the French Embassy. He was introduced with some mystery, but with no -loss of time, and was conducted to the Superior’s room, where he was -warned that unless he left Venice by the sixth of January, he would be -assassinated. There was a plot to kill him, but one of the intended -murderers had confessed to the Superior himself, and under the seal of -confession had begged the monk to save Alessandri’s life. - -The priest, who does not seem to have been timid, was much surprised, -but promised nothing as to leaving the city, though he appears to have -at once considered - -[Illustration: ON THE WAY TO FUSINA, FROM THE MOUTH OF THE BRENTA] - -the means of getting away. But on that same evening the Superior -received an anonymous note with these words: ‘Either the Abbé Alessandri -will leave Venice to-morrow, and at once quit Venetian territory, or -something serious will happen to him.’ The Superior sent for Alessandri -again. The note, strange to say, had been delivered together with -fifteen gold sequins, which the unknown writer sent to help the priest’s -flight. - -The priest now lost no time, but left at once for Fusina on the -mainland, and finding no means of getting on at once, pursued his -journey on foot. He had left with the monk a written receipt for the -money, which he had been forced to accept, and he had also informed his -employer, Monsieur Henin, of the cause of his sudden departure. - -Monsieur Henin was furious, and not without some reason. He wrote a -violent letter to the Venetian Government, inquiring how an unknown -person could dare anything so outrageous in a well-regulated community. -Who was instigating the outrageous crime? What monster had paid fifteen -sequins to have the murder committed? What was the meaning of the -pretended confession? Why did the villainous author of the abominable -plan drag a monk into the plot? This was the gist of Monsieur Henin’s -letter, and he ended by demanding the immediate arrest and condign -punishment of the murderer, or murderers, and the recall of his fugitive -secretary, who, he insisted, must be so well guarded by the government -as not to be in fear of his life. - -The Secretary of Embassy certainly had right on his side so far, but he -followed up his letter in an interview with one of the Inquisitors, in -which he declared his belief that it was the government itself that -threatened Alessandri. The Inquisitors might have answered that they -disposed of much simpler and surer means than the hand of a hired -assassin whenever they wished to be rid of an obnoxious person. Henin -suggested, too, that the outrage was instigated by Austria in order to -exasperate France, an idea which seems deficient in logic. - -Henin appears to have been a violent sort of person, and anything but a -diplomatist. Of course he had right on his side, but Alessandri, on -inquiry, turned out to be a bad character, and anything but the ‘mild, -tranquil, reticent, and retiring’ creature of fifty-six, whom the -Frenchman represented him to be. He had been obliged to leave his native -city, Trent, for debt and various misdemeanours; he was a violent -revolutionary, and in his ‘tranquil retirement’ he dwelt with a -disreputable woman of the people, whom he had enticed away from her -family; from which facts it was easy to argue that he had made himself -the object of some private vengeance. - -Nevertheless, and although Henin had not at that time any proper -credentials as _Chargé d’Affaires_, the Inquisitors thought it best to -avoid disturbance, and Alessandri was brought back and properly -protected. Almost immediately upon this Henin received credential -letters from his government, and asked to present them to the Senate. - -The Savi, who detested the man, were much disturbed; and as the Senate -and the Great Council left the matter to them, they asked the assistance - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 207._] - -of those of their colleagues who had served their time and retired. As -they wore black cloaks the people nicknamed them the ‘Consulta Nera,’ -the ‘Black Cabinet.’ - -Not to receive the official representative of the new French government -would have been contrary to the policy of strict neutrality adopted by -the Venetian Republic; to receive him was to irritate Austria and to -expose Venice to an attack from that side. She had pursued a policy of -half measures, and the end of half measures is always a fall between two -stools. The fall was precipitated by the soothing eloquence of one of -the speakers, who assured his colleagues that all Europe would -understand and forgive them for yielding to necessity. - -The Senate accordingly voted with the Black Cabinet that Henin should be -received, but instructed its ambassadors at the various European courts -to convey information of the fact with all the circumspection possible, -and in such a way as to palliate the action of the Venetian government -in the eyes of the world. - -While this was going on, the secretary whom the Venetian Ambassador -Pisani had left in charge at Paris, wrote an eloquent letter describing -the - -[Sidenote: _1793._] - -death of Louis XVI., and he sent at the same time a scrap of the cloak -which the King had worn on his way to the scaffold. This caused the most -profound emotion. In the Senate, Angelo Quirini loudly declared that all -diplomatic relations with a government of hangmen and executioners must -be instantly broken off. - -The matter was still in discussion when Henin demanded, in the name of -his government, the authorisation to place the arms of the French -Republic over the door of his residence. As his credentials had been -accepted it was impossible to refuse this request, but the general -indignation of the better sort of the people was unbounded. - -There were now two parties in Venice. On the one hand, the secret -emissaries of France preached revolutionary doctrines, and stirred up -the criminal classes; on the other, a vast literature of pamphlets, -articles, satires, and caricatures, all attacking the French, were -openly circulated throughout the city. In the hope of diverting the -attention of the whole population from political matters the Savi made -frantic and extravagant efforts to amuse everybody. The very last -carnival before the end was the most magnificent ever remembered. - -In the year of the French King’s murder, Bonaparte was a captain of -artillery, and France was about to face the first coalition of the -powers, after putting down the royalists in Vendée. - -Henin continued to annoy the Signory in every possible way, and made the -smallest incidents the subjects of official complaint and protest. He -was at last recalled, but his successor was a man called Noël, who was -such a notoriously bad character that the Venetian Senate put off -receiving his credentials again and again on all sorts of grounds, -doubtless believing, too, that the French revolutionary government was -not going to last even so long as it did. To gain time was to save -dignity, thought the Senators. But Noël grew tired of waiting, and -abruptly returned to Paris in a very bad humour, to stir up against -Venice the resentment of the Committee of Public Safety. - -It was now no longer an easy matter to keep up - -[Illustration: A LONELY CANAL] - -appearances of neutrality. England, especially, lost no opportunity of -urging Venice to join the European League, and Worsley, the last English -Minister, was perpetually insisting on a rupture with France. - -Another circumstance occurred to increase the difficulty of Venice’s -position. The Comte de Lille, afterwards Louis XVIII., who styled -himself Regent of France during the captivity of his nephew, the -unfortunate child Louis XVII., being obliged to leave Piedmont, asked -permission to reside in Verona, and the Signory, anxiously hoping for a -restoration in France, received him with the honours due to his rank and -the welcome a friend might expect. At this the French Republic took -umbrage and protested violently, but the Venetians answered that the -presence of the Comte de Lille in Verona, where he led a retired life, -was no violation of neutrality. - -The Savi now had more on their hands than they could manage, for they -were obliged at one and the same time to watch the movements of the -revolutionary propaganda and to keep themselves informed of the doings -of the royalist party who plotted in Venice to restore the French -monarchy. And meanwhile, in spite of a nominal press censorship, the -_Postiglione_ newspaper satirised the French Republic in the bitterest -manner, giving Robespierre constant cause of complaint. - -Diplomatic relations were now strained almost to the breaking point. -Pisani was still supposed to be the Venetian Ambassador in Paris, though - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 231-239._] - -he resided in London, and the French Envoy in Venice had left in -disgust at not being received. On the latter point the French yielded, -and sent another and more respectable representative, a certain -Lallement, whom the Signory consented to receive in spite of the -objections of the English Minister. - -The question now arose, who was to succeed Pisani in Paris, and how the -new envoy was to be styled. Lallement had brought very simply worded -credentials, and had agreed to assume any designation which the Signory -desired. The Savi were much distressed about this matter, but they -selected Aloise Quirini for the mission, and at last decided that he -should be addressed neither as Ambassador nor Minister, but simply as -‘the Noble Quirini.’ They could hardly have chosen a title better -calculated to irritate a government which held that nobility was a worse -crime than forgery or assassination. - -The Noble Quirini accordingly went to Paris with a very magnificent -salary, and with instructions to keep up the splendid traditions of -former Venetian representatives abroad. - -But meanwhile the child Louis XVII. had disappeared from the scene, and -the Comte de Lille, or the Comte de Provence as he was called - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 252._] - -when not travelling incognito, was a source of much anxiety to Venice. -He was now undoubtedly the legitimate King of France, and his modest -residence in Verona had become a court at which every point of etiquette -was most rigorously observed. The European powers encouraged him in his -efforts to restore the monarchy in his own person, and England, Austria, -and Russia sent envoys to him in Verona without in the least considering -the difficulties which their action might cause the Venetian government. - -At this juncture France invented another form of government, and -Lallement appeared before the Senate with an entirely new set of -credentials as - -[Sidenote: _1796._] - -the Envoy of the Directory, which, he declared, was no less disposed -than its predecessors in power to remain ‘in perfect understanding and -on the most friendly terms’ with the Venetian Republic. The man who was -to end the hideous and grotesque succession of butcheries and farces -which had lasted seven years was in favour with this last-hatched and -half-fledged government, and his dominating influence was beginning to -be felt. Bonaparte was now twenty-six years old; he was grown up. - -A few months earlier Lallement had read before the Venetian Senate a -proclamation which the ‘Representatives of the People’ sent to the army - -[Sidenote: _1795._] - -of the Alps, as a general warning against the Genoese, the Tuscans, and -the Venetians, who, in spite of their protestations of friendship, -allowed their ships to capture and plunder French vessels on the high -seas. By the end of 1795 the French were masters of the Riviera, having -beaten the Austrians very badly. - -Venice was now accused of having violated her neutrality by allowing the -passage of Austrian troops through her dominions. She answered that she -had acted in accordance with a very ancient treaty which accorded the -Empire the use of the road to Gambara, and that she was as neutral as -ever; but this the French found it hard to believe. When further accused -of favouring royalist intrigues, the Signory made a show of punishing -the authors of a few libels on the Directory. - -As for Louis XVIII., as the Comte de Lille was now called by his -adherents, Venice was reluctantly obliged to ask him to leave her -territory, as the Directory threatened war if he remained. - -He departed, shaking the dust from his feet. He demanded that the name -of his family should be - -[Sidenote: _Smedley, Sketches from Venetian History, ii. chap. xx. -note._] - -erased from the Golden Book, and that the armour of his ancestor Henry -IV. should be given back to him. This armour Smedley rightly conjectures -to have been the sword worn by Henry IV. at the battle of Ivry, with -which he had knighted the Venetian Ambassadors after his accession, and -which he then presented to the Treasury of Saint Mark’s. - -The Signory entirely refused to accede to the Comte de Lille’s demands. -It could not deprive itself, it replied, of the satisfaction of counting -the royal family of France amongst its nobility, and it could not bring -itself to part with such a valuable gift as it had received from Henry -IV.; and with this quiet answer to the Russian envoy who represented him -the Comte de Lille had to be satisfied. - -But France was not, and the Inquisitors received many private warnings -to the effect that the French government would seize upon any pretext -for attacking Venice. ‘Arm, if you hope not to be trodden under foot!’ -Such was the burden of these fruitless messages. - -Austria, Sardinia, Naples, and Pius VII. openly allied themselves -together, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena secretly promised their -help. Genoa was paralysed by the vicinity of the French army; Tuscany -was playing the game of neutrality, like Venice. - -The Signory had great confidence in the army of the allies and in its -chief, Bonaparte was only a boy; the old general Beaulieu would easily -beat him. - -But the Signory was mistaken. The boy had grown up--‘Napoleon, Apollyon, -destroyer of Cities, being a Lion roaming about,’ as the barbarous Greek -jest on his name has it. - -[Illustration: EVENING] - - - - -XVII - -THE LAST HOUR - - -The end was at hand when Bonaparte crossed the river Po. One is apt to -forget that he had already showed himself to be much more than a -victorious - -[Sidenote: _1796. Rom. ix. 284._] - -general, and that throughout the campaign he displayed that marvellous -skill in dealing with men which so often ensured him an enthusiastic -reception in places where he could not have been expected to be -welcome. - -He had soon realised the horrible impression produced everywhere outside -of France by the Revolution, the Terror, and the Committee of Public -Safety, and he hastened, by his numberless agents, to exalt the virtues -of the Directory. They were not a herd of bloodthirsty ruffians, he -taught, but an assemblage of the future saviours of mankind, who were to -emancipate the world from all those ancient political and social -prejudices which had so long held it in bondage. - -He could not unteach the scum of the Italian populace what the agents of -the Revolution had taught it with such lavish expenditure in -disreputable taverns and worse resorts, but he could control the -teachers and gradually change the direction of the education. The -Venetian gondoliers could be taught something, too, and the Venetian -Barnabotti could be bribed to learn anything, and to impart what they -learned. - -‘No organisation,’ says Bonnal, ‘was ever superior to his (Bonaparte’s), -no revolutionary organisation was ever more formidable. We mean -“revolutionary” as regards the legitimate governments - -[Sidenote: _Bonnal, Chute d’une République, 273-274._] - -existing in Italy, with which we were not at war, and as regards the -means used.... It was at Milan that his system became a definite -official service, both political and military. Thence arose two -principal offices exactly answering the aim he was pursuing, that is, -the political propaganda and the military propaganda. By means of the -political propaganda he sought to bring about either the substitution of -one domination for another, or the modification of the forms of -government.... Lombardy is an example of the first case, the Italian -Duchies of the second. By his military propaganda he roused the -populations to arms, sometimes against the legitimate sovereign, as -happened in Venice and Parma, sometimes against a foreign power, as at -Milan.’ - -Once more, as in the war of the Spanish succession, the Venetian -territory became a refuge and a provision market for two hostile armies. -The fortresses, as has been seen, were really at the mercy of any one -who chose to occupy them. On the ninth of May the Imperial troops, -yielding to the request of Contarini the Governor of Crema, and -supposing the place to be capable of defence, consented to pass by the -city without entering it. If they had insisted no one could have -hindered them, and the letter Contarini afterwards wrote to the Venetian -government disturbed even the astounding optimism of the Savi. The -latter were shocked when they thought of the risk they had run, and by -way of getting rid of all further responsibility they appointed a -Provveditor to watch over the safety of the Venetian territory. More -than this their worst enemies could not have expected them to do. They -selected a Foscarini for the office, and were particularly careful to -admonish him that he must ‘preserve intact the tranquillity of the -Republic, and administer comfort and consolation to its subjects.’ I -translate literally the phrase, which sounds like the drivelling of an -old man in second childhood. - -The imperial troops were barely out of sight of - -[Illustration: OUT IN THE LAGOON] - -Crema when the French appeared, and Contarini renewed his request that -the city might not be entered. Berthier consented, but requisitioned -provisions and forage. Soon afterwards came Bonaparte himself and he -also consented to pass on, but not until he had squeezed every particle -of available information out of the governor, whose letter narrating the -interview gives a remarkably clear idea of the great young man’s -conversation. - -The Senate wrote to the Commander of the fortress of Peschiera not to -allow any foreign soldiers to enter under any circumstances. I have -described the condition of the place elsewhere, and the unlucky colonel -at once answered, inquiring what in the world he was to do in order to -prevent the passage of the Imperial troops. - -The Austrian general Liptay found it convenient to install himself in -Peschiera for some time, and when the Republic protested, he answered -with admirable coolness and much truth that the place was not a fortress -at all, and that he was encamped there as the French were in the fields -towards Brescia. - -Even Bonaparte understood the absurdity of this case. ‘The truth about -the affair of Peschiera,’ he wrote to the Directory, ‘is that the -Venetians - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 297-299._] - -have been duped by Beaulieu; he asked leave to pass with fifty men and -then made himself master of the city.’ - -In spite of this conviction, Bonaparte took advantage of the incident to -declare to the Provveditor Foscarini that he would burn Verona to punish -the Venetians for having favoured the Austrian troops; and Foscarini, -obliged to act on the spur of the moment and without consulting the -government, opened the gates of Verona to Masséna on receiving the -latter’s assurance that the city should not be burned. He probably -fancied that he had obtained a great concession, and did not understand -that Verona was absolutely necessary to the French as a base from which -to advance on Mantua, held by the Imperial troops. - -The news of the occupation of Verona produced the utmost alarm in -Venice, yet the Great Council was not summoned, nor was there a regular -sitting of the Senate. The days had gone by when the great bell of Saint -Mark’s was rung backward to call every fighting man to arms, and every -aged Senator to the Council. The handful of scared and vacillating men -who had steered Venice to her end met stealthily by night in the Casino -Pesaro, more like conspirators than defenders of their country. Most of -them fancied the French already in the lagoons, if not in the city; -some, forgetting that they had neither troops nor captains, were for -defence to the death; some, who had secretly adopted revolutionary ideas -and principles, rejoiced at heart because the end was so near. - -Such a meeting of such men could come to nothing; and nothing was -decided except that Foscarini, the Provveditor, should be assisted by -two other nobles, commissioned to negotiate with Bonaparte. - -They went and found him apparently in the mildest and most friendly -humour, but the report of their interview with him reached the Senate -together with a communication from the Inquisitors explaining -Bonaparte’s plan for taking possession of the fort of - -[Illustration: THE SALUTE FROM THE LAGOON] - -Legnago, making sure of the free navigation of the Adige, and -threatening to destroy Venice in order to extort a sum of five or six -millions of francs. - -So Venice, still theoretically neutral, was driven to collect such poor -forces as she had by land and sea, in order to defend herself against -the depredations of the combatants. She had not a single general to -direct her men, or to plan a defence. Three nobles were in charge of her -boundaries on the mainland; another was made responsible for the -capital, and two were placed in charge of the lagoons. A war-tax was -levied, too, and it is due to the citizens of the dying State to say -that they were generous to their country to the last. Many citizens of -all classes gave large sums of their own free will to help the defence, -and not in Venice only; the cities of Friuli and Dalmatia, and even -small communities at a great distance, made heavy sacrifices -spontaneously for the public safety. - -The historian Romanin was of opinion that even at that moment, if the -government had found resolution enough to sacrifice all her possessions -on - -[Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 321._] - -the mainland, as at the time of the League of Cambrai, a clever -diplomacy might yet have saved the State. But he was a Venetian and a -most patriotic one, and he could not understand that it needed something -more than skill to keep Venice alive, that it needed life itself, the -life that was all spent, at last, after more than a thousand years. - -The Provveditor for the lagoons, Giacomo Nani, wrote to the Doge the -courageous words: ‘A State has not the right to possess provinces which -it cannot defend.’ He, too, remembered the League of Cambrai. But the -Doge was not to be roused; it was no longer vacillation, it was -paralysis of the will that made him follow the Senate. Yet Nani’s -letters determined the Savi to look about for some general into whose -hands the whole defence might be given. It was the old tradition of -employing the condottiero; but there was only one man alive just then -who had the genius and the conviction that save a cause all but lost; he -was a man who could have stopped a host with Falstaff’s ragged company, -and he was at the gates of Venice. The Savi hit upon the Prince of -Nassau as a possible captain, but Austria stepped in and forbade that he -should be called. - -The King of Naples now signed an armistice with the French, and -Bonaparte made himself at home on the Venetian mainland, quartering his -troops at Bergamo, Brescia, and Crema without ceremony, and merely -notifying the Venetian Senate that he did so, as if no excuse were -needed. He took the Venetian guns he found at Legnago and used them at -the siege of Mantua as if they were his own. Bonaparte was well aware of -the truth of what Nani had written to the Doge, and he took full -advantage of the axiom. If the governors of the cities in which he chose -to stop did not please him, he wrote them notes like the following:-- - -... I beg you, Sir, to let me know what game we are playing, for I - do not believe you will allow your brothers in arms [the French - soldiers!] to die without help - - [Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 341._] - - within the walls of Brescia, or to be murdered on the highroad. If - you are not able to keep order in your country, and to make the - city of Brescia furnish what is needed for establishing hospitals - and for the wants of the troops, I shall have to take more - efficient measures.--Believe me, with feelings of esteem and - consideration, - - BONAPARTE. - - - -Bonnal says of him that he avenged legitimate complaints with a host of -accusations and denials, and with unmistakable threats; and the -Venetians - -[Sidenote: _Bonnal, 275._] - -made excuses. Whereupon Bonaparte answered that he would ‘beat the -Austrians and make the Venetians pay for the war.’ Which he did. - -At the same time he was writing to the Directory:-- - -... I am obliged to be indignant with the Provveditor, to - exaggerate the number of assassinations, etc., in order that he, to - calm my fury, may furnish me everything I - - [Sidenote: _Rom. ix. 351._] - - need; they will continue to give us what we want, willingly or by - force, until Mantua is taken, after which I shall demand of them - such contribution as you may order me, which will not be in the - least difficult. - -If Bonaparte could find pretexts for accusing the Venetians of helping -the Austrians, the latter had excellent reasons for complaining that -Venice helped the French. Austria and France were the two stools between -which half measures had led the Republic, and between which she fell. - -The position of the French army was not enviable at that time, and the -alliance of Venice would really have been worth having, which was the -reason why her obstinate efforts at neutrality exasperated Bonaparte to -such a degree. At last his patience gave out and he ordered General -Baraguay d’Hilliers, the father of the marshal of that name who died in -1878, - -[Sidenote: _Twenty-fifth of December 1796._] - -to occupy Bergamo, not as a guest, but as master. The Austrians at once -replied by seizing Palma and Osopo. - -The peasants and the small communities were now driven to extremities; -for the Government had left them to their fate, and they were plundered -alike by the French and the Austrians. Discontent spread rapidly, and -the rural population may be supposed to have been in the best possible -disposition to receive the revolutionary doctrines by which Bonaparte -had already called into existence the Cispadane Republic. That -short-lived affair was made up of the cities and territories of Ferrara, -Bologna, Modena, and Reggio d’Emilia, and was momentarily the -headquarters of republicanism. In spite of all that the remnant of -government in Venice could do against it, its influence was felt on -Venetian territory. Behind all, the propaganda of Milan worked - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 12._] - -steadily to carry out Bonaparte’s plan under General Landrieux, whom he -had deputed to take charge of that end of it. - -Bergamo was the first city to rise and drive out the Venetian governor, -in order to join the Cispadane Republic; the city of Brescia followed, - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 356._] - -naturally enough. But the country people of the two provinces still -remained faithful to the Republic, and the peasants about Brescia were -so indignant with the city for its defection that they would have -marched upon it to burn it down if they had not been hindered by their -Bishop, Dolfin. At Vallesabbia, certain emissaries of the republicans -from the city were so ill received that they fled precipitately in fear -of their lives. - -Two days after the latter incident, the inhabitants of the villages of -the valley met in a field - -[Sidenote: _March 1797._] - -near Nozze, and drew up the following declaration, which was approved -with absolute unanimity. - - VALLESABBIA, - _March 27th, 1797_. - - In order to record its own fidelity and obedience to its beloved - Prince of Venice, and taking oath of perpetual loyalty and - adherence to the said Prince, this body votes that if persons of - any class or condition are found in this Valley having the cockade - of rebels against the Prince of Venice, and actually having that - cockade on their hats, any one shall be free to arrest them, and - let him have a prize of three hundred lire piccole for each one, of - [the funds of] the Valley. - - And let this present vote be made known in every commune and put up - in the usual and habitual places for public notices; and it is not - to go into effect for three days, within which the parish priests - in their parishes shall publicly give notice of it to the people. - And if gangs of rebels against the Prince of Venice, or troops of - theirs, enter the Valley, the communities comprising the Valley - shall ring the bells with a hammer [meaning to ring them out, and - not to ‘chime’ them only]; and whosoever is between sixteen and - sixty years old, and whosoever else will volunteer, is to take arms - in the name of the Valley to arrest them [rebels or troops], and - may also kill them; and whoever refuses shall be punished by - confiscation of all his goods. - -The government might have done something to encourage people capable of -such devotion; it might at least have ordered them to send deputations -to the capital to give information of the state of the country. This the -province of Verona asked to be allowed to do, through the Marchese -Scipione Maffei, in a petition which the Savi suppressed, without even - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 32._] - -presenting it to the Great Council, because they considered that it -might lead to dangerous discussion. They confined themselves to -recommending every subject of the most Serene Republic to act with the -greatest circumspection towards all the French, as the Venetians had no -means of defending themselves against the latter’s pretensions. - -In spite of the bad impression made by such weakness, more than thirty -thousand men from the provinces volunteered to put down the republican -rising, but they had to be sent home for lack of funds and weapons. One -hundred young men of the burgher class offered to arm and support -themselves at their own expense. From all this it is clear enough that, -at the very last, the descendants of the nobles who had made Venice were -responsible - -[Sidenote: _Nievo, Memorie d’un ottuagenario, 262._] - -for her fall. Ippolito Nievo said pithily, that the Venetian aristocracy -was a corpse that could not revive, while the Venetian people were a -living race shut up with it in the tomb. - -The republican revolution thus progressed almost without finding any -resistance and practically aided and abetted by the French troops. -Bonaparte was so sure of his plan that he did not even make a mystery -of it to the envoys of the Venetian Republic who met him at Goritz. He -actually offered to pacify the Venetian provinces for the modest sum of -a million of francs monthly for six months, which was generous, -considering that he alone had caused all the disturbance. A Venetian -noble of the fifteenth century would certainly have got the better of -him in such a matter of business, but he was too much for the two nobles -with whom he had to deal. The monthly million was granted, but on -condition that he was not to interfere in the civil discord that -distracted the Republic, and not to hinder the government in its efforts -to reduce the rebellious cities to subordination. - -Such an attempt was made, and the insurgents were beaten more than once, -and some of the ringleaders were brought to Venice. In other times - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 56._] - -they would have been tried by the Council of Ten and hanged within -twenty-four hours; now they were merely confined in the fort on the -Lido, in charge of two nobles, Tommaso Soranzo and Domenico Tiepolo, who -were recommended ‘to treat them charitably.’ - -But these successes so greatly encouraged the reaction against the -insurrection that Bonaparte feared lest he should lose some of the -fruits of - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi St. 356, 357._] - -his industrious propaganda. Accordingly, by his instructions, General -Landrieux accused the Venetian troops of threatening the French army in -the valleys of Bergamo, and ordered the Venetian Governor, Battaglia, -to be put in irons, and his ‘accomplices’ to be hanged. These were mere -threats, of course, but after that the rebels were openly supported by -the French. On the other hand, the communities that meant to remain -faithful to the Republic invoked its help a last time before returning -the weapons they had taken from the insurgents, and swore that if they -were only given a leader they would die to a man in defence of Venice. -Even after the French had occupied the whole Venetian territory the -Senate still received loyal letters from Vallesabbia; one of these ended -with these words: ‘Our hearts will always be for Saint Mark, and we -therefore swear to break any promise that may be before long got from us -by force, at the first sight of the Venetian standard we love.’ - -The truce of Judenburg between France and Austria was destined in -Bonaparte’s opinion to decide the destinies of the Republic. Junot -appeared suddenly in Venice on Good Friday, bringing a despatch from -Bonaparte dated the ninth of April. A more violent and theatrical -document can hardly be imagined. The general accuses the Venetians of -rousing the country people to murder the French and ordering a perfect -Massacre of the Innocents. His magnificent generosity has met with -‘impious perfidy’ on the part of the Senate. His adjutant offers peace -or war, and war is declared if the authors of the massacres are not -delivered. Observe, that as there had been no massacres, no authors of -them could be given up, and therefore the declaration of war was made; -Bonaparte was always logical. He was ‘not a Turk,’ he adds; he was not -even an enemy. These were ‘not the days of Charles VIII.,’ and he gave -the Venetians twenty-four hours to realise the fact or perish. But he -would not come like their ‘assassins,’ to ‘lay waste the lands of an -innocent and unhappy people.’ He came to protect. The people would ‘one -day bless even the crimes which had obliged the French army to free them -from the tyranny of Venice.’ - -Bonaparte’s name is still execrated throughout Italy, and in a large -part of the south ‘French’ means ‘abominable.’ Even the southern sailors -call a dangerous storm ‘French weather.’ - -Junot had been informed that the government could transact no business -till after Holy Week, but he insisted on being received, and read the -despatch before the Doge and the Signory in an imperious tone. Bonaparte -possessed a marvellous dramatic sense, and he trained his men to act his -comedies to perfection. In the part of the Avenging Angel, Junot was -terribly impressive. - -It may be supposed that even then Venice had a choice: she might submit, -or perish bravely in self-defence. But such men as Ludovico Manin and -the Savi were not free to choose. No weak man is when the strong man has -him by the collar. The Signory was used to humiliation, and was past -shame, and it followed to the end the path it had chosen. - -The truce between France and Austria continued, but only the possession -of Venice could be the basis of a durable peace. Bonaparte’s plan was -to exasperate the Venetians till they really violated their neutrality, -and then to seize the city. No one ever comments on the morality of -conquerors nowadays. Virtue has nothing to do with the greatness of -princes. Bonaparte’s scheme was odious, of course, but it succeeded. - -It had been part of the comedy to christen a ship of the French fleet -‘the _Liberator of Italy_.’ With this vessel a certain commander, -Laugier, - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 112 sqq._] - -was despatched to carry out Bonaparte’s stratagem. The ship sailed up -towards the Lido, stopped a fishing-boat, and took an old - -[Sidenote: _April twentieth, 1797._] - -fisherman for a pilot. The man protested that foreign war vessels were -not allowed to enter the harbour. Laugier threatened to hang him, and -set him to con the wheel, after asking him many questions as to the -vessels of which Venice disposed. - -When the ship was opposite the Lido she saluted, and the guns of the San -Nicola Fort answered; as Laugier did not bring to, the commander of the -fort, Domenico Pizzamano, sent two boats alongside him to warn him not -to enter, yet the French captain took no notice. Other French vessels -were following at a distance; Pizzamano fired two shots to warn them -off, and they bore away. Laugier now said he was going to anchor, though -he did not clew up his top-gallant sails nor otherwise shorten sail; it -is clear that there was only a very light breeze on that day. - -A Venetian galley lay at her moorings in the Lido harbour, and Laugier -proceeded to foul her, intentionally without doubt, for he evidently -knew his business. This was enough. The two vessels were close -alongside, and their crews were fighting one another in an instant. At -the same time the cannon from Fort Sant’ Andrea chimed in, and an -indescribable confusion followed. Laugier was killed by a ball; the old -fisherman who had steered him in was wounded, and died soon afterwards. -The Venetians got the better of the fight, and plundered the French war -vessel in spite of Pizzamano’s desperate efforts to prevent it. The -French officers and crew were handed over to the ‘benevolent custody’ of -Tommaso Soranzo and Domenico Tiepolo. - -The account of the affair sent by the Minister, Lallement, to the -Directory was wholly untrue, of course; but Bonaparte had what he -wanted. - -He was so sure of it that by the preliminary treaty of Leoben, preceding -the treaty of Campo-Formio, he had already ceded to Austria all the - -[Sidenote: _April eighteenth. Rom. x. 121, and Document at 377._] - -Venetian provinces that lay between the Po, the Oglio, and the Adriatic; -it was pretended that in compensation for these she was to receive the -three legations of Romagna, Ferrara, and Bologna. - -Much of this preliminary agreement had been kept secret; but the -Venetian Ambassador in Vienna, Grimani, knew of the general tenor of the -document, and warned the Senate that it was intended to dismember the -Venetian territory. - -The Senate was roused from its apathy when it was - -[Illustration: FROM THE PONTE S. ROCCO] - -too late, and now sat permanently. Orders were given that no stranger -was to be allowed to enter the city unless bearing official letters, and -no ship was to pass into the lagoons that did not fly the Venetian flag. -Some attempt was made to get more vessels ready for sea. - -The French had not wasted time, and a general insurrection had broken -out under their management in all the cities of the mainland. Within -twenty-four hours the governors of Padua, Verona, and other important -places came in for refuge, as also the Provveditors of the army, whose -occupation was gone. - -Meanwhile two nobles, Francesco Donà and Leonardo Giustiniani, had been -sent in haste to Gratz, after Junot’s appearance, and they were received -by Bonaparte on the twenty-fifth of April. The interview that followed -is highly characteristic of the man when it suited his ends to work -himself into a fury. The political prisoners were to be liberated, or he -would ‘come and break down the Piombi; he would have no Inquisition, no -antique barbarities.’ He spoke of the imaginary massacre of his innocent -troops. ‘His army cried vengeance, and he could not refuse it.’ ‘If all -the culprits were not punished, if the English Minister were not driven -away, if the people were not disarmed, if all the prisoners were not set -free, if Venice would not choose between France and England, he declared -war.’ ‘He would have no Inquisition, no Senate, he would be an Attila to -the Venetian State.’ And much more to the same effect, all of which is -on record. The two Venetians answered sensibly, when they could get in -a word, but Bonaparte meant war, and when he meant that he would listen -to no one. - -Having acted his scene, he asked the two to dinner and proceeded to -extract information from them, after his manner. His inquiries chiefly -concerned the horrors attributed to the aristocratic government by the -very imaginative French democratic mind; for the lower classes, being -nearer to nature, have always had much more imagination than their -social betters, which explains their belief in ghost stones, hidden -treasures, and the rights of man. - -After dinner Bonaparte condescended to state his demands. He wanted -twenty-two millions from the Venetian mint and all English drafts -deposited in Venice. That was all. There was no mention of the Duke of -Mantua’s treasure, from which the envoys suspected that it was included -in the secret treaty of Leoben, but I find no mention of it in that -curious document, though it may have been tacitly included in Article -VI. which provided for the restitution of Mantua and other places to -Austria. - -Having thus expressed himself, Bonaparte left the envoys to their -reflections and went off to Bruck. Almost at the same time they received -news of the fighting at the Lido, with instructions to inform Bonaparte -of the death of Laugier, with all the caution possible; they did so by -letter, and probably congratulated themselves on not being materially -able to convey the news by word of mouth; but they nevertheless really -asked another audience. He answered in a fury, called Laugier’s death an -assassination, and spoke of them and the Venetian Senate as ‘dripping -with French blood.’ If they had anything new to tell him, he would -receive them, he said, after writing on the same page that he would not. - -They went before him again, poor men, and listened once more to his -furious language. ‘Not a hundred millions of money, not all the gold of -Peru, would now prevent him from avenging the blood of his men,’ and so -forth, and so on. This was the truth, as he had purposely risked -shedding it for the very purpose of being revenged. - -On the twenty-ninth of April, French troops occupied the Venetian -frontiers, and General Baraguay d’Hilliers entered the capital with -perfect assurance--and, it must be added, with perfect fearlessness--and -installed himself in the best hotel. The Senate tried in vain to -ascertain from him Bonaparte’s intentions; the soldier answered that he -was accustomed to obey his chiefs without question and that he knew -nothing of their plans. He had been told to come to Venice and he had -come. - -On learning that Bonaparte so very particularly detested them, the Savi -agreed that it was no longer safe to meet publicly, and they held their -sittings in the Doge’s private apartments in the presence of the -Counsellors, and the ‘Savi of the Mainland,’ ‘Savi of Orders,’ ‘Savi of -Writings,’--Savi of every species. To all these were added the three -Heads of the Ten. This last assembly was a sort of amplification of the -Black Cabinet already explained. - -They have been described as the sextons of the Republic, met together to -arrange the details of the funeral. Their acts and resolutions can only -excite pity. The first question discussed on the night of April -thirtieth was whether a supposed intimate friend of Bonaparte’s (Haller, -at one time French Minister of Finance) should be treated with in order -to calm his master’s anger. The next question was, whether this -proposition might be discussed at once, or whether eight days must be -allowed to pass before beginning the debate, according to the law. A -third question asked what measures should be taken to inform the Great -Council of what was happening. - -Several hours had been consumed in these miserable quibbles, during -which no attention was paid to the distant booming of guns from the -direction - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 138._] - -of Fusina, when a messenger brought a letter for the ‘Savio on -Writings.’ He passed it on anxiously to the Savio of the week, who -opened it with evident emotion. It was a message from Condulmer, in -command of the flotilla of the lagoons, to say that the French had begun -operations for improving the approaches to Venice, and that he was going -to attempt to destroy what they did as fast as they worked. It was at -this moment that the Assembly first noticed the sound of artillery. In -the frightened silence the Doge walked up and down the room. ‘To-night -we are not safe even in our beds,’ he said. - -The Procurator, Pesaro, turned to the Secretary: ‘I see that it is all -over with my country,’ he said, in broad Venetian dialect. ‘I can -certainly be of no assistance. To an honest man, every place is his -country; one may easily occupy oneself in Switzerland.’ - -He rose as he finished this remarkable speech, apparently with the -intention of proceeding to Switzerland at once, but his colleagues -‘comforted’ him, he took snuff, and sat down again to help Valeressi in -framing a measure for calling the Great Council together on the morrow. -These curious details can be trusted. Pesare was afterwards, in fact, -the first to make his escape to Istria and Vienna. - -During the remainder of the meeting it was debated whether it might not -be possible and advisable to give Venice a democratic form of government -likely to please Bonaparte, and the majority adopted the idea of -introducing any modifications which he might suggest. - -It was hoped by this means that he would be moved to forgive the -Inquisitors and the captain of the Lido, whose punishment he had -demanded, and to excuse the Venetian banks from handing over the English -drafts. - -The next day was the first of May, the anniversary on which the Doge had -always paid his annual visit to the Convent of the Vergini, since the -days of Pier Candiano, a ceremony which was always the occasion of great -festivities in the city. But to-day, instead, the bell of the Grand -Council was ringing, and the nobles assembled anxiously. The Doge -explained in broad dialect the situation of the Republic with regard to -France. Peace, he said, must be made with Bonaparte - -[Illustration: CAMPO SS. GIOVANNI E PAOLO] - -at any price, and the best thing the members of the Council could do was -to say their prayers and ask the help of Heaven in their supreme -danger. - -Heaven, as usual in such circumstances, did not help those who would not -help themselves. The Council thought it had done wonders when it voted -by 598 to 21 that two deputies should be sent to Bonaparte with power to -discuss radical changes in the Venetian constitution. The envoys chosen -were Angelo Giacomo Giustiniani, who had been Provveditor extraordinary -in Treviso since the second of April, Alvise Mocenigo, the Governor of -Udine, and Francesco Donà. They were given regular credentials, and -were, as usual, exhorted to use the utmost caution in all they said. - -On the same day Bonaparte declared war against Venice in his most -furiously bombastic style. The document must be read, not to be -believed, as most of the statements it contains were totally untrue, but -to appreciate the marvellous gifts of the man of genius who composed it. -It is long, and I have not space for it; I can only say that it -altogether outdid the former letters and speeches I have referred to. - -The deputation found Bonaparte in Treviso. To the eternal glory of the -family that had lost an hundred of its name in one campaign, Giustiniani -quietly faced Bonaparte on every point, reproached him with the -shallowness of the pretexts under which he justified his acts of -violence, swore to the sincerity of the Venetian government when it had -protested that it had no intention of doing any injury to the French, -and concluded by saying that if Bonaparte required a hostage or a victim -he, Giustiniani, was there to give his life. - -Bonaparte was everything except a coward. He was a conqueror and a -comedian, a brutal dictator and a subtle diplomatist; he was a great -commander and he was the Little Corporal. He was also as brave as the -bravest man in any of his armies. Giustiniani’s speech affected him -strangely, for he well knew what terror he inspired in most people. His -sudden admiration for the Venetian patriot was as boundless as -everything else in his nature, and broke out in words of praise. He -concluded by promising that even if he confiscated the property of every -noble in Venice, whatsoever belonged to Giustiniani should be respected. -There spoke the man of the middle class that Bonaparte always was. The -gentleman answered proudly that he had not come to promote his own -interests when those of his country were so desperately at stake. - -A truce of four days was signed, within which time the three Inquisitors -of State and the commander of the Lido fort were to be arrested and -punished, and all political prisoners were to be set at liberty. - -On the fourth of May the Doge had the courage, or the cowardice, to -propose to the Great Council the arrest of the Inquisitors and their -impeachment as required by Bonaparte. There - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 159._] - -was no hope for Venice in any other course, he said. - -This dastardly measure was voted by 704 votes to 27. The Inquisitors and -the commander of the Lido were arrested and taken to San Giorgio -Maggiore, and all the political prisoners were released from the Piombi, -the Pozzi, and the other prisons of the city. On the following day, two -hundred and eighty-eight Frenchmen who had been taken with weapons in -their hands during the insurrections in the provinces were handed over -to Baraguay d’Hilliers in Venice. - -Bonaparte was now sure that he had only to show himself in order to be -master of the city. The Venetians also made haste to present Bonaparte’s -‘friend,’ Haller, with a little present of six thousand sequins in -bullion, in the hope that he would use his kind offices with the great -man. - -‘I beg you,’ Bonaparte wrote about that time to the Directory, ‘to order -the citizen Haller, a scoundrel who - -[Sidenote: _Bonnal, Chute, 287._] - -has come here to steal, to present his accounts to the head manager’ -(‘ordonnateur en chef’). - -So much for Bonaparte’s ‘friend.’ The Republic also offered the most -profuse hospitality to Madame Baraguay d’Hilliers, in the hope that she -would soften her husband’s harsh temper. - -By this time Bonaparte knew as well as Condulmer himself that the -Venetian fleet was miserably manned, and that the city must yield at -once if besieged, and he thought it quite useless to receive any more -envoys. Besides, he knew that his propaganda had succeeded in the -capital itself; his paid agents had done their work well, and it had -been bravely seconded by the manifest incompetence of the government -which had exasperated all classes. It is said that there were fifteen -thousand republicans ready to answer the first signal as soon as it -should be given by Villetard, the Secretary of the French Legation. -These were not by any means all of the people, for many ladies of the -nobility had been - -[Illustration: SO-CALLED HOUSE OF DESDEMONA] - -spending their time in making tricolour cockades, and the government -knew it. - -The French no longer took the trouble to conceal the preparations they -were making for a revolution. A wholesale grocer who played a very -suspicious part in the whole affair, Tommaso Zorzi, was dining with -Villetard, and heard several Frenchmen speaking of the revolution that -was arranged for the next day; it was intended to set up a tree of -liberty in the Square of Saint Mark’s and to declare the fall of the -aristocratic government. When every one else was gone, Zorzi implored -Villetard to put off firing the train, and explained that a large part -of the populace would side with their old masters. The French Secretary -would promise nothing, and on leaving him Zorzi hastened to the ducal -palace and was received by the Doge in spite of the late hour. - -He told what he had heard. The Doge sent at once for Pietro Donà, and -the two bade Zorzi obtain from Villetard a written declaration of the -conditions on which he would consent to give up the revolution. On the -following day Zorzi and his friend Spada appeared before the Savi with a -paper which they said they had drawn up in the presence of Villetard, -who had refused to write anything himself. - -The impression one gets in reading this document is that Zorzi and his -shadow were in the trick with Villetard. The paper calls them -‘mediators,’ - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 386 for the text._] - -talks of ‘pacifically changing the aristocratic forms of government,’ -‘leaving open to the sight of the public the prisons called the Piombi -and Pozzi,’ abolishing capital punishment, setting up a tree of liberty -in the Square of Saint Mark’s, publicly burning the insignia of the old -government, a universal amnesty, and a Te Deum in Saint Mark’s, where -the image of the Virgin Mary was to be exhibited. - -The paper also named the provisional government, in which the grocer and -his shadow were to occupy high positions. - -This stuff was not read by Zorzi before the assembly. The Doge deputed -Pietro Donà and Francesco Battagia to hear him in a neighbouring room. -Donà dismissed him with the remark that the government would wait to -discuss such propositions until they were officially laid before the -Venetian envoys by Bonaparte himself. - -Then Donà returned to the hall and communicated the contents of Zorzi’s -paper to the government. The effect was terrific. A few voices protested -that no attention should be paid to such an informal proposition, but -terror prevailed, and Donà and Battagia were charged to go at once to -Villetard to ask him to put off his revolution till the envoys should -return from their interview with Bonaparte. Villetard, for reasons known -to himself, granted the government a respite of four days. - -Meanwhile it was thought wise to dismiss the Slavonic troops, yielding -in this to one of the demands expressed in Zorzi’s paper. Their presence -‘irritated’ Villetard. They were accordingly ordered home under the -command of Niccolò Morosini, but they did not leave at once. - -On the twelfth of May the Great Council met. Early in the morning -Villetard had informed Battagia that the Venetian envoys sent to -Bonaparte had refused to accept a democratic and representative -government, but that the French meant to obtain it by force unless the -aristocracy would resign its powers. It was Haller who had brought the -news to Villetard after accepting a bribe of six thousand sequins a few -days earlier. An American politician once defined a scoundrel as ‘a man -who will not stay bought.’ - -Donà came back with an official letter from Villetard to the Doge, which -contained Bonaparte’s ultimatum. The city was in a state of nervous -excitement that must break into action before long; the members of the -Council were already in terror of their lives while they stood waiting -for the hour of meeting. Even then, everything had to be done according -to tradition. The patricians were, no doubt, devising more concessions -to be made to Bonaparte, as they moved towards the ducal palace, and -most of them were ready to sacrifice everything, including their honour, -in exchange for personal safety. The last of the Slavonic soldiers were -embarking under the direction of the Arsenal men; there were republican -conspirators everywhere, and they found their way even to the Doge’s -private apartments. - -The Council met at the usual hour, and the roll was called. Only 537 -members were present, whereas 600 constituted a quorum. It is possible -that the many absent members had hoped to obstruct all proceedings by -keeping away, for to the last the minutest rules had been observed. But -the members who had assembled decided that they had a right to act. - -The Doge opened the sitting, pale and overcome. Painfully, and in his -Venetian dialect, he recapitulated the acts of the Consulta of Savi and -others, who had taken charge of affairs on the thirtieth of April. His -miserable speech was followed by the reading of the report of Donà and -Battagia, Haller’s letter, and other documents. - -The Secretary, Valentin Marin, then read the measure which was brought -before the Council. - -The Bill had the old sanctimonious tone. ‘The principal purpose of -preserving religion,’ etc., were the first words; the measure was, that -the Great Council should accept ‘the proposed provisional representative -government.’ - -The Secretary had finished reading the Bill, and was just beginning his -comments on it, when the sound of a discharge of musketry rang sharply -through the ancient hall. The patricians rushed to the doors. One voice -called them back. - -‘Divide! Divide!’ it cried, above the din. - -To the last gasp formality bound them. Hastily, but not informally, they -went through the form of voting. The Bill to accept the democratic -government was passed by 512 yeas to 30 nays and 5 blanks. - -Then, in the twinkling of an eye, the - -[Sidenote: _1797, May twelfth._] - -hall was silent and empty. - -[Illustration: SAILS] - - - - -XVIII - -CONCLUSION - - -The discharge of musketry which had frightened the Great Council out of -its senses had been only the parting salute of the Slavonic soldiers as -they - -[Sidenote: _Tassini, under ‘San Bartolomeo.’_] - -sailed out of the harbour. It was the last mark of respect the Venetians -of Venice received, and it was by a dramatic coincidence that it was -offered at the very instant when the Republic ended. Every one has read -how the Doge went back to his own room and - -[Illustration: A GATEWAY] handed his ducal bonnet to his servant, -saying that he should not need it again. - -What has been less noticed by historians is that General Salimbeni, who -knew that the crowd was waiting to know what had taken place, put his -head out of a window and shouted ‘Viva la Libertà’; and that when no one -broke the silence that followed, he took breath again and shouted ‘Viva -San Marco,’ whereupon the multitude took up the cry and cheered till -they were hoarse, and the old flag of Saint Mark was hoisted everywhere, -and the populace took it into its head to burn down the houses of Donà -and Battagia and the grocer Zorzi, and though they were hindered, they -did plunder and burn the dwellings of a number of burgher families that -had played a double game and had helped to bring on the final -catastrophe. - -In the midst of this confusion well-armed republican gangs appeared in -all directions, and during the night between the twelfth and the -thirteenth of May there was a hideous tumult. The last time that -Venetian cannon was fired by Venetian orders, it was pointed at -Venetians. - -On the fifteenth, the French occupied the city as conquerors. On the -sixteenth, two notices were put up in the Square of Saint Mark’s. The - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi._] - -first simply announced that the aristocratic government yielded up its -powers to a provisional Municipality which would sit in the hall of the -Great Council; and this was the last public document which began with -the words, ‘The Most Serene Prince announces,’ etc. - -The other informed the public that the provisional Municipality of -Venice declared the Great Council to have ‘deserved well of the nation’ -because it had abdicated; it thanked particularly the members of the -late government which had put down the riot on the night of the twelfth; -and it went on to declare a ‘solemn amnesty’ for all political misdeeds, -and so forth, and so on. - -Then came the usual French nonsense about liberty, equality, -brotherhood, peace, the rights of man, and the like; all of which might, -perhaps, be excused on the ground of mistaken and foolish sentiment, if -we did not know that Bonaparte was even then almost in the act of -selling his newly found, free, and equal brothers into slavery to -Austria, then the most really absolute despotism in Europe. - -The whole affair was a horrible farce. The new Municipality decided to -preserve the Lion of Saint Mark as the national symbol, but for the -words ‘Pax tibi Marce’ inscribed on the book under the Lion’s paw were -substituted the words ‘Rights and Duties of Man and Citizen.’ The -gondoliers observed that Saint Mark had at last turned over a new leaf. - -The Lion, however, was soon thrown down from his column, and was broken -into more than eighty pieces on the pavement. On the fourth - -[Sidenote: _Rom. x. 219._] - -of June the tree or liberty was raised in the middle of the Square. -Around it were grouped emblems of the sciences and arts. Fagots were -heaped up near by, to make a fire in which the Golden Book and the ducal -insignia were solemnly burned between two statues representing Freedom -and Equality. Inane verses were inscribed on the pedestals of - -[Sidenote: _Molmenti, Nuovi Studi._] - -these images. Lest I should be thought to exaggerate their atrociously -bad literary quality I give the original Italian. - -One ran:-- - -Depono la tirannide, -Sollevo l’innocente, -Ognor lieto e ridente -Il popol mio sarà. - -The other said:-- - -Il libro d’ oro abbruciasi -L’accende il reo delitto, -All’ uom resta il suo dritto -La dolce libertà. - -The Procuratie, both the old and the new, were renamed, according to the -revolutionary dictionary, ‘Gallery of Liberty,’ ‘Gallery of Equality.’ - -[Sidenote: _Mutinelli, Ult. 218; also Tassini, 591._] - -In the course of the month of June began the trial of the three -Inquisitors, Agostino Barbarigo, Angelo Maria Gabrieli, and Catterino -Corner, and of Pizzamano, the commander of the Lido fort. Even Bonaparte -was obliged to admit that there was nothing against them, but he would -not allow them to be acquitted; he thought it better policy to pardon -them ‘in consideration of their advanced age.’ His letter on the subject -is dated the fourth of October. But Pizzamano, though declared free, -was still kept in prison at Bonaparte’s pleasure, and on the -twenty-sixth of October sent a petition directly to the latter. -Bonaparte sent it on to General Serrurier, in Venice, with an order for -the man’s liberation written in the margin. - -Bonaparte had kept up his comedy to the very last. On the eighth of -October, General Balland had given the Venetians, in his chief’s name, -the most ample assurances of attachment and devotion. - -On the seventeenth, nine days later, by the treaty of Campo-Formio, -Bonaparte sold Venice and the whole Venetian territory to the Emperor of -Austria, including Dalmatia and Istria, in exchange for the Ionian -Islands, the Cisalpine Republic, the Duchy of Modena, and the provinces -of Lombardy as far as the Adige and Mantua. - -Having got his price for the dead body, Bonaparte proceeded to strip it -of everything valuable, so far as he could, before handing it over. The -horses of Saint Mark’s were taken down from the façade of the basilica, -the most valuable pictures, parchments, and books were packed, and all -was sent to Paris. - -The farce of freedom was over, and the bitterness of reality came back, -harder to bear, perhaps, but as much more honourable, as suffering is -more dignified than drunken rioting. On the eighteenth of January 1798 -the Austrian garrison took possession of Venice. - -Before closing these pages, I shall go back a few months and shall -translate Giustina Renier Michiel’s touching account of the scene which -took place in Dalmatia, in the preceding month of August, when the -Austrians came by sea to take possession of the country. - - On the twenty-second of August, Rukavina [the Austrian general] - arrived with a fleet and a thousand soldiers and landed at Pettana, - a mile and a half from Perasto. The - - [Sidenote: _G. R. Michiel, Origini. Compare also Rom. x. 249._] - - Dalmatians, taken by surprise, and seeing that they had nothing - more to hope, resolved to render the last honours to the great - standard or Saint Mark. To this end the people of Perasto, and of - the neighbouring country, and others, assembled before the palace - of the Captain in command; and he, with twelve soldiers armed with - sabres, and two colour-sergeants, went to the hall where the - standard was, and the colours carried in the field, which Venice - had entrusted many centuries ago to the valour and loyalty of the - brave Dalmatians. They were now to take away those dearly loved - flags; but in the very moment of doing what it broke their hearts - to do, their strength failed them, and they could only shed a flood - of tears. - - The throng of people who waited in the Square, not seeing any one - come out again, knew not what to think. So one of the judges of the - town was sent up to ascertain the cause; but he, too, was so much - moved that his presence [in the hall] only increased the grief of - the others. At last the Captain, controlling himself of sheer - necessity, made the painful effort; he took down the flags from the - place where they were hung and attached them to two pikes; and he - handed them to the two colour-sergeants, and they and the soldiers, - led by the lieutenant, marched out of the hall; and after them the - Captain, the Judge, and all the rest. As soon as the well-beloved - standard was seen, the grief and tears of the multitude were - universal. Men, women, and children all sobbed and their tears - rolled down; and nothing was heard but the complaint of mourning, - no doubtful proof of the hereditary devotion of that generous - nation to its Republic. - - When the sad procession reached the Square, the Captain unfastened - the flags from the pikes and at the same time the ensign of Saint - Mark on the fort was hauled down, and a salute of twenty guns was - fired. Two armed vessels that guarded the port answered with eleven - guns, and all the merchant vessels saluted also; this was the last - good-bye of sorrowing glory to the valour of a nation. The sacred - colours were placed upon a metal salver and the lieutenant received - them in the presence of the Judge, of the Captain, and of the - people. Then all marched with slow and melancholy steps to the - cathedral. There they were received by the clergy and its chief, to - whom the sacred trust was delivered, and he placed it on the high - altar. Then the Captain commanding spoke the following words, which - were again and again interrupted by quick sobbing, and streaming - tears that came from men’s hearts more truly than from their - eyes:-- - - ‘In this cruel moment,’ he said, ‘that rends our hearts for the - fatal destruction of the Most Serene Venetian Government, in this - last expression of our love and faith, with which we do honour to - the colours of the Republic, let us at least find some consolation, - dear fellow-citizens, in the thought that neither our past deeds, - nor those we have done in these recent times, have led to this sad - office, which, for us, is now become a good deed. Our sons will - know from us, and history will teach all Europe, that Perasto - upheld to the last breath the glory of the Venetian flag, honouring - it and bathing it in universal and most bitter tears. - Fellow-citizens, let us freely pour out our grief; but amidst the - last solemn thoughts with which we seal the glorious career that - has been ours under the Most Serene Government of Venice, let us - turn to these well-loved colours and cry out to them, in our - sorrow, “Dear flag that has been ours three hundred and - seventy-seven years without a break, our faith and courage have - ever kept you unstained both on the sea and wheresoever you were - called to face your enemies, which were the enemies of the Church - also. For three hundred and seventy-seven years our goods, our - blood, and our lives have always been devoted to you, and since you - have been with us, and we with you, we have ever been happy, and - famous on the sea, and victorious on land. No man ever saw us put - to flight with you; with you none were ever found to overcome us. - If these most wretched times of rash action, of corrupt manners, of - dissensions and of lawless opinions that offend nature and the law - of nations had not ruined you in Italy, our goods, our blood, our - lives should still be yours; and rather than have seen you overcome - and dishonoured, our courage and our faith would have chosen to be - buried with you. But since we can do nothing more for you than - this, let your honoured grave be in our hearts, let our desolation - be your highest praise.”’ - - Then the Captain went up and took a corner of the flag and put it - to his lips as if he could not let it leave them; and all thronged - to kiss it most tenderly, washing it with their hot tears. But as - the sad ceremony had to come to an end at last, these dear colours - were laid in a chest, which the Rector placed in a reliquary - beneath the high altar. - - - - -THE DOGES OF VENICE - -(ACCORDING TO ROMANIN) - - - NOTE.--_The Venetian year began on March first, whence the frequent - discrepancies between the dates given by different writers. In this - work every effort has been made to bring all dates under the usual - reckoning._ - - I. Paolo Lucio Anafesto elected 697 d. 717 Seat in Heraclea. - II. Marcello Tegaliano “ 717 “ 726 - III. Orso Ipato “ 726 “ 737 (murdered). Seat in Malamocco. - (From 737 to 742, military governors called ‘Magistri Militum.’) - IV. Teodato Orso elected 742 -- 755 (blinded and deposed). - V. Galla Gaulo “ 755 -- 756 (blinded and exiled). - VI. Domenico Monegario “ 756 -- 764 (blinded and deposed). - VII. Maurizio Galbaio “ 764 d. 787 - VIII. Giovanni Galbaio and his - son Maurizio “ 787 -- 804 (both deposed). - IX. Obelerio with his sons - Beato and Costantino “ 804 d. 811 (the father put to death as a traitor). - X. Agnello Partecipazio “ 811 “ 827 Seat henceforth in Rialto. - XI. Giustiniano Partecipazio “ 827 “ 829 - XII. Giovanni Partecipazio I “ 829 -- 836 (deposed). - XIII. Pietro Tradonico “ 836 d. 864 (murdered). - XIV. Orso Partecipazio I. “ 864 “ 881 - XV. Giovanni Partecipazio II. “ 881 -- 888 (abdicated). - XVI. Pietro Candiano I. “ 888 d. 888 (killed in battle with pirates). - XVII. Pietro Tribuno “ 888 “ 912 - XVIII. Orso Partecipazio II. (Badoer) “ 912 -- 932 (abdicated and died a monk). - XIX. Pietro Candiano II. elected 932 d. 939 - XX. Pietro Partecipazio (Badoer) “ 939 “ 942 - XXI. Pietro Candiano III. “ 942 “ 959 - XXII. Pietro Candiano IV. “ 959 “ 976 (murdered). - XXIII. Pietro Orseolo I. “ 976 -- 978 (abdicated and died a monk, with the - reputation of a saint.) - XXIV. Vital Candiano “ 978 -- 979 (abdicated and became a monk). - XXV. Tribuno Memmo “ 979 d. 991 - XXVI. Pietro Orseolo II. “ 991 “ 1008 - XXVII. Ottone Orseolo “ 1008 -- 1026 (exiled to Constantinople). - XXVIII. Pietro Centranigo “ 1026 -- 1032 (driven out). - XXIX. Domenico Flabianico “ 1032 d. 1043 - XXX. Domenico Contarini “ 1043 “ 1071 - XXXI. Domenico Selvo “ 1071 “ 1085 - XXXII. Vital Falier “ 1085 “ 1096 - XXXIII. Vital Michiel I. “ 1096 “ 1102 - XXXIV. Ordelafo Falier “ 1102 “ 1118 (died in the Hungarian war). - XXXV. Domenico Michiel “ 1118 “ 1130 - XXXVI. Pietro Polani “ 1130 “ 1148 - XXXVII. Domenico Morosini “ 1148 “ 1156 - XXXVIII. Vital Michiel II. “ 1156 “ 1172 (killed). - XXXIX. Sebastian Ziani “ 1172 “ 1178 - XL. Orio Mastropiero “ 1178 -- 1192 (abdicated and became a monk). - XLI. Enrico Dandolo “ 1192 d. 1205 (died in Constantinople). - XLII. Pietro Ziani “ 1205 -- 1229 (abdicated). - XLIII. Jacopo Tiepolo “ 1229 -- 1249 (abdicated). - XLIV. Marin Morosini “ 1249 d. 1253 - XLV. Renier Zeno “ 1253 “ 1268 - XLVI. Lorenzo Tiepolo “ 1268 “ 1275 - XLVII. Jacopo Contarini “ 1275 -- 1280 (abdicated). - XLVIII. Giovanni Dandolo “ 1280 d. 1289 - XLIX. Pietro Gradenigo “ 1289 “ 1311 - L. Marin Zorzi “ 1311 “ 1312 - LI. Giovanni Soranzo “ 1312 “ 1329 - LII. Francesco Dandolo “ 1329 “ 1339 - LIII. Bartolommeo Gradenigo “ 1339 “ 1343 - LIV. Andrea Dandolo “ 1343 “ 1354 - LV. Marin Falier elected 1354 d. 1355 (beheaded April 17). - LVI. Giovanni Gradenigo “ 1355 “ 1356 - LVII. Giovanni Dolfin “ 1356 “ 1361 - LVIII. Lorenzo Celsi “ 1361 “ 1365 - LIX. Marco Corner “ 1365 “ 1368 - LX. Andrea Contarini “ 1368 “ 1383 - LXI. Michel Morosini “ 1383 “ 1384 - LXII. Antonio Venier “ 1384 “ 1400 - LXIII. Michel Steno “ 1400 “ 1413 - LXIV. Tommaso Mocenigo “ 1413 “ 1423 - LXV. Francesco Foscari “ 1423 -- 1457 (deposed, and died a few days later). - LXVI. Pasquale Malipiero “ 1457 d. 1462 - LXVII. Cristoforo Moro “ 1462 “ 1471 - LXVIII. Niccolò Tron “ 1471 “ 1474 - LXIX. Niccolò Marcello “ 1474 “ 1474 - LXX. Pietro Mocenigo “ 1474 “ 1476 - LXXI. Andrea Vendramin “ 1476 “ 1478 - LXXII. Giovanni Mocenigo “ 1478 “ 1485 - LXXIII. Marco Barbarigo “ 1485 “ 1486 - LXXIV. Agostino Barbarigo “ 1486 “ 1501 - LXXV. Leonardo Loredan “ 1501 “ 1521 - LXXVI. Antonio Grimani “ 1521 “ 1523 - LXXVII. Andrea Gritti “ 1523 “ 1538 - LXXVIII. Pietro Lando “ 1538 “ 1545 - LXXIX. Francesco Donato “ 1545 “ 1553 - LXXX. Marcantonio Trevisan “ 1553 “ 1554 - LXXXI. Francesco Venier “ 1554 “ 1556 - LXXXII. Lorenzo Priuli “ 1556 “ 1559 - LXXXIII. Girolamo Priuli “ 1559 “ 1567 - LXXXIV. Pietro Loredan “ 1567 “ 1570 - LXXXV. Aloise (Luigi) Mocenigo “ 1570 “ 1577 - LXXXVI. Sebastian Venier “ 1577 “ 1578 - LXXXVII. Niccolò Da Ponte “ 1578 “ 1585 -LXXXVIII. Pasquale Cicogna “ 1585 “ 1595 - LXXXIX. Marin Grimani “ 1595 “ 1606 - XC. Leonardo Donà “ 1606 “ 1612 - XCI. Marcantonio Memmo “ 1612 “ 1615 - XCII. Giovanni Bembo “ 1615 “ 1618 - XCIII. Niccolò Donà “ 1618 “ 1618 - XCIV. Antonio Priuli “ 1618 “ 1623 - XCV. Francesco Contarini “ 1623 “ 1624 - XCVI. Giovanni Corner “ 1624 “ 1630 - XCVII. Niccolò Contarini “ 1630 “ 1631 - XCVIII. Francesco Erizzo elected 1631 d. 1646 - XCIX. Francesco Molin “ 1646 “ 1655 - C. Carlo Contarini “ 1655 “ 1656 - CI. Francesco Corner “ 1656 “ 1656 - CII. Bertuccio Valier “ 1656 “ 1658 - CIII. Giovanni Pesaro “ 1658 “ 1659 - CIV. Domenico Contarini “ 1659 “ 1674 - CV. Niccolò Sagredo “ 1674 “ 1676 - CVI. Aloise Contarini “ 1676 “ 1683 - CVII. Marcantonio Giustiniani “ 1683 “ 1688 - CVIII. Francesco Morosini “ 1688 “ 1694 - CIX. Silvestro Valier “ 1694 “ 1700 - CX. Aloise Mocenigo “ 1700 “ 1709 - CXI. Giovanni Corner “ 1709 “ 1722 - CXII. Aloise Sebastian Mocenigo “ 1722 “ 1732 - CXIII. Carlo Ruzzini “ 1732 “ 1735 - CXIV. Luigi Pisani “ 1735 “ 1741 - CXV. Pietro Grimani “ 1741 “ 1752 - CXVI. Francesco Loredan “ 1752 “ 1762 - CXVII. Marco Foscarini “ 1762 “ 1763 - CXVIII. Aloise Mocenigo “ 1763 “ 1779 - CXIX. Paolo Renier “ 1779 “ 1788 - CXX. Ludovico Manin “ 1788 -- 1797 (abdicated with the aristocratic government). - - - - -TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DATES IN VENETIAN HISTORY - - -A.D. - 421 (about) Venice founded by fugitives from Aquileia, Altinum, and - Padua. (According to tradition on March 25, 421, at noon.) - 697 Paulus Lucas Anafestus of Heraclea chosen as first Doge. - 809 Pepin, son of Charlemagne, attempts to take Venice and is - defeated. - 828 (about) The body of Saint Mark is brought to Venice, and he is - proclaimed protector of the Republic in place of Saint - Theodore. - 959 (about) The brides of Venice and their dowries are carried off by Istrian - pirates. - 975 The first basilica of Saint Mark is destroyed by fire. - 998 Pietro Orseolo is acclaimed as Doge of Venice and Dalmatia. - 998 The Emperor Otho III. visits Venice secretly. -1009 Venice is ravaged by the plague. -1099 Venetians defeat the Pisans off Rhodes. -1123 Defeat of the Turks at Jaffa. -1123 The Doge Domenico Michiel takes Tyre. -1167 Venice joins the Lombard League, with Verona, Padua, Milan, - Bologna, and other cities. -1172 Institution of the Great Council, in which membership is - open and elective. -1177 The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa makes submission to - Pope Alexander III. at Venice. -1177 The ceremony of the Espousal of the Sea by the Doge - instituted. -1202 (Oct. 8) The Venetian fleet sets out for the Fourth Crusade under the - Doge Enrico Dandolo. -1204 (April 12) Constantinople taken by the Venetian and French forces. -1277 Membership in the Great Council limited to those of legitimate - birth. -1297 Closure of the Great Council, in which membership becomes - a privilege of the nobles. -1300 Conspiracy of Marino Bocconio. -1310 Conspiracy of Marco Quirini and Bajamonte Tiepolo. -1335 Permanent institution of the Council of Ten. -1348 Venice loses half her population by the plague. -1354 Conspiracy of Marino Faliero. -1379-80 War of Chioggia. -1404-54 During this time Venice possesses herself, on the mainland, - of Padua, Ravenna, Verona, Treviso, Vicenza, Brescia, Bergamo, - Feltre, Belluno, Crema, and Friuli. -1405 Carlo Zeno takes Padua from Carrara. -1426 League with Florence concluded. Brescia surrenders to the - allied forces, the Venetian troops being commanded by - Carmagnola. -1428 Bergamo surrenders to Carmagnola. -1432 (May 5) Carmagnola executed as a traitor to the Republic. -1437 Erasmo da Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata, is made commander - of the Venetian army. -1449 Bartolommeo Colleoni is commander of the Venetian forces. -1453 (May 29) Constantinople taken by the Turks. Many Venetians are - massacred and much Venetian property destroyed. -1477 Scutari, besieged by the Turks, is successfully defended by - Antonio da Lezze. -1489 Venice annexes Cyprus, leaving Catharine Cornaro the empty - title of its Queen. -1508 League of Cambrai, between the Emperor Maximilian, Pope - Julius II., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon. -1571 (Oct. 7) Battle of Lepanto won by the allied fleets of Venice, Genoa, - the Holy See, and Spain, commanded respectively by Sebastiano - Venier, Andrea Doria, and Marcantonio Colonna, under - Don John of Austria as commander-in-chief. -1574 Visit of Henry III. of France. -1575-7 Venice, swept by the plague, loses one-fourth of her population, - Titian among them. Church of the Redentore built to commemorate - its cessation. -1577 (Dec. 20) Fire destroys the Hall of the Great Council, with many - magnificent works of art. -1630 Another visitation of the plague, commemorated by the Church - of the Salute. - -1715-18 The Turks wrest from Venice Crete and the Peloponnesus. -1784 Angelo Emo, the last Venetian leader, humbles the Bey of Tunis. -1788 Election of the 120th and last Doge, Ludovico Manin. -1796 The ceremony of the Espousal of the Sea by the Doge takes - place for the last time. -1797 (April 18) General Bonaparte, by the treaty of Campo-Formio, cedes - to Austria the Venetian provinces between the Po, the Oglio, - and the Adriatic, in exchange for Romagna, with Ferrara and - Bologna. -1797 (May 12) The Doge Ludovico Manin abdicates, and the Great Council - accepts the Provisional Government required by General - Bonaparte. -1798 (Jan. 18) The Austrian garrison takes possession of Venice. -1866 (Oct. 19) Austria cedes Venice to Napoleon III., who transfers it to - Victor Emanuel II., King of Italy. - - - - -SOME EMINENT MEN AND WOMEN CONNECTED WITH VENICE - -_The places where some of the principal works of Painters and Architects -may be seen are given in this list, which, however, is by no means -exhaustive._ - - -ARCHITECTS - -(_Many of these were also Sculptors._) - -1618-1684. GIUSEPPE BENONI. - -The Dogana. - -(Not known)-1529. BARTOLOMMEO BON. - -Ducal Palace, S. Maria dell’ Orto, Scuola di San Rocco, Palazzo Foscari. - -(Not known)-about 1680. BALDASSARE LONGHENA. - -S. Maria degli Scalzi, S. Maria della Salute, Palazzo Giustiniani Lolin, -Palazzo Rezzonico, Palazzo Pesaro. - -1518-1580. ANDREA PALLADIO. - -Ducal Palace, San Giorgio Maggiore, Il Redentore. - -1512-1597. GIOVANNI ANTONIO DA PONTE. - -The Rialto. - -1484-1549. MICHELE SAMMICHELE. - -Palazzo Grimani, Palazzo Corner Mocenigo, Castello di S. Andrea. - -1479-1570. JACOPO SANSOVINO. - -Ducal Palace, Libreria Vecchia, Loggietta, Procuratie Nuove, Zecca, S. -Giuliano, S. Salvatore, S. M. Mater Domini, Palazzo Corner, Palazzo -Manin. - -1552-1616. VINCENZO SCAMOZZI. - -Ducal Palace, Libreria Vecchia, Procuratie Nuove, I Tolentini, Palazzo -Contarini degli Scrigni. - - -CONDOTTIERI - -1390-1432. CARMAGNOLA (FRANCESCO BUSSONE). - -1400-1475. BARTOLOMMEO COLLEONE. - -(Not known)-1443. GATTAMELATA (ERASMO DA NARNI). - -His statue by Donatello is at Padua. - -1401-1466. FRANCESCO SFORZA. - - -MEN AND WOMEN OF LETTERS - - -1492-1566. ARETINO (PIETRO BACCI), Essayist and Playwright. - -(About) 1510-1571. ANDREA CALMO, Essayist and Poet. - -1310-1354. ANDREA DANDOLO, Historian. - -1554-(after 1591). VERONICA FRANCO, Poetess. - -1707-1793. CARLO GOLDONI, Playwright. - -1720-1806. CARLO GOZZI, Playwright and Satirist. - -1449-1515. ALDUS MANUTIUS, Printer. - -1512-1574. PAULUS MANUTIUS (son of ALDUS), Printer. - -1547-1597. ALDUS MANUTIUS (son of PAULUS, and grandson of ALDUS I.), Printer. - -1755-1832. GIUSTINA RENIER MICHIEL, Historian. - -1523-1554. GASPARA STAMPA, Poetess. - - -PAINTERS - -1556-1629. ALIENSE (ANTONIO VASILLACCHI). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia delle Belle Arti. - -1510-1592. BASSANO (JACOPO DA PONTE). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, Museo (Civico). - -1548-1591. BASSANO (FRANCESCO DA PONTE, eldest son of JACOPO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, San Giacomo dell’ Orio. - -1558-1623. BASSANO (LEANDRO DA PONTE, third son of JACOPO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia. - -1400-1470. JACOPO BELLINI (father of GENTILE and GIOVANNI). - -Accademia, Museo Civico. - -1421-1501. GENTILE BELLINI (eldest son of JACOPO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, Museo Civico, S. Giobbe. - -1426-1516. GIOVANNI BELLINI (second son of JACOPO). - -Accademia, San Francesco della Vigna, Frari, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, S. -Pietro Martire at Murano, Museo Correr. - -1491-1553. BONIFAZIO (IL VENEZIANO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Salvatore, S. Leo, S. Angelo Raffaele. - -1513-1588. PARIS BORDONE. - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Giovanni in Bragora, S. Giobbe, S. Maria -dell’ Orto. - -1697-1768. CANALETTO (ANTONIO CANAL). - -Accademia, Museo Civico. - -(About) 1450-1522. VITTORE CARPACCIO. - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Giorgio degli Schiavoni, S. Vitale, SS. -Giovanni e Paolo, Museo Correr. - -1675-1757. ROSALBA CARRIERA. - -Accademia, Museo Correr. - -1549-1605. GIOVANNI CONTARINI. - -Ducal Palace. - -1477-1511. GIORGIONE (GIORGIO BARBARELLI). - -Accademia, Palazzo Giovanelli. - -1712-1793. FRANCESCO GUARDI. - -Accademia, Museo Civico. - -(Unknown)-1515 or 1529. PIETRO LOMBARDO. - -Ducal Palace. - -1702-1762. PIETRO LONGHI. - -Museo Civico, Palazzo Grassi. - -1480-1548. JACOPO PALMA (PALMA VECCHIO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Maria dell’ Orto, S. Maria Formosa, Scuola -di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, S. Cassiano. - -1544-1628. JACOPO PALMA (PALMA GIOVANE, great-nephew of PALMA VECCHIO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, Frari. - -1566-1638. SANTE PERANDA. - -Ducal Palace. - -1693-1769. GIOVANNI BATTISTA TIEPOLO. - -La Fava, Gli Scalzi, I Gesuati, S. Martino, Palazzo Labia. - -1512-1594. TINTORETTO (JACOPO ROBUSTI). - -Ducal Palace, Scuola di San Rocco, Accademia, S. Maria dell’ Orto, S. -Maria della Salute, Hospital of S. Marco, S. Cassiano. - -1519-1594. DOMENICO TINTORETTO (son of JACOPO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia. - -1477-1576. TITIAN (TIZIANO VECELLIO). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, Scuola di San Rocco, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, -Frari, S. Maria della Salute. - -1545-1611. MARCO VECELLIO (nephew of TITIAN). - -Ducal Palace. - -1528-1588. PAUL VERONESE (PAOLO CALIARI). - -Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Pantaleone, S. Catarina, S. Francesco della -Vigna. - -1568-1637. GABRIELE CALIARI (eldest son of PAOLO). - -Ducal Palace. - -1539-1614. ANDREA VICENTINO (DEI MICHIELI). - -Ducal Palace. - -1525-1608. ALESSANDRO VITTORIA. - -Palazzo Balbi, Decorations of the Scala d’ Oro in the Ducal Palace. - -1543-1616. FEDERIGO ZUCCARO. - -Ducal Palace. - - -SCULPTORS - -1757-1822. ANTONIO CANOVA. - -Accademia, Frari, Arsenal, Museo Civico, Palazzo Trèves. - -1435-1488. VERROCCHIO (ANDREA CIONI DI MICHELE). - -Square of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. - - - - -INDEX - - -Academies, 147-149 - -Academy of ‘La Fama,’ 160 - -Accoramboni, Vittoria, 58 - -Adams, Brooks, 164 - John, 362 - -Adige, the, 178, 385, 417 - -Adriatic, 134, 169, 356, 396 - -Agrippa, Marcus, statue of, 319 - -Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 362 - -Albanians, 350 - -Albrizzi, Isabella Teodochi, 264 - -Aldine Academy, 147, 154 - -Aldine press, 154 - -Algerian pirates, 358 - -Alviano, Bartolomeo d’, 67 - -Ambassadors, 77-94 - -American War of Independence, 362 - -‘Angel Gabriel,’ war-galley, 171 - -Architects, 429 - -Archives of-- - Council of Ten, 153, 164, 212, 333 - Inquisitors of State, 284, 321 - Senate, 363 - -Aretino, Pietro, 136-144, 147, 196 - -Aristocracy, Venetian-- - laws relating to baptism, 6 - marriage laws, 6-8 - registration of births and marriages, 7 - -Aristotle’s works, first Greek edition, 150-151, 152 - -Armenians, 114 - -Arsenal, the, 95-98, 172, 194, 228, 270, 272, 274, 275, 276, 312, 349, 351-354 - -Arsenalotti, 97, 98, 184 - -Art, dramatic, 278-280 - -Arundel, Countess of, 216-218 - Sir John, 164 - -Athens, 227 - -Augsburg, 68, 182 - -Austria, 223, 224, 226, 362, 367, 371, 372, 377, 378, 379, 387, 388, 389, 393, 394, 396, 399, 415 - Emperor of, 417 - -Avogadori, the, 6, 296 - - -Badoer, Federigo, 159-161 - -Bailo of Constantinople, 81, 341 - -Balland, General, 417 - -Ballarin, Zorzi, 103 - -Ballot-boxes, office of carrying, 8 - -Balsamo, Giuseppe, 316-317 - -Bandits, 52-53, 55 - -Banquets, ducal, 337-340 - -Baraguay d’Hilliers, General, 389, 400, 406 - -Barbaro, Marcantonio, 8, 78, 79 - -Barbarigo, Agostino, 416 - -Barchi, Giacomo, 331, 332 - -Baschet, M. Armand, 37, 94, 219 - _Souvenirs_ of, 85, 183 - -Basilica of Saint Mark, 66, 172, 267, 342 - -Bastionero, 112 - -Battagia, Francesco, 409, 410, 411 - -Beaufort, Duc de, 226 - -Beaulieu, General, 379 - -Bellini, the, 98, 133 - Gentile, 107 - -Bembo, Cardinal, 150, 156 - -Beneto, Domenico, 22 - -Benzon, Marina, 257 - -Bergamo, 84, 332, 387, 389, 392 - -Bernardo, Pietro, 148-149 - -Beroviero, Angelo, 103-105 - Marietta, 103, 104 - -Berthier, Marshal, 383 - -Bey of Tunis, 358-359 - -Biri Grande, 134 - -Bisaccia, Bishop of, 84 - -‘Black Cabinet,’ 371, 372 - -‘Black Inquisitors,’ 14 - -Boleyn, Anne, 91 - -Bollani, Bishop Pietro, 60 - -Bologna, 389, 396 - -Bonaventuri, Pietro, 121-127 - -Bonnal, 381, 388 - -Bragadin, Marcantonio, 170-171 - -Braschi, Cardinal, 256 - -Bravi, 52-53, 55, 56, 60, 64, 320-332 - -Brenta, the, 178, 251 - -Brescia, 322, 328, 329, 330, 332, 383, 387, 388, 389 - -Bridge. _See_ Ponte - of San Lio, 205 - of Sighs, 46 - -British Constitution, 88 - -Brown, Horatio, 131, 347 - Rawdon, 65, 86 - -Bruno, Giordano, 26-29, 196 - -Bucentaur, 178, 184, 229, 270-276 - -Burano lace, 109 - -Businallo, 240 - -Byron, Lord, 217 - -Byzantine Empire, 119 - - -Cæsar, Julius, 346 - -Cæsars, the Roman, 175 - -Café Ancilotto, 317 - -Cagliostro, Count. _See_ Balsamo, Giuseppe - -Calmo, Andrea, 139-140 - -Calvisano, 326 - -Cambrai, League of, 66, 67, 198, 386 - treaty of, 86 - -Cambridge University, 88 - -Campanile, 141 - -Campo-Formio, treaty of, 396, 417 - -Canova, Antonio, 269 - -Cappelletti, the, of Verona, 68 - -Cappello, the, 63, 64 - Bartolommeo, 121, 123 - Bianca, 121-128, 129 - Vittor, 46 - -Carbonare, Marchesa, 329-330 - -Carlowitz, treaty of, 230 - -Carpaccio, 106, 116, 120, 132, 133 - -Casali, Marchese, 329 - -Casanova, Jacopo, 281 - -Castaldi, 149 - -Catharine of Aragon, 87, 91 - -Catherine the Great, 341 - -Cattaro, fortress of, 221 - -Cesaresco, Count Martinengo, 322 - -Charles V., Emperor, 137, 182 - -Charles VIII. of France, 168, 394 - -Charles IX. of France, 176 - -Chateaubriand, 260-261 - _Mémoires d’Outre Tombe_ by, 262 - -Cherasco, treaty of, 225 - -Chesterfield, Lord, 320 - -Chioggia, 5, 45, 118 - -Chioggia, Zarlino da, 180 - -Chiribini, Andrea, 275-277 - -Churches of-- - the Frari, 149 - the Madonna della Salute, 225 - the Redentore, 225 - the Serviti, 360 - the Tolentini, 343 - Saint Pantales, 131 - Saint Patrinian, 154 - San Basso, 143, 343 - San Giacomo, 181 - San Giovanni e Paolo, 171 - Sant’ Eustachio, 219 - Santa Maria Formosa, 210 - Santo Stefano, 230 - -Cicero’s _Rhetoric_, 151 - -‘Cicisbei,’ 240-241 - -Cicogna, Emanuele, 312-315 - -Cisalpine Republic, 332, 417 - -Cispadane Republic, 389 - -Clogs, 128-129 - -Colbert, Jean Baptiste, 108 - -Collalto, Collaltino di, 162 - -College of Nobles, 292 - of Painters, 146 - -Colonna, Marcantonio, 173 - -Commines, Philippe de, 168 - -Condottieri, 430 - -Constantinople, 40, 45, 78, 81, 169, 171, 175 - -Contarini, Andrea. _See under_ Doges - -Convent of Santo Stefano, 196 - -Convents, 234-239 - -Corinth, 227 - Gulf of, 171, 230 - -Corner, Catterino, 416 - -Council of Ten, 2, 11-19, 22, 36, 50, 55, 60, 62, 64, 66, 71, 73, 75, 86, 100, 102, 114, 121, 123, 126, 150, 160, 162, 176, 195, 212, 214, 219-222, 227, 248, 281, 282, 296-302, 304, 310, 320, 323, 326-328, 392 - -Couriers, State, 84-86 - -Courtesans, 130-131 - -Crema, 382, 383, 387 - -Crete, 225-227, 349 - -Criminal history, Venetian, 51-66 - -Cristofoli, Cristofolo de’, 311-321, 331 - -Cromwell, Oliver, 175 - -Crusades, the, 4 - -Cyprus, 170, 175 - - -Dalmatia, 230, 386, 417, 418 - -Dandolo, Andrea, 312 - Vincenzo, 60 - _See also under_ Doges - -Dante, 36, 95, 205 - -Danube, the, 349 - -Daru, 11, 12, 105 - -Deserto, island of, 134 - -Didot, M., 151, 152, 153 - -Diplomacy, Venetian, 77-94 - -Directory, French, 377, 378, 381, 383, 388, 396, 406 - -Doge, the, palace of, 22, 97 - restrictions on freedom of, 43-50 - -Doges-- - Contarini, Andrea, 45, 226 - Dandolo, Enrico, 45, 174, 226 - Leonardo, 209 - Donà, Leonardo, 12, 166 - Erizzo, Francesco, 49, 226 - Foscari, Francesco, 44 - Foscarini, Marco, 254, 256, 334-335 - Giustiniani, Marcantonio, 49 - Gradenigo, Bartolommeo, 84 - Grimani, Antonio, 49 - Gritti, Andrea, 38, 49, 116 - Manin, Ludovico, 347, 359, 394 - Mastropiero, Orio, 268 - Mocenigo, Aloise (Luigi), 49, 172, 186 - Aloise IV., 335-340 - Giovanni, 45 - Moro, Cristoforo, 46 - Morosini, Francesco, 49, 107, 227-230 - Renier, Paolo, 340-343 - Steno, Michel, 46, 190 - Valier, Silvestro, 230 - -Dogess, the, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 47 - -Dolfin, Daniele, 372, 363 - -Don John of Austria, 171 - -Doná, Francesco, 398, 404 - Leonardo. _See under_ Doges - Niccolò, 12 - Pietro, 408, 409, 410, 411 - -Dress and fashion, 34-38, 128, 242-245, 249 - -Drownings, official, 18-19 - -‘Ducal promise,’ 220 - -Ducat, gold, 92 - -Ducks, tribute of, 48-50 - - -Edward III. of England, 84 - -Egina, 230 - -Elections of Doge, cost of, 345-346 - -Elizabeth, Queen of England, 86 - -Emo, Alvise, 295 - Angelo, 356-360 - -England, 19, 27, 83, 84, 86, 91, 93, 165, 175, 214, 215, 219, 263, 356, 374, 377, 398 - Venetian ambassadors to, 83-93 - -Erasmus, 152 - -Erizzo, Francesco. _See under_ Doges - -‘Espousal of the Sea,’ ceremony of the, 270-275 - -Euganean Hills, 134 - -Executives against Blasphemy, 24 - of the Ten, 14 - -Exhibition, first Universal Industrial, 268 - - -Fair of the Ascension, 266-277 - -Falier, Ludovico, 86-93 - -Fata Morgana, 134 - -Father Inquisitor, 24, 28 - -Faust, Johann, 149 - -Feasts of-- - Ascension, 267, 337 - Candlemas, 210 - Saint Jerome, 337 - Saint Justina, 172 - Saint Mark, 337 - Saint Stephen, 337 - Saint Vitus, 337 - -Feliciani, Lorenza, 316 - -Feltre, 149 - -Ferdinand of Aragon, 198 - -Ferrara, 221, 389, 396 - -Filiasi, 262 - -Florence, 110, 116 - -Florentines, 4 - -Fornaretto, legend of, 65-66 - -Forts of-- - San Nicola, 395 - Sant’ Andrea, 396 - -Foscari, Francesco. _See under_ Doges - -Foscarini, Antonio, 19, 214-220 - Marco. _See under_ Doges - -Foscolo, Ugo, 261 - -Foundling Asylum, 8 - -France, 42, 74, 79, 100, 106, 108, 116, 165, 175, 199, 224, 242, 250, 288, 311, 352, 356, 359, 362-379, 360-417 - -Francis I. of France, 74, 75, 137 - -Franco, Veronica, 131, 182-183 - -Frangipane, Cristoforo, 66-76 - -Franklin, Benjamin, 362 - -Frederick III., Emperor, 105-106 - -Frederick IV. of Denmark, 245 - -Freemasonry, 311-316 - -French Revolution, 234, 340, 347, 363-379, 381 - -Friuli, 67, 386 - -Fugger family of Augsburg, 181-182 - -Fulin, Signor, 14, 17, 19 - -Fusina, 401 - - -Gabrieli, Angelo Maria, 416 - -Galilei, Galileo, 164-167 - letter of, quoted, 166-167 - -Gambara, the, 321-322 - Count Alemanno, 321-333 - Countess Giulia, 324 - Francesco, 331, 332 - -Gambling establishments, 194, 201, 245-246 - -Garda, Lake of, 36 - -Genoa, 4, 98, 379 - -Germany, 74, 165 - -Geronimo, Count, 57-59 - -Gibraltar, Straits of, 358 - -Ginevra, Countess, 57-60 - -Giovanna of Austria, Archduchess, 126 - -Giraldi, 65 - -Giudecca, the, 202, 277 - -Giustiniani, Angelo Giacomo, 404 - Leonardo, 398 - Marcantonio. _See under_ Doges - Onofrio, 172 - -Glass-works, 98-106 - -Gloucester, Duke of, 263 - -Godi, Paolo, 103 - -‘Golden Book,’ the, 5, 7, 100, 144, 294, 378, 416 - -Goldoni, 232, 236-238, 241, 247, 270, 277-280, 302, 304, 305-309, 355 - -Gondolas, 38-42, 201 - -Gonzaga, Carlo, 224, 225 - Ferrante, 224 - Princess, 252-254 - -Goritz, 70, 392 - -Goro, 368 - -Government of Venice-- - aristocratic, 2 - provisional, 411 - -Gradenigo, Bartolommeo. _See under_ Doges - Giuseppe, 295 - -Grand Canal, 336 - -Gratarol, 341 - -Gratz, 398 - -Great Council, the, 5, 7, 8-10, 44, 45, 47, 48, 78, 120, 141, 191, 222, 230, 231, 243, 288-296, 341, 371, 384, 401, 405, 410, 411, 415 - -Greek archipelago, 169 - -Greeks, 114, 119 - -Grimani, Antonio. _See under_ Doges - Cardinal Domenico, 319 - -Gritti, Andrea. _See under_ Doges - Luca, 195 - -Guttenberg, Johannes, 149 - - -_Halimedia Opuntia_, 108 - -Hall of the Great Council, 179, 195 - burning of, 98, 155 - -Hapsburg family, 169 - -Henin, M., 368-373 - -Henry III. of France, 42, 98, 175-186, 251 - -Henry IV. of France, 208, 210, 214, 378 - -Henry VIII. of England, 86-92 - -Heretics, 25, 28 - -High Chancellor, 82 - -Hoffmann, 267 - -Holy Inquisition, 11, 23 - -Holy Office, 23-34, 146 - diagram of Court of, 25 - -Holy Roman Empire, 12, 199 - -Homer, 341 - -‘Hose Club,’ the, 42, 189-201, 278 - -Hospice of Saint Ursula, 277 - -Hôtel Danieli, 72 - -Hungary, 199, 349 - - -Illasi, 57 - Castle of, 60 - -Inquisition, the, 11, 23 - -Inquisitors-- - of Council of Ten, 13, 14 - of Holy Office, 11, 23-34, 281 - of State, 11-22 - -Ionian Islands, 417 - -Istria, 67, 417 - -Ivan Strashny, the Terrible, 175 - -Ivry, battle of, 378 - - -James I. of England, 215 - -Japanese envoys in Venice, 186-187 - -Jefferson, Thomas, 362 - -Jews, 111, 114 - -Joseph II., Emperor, 107 - -Joyeuse, Cardinal de, 210 - -Judenburg, 393 - -Juliet, 68 - -Junot, Marshal, 393, 394, 398 - -Jupiter’s moons, 167 - - -Knights of the Golden Stole, 82-83, 127, 163 - -Knights of Malta, 225 - -Kugler, Franz, 118 - - -La Forét, 215 - -Lace-making, 105-110 - -Ladies, Venetian, of eighteenth century, 234-246 - of sixteenth century, 117-131 - -Landrieux, General, 389, 392 - -Lange, Apollonia von, 68-76 - -Laugier, 105 - -Laws, sumptuary, 34-43, 201 - Venetian Code, 160, 222, 223 - -Legends, Venetian, 201-206 - -Legnago, fort of, 385, 387 - -Leoben, treaty of, 396, 399 - -Lepanto, battle of, 49, 171-175 - -Lezze, Antonio da, 3 - -Lido, the, 176, 178, 180, 229, 275, 392, 395, 399, 405 - -Lion of Saint Mark, 415 - -Lions of marble from Pentelicus, 228 - -‘Lions’ Mouths’ (boxes), 222 - -Liptay, General, 383 - -Lizzafusina, 76 - -Lodron, Count of, 68 - -Lombards, 119 - -Lombardy, 320, 382, 417 - -Longhi, 232, 233 - -Louis XII., 162, 198 - -Louis XIV., 106, 107, 108, 226, 291 - -Louis XVI., 359, 364, 366, 372 - -Louis XVII., 375, 376 - -Louis XVIII., 375, 376, 378 - -Luca, chief of the Niccolotti, 179 - -Luther, Martin, 132 - - -Maffei, Andrea, 265 - Marchese Scipione, 391 - -Magistracies of Venice-- - aristocratic, 1-11 - in eighteenth century, 299 - -Malamani, V., 316 - -Malta, 349, 359, 367 - -Manin, Ludovico. _See under_ Doges - -Mantua, 224-225, 384, 387, 388, 399, 417 - Duke of, 176, 399 - -Manutius, Aldus, 146, 149-154 - Paulus, 154, 160 - -Marcello, Benedetto, 280 - Lorenzo, 226 - -Maria Teresa, Empress, 343 - -Marin, Valentin, 411 - -Martel, Charles, 175 - -Martini, Signor, 117 - -Mary, Queen of Scots, 93 - -Masséna, Marshal, 384 - -Mastropiero, Orio. _See under_ Doges - -Maurice of Nassau, 165 - -Maximilian, Emperor, 66, 67, 68, 71, 198 - -Mayne, Christopher, 164 - -Medici, Cardinal Ferdinando dei, 124, 127, 165 - Cosmo dei, 124, 126 - Francesco dei, 124-127 - Isabella dei, 58, 124 - Maria de’, 214 - -Mediterranean, the, 169, 175, 357 - -Men and women of letters, 430 - -Merceria, the, 242 - -Messina, 170 - -Mestre, 111 - -Michelangelo, 116 - -Michiel, Giustina Renier, 234, 242, 254-265, 272, 337, 338, 342, 417-420 - Marcantonio, 256 - -Milan, 75, 76, 208, 381, 382, 389 - Duke of, 194 - -Ministry of Public Worship, European, 23 - -Mocenigo, Alvise, 404 - Giovanni, 27, 28 - Sebastiano, 343 - _See also under_ Doges - -Modena, 379, 389, 417 - -Molière, 255 - -Molinari, Carlo, 327, 328, 331 - -Molmenti, 26, 35, 48, 57-65, 132, 283 - -Monasteries of-- - the Carità, 197 - Saint George, 22 - San Geremia, 368 - -Money-lenders, 111-115 - -Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 217 - -Montecchi, Romeo, 68 - -Montesquieu, 175, 319-320 - -Monti Vincenzo, 256 - -Moorish conquest, 175 - -Morelli, 262 - -Moro, Cristoforo. _See under_ Doges - Zuan, 195, 196 - -Morosini, Alvise, 200 - Angelo, 195 - Francesco. _See under_ Doges - Niccolò, 409 - Tommaso, 226 - -Mummeries, 198-200, 278 - -Murano-- - Councils, 102 - glass-makers, 100-106, 177-178 - Golden Book, 102 - heraldic arms, 102 - podestà, 102 - -Muratori, 196 - -Musæus, 152 - -Museo Civico, 106 - Correr, 311 - -Mustapha, 170, 171 - -Mutinelli, 345, 346, 352 - -Muzina (prison), 19 - - -Nani, Giacomo, 386, 387 - -Naples, 379 - King of, 350, 387 - -Napoleon, 175, 256, 257, 258-260, 262, 332, 352, 373, 377, 379, 380-417 - -Narenta, pirates of, 169 - -Nassau, Prince of, 387 - -National Assembly of France, 363, 364 - -Navagero, Andrea, 150, 151, 162 - -Nevers, Duke of, 176, 224 - -Niccolini, tragedian, 262, 263 - -Niccolotti and Castellani, 179 - -Nicolosi, Angelo, 12 - -Nicosia, 170 - -Nievo, Ippolito, 391 - -Noailles, Duc de, 226 - -Nobles, College of, 292 - - -Oglio, the, 396 - -Opera, first, in Italy, 180 - -Orford, Lord, 131 - -Orsini, Paolo Giordano, 58, 124 - Virginio, 58-59 - -Osella, coining of the, 49-50, 342, 347 - -‘Oselle,’ gift of the, 48, 337 - -Osopo, 67, 71, 389 - -_Othello_, 64, 65 - -Oxford University, 88 - - -Pace, island of, 134 - -Padua, 152, 172, 349, 398 - Bishop of, 162, 163 - University of, 162-167, 349 - -Painters, 132-146, 430-431 - College of, 146 - -Paisiello, 287 - -Palace (Palazzo)-- - Mocenigo, 217 - Renier, 298 - Zen, 298 - -Palazzo (Palace)-- - Cappello, 176 - Foscari, 180, 181, 183 - Michiel, 257 - Morosini, 201 - -Palladio, 143, 178, 197 - -‘Pallone,’ game of, 198 - -Palma, fortress of, 323, 389 - -Papal Court, 10 - -Parenzo, 49 - -Paris, 242 - -Parma, 362, 379, 382 - Duke of, 329 - -Parthenon, the, 227 - -Pasqualigo, Cosimo, 22 - -Passarowitz, treaty of, 349 - -Passionei, Cardinal, 335 - -Patras, 227 - -Pawnbrokers, 111-115 - -Peloponnesus, the, 227-230, 348, 349 - -Pepoli, Alessandro, 287 - -Pesaro, Niccolò da, 22 - -Peschiera, fort of, 351, 383 - -Peter the Great, Czar, 230 - -Petrarch, 146, 155 - -Philip II. of Spain, 170, 175, 208 - -Philippe de Valois, 84 - -Piave, the, 178 - -Piazza of Saint Mark, 119 - -Piazzetta, the, 270, 283, 324, 336 - columns of, 55 - -Piedmont, 367, 375 - -Pigeons of Saint Mark’s, 188 - -Pio, Prince, 149, 154 - -Piombi, the, 333, 398, 405, 408 - -Pirates, 169, 358 - -Pisa, 165 - -Pisani, Alvise, 366, 372, 375, 376 - Vittor, 3, 174, 356 - -Pizzamano, Domenico, 395, 396, 416, 417 - -Plague, 144, 152, 225 - -Plato’s _Dialogues_, 341 - -Plautus, 196 - -Plays, 196-197, 283 - -Po, the, 178, 380, 396 - -Poe, Edgar, 267 - -Poitiers, 175 - -Poland, 362 - -Political prisoners, 66-76 - -Ponte, Antonio da, 116 - -Ponte. _See also_ Bridge - dell’Angelo, 202, 317, 331 - del Carmine, 179 - di Donna Onesta, 131 - della Paglia, 70 - Storto, 121 - -Popes-- - Alexander III., 267, 270 - Alexander VI., 153 - Alexander VIII., 228 - Clement VII., 91 - Clement VIII., 208 - Gregory XIII., 238 - Innocent VIII., 209 - Julius II., 198 - Paul III., 209 - Paul V., 208, 209 - Pius II., 46 - Pius VII., 379 - Sixtus V., 78, 81, 186 - -Pordenone, 67, 68, 98 - -Portugal, 356, 358 - -Pozzi, the, 21, 333, 405, 408 - -Prata, Count, 278, 279 - -Printing, invention of, 149 - -Prisons and prisoners-- - in eighteenth century, 333 - in sixteenth century, 19-22 - -Priuli, Zacaria, 195 - -Procession of Corpus Domini, 73 - -Provisional Government of Venice, 411 - -Provveditori, 34-43, 129, 186, 201, 235, 282, 296, 354 - -Psalms of David, 148 - -Ptolemy, 167 - - -Quirini, the, 53 - Aloise, 376 - Angelo, 296, 297, 372 - - -Rabelais, 132 - -Raphael, 132 - -Record Office, English, 19 - -‘Red Inquisitor,’ 14 - -Reggio d’Emilia, 389 - -Renascence, the, 119 - -Renier, Bernardino, 257, 258 - Paolo. _See under_ Doges - -Revolutionaries, 316-317 - -Rialto, the, 54, 172, 283 - bridge of, 115-116, 180 - column of, 54 - -Richard III. of England, 109, 175 - -Riviera, the, 377 - -Robert, King, 84 - -Robespierre, 375 - -Romagna, 396 - -Romanin, 11-12, 18, 299, 346, 358, 362, 363, 386 - -Rome, 10, 28, 78, 81, 106, 111, 141, 173, 174, 186, 208, 209, 212, 213, 256 - Barberini Gallery in, 118 - -‘Royal Macedonian’ regiment, 350 - -Rubini, the actor, 270 - -Russia, 175, 341, 377 - - -Sabellico, 150, 155, 158 - -Saint Catharine, 84 - -Saint Helen’s Island, 274 - -Saint Justina, 172 - -Saint Mark-- - procurators of, 231, 305, 336, 359 - standard of, 418-420 - -Saint Mark’s Church, 18, 54, 143, 228, 360 - horses of, 417 - Sacristy, 25 - -Saint Mark’s Square, 35, 140, 195, 199, 212, 258, 260, 268, 269, 298, 408, 409, 414, 415 - -Salimbeni, General, 414 - -Salò, 332 - -Salò, Pietro di, 54 - -Salviati, banking house of, 121 - -San Cassian, 134, 138, 140, 156 - -San Cristoforo, island of, 134 - -San Giacomo in Orio, 157 - -San Giorgio Maggiore, island of, 275, 405 - -San Sisto, Cardinal, 176 - -Sanmichele, 142 - -Sansovino, Jacopo, 136, 140-144, 162 - -Sant’ Omobono, 64 - -Santa Maura, islands of, 227, 230 - -Sanudo, Marin, 21-22, 35, 36, 65, 68, 70, 73, 150, 155-158, 195, 196, 199, 200 - -Sardinia, 379 - -Sarpi, Fra Paolo, 211-213, 218 - -Saturn’s rings, 167 - -Savoy, 367 - Duke of, 184 - -Sbirri, 56, 57, 102, 310-333 - -Scholars, 149-167 - -Schulenburg, Marshal Count von, 349 - -Sculptors, 432 - -See, Holy, 10, 23, 163, 208, 209, 210 - -Senate, sittings of, 11 - -Serrurier, General, 417 - -Shakespeare, 64, 65, 139, 257 - -Sign of the Old Woman, 180 - -Signorotti, 56-57, 320 - -Signors of the Night, 10, 24, 195, 302 - -Signory, the, 64, 71, 74, 77, 82, 84, 166, 188, 194, 198, 211, 213, 218, 234, 266, 268, 269, 275, 373 - -‘Silver Book,’ the, 144 - -Slaves, 169 - -Smedley, E. W., 11, 105, 378 - -Sobieski, 226 - -Societies, secret, 311 - -Soranzo, Jacopo, 93 - Tommaso, 392, 396 - -Spain, 19, 42, 175, 199, 208, 209, 210, 223 - -Stampa, Gaspara, 146, 162 - -Stanislaus Leczinski, King, 320 - -‘Statutes of the Inquisitors of State,’ 11-12 - -Steno, Michel. _See under_ Doges - -Superstitions, 205-206 - - -‘Talanta,’ Pietro Aretino’s, 196 - -Tassini, 131, 143, 148 - -Temesvar, 349 - -_Terremoto_, 143 - -Thames, the, 27 - -Theatre-- - Fenice, 285, 287 - of San Benedetto, 281, 282, 285 - of San Cassian, 246, 304 - of San Moisè, 245-246 - -Theatres, 194, 197, 278-287 - -Theatrical performances, 194, 278 - -Thieves, flogging of, 54 - -Thode, Dr. Heinrich, 67, 74 - -Tiepolo, Domenico, 392, 396 - Giovanni Battista, 251 - -Tintoretto, 98, 120, 133, 138, 139, 144, 178 - -Titian, 98, 118, 120, 133, 135-136, 138, 140, 141-145, 162, 261 - -Tomassetti, Professor, 190 - -Torcello, 134 - -Torre, Count Francesco della, 12 - -Torture, use of, 16-18, 25 - -Tower of London, 21 - -Trade, protection of, 108, 110 - -Treviso, 251, 254, 404 - -Trieste, 368 - -Tron, Andrea, 340 - -Tuileries, 364 - -Turin, 367 - -Turkey, 40, 199, 341 - -Turks, 169-175, 225-230, 348-349, 351, 361 - -Turner, 116 - -Tuscan language, 11 - -Tuscany, 362, 379 - Grand Duke of, 126, 136 - - -Usmago, podestà of, 305 - -Utrecht, treaty of, 362 - - -Valaresso, 278 - -Valier, Silvestro. _See under_ Doges - -Vallesabbia, 390, 393 - -Valtellina, 210 - -Vano, Girolamo, 216, 218 - -Vatican, 23, 77, 164, 212 - -Vendramin, Andrea, 195 - -Venice-- - ceded to Austria, 417 - English ambassadors to, 84 - Henry III. of France visits, 175-186 - period of decadence, 207-254 - period of greatest prosperity, 5 - plague visitations, 152, 225 - -Venier, Girolamo, 340 - Sebastian, 173-175, 356 - -Verona, 57, 323, 375, 376, 377, 383, 384, 391, 398 - -Veronese, Paolo, 26, 120, 146, 178, 261 - trial of, 29-34 - -Versailles, 364 - Congress of, 362 - -Vervins, 208 - -Vienna, 68, 226 - treaty of, 362 - -Villetard, 406-410 - -Vinciolo, Francesco, 107 - -Visconti, the, 4 - -Vitali, Doctor Buonafede, 269 - -Viviani, 164, 165, 167 - - -War of the Spanish Succession, 349, 362, 382 - -‘Wehmgericht,’ the, 12 - -Williams, Henry, 164 - -Wine-sellers, 111-114 - -‘Wise Men on Blasphemy,’ 196 - -‘Wise Men on Heresy,’ 23, 24 - -Wolsey, Cardinal, 87, 92 - -Women of Venice-- - in eighteenth century, 234-246 - in sixteenth century, 117-131 - -Worsley, Sir Richard, 84, 375 - -Wotton, Sir Henry, 216, 218 - -Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 164 - - -Yriarte, M., 8, 29, 44-45, 78, 79, 119, 128, 146 - - -Zeno, Carlo, 3, 174, 356 - Renier, 220, 221 - -Zulian, Girolamo, 311 - - -THE END - -SOUTHERN ITALY AND SICILY AND THE RULERS OF THE SOUTH - -By F. MARION CRAWFORD - -WITH A HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY HENRY BROKMAN - -Cloth Crown 8vo $2.50 net - - -“No living man of letters could have handled his materials with greater -skill, or distilled them with more certainty into a fluent and -fascinating narrative.”--_The Dial._ - -“Mr. Crawford’s manner and method throughout are those of the romantic -historian: true to fact, but true, also, to the romance of events, and -enlivening and strengthening the whole through the historical -imagination. He has taken a subject which he is peculiarly well fitted -to treat by his experience and his studies and his former work, and it -becomes, in his hand, a source of unexpected pleasure.”--_Boston -Herald._ - - -AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS - -STUDIES FROM THE CHRONICLES OF ROME - -By F. MARION CRAWFORD - -_Author of “Rulers of the South,” etc._ - -Fully Illustrated Cloth Crown 8vo $3.00 net - -Dr. S. WEIR MITCHELL writes: “I have not for a long while read a book -which pleased me more than Mr. Crawford’s ‘Roma.’ It is cast in a form -so original and so available that it must surely take the place of all -other books about Rome which are needed to help one to understand its -story and its archæology.... The book has for me a rare interest.” - -“The ablest popular work on Rome published in recent years.”--_Chicago -Tribune._ - -“The ideal chronicle of the Eternal City.”--_Inter-Ocean._ - -“More valuable to the general reader than any other.”--_San Francisco -Chronicle._ - -“He recalls the Rome of the great age of the conquests; of the Empire; -of those years when the fires of life were dying; of the age of the -barbarians; of the middle age; of the Renaissance; and of the modern -time.”--H. W. MABIE. - - - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK - - - * * * * * - - Writings of F. Marion Crawford - - 12mo Cloth - - - Whosoever Shall Offend $1.50 - The Heart of Rome 1.50 - Cecilia 1.50 - Marietta 1.50 - Corleone 1.50 - Mr. Isaacs 1.50 - Dr. Claudius 1.50 - A Roman Singer 1.50 - An American Politician 1.50 - To Leeward 1.50 - Zoroaster 1.50 - A Tale of a Lonely Parish 1.50 - Marzio’s Crucifix 1.50 - Paul Patoff 1.50 - Pietro Ghisleri 1.50 - The Children of the King 1.50 - Marion Darche 1.50 - The Three Fates 1.50 - Katharine Lauderdale 1.50 - The Ralstons 1.50 - Love in Idleness 2.00 - Casa Braccio, 2 vols. 2.00 - Taquisara 1.50 - Adam Johnstone’s Son, and A Rose of Yesterday 1.50 - Saracinesca 1.50 - Sant’ Ilario 1.50 - Don Orsino 1.50 - With the Immortals 1.50 - Greifenstein 1.50 - A Cigarette-Maker’s Romance, and Khaled 1.50 - The Witch of Prague 1.50 - Via Crucis 1.50 - In the Palace of the King 1.50 - -=WHOSOEVER SHALL OFFEND.=--“Not since George Eliot’s ‘Romola’ brought her -to her foreordained place among literary immortals, has there appeared -in English fiction a character at once so strong and sensitive, so -entirely and consistently human, so urgent and compelling in its appeal -to sustained, sympathetic interest.”--_Philadelphia North American._ - -=THE HEART OF ROME (A Tale of the “Lost Water”).=--“Mr. Crawford has -written as absorbingly interesting a story as any of the perennially -engrossing ‘Saracinesca’ trilogy.”--_Brooklyn Times._ - -=CECILIA (A Story of Modern Rome).=--“The love story, which is the -dominating interest throughout, is so strange and novel a one that many -readers will, we think, compare it with ‘Mr. Isaacs,’ the author’s first -and most popular book.... Mr. Crawford will, we think, be held to have -scored a new and distinct success in this story.”--_The Philadelphia -North American._ - -=MARIETTA (A Maid of Venice).=--“The workshop, its processes, the ways and -thought of the time, all this is handled in so masterly a manner, not -for its own sake, but for that of the story.... It has charm and the -romance which is eternally human, as well as that which was of the -Venice of that day. And over it all there is an atmosphere of worldly -wisdom, of understanding, sympathy, and tolerance, of intuition and -recognition, that makes Marion Crawford the excellent companion he is in -his books for mature men and women.”--_New York Mail and Express._ - -=CORLEONE (A Tale Of Sicily).=--_The last of the famous Saracinesca -Series._--“It is by far the most stirring and dramatic of all the -author’s Italian stories.... The plot is a masterly one, bringing at -almost every page a fresh surprise, keeping the reader in suspense to -the very end.”--_The Times_, New York. - -=MR. ISAACS.=--“It is lofty and uplifting. It is strongly, sweetly, -tenderly written. It is in all respects an uncommon novel.”--_The -Literary World._ - -=DR. CLAUDIUS.=--“The characters are strongly marked without any suspicion -of caricature, and the author’s ideas on social and political subjects -are often brilliant and always striking. It is no exaggeration to say -that there is not a dull page in the book, which is peculiarly adapted -for the recreation of the student or thinker.”--_Living Church._ - -=A ROMAN SINGER.=--“A powerful story of art and love in Rome.”--_The New -York Observer._ - -=AN AMERICAN POLITICIAN.=--“One of the characters is a visiting -Englishman. Possibly Mr. Crawford’s long residence abroad has made him -select such a hero as a safeguard against slips, which does not seem to -have been needed. His insight into a phase of politics with which he -could hardly be expected to be familiar is remarkable.”--_Buffalo -Express._ - -=TO LEEWARD.=--“It is an admirable tale of Italian life told in a spirited -way and far better than most of the fiction current.”--_San Francisco -Chronicle._ - -=ZOROASTER.=--“As a matter of literary art solely, we doubt if Mr. -Crawford has ever before given us better work than the description of -Belshazzar’s feast with which the story begins, or the death-scene with -which it closes.”--_The Christian Union_ (now _The Outlook_). - -=A TALE OF A LONELY PARISH.=--“It is a pleasure to have anything so -perfect of its kind as this brief and vivid story. It is doubly a -success, being full of human sympathy, as well as thoroughly -artistic.”--_The Critic._ - -=MARZIO’S CRUCIFIX.=--“We take the liberty of saying that this work -belongs to the highest department of character-painting in words.”--_The -Churchman._ - -=PAUL PATOFF.=--“It need scarcely be said that the story is skilfully and -picturesquely written, portraying sharply individual characters in -well-defined surroundings.”--_New York Commercial Advertiser._ - -=PIETRO GHISLERI.=--“The strength of the story lies not only in the -artistic and highly dramatic working out of the plot, but also in the -penetrating analysis and understanding of the impulsive and passionate -Italian character.”--_Public Opinion._ - -=THE CHILDREN OF THE KING.=--“One of the most artistic and exquisitely -finished pieces of work that Crawford has produced. The picturesque -setting, Calabria and its surroundings, the beautiful Sorrento and the -Gulf of Salerno, with the bewitching accessories that climate, sea, and -sky afford, give Mr. Crawford rich opportunities to show his rare -descriptive powers. As a whole the book is strong and beautiful through -its simplicity.”--_Public Opinion._ - -=MARION DARCHE.=--“We are disposed to rank ‘Marion Darche’ as the best of -Mr. Crawford’s American stories.”--_The Literary World._ - -=THE THREE FATES.=--“The strength of the story lies in portrayal of the -aspirations, disciplinary efforts, trials, and triumphs of the man who -is a born writer, and who by long and painful experiences learns the -good that is in him and the way in which to give it effectual -expression. Taken for all in all, it is one of the most pleasing of all -his productions in fiction, and it affords a view of certain phases of -American, or perhaps we should say of New York, life that have not -hitherto been treated with anything like the same adequacy and -felicity.”--_Boston Beacon._ - -=KATHARINE LAUDERDALE.=--“It need scarcely be said that the story is -skilfully and picturesquely written, portraying sharply individual -characters in well-defined surroundings.”--_New York Commercial -Advertiser._ - -=THE RALSTONS.=--“The whole group of character studies is strong and -vivid.”--_The Literary World._ - -=LOVE IN IDLENESS.=--“The story is told in the author’s lightest vein; it -is bright and entertaining.”--_The Literary World._ - -=CASA BRACCIO.=--“We are grateful when Mr. Crawford keeps to his Italy. -The poetry and enchantment of the land are all his own, and ‘Casa -Braccio’ gives promise of being his masterpiece.... He has the life, the -beauty, the heart, and the soul of Italy at the tips of his -fingers.”--_Los Angeles Express._ - -=TAQUISARA.=--“A charming story this is, and one which will certainly be -liked by all admirers of Mr. Crawford’s work.”--_New York Herald._ - -=ADAM JOHNSTONE’S SON and A ROSE OF YESTERDAY.=--“It is not only one of -the most enjoyable novels that Mr. Crawford has ever written, but is a -novel that will make people think.”--_Boston Beacon._ - -“Don’t miss reading Marion Crawford’s new novel, ‘A Rose of Yesterday.’ -It is brief, but beautiful and strong. It is as charming a piece of pure -idealism as ever came from Mr. Crawford’s pen.”--_Chicago Tribune._ - -=SARACINESCA.=--“The work has two distinct merits, either of which would -serve to make it great: that of telling a perfect story in a perfect -way, and of giving a graphic picture of Roman society.... The story is -exquisitely told, and is the author’s highest achievement, as yet, in -the realm of fiction.”--_The Boston Traveler._ - -=SANT’ ILARIO (A Sequel to Saracinesca).=--“A singularly powerful and -beautiful story.... It fulfils every requirement of artistic fiction. It -brings out what is most impressive in human action, without owing any of -its effectiveness to sensationalism or artifice. It is natural, fluent -in evolution, accordant with experience, graphic in description, -penetrating in analysis, and absorbing in interest.”--_The New York -Tribune._ - -=DON ORSINO (A Sequel to Saracinesca and Sant’ Ilario).=--“Offers -exceptional enjoyment in many ways, in the fascinating absorption of -good fiction, in the interest of faithful historic accuracy, and in -charm of style. The ‘New Italy’ is strikingly revealed in ‘Don -Orsino.’”--_Boston Budget._ - -=WITH THE IMMORTALS.=--“The strange central idea of the story could have -occurred only to a writer whose mind was very sensitive to the current -of modern thought and progress, while its execution, the setting it -forth in proper literary clothing, could be successfully attempted only -by one whose active literary ability should be fully equalled by his -power of assimilative knowledge, both literary and scientific, and no -less by his courage, and so have a fascination entirely new for the -habitual reader of novels. Indeed, Mr. Crawford has succeeded in taking -his readers quite above the ordinary plane of novel interest.”--_The -Boston Advertiser._ - -=GREIFENSTEIN.=--” ... Another notable contribution to the literature of -the day. Like all Mr. Crawford’s work, this novel is crisp, clear, and -vigorous, and will be read with a great deal of interest.”--_New York -Evening Telegram._ - -=A CIGARETTE-MAKER’S ROMANCE and KHALED.=--“It is a touching romance, -filled with scenes of great dramatic power.”--_Boston Commercial -Bulletin._ - -“It abounds in stirring incidents and barbaric picturesqueness; and the -love struggle of the unloved Khaled is manly in its simplicity and noble -in its ending.”--_The Mail and Express._ - -=THE WITCH OF PRAGUE.=--“The artistic skill with which this extraordinary -story is constructed and carried out is admirable and delightful.... Mr. -Crawford has scored a decided triumph, for the interest of the tale is -sustained throughout.... A very remarkable, powerful, and interesting -story.”--_New York Tribune._ - -=VIA CRUCIS (A Romance of the Second Crusade).=--“Throughout ‘Via Crucis’ -the author shows not only the artist’s selective power and a sense of -proportion and comparative values, but the Christian’s instinct for -those things that it is well to think upon.... Blessed is the book that -exalts, and ‘Via Crucis’ merits that beatitude.”--_New York Times._ - -=IN THE PALACE OF THE KING (A Love Story of Old Madrid).=--“Marion -Crawford’s latest story, ‘In the Palace of the King,’ is quite up to the -level of his best works for cleverness, grace of style, and sustained -interest. It is, besides, to some extent, a historical story, the scene -being the royal palace at Madrid, the author drawing the characters of -Philip II. and Don John of Austria, with an attempt, in a broad -impressionist way, at historic faithfulness. His reproduction of the -life at the Spanish court is as brilliant and picturesque as any of his -Italian scenes, and in minute study of detail is, in a real and valuable -sense, true history.”--_The Advance._ - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - -64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVE VENETIA, GLEANINGS FROM -VENETIAN HISTORY; VOL. II *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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II, by Francis Marion Crawford</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Salve Venetia, gleanings from Venetian history; vol. II</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Francis Marion Crawford</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 13, 2022 [eBook #67156]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images available at The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVE VENETIA, GLEANINGS FROM VENETIAN HISTORY; VOL. II ***</div> -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/cover.jpg"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" height="550" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" -style="border:3px outset gray;padding:1em;"> -<tr><td class="c"> -<a href="#CONTENTS">Contents</a><br /> -<a href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">Illustrations</a><br /> -<a href="#THE_DOGES_OF_VENICE">The Doges of Venice</a><br /> -<a href="#TABLE_OF_THE_PRINCIPAL_DATES_IN_VENETIAN_HISTORY"> -Table of The Principal Dates in Venetian History</a><br /> -<a href="#INDEX">Index</a><br /> -</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii">{ii}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i">{i}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_001" style="width: 447px;"> -<a href="images/ill_001.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_001.jpg" width="447" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE ANGELS OF THE SALUTE</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii">{iii}</a></span></p> - -<h1>SALVE · VENETIA</h1> - -<p class="c">GLEANINGS<br /> -FROM VENETIAN HISTORY<br /> -<br /> -BY<br /> -<br /> -FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<i>WITH 225 ILLUSTRATIONS BY JOSEPH PENNELL</i><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -IN TWO VOLUMES<br /> -<br /> -VOL. II<br /> -<br /> -<br /><span class="eng"> -New York</span><br /> -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> -LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> -1906<br /> -<br /> -<i>All rights reserved</i><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv">{iv}</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1905,<br /> -<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.<br /> -<br /> -Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1905. Reprinted<br /> -January, 1906.<br /> -<br /> -<br /><span class="eng"> -Norwood Press</span><br /> -J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br /> -Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v">{v}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table cellpadding="3"> -<tr><td>  </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#I">I.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#I"><span class="smcap">The Aristocratic Magistracies at the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#II">II.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#II"><span class="smcap">Gleaning from Venetian Criminal History</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_51">51</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#III">III.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#III"><span class="smcap">Venetian Diplomacy</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#IV">IV.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#IV"><span class="smcap">The Arsenal, the Glass-Works, and the Lace-Makers</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_95">95</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#V">V.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#V"><span class="smcap">Concerning some Ladies of the Sixteenth Century</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#VI">VI.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#VI"><span class="smcap">A Few Painters, Men of Letters, and Scholars</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#VII">VII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#VII"><span class="smcap">The Triumphant City</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_168">168</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#VIII">VIII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#VIII"><span class="smcap">The Hose Club—Venetian Legends</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#IX">IX.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#IX"><span class="smcap">The Decadence</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#X">X.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#X"><span class="smcap">The Last Homes—The Last Great Ladies</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_232">232</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XI">XI.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XI"><span class="smcap">The Last Carnivals—The Last Fairs—The Last Feasts</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XII">XII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XII"><span class="smcap">The Last Magistrates</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XIII">XIII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XIII"><span class="smcap">The Last Sbirri</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XIV">XIV.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XIV"><span class="smcap">The Last Doges</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_334">334</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XV">XV.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XV"><span class="smcap">The Last Soldiers</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_348">348</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XVI">XVI.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XVI"><span class="smcap">The Last Diplomatists</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_361">361</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XVII">XVII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XVII"><span class="smcap">The Last Hour</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_380">380</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#XVIII">XVIII.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#XVIII"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_412">412</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td>  </td><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_DOGES_OF_VENICE">The Doges of Venice</a></span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_421">421</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td>  </td><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#TABLE_OF_THE_PRINCIPAL_DATES_IN_VENETIAN_HISTORY">Table of the Principal Dates in Venetian History</a></span></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_425">425</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>: -<a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_433">433</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi">{vi}</a></span>  </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii">{vii}</a></span>  </p> - -<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><th colspan="2">PLATES</th></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_001">The Angels of the Salute </a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#plt_001"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_002">The Last Rays, St. Mark’s </a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35"><i>To face page</i> 35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_003">Palazzo Ressonico</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72"><span class="ditto">“</span> 72</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_004">Steamers coming in</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_96"><span class="ditto">“</span> 96</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_005">Afterglow, the Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_134"><span class="ditto">“</span> 134</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_006">Venice from the Garden</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_140"><span class="ditto">“</span> 140</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_007">Entrance to the Sacristy, Frari</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_149"><span class="ditto">“</span> 149</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_008">Campiello delle Ancore</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_208"><span class="ditto">“</span> 208</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_009">The Salute from the Riva</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_246"><span class="ditto">“</span> 246</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_010">Fondamente Nuove</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_313"><span class="ditto">“</span> 313</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_011">From San Georgio to the Salute</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_326"><span class="ditto">“</span> 326</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_012">Ponte Canonica</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_356"><span class="ditto">“</span> 356</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_013">Out in the Lagoon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_382"><span class="ditto">“</span> 382</a></td></tr> - - -<tr><th colspan="2">IN TEXT</th></tr> - -<span style="margin-left: 8.5em;">PAGE</span><br /> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_001">S. Maria degli Scalzi, Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_1"><span class="ditto">“</span> 1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_002">Hall of the Great Clocks, Ducal Palace</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7"><span class="ditto">“</span> 7</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_003">Hall of the Pictures, Ducal Palace</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9"><span class="ditto">“</span> 9</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_004">The Stair of Gold, Ducal Palace</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13"><span class="ditto">“</span> 13</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii">{viii}</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_005">Rio S. Atanasio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20"><span class="ditto">“</span> 20</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_006">S. Samuele</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30"><span class="ditto">“</span> 30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_007">On the Zattere</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_39"><span class="ditto">“</span> 39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_008">Rio del Rimedio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_41"><span class="ditto">“</span> 41</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_009">Mouth of the Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_51"><span class="ditto">“</span> 51</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_010">The Rialto at Night</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_53"><span class="ditto">“</span> 53</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_011">From the Balcony of the Ducal Palace</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54"><span class="ditto">“</span> 54</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_012">The Columns, Piazzetta</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_55"><span class="ditto">“</span> 55</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_013">The Salute from the Giudecca</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_61"><span class="ditto">“</span> 61</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_014">A Garden Wall</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_69"><span class="ditto">“</span> 69</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_015">Palazzo Dario</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83"><span class="ditto">“</span> 83</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_016">Calle Beccheria</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85"><span class="ditto">“</span> 85</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_017">Ponte del Cristo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_95"><span class="ditto">“</span> 95</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_018">S. Michele</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_99"><span class="ditto">“</span> 99</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_019">Venice from Murano</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_100"><span class="ditto">“</span> 100</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_020">The Duomo Campanile, Murano</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_101"><span class="ditto">“</span> 101</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_021">Murano, looking towards Venice</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_103"><span class="ditto">“</span> 103</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_022">Murano</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_104"><span class="ditto">“</span> 104</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_023">The House of Beroviero, Murano</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_105"><span class="ditto">“</span> 105</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_024">The Palaces</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109"><span class="ditto">“</span> 109</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_025">The Rialto Steps</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_112"><span class="ditto">“</span> 112</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_026">Noon on the Rialto</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_113"><span class="ditto">“</span> 113</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_027">At the Rialto</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_115"><span class="ditto">“</span> 115</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_028">Evening off S. Georgio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117"><span class="ditto">“</span> 117</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_029">Casa Weidermann</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_125"><span class="ditto">“</span> 125</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_030">The Grand Canal in Summer</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132"><span class="ditto">“</span> 132</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_031">Euganean Hills from the Lagoon, Low Tide</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_135"><span class="ditto">“</span> 135</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_032">House of Tintoretto</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_145"><span class="ditto">“</span> 145</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_033">House of Aldus</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_147"><span class="ditto">“</span> 147</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_034">S. Giacomo in Orio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_157"><span class="ditto">“</span> 157</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_035">Doorway of the Sacristy, S. Giacomo in Orio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159"><span class="ditto">“</span> 159</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix">{ix}</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_036">Fondamenta Sanudo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_161"><span class="ditto">“</span> 161</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_037">A Holiday on the Riva</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_168"><span class="ditto">“</span> 168</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_038">Door of the Carmine</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_174"><span class="ditto">“</span> 174</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_039">Interior of the Carmine</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_177"><span class="ditto">“</span> 177</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_040">Campo behind S. Giacomo in Orio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_181"><span class="ditto">“</span> 181</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_041">The Piazza</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_185"><span class="ditto">“</span> 185</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_042">Pigeons in the Piazza</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_187"><span class="ditto">“</span> 187</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_043">Sotto Portico della Guerra</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_189"><span class="ditto">“</span> 189</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_044">Ponte S. Antonio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_193"><span class="ditto">“</span> 193</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_045">S. Zobenigo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_197"><span class="ditto">“</span> 197</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_046">Ponte dell’ Angelo, Giudecca, Old Wooden Bridge</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_202"><span class="ditto">“</span> 202</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_047">Rio S. Sofia, Night</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_207"><span class="ditto">“</span> 207</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_048">Santa Maria Formosa</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211"><span class="ditto">“</span> 211</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_049">Grand Canal looking towards Mocenigo Palace</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_217"><span class="ditto">“</span> 217</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_050">The Fondamenta S. Giorgio, Redentore in Distance</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_222"><span class="ditto">“</span> 222</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_051">Steps of the Redentore</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_224"><span class="ditto">“</span> 224</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_052">The Nave of S. Stefano</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_229"><span class="ditto">“</span> 229</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_053">The Riva from the Dogana</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_232"><span class="ditto">“</span> 232</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_054">Campo S. Bartolomeo, Statue of Goldoni</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_233"><span class="ditto">“</span> 233</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_055">SS. Giovanni e Paolo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_243"><span class="ditto">“</span> 243</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_056">Night on the Riva</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_244"><span class="ditto">“</span> 244</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_057">Rio della Toresela</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_253"><span class="ditto">“</span> 253</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_058">A Narrow Street, near the Academy</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_259"><span class="ditto">“</span> 259</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_059">Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_266"><span class="ditto">“</span> 266</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_060">Church of the Miracle</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_271"><span class="ditto">“</span> 271</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_061">The Procession of the Redentore</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_276"><span class="ditto">“</span> 276</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_062">Near the Fenice</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_286"><span class="ditto">“</span> 286</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_063">Grand Canal from the Fish Market</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_288"><span class="ditto">“</span> 288</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_064">S. Barnabò</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_289"><span class="ditto">“</span> 289</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_065">Instituto Bon, Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_293"><span class="ditto">“</span> 293</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_066">When the Alps show Themselves, Fondamenta Nuove</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_300"><span class="ditto">“</span> 300</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_067">Café on the Zattere</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_301"><span class="ditto">“</span> 301</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_068">The Dogana</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_303"><span class="ditto">“</span> 303</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_069">Rio della Sensa</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_310"><span class="ditto">“</span> 310</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_070">Rio S. Stin</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_313"><span class="ditto">“</span> 313</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_071">Rio della Guerra</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_318"><span class="ditto">“</span> 318</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_072">Via Garibaldi</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_325"><span class="ditto">“</span> 325</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_073">The Pesaro Palace, Grand Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_334"><span class="ditto">“</span> 334</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_074">Marco Polo’s Court</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_339"><span class="ditto">“</span> 339</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_075">Ponte della Pietà</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_344"><span class="ditto">“</span> 344</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_076">From the Public Garden at Sunset</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_348"><span class="ditto">“</span> 348</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_077">Boat-Builders</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_353"><span class="ditto">“</span> 353</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_078">The Vegetable Market</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_355"><span class="ditto">“</span> 355</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_079">Fondamenta Weidermann</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_357"><span class="ditto">“</span> 357</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_080">The Salute from S. Giorgio</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_361"><span class="ditto">“</span> 361</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_081">From the Ponte della Pietà</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_365"><span class="ditto">“</span> 365</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_082">On the Way to Fusina, from the Mouth of the Brenta</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_369"><span class="ditto">“</span> 369</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_083">A Lonely Canal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_374"><span class="ditto">“</span> 374</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_084">Evening</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_380"><span class="ditto">“</span> 380</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_085">The Salute from the Lagoon</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_385"><span class="ditto">“</span> 385</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_086">From the Ponte S. Rocco</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_397"><span class="ditto">“</span> 397</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_087">Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_403"><span class="ditto">“</span> 403</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_088">So-called House of Desdemona</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_407"><span class="ditto">“</span> 407</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_089">Sails</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_412"><span class="ditto">“</span> 412</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="pdd"><a href="#ill_090">A Gateway</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_413"><span class="ditto">“</span> 413</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x">{x}</a></span>  </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xi" id="page_xi">{xi}</a></span>  </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1">{1}</a></span>  </p> - -<h2><a name="SALVE_VENETIA" id="SALVE_VENETIA"></a>SALVE · VENETIA</h2> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_001" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_002.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_002.jpg" width="500" height="454" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. MARIA DEGLI SCALZI, GRAND CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br /> -THE ARISTOCRATIC MAGISTRACIES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Like</span> other aristocracies, the Venetian government rarely destroyed or -altogether abolished any office or regulation which had existed a long -time. When a change was needed the duties or powers of one or more of -the Councils were extended, or a committee of the Council<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2">{2}</a></span> of Ten was -appointed and presently turned into a separate tribunal, as when the -Inquisitors of State were created.</p> - -<p>In one sense the government of Venice had now existed in a rigid and -unchangeably aristocratic form during two centuries, and that form never -changed to the very end. But in another sense no government in the world -ever showed itself more flexible under the pressure of events, or better -able to provide a new legislative weapon with which to combat each new -danger that presented itself. This double character of an administration -which inspired awe by its apparent immutability and terror by its -ubiquity and energy, no doubt had much to do with its extraordinarily -long life; for I believe that no civilised form of government ever -endured so long as that of Venice.</p> - -<p>It is therefore either frivolous or hypocritical to seek the causes of -its ultimate collapse. It died of old age, when the race that had made -it was worn out. It would be much more to the point to inquire why the -most unscrupulous, sceptical, suspicious, and thoroughly immoral -organisation that ever was devised by man should have outlasted a number -of other organisations supposed to be founded on something like -principles of liberty and justice. Such an inquiry would involve an -examination into the nature of freedom, equity, and truth generally; but -no one has ever satisfactorily defined even one of those terms, for the -simple reason that the things the words are supposed to mean do not -anywhere exist; and the study of that which has no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3">{3}</a></span> real existence, and -no such potential mathematical existence as an ultimate ratio, is -absolutely futile.</p> - -<p>The facts we know about the Venetian government are all interesting, -however. It had its origin, like all really successful governments, in -the necessities of a small people which held together in the face of -great dangers. It was moulded and developed by the strongest and most -intelligent portion of that people, and the party that modelled it -guessed that each member of the party would destroy it and make himself -the master if he could, wherefore the main thing was to render it -impossible for any individual to succeed in that. The individual most -likely to succeed was the Doge himself, and he was therefore turned into -a mere doll, a puppet that could not call his soul his own. The next -most probable aspirant to the tyranny would be the successful -native-born general or admiral. A machinery was invented whereby the -victorious leader was almost certain to be imprisoned, fined, and exiled -as soon as his work was done and idleness made him dangerous. Pisani, -Zeno, Da Lezze are merely examples of what happened almost invariably. -If a Venetian was a hero, any excuse would serve for locking him up.</p> - -<p>Next after the generals came the nobles who held office, and lastly -those who were merely rich and influential. They were so thoroughly -hemmed in by a hedge of apparently petty rules and laws as to their -relations with foreigners, with the people, and with each other, that -they were practically paralysed, as individuals, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4">{4}</a></span> remaining active -and useful as parts of the whole. No one ever cared what the people -thought or did, for they were peaceable, contented, and patriotic. Every -measure passed by the nobles was directed against an enemy that might at -any moment arise amongst themselves, or against the machinations of -enemies abroad. Of all Italians the Venetians alone were not the victims -of that simplicity of which I have already spoken. They believed in -nothing and nobody, and they were not deceived. They were not drawn into -traps by the wiles of the Visconti as Genoa was, and as many of the -principalities were; they were not cheated out of their money by royal -English borrowers as the Florentines were; they were not led away out of -sentiment to ruin themselves in the Crusades as so many were; on the -contrary, their connection with the Crusades was very profitable. For a -long time they could be heroes when driven to extremities, but they -never liked heroics; they were good fighters at sea, because they were -admirable merchant sailors, but on land they much preferred to hire -other men to fight for them, whom they could pay off and get rid of when -the work was done.</p> - -<p>Like other nations, their history is that of their rise, their -culmination, and their decline. Like other nations, Venice also -resembled the living body of a human being, of which it is not possible -to define with absolute accuracy the periods of youth, prime, and old -age. But we can say with certainty that each of those stages lasted -longer in the life of Venice than in the life of any other European -state, perhaps because no one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5">{5}</a></span> the three periods was hastened or -interrupted by an internal revolution or by the temporary presence of a -foreign conqueror.</p> - -<p>It can be said, however, that Venice was, on the whole, at the height of -her glory about the year 1500, and it would have needed a gift of -prophecy to foretell the probable date of the still distant end. At that -time the Great Council was more than ever the incarnation of the State, -that is, of the aristocracy; and every member of the great assembly had -a sort of ‘cultus’ for his own dignity, and looked upon his family, from -which he derived his personal privileges, with a veneration that -bordered on worship. The safety and prosperity of the patrician houses -were most intimately connected with the welfare of the country; a member -of the Great Council would probably have considered that the latter was -the immediate consequence of the former. As a matter of fact, under the -government which the aristocrats had given themselves, it really was so; -they were themselves the State.</p> - -<p>It was therefore natural that they should guard their race against all -plebeian contamination. From time to time it became necessary to open -the Golden Book and the doors of the Great Council to certain families -which had great claims upon the public gratitude, as happened after the -war of Chioggia; but the book was opened unwillingly, and the door of -the council-chamber was only set ajar; the newcomers were looked</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. iv. 469.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">upon as little better than intruders, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6">{6}</a></span>the ‘new men,’ while they -were invested with the outward distinctions of rank before the law, were -not received into anything like intimacy by their colleagues of the -older nobility.</p> - -<p>It is a law of the Catholic Church that baptism creates a relationship, -and therefore a canonical impediment to marriage, between the baptized -person or his parents on the one hand, and the godfathers and godmothers -on the other, as well as between each of the godparents and all the -rest. But it was the custom of Venice to have a great many godfathers -and godmothers at baptisms, and the nobles were therefore obliged by law -to choose them from the burgher and artisan classes. It was perfectly -indifferent that a young patrician should contract a spiritual -relationship with a hundred persons—there were sometimes as many -godparents as that—if these persons were socially so far beneath him -that he must lose caste if he married one of them; but it was of prime -importance that the law should forbid the formation of any spiritual -bond whereby a possible marriage between two members of the aristocracy -might be prevented, or even retarded. Every parish priest was therefore -required to ask in a loud voice, when he was baptizing a noble baby, -whether there were any persons of the same social condition as the -infant amongst the godparents. If he omitted to do this, or allowed -himself to be deceived by those present, he was liable to a very heavy -fine, and might even be imprisoned for several months.</p> - -<p>The Avogadori now replaced their old-fashioned register by the one -henceforth officially known as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7">{7}</a></span> Golden Book, in which were entered -the marriages of the nobles and the births of their children. Every -noble who omitted to have his marriage registered within one week, or -the birth of his children within the same time, was liable to severe -penalties. But the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_002" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_003.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_003.jpg" width="500" height="410" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>HALL OF THE GREAT CLOCKS, DUCAL PALACE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">names of women of inferior condition who married nobles were not entered -in those sanctified pages, since the children of a burgher woman could -not sit in the Great Council. Nevertheless, it happened now and then -that a noble sacrificed the privileges</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Dog.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of his descendants for the present advantage of a rich dowry; and as -this again constituted a source<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8">{8}</a></span> of anxiety for the State, the amount of -a burgher girl’s marriage portion was limited by law to the sum of two -thousand ducats.</p> - -<p>The young aristocrats received a special education, to fit them for -their future duties and offices. We have already seen that young men not -yet old enough to sit in the Great Council were admitted to its meetings -in considerable numbers, though without a</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien de Venise, 67.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">vote. The instruction and education of young nobles were conducted -according to a programme of which the details were established by a -series of decrees, and especially by one dating from 1443; and in the -Senate very young noble boys were employed to carry the ballot-boxes, in -which office they took turns, changing every three months. There were -probably not enough noble children to perform the same duty for the -Great Council, which employed for that purpose a number of boys from the -Foundling Asylum.</p> - -<p>The young nobles were brought up to feel that they and their time -belonged exclusively to the State, and when they grew older it was a -point of honour with them not to be absent from any meeting of the -Councils to which they were appointed. Marcantonio Barbaro, the -patrician whose life M. Yriarte has so carefully studied, missed only -one meeting of the Great Council in thirty years, and then his absence -was due to illness. When one considers that the Great Council met every -Sunday, and on every feast day except the second of March and the -thirty-first of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9">{9}</a></span> January, which was Saint Mark’s day, such constant -regularity is really wonderful.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_003" style="width: 414px;"> -<a href="images/ill_004.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_004.jpg" width="414" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>HALL OF THE PICTURES, DUCAL PALACE</p></div> -</div> - -<p>During the summer the sittings were held from eight in the morning until -noon, in winter from noon to sunset; this, at least, was the ordinary -rule, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10">{10}</a></span> Doge’s counsellors could multiply the meetings to any -extent they thought necessary, and we know that when a doge was to be -elected the Great Council sometimes sat fifty times consecutively.</p> - -<p>The public were admitted to the ordinary sittings of the Great Council, -and in later times one could even be present wearing a mask, as may be -seen in certain old engravings. But no outsiders were admitted when an -important subject was to be discussed, and on those occasions a number -of members were themselves excluded. If, for instance, the question -concerned the Papal Court, all those who had ever avowed their sympathy -for the Holy See, or who had any direct relations with the reigning -Pope, or who owed him any debt of gratitude, were ordered to leave the -hall. Such persons were called ‘papalisti,’ and were frequently shut out -of the Great Council in the sixteenth century, a period during which the -Republic had many differences with Rome.</p> - -<p>In 1526, for instance, the Patriarch of Venice laid before the Great -Council a complaint against the Signors of the Night, who refused to set -at liberty a certain priest arrested by them, or even to inform the -ecclesiastical authorities of the nature of his misdemeanour. That would -have been one of the occasions for excluding the ‘papalisti.’ The -Patriarch seems to have been a hot-tempered person, for on finding that -he could get no satisfaction from the Great Council, he excommunicated -the Venetian government and everybody connected with it, and posted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11">{11}</a></span> -notice of the interdict on the columns of the ducal palace. The matter -was patched up in some way, however, for on the morrow the notice -disappeared.</p> - -<p>The Senate met twice a week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays. I find among -their regulations a singular rule by which the beginning of every speech -had to be delivered in the Tuscan language, after which the speaker was -at liberty to go on in his own Venetian dialect.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Fulin, Studii, Arch. Ven. I. 1871 (unfinished).</i></div> - -<p>I have already spoken at some length of the Council of Ten; it is now -necessary to say something of the Inquisitors of State, to whom the Ten -ceded a part of their authority in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the Inquisitors of State never had anything to do -with the ‘Inquisition,’ nor with the ‘Inquisitors of the Holy Office,’ a -tribunal, oddly enough, which was much more secular than ecclesiastic, -and which belongs to a later period.</p> - -<p>Secondly, the so-called ‘Statutes of the Inquisitors of State,’ -published by the French historian Daru, in good faith, and translated by -Smedley, were</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">afterwards discovered to be nothing but an impudent forgery, containing -several laughable anachronisms, and a number of mistakes about the -nature of the magistracies which prove that the forger was not even a -Venetian.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, the genuine Statutes have been discovered since, and are given -at length by Romanin. They do not bear the least resemblance to the -nonsense published by Daru. No one except Romanin would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12">{12}</a></span> attempted -to whitewash the Inquisitors and the Council of Ten, and even he is -obliged to admit that for ‘weighty reasons of state’ they did not -hesitate to order secret assassinations; but they were not fools, as the -‘Statutes’ of Daru make them appear.</p> - -<p>The proof that the Statutes published by Romanin are genuine consists in -the fact that two independent copies of them have been found; the one, -written out by Angelo Nicolosi, secretary to the Inquisitors, with a -dedication to them dated the twenty-fifth of September 1669; the other, -a pocket copy, written out in 1612, with his own hand, by the Inquisitor -Niccolò Donà, nephew of the Doge Leonardo Donà. The Statutes in these -two copies are identical; the earlier one, which belonged to Donà, -contains also a number of interesting memoranda concerning the doings of -the tribunal in that year.</p> - -<p>Lastly, it is conjectured by Romanin that the author of the forgery that -imposed on Daru and others was no less a personage than Count Francesco -della Torre, the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire. He died in Venice -in 1695.</p> - -<p>These facts being clearly stated, we can pass on to inquire how and why -the court of the Inquisitors of State was evoked, it being well -understood that although they were not the malignant fiends described by -Daru, who seems to have had in his mind the German tales of the -‘Wehmgericht,’ yet, in the picturesque language of their native Italy, -‘they were not shinbones of saints’ either.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13">{13}</a></span></p> - -<p>Most historians consider that ‘Inquisitors of the Council of Ten’ were -first appointed by that Council</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_004" style="width: 412px;"> -<a href="images/ill_005.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_005.jpg" width="412" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE STAIR OF GOLD, DUCAL PALACE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">in 1314, and it is generally conceded that they did not take the title -‘Inquisitors of State’ and begin to be regarded unofficially as a -separate tribunal till 1539. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14">{14}</a></span> mass of evidence goes to show that -these two dates are, at least, not far wrong, and during more than two -hundred years between the two, the members of the committee were called -indifferently either the ‘Inquisitors,’ or the ‘Executives’ of the Ten.</p> - -<p>They were at first either two, or three; later they were always three, -and they were commissioned to furnish proofs against accused persons, -and occasionally to make the necessary arrangements for secretly -assassinating traitors who had fled the country and were living abroad. -At first their commission was a temporary one, which was not renewed -unless the gravity of the case required it. Later, when they became a -permanent tribunal of three, two of their number were always regular -members of the Council of Ten, and were called the ‘Black Inquisitors,’ -because the Ten wore black mantles; the third was one of the Doge’s -counsellors, who, as will be remembered, were among the persons always -present at the meetings of the Ten, and he was called the ‘Red -Inquisitor’ from the colour of his counsellor’s cloak.</p> - -<p>The fourteenth century was memorable on account of the great -conspiracies, and it is at least probable that after 1320 the secret -committee of the Ten became tolerably permanent as to its existence, -though its members were often changed. Signor Fulin has discovered that -during a part of the fifteenth century they were chosen only for thirty -days, and that the utmost exactness was enforced on those who vacated -the office. A long discussion took place at that time as to whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">{15}</a></span> the -month began at the midnight preceding the day of the Inquisitor’s -election, or only on the morning of that day; since, in the latter case, -an Inquisitor at the end of his term would have the right to act until -sunrise on the thirty-first day, whereas, in the other, he would have to -resign his seat at the first stroke of midnight. The incident is a good -instance of the Venetian manner of interpreting the letter of the law.</p> - -<p>So long as the tribunal was merely a committee depending on the Ten it -had no archives of its own, and whatever it did appeared officially as -the act of the Council, of which the Inquisitors were merely executive -agents. They were dismissed at the end of their month of service with a -regular formula:—</p> - -<p>‘The Inquisitors will come to the Council with what they have found, and -the Council will decide what it thinks best with regard to them.’</p> - -<p>In those times they received no general authorisation or power to act on -their own account, and their office must have been excessively irksome, -since a heavy fine was exacted from any one who refused to serve on the -committee when he had been chosen. Though they were not, as a rule, men -of over-sensitive conscience, they felt their position keenly and served -with ill-disguised repugnance, well knowing that they were hated as a -body even more than they were feared, and that their lives were not -always safe.</p> - -<p>In early times their actual permanent power was very limited, though the -Ten could greatly extend it for any special purpose. For instance, they -could not,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16">{16}</a></span> of their own will, proceed even to a simple arrest; they -could not order the residence of a citizen to be searched; and they -could not use torture in examining a witness, without a special -authorisation from the Ten on each occasion.</p> - -<p>Their work then lay almost wholly in secretly spying upon suspected -persons; and it often happened that when such an one was at last -arrested the whole mass of evidence against him was already written out -and in the hands of the Ten. It also certainly happened now and then -that a person was proved innocent by the Inquisitors who had been -suspected by the Ten, and who had never had the least idea that he was -in danger.</p> - -<p>The machinery did not always work quickly, it is true, especially after -the accused was arrested and locked up. Trials often dragged on for -months, so that when the culprit was at last sentenced to a term of -prison, it appeared that he had already served more than the time to -which he was condemned. This abuse, however, led to a vigorous reform by -a series of stringent decrees, the time of inquiry was limited, for -ordinary cases, to three days, and for graver matters to a month, and -ruinous fines were imposed on Councillors and Inquisitors who were not -present at every sitting of the Court.</p> - -<p>It was towards the close of the sixteenth century that the Inquisitors, -being then elected for the term of a year, were given much greater power -than theretofore. Though they were still closely associated with the -Ten, they now had a sort of official independence, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17">{17}</a></span> the right -to a method of procedure of their own, with secret archives quite -separate from those of the Ten. The year 1596 is generally given as the -date at which the separate tribunal was definitely created, with -permanent instructions to watch over the public safety, and to detect -all plots and conspiracies that might threaten the ‘ancient laws and -government of Venice.’</p> - -<p>It cannot be said that the procedure of the Ten, or of the Inquisitors, -was arbitrary, and the supreme Venetian tribunals have not deserved all -the obloquy that has been heaped upon them; but at a time when the most -inhuman methods were used to obtain evidence, they certainly did not -give an example of gentleness.</p> - -<p>Signor Fulin, to whose recent researches all students of Venetian -history are much indebted, says, with perfect truthfulness, that torture -was by no means used with moderation. He cites a document signed by the -Ten and the Inquisitors, dated the twenty-fifth of April 1445:—</p> - -<p>‘We have received a humble petition from Luigi Cristoforo Spiaciario, -sentenced to two years’ imprisonment and ten years of exile for -unnatural crimes. The said convict has passed two years in prison -according to his sentence, and five years more in the corridors of the -prisons, because his feet having been burnt and his arms dislocated by -torture, he could not leave Venice. The said convict petitions that, out -of regard for so much suffering, he may be pardoned the last five years -of his condemnation.’</p> - -<p>The same writer also tells us that in spite of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">{18}</a></span> precautions which -were supposed to be taken, torture often ended in death; and in the -archives of the Ten there are instances of horrible mutilations besides -public decapitations, secret stranglings, and hangings and poisonings; -there are also some cases of death inflicted by drowning, though these -were less frequent than has been supposed; and lastly, the quiet waters -of the canals have more than once reflected the blaze of faggots burning -round the stake.</p> - -<p>Romanin’s industry has left us an exact list of the official drownings -that took place between 1551 and 1604, a period of fifty-three years. As -it is not long, I append it in full. The list is made out from the -register of deaths which is preserved in the church of Saint Mark’s.</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td>  In</td><td> 1551</td><td colspan="2">there were secretly drowned</td><td class="rt">2</td><td class="c">persons</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1554</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">2</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1555</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">2</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1556</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">3</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1557</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">4</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1558</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1559</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">8</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1560</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">7</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1569</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">6</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1571</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">4</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1573</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">7</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td>From </td><td>1574 to 1584</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">12</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1584 to 1594</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">55</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1594 to 1600</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">50</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td> </td><td>1600 to 1604</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">40</td><td class="c">“</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="4">    Total number of drowned</td> -<td colspan="1" class="undl">203</td><td>during 53 years</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19">{19}</a></span></p> - -<p>The last person who suffered death by drowning was a glass-blower of -Murano in the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>Before going on to say a word about the prisons in the sixteenth century -it is as well to call attention to the fact that the Inquisitors of -State twice found themselves in direct relations with the English -government; once, in 1587, when they called the attention of England to -a conspiracy which was brewing in Spain; and again, a few years later, -in connection with the tragedy of Antonio Foscarini in which they played -such a deplorable part. Is it not possible that there may be some -documents in the English Record Office bearing upon those circumstances, -and likely to throw more light upon the tribunal of the Inquisitors?</p> - -<p>In connection with the prisons, I take the following details, among many -similar ones, from documents found by Signor Fulin in the archives of -the Inquisitors of State. He says, in connection with them, that they -are by no means exaggerated. One of the most characteristic is a case -dated towards the end of the fifteenth century, and it will serve as an -example, since it is known that no great changes were made in the -management of the prisons until much later.</p> - -<p>‘There has been found in the prisons a youth named Menegidio -Scutellario, whom the Council of Ten had sentenced to twenty-five blows -of the stick, which he received, and to a year’s imprisonment. He was -transferred from the new prisons to the one called Muzina, where he -contracted an extremely painful<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">{20}</a></span> inflammatory disease which has produced -running sores. He has several on his head, and his face is much</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_005" style="width: 395px;"> -<a href="images/ill_006.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_006.jpg" width="395" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO S. ATANASIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">swollen. Moreover, this boy is shut up in the prison with twenty-five -men of all ages, which is very dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21">{21}</a></span> for him from a moral point of -view. A widow, who says she is his mother, comes every day to the Palace -begging and imploring that her son may not be left in this abominable -prison, lest he die there, or at least learn all manner of wickedness in -the company of so many criminals. We consequently order that in view of -the justice of these complaints the boy be kept in the corridor of the -prisons till the end of his year.’</p> - -<p>As in the Tower of London, so also in the gloomy dens of the Pozzi, -former prisoners have left short records of themselves. For instance:</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali Urb.</i></div> - -<p>‘1576, 22 March. I am Mandricardo Matiazzo de Marostega’; ‘Galeazze -Avogadro and his friends 1584’; and lower down the following misspelt -Latin words, ‘Odie mihi, chras tibi (<i>sic</i>)’—‘My turn to-day, to-morrow -yours.’</p> - -<p>Occasionally some daring convict succeeded in escaping from those deep -and secure prisons. In his journal, under the fifth of August 1497, -Marin Sanudo writes:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>It has happened that in the prisons of Saint Mark a number of -convicts who were to remain there till they died have plotted to -escape; they elected for their chief that Loico Fioravante, who -killed his father on the night of Good Friday in the church of the -Frari. There was also Marco Corner, sentenced for an unnatural -crime; Benedetto Petriani, thief, and many others. On the evening -of the fourth, when the jailers were making their usual rounds, the -prisoners succeeded in disarming and binding them, and went on from -one prison to another, their numbers increasing as they went, till -they reached the last (novissima); there they found arrows and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22">{22}</a></span> -other arms, and began to discuss a plan of escape. Now it chanced -that two Saracens who were amongst them wished to get out more -quickly, without waiting for the deliberations of their comrades. -One of them was almost drowned in the canal, the other took fright -and began to cry out for help. A boat of the Council of Ten which -was just passing picked up the half-drowned man; the fact that he -was a Saracen suggested that he might be a fugitive, and he was -frightened into confessing. The plot was now revealed and the guard -was immediately informed. On the following morning the chiefs of -the Ten, Cosimo Pasqualigo, Niccolò da Pesaro, Domenico Beneto, -went to the prisons with a good escort, but they could not get in, -for the prisoners defended themselves. Then wet straw was brought, -and it was lighted in order that the smoke might suffocate them. -And they were advised to yield before the order of the Council of -Ten was repeated thrice, for otherwise they would all be hanged. -Marco Corner was the first to surrender, and after him all the -others. They were taken back, each to his prison, under a closer -watch.</p></div> - -<p>In Marco Corner’s case the love of liberty must have been strong, for in -the same journal of Sanudo we find that in little more than a year after -their unsuccessful attempt at flight, he and some companions actually -succeeded in getting out and made their exit through the hall of the -Piovego, that is to say, through the Doge’s palace. Their numbers were -considerable, and six of them were sentenced to imprisonment for life. -During the night they reached the monastery of Saint George, and at dawn -they were already beyond the confines of Venetian territory.</p> - -<p>Having disposed of the Inquisitors of State, I shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23">{23}</a></span> now endeavour to -explain the position and duties of the Inquisitors of the Holy Office, -with whom the ordinary reader is very apt to confound them.</p> - -<p>In the first place, the Holy Office in Venice was a much milder and more -insignificant affair than it was at that time in other European states. -In Venice it seems to have corresponded vaguely to the modern European -Ministry of Public Worship. There are some amusing stories connected -with it, but no very terrible ones so far as I can ascertain.</p> - -<p>The Republic had long resisted the desire of the Popes to establish a -branch of the Holy Inquisition in Venice, but by way of showing a -conciliatory spirit, while maintaining complete independence, the -government had created a magistracy which was responsible for three -matters, namely, the condition of the canals, the regulation of usury, -and—of all things—cases of heresy. It is perfectly impossible to say -why three classes of affairs so different were placed under the control -of one body of men. Considering the gravity of the Venetian government -we can hardly suppose that it was intended as a piece of ironical wit at -the expense of the Holy See. It may, at all events, be considered -certain that the Savi all’ Eresia, literally the Wise Men on Heresy, of -the thirteenth century, had not accomplished what was expected of them, -since in 1289 the government recognised the necessity of establishing a -special court to deal with affairs of religion, presided over, at least -in appearance, by a person delegated for that purpose from the Vatican. -The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24">{24}</a></span> Holy Office was thereby accepted in Venice, but with restrictions -that paralysed it.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Stud. e Ric.</i></div> - -<p>The tribunal was, in principle, composed of three persons, the Apostolic -Nuncio, the Patriarch, and the Father Inquisitor, all three of whom had -to be approved by the Republic. As a first step towards hindering them -from acting rashly, they were strictly forbidden to discuss or decide -anything whatsoever, except in the presence of three Venetian nobles, -who were appointed year by year, and preserved their ancient title of -Wise Men on Heresy. Next,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ii. 252, and viii. 348.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Holy Office was not allowed to busy itself about any religious -matter except heresy, in the strictest sense; it could not interfere in -connection with any violation of the laws of the Church, not even in -cases of sorcery or blasphemy, for magicians fell under the authority of -the Signors of the Night, and blasphemers were answerable to the -Executives against Blasphemy.</p> - -<p>These laws had not changed in the sixteenth century, and the Holy Office -had less to do than most of the contemporary tribunals. An examination -of the documents preserved in its archives shows that from the year 1541 -to the fall of the Republic there were three thousand six hundred and -twenty trials, of which fifteen hundred and sixty-five fell in the -sixteenth century, fourteen hundred and ninety-seven in the seventeenth, -and only five hundred and sixty-one in the eighteenth. In the majority -of cases the testimony was declared insufficient; in others, the accused -hastened to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25">{25}</a></span> abjure their errors. Sometimes, however, we find long -trials in the course of which torture was used as by the other -tribunals, and in these cases the end was frequently a sentence of death -or a condemnation to the galleys.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Stud. e Ric., and Cecchetti, Corte di Roma.</i></div> - -<p>No heretic was ever burned alive in Venice; death was inflicted by -strangling, beheading, or hanging. Each Doge promised, indeed, on his -election, to burn all heretics, but it is amply proved that only their -dead bodies or their effigies were really given to the flames.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/holy-office.png"> -<img src="images/holy-office.png" width="500" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<p>The tribunal of the Holy Office sat in a very low vaulted room in the -buildings of Saint Mark’s, which was reached by a narrow staircase after -passing through the Sacristy. The Court had no prisons of its own. -Persons who were arrested by it, or sentenced by it to terms of -imprisonment, were confined in the prisons of the State, probably in -those of the Ponte della Paglia. It is likely that the Court had at its -disposal two or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">{26}</a></span> three cells near its place of sitting, for the -detention of the accused during the trials. Signor Molmenti has -ascertained precisely how the members of the tribunal were placed, and -has published a diagram which I here reproduce for the benefit of those -who like such curious details.</p> - -<p>As will be seen by the diagram, one half of the personages used one -entrance, and the rest came in by the other. Until the year 1560, the -Inquisitor himself was a Franciscan monk, but afterwards he was always a -Dominican.</p> - -<p>The hall was gloomy and ill-lighted, the furniture poor; it did not -please the Republic to spend money for the delectation of a court which -it did not like.</p> - -<p>It was here that two famous trials took place in the sixteenth century, -namely, that of Giordano Bruno, the renegade monk, dear to Englishmen -who have never read the very scarce volume of his insane and filthy -writings, and that of the celebrated painter Paolo Veronese. The -contrast between these two documents is very striking, but both go to -prove that the Holy Office in Venice was seldom more than a hollow sham, -and that its proceedings occasionally degenerated towards low comedy.</p> - -<p>Having escaped from Rome, Giordano Bruno left the ecclesiastical career -which he had dishonoured in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Previti, Vita di Giordano Bruno.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">every possible way, and wandered about in search of money and glory. In -the course of time he came to London, where his coarseness and his loose -life made him many enemies. Thence he went on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27">{27}</a></span> to Oxford, where, by -means of some potent protection, he succeeded in obtaining the privilege -of lecturing on philosophy; but the university authorities were soon -scandalised by his behaviour and frightened by the extravagance of his -doctrines; in three months he was obliged to leave. He revenged himself -by writing a libel called ‘La Cena delle Ceneri,’ in which he described -England as a land of dark streets in which one stuck in the mud -knee-deep, and of houses that lacked every necessary; the boats on the -Thames were rowed by men more hideous than Charon, the workmen and -shop-keepers were vulgar and untaught rustics, always ready to laugh at -a stranger, and to call him by such names as traitor, or dog. In this -pleasing pamphlet the Englishwoman alone escapes the writer’s -foul-mouthed hatred, to be insulted by his still more foul-mouthed -praise. One may imagine the sort of eulogy that would run from the pen -of a man capable of describing woman in general as a creature with -neither faith nor constancy, neither merit nor talent, but full of more -pride, arrogance, hatred, falseness, lust, avarice, ingratitude and, -generally, of more vices than there were evils in Pandora’s box; one -might quote many amenities of language more or less senseless, as, for -instance, that woman is a hammer, a foul sepulchre, and a quartan fever; -and there are a hundred other expressions which cannot be quoted at all.</p> - -<p>Towards 1591, the patrician Giovanni Mocenigo, an enthusiastic collector -of books, found in the shop of a Dutch bookseller a little volume, -entitled <i>Eroici Furori</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">{28}</a></span> which contains some astrological calculations -and some hints on mnemonics. The purchaser asked who the author might -be, learned from the bookseller that it was Giordano Bruno, entered into -correspondence with him, and at last invited him to Venice.</p> - -<p>Bruno, it is needless to say, accepted the invitation eagerly, as he -accepted every thing that was offered to him, but it was not long before -Mocenigo regretted his haste to be hospitable. He had begun by calling -his visitor his dear master; before long he discovered the man to be a -debauchee and a blasphemer. Now it chanced that Mocenigo had sat in the -tribunal of the Holy Office as one of the three senators whose business -it was to oversee the acts of the Father Inquisitor, and he was not only -a devout man, but had a taste for theology. He began by remonstrating -with Bruno, but when the latter became insolent, he quietly turned the -key on him and denounced him to the Holy Office. A few hours later the -renegade monk was arrested and conveyed to prison. He was examined -several times by the tribunal, but was never tortured, and as the judges -thought they detected signs of coming repentance they granted him a -limit of time within which to abjure his errors. But the trial did not -end in Venice, for the Republic made an exception in this case and soon -yielded to a request from the Pope that the accused should be sent to -Rome. He was ultimately burnt there, the only heretic, according to the -most recent and learned authorities, who ever died at the stake in -Italy. He was in reality a degenerate and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">{29}</a></span> a lunatic, who should have -ended his days in an asylum.</p> - -<p>M. Yriarte has published in the appendix to his study of the Venetian -noble in the sixteenth century the verbatim report of the proceedings of -the Holy Office on the eighteenth of July 1573. The prisoner at the bar -was Paolo Veronese. I quote the following from M. Yriarte’s -translation:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p class="c"> -<span class="smcap">Report</span> of the sitting of the Tribunal of the Inquisition on<br /> -Saturday July eighteenth, 1573.<br /> -</p> - -<p>This day, July eighteenth, 1573. Called to the Holy Office before -the sacred tribunal, Paolo Galliari Veronese residing in the parish -of Saint Samuel, and being asked as to his name and surname replied -as above.</p> - -<p>Being asked as to his profession:—</p> - -<p>Answer. I paint and make figures.</p> - -<p>Question. Do you know the reasons why you have been called here?</p> - -<p>A. No.</p> - -<p>Q. Can you imagine what those reasons may be?</p> - -<p>A. I can well imagine.</p> - -<p>Q. Say what you think about them.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>The Supper in the house of Simon, Paolo Veronese; -Accademia, Room IX.</i></div> - -<p>A. I fancy that it concerns what was said to me by the reverend -fathers, or rather by the prior of the monastery of San Giovanni e -Paolo, whose name I did not know, but who informed me that he had -been here, and that your Most Illustrious Lordships had ordered him -to cause to be placed in the picture a Magdalen instead of the dog; -and I answered him that very readily I would do all that was -needful for my reputation and for the honour of the picture; but -that I<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30">{30}</a></span> did not understand what this figure of Magdalen could be -doing</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_006" style="width: 369px;"> -<a href="images/ill_007.png"> -<img src="images/ill_007.png" width="369" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. SAMUELE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">here; and this for many reasons, which I will tell, when occasion -is granted me to speak.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31">{31}</a></span></p> - -<p>Q. What is the picture to which you have been referring?</p> - -<p>A. It is the picture which represents the Last Supper of Jesus -Christ with His disciples in the house of Simon.</p> - -<p>Q. Where is this picture?</p> - -<p>A. In the refectory of the monks of San Giovanni e Paolo.</p> - -<p>Q. Is it painted in fresco or on wood or on canvas?</p> - -<p>A. It is on canvas.</p> - -<p>Q. How many feet does it measure in height?</p> - -<p>A. It may measure seventeen feet.</p> - -<p>Q. And in breadth?</p> - -<p>A. About thirty-nine.</p> - -<p>Q. In this Supper of our Lord, have you painted (other) persons?</p> - -<p>A. Yes.</p> - -<p>Q. How many have you represented? And what is each one doing?</p> - -<p>A. First there is the innkeeper, Simon; then, under him, a carving -squire whom I supposed to have come there for his pleasure, to see -how the service of the table is managed. There are many other -figures which I cannot remember, however, as it is a long time -since I painted that picture.</p> - -<p>Q. Have you painted other Last Suppers besides that one?</p> - -<p>A. Yes.</p> - -<p>Q. How many have you painted? Where are they?</p> - -<p>A. I painted one at Verona for the reverend monks of San Lazzaro; -it is in their refectory. Another is in the refectory of the -reverend brothers of San Giorgio here in Venice.</p> - -<p>Q. But that one is not a Last Supper, and is not even called the -Supper of Our Lord.</p> - -<p>A. I painted another in the refectory of San Sebastiano in Venice, -another at Padua for the Fathers of the Maddalena. I do not -remember to have made any others.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">{32}</a></span></p> - -<p>Q. In this Supper which you painted for San Giovanni e Paolo, what -signifies the figure of him whose nose is bleeding?</p> - -<p>A. He is a servant who has a nose-bleed from some accident?</p> - -<p>Q. What signify those armed men dressed in the fashion of Germany, -with halberds in their hands?</p> - -<p>A. It is necessary here that I should say a score of words.</p> - -<p>Q. Say them.</p> - -<p>A. We painters use the same license as poets and madmen, and I -represented those halberdiers, the one drinking, the other eating -at the foot of the stairs, but both ready to do their duty, because -it seemed to me suitable and possible that the master of the house, -who as I have been told was rich and magnificent, should have such -servants.</p> - -<p>Q. And the one who is dressed as a jester with a parrot on his -wrist, why did you put him into the picture?</p> - -<p>A. He is there as an ornament, as it is usual to insert such -figures.</p> - -<p>Q. Who are the persons at the table of Our Lord?</p> - -<p>A. The twelve apostles.</p> - -<p>Q. What is Saint Peter doing, who is the first?</p> - -<p>A. He is carving the lamb in order to pass it to the other part of -the table.</p> - -<p>Q. What is he doing who comes next?</p> - -<p>A. He holds a plate to see what Saint Peter will give him.</p> - -<p>Q. Tell us what the third is doing.</p> - -<p>A. He is picking his teeth with his fork.</p> - -<p>Q. And who are really the persons whom you admit to have been -present at this Supper?</p> - -<p>A. I believe that there was only Christ and His Apostles; but when -I have some space left over in a picture I adorn it with figures of -my own invention.</p> - -<p>Q. Did some person order you to paint Germans, buffoons, and other -similar figures in this picture?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33">{33}</a></span></p> - -<p>A. No, but I was commissioned to adorn it as I thought proper; now -it is very large and can contain many figures.</p> - -<p>Q. Should not the ornaments which you were accustomed to paint in -pictures be suitable and in direct relation to the subject, or are -they left to your fancy, quite without discretion or reason?</p> - -<p>A. I paint my pictures with all the considerations which are -natural to my intelligence, and according as my intelligence -understands them.</p> - -<p>Q. Does it seem suitable to you, in the Last Supper of our Lord, to -represent buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs, and other such -absurdities?</p> - -<p>A. Certainly not.</p> - -<p>Q. Then why have you done it?</p> - -<p>A. I did it on the supposition that those people were outside the -room in which the Supper was taking place.</p> - -<p>Q. Do you not know that in Germany and other countries infested by -heresy, it is habitual, by means of pictures full of absurdities, -to vilify and turn to ridicule the things of the Holy Catholic -Church, in order to teach false doctrine to ignorant people who -have no common sense?</p> - -<p>A. I agree that it is wrong, but I repeat what I have said, that it -is my duty to follow the examples given me by my masters.</p> - -<p>Q. Well, what did your masters paint? Things of this kind, perhaps?</p> - -<p>A. In Rome, in the Pope’s Chapel, Michel Angelo has represented Our -Lord, His Mother, St. John, St. Peter, and the celestial court; and -he has represented all these personages nude, including the Virgin -Mary, and in various attitudes not inspired by the most profound -religious feeling.</p> - -<p>Q. Do you not understand that in representing the Last Judgment, in -which it is a mistake to suppose that clothes are worn, there was -no reason for painting any? But in these figures what is there that -is not inspired by the Holy Spirit?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34">{34}</a></span> There are neither buffoons, -dogs, weapons, nor other absurdities. Do you think therefore, -according to this or that view, that you did well in so painting -your picture, and will you try to prove that it is a good and -decent thing?</p> - -<p>A. No, my most Illustrious Sirs; I do not pretend to prove it, but -I had not thought that I was doing wrong; I had never taken so many -things into consideration. I had been far from imagining such a -great disorder, all the more as I had placed these buffoons outside -the room in which Our Lord was sitting.</p> - -<p>These things having been said, the judges pronounced that the -aforesaid Paolo should be obliged to correct his picture within the -space of three months from the date of the reprimand, according to -the judgments and decision of the Sacred Court, and altogether at -the expense of the said Paolo.</p> - -<p>Et ita decreverunt omni melius modo. (And so they decided -everything for the best!)</p></div> - -<p>The existing picture proves that Veronese paid no attention to the -recommendations of the Court, for I find that it contains every figure -referred to.</p> - -<p>After this brief review of the more serious offices of the Republic, I -pass on to speak of a tribunal which, though in reality much less -serious, gave itself airs of great solemnity, and promulgated a great -number of laws. This was the Court of the ‘Provveditori delle Pompe,’ -established in the sixteenth century to deal with matters of dress and -fashion. As far back as the end of the thirteenth century, the ‘Savi,’ -the wise men of the government, had feebly deplored the increase of -luxury. Their plaintive remarks were repeated at short intervals, and on -each occasion produced some new decree against foolish and unreasonable -expenditure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_002" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_008.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_008.jpg" width="500" height="420" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE LAST RAYS, ST. MARK’S</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">{35}</a></span></p> - -<p>The length of women’s trains, the size and fulness of people’s sleeves, -the adornment of boots and shoes, and all similar matters, had been most -minutely studied by these wise gentlemen, and the avogadors had their -hands full to make the regulations properly respected. One day a lady -was walking in the square of Saint Mark’s, evidently very proud of the -new white silk</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, vita Priv.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">gown she wore. She was stopped by two avogadors who gravely proceeded to -measure the amount of stuff used in making her sleeves. It was far more -than the law judged necessary. The lady and her tailor—there were only -male dressmakers in Venice in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries—were both made to pay a fine heavy enough to make them regret -the extravagance of their fancy. I quote this story from Signor -Molmenti. Marin Sanudo tells of another similar regulation in his -journal under the month of December 1491: ‘All those who hold any office -from the State, and those who are finishing their term of service, are -forbidden to give more than two dinner-parties to their relations, and -each of these dinners shall not consist of more than ten covers.’</p> - -<p>At weddings it was forbidden to give banquets to more than forty guests. -Some years later another regulation was issued on the same subject. It -was decreed ‘that at these wedding dinners there shall not be served -more than one dish of roast meats and one of boiled meats, and in each -of these courses there shall not be more than three kinds of meat. -Chicken and pigeons are allowed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36">{36}</a></span>’</p> - -<p>For days of abstinence, the magistrates take the trouble to inform -people what they may eat, namely, two dishes of roast fish, two dishes -of boiled fish, an almond cake, and the ordinary jams. Of fish, sturgeon -and the fish of the lake of Garda are forbidden on such days, and no -sweets are allowed that do not come under one of the two heads -mentioned. Oysters were not allowed at dinners of more than twenty -covers. The pastry-cooks who made jumbles and the like, and the cooks -who were to prepare a dinner, were obliged to give notice to the -provveditors, accompanied by a note of the dishes to be served. The -inspectors of the tribunal had a right to inspect the dining-room, -kitchen, and pantry, in order to verify all matters that came under -their jurisdiction.</p> - -<p>As if all this were not enough, considerable fines were imposed on those -who should adorn the doors and outer windows of their houses with -festoons, or who should give concerts in which drums and trumpets were -used. In noting this regulation in his journal, Sanudo observes that the -Council of Ten had only succeeded in framing it after meeting on three -consecutive days in sittings of unusual length. One is apt to connect -the Council of Ten with matters more tragic than these; and one fancies -that the Decemvirs may have sometimes exclaimed with Dante—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Le leggi son, ma chi pon mano ad esse?<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>(‘There are laws indeed, but who enforces them?’)</p> - -<p>The Council judged that there was only one way of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37">{37}</a></span> accomplishing this, -namely, to create a new magistracy, whose exclusive business it should -be to make and promulgate sumptuary laws. For this purpose three nobles -were chosen who received the title of Provveditori delle Pompe.</p> - -<p>M. Armand Baschet, whose profound learning in matters of Venetian law is -beyond dispute, is of opinion that the new tribunal helped Venice to be -great, and hindered her from being extravagant. I shall not venture to -impugn the judgment of so learned a writer, yet we can hardly forbear to -smile at the thought of those three grave nobles, of ripe age and -austere life, who sat down day after day to decide upon the cut of -women’s gowns, the articles necessary to a bride’s outfit, and the -dishes permissible at a dinner-party.</p> - -<p>‘Women,’ said their regulations, ‘shall wear clothes of only one colour, -that is to say, velvet, satin, damask, of Persian silk woven of one -tint; but exception is made from this rule for Persian silk of changing -sheen and for brocades, but such gowns must have no trimming.’</p> - -<p>Shifts were to be embroidered only round the neck, and it was not -allowed to embroider handkerchiefs with gold or silver thread. No woman -was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Less.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">allowed to carry a fan made of feathers worth more than four ducats. No -gloves were allowed embroidered with gold or silver; no earrings; no -jewellery in the hair. Plain gold bracelets were allowed but must not be -worth more than three ducats; gold chains might be worth ten. No -low-neck gowns allowed!<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38">{38}</a></span></p> - -<p>Jewellers and tailors and dealers in luxuries did their best to elude -all such laws, but during a considerable time they were not successful, -and it is probable that the temper of the Venetian ladies was severely -tried by the prying and paternal ‘Provveditori.’ The only</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, vita Privata.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">women for whom exceptions were made were the Dogess and the other ladies -of the Doge’s immediate family who lived with him in the ducal palace. -His daughters and grand-daughters were called ‘dozete,’ which means -‘little dogesses’ in Venetian dialect, and they were authorised to wear -what they liked; but the Doge’s more distant female relations had not -the same privilege.</p> - -<p>At the coronation of Andrea Gritti, one of his nieces appeared at the -palace arrayed in a magnificent gown of gold brocade; the Doge himself -sent her home to put on a dress which conformed with the sumptuary laws. -Those regulations extended to intimate details of private life, and even -affected the furnishing of a noble’s private apartments. There were -clauses which forbade that the sheets made for weddings and baptisms -should be too richly embroidered or edged with too costly lace, or that -the beds themselves should be inlaid with gold, mother-of-pearl, or -precious stones.</p> - -<p>Then the gondola came into fashion as a means of getting about and at -once became a cause of great extravagance, for the rich vied with each -other in adorning their skiffs with the most precious stuffs and -tapestries, and inlaid stanchions, and the most marvellous allegorical -figures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39">{39}</a></span></p> - -<p>In the thirteenth century the gondola had been merely an ordinary boat, -probably like the modern ‘barca’ of the lagoons, over which an awning -was rigged as a protection against sun and rain. The gondola was not a -development of the old-fashioned</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_007" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_009.png"> -<img src="images/ill_009.png" width="500" height="408" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>ON THE ZATTERE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">boat, any more than the modern racing yacht has developed out of a Dutch -galleon or a ‘trabacolo’ of the Adriatic. It had another pedigree; and I -have no hesitation in saying, as one well acquainted with both, and not -ignorant of boats in general, that the Venetian gondola is the caïque of -the Bosphorus, as to the hull,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40">{40}</a></span> though the former is rowed in the -Italian fashion, by men who stand and swing a sweep in a crutch, whereas -the Turkish oarsman sits and pulls a pair of sculls of peculiar shape -which slide in and out through greased leathern strops. The gondola, -too, has the steel ornament on her stem, figuring the beak of a Roman -galley, which I suspect was in use in Constantinople before the Turkish -conquest, and which must have been abolished then, for the very reason -that it was Roman. The ‘felse,’ the hood, is a Venetian invention, I -think, for there is no trace of it in Turkey. But the similarity of the -two boats when out of water is too close to be a matter of chance, and -it may safely be said that the first gondola was a caïque, then -doubtless called by another name, brought from Constantinople by some -Greek merchant on his vessel.</p> - -<p>In early times people went about on horses and mules in Venice, and a -vast number of the small canals were narrow and muddy streets; but as -the superior facilities of water over mud as a means of transportation -became evident, the lanes were dug out and the islands were cut up into -an immense number of islets, until the footways became so circuitous -that the horse disappeared altogether.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century there were about ten thousand gondolas in -Venice, and they soon became a regular bugbear to the unhappy -Provveditori delle</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Less.</i></div> - -<p>Pompe, who were forced to occupy themselves with their shape, their -hangings, the stuff of which the ‘felse’ was made, the cushions, the -carpets, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41">{41}</a></span> number of rowers. The latter were soon limited to two, -and it was unlawful to have more, even for a</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_008" style="width: 403px;"> -<a href="images/ill_010.png"> -<img src="images/ill_010.png" width="403" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO DEL RIMEDIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">wedding. The gondola did not assume its present simplicity and its black -colour till the end of the seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">{42}</a></span>teenth century, but it began to -resemble what we now see after the edict of 1562.</p> - -<p>As usual, a few persons were exempted from the sumptuary law. The Doge -went about in a gondola decorated with gold and covered with scarlet -cloth, and the foreign ambassadors adorned their skiffs with the richest -materials, the representatives of France and Spain, especially, vying -with each other in magnificence. To some extent the youths belonging to -the Compagnia della Calza—the Hose Club before mentioned—were either -exempted from the law, or succeeded in evading it. Naturally enough, the -sight of such display was odious to the rich noblemen who were condemned -by law to the use of plain black; and on the whole, the study of all -accounts of festivities held in Venice, down to the end of the Republic, -goes to show that the Provveditori aimed at a most despotic control of -dress, habits, and manners, but that the results generally fell far -short of their good intentions. They must have led harassed lives, those -much-vexed gentlemen, not much better than the existence of ‘Jimmy-Legs’ -on an American man-of-war.</p> - -<p>Now and then, too, the government temporarily removed all restrictions -on luxury, as, for instance, when a foreign sovereign visited Venice; -and then the whole city plunged into a sort of orgy of extravagance. -This happened when Henry III. of France was the guest of the Republic. -Such occasions being known and foreseen, and the nobles being forced by -the Provveditori to save their money, they spent it all the more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">{43}</a></span> -recklessly when they were allowed a taste of liberty—like a child that -breaks its little earthenware savings-box when it is full of pennies.</p> - -<p>One naturally returns to the Doge after rapidly reviewing such a legion -of officials, each of whom was himself a part of the supreme power. What -was the Doge doing while these hundreds of noble Venetians were doing -everything for themselves, from directing foreign politics to spying -upon the wardrobes of each other’s wives and auditing the accounts of -one another’s cooks?</p> - -<p>It would be hard to ask a question more embarrassing to answer. It would -be as unjust to say that he did nothing as it would be untrue to say -that he had much to do. Yet the Venetians themselves looked upon him as -a very important personage in the Republic. In a republic he was a -sovereign, and therefore idle; but he was apparently necessary.</p> - -<p>I am not aware that any other republic ever called its citizens -subjects, or supported a personage who received royal honours, before -whom the insignia of something like royalty were carried in public, and -who addressed foreign governments by his own name and title as if he -were a king. But then, how could Venice, which was governed by an -oligarchy chosen from an aristocracy, which was the centre of a -plutocracy, call herself a republic? It all looks like a mass of -contradictions, yet the machinery worked without breaking down, during -five hundred years at a stretch, after it had assumed its ultimate form. -If a modern sociologist had to define<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44">{44}</a></span> the government of Venice, he -would perhaps call it a semi-constitutional aristocratic monarchy, in -which the sovereign was elected for life—unless it pleased the electors -to depose him.</p> - -<p>What is quite certain is that when the Doge was a man of average -intelligence, he must have been the least happy man in Venice; for of -all Venetian nobles, there was none whose personal liberty was so -restricted, whose smallest actions were so closely watched, whose -lightest word was subject to such a terrible censorship.</p> - -<p>Francesco Foscari was not allowed to resign when he wished to do so, nor -was he allowed to remain on the throne after the Council had decided to -get rid of him. Even after his death, his unhappy widow was not allowed -to bury his body as she pleased. Yet his was only an extreme case, -because circumstances combined to bring the existing laws into play and -to let them work to their logical result.</p> - -<p>From the moment when a noble was chosen to fill the ducal throne, he was -bound to sacrifice himself to the public service, altogether and till he -died, without regret, or possible return to private life, or any -compensation beyond what might flatter the vanity of a vulgar and -second-rate nature. Yet the Doges were very rarely men of poor -intelligence or weak character.</p> - -<p>At each election, fresh restrictions were imposed by ‘corrections’ of -the ducal oath. M. Yriarte says very justly that the tone of these -‘corrections’ is often so dry and hard that it looks as if the Great -Council had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">{45}</a></span> been taking measures against an enemy rather than editing -rules for the life of the chief of the State. He goes on to say, -however, that the principle which dictated those decrees protected both -the Doge and the nobility, and that the object at which each aimed was -the interest of the State. He asks, then, whether those binding -restrictions ever prevented a strong personality from making itself -felt, and whether the long succession of Doges is nothing but a list of -inglorious names.</p> - -<p>It may be answered, I think, with justice, that the Doges of illustrious -memory, during the latter centuries of the Republic’s existence, had -become famous as individual officers before their elevation to the -throne. The last great fighting Doge was Enrico Dandolo, the conqueror -of Constantinople, who died almost a hundred years before the closure of -the Great Council. In the war of Chioggia, Andrea Contarini’s oath not -to return into the city till the enemy was beaten had the force of a -fine example, but the man himself contributed nothing else to the most -splendid page in Venetian history.</p> - -<p>There were Doges who were good historians and writers, others who have -been brave generals, others like Giovanni Mocenigo who were good -financiers; but the fact of their having been Doges has nothing to do -with the reputation they left afterwards. The sovereignty, when it was -given to them, was a chain, not a sceptre, and from the day they went up -the grand staircase as masters, their personal liberty of thought and -action<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46">{46}</a></span> was more completely left behind than if they had entered by -another door to spend the remainder of life in the prisons by the Ponte -della Paglia, beyond the Bridge of Sighs.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the fifteenth century the Doge Michel Steno was told -in open Council to sit down and hold his peace. No change in the manners -of the counsellors had taken place sixty years later when</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Moro.’ Rom. iv. 319.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Doge Cristoforo Moro objected to accompanying Pius the Second’s -projected crusade in person, and was told by Vittor Cappello that if he -would not go of his own accord he should be taken by force.</p> - -<p>It is hard to imagine a more unpleasant position than that of the chief -of the State. Suppose, for instance, that by the choice of the Council -some post or dignity was to be conferred on one of his relatives, or -even on one of his friends; he was literally and categorically forbidden -to exhibit the least satisfaction, or to thank the Council, even by a -nod of the head.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien, 359, and Marin Sanudo.</i></div> - -<p>He was to preside at this, and at many other ceremonies, as a -superbly-dressed lay figure, as a sort of allegorical representative of -that power with which every member of the government except himself was -invested. And as time went on this part he had to play, of the living -allegory, was more and more defined. He was even deprived of the title -‘My Lord,’ and was to be addressed merely as ‘Messer Doge,’ ‘Sir Doge.’ -From 1501 onward he was forbidden to go out of the city, even for an -hour in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47">{47}</a></span> gondola, without the consent of the Council, and if he -disobeyed he had to pay a fine of one hundred ducats; he was not allowed -to write a letter, even to his wife or his children, without showing it -to at least one of his six counsellors, and if he disobeyed he was to -pay a fine of two hundred ducats, and the person, his wife or his own -child, to whom the letter was addressed, was liable to be exiled for -five years.</p> - -<p>After 1521 the Doge was never allowed to speak without witnesses with -any ambassador, neither with the foreign representatives who came to -Venice, nor with Venetian ambassadors at home on business or leave; and -when he spoke with any of them in public, he was warned only to make -commonplace remarks.</p> - -<p>The Dogess never had any official position in Venice, but during the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries she was made use of as an ornamental -personage at public festivals. After that time she returned to the -retirement in which the wives of the early Doges had lived. An outcry -was raised against the custom of crowning her when she entered the ducal -palace, and from that time forth she never appeared beside her husband -on state occasions; and if any foreign ambassador, supposing that he was -acting according to the rules of ordinary court etiquette, asked to be -presented to her, she was bound to refuse his visit.</p> - -<p>Everything in the life of the Doge was regulated by the Great Council. -That august assembly once even remonstrated with the so-called sovereign -because the Dogess bore him too many children. If any one hesitates<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48">{48}</a></span> to -believe these amazing statements he may consult Signor Molmenti’s recent -historical work, <i>La Dogaressa</i>, which is beyond criticism in point of -accuracy.</p> - -<p>At certain fixed times the Doge was allowed the relaxation of shooting, -but with so many restrictions and injunctions that the sport must have -been intolerably irksome. He was allowed or, more strictly speaking, was -ordered to proceed for this purpose, and about Christmas time, to -certain islets in the lagoons, where wild ducks bred in great numbers. -On his return he was obliged to present each member of the Great Council -with five ducks. This was called the gift of the ‘Oselle,’ that being -the name given by the people to the birds in question. In 1521, about -five thousand brace of birds had to be killed or snared in order to -fulfil this requirement; and if the unhappy Doge was not fortunate -enough, with his attendants, to secure the required number, he was -obliged to provide them by buying them elsewhere and at any price, for -the claims of the Great Council had to be satisfied in any case. This -was often an expensive affair.</p> - -<p>There was also another personage who could not have derived much -enjoyment from the Christmas shooting. This was the Doge’s chamberlain, -whose duty it was to see to the just distribution of the game, so that -each bunch of two-and-a-half brace should contain a fair average of fat -and thin birds, lest it should be said that the Doge showed favour to -some members of the Council more than to others.</p> - -<p>By and by a means was sought of commuting this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49">{49}</a></span> annual tribute of ducks. -The Doge Antonio Grimani</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Portrait of Antonio Grimani kneeling before Religion, -Titian; Sala delle Quattro Porte.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">requested and obtained permission to coin a medal or the value or a -quarter or a ducat, equal to about four shillings or one dollar, and to -call it ‘a Duck,’ ‘Osella,’ whereby it was signified that it took the -place of the traditional bird. He engraved upon his medal figures of -Peace and Justice, with the motto ‘Justitia et Pax osculatae sunt,’ -‘Justice and Peace have kissed one another,’ in recollection of the -sentence he had undergone nineteen years previously as Admiral of the -fleet defeated at Parenzo. In 1575 the Doge Luigi Mocenigo engraved upon -his Osella the following inscription referring to the victory of -Lepanto: ‘Magnae navalis victoriae Dei gratia contra Turcos’; the -reverse bears the arms of the Mocenigo family, a rose with five petals. -Later, in 1632, the Doge Francesco Erizzo was the first to replace his -own effigy kneeling before Saint Mark by a lion. In 1688 Francesco -Morosini coined an Osella bearing on the obverse a sword, with the motto -‘Non abstinet ictu,’ and on the reverse a hand bearing weapons, with the -motto ‘Quem non exercuit arcus.’ In 1684 Marcantonio Giustiniani issued -an Osella showing a winged lion rampant, bearing in the one paw a single -palm, and in the other a bunch of palms, with the motto ‘Et solus et -simul,’ meaning that Venice would be victorious either alone or joined -with allies.</p> - -<p>The successor of Antonio Grimani, Andrea Gritti,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50">{50}</a></span> chose for his Osella -to have himself represented as kneeling</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Andrea Gritti, praying, Tintoretto; Sala del Collegio.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">before Saint Mark; the reverse bore his name with the date.</p> - -<p>But fresh trouble now arose. It came to pass that some nobles sold their -medals or used them for money, and disputes even took place as to the -true value of the ducal present. The Council of Ten was obliged to -examine seriously into the affair. As it appeared certain that it would -be impossible to avoid the use of medals as money, it was decided to -replace them definitely by a coin having regular currency.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51">{51}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_009" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_011.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_011.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>MOUTH OF THE GRAND CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br /> -GLEANINGS FROM VENETIAN CRIMINAL HISTORY</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> records of the different tribunals of Venice are a mine of -interesting information, and it is to be wondered that no student has -devoted a separate volume to the subject. I shall only attempt to offer -the reader a few gleanings which have come under my hand, and which may -help to give an impression of the later days of the Republic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52">{52}</a></span></p> - -<p>There were two distinct classes of criminals in Venice, as -elsewhere—namely, professional criminals, who helped each other and -often escaped justice; and, on the other hand, those who committed -isolated crimes under the influence of strong passions, and who -generally expiated their misdeeds in prison or on the scaffold.</p> - -<p>Though the professionals were infinitely more dangerous than the others, -it is a remarkable fact that they enjoyed the same sort of popularity -which was bestowed upon daring highwaymen in England in the coaching -days. They were called the ‘Bravi,’ they were very rarely Venetians by -birth, and they had the singular audacity to wear a costume of their -own, which was something between a military uniform and a mediæval -hunting-dress. One might almost call them condottieri in miniature. They -sold their services to cautious persons who wished to satisfy a grudge -without getting into trouble with the police, and they drew round them -all the good-for-nothings in the country. ‘Bandits’—that is, in the -true interpretation of the word, those persons whom the Republic had -banished from Venetian territory—frequently returned, and remained -unmolested during some time under the protection of one of these bravi. -The most terrible and extravagant crimes were committed in broad day, -and the popular fancy surrounded its nefarious heroes with a whole cycle -of legends calculated to inspire terror.</p> - -<p>The government cast about for some means of checking the evil, and hit -upon one worthy of the Inquisitors of State. The simple plan consisted -in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53">{53}</a></span> giving a free pardon for all his crimes to any bravo who would kill -another. We even find that a patrician of the great house of Quirini, -who had been exiled for killing one of Titian’s servants, obtained leave -to come back and live peacefully in Venice by assassinating a</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_010" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_012.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_012.jpg" width="500" height="411" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE RIALTO AT NIGHT</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">bravo. It is easy to imagine what crimes could be committed under this -law, and the government soon recognised the mistake and repealed it in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Pinelli, Raccolta di Leggi Crim.</i></div> - -<p>1549, in order to protect ‘the dignity of the Republic, and the goods -and lives of its subjects.’</p> - -<p>Thereafter the bravi and the bandits led more quiet lives, and returned -to their former occupations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">{54}</a></span></p> - -<p>There existed at that time a statue of a hunchback modelled by the -sculptor Pietro di Salò, which had been used to support a ladder, or -short staircase, by which the public criers ascended the column of the -Rialto, in order to proclaim banns of marriage and other matters</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_011" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_013.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_013.jpg" width="500" height="413" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FROM THE BALCONY OF THE DUCAL PALACE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">which were to be made public. From 1541 to 1545 thieves were usually -sentenced to be flogged through the city from Saint Mark’s to the -Rialto, where the ceremony ended by their being obliged to kiss the -statue of the hunchback. In order to get rid of this degrading absurdity -a small column was set up near by, surmounted by a cross, in order that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55">{55}</a></span> -‘sinners might undergo their sentence in a Christian spirit.’</p> - -<p>On the sixteenth of December 1560, the Council of Ten met to discuss the -question of the bravi. It was now admitted that the government no longer -had isolated criminals to deal with, but regular bands of ruffians -continually</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_012" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_014.png"> -<img src="images/ill_014.png" width="500" height="352" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE COLUMNS, PIAZZETTA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">on the look-out for adventures. The Ten published an edict by which all -bandits were formally warned that any one who exercised the profession -of a bravo, whether a subject of the Republic or not, would be taken and -led in irons to the place between the columns of the Piazzetta, where -his nose and ears would be carved off. He would then be further -sentenced to five years at the oar on board one of the State galleys, -unless some physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">{56}</a></span> defect made this impossible for him, in which case -he was to have one hand chopped off and to be imprisoned for ten years. -In passing, I call</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Horatio Brown, Venetian Studies.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">attention to the fact that life between decks on a State galley cannot -have been pleasant, since five years of it were considered equivalent to -the loss of a hand and ten years of imprisonment.</p> - -<p>These terrific penalties inspired little or no fear, for the bravi were -infinitely quicker and cleverer than the sbirri of the government, and -were very rarely caught. Besides, they had powerful supporters and -secure refuges from which they could defy justice, for they were -sheltered and protected in the foreign embassies, where they knew how to -make themselves useful as spies, and occasionally as professional -assassins, and it was not an uncommon thing to see a sbirro standing -before the French or the Spanish embassy and looking up at a window -whence some well-known bravo smiled down on him, waved his hat, and -addressed him with ironical politeness. The picture vividly recalls -visions of a cat on top of a garden wall, calmly grinning at the frantic -terrier below.</p> - -<p>Then, too, the bravi were patronised by the ‘signorotti’ of the -mainland, a set of rich, turbulent, and licentious land-owners, who -could not call themselves Venetian nobles and would not submit to be -burghers, but set themselves up as knights, and lived in more or less -fortified manors from which they could set the police at defiance. They -employed the bravi in all sorts of nefarious adventures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">{57}</a></span> which chiefly -tended to the satisfaction of their brutal tastes.</p> - -<p>It was a second period of transition, as Molmenti very justly says, and -in the beginning of the decadence the knight had already ceased to be -knightly. Those rough lordlings were neither without fear nor without -reproach, says the learned Italian writer, but were altogether without -remorse, and if they were ever bold it was only in breaking the law. -From time</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, Condanne Capitali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to time one of them was caught perpetrating some outrageous crime, and -was dragged barefooted, in a long black shirt and black cap, to the -scaffold, as an awful example, there to be flogged, hanged, and -quartered. Such horrors had long ceased to have any effect in an age -that saw blood run in rivers. By way of increasing the disgrace of a -shameful death, a gibbet was set up which was so high that the victim -had to mount thirty-two steps, and it was painted scarlet. The first -miscreant who adorned it was one of the chiefs of the sbirri himself, -who had used his position to protect a whole gang of thieves with whom -he divided the plunder.</p> - -<p>I abridge from Signor Molmenti’s work the following story, in which more -than one type of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Banditi e Bravi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the sixteenth-century criminal makes his appearance.</p> - -<p>The village of Illasi is situated in a rich valley in the territory of -Verona. At the end of the sixteenth century its castle was inhabited by -a certain Count Geronimo and his beautiful lady, Ginevra. From time to -time the couple introduced a little variety into their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">{58}</a></span> solitude by -receiving Virginio Orsini who, though a Roman noble, was in the service -of Venice as Governor of Verona. He was, I believe, a first cousin of -that Paolo Giordano Orsini who murdered his wife Isabella de’ Medici in -order to marry Vittoria Accoramboni. I have told the story at length in -another work.</p> - -<p>Virginio, the Governor, fell in love with the Countess Ginevra before -long; but she, though strongly attracted to him, tried hard to resist -him, would not read his letters, and turned a deaf ear to his pleadings.</p> - -<p>On a certain Saturday night, when Count Geronimo was away from home and -Ginevra sat by the fire in her own chamber, having already supped and -said her prayers, the curtain of the door was raised and two men came -in. The one was Grifo, the man-at-arms whom the Count trusted and had -left to guard her; the other was Orsini. Ginevra sprang to her feet, -asking how the Governor dared to cross her threshold.</p> - -<p>‘Madam,’ he said, coming near, ‘as you would not answer my letters, I -determined to tell you face to face that if you will not hear me you -will be my ruin.’</p> - -<p>‘Sir,’ answered the Countess, ‘that is not the way to address a lady of -my condition. You are basely betraying my noble husband, who entertains -for you both friendship and esteem.’</p> - -<p>Here Grifo joined in the conversation and began to persuade the Countess -that every noble lady of the time had her ‘confederate knight.’ No doubt -he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59">{59}</a></span> knew that she loved Orsini in spite of herself, and when he had done -speaking he went away, and the two were alone together in the night.</p> - -<p>An hour later Virginio took his leave of her, and now he told her with -words of comfort that he would presently send her poison by the hand of -Grifo, that she might do away with her husband; for otherwise he must -soon learn the truth and avenge himself on them all three. But Ginevra -was already stung by remorse.</p> - -<p>‘I have dishonoured my husband for you,’ she answered. ‘But I will not -do the deed you ask of me. It is better that I should myself die than -that I should do murder.’</p> - -<p>‘In that case,’ answered Orsini, ‘I myself must put him beyond the -possibility of harming you.’</p> - -<p>Thereupon he left her; but she was tormented by remorse, until at last -she went to her husband and told him all, and entreated him to kill her. -He would not believe her, but thought she had gone mad, though she -repeated her story again and again; and at last he rose and went and -found Grifo, the traitor, and dragged him to her room.</p> - -<p>‘Is it true,’ she asked, ‘that you brought the Governor here to my -chamber unawares?’</p> - -<p>The man denied it with an oath. Then Ginevra snatched up a dagger and -set the point at Grifo’s breast. He saw that he was lost, and told the -truth, and then and there the woman whose ruin he had wrought did -justice on him and was avenged, and stabbed him again and again, that he -died.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">{60}</a></span></p> - -<p>There ends the story, for that is all we know. After that the chronicle -is silent, ominously silent; and when the castle of Illasi was -dismantled a walled niche was found in one of the towers, and within the -niche there was a woman’s skeleton. That is known, surely; but that the -bones were those of the Countess Ginevra there is no proof to show.</p> - -<p>I should say that Grifo belonged to the type of the bravi, so that the -crimes of passion which his betrayal</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Vecchie Storie.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">caused were connected, through him, with those of the professional type. -But others were committed, then as now, in passion, quick or slow. As an -example of them, here is a story from another of Signor Molmenti’s -exhaustive works.</p> - -<p>It is first mentioned by the Bishop Pietro Bollani in a letter addressed -to his noble friend Vincenzo Dandolo, in the month of July 1602:—</p> - -<p>‘A certain Sanudo, who lives in the Rio della Croce, in the Giudecca, -made his wife go to confession day before yesterday evening; and she was -a Cappello by birth. During the following night, at about the fifth hour -(one o’clock in the morning at that season according to the old Italian -sun-time), he killed her with a dagger-thrust in the throat. He says -that she was unfaithful, but every one believes that she was a saint.’</p> - -<p>We learn that the poor woman was thirty-six, and that Giovanni Sanudo -had been married to her eighteen years. The Council of Ten ordered his -arrest, but he had already escaped beyond the frontier, and he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61">{61}</a></span> -condemned to death in default and a prize of two thousand ducats was -offered for his head.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_013" style="width: 426px;"> -<a href="images/ill_015.png"> -<img src="images/ill_015.png" width="426" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE SALUTE FROM THE GIUDECCA</p></div> -</div> - -<p>He had left five children in Venice, three boys and two girls; and the -oldest, a daughter christened<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">{62}</a></span> Sanuda, addressed a petition to the Ten -which is worth translating:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Most Serene Prince (the Doge), Most Illustrious Sirs (the Ten), and -most merciful my Masters (the Counsellors, the High Chancellor, and -the Avogadors):</p> - -<p>Never did unfortunate petitioners come to the feet of your Serenity -and of your most excellent and most clement Council, more worthy of -pity than we, Sanuda, Livio, Aloïse, Franceschino and Livio second, -the children of Messer Giovanni Sanudo; misfortune has fallen upon -our house because our father having been accused of taking our -mother’s life, the justice of your Serenity and of your most -excellent Council has condemned him to death; wherefore we, poor -innocent children, have lost at once our father and our mother, and -all our possessions; and we assure you with tears that we should -have to beg our bread unless certain charitable souls helped us. -Therefore I, the unhappy Sanuda, who have reached the age of -eighteen years, and my brothers and sisters who are younger than I, -shall all be given over to the most abject poverty and exposed to -the greatest dangers unless your Serenity and your most excellent -Council will consent to help us for the love of religion and -justice. And so, in order to prevent five poor and honest children -of noble blood from perishing thus miserably, we prostrate -ourselves at the feet of your Serenity and of your most Illustrious -Lordships, imploring you, by the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, -to allow our unhappy father to come back to Venice for two years, -that he may provide for the safety of his family and especially of -his daughters, whose honour is exposed to such grave peril in that -state of neglect in which they are now living. We pray that the -good God may grant your Serenity and your Lordships long and happy -life.</p></div> - -<p>The Council of Ten was apparently moved by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63">{63}</a></span> appeal. It answered the -petition by the following resolution:—</p> - -<p>‘The case of Sanuda, Livio, Aloïse, Franceschino, and Livio second, -brothers and sisters, the children of Giovanni Sanudo, condemned to -death by this Council on July twenty-ninth, is so serious; the petition -of these poor children is so humble, so honest and so reasonable, that -it behooves the piety and clemency of our Council to grant the said -Giovanni Sanudo a safe-conduct, good for two years, in order that during -this period he may provide for the future of his family.’</p> - -<p>Sanudo came back, and before the two years had expired he obtained a -prolongation of the grace for two years more, at the end of which time -he presented another petition worded in the same manner, which was also -granted; and so on from two years to two years until 1621, nineteen -years after the crime, he being still technically under sentence of -death.</p> - -<p>Now, however, he obtained a formal pardon from his wife’s family, the -Cappello. This curious document reads as follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>In the name of God and of the Holy Trinity, March thirtieth, 1621.</p> - -<p>I, Carlo Cappello, son of the late Pietro Cappello, considering the -weakness and the lamentable vicissitudes to which humanity is -subject, and desirous of forgiving the shortcomings and misdeeds of -others, in order that the Lord our God may protect me also, and -desiring, too, the full pardon of every sin: do forgive my -brother-in-law, Giovanni Sanudo, the offences<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">{64}</a></span> he may have -committed against me, promising henceforth to bear him neither -hatred nor malice, and I pray God to grant us both a good Easter -and the pardon of every sin.</p> - -<p class="r"> -(Signed) <span class="smcap">Carlo Cappello.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pietro Cappello.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Livio Cappello.</span><br /> -</p></div> - -<p>Having obtained forgiveness of his wife’s family, Giovanni Sanudo now -looked about for a means of extorting a final pardon from the Council of -Ten. There existed in the Venetian states a small town, called Sant’ -Omobono, which had received, as the reward of some ancient service -rendered to the Republic, the privilege of setting at liberty every year -two outlaws or two bravi. Sanudo succeeded in winning the good graces of -the municipality, and was then presented by the mayor and aldermen to -the Signory as one of the yearly candidates for a free pardon. The -Council of Ten then permanently ratified its decree of immunity, and -Giovanni Sanudo was once more a free man. Considering the usual -character of the Council, it is hard not to surmise that it had found -some cause for regretting the sentence it had passed. The poor murdered -woman had confessed and received absolution before death: may we not -reasonably suppose that, after all, there had been something to confess?</p> - -<p>There is ground for believing it possible that Shakespeare may have used -the original murder as part of the groundwork of his <i>Othello</i>. If we -compare the dates and glance at the history of Italian literature, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">{65}</a></span> -may reasonably conclude that Shakespeare, after perhaps planning his -tragedy on a tale of Giraldi’s, was much struck by the details of -Sanudo’s crime, and especially by the murderer’s wish that his wife -should confess before dying.</p> - -<p>Mr. Rawdon Brown supposed the poet to have used another incident, -related by Marin Sanudo in his voluminous journal, but the hypothesis -involves an anachronism. <i>Othello</i> is thought by good authorities to -have been first played in London in the autumn of 1602, only a few -months after the crime in the Giudecca; whereas Mr. Rawdon Brown’s -heroine was not murdered until thirteen years later.</p> - -<p>The legend of the Fornaretto belongs to the beginning of the sixteenth -century, a hundred years earlier. Travellers will remember being told by -their guides how a poor little baker’s boy, who was carrying bread to a -customer on a January morning in 1507, stumbled over the body of a noble -who had been stabbed by an unknown hand. The sheath of the dagger lay on -the pavement, and the boy was imprudent enough to pick it up and put it -into his pocket, for it was richly damascened and very handsome. The -police found it upon him, it was considered to be conducive -circumstantial evidence, the poor boy confessed under torture that he -had committed the crime, and he was hanged on his own confession.</p> - -<p>A few days later the real murderer was arrested and convicted; and -thereafter, in recollection of the tragic injustice that had been done, -whenever the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66">{66}</a></span> magistrates were about to pass a sentence of death, they -were admonished to remember the poor Fornaretto.</p> - -<p>By way of making the story more complete, the guide usually adds that -the little lamp which always burns before an image of the Blessed Virgin -on one side of the Basilica was lighted as an offering in expiation of -the judicial murder, and that it is for the same reason that a bell is -rung during twenty minutes on the anniversary of the baker boy’s -execution.</p> - -<p>Strangely enough, there is hardly a word of truth in this story. The -only record in the archives of the Ten which faintly suggests it is the -trial and execution of a baker named Pietro Fusiol, who had murdered a -man of the people in January 1507, and there is no reference to any -mistake on the part of the court. The ringing of the bell and the little -lamp which burns day and night before the image, are a sort of <i>ex voto</i> -offerings left by certain seamen in recollection of a terrible storm -from which they escaped.</p> - -<p>I pass on to speak of the political prisoners of the Republic, who were -not by any means all treated alike, since some of them were confined in -places of tolerable comfort, whereas others were treated little better -than common criminals.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Dr. Heinrich Thode, Der Ring des Frangipane.</i></div> - -<p>The story of Cristoforo Frangipane shows that political delinquents were -not judged according to any particular code, and that each case was -examined as being entirely independent from any other.</p> - -<p>I must recall to the reader that during the league of Cambrai the -Emperor Maximilian was commissioned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67">{67}</a></span> to win back Friuli, Istria, and -other provinces annexed by the Republic. Though the league had been -formed in great haste, Venice was not taken by surprise, for it had long -been apparent that the European powers desired her destruction and -dismemberment.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Venice defying Europe, Palma Giovane; Sala dei Pregadi, -ducal palace.</i></div> - -<p>During the war which followed the Venetian army was at one time under -the orders of Bartolomeo d’ Alviano, and that of the Emperor was -commanded by Cristoforo Frangipane. Now the Frangipane family held lands -in fee from Venice as well as from the Emperor, and owed feudal service -to both; so that the Republic was justified in considering Cristoforo as -a traitor according to feudal law, since he was in command of a hostile -army.</p> - -<p>A learned German student, Doctor Heinrich Thode, has discovered and told -with great charm the following story concerning the imperial general. In -1892, Doctor Thode being then in Venice, certain peasants of the village -of Osopo, near Pordenone, showed him a gold ring of marvellous -workmanship and in the style of the sixteenth century, which they had -found in a field. The ring consisted of two spirals, one within the -other, which could be taken apart, so that a lock of hair or a relic -could be placed between them. On the outer spiral of the ring were -engraved the words, ‘Myt Wyllen deyn eygen,’ which may be translated, -‘By mine own will thine own.’ Doctor Thode bought the ring, but for a -long time could make nothing of it. At last, however, his industry was -rewarded by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68">{68}</a></span> discovery of an interesting passage in the almost -inexhaustible diary of Marin Sanudo, of which I shall abridge the -substance as much as possible.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Emperor Maximilian met in -Augsburg a very beautiful girl named Apollonia von Lange, with whom he -fell deeply in love. He caused her to come to the Court of Vienna, where -she behaved so admirably that, according to the chronicler, all the -Austrian nobles wished to marry her. As a matter of fact she was married -in 1503 to the Count of Lodron, who happens to be the very person whom -the Cappelletti of Verona wished to marry to their Juliet in spite of -her promise to Romeo Montecchi.</p> - -<p>The Count of Lodron died soon after his marriage, leaving no children. -The Emperor continued to extend to the young widow his honourable -protection, and in 1514 he married her to his favourite general -Cristoforo Frangipane. It was no doubt on this occasion that the warrior -received from her the ring of which the motto answered a question that -had often been on his lips. He might, indeed, reasonably have supposed -that she was marrying him in deference to the Emperor’s wishes; he must -have asked her if this were true, and no doubt more than once she -answered, ‘Of my own will I am thine own.’ The marriage had scarcely -taken place when Frangipane was obliged to take command of the imperial -army and to leave his wife. The first battle of the campaign was fought -near Pordenone in the Venetian territory. Marin Sanudo<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69">{69}</a></span> narrates that on -that day Frangipane lost a precious</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_014" style="width: 396px;"> -<a href="images/ill_016.png"> -<img src="images/ill_016.png" width="396" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>A GARDEN WALL</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">relic, a fact which he considered to be of bad augury for the future.</p> - -<p>Only a few days later, when reconnoitring the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70">{70}</a></span> position of the enemy, he -was climbing over a boulder which overlooked the valley. It either gave -way with him, or else some large piece of stone rolled against him and -threw him down. The accident was seen from a distance, and it was at -once reported to Venice that he was dead. But he was only wounded, and -was carried in a litter to Goritz, whither his wife hastened at once. -Under her loving care he soon recovered, but before he was able to ride -again the Venetians took the town and made him prisoner. He was conveyed -to Venice, and was confined in the tower of the ducal palace which -overlooked the Ponte della Paglia. In his confinement he kept up a -constant correspondence with his wife, which, it is needless to say, was -carefully examined by the government; every letter which came or went -was read aloud before the Senate, so that Marin Sanudo had ample -opportunity to copy the documents for his journal, as he frequently did.</p> - -<p>The beautiful Apollonia was in a state bordering on despair, the grief -of the separation preyed upon her mind, and she fell into a state of -terrible languor and depression. Amongst many tender messages she makes -mention of the ring.</p> - -<p>‘As for the ring,’ she wrote, ‘most gracious and beloved husband, let me -tell you that the one ordered of John Stephen Maze should be a little -smaller than the old one, and on it must be engraved the words with -which I answered the question you asked me, and which is graved on the -ring I always wear on my finger.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">{71}</a></span> I wish you to wear the ring in memory -and for love of me, but as we have no good jewellers here, I entreat you -to order it yourself.’</p> - -<p>In the face of such evidence it is hardly possible to doubt that the -ring found at Osopo is the identical one given to Frangipane by his -bride, and is the ‘relic’ which he lost in his first engagement with the -Venetians.</p> - -<p>The correspondence of the loving couple, passionate and sad, continued -during six months, at the end of which time Apollonia wrote to the -Signory imploring permission to share her husband’s prison; but this was -refused her, though her request was supported by the warmest -recommendations from the Emperor himself. Exasperated, Frangipane -attempted to escape from prison, but his plan was discovered, and he was -only the more closely watched. Apollonia now requested the favour of a -safe-conduct that she might, at least, come to Venice as a traveller and -visit her husband; this also was refused, not once only, but again when -she wrote a second time.</p> - -<p>There was now but one thing left for her to do, and she determined to -risk coming to Venice without a safe-conduct. She arrived in the depth -of winter in 1516, with four maids of honour, her chamberlain, her -physician, and twenty-two servants. As the Council of Ten was ashamed to -imprison her it placed her in the keeping of the patrician Dandolo, who -was the general inspector of the ducal prisons, and he placed at her -disposal his palace on the Grand Canal, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72">{72}</a></span> is now the Hôtel Danieli. -She took up her quarters there on the thirteenth of January with her -suite, and on the twentieth she appeared before the Doge and his -counsellors arrayed in a magnificent silk gown and a black satin mantle -lined with sable; a heavy gold chain hung down upon her bosom, and a -golden coif was set upon her hair in the German fashion; three young -girls dressed in black cloth followed her, one after the other, and an -old duenna, the physician, and the chamberlain brought up the rear.</p> - -<p>The fair Countess addressed the Doge with feminine eloquence and tact. -She began by rendering thanks for the kindness and consideration shown -to her husband, and she requested permission to see him twice a week. -She argued that this permission was absolutely necessary to her, for she -said that she was very ill, and that the treatment ordered by her doctor -was of such a nature that she entirely declined to submit to it except -in the presence of her husband. The Doge and his counsellors had never -had to face such arguments before; they felt themselves absolutely -powerless, and yielded at once.</p> - -<p>But on the morrow old Dandolo, the inspector of prisons, appeared before -them in a condition of indescribable dismay and excitement. He said that -when the Countess was at last in her husband’s prison, on the previous -evening, she had made such a scene in order to be allowed to stay all -night that he, Dandolo, had yielded much against his will and had left -the couple together. And now, in the morning, he had found the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_003" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_017.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_017.jpg" width="500" height="426" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PALAZZO RESSONICO</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73">{73}</a></span></p> - -<p>Countess still in bed, declaring that she was dangerously ill, and -demanding that her doctor should be sent to her without delay.</p> - -<p>The Doge and his counsellors were in a quandary, and Dandolo was tearing -his hair. Sanudo informs us that ‘there was much noise in the council’ -that morning, and it is easy to believe that he was telling the truth. -Almost half of the grave magistrates were in favour of leaving the -Countess with her husband; the rest, with a very small majority, voted -that she must quit the prison. The motion passed, but it was one thing -to decide what she should do, and quite another thing to make her do it. -She declared that since she was inside the tower, no power on earth -should get her out of it, and she defied the Doge, the Council of Ten, -and all their works. Before such portentous obstinacy the government of -Venice retired in stupefaction, and she was left in peace.</p> - -<p>But she was human, after all, and under prolonged imprisonment her -health broke down, and she was obliged to leave the tower each year to -go to the waters of Abano; but even then she refused to go out until a -formal promise had been given her that she should be allowed to return -immediately after the cure.</p> - -<p>No doubt it was owing to her presence that Frangipane’s confinement -became by degrees less rigorous, and that he was even allowed to watch -the procession of Corpus Domini from the balcony of the Library.</p> - -<p>Apollonia had come in January 1516, and the pair<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74">{74}</a></span> were not liberated -till more than two years later. Germany, France, and Venice signed a -truce of five years, and agreed to exchange prisoners and give hostages -on the thirty-first of July 1518. Francis I. asked that Germany should -hand him over Frangipane as security for keeping the peace, promising -that he should not be imprisoned, but should be merely a prisoner of the -King on parole. It was not freedom yet, but such a change was more than -welcome, and the negotiations with the Signory for Frangipane’s delivery -were completed on the third of September. The words he wrote in the -embrasure of the window of his prison may still be read, says Dr. Thode, -who copied the inscription which I reproduce:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Fo inchluso. qua. in. torise ... fina.. terzo<br /></span> -<span class="i0">zorno de. setembro. del. M.D. XVIII. io. Christoforo. Frangepanibus<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Chonte. de. Veglia. Senia. et Modrusa<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Et io. Apollonia. Chonsorte. de sopradicto signor. chonte.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Vene. far. chompagnia. a. quelo. adi. XX. Zenar. MDXVI perfina<br /></span> -<span class="i0">sopra dicto setembro. Chi mal. e. ben. non. sa. patir. a. grande<br /></span> -<span class="i0">honor. may. poi. venir. anche. ben. ne. mal. de. qui. per.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">sempre. non. dura.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>I translate literally as follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquott"><p>I was shut up here in the Torrisella till the third day of -September of 1518, Christopher of the Frangipane, Count of Veglia, -Senia, and Modrusa. And I, Apollonia, wife of the aforesaid lord -Count, came to keep him company on the twentieth of January 1516 -until the said September. ‘Who cannot bear good and ill fate, Will -never come to honour great.’ Also, Nor good nor evil lasts for ever -here.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75">{75}</a></span></p> - -<p>Frangipane seems to have written this record during one of his wife’s -absences at Abano, being perfectly sure that he was about to be set at -liberty. But there had been a hitch in the negotiations. Venice was not -ready to hand him over, and meanwhile, when Apollonia came back she was -refused admittance. Dandolo again offered her a home in his palace, and -did all he could to help her. Frangipane, deprived of her comforting -presence, fell ill and went almost mad. Even the Doge himself supported -his request to be allowed to be taken to a private dwelling. It was in -vain; but Apollonia was at last allowed to return to her husband. They -left no means untried to obtain the fulfilment of the treaty, and at -last Dandolo became so exasperated with the Council of Ten that he -resigned his post of inspector of prisons, telling the councillors to -their faces that of twelve thousand prisoners who had been in his -keeping, first and last, Frangipane was the only one who had been able -to complain of injustice.</p> - -<p>The Ten accepted his resignation almost without comment, and replaced -him by two nobles. Then the couple tried to escape, but were discovered -and again separated. At last the government consented to ask the King of -France what was to be done with his hostage, whom he seems to have quite -forgotten. He answered by requesting that Frangipane should be sent to -Milan and handed over to the French governor, De Lautrec.</p> - -<p>The loving pair were allowed to meet in the prison again, two days -before the departure, but Apollonia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">{76}</a></span> was not permitted to follow her -husband to Milan, and a heart-rending farewell took place at -Lizzafusina, on the frontier. Having reached his destination, the -unlucky Frangipane found himself in a much worse prison than the one he -had occupied so long in Venice. Again his faithful wife succeeded in -joining him, to share his captivity. But her strength was far spent, and -she died on the fourth of September 1519, in the fortress of Milan; and -soon afterwards Frangipane succeeded at last in escaping by sawing -through the bars of his window and letting himself down by a rope.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77">{77}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_018.png"> -<img src="images/ill_018.png" width="500" height="328" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br /><br /> -VENETIAN DIPLOMACY</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Before</span> quitting the subject of Venetian official life, I must devote a -few pages to the diplomacy of the Republic, which has remained famous in -history.</p> - -<p>The kings of France often confided diplomatic missions to the clergy, -but the Venetian diplomatists were always laymen, without a single -exception. The Signory constantly professed the most devout faith in -Catholic dogma, and as constantly exhibited the most profound distrust -of the popes. The Vatican was, indeed, the chief object of the -government’s suspicion. From the fifteenth century onward, any noble -who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78">{78}</a></span> entered holy orders lost his seat in the Great Council, and I have -already explained that during the discussion of matters relating to -Rome,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Cecchetti, Corte Romana.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">all the ‘papalisti’ were ordered to withdraw. When Sixtus V. was elected -Pope in 1585, and the Republic sent four ambassadors together to -congratulate him, the sixteen nobles who attended the mission were most -carefully chosen from among those who never could be ‘papalisti.’</p> - -<p>In answer to any criticism of her methods, Venice was almost always able -to bring forward the unanswerable argument of success; but the pages -which record her diplomatic relations with other powers are not the -fairest in her history. Her dealings with her neighbours were regulated -by strictly business principles; and ‘business’ is, I believe, the art -of becoming legally possessed of that which is not our own.</p> - -<p>The marvellous accuracy with which the Venetian ambassadors related to -their government the details of what they observed abroad is proverbial, -and has been a godsend to students of history, such as M. Yriarte, to -whom the world is so much indebted for his study of Marcantonio Barbaro.</p> - -<p>The post of foreign representative was a most honourable one, but there -were overwhelming responsibilities connected with it. In early times, -when diplomatic relations were less close and less continuous, the -Republic had sent permanent embassies only to Rome and Constantinople; -to other capitals special envoys were only despatched when some matter -was to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79">{79}</a></span> discussed. But in the sixteenth century Venice had -ambassadors everywhere, and each week brought long letters from all -countries teeming with details, not only of political or military -events, but concerning social festivities, manners, customs, court -intrigues, and every sort of gossip.</p> - -<p>These letters were read aloud on Saturday to the Senate, which thus -assisted at a sort of consecutive series of lectures on the history of -the times; and as it was customary to choose the ambassadors from among -the senators, it was tolerably sure that when chosen they would always -be well informed, up to the latest moment.</p> - -<p>The missions of the Republic were limited to a residence of two years in -any one foreign capital; but this short time was amply sufficient to -bring about the financial ruin of the ambassador if he was not very -rich. It was his duty to display the most boundless magnificence for the -greater glory of the Republic, and his expenses bore no proportion to -his salary.</p> - -<p>The following instructions, according to M. Yriarte, were given to -Marcantonio Barbaro on his departure for the court of France:—</p> - -<p>‘You are to keep eleven horses for your service, including those of your -secretary and his servant, and four mounted messengers. You will</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Yriarte, Vie d’un Patricien.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">receive for your expenses two hundred gold ducats monthly (about £1800 -yearly), of which you are not required to render an account. You will -receive a thousand gold ducats for presents, and three<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80">{80}</a></span> hundred for the -purchase of horses, harness, and saddle cloths.’</p> - -<p>The Secretary of Embassy was also named by the Senate, and though the -attachés might be chosen by the ambassador, his choice had to be -confirmed by the government. He was not allowed to take his wife with -him, as her presence might have distracted him from business, and also -because it might possibly have been a little prejudicial to the keeping -of secrets; but he was allowed to take his cook. These same instructions -appear as early as the thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>Modern diplomatists, and especially Americans, will be interested to -know that the post of ambassador was so little desired as to make it -necessary to impose a heavy fine on any noble who refused it when he was -appointed; and it actually happened more than once that men paid the -fine rather than ruin themselves altogether in the service of their -sordid government. Once having left Venice, however, no resignation was -allowed, and the ambassador dared not return unless he was ordered to do -so. Requests for leave were very rare, and were only made under the -pressure of some very exceptional circumstances. Such a petition was -considered so serious a matter that when one arrived from abroad all -persons related to the ambassador were ordered to leave the Senate, lest -their presence should interfere with the freedom of discussion; but the -request was never granted unless two members of the family would swear -that the reasons alleged in the petition were genuine.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81">{81}</a></span></p> - -<p>Legend assures us that each ambassador received, together with his -credentials, a box full of gold coin and a small bottle of deadly -poison. This is childish nonsense, of course, so far as the portable -realities were concerned, but ambassadors were instructed to hesitate at -nothing which could accomplish the purpose of the State, neither at -spending large sums which would be placed at their disposal when -necessary, nor at what the Senate was good enough to call measures of -exceptional severity—namely, murder.</p> - -<p>The most important post in Venetian diplomacy was the embassy at -Constantinople, where the chief of the mission enjoyed the title of -Bailo, together with the chance of making a fortune instead of losing -one. The Bailo of Constantinople and the ambassador to the Pope took -precedence over all other Venetian diplomatists, and they were expected -to make an even greater display, especially at the pontifical court. The -four ambassadors sent to congratulate Sixtus V. on his election had each -four noble attachés, four armed footmen, and five-and-twenty horses, and -the one of the four who was already the resident in Rome was indemnified -for his expenses in order that he might appear as magnificently as his -three newly arrived colleagues.</p> - -<p>On their return from a foreign mission the envoys of the Republic were -bound to appear at the chancery of the ducal palace, and to inscribe -their names there in a special register; and within a fortnight they -were required to render an account of what they had seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82">{82}</a></span> and learnt -abroad, and of the affairs with which they had dealt. These accounts, -called ‘relazioni,’ were brief recapitulations of their weekly letters -to the Senate; the first phrases were always written in Latin, but the -body of the discourse might be in Italian, or even in dialect. The -ambassador presented himself in full dress, wearing his crimson velvet -mantle and bringing the manuscript of his speech, which he afterwards -handed to the High Chancellor; for as early as the fifteenth century all -public speeches were required to be written out, in order that they -might be preserved exactly as they had been spoken, or rather read, for -it was not even allowable to recite them by heart. I need hardly add -that no stranger was ever admitted to hear an ambassador’s account of -his mission, and the senators swore a special oath of secrecy for the -occasion, even with regard to the most insignificant details.</p> - -<p>Any one who examines a number of these documents will soon see that they -all begin with a portrait of the sovereign to whom the envoy was -accredited, and there is often a great deal about the royal family, its -surroundings, tastes, and habits. Almost invariably also the account -ends with a list of the presents and titles or decorations bestowed upon -the ambassador at the close of his mission, and all these he was -required to hand over intact to the Signory. Not uncommonly, however, -the presents were returned to him; but as no foreign titles could be -borne by Venetians, the recipient of them was usually created a Knight -of the Golden<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83">{83}</a></span> Stole, the only heraldic order recognised by the Republic -and in the gift of the government.</p> - -<p>It would be curious to examine into the first causes</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_015" style="width: 441px;"> -<a href="images/ill_019.png"> -<img src="images/ill_019.png" width="441" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PALAZZO DARIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">of the relations between Venice and the other European states. It was -the exchange of raisins for wool which obliged England and Venice to -send each other<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84">{84}</a></span> permanent diplomatic missions. Up to that time only -occasional special envoys had been necessary. The first time that -England addressed a letter to the Signory she employed as her official -agent a Neapolitan monk, the Bishop of Bisaccia, chaplain to King -Robert, and this was in 1340. The envoy came to say that King Edward the -Third of England had the honour to inform the Doge Gradenigo that he had -defied Philippe de Valois to say that he was the anointed of the Lord. -The envoy further stated that the two rivals were about to invoke the -judgment of God, either by going unarmed into a den of wild beasts, who -would of course respect the Lord’s anointed and promptly devour the -pretender, or else by ‘touching for King’s Evil.’ Beginning in the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rawdon Brown, Archives.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">fifteenth century there is a long list of English ambassadors and -ministers resident in Venice. The last English diplomatic representative -in Venice was Sir Richard Worsley, of whom I shall have occasion to -speak hereafter.</p> - -<p>All the foreign diplomatists in Venice were constantly on the look-out -for the arrival of the special mounted messengers attached to each -foreign embassy. These were celebrated throughout Europe for their speed -and discretion. In the fifteenth century they were thirty-two in number, -and formed a small guild which was under the protection of Saint -Catharine; and they were almost all natives of Bergamo, a city which is -still singularly noted for the honesty and faithfulness of its -inhabitants, and which even now furnishes Venice<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85">{85}</a></span> with trusty -house-porters and other servants of whom responsibility is required.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_016" style="width: 410px;"> -<a href="images/ill_020.png"> -<img src="images/ill_020.png" width="410" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CALLE BECCHERIA</p></div> -</div> - -<p>In the <i>Souvenirs</i> of M. Armand Baschet, I find that the courier who -brought the news of the signing of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86">{86}</a></span> the treaty of Cambrai from Blois to -Venice covered the distance in eight days, the best previous record to -Paris, which is about the same distance, having been nine, and the usual -time employed being fifteen. The employment of State courier could be -bought and could be left by will.</p> - -<p>Each ambassador of the Republic seemed to possess a part of the -marvellously universal vision that belonged to the Council of Ten. Mr. -Rawdon Brown made a special study of the weekly letters of the Venetian -ambassadors in England, and found, for instance, that one of the -Republic’s representatives succeeded in regularly copying the letters -which Queen Elizabeth wrote to her lovers, which were therefore read -aloud to the Senate with the greatest regularity, together with many -other curious details of English court life.</p> - -<p>I shall give two specimens, translated from the weekly letters in the -Albèri collection. In 1531 the patrician Ludovico Falier came to render -an account of his mission to the Court of Henry VIII. He expresses -himself as follows, concerning that King and the English:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>In order that my discourse may be better understood I shall divide -it into two chief parts, of which the one concerns my journey, and -the other the most puissant King Henry VIII., and the manners and -customs of his country from the year 1528 to 1531.... On the tenth -of December I reached Calais [he had left Venice in the middle of -October, but had travelled by short stages with a numerous suite]; -it is a city of the French coast which belongs to the most serene -King of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">{87}</a></span> England, as I shall have occasion to repeat hereafter. -There I went on board a vessel to cross the ocean, which after -behaving furiously during the passage at last threw me upon the -English shore. I therefore arrived at Dover much more tired by -these few hours of navigation than by a journey of ninety days on -dry land. Having rested a little at Dover I got on horseback to go -to London. At St. George’s I met my most illustrious predecessor -Venier with several personages of the Court, including the most -reverend the Cardinal (Thomas Wolsey), and we all entered the city -together, and they accompanied me to my house. I was ordered almost -at once to go to the Cardinal, in order to kiss his hand, for this -ceremony always preceded that of an audience with the King; such is -the power of this prince [of the Church]. On leaving his apartment -I was conducted to his most serene Majesty, with whom I then had -the interview which I described in detail in my letter to your -Signory and to this glorious Senate.</p></div> - -<p>The ambassador goes on to speak in the past tense of Cardinal Wolsey, -who had fallen into disgrace in the interval. He goes on to speak of the -Queen, who was then Catharine of Aragon.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>My lady the Queen is small of stature, and plump, and has an honest -face; she is good and just, affable and pious. She speaks fluently -Spanish, Flemish, French, and English. Her subjects love her more -than they ever loved any Queen; she is five and forty years old, -and she has already lived thirty-five years in England.</p></div> - -<p>The ambassador speaks of the King next.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>God has united in King Henry VIII. beauty of soul with beauty of -body, so that every one is astonished by such wonders ... he has -the face of an angel, for it would not be enough to say that he is -handsome; he resembles Cæsar, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">{88}</a></span> look is calm, and contrary to -English fashion, he wears his beard; who would not admire so much -beauty accompanied with so much strength and grace? He rides very -well, jousts and handles a lance with great skill; he is a very -good shot and an excellent tennis player. He has always cultivated -the extraordinary qualities with which nature has adorned him from -his birth, for he thinks that nothing is more unnatural than a -sovereign who cannot dominate his people by his moral and physical -qualities.</p></div> - -<p>And here the ambassador seems to have thought that he had gone rather -far, for he finds something to say about Henry’s less admirable -characteristics.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Unhappily this prince, so intelligent and reasonable, is given up -to idleness, has allowed himself to be led away by his passions, -and has left the government of the State in the hands of a few -favourites, the most powerful of whom was the Cardinal, until he -fell into total disgrace. Since then, from having been generous, he -has become miserly, and whereas formerly all those who treated of -affairs with him went away satisfied and covered with gifts, he now -allows all to leave the Court with discontent. He makes a show of -great piety, hears two low masses every day, and high mass also, on -feast days. He gives to the poor, to orphans, widows, young girls, -and infirm persons, and for these charities he gives his almoner -ten thousand ducats yearly. He is beloved by all. He is forty years -of age and has reigned twenty-two.</p></div> - -<p>Falier speaks next of the climate of Great Britain and the products of -the country, and gives a long description of a brewery. He briefly but -sufficiently describes the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and -gives some account of the British Constitution. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89">{89}</a></span> gives also a -statement of the King’s sources of income with their amount, and the -accuracy of the figures suggests that he must have got access to papers -not intended for his perusal.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>His Majesty may count upon over five hundred thousand ducats -[£375,000] a year, divided as follows:—</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="c">Ducats.</td></tr> -<tr><td>From the Crown (Lands)</td><td class="rt">190,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Customs</td><td class="rt">150,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Vacant Benefices</td><td class="rt">40,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Privy Seal</td><td class="rt">10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rebels (Confiscations, etc.)</td><td class="rt">50,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Lands on the Continent</td><td class="rt">10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fines for Crimes</td><td class="rt">25,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Royal Guards</td><td class="rt">50,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Total</td><td class="undl">525,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>I cannot tell exactly what he gets from taxes, but from information -which I have endeavoured to obtain from grave and experienced -persons, His Majesty exacts from his subjects about a million of -ducats; for the six millions of ducats which he had inherited from -his father were all spent in the wars with France, Flanders, and -Scotland. His Majesty usually spends 425,000 ducats for his Court, -which consists of five hundred men; namely, twenty-six -chamberlains, of whom one is Treasurer of the Chamber [keeper of -the privy purse?], one is a Majorduomo called a ‘Steward,’ his -assistant, who carries a little white stick as a sign of his -dignity; the Treasurer General, who pays all accounts; the -accountant who distributes [the payments]; the ‘cofferers’ in -charge of the said accounts; the Master of the Horse who has the -management of the royal stables. There are three hundred horses, -between Arabs, Turk<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_90" id="page_90">{90}</a></span>ish horses and racers, hackneys and others. His -Majesty has also eight chaplains, of whom one distributes his -charities, and there are many persons for his service of whom I do -not speak in detail lest I should fatigue Your Serenity. His -Majesty has always in his pay three hundred halberdiers who are on -guard by tens at a time for the King’s person, and pass the night -in the private antechamber.</p> - -<p>His Majesty spends as follows:—</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="c">Ducats.</td></tr> -<tr><td>For the Maintenance of his Court</td><td class="rt">100,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Presents</td><td class="rt">120,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Horses</td><td class="rt">20,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Parks, and Packs of Hounds</td><td class="rt">50,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Soldiers who guard the Fortresses</td><td class="rt">30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>His Majesty’s Chamber (Privy Purse)</td><td class="rt">30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Buildings</td><td class="rt">10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Charities</td><td class="rt">10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Embassies and King’s Messengers</td><td class="rt">40,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Expenses of the Queen (Catharine of Aragon), and -the Princess (Mary)</td><td class="rt">30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Total</td><td class="undl">440,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>In case of war his Majesty could arm four thousand light horse and -sixty thousand infantry. The latter would fight in the -old-fashioned way, with bow, sword, shield, helmet, and with pikes -of one or two points which are excellent against charges of -cavalry. They are now beginning to use guns and artillery. The -English do not fear death. As soon as the battle commences, they -provoke the enemy and charge furiously; in very quick engagements -they are generally victorious, but they often yield if the war -drags on. They have not the slightest fear of Frenchmen, but they -are much afraid of the Scotch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">{91}</a></span></p> - -<p>During forty days they are obliged to serve in the army without -receiving pay; after that time they receive three crowns and a half -for a period of service determined beforehand. The fleet consists -of one hundred and fifty vessels.</p> - -<p>It now only remains for me to tell you who are the friends of the -King, and what consequences his divorce might have, and I shall -then add a few words on the most Reverend the Cardinal York.</p> - -<p>Since the affair of the divorce has come up [Falier is writing in -1531, and Henry VIII. married Anne Boleyn the next year] the Pope -[Clement VII.] is not in his Majesty’s good graces. If the Holy -Father will not grant the King permission to divorce, the result -will be a very great advantage for the English crown, and a great -danger to the Roman Church, for the King will detach himself from -the latter, and will seize all the revenues of the ecclesiastical -benefices; this will yield the Crown more than six million ducats -[£4,500,000].</p></div> - -<p>Falier was not mistaken, unless, perhaps, in his figures. He proceeds to -speak of the relations between England and all the other European -states, after which he returns to the question of the divorce, -expressing himself in a very singular way for a Catholic. It must be -remembered, however, that he was a Venetian, and therefore a man of -business first, and a baptized Christian afterward.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Englishman [Henry VIII.] must necessarily divorce, for he -wishes to have a legitimate son, and he has lost all hope of one -being born to him by the Lady Catharine [of Aragon]. He will -therefore marry his favourite [Anne Boleyn] the daughter of the -Earl of Vuilcer (<i>sic</i>) [Wiltshire—note the Venetian’s phonetic -spelling!] as soon as possible. He will have trouble, for the -faction that is for the Queen will rise.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">{92}</a></span></p> - -<p>It is quite clear that Venetian diplomatists did not indulge themselves -in sentiment, and the information they presented to the Senate was as -brutally frank and coldly precise as a medical diagnosis. They sought -for facts and did not philosophise about them. Here is Falier’s opinion -of Cardinal Wolsey:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The King and the kingdom were in his hands, and he disposed of -everything as the King himself might have done, or the Pope. All -the princes were obliged to bow down to him. He received one -hundred and fifty thousand ducats yearly over and above the gifts -which he had from the English and the foreign princes. He counted -much on France, with which kingdom he kept up extremely -affectionate relations. His court was magnificent, more magnificent -than the King’s. He spent all his income, he was very proud, and he -wished to be adored like a god rather than respected as a prince.</p></div> - -<p>In connection with the great Cardinal, I shall translate a passage of -the letter in which Falier had informed the Senate of his disgrace. The -fragment has some value also, from the light it throws on the -comparative values of coins at that time. It must be remembered that the -value of the gold ducat never changed to the last, while that of all -other European coins varied greatly.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The King of England has had the Cardinal put in prison, has -deprived him of the government, and has confiscated all his -property. His fortune is valued at forty thousand pounds English, -equal to twenty thousand of our grossi [the silver mark], or two -hundred thousand [silver] ducats; in these forty thousand pounds -must be included thirty thousand pounds English in cash, that is, -fifteen thousand of ours or one hun<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_93" id="page_93">{93}</a></span>dred and fifty thousand -[silver] ducats. His real estate has also been confiscated, -consisting of his Archbishopric, which brought him a very large -sum.</p></div> - -<p>At the risk of wearying my readers I give a short extract from the -report of another ambassador to England, Jacopo Soranzo, which was read -before the Senate on the ninth of August 1554 (Queen Mary then -reigning). The Venetian expresses his surprise at the way in which -trials by jury were conducted in England.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Crimes are tried before twelve judges who may not leave the court, -nor eat, nor drink, until they all agree, without one exception, on -the sentence to be passed.... When sentence has been passed, the -judges execute it immediately, but without ever resorting to the -mutilation of a member or exile. If the accused is innocent, he is -acquitted; if he is guilty, he is condemned to death.</p> - -<p>I need not lay stress on the defective form of such trials; your -Lordships see for yourselves how reprehensible such a mode of -procedure is, for it often happens that eleven persons who wish to -acquit the accused decide to condemn him to death in order to be of -the opinion of the twelfth, who is determined to bear starvation -till this verdict is given.</p></div> - -<p>Before closing this chapter it is worth while to note that if the -Venetian ambassadors abroad succeeded in knowing almost everything that -was happening, the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>A. Bashet, Archives.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">government took good care that foreign representatives residing in -Venice should not follow their example. They were never told anything in -the way of news, and though honours and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_94" id="page_94">{94}</a></span> privileges were heaped upon -them, they were kept at arm’s length. As far back as the fourteenth -century there was a law forbidding all patricians to have any -acquaintance or social intercourse with any foreign representative -except under the most exceptional circumstances, and M. Baschet has -found material in the Archives sufficient to prove that the foreign -ambassadors lived in something very like the seclusion of exile, and -were altogether banished from all intercourse with the upper classes. -The same writer adds that the diplomatists resented this rude exclusion, -and that the practice of it made the Republic not a few enemies.</p> - -<p>To such a criticism Venice would have answered, as usual, by the -argument of success on the whole during many centuries. Those who care -to examine the point more closely may read M. Baschet’s interesting work -on the Secret Chancery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_95" id="page_95">{95}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_017" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_021.png"> -<img src="images/ill_021.png" width="500" height="382" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PONTE DEL CRISTO</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV<br /><br /> -THE ARSENAL, THE GLASS-WORKS, AND THE LACE-MAKERS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> old Arsenal is such a museum of shadows nowadays that it is hard to -realise what it once meant to the Venetians. Six hundred years ago, the -sight of it inspired one of Dante’s most vivid descriptions of activity, -and I have sometimes wondered whether in his day the three -dwelling-houses of the Provveditors were already nick-named Heaven, -Purgatory, and Hell, as they were always called at a later date.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_96" id="page_96">{96}</a></span></p> - -<p>The Arsenal was founded in the twelfth century, and from the very first -was one of the institutions most jealously watched over by the -government. In the sixteenth century it had grown to be a vast enclosure -of docks and basins, protected by a crenellated wall, and having but one -entrance, which was guarded by sentinels. In the interior, the houses of -the Provveditors had grown to be three great palaces, built round a -courtyard, each officer occupying one of them during the thirty-two -months of his term of office.</p> - -<p>The Provveditors were nobles, of course, but they must necessarily have -been men who thoroughly understood nautical matters, for it was their -duty to oversee all work done in the place, to the minutest details, and -they had absolute control of all the vast stores accumulated for -building and fitting the fleet of the Republic. Every manufactured -article was stamped with the arms of the Republic as soon as it was made -or purchased, and not a nail, not a fathom of rope, not a yard of canvas -could be brought out of the storehouses without the consent of one of -the Provveditors. If anything was found outside the walls of the Arsenal -with the public mark on it, the object was considered by law to be -stolen, an inquiry was made, and if the culprit who had committed the -misdemeanour could be caught, he was condemned to the galleys.</p> - -<p>In order to enforce the rigid regulations the government not only -required all three Provveditors to inhabit constantly the palaces -assigned to them, but insisted that one of them should remain day and -night within the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_004" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_022.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_022.jpg" width="500" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>STEAMERS COMING IN</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_97" id="page_97">{97}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">boundaries of the yard, during a fortnight, without going out at all. -This service was taken in turn, and the official who was on duty was -called the ‘Patron di Guardia.’ Into his hands all the keys were given -every evening when work was over.</p> - -<p>The artisans of the government ship-yard were the finest set of men in -Venice, and their traditions of workmanship and art were handed down in -their families from father to son for generations, as certain -occupations still are in Italy. I know of a man-servant, for instance, -whose direct ancestors have served those of the family in which he is -still a servant for more than two hundred years without a break. In the -Venetian Arsenal, it sometimes happened that an old man was foreman of a -department in which his son was a master smith or carpenter, and his -grandson an apprentice.</p> - -<p>There was something military in the organisation, which bound the -artisans very close together, for they trained themselves in fencing and -gymnastics, and also in everything connected with extinguishing fires -and saving wrecks or shipwrecked crews, for in any case of public danger -it was always the ‘Arsenalotti’ who were called in. They were sober and -courageous and excessively proud of their trade, and the government -could always count on them. Twice, towards the end of the sixteenth -century, the ducal palace took fire, and would have burnt down but for -the prodigious energy of the workmen from the government docks. On the -first occasion they proudly refused the present of five<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_98" id="page_98">{98}</a></span> hundred ducats -which the Doge offered them, but gratefully accepted an invitation to -dine with him in a body; and as they numbered over fifteen thousand the -Doge did not save money by the arrangement. Three years later, all their -efforts could not hinder the hall of the Great Council from burning, and -priceless works of art by such men as the two Bellini, Titian, -Tintoretto, and Pordenone were destroyed in a few moments. But the -Arsenalotti saved the rest of the building, and again refused any -recompense for their services.</p> - -<p>When Henry III. of France came to Venice, the Arsenal employed about -sixteen thousand men, and could count on a budget of two hundred and -twenty-four thousand gold ducats, of which one hundred and twenty-four -went to pay the wages of the workmen, and the rest was expended for -materials. Those were large sums in the sixteenth century, but Venice -looked upon the Arsenal as the mainspring of her power, and spared -nothing to keep it in a state as near perfection as possible. In the -long struggle with Genoa, the enemy used every art to bring about its -destruction, but always in vain. The men who guarded the docks were -absolutely incorruptible. In the sixteenth century it seemed as if the -pure blood of the old Venetians ran only in their veins, and as if they -alone still upheld the noble traditions of loyalty and simplicity which -the founders of the Republic had handed down from braver days.</p> - -<p>Next to the construction of her war-ships and merchant fleets, one of -the most important matters to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_99" id="page_99">{99}</a></span> the commerce of Venice was the -manufacture of glass, which brought enormous profits to the State and to</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_018" style="width: 418px;"> -<a href="images/ill_023.png"> -<img src="images/ill_023.png" width="418" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. MICHELE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">individuals, as is usually the case when a valuable product is made out -of cheap materials by processes which are secret, and therefore have the -effect of a monopoly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span></p> - -<p>As early as the fourteenth century the government had understood the -immense importance of the art, and the glass-blowers of Murano were -protected and favoured in a most especial way. As in one part of France, -a sort of nobility was inherent in the occupation, and an early law -sanctioned the marriage of a master</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_019" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_024.png"> -<img src="images/ill_024.png" width="500" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>VENICE FROM MURANO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">glass-blower’s daughter with a patrician by allowing their children to -be entered in the Golden Book.</p> - -<p>The glass-works were all established in the island of Murano, as their -presence in the city would have caused constant danger of fire at a time -when many of the houses were still built of wood, and the whole -manufacture was subject to the direct supervision of the Council of Ten, -under whose supreme authority Murano governed itself as a separate city, -and almost as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span> separate little republic. Not only were the -glass-blowers organised in a number of guilds according to the special</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_020" style="width: 410px;"> -<a href="images/ill_025.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_025.jpg" width="410" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE DUOMO CAMPANILE, MURANO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">branches of the profession, such as bead-making, bottle-blowing, the -making of window-panes and of stained glass, each guild having its own -‘mariegola’ or charter;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span> but over these the Muranese had their own Great -Council and Golden Book, in which the names of one hundred and -seventy-three families were inscribed, and their own Small Council, or -Senate. The Ten gave Murano a ‘Podestà,’ but he had not the power which -similar officers exercised in the other cities and islands of the -Dogato, and it is amusing to see that the people of Murano treated him -very much as the Venetians themselves treated their Doge. He was -required to be of noble blood; he was obliged by law to spend three days -out of four in Murano; he was forbidden to go to Venice when important -functions were going on; he could not interfere in any affair without -the permission of both the Councils of Murano, and altogether he was -much the same sort of figure-head as the Doge himself. On the other -hand, Murano supported a sort of consul in Venice with the title of -Nuncio, whose business it was to defend the interests of the island -before the Venetian government.</p> - -<p>Neither the Missier Grande, the chief of the Venetian police, nor the -‘sbirri,’ were allowed to exercise their functions on the island. -Offenders were arrested and dealt with by the officers of the Murano -government, and were handed over to the Venetian supreme government only -in extreme cases, most trials taking place on the island.</p> - -<p>The heraldic arms of Murano displayed on an azure field a cock with red -legs, wearing a crown of silver.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century the population was about thirty thousand souls, -and the little city had a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span> reputation for the beauty of its -churches and especially of its gardens, in which quantities of exotic -plants and flowers were cultivated.</p> - -<p>The two most powerful families amongst the glass-blowers were those of -Beroviero and Ballarin. I have told at length in the form of a romance -the true story</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_021" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_026.png"> -<img src="images/ill_026.png" width="500" height="382" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>MURANO, LOOKING TOWARDS VENICE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">of Zorzi Ballarin and Marietta Beroviero, availing myself only of the -romancer’s right to be the apologist of his hero. The facts remain. -Angelo Beroviero, a pupil of Paolo Godi, the famous mediæval chemist, -worked much alone in his laboratory, noting the results of his -experiments in a diary which became extremely valuable. By some means -this diary came into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span> hands of Zorzi Ballarin, so-called by his -comrades on account of his lameness. He loved Marietta, and she loved -him, but he was poor, and moreover, as far as I have been able to -ascertain, he was of foreign birth, and could therefore not become a -master glass-blower. When he found himself in possession of the precious</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_022" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_027.png"> -<img src="images/ill_027.png" width="500" height="300" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>MURANO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">secrets, he used his power to extort Beroviero’s consent, he married -Marietta, obtained the full privileges of a master, lived a highly -honourable life, and became the ancestor of a distinguished family, one -of whom was a Venetian ambassador, as may be read in the inscription on -his tomb in Murano. Beroviero’s house, with the sign of the Angel, is -still standing in Murano, and I think the ancient glass-works nearly -opposite were probably his. As for Zorzi Ballarin, I daresay that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span> -process by which he really got possession of the diary was not strictly -legal, but love has excused worse misdeeds than that, and Beroviero does -not seem to have suffered at all in the end. If there had been any -foundation for the spiteful story some chroniclers tell,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_023" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_028.png"> -<img src="images/ill_028.png" width="500" height="398" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE HOUSE OF BEROVIERO, MURANO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">a man of Beroviero’s power and wealth could have had Zorzi imprisoned, -tortured, and exiled without the slightest difficulty.</p> - -<p>Venice was almost as famous for her lace as for her glass. On the -admittedly doubtful authority of Daru and Laugier, Smedley gives an -anecdote of the Emperor Frederick III. for what it is worth. It at least -illustrates the fact that all foreigners did not esteem Venetian<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> glass -as highly as the Venetians themselves. When Frederick visited the city -on his way to Rome, he was most magnificently entertained, and amongst -other presents offered to him was a very beautiful service of Murano -glass. The Emperor was not pleased with the gift, which, to his -barbarous ignorance, seemed of no value; he ordered his dwarf jester to -seem to stumble against the table on which the matchless glass was set -out, and it was all thrown to the ground and smashed to atoms. ‘If these -things had been of gold or silver, they could not have been broken so -easily,’ said the imperial boor.</p> - -<p>In contrast with this possibly true story of the fifteenth century, I -find that the lace collar worn by Louis XIV. at his coronation was made -in Venice, and was valued at an enormous sum. He afterwards bribed -Murano glass-blowers to settle in France.</p> - -<p>In those times, more or less as now, women made lace at home, and -brought the results of their long and patient labour to the dealers, who -bought and sold it at a fabulous profit. A few specimens of the finest -lace of the sixteenth century are still in existence, and are worn on -great occasions by Italian ladies whose ancestresses wore them more than -three hundred years ago; but the art of making such lace is extinct. -Glance only, for instance, at a picture by Carpaccio, in the Museo -Civico of Venice, representing two patrician ladies of the fifteenth -century, one of whom wears white lace on her gown. It is of the kind -known as ‘point coupé’ or cut point, and is the same which Francesco<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span> -Vinciolo taught the French a hundred years later when it was no longer -thought fine enough, in Venice, for ornamenting anything but sheets and -pillow-cases. It is inimitable now. Or look at the exquisite lace of -network stitch with which Gentile Bellini loved to adorn the women he -portrayed. Yet in the sixteenth century still further progress had been -made, and the ‘air point’ was created, which surpassed in fineness -anything imagined before then, and for which fabulous prices were paid. -The collar of Louis XIV. was of this point, and it is said that as no -thread could be spun fine enough for it, white human hair was used. -There is also a story to the effect that the Emperor Joseph II., who -ascended the throne in 1765, ordered a set of air point worth the -improbable, though not very great price of 77,777 francs. As neither -Austrians nor Venetians used the franc, the story is most likely of -French origin.</p> - -<p>Another lace greatly valued in Venice was the ‘rose point,’ which is -probably the best known of the ancient laces. It was preferred, for -collars, both by high officials and great ladies, and the Dogesses often -used it for their veils. The Doge Francesco Morosini possessed some -wonderful specimens of it, which I am told are still in the possession -of his descendants.</p> - -<p>One more stitch was invented in the sixteenth century, which oddly -enough obtained the generic name of ‘Venetian point.’ There is a pretty -story about it. A sailor, says the legend, came home from a long voyage -and brought his sweetheart a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span> seaweed known to botanists by the -name of <i>Halimedia Opuntia</i>, of which the little branches were so fine -that the people called the plant ‘Siren’s hair.’ The man sailed again on -another voyage, and the girl, full of loving and anxious thoughts for -him, occupied herself by copying the dried plant with her needle, and in -so doing created the Venetian point.</p> - -<p>The minister Colbert introduced it into France a century later, under -Louis XIV., and gave it his own name; and the King and the Republic -quietly quarrelled about this French infringement of a Venetian -monopoly. In the end, the Inquisitors of State issued a decree which was -intended to recall errant and erring Venetian lace-workers and -glass-blowers to the security of their homes:—</p> - -<p>‘All workmen or artisans who carry on their trade in foreign countries -shall be ordered to come back; should they disobey, the members of their -families shall be imprisoned, and if they then return, they shall be -freely pardoned and again employed in Venice. But if any of them persist -in living abroad, messengers shall be sent to kill them, and when they -are dead their relations shall be let out of prison.’</p> - -<p>The glass-blowers who were to be murdered were men, but the lace-makers -were women, and the decree, which was made about 1673, is a fine -instance of Venetian business principles, since the killing of men and -women by assassination was a measure introduced solely for the -protection of trade.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span></p><p>Coloured bobbin lace was also made in Venice, with dyed silk thread and -threads of gold, in the fifteenth century, and Richard III. of England -desired his queen to wear it on her cloak at their coronation in 1483.</p> - -<p>The modern Burano lace was first made after the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_024" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_029.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_029.jpg" width="500" height="411" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE PALACES</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">end of the Republic, and is almost the only sort which is now -manufactured in any quantity. Some of the finer points are imitated, it -is true, and are vastly advertised, advertisement having taken the place -of assassination in business methods as a means of creating a fictitious -monopoly; but in spite of some really good pieces of needlework wrought -with great care—as<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span> advertisements—the mass of the work turned out is -of a cheap and commercial character.</p> - -<p>The policy of Venice with regard to her manufactures was one of -protection, as has been seen, and the result was on the whole very -satisfactory to the people as well as to the great merchants. Very heavy -duties were levied on almost all imported articles, and among the very -few excepted were the silk fabrics from Florence known by the name of -‘ormesini.’ This material was in such common use in Venice that the -local silk weavers could not meet the demand for it. One of the reasons -why the working people of Venice were always satisfied was that they -were almost always prosperous; the price of labour was high, while that -of necessities was relatively low, and the people accordingly lived in -comfort without excessively hard work.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, some of them were always extravagant, as some of the -nobles were, and some were unfortunate; and though there was no -pauperism, there were many families of hopelessly poor persons. In a -measure the hospitals, hospices, and orphan asylums provided for those -in want, but in Venice, as in modern cities, the candidates for charity -were always just a little more numerous than the shares into which -charity could divide herself.</p> - -<p>There were also those who, if not exactly poor, were in difficulties, -the class that for ever feeds the pawnbroker and the small money-lender. -The Republic exercised the strictest supervision over these industries, -and few cities in the world ever turned a harder face<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> against the -inroads of the Hebrews. It was with the greatest unwillingness and with -many precautions that Jews were ever admitted into the city at all, and -a special code provided the most extraordinary and cruel penalties for -the most ordinary misdemeanours when committed by them. They were forced -to wear a special dress with a large patch of yellow on the chest, and -they could only follow the meanest occupations. In mediæval Rome it was -the business of the Jews to bury the Christian dead, but it often -happened that the Pope’s private physician was a Hebrew. I do not find -that in Venice they were ever forced to be gravediggers for the poor, -but they were forbidden to act as physicians except for their own sick. -Both Church and State rigorously forbade their intermarriage with -Christians, and, so far as the happy ending of the love story is -concerned, Lorenzo and Shylock’s daughter could never have married. More -than once, before the sixteenth century, the Jews were expelled from -Venice and made to live in Mestre, which seems to have been their -regular headquarters, but they were allowed to come into the city during -the time of certain public fairs. If they prolonged their stay beyond -the limit, however, they became liable to fine or imprisonment. Some of -these measures had been partly relaxed by the middle of the sixteenth -century, but the Jews never enjoyed anything like equality with the -other citizens.</p> - -<p>Oddly enough the money-lender of the lower <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span>classes in Venice was the -wine-seller, whom the people called the Bastionero. In the wine-shop it -was customary to pawn objects for wine and money</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_025" style="width: 417px;"> -<a href="images/ill_030.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_030.jpg" width="417" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE RIALTO STEPS</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">simultaneously, one-third of the value being given in wine, which was -generally watered. If the pledge were not redeemed within three months, -the amount<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span> to be paid for getting it back was increased, and again at -the end of the next three months, and so on, until,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_026" style="width: 409px;"> -<a href="images/ill_031.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_031.jpg" width="409" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>NOON ON THE RIALTO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">at the end of the year, the original sum lent was doubled. If it was not -paid, the wine-seller had a right to sell the object for what it would -bring.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span></p> - -<p>A modern Eastern proverb says that one Greek can cheat any ten Jews, but -that one Armenian can cheat ten Greeks. Considering that Venice had a -distinctly oriental character during the Middle Ages, and since we know -that the small money-lending wine-sellers were not Jews, I suspect that -they were principally Greeks and Armenians, the more probably so as we -know that great quantities of Greek and Armenian wine were imported into -Venice, and that those wines will bear a good deal of watering. The -latter is an important point, for it is manifest that when the pledge -was redeemed within the first three months, the lender’s profit was the -difference between the nominal and the real value of the wine which -formed one-third of the loan.</p> - -<p>The government which tolerated this ignoble occupation exhibited the -most extraordinary prejudice against the government pawnbroking offices -which were common in other Italian cities. Historians have in vain -endeavoured to discover why this prejudice went so far that, in 1524, -the Council of Ten published a decree threatening with death on the -scaffold any one who should even propose the creation of such an -establishment. Without entering into any ingenious speculation, it seems -possible that the Venetians, who were wise if not virtuous, considered -that while it was impossible to prevent the poor from borrowing small -sums on their little possessions, to authorise such borrowing by making -the government the lender would greatly increase the temptations of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span> -that more shiftless class to whom borrowing seems to be a prime -necessity of existence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_027" style="width: 408px;"> -<a href="images/ill_032.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_032.jpg" width="408" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>AT THE RIALTO</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The centre and heart of all this activity, good and bad, was the bridge -of the Rialto. We find it hard to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span> realise that until near the end of -the sixteenth century it was still built of wood with a movable -drawbridge in the middle to admit the passage of larger vessels. -Carpaccio, who lived in the fifteenth century, has left us a faithful -representation of it as it remained for nearly a hundred years -afterwards. It would be interesting to place beside that picture -Turner’s lost painting of the same subject, a very beautiful canvas -which I have twice had the good fortune to see in the course of its more -than mysterious peregrinations. I last heard of it, though not -certainly, as being in the south of France.</p> - -<p>The present bridge was begun after infinite hesitation in 1588, and was -built after the designs of Antonio da Ponte, whose name was certainly -prophetic of his career. Twelve thousand elm piles had to be driven into -the soil on each side of the canal to a depth of sixteen feet to make -the foundations of the arch. The construction occupied three years, and -is said to have cost 250,000 ducats, presumably of silver. The bridge as -it stands is a remarkable piece of work, and would be beautiful if the -hideous superstructure of shops could be removed. It is interesting to -note that fifty years before its completion, Michelangelo offered the -Doge Andrea Gritti a plan for a bridge, as is amply proved by the -existence of a picture in the Casa Buonarotti in Florence representing -the subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_028" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_033.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_033.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>EVENING OFF S. GEORGIO</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V<br /><br /> -CONCERNING SOME LADIES OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> clever modern Italian playwright, Signor Martini, makes one of his -witty characters say that there are ‘women,’ but that there is no such -thing</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Martini, ‘Chi sa il giuoco non l’ insegni.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">as ‘woman’ in the abstract. In other words, ‘women’ are a fact, but -‘woman’ is a myth. Though this may be a little paradoxical,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span> there are -certainly distinct types of women in each class of life. The smart -society woman of to-day and the labourer’s wife, like the Venetian -patrician lady of the sixteenth century and the fisher-wives of -Chioggia, have in common only their sex, their weaknesses and their -sufferings; there is very little resemblance between their virtues, and -none at all between their joys.</p> - -<p>The noble ladies of Venice in the sixteenth century were as idle and -frivolous as Orientals. The fact must be admitted by any one who studies -the times; and if it is not of a nature to please those who idealise -that period, it may be partly excused by the consideration that the -Venetian nobleman treated his womankind very much as a Turk treats his -harem. He was not jealous, as lovers understand jealousy; granted a -certain degree of beauty and a dowry of a certain value, he cared very -little whom he married. When Kugler, the famous art critic, says of -Titian’s picture of the Schiava, the Slave, in the Barberini Gallery in -Rome, that the name is utterly meaningless, he shows that he knew -nothing of Venetian life. The slave in the sixteenth century not seldom -meant everything, where the wife meant nothing; and if the wives were -idle and frivolous, we must remember that when they were young and -good-looking, they often found themselves in competition with beautiful -Georgian and Circassian women for their masters’ favour. Where women are -plentiful, beautiful, and not clever, the men who love them are rarely -jealous. But those grave and magnificent Venetians, who had not a -scruple in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span> politics, nor in matrimony, were excessively sensitive about -anything which touched their technical honour, and it seemed to them -altogether safer and wiser to teach their wives and daughters what they -were pleased to call ‘habits of domestic seclusion.’ To be plain, they -encouraged them to stay at home; and sometimes, by way of making -obedience easier, they locked them up. M. Yriarte says with partial -truth that their ‘seclusion’ was that of the harem, not that of the -classic gynaeceum; he did not realise that the latter was nothing but a -harem too, and that if the Greeks kept their wives at home, it was that -they might sup undisturbed in the society of Phryne.</p> - -<p>The influence of the East on everything connected with private life in -Venice increased with the Renascence, and is even more perceptible then -than during the nominal domination of the Byzantine Empire, when Roman -traditions still had great force, and new currents of thought reached -Venice from the Lombards.</p> - -<p>Yet in one respect there was nothing oriental about the Venetian noble -of the sixteenth century. When he ordered his women to appear in public -at all, he sent them out adorned like those miraculous images which are -covered with ‘ex voto’ offerings, and they mixed in the crowd that -filled the Piazza of Saint Mark’s, shoulder to shoulder with the -shameless free.</p> - -<p>The Venetian gentleman, so sensitive about his technical honour, was not -even displeased when the chronicler, the reporter of his day, confounded -ladies<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span> and courtesans in pompous praise of their beauty and dress. One -of the nobleman’s principles seems to have been that a woman was never -in danger in public, nor when her door was locked on the outside and the -key was in her husband’s pocket, but that any intermediate state of -partial liberty was fraught with peril.</p> - -<p>At home the Venetian ladies suffered the pains of boredom in common with -the Georgians and Circassians, who not infrequently lived under the same -roof, but who presumably saw something more of their masters. The young -mother had not even a resource in her children, for it was necessary -that the latter should be brought up to be precisely like their fathers -and mothers, and in order to accomplish this the fathers kept the boys -with themselves, and made them serve in the Senate when they were still -quite small; whereas it seems that the girls were brought up largely in -convents, such as that of the Vergini, lest they should learn too well -from their mothers what it meant to be the wife of a member of the Great -Council.</p> - -<p>Does any one remember, in all the portraits of Venetian ladies by -Carpaccio, Tintoretto, Veronese, or Titian, to have seen a mother -accompanied by her little child? There is the conventional flower, there -is the jewel, there is often the lap-dog; but the child is as -conspicuously absent as the effigy of Brutus at Junia Tertia’s funeral. -Children were born and were splendidly baptized; but after that they had -no part in their mothers’ lives. And the ladies themselves had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span> no great -part in Venetian social life, except on its great occasions of baptisms, -marriages, and funerals, or in public ceremonies, when they appeared in -a body, by order of the Ten, in their richest clothes and as a part of -the decoration. It is no wonder that they had few friends and were bored -to extinction.</p> - -<p>As a specimen of what a young and noble Venetian girl could become if -emancipated, one cannot do better than take Bianca Cappello. She was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">born in 1548 in the magnificent palace which her father, Bartolommeo -Cappello, had built for himself near the Ponte Storto. Her mother died -when Bianca was a little child, a misfortune which probably had no very -great influence on the girl’s education or character, seeing how little -the Venetian ladies occupied themselves with their children. She -received the usual teaching, and learned to read and write after a -fashion, and such of her letters as have been preserved show that her -writing was anything but good. No doubt she had the usual number of pet -birds and lap-dogs to play with, and plenty of sweetmeats, and when she -was sixteen she was very like other girls of her class and age.</p> - -<p>In Italy young girls are taught not to look out of the window in town. -Bianca was terribly bored, and she looked out of the window. Opposite -her father’s palace was a house occupied by two Florentine burghers, -uncle and nephew, Bonaventuri by name, who represented the great Tuscan -banking-house of Salviati.</p> - -<p>Bianca looked out of her window, dreaming, no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> doubt, of the dancing -lessons which she would be allowed to have when she should be married, -and of other similar and harmless frivolities; and young Pietro -Bonaventuri also looked out of the window, neglecting his ledgers.</p> - -<p>The girl was very lonely and excessively bored. She never left the -palace except to go with her father</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Galliccioli, iii. 210.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to their villa in Murano for a few weeks in the fine season. She was not -even taken to church, because, some eighty years, earlier, a young girl -called Giovanna di Riviera, when going to mass with her mother on the -morning of the third of March 1482, had been picked up and literally -carried off by a too enterprising lover. After that, young girls of good -birth were not allowed to go to church, and mass was said for them in a -little chapel at home.</p> - -<p>Bianca was so terribly bored that she began to make signs to Pietro from -her window. She had nothing else to do. One of her most important -occupations was to sun her hair on the high ‘altana.’ That was a real -pleasure, for the palace was gloomy, though it was new, and her room -felt like a prison cell; but she could not be always sunning her hair.</p> - -<p>The young banker’s clerk responded to her signals of distress with -alacrity, and a dumb love affair began, apparently highly approved by -the youth’s uncle, who was a man of business. On the night</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1564.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">between the twenty-eighth and the twenty-ninth of December the two -eloped and got away from Venice without being caught.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span></p> - -<p>Bartolommeo Cappello’s appeal to the Council of Ten is extant. I give -the most interesting part of it:—</p> - -<p>‘I shall here expose, and not without tears, the cruel and atrocious -deed of which I was the victim on the night of December the -twenty-ninth. The scoundrel Pietro Bonaventuri, with the consent of his -uncle, Giovanni Battista, and of accomplices whom I know not ... entered -my house, which is almost opposite his, and carried off my only -daughter, sixteen years old; he first took her to his house and then hid -her from place to place, to my great dishonour and that of all my -family.’</p> - -<p>The document goes on in a strain of lamentation, and ends with the -request that the Council of Ten should set a price on the head of the -seducer, and bring the girl back to be locked up in a convent; and the -unhappy father offered a prize of six thousand lire to any one who would -bring him Pietro Bonaventuri, alive or dead. The letter expresses more -hatred of the lover than sorrow for the lost child.</p> - -<p>The Ten proceeded in the matter without delay; Pietro’s uncle was thrown -into prison, and died there soon afterwards of a putrid fever. Bianca’s -woman-servant and the latter’s husband, who was a gondolier, and who -had, of course, both been acquainted with the plan of her flight, were -arrested and tortured; as for Pietro and Bianca, they had been already -some time in Florence, where they learned that they had both been -condemned to death by default. The Ten had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124">{124}</a></span> proceeded against the -insignificant banker’s clerk with terrible energy.</p> - -<p>But Bianca, who had been so dreadfully bored, now had too much to do. -Pietro’s affairs did not prosper, and after selling the jewels she had -brought with her, she was obliged to work with her hands in his house, -which was not at all what she had bargained for. Chance favoured her, -however, and she helped chance as well as she could, and succeeded in -attracting the notice of Francesco de’ Medici. He was the son of Cosmo, -the Grand Duke, and the brother of Isabella, then not yet drowned in her -own basin by Paolo Giordano Orsini, and of Cardinal Ferdinando, who -afterwards poisoned his brother and became Grand Duke. Francesco lost -his heart to the beautiful Bianca, and she had no objection to winning -it; Pietro Bonaventuri, who was a man of business instincts, but not -sufficiently cautious, had no objection either. But old Cosmo, the Duke, -was much scandalised by his son’s behaviour, though he himself had been -accused of nothing less than loving his own daughter Isabella, and he -remonstrated with Francesco.</p> - -<p>‘You know,’ he said, ‘that I do not wish to weary you with preaching, -but when things go too far you must learn what I think of you.’</p> - -<p>Francesco learned, but does not seem to have been much affected by the -knowledge, for he presently installed Bianca and her complaisant husband -almost under the same roof with his wife. Pietro, however, was really so -superfluous that he was soon suppressed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">{125}</a></span> after which his widow occupied -an official position in</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_029" style="width: 396px;"> -<a href="images/ill_034.png"> -<img src="images/ill_034.png" width="396" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CASA WEIDERMANN</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the court of Tuscany as the acknowledged mistress of the heir to the -throne. Francesco now attempted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">{126}</a></span> get a reversal of the sentence -passed on Bianca by the Council of Ten, and employed an influential -person to plead the cause; but it was thought improper that such a case -should be treated in the name of old Cosmo while he insisted on ignoring -Bianca’s existence. Cosmo died in 1574, but still nothing was done.</p> - -<p>It may be doubted whether any woman in Bianca’s situation ever went to -such extremes of treachery and effrontery. Her victim, the gentle -Archduchess Giovanna of Austria, Francesco’s wife, died at last in 1578, -possibly without being helped out of the world, and Francesco married -Bianca secretly two months later; but the marriage was not announced to -the people until the year of mourning was over. Bianca was Grand Duchess -of Tuscany.</p> - -<p>The effect of the news in Venice was magical. The Senate made the -following curious declaration:—</p> - -<p>‘The Grand Duke of Tuscany having deigned to choose as his consort the -lady Bianca Cappello, of noble Venetian family, endowed with such great -qualities that we judge her worthy of that dignity, it is but right that -our Republic should exhibit its satisfaction at the honour conferred -upon it by this important and prudent decision of the said Grand Duke. -We therefore decree that the aforesaid illustrious and puissant lady, -Bianca Cappello, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, be declared the adopted and -beloved daughter of our Republic.’</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">{127}</a></span></p><p>Bianca’s father, who, being a good Venetian, was almost as good a man -of business as Salviati’s murdered clerk, and much more prudent, wrote a -letter full of touchingly tender feeling to the daughter whom he had -cursed so loudly and so long; he and his sons, Bianca’s brothers, were -made Knights of the Golden Stole, and all the records of the scandalous -trial that had taken place fifteen years earlier were burnt. Bianca’s -public marriage and coronation took place on the twelfth of October -1579, and the Republic sent two ambassadors and the patriarch Grimani to -show the Grand Duchess that all old scores were forgotten. She was -thirty-one years old.</p> - -<p>We know even more than is necessary of Bianca’s life and intrigues. She -survived her triumph eight years, till she and her ill-gotten husband -died of poison within a few hours of each other; but whether the drug -was administered by the Cardinal Ferdinando, Francesco’s brother, or -whether the two meant to give it to him and took it by mistake, is not -clear. He himself declared that he had not poisoned anybody. It is at -least certain that he would not allow Bianca to be interred in the -Medici vault, but had her privately buried in the crypt of San Lorenzo.</p> - -<p>The Venetian Republic did not go into mourning for its ‘well-beloved -adopted daughter,’ since it was best not to quarrel with the Cardinal -Grand Duke, who had probably suppressed her, though his physician made -an autopsy and assured the public that she had died of frightful -excesses of all sorts.</p> - -<p>The moral of this unpleasing tale is that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">{128}</a></span> manner of bringing up -Venetian girls in the sixteenth century was not of a kind to develop -their better instincts, for there is nothing to show that Bianca -Cappello was very different from other girls of her time, except in the -great opportunities for doing harm which fell to her share.</p> - -<p>Probably the most enjoyable weeks of a noble Venetian girl’s life were -those which preceded her marriage, and were chiefly spent in the -preparation of her wedding outfit. The age was eccentric as to dress; it -was the time of the huge Elizabethan ruffle and hoops; in Venice it was -especially the time of clogs.</p> - -<p>The latter had been introduced in the fourteenth century on account of -the mud in the still unpaved</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Urbain de Gheltof, Calzature.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">streets, and they continued to be worn and grew to monstrous dimensions -after their usefulness had very much decreased. It became the rule that -the greater the lady was, the higher her clogs must be, till they turned -into something like stilts, and she could no longer walk except leaning -on the shoulders of two servants. In China, the Chinese men, as -distinguished from the Tartars, encourage the barbarous breaking of -girls’ feet, because it makes it impossible for them to gad about the -town when they are older, and still less to run away. The Venetian -noblemen approved of clogs for the same reason.</p> - -<p>M. Yriarte tells how a foreign ambassador, who was once talking with the -Doge and his counsellors in 1623, observed that little shoes would be -far more convenient<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">{129}</a></span> than the huge clogs in fashion. One of the -counsellors shook his head in grave disapproval as he answered: ‘Far too -convenient, indeed! Far too much so.’</p> - -<p>The civic museum in Venice contains two pairs of clogs, one of which is -twenty inches in height, the other seventeen. Some were highly -ornamented, and the Provveditori alle Pompe made sumptuary regulations -against adorning them with over-rich embroidery or with fine pearls. At -the same time, shoemakers were warned that they would be liable to a -fine of twenty-five lire for any pair of clogs not of proper dimensions -and becoming simplicity. Yet they continued to be worn of extravagant -size and excessively ornamented till the end of the seventeenth century, -when they suddenly sank to nothing, so that a clever woman of the time -complained that the Venetian ladies were beginning to wear shoes no -thicker than a footman’s.</p> - -<p>They were especially affected by the nobles, for the burgher class wore -them of much more moderate size. Altogether the life of the burghers’ -wives was far more enjoyable; they occupied themselves with music and -painting; they held gatherings at which men and women really exchanged -ideas, and ‘academies’ at which women with a turn for poetry or science -could compare themselves with the most gifted men of Venice.</p> - -<p>The most alive of the noble women of the sixteenth century, the one of -whom we have the most vivid impression, was assuredly Bianca Cappello, -who was a monster of iniquity. The others, who had not her<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">{130}</a></span> -opportunities for great crime, all seem like lay figures, or common -odalisques, who lived a sensuous existence that was never disturbed by -an idea. But the burgher women amused themselves, and thought, and -wrote, and sometimes even allowed themselves a little sentiment.</p> - -<p>As for the women of the people, we know nothing about them, as there are -no documents regarding them, but it seems probable that they were, on -the whole, both happy and honest.</p> - -<p>There was one more category of women in Venice, as elsewhere, a class -that numbered eleven thousand six hundred and fifty-four members, -towards the end of the century, all young, many of them fair, all -desirous of pleasing, and all, strange to say, present at every public -festival—the class of those who were outside of class, the gay and -shameless free. A Venetian of those days made a catalogue ‘of all the -chief and most honoured courtesans of Venice ... their names ... the -lodgings where they live ... and also the amount of the money to be paid -by noblemen and others who desire to enter into their good graces.’ This -list is dedicated ‘to the most magnificent and gracious Madam Livia -Azzalina, my most respected patroness and lady ... the princess of all -Venetian courtesans.’ Moreover, at the end of the pompous dedication, -the writer, who signs only his initials, adds that he kisses the gay -lady’s ‘honoured hands.’</p> - -<p>Some authors, taking this for a catalogue made out by the government, -inform us that the Venetian Senate<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131">{131}</a></span> always gave courtesans the title of -‘deserving.’ Lord Orford refuted this calumny in a curious pamphlet -quoted by Mr. Horatio Brown in his valuable and delightful <i>Venetian -Studies</i>. The catalogue contains two hundred and fifteen names; at -number two hundred and four stands the name of the famous Veronica -Franco—‘that skilled writer of the sonnet and curiously polished verses -which say so little and say it so beautifully,’ says Mr. Brown.</p> - -<p>Tassini tells an anecdote in point. Two gentlemen were walking one day -over the bridge near the Church of Saint Pantaleo, and they were -confiding to each other their conjugal troubles. ‘Do you know who is the -only honest woman in Venice?’ asked one of them. ‘There she is!’ He -painted to a little marble head which is still visible in the front of a -house below the bridge. The story went the rounds, and the bridge itself -was re-christened ‘Il Ponte di Donna Onesta.’</p> - -<p>The elegance of the gay ladies was incredible, and it was in order to be -distinguished from them that respectable women little by little adopted -the black silk gown and veil which they wore to the end of the Republic. -The veil was black for married women and white for young girls.</p> - -<p>I find in some statistics for the year 1581 the following statement as -to the women of the better classes. There were 1659 patrician ladies, -1230 noble girls, 2508 nuns, and 1936 women of the burgher class. What -could they do against 11,654? The note adds that all the others were -women of the people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132">{132}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_030" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_035.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_035.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE GRAND CANAL IN SUMMER</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI<br /><br /> -A FEW PAINTERS, MEN OF LETTERS, AND SCHOLARS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">According</span> to some trustworthy authorities, Raphael, Martin Luther, and -Rabelais were born in the same year. The fact that they were certainly -contemporaries with each other and with many other men of genius of -contradictory types is one of the principal features of that most -contradictory age. Signor Molmenti compares the gifts of Carpaccio and -the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span> Bellini to rays that warm and gladden, those of Titian and -Tintoretto to lights that dazzle but give no heat. In two centuries that -immense change in art had taken place; from having spoken to the soul it -had come to appeal to the eye.</p> - -<p>The best painters of the fifteenth century touch us, and remain -impersonal to us. What do we know, for instance, of Carpaccio’s dreams -or struggles or sufferings while he was painting his great picture of -Saint Ursula and her maiden company? We gaze upon those virgin faces, -those crowns of martyrdom, those tenderly smiling women’s lips, those -almost childlike gestures, and they touch us deeply. Perhaps we should -like to ask them the secret of Carpaccio’s melancholy soul. But the lips -move not, nor do the eyes answer; the eleven thousand maidens seem -rather to beckon us away to that place of refreshment, light and peace, -where we may hope that the great painter’s sadness ended at last. They -tell us not of him, nor of themselves, but of heaven.</p> - -<p>A hundred years have gone by, and still artists paint pictures; but they -tell us no longer of anything but their own selves, their own lives, -their own passions. It is the world that has changed; perhaps it is not -faith that is gone, faith the evidence of things unseen, but most -assuredly belief has taken flight and left men sceptical, the belief -which is the mother of all bright dreams, and which must see in order to -believe, if only in imagination, and, believing, cannot fail to see.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span></p> - -<p>The time had come when the artists were interesting for their own sakes -as well as for what they did, and when the reporter-chronicler thought -it worth while to note every anecdote of their daily lives, to put down -the names of their models, to tell us who sat to them for their -Madonnas. And those names are mostly names of good and honest women, and -we know to a nicety why they chose this face for one purpose and that -for another. There is an end of all the legends of saintly heads begun -by the artist and finished before morning by an angel’s hand. There is -an end, too, of dreams of refreshment, light and peace. The artists of -the sixteenth century are the most human of mankind, the most subject to -humanity’s passions, its weaknesses and even its madness, and their -works bear the stamp of the sensuous naturalism in which they lived.</p> - -<p>The patrician Alvise Pisani possessed a beautiful house at San Cassian, -standing on a tongue of land called Biri Grande. From the embrasured -windows Murano could be seen, and the island of San Cristoforo, and of -Pace; beyond these, in the distance, rose the tall tower of Torcello, -and a dark line along the water marked the forest of the distant island -called Deserto; to the left rose the Euganean Hills, to the right -stretched a long beach of gleaming sand. The fishermen used to say that -when the mysterious glow spread over the waters of the lagoon at night, -the Fata Morgana had floated up the Adriatic and was bathing in the -dark.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_005" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_036.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_036.jpg" width="500" height="411" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>AFTERGLOW, THE GRAND CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span></p> - -<p>All those things might be seen from the windows of Alvise Pisani’s -house; and there dwelt Titian, no longer the thoughtless gallant of his -earlier days, but grave now, stately and magnificent. Violante is -forgotten, he lives honourably with his wife Cecilia, but he</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_031" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_037.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_037.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>EUGANEAN HILLS FROM THE LAGOON, LOW TIDE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">still keeps his love of conversation, his luxurious tastes, his lordly -manner; and now he feels himself the equal of the great of the earth, -and it amuses him to exchange letters with princes. For secretaries he -has poets, historians, and even a cardinal; he is the Titian who will -allow an emperor to stoop for the brush that has fallen from his hand. -But few men ever had such<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span> grace and winning charm, and his house is -ever open to his countless friends, a place of gathering, of wit and of -good talk, where ladies are received, some of whom a later age will call -blue-stockings, ladies who are members of learned academies, and ladies -that play the lute.</p> - -<p>Such was Titian, and such the house in which he was rarely alone. He had -among many friends two at least with whom he was really intimate, the -sculptor Sansovino, and Pietro Aretino the man of letters. The former -was the friend of his heart and of his artistic intelligence; the latter -he himself regarded as a sort of wild beast whom he had tamed and whom -he kept to frighten his rivals and his enemies. He could not let a day -go by without seeing both, and the three were generally together. If one -of them was asked to dinner, he invariably begged his host to invite the -other two.</p> - -<p>They certainly did not resemble one another. Aretino was an adventurer -who had tried most things: in his boyhood he had forged and stolen; in -his young prime he had been a renegade monk, and then a courtier; in his -maturity, to use one of his own expressions, he earned his living by the -sweat of his ink. The Grand Duke of Tuscany had hired a house for</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under Carbon.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">him at the Riva del Carbon, for sixty soldi yearly, on the Grand Canal, -and it was there that he followed an occupation which procured him all -the necessaries and some of the luxuries of life. He made it his -business to address the most abjectly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span> flattering panegyrics to eminent -persons, and even to sovereigns like Francis I. and the Emperor Charles -V., and they rewarded him with presents of money or old wine. Or if some -unlucky aspirant to office was in need of popularity or favour, Aretino -quietly explained to him that a little article from his own pen could -make or mar success; and there was nothing to be done but to pay, and to -pay handsomely. Between the composition of one libel and the next, the -amiable Tuscan lived riotously on his latest earnings with his two -daughters Adria and Austria; in plain language he was a blackmailer, a -voluptuary, a man of the highest taste, and of the lowest tastes.</p> - -<p>No one loved him, but he was generally feared, and was therefore much -sought after. His house was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">always full, and it was said that it was impossible to go there without -meeting a scholar, a soldier, and a monk. He himself said pleasantly -that the steps of his house were as much worn by the feet of visitors as -the pavement before the Capitol was by the cars of triumphing Roman -generals. Nor was it only those that could pay blackmail who mounted the -stairs. The man was full of contradictions; the poor crept up to his -door and did not return empty-handed. Aretino was charitable.</p> - -<p>He could not bear to see a child crying for cold or hunger, nor to see -men or women sleeping shelterless in the streets, and often he took in -under his roof pilgrims and poor wandering gentlemen. On Easter day he -never failed to feed eighteen little beggar children<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span> at his table. But -when he was tired of his visitors, rich or poor, he took refuge with -Titian at San Cassian, for Titian was the only human being whom he loved -sincerely, and all the resources of his venomous wit and cruel pen were -at the disposal of this one friend. As for Titian’s other friends, -Aretino spared them, but the artist’s enemies he harassed without mercy.</p> - -<p>He was a physical coward, of course, as all such men are. He hated -Jacopo Tintoretto for two reasons, first, because his growing reputation -was beginning to be a source of anxiety to Titian, and secondly, because -he was too poor to be blackmailed and too proud to show himself in -Titian’s house with the threadbare clothes which his wife, good soul, -made him wear for economy’s sake. Aretino accordingly abused him, and -Tintoretto heard of it and determined to put an end to it in his own -way.</p> - -<p>One day he met Aretino in the street, stopped him, and proposed to paint -his portrait. The blackmailer was delighted, as the picture would cost -him nothing and would certainly be valuable, and he at once made an -appointment to go to Jacopo’s studio. On the appointed day he appeared -punctually, and seeing an empty canvas ready for the portrait, sat down -in a becoming attitude. But the painter’s turn had come. ‘Stand up!’ he -said, and Aretino obeyed. Then Tintoretto pulled out a long -horse-pistol. ‘What is this?’ asked Aretino, alarmed. ‘I am going to -measure you,’ replied the artist, and he proceeded to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span> measure his -adversary by the length of the pistol. ‘You are two pistols and a half -high,’ he observed; ‘now go!’ and he pointed to the door. Aretino was -badly frightened, and lost no time in getting out of the house; and from -that day he neither wrote nor spoke any word that was not flattering to -Jacopo Tintoretto.</p> - -<p>Aretino received another lesson one day from the famous Andrea Calmo. -The latter was an extremely original personage, half man of letters, -half actor, whose improvised speeches in the character of Pantaloon were -so remarkable as to give rise to the mistaken belief that he had -invented that mask. He also wrote open letters to prominent men, as -Aretino did, and published them, and as his were quite as libellous as -the Tuscan’s, and sometimes even more witty, they had</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Love’s Labour’s Lost, Act iv. sc. 2 (Cambridge edition, -1863).</i></div> - -<p class="nind">an immense success. In fifty years they went through fifty editions, and -there is positive proof that Shakespeare was acquainted with them, for -he quotes a line and a half from one of Calmo’s works:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i6">Venetia, Venetia,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Chi non ti vede non ti pretia.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>Calmo’s chief virtue was neither patience nor forbearance, and it -appears that Aretino irritated him exceedingly. One day his nerves could</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Studi, and Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">bear no longer with the Tuscan, and he gave vent to his feelings in an -ironical open letter addressed to the object of his dislike. Here is a -fragment of it:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span>—</p> - -<p>‘You are not a rational, natural human being, but aërial, celestial, -deified, a devout man and a calm one, esteemed by all, adorned with -every treasure and with all the virtues that no one being possesses, -from the East to the West. You are the temple of poetry, the theatre of -invention, a very sea of comparisons—and you behave in such a manner as -to scare even the dead!’</p> - -<p>Titian’s other friend, Jacopo Sansovino, the celebrated architect, was -also a Tuscan by birth, but was of quite another stamp. His youth had -been wild, but he had then married a woman of great beauty and -refinement whose name was Paola, and who completely dominated him. The -couple were often seen at the house at San Cassian, as Titian and -Cecilia his wife often visited them in their dwelling in Saint Mark’s -Square close by the clock tower.</p> - -<p>Sansovino was handsome still, and rather a fashionable person, but -excitable withal and a brilliant talker; his life had been saddened for -some length of time by the wild doings of his son, but to his great -relief the young man at last took to literature and the art of printing. -The Sansovino couple also made their house the general meeting-place of -many friends, as Titian did.</p> - -<p>Though Jacopo was a Tuscan, Venice made every effort to monopolise his -time and industry after he had become famous throughout Italy, and he -was appointed the official architect of Saint Mark’s. He was charged -with the erection of the Mint and the Library, and of</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_006" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_038.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_038.jpg" width="500" height="432" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>VENICE FROM THE GARDEN</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">a new Loggia to replace the very simple one in which the patricians had -been accustomed to gather before the meetings of the Great Council, ever -since the thirteenth century. How well he succeeded in that, the -beautiful construction which fell with the Campanile amply showed.</p> - -<p>While he was at work on the Library, Titian was called to Rome to -execute an important commission, and set out in the certainty that on -his return he should find the building finished and his friend covered -with glory. The construction grew indeed, and was soon finished, with -its two stories, of Doric and Ionic architecture, and the balustrade -that crowns the edifice, and the really royal staircase, and all the -rest.</p> - -<p>But unhappily, on the night of the eighteenth of December 1545, the -vault of the main hall fell in, with no apparent reason. Instantly all -Sansovino’s rivals raised a terrific outcry, accusing him of having -neglected the most elementary rules of his art, and asserting that the -accident was altogether due to his negligence and incapacity. The -zealous magistrate whose duty it was to oversee the construction of -public buildings did not even wait for a proper warrant, but seized -Sansovino instantly and sent him to prison.</p> - -<p>Paola was in despair, and when the news was generally known, early on -the following morning, the indignation of the architect’s friends knew</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">no bounds. In a few hours Aretino wrote a consoling letter to Paola, -another to Titian, explaining to him what had happened, and a series of -libellous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span> articles against every architect in Venice except Sansovino -himself. No one escaped who could be supposed to have uttered a single -word against the reputation of the artist in trouble. There was a -certain architect called Sanmichele, a man of great piety—greater -perhaps than his talent—a frequenter of Titian’s house, a rich man, -too, such as Aretino delighted to fleece. Possibly also the good old -artist’s character was irritating to the evil Tuscan, who could not see -why a man should be both distinguished and virtuous, nor why Sanmichele -should have a special mass said when he was about to begin an important -work. One of Aretino’s favourite tricks was to use the most frightful -language before the mild old man, till the latter, having exhausted -entreaty and finding reproach useless, was driven to buy the -blasphemer’s silence with a handsome present of rare old wine.</p> - -<p>The occasion of Sansovino’s imprisonment seemed to Aretino an excellent -opportunity for venting his spleen against the devout artist, and at the -same time for obtaining a lucrative return for his industry. He -therefore accused Sanmichele of being the direct cause of his friend’s -arrest, and the abuse heaped upon him was so virulent and so persistent -that its victim was obliged to have recourse to the usual bribe, which -this time consisted of a fine basket of fish.</p> - -<p>Sansovino’s friends soon triumphed, for they were many and powerful. I -do not know whether a vaulted ceiling only just constructed can suddenly -collapse and fall in of itself without some fault on the part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span> -architect, but Sansovino was unanimously declared to be entirely -innocent, and the unlucky magistrate who, with some show of reason, had -ordered his arrest was thrown into prison in his place.</p> - -<p>His brilliantly successful career continued until he was eighty years of -age, when, being too old for work, he was succeeded in the post of -architect to the Republic by the celebrated Palladio. After that he -lived eleven years longer in the society and friendship of Titian, who -was two years older then he. On the register in the church of San Basso -is to be found the following entry: ‘On November the seventh 1570 died -Jacopo Sansovino, architect of the Church of Saint Mark; he was -ninety-one years old and he died of old age.’</p> - -<p>Aretino’s life had come to an abrupt close fourteen years earlier. I -find in Tassini under the name ‘Carbon,’ Aretino’s place of residence, a -statement of the singular fact that Aretino’s death was predicted a few -months before it took place, though he was at that time perfectly well. -The author of the <i>Terremoto</i>, addressing the Tuscan man of letters, -says: ‘In this year LVI thou shalt</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1556.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">die; for the appearance of the star to the Wise Men at the birth of Our -Lord was held to be a great sign, and I now hold the comet of this year -to be a little sign which comes on thy account, because thou art against -Christ.’ In that year Aretino actually died. It is said that his death -was caused by his falling off his chair when convulsed with laughter at -an abominable story, and though there may be some exaggeration about the -tale, the physiognomy of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span> man might justify it. No one regretted -him. In the State Archives of Florence a letter from a Venetian has been -found which says: ‘The mortal Pietro Aretino was taken to another life -on Wednesday evening at the third hour of the night by a (literally) -cannonade of apoplexy, without leaving any regret or grief in any decent -person. May God have pardoned him.’</p> - -<p>Titian died six years after Sansovino, surviving to be the last of the -triad of inseparable friends. He was then ninety-nine years of age, and -was carried off by the plague when, judging from the picture he was -painting at the time of his death, he was still in full possession of -his amazing powers. Of all the victims of the terrible epidemic, amongst -tens of thousands of dead, he was the only one to whom the Republic -granted a public funeral.</p> - -<p>If we ask what was the ‘social standing’ of Titian and of some of the -most famous Venetians, we shall find that they were simple members of a -Guild, and were reckoned with the working men. The Golden Book was the -register of the nobles, the Silver Book was reserved for the class of -the secretaries, that is, of the burghers or original citizens; but he -who exercised an art such as painting, sculpture, or architecture, -belonged to the people. Like the commonest housepainter, or the painter -of gondolas and house furniture, Titian and Tintoretto were subject to -the ‘Mariegola,’ or charter of their Guild, and had to pass through the -degrees of apprentice and fellow-craftsman before becoming masters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span></p> - -<p>The law was that ‘no painter, either Venetian or foreign, should be -allowed to sell his paintings unless he was inscribed on the register of -painters and had sworn to conform to the rules of that art,’ in other -words, to the charter of the Guild. Furthermore, if</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_032" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_039.png"> -<img src="images/ill_039.png" width="500" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>HOUSE OF TINTORETTO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">he sold his work anywhere except in his shop, he was liable to a fine of -ten lire.</p> - -<p>We know that neither Titian nor any of the great artists of his time -rebelled against these regulations. They were all their lives ‘brethren’ -of their Guild, and every one of them was obliged to obey the chief of -the corporation in all matters concerning that fraternity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span> though he -might be a mere painter of doors and windows. It was not until the -eighteenth century that the artist painters organised themselves in a -separate body called the College of Painters. The examination of Paolo -Veronese, which I have translated in speaking of the Holy Office, shows -clearly enough what a poor opinion the authorities had of artistic -inspiration.</p> - -<p>Many writers, amongst whom Monsieur Yriarte is an exception, have told -us that literature and the sciences were not cultivated with any success -in Venice during the sixteenth century. It is at least true that the few -who occupied themselves with those matters displayed qualities not far -removed from genius.</p> - -<p>It was very common for the great Venetian nobles to play patron to -poets, painters, and architects, and almost every name that became -famous in the arts and sciences recalls that of some patrician or -secretary who protected the artist, the writer, or the student. The -Republic was often the refuge of gifted men whom political or personal -reasons had exiled from their homes. Roman, Tuscan, and Lombard -celebrities spent their lives in Venice and added their glory to hers. -Who remembers that Aldus Manutius was a Roman? Or that Gaspara Stampa, -who is always counted as one of the best of Venetian poets, was born in -Milan? The Venetians, too, showed a wonderful tact in the degree of the -hospitality they accorded. One need only compare the reception Petrarch -met with in the fourteenth century, which was nothing less than royal, -with the good-natured toleration shown to Pietro<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> Aretino two hundred -years later. The Republic’s treatment of the two men is the measure of -the distance that separates the immortal poet from the brilliant and -vicious pamphleteer. If the latter spent some agreeable years in Venice, -that was due much more to the protection of a few friends than to any -privileges granted him by the government.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_033" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_040.png"> -<img src="images/ill_040.png" width="500" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>HOUSE OF ALDUS</p></div> -</div> - -<p>There were certainly a great many intellectual centres in Venice at that -time, and one might fill many pages with the names of the so-called -academies that were founded and that flourished for a time. Almost every -special tendency of human thought was represented by one of them, from -the Aldine, devoted enthusiastically<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> to classic Greek, to those -academies which adorned their emptiness with such titles as ‘The -Seraphic,’ ‘The Uranian,’ and the like, and which gave themselves up to -the most unbridled extravagance of taste. Of such follies I shall only -quote one instance, which I find in Tassini under the name ‘Bernardo.’</p> - -<p>In the year 1538 the will of that academician was opened. He therein -directed his heirs to have his body washed by three famous physicians -with as much aromatic vinegar as would cost forty ducats, and each -physician was to receive as his fee three golden sequins absolutely -fresh from the mint. The body was then to be wrapped in linen clothes -soaked in essence of aloes, before being ‘comfortably’ laid to rest in a -lead coffin and enclosed in one of cypress wood. The coffin was then to -be placed in a marble monument to cost six hundred ducats. The -inscription was to enumerate the actions and virtues of the deceased in -eight Latin hexameters, of which the letters were to look tall to a -spectator placed at a distance of twenty-five feet. The poet who -composed the verses was to receive one sequin for each. Moreover, the -history of the dead man’s family was to be written out in eight hundred -verses, and seven psalms were to be composed after the manner of the -Psalms of David, and twenty monks were to sing them before the tomb on -the first Sunday of every month.</p> - -<p>We read without surprise that this will was not executed to the letter, -and the tolerably reasonable monument erected to Pietro Bernardo by his -descendants,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_007" style="width: 408px;"> -<a href="images/ill_041.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_041.jpg" width="408" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>ENTRANCE TO THE SACRISTY, FRARI</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">twenty years after his death, may still be seen in the church of the -Frari.</p> - -<p>There were also academies which bore names, devices, and emblems of a -nature that might well shock and surprise us, were they not the natural -evidences of that coming decadence, moral and artistic, whereof all -Italy, and Venice in particular, already bore the germs.</p> - -<p>Amongst the great names that belong to the end of the fifteenth century, -as well as to the sixteenth, hardly any has more interesting -associations for scholars than that of Aldus Manutius.</p> - -<p>The founder of the great family of scholars and printers was born at -Sermoneta in the Pontifical States in 1449, and was over forty years old -when he finally established himself in Venice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Firmin-Didot, Alde Manuce.</i></div> - -<p>He had been tutor in the princely family of Pio, where he had educated -the eldest son, and he himself added the name to his own, though he did -not transmit it to his descendants.</p> - -<p>One of the legends about the origin of printing tells that it was -invented in the Venetian city of Feltre, by a certain Castaldi, who was -robbed of his invention by Germans, presumably Faust and Guttenberg. -There is probably no foundation for this tale, but it is certain that -the Venetians brought the art of printing to something near perfection -within a few years of its creation, and that the government protected it -by laws of singular wisdom and great severity, in an age when the idea -of copyright was in its infancy.</p> - -<p>Aldus was neither a money-maker nor a man given<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span> up to ambition; he was -a true artist, and cared only for perfecting his art. When he first -invented the italic type he was almost beside himself with delight, and -instantly applied to the Council of Ten for letters patent to forbid any -imitation of his work during ten years. The petition is curious, for -Aldus went as far as to suggest to the Ten the penalties to be incurred -by any one who defrauded him of his rights, and they were by no means -light.</p> - -<p>He dreamed of never allowing any work to leave his press which was less -than perfect at all points. When he meditated the printing of a Greek -classic, he gathered about him all the most conscientious men of letters -in Venice; such men as Sabellico and Sanudo, the highly accomplished -Cardinal Bembo, and Andrea Navagero all worked at comparing the best -texts, in order to produce one that should be beyond criticism. In the -course of such profound study, learned discussions arose and conclusions -were reached which were destined to influence all scholarship down to -modern times. Little by little, and without any artificial encouragement -or intention, the workshop of Aldus became the gravest of classical -‘academies’; a vast amount of work was done there, and a very small -number of books were very wonderfully well printed.</p> - -<p>In two years five publications appeared, among which was the first Greek -edition of Aristotle’s works. That Aldus might have done better is -possible, and every reader of ancient Greek must deplore the selection -of type he made for printing in that language. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> ugly, unpractical, -and utterly inartistic, but such was the man’s influence that he imposed -it upon scholars, and it is by far the most commonly used type to this -day. Aldus might have done better; but, on the other hand, the -unquestionable fact stands out that no one, in those days, did half so -well, and that if his Greek type is unpleasing, his italic is beautiful -and has never been surpassed; finally, good copies of his best -publications bring high prices at every modern sale.</p> - -<p>He and his friends were busy men, and spent whole days shut up together, -thereby rousing much curiosity, and attracting many unwelcome visitors. -At last Aldus was wearied by their importunity, and the loss of time -they caused became a serious matter. He composed the following notice -and put it up outside his press:—</p> - -<p>‘Quisquis es, rogat te Aldus etiam atque etiam: ut si quid est quod a se -velis perpaucis agas, deinde actutum abeas: nisi tanquam Hercules -defesso Atlante, veneris suppositurus humeros. Semper enim erit quod et -tu agas, et quotquot huc attulerunt pedes.’</p> - -<p>I quote the Latin from Didot. It is hardly worthy of the editor, -printer, and publisher of Aristotle, but Aldus himself printed it in the -preface, addressed to Andrea Navagero, which precedes the edition of -Cicero’s <i>Rhetoric</i>, published in 1514. Here is a translation of it:—</p> - -<p>‘Whoever you are, Aldus begs you again and again, if you want anything -of him, to do your business with few words and then to go away quickly; -unless, indeed, you come as Hercules to tired Atlas, to place your<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> -shoulders under the burden. For there will always be something to do -even for you, and for as many as bend their steps hither.’</p> - -<p>The story even goes so far as to say that Erasmus came one day to -Aldus’s door with the manuscript of his <i>Adagia</i> under his arm, but that -he was disconcerted by the notice and was going away, when the great -printer himself caught sight of him and made him come in.</p> - -<p>Aldus, who was not a Venetian, was not a man of business, and did not -grow rich by his work. He gave his time lavishly, for no true artist, -such as he was, ever said that time was money; and his expenses were -very heavy, not the least being that incurred for the fine cotton paper -he got from Padua. On the other hand, he hoped to encourage learning and -to disseminate a general love of the classics. Some of his prices, -however, were very high; for instance, a complete Aristotle sold for -eleven silver ducats, which Didot considers equal to over ninety francs -in modern French money. But a copy of the Musæus, which would perhaps -sell to-day for forty pounds sterling, could be bought for a little more -than one ‘marcello.’</p> - -<p>Aldus had established himself in Venice about 1490. Eight years later, a -visitation of the plague decimated the population, and the great printer -himself sickened of it. Believing himself all but lost, he vowed that if -he recovered he would abandon his art, which would be by far the -greatest thing he could give up, and would enter holy orders. He -recovered, but the sacri<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span>fice was greater than he could make, though he -was a good man, of devout mind. He at once addressed a petition to the -Pope, begging to be released from his vow, and M. Didot discovered in -the Archives of the Council of Ten the favourable answer returned by -Alexander VI., who, it will be remembered, was the Borgia Pope, of evil -fame. It was, of course, addressed to the Patriarch, and it reads as -follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Venerable Brother:</p> - -<p>Our beloved son Aldus Manutius, a citizen of Rome, set forth to us -some time ago that when the plague was raging he, being in danger -of death, took an oath that if he escaped he would enter the holy -orders of priesthood. Seeing that since he has recovered his -health, he does not persist in his vow, and seeing that in his -condition of poverty he cannot subsist otherwise than by the work -of his hands, whereby he earned his living, now therefore he -desires to remain a layman, and we have granted his petition. We -commission you therefore and command your fraternity to absolve in -our name the said Aldus from the vow he took, if he humbly requests -you to do so, and if things stand as he says, requiring of him a -return by such other acts of piety as it shall seem good to your -conscience to impose, and this if there be no other obstacle.</p> - -<p>Given in Rome, August the eleventh, 1498, in the sixth year of our -Pontificate.</p></div> - -<p>It is characteristic of the far-reaching power of the Council of Ten -that this curious document should have been found in their Archives.</p> - -<p>One year after having been released from his vow, Aldus married Maria, -daughter of Andrea Torresano. I do not knew whether an attachment which -perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span> dated from before the plague could have had anything to do with -the great printer’s aversion to fulfilling his vow; if so, the world is -deeply indebted to his wife. There was, however, a considerable interval -in his career after 1498, during which no books were issued by the -Aldine press, and those belonging to the first period have a much higher -value than the rest.</p> - -<p>Possibly children were born to the couple and died between the time of -their marriage and the birth of their son Paulus Manutius in 1512, three -years before the death of his father Aldus. The dates show the absurdity -of the story that Aldus brought up his son to be a scholar and a printer -like himself. He died when that son, who was destined to be famous also, -was less than four years old. He breathed his last on the sixth of -January 1516, being not yet sixty-seven years old, surrounded by his -faithful friends and his manuscripts. Owing to his having married so -late, and to his son not having been born till thirteen years after his -marriage, the lives of the father and son cover the period between 1449 -and 1574, no less than one hundred and twenty-five years.</p> - -<p>Prince Pio, his former pupil and one of the most distinguished members -of the Aldine Academy, claimed the honour of burying him at Carpi, a -feudal holding of the Pio family. His body was carried thither with -great pomp, and he was laid in state in the church of Saint Patrinian, -surrounded by books, and was finally buried in the Prince’s family -vault.</p> - -<p>Another and very original type of scholar was Marin<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span> Sanudo, whose name -occurs so constantly in all writings that deal with the sixteenth -century in Venice. He was of a patrician family, and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Marin Sanudo, Diario; Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was so early predisposed to observe and note everything of interest that -when he was only eight years old he copied the inscriptions which -Petrarch had written under the pictures in the hall of the Great -Council, and it is thanks to his childish industry that we know the -nature of those great works which were destroyed in the fire of 1474.</p> - -<p>As the child grew up he cultivated the habit of making notes of all he -saw and heard; and, though he strictly adheres to the principle of -relating daily events briefly and clearly, he constantly reveals himself -to us as a man of broad views and keen sight, cautious, slightly -sceptical, and thoroughly independent. As soon as he had attained the -required age he was admitted to the Council, and he kept a journal of -everything that happened there. It is surprising to find that a -government which knew everything should allow any one such full liberty -to make notes. Possibly the value of his work was not at first -understood, but when it was, the manner in which appreciation showed -itself was not flattering to the chronicler.</p> - -<p>The Republic always employed a regular official historian whose business -it was to narrate the deeds and misdeeds of the government in a manner -uniformly pleasant to Venetian vanity. One of the most successful -writers in this manner was the untrustworthy Sabellico, and when he died -Marin Sanudo aspired to succeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span> him, being in poor circumstances, and -having on several occasions rendered services to the Republic. But to -his infinite mortification Cardinal Bembo was appointed to the post, -and, as if to add insult to injury, Sanudo was requested to place his -valuable diaries at the disposal of the new public historian. Sanudo was -deeply hurt, as may be imagined, but he was poor and in debt, and the -paternal government of his business-like country easily drove him to the -wall. For the use of his diary, and for his promise to bequeath it to -the State at his death, he accepted a pension of one hundred and fifty -ducats (£112) yearly. This small stipend was not enough to lift him out -of poverty. The expense of the paper which he used for his notes was a -serious item in his little budget, and the binder’s bill was a constant -source of anxiety. He was often obliged to borrow money, and once he was -imprisoned for debt. On the latter occasion he made the following entry -in his journal:—</p> - -<p>‘December eighteenth, 1516.—On this day in the morning a dreadful thing -happened to me. I was going to Saint Mark’s to hear mass as usual when I -was recognised by that traitor Giovanni Soranzo, to whom I have owed a -hundred ducats for ten years, and forty-seven for a debt before that. -Now I had solemnly promised that I would pay him the money, but in order -to shame me he had me imprisoned till next day in San Cassian. I vow to -be avenged upon him with my own hands.’</p> - -<p>Having vented his wrath on paper, Sanudo promptly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span> forgot his sombre -vows of vengeance. For many years afterwards he went backwards and -forwards</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_034" style="width: 414px;"> -<a href="images/ill_042.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_042.jpg" width="414" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. GIACOMO IN ORIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">between the ducal palace and his own house at San Giacomo in Orio, where -he had collected books and prints to a very great value. He was almost -forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span> until very recent times, when he was rediscovered in his -diary, and treated with the honour he deserves by his own countrymen.</p> - -<p>There was no university in Venice, but the government encouraged those -teachers who established themselves in the city and gave instruction in -their own homes. In this way they formed little schools which quarrelled -with each other over definitions, syllogisms, and etymologies in the -most approved fashion. There is a good instance of one of these -miniature civil wars in connection with the historian Sabellico. He was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Cicogna, Iscrizioni, i. 341.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">ferociously jealous of a certain learned priest called Ignatius, who -taught literature, as he did, and had many more scholars. In his -lectures Sabellico attacked Ignatius furiously, and did his best to -destroy his reputation. The priest on his side held his tongue, and -waited for a chance of giving his hot-headed adversary a lesson. At last -Sabellico published a very indifferent work, of which the priest wrote -such a keen criticism that the book was a dead failure. The State -historian’s rage broke out in the most violent invectives, and from that -time Ignatius was his nightmare, and the mere mention of his name drove -him into uncontrollable fury, until, dying at last, Sabellico realised -that his hatred of the priest had been the mortal sin of his life, and -on his deathbed he sent for him and asked for a reconciliation. Ignatius -freely pardoned him, and even delivered a very flattering funeral -oration over his body a few days later.</p> - -<p>A distinguished man of this period who deserves<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> mention was Federigo -Badoer, who may almost be said</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_035" style="width: 343px;"> -<a href="images/ill_043.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_043.jpg" width="343" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>DOORWAY OF THE SACRISTY, S. GIACOMO IN ORIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">to have been educated in the printing press of Aldus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span> and afterwards -became the friend of Paulus Manutius. Like all Venetian nobles, he -learned from his boyhood how he was to serve the State, and became -acquainted with the working of its administration, and he was soon -struck by the condition of the Code. The laws had multiplied too much, -and were often obscure, and the whole system was in great need of -revision. Badoer conceived the idea of founding an academy for the -purpose of editing and printing the whole body of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p>Venetian Law; the Council of Ten gave him their approval, and he founded -the Academy of ‘La Fama’—of Fame—with the singularly inappropriate -motto, ‘I fly to heaven and rest in God.’ The printing of the new Code -was entrusted to Paulus Manutius.</p> - -<p>My perspicuous reader, having recovered from his astonishment at the -unexpected liberality of the Council of Ten, has already divined that -such a fit could not last long, and that Badoer and his noble academy -were doomed to failure. Badoer was not rich enough to bear the expense -of such an undertaking alone, and the Ten had no intention of helping -him. Moreover, he and the scholars of his academy kept up a continual -correspondence with doctors of law in other countries. It would have -seemed narrow-minded, however, to suppress the academy by a decree; it -was more in accordance with the methods of the Council to accuse Badoer -of some imaginary misdeed for which he could be brought to trial. -Accordingly, though he had sacrificed his own fortune in the attempt, he -was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> accused of having embezzled the academy’s funds, and in three years -from the time of his setting to work the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_036" style="width: 443px;"> -<a href="images/ill_044.png"> -<img src="images/ill_044.png" width="443" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FONDAMENTA SANUDO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">academy was crushed out of existence, and he was a ruined man.</p> - -<p>Another shortlived but celebrated literary society<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span> was that of the -‘Pellegrini,’ the ‘Pilgrims,’ whose pilgrimage led them only from their -solemn palaces in Venice to the pleasant groves of Murano, and was -performed by moonlight when possible. The pilgrims were Titian, -Sansovino, Navagero, Gaspara Stampa, the old Trifone, Collaltino di -Collalto, and some others, and it is very unlikely that their evening -meetings had any object except pleasant converse and intellectual -relaxation. We know something about the lovely Gaspara and Collalto, at -all events, and it can be safely said that they were more pleasantly -occupied than in conspiracy, and that what they said to each other -concerned neither the Doge nor the Council of Ten.</p> - -<p>Though there was no university in Venice, the Republic possessed one of -the most renowned in Europe by right of having conquered and annexed -Padua; and it is interesting to note that because that great institution -of learning was not situated in Venice itself, it was allowed a degree -of liberty altogether beyond Venetian traditions.</p> - -<p>Padua was temporarily obliged to submit to Louis XII. of France at the -beginning of the sixteenth century, but the Republic took it again in -1509, and from that date until 1797 there was never the least -interruption in the academic courses. The only influence exercised upon -the university by the Venetian government was intended to give it a more -patriotically Venetian character. In earlier times the Bishop of Padua -had been <i>ex officio</i> the Rector of the university; he was now deprived -of this dignity, which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span> conferred jointly on three Venetian nobles, -who were elected for two years, and were required to reside in Venice -and not in Padua, lest they should be exposed to influences foreign to -the spirit of the Republic. Their title was ‘Riformatori dell’ -Università,’ and great care was exercised in choosing them. They were -also the official inspectors of the Venetian schools and of the national -libraries, and it was their business to examine candidates for the -position of teachers in any authorised institution.</p> - -<p>They were no doubt terrible pedants, inwardly much dignified by a sense -of their great responsibilities, and to this day, in northern Italy, it -is said of a man who wearies his family and his acquaintances with -perpetual ‘nagging’—there is no dictionary word for it—that he is like -a ‘Riformatore’ of the University of Padua, though the good people who -use the phrase have no clear idea of what it means.</p> - -<p>These three patricians had an official dress of their own, which was a -long robe, sometimes black and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Yriarte, Vie; Rom. iv. 449.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">sometimes of a violet colour, changing according to some regulation -which is not known, but always made with sleeves of the ‘ducal’ pattern; -and they put on a black stole over it. If one of them was a Knight of -the Golden Stole, as often happened, his robe was of velvet and his -stole was of cloth of gold.</p> - -<p>The Holy See was not much pleased by the way in which the Republic -treated the Bishop of Padua, and constantly complained that the students -of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span> University were allowed too much license to express opinions -that ill accorded with Catholic dogma. Like all commercial countries, -Venice was Protestant in so far as any direct interference of the -Vatican was concerned. Mr. Brooks Adams was, I think, the first to point -out the inseparable connection between Protestantism and commercial -enterprise, in his extraordinary study, <i>The Law of Civilization and -Decay</i>. The peculiarity of Venice’s religious position was that it -combined an excessive, if not superstitious, devotion to the rites of -the Church with something approaching to contempt of the Pope’s power.</p> - -<p>The University of Padua was resorted to by students of all nations, -including many English gentlemen. In the Archives of the Ten a petition -has been found signed by a number of foreign students in Padua to be -allowed to wear arms, and we find that the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. iv. 449, note 5.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">necessary permission for this was granted in 1548 to Sir Thomas Wyatt, -‘a Knight of the English Court,’ Sir—— Cotton, Sir John Arundel, -Christopher Mayne, Henry Williams, and John Schyer (?).</p> - -<p>It is amusing to find that the French students in Padua excelled in -fencing, riding, dancing, and music, but apparently not in subjects more -generally considered academic.</p> - -<p>I cannot close this chapter without saying a few words about Galileo -Galilei, who was for some time in the employ of the Republic. I quote -from his life, written by his pupil Viviani, but not published till -1826.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span></p> - -<p>After lecturing in Pisa for three years Galileo was appointed by the -Venetian government to be professor of mathematics in Padua for a term -of six years, during which he invented several</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1592.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">machines for the service of the Republic. Copies of his writings and -lectures of this time were scattered by his pupils throughout Italy, -Germany, France, and England, often without his name, for he thought -them of such little importance that he did not even protest when -impostors claimed to be the authors of them. During this period, says -Viviani, he invented ‘the thermometers (<i>sic</i>) ... which wonderful -invention was perfected in modern times by the sublime genius of our -great Ferdinand II., our most serene reigning sovereign ...,’ the -Cardinal Grand Duke who poisoned his brother and Bianca Cappello.</p> - -<p>At the end of his term Galileo was re-appointed for six years more, and -during this time he observed a comet in the Dragon, and made experiments</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1599.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">with the magnet. He was re-appointed again and again with an increase of -salary.</p> - -<p>In April or May, in 1609, when he was in Venice, it was reported that a -certain Dutchman had presented Maurice of Nassau with a sort of eyeglass -which made distant objects seem near. This was all that was known of the -invention, but Galileo was so much interested by the story that he -returned to Padua at once, and in the course of a single night succeeded -in constructing his first telescope, in spite of the poor quality of the -lenses he had, and on the following day he returned to Venice<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span> and -showed the instrument to his astonished friends. After perfecting it he -resolved to present it to the reigning Doge, Leonardo Donà, and to the -whole Venetian Senate.</p> - -<p>I translate literally the letter he wrote to the Doge to accompany the -gift.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Most Serene Prince: Galileo Galilei, your Serenity’s most humble -servant, labouring assiduously and with all his heart not only to -do his duty as lecturer on mathematics in the University of Padua, -but also to bring your Serenity some extraordinary advantage by -means of some useful and signal discovery, now appears before you -with a new device of eyeglass, the result of the most recondite -theories of perspective; the which [invention] brings objects to be -visible so near the eye and shows them so large and distinct, that -what is distant, for instance, nine miles, seems as if it were only -one mile away, a fact which may be of inestimable service for every -business and enterprise by land and sea; for it is thus possible, -at sea, to discover the enemy’s vessels and sails at a far greater -distance than is customary, so that we can see him two hours and -more before he can see us, and by distinguishing the number and -nature of his vessels, we can judge of his forces and prepare for a -pursuit, or a battle, or for flight. In the same manner, on land, -the quarters and the defences of the enemy within a strong place -can be descried from an eminence, even if far away; and even in the -open country, it is possible with great advantage to make out every -movement and preparation; moreover, every judicious person will -clearly perceive many uses [for the telescope]. Therefore, deeming -it worthy to be received and considered very useful by your -Serenity, he [Galileo] has determined to present it to you, and to -leave it to your judgment to determine and provide concerning this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span> -invention, in order that, as may seem best to your prudence, others -should or should not be constructed. And this the aforesaid Galilei -presents to your Serenity as one of the fruits of the science which -he has now professed in the University of Padua during more than -seventeen years, trusting that he is on the eve of offering you -still greater things, if it please the Lord God and your Serenity -that he, as he desires, may spend the rest of his life in the -service of your Serenity, before whom he humbly bows, praying the -Divine Majesty to grant you the fulness of all happiness.</p></div> - -<p>The letter is not dated, but on the twenty-fifth of August 1609 the -Signory appointed the astronomer professor for life, with ‘three times -the highest pay ever granted to any lecturer on mathematics.’</p> - -<p>It was in Padua that Galileo invented the microscope, observed the -moon’s surface, and the spots on the sun, discovered that the milky way -and the nebulæ consist of many small fixed stars, discovered Jupiter’s -moons, Saturn’s rings, and the fact that Venus revolves round the sun, -‘and not below it, as Ptolemy believed.’</p> - -<p>Much has been written of late about Galileo, but most of what has -appeared seems to be founded on this life by his pupil Viviani.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_037" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_045.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_045.jpg" width="500" height="418" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII<br /><br /> -THE TRIUMPHANT CITY</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">When</span> Philippe de Commines came to Venice in 1495 as ambassador of -Charles VIII. he wrote: ‘This is the most triumphant city that ever I -saw.’</p> - -<p>He meant what he said figuratively, no doubt, for in that day there was -something overwhelming about the wealth and splendour, and the vast -success of the Republic. But he meant it literally too, for no state<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span> or -city of the world celebrated its own victories with such pomp and -magnificence as Venice.</p> - -<p>The Venetians had never been altogether at peace with the Turks, in -spite of the treaty which had been made soon after the fall of -Constantinople;</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Daru; Rom.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">but when Venice herself was threatened by all the European powers -together, it was with the highest satisfaction that she saw the Moslems -attack her old enemies the Hungarians. Yet her joy was of short -duration, for the Emperor soon made peace with the Sultan. It will be -remembered that the Imperial throne had then already been hereditary in -the Hapsburg family for many years.</p> - -<p>The character of Turkish warfare in the Mediterranean was always -piratical, of the very sort most certain to harass and injure a maritime -commercial nation like Venice, and the latter began to lose ground -steadily in the Greek archipelago, and now found herself obliged to -defend the coasts of the Adriatic against the Turks as she had formerly -defended them against the pirates of Narenta. From time to time a -Turkish vessel was captured, and hundreds of Christian slaves were found -chained to the oar.</p> - -<p>There were also other robbers along the Dalmatian coast, who exercised -their depredations against Turks</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Niccolò da Ponte triumphs over the Usocchi; Tintoretto, Hall -of the Great Council.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and Christians alike, with admirable equity. These were the so-called -‘Usocchi,’ a name derived from a Slav root meaning to ‘leap out’—hence, -those who had escaped and fled their country and were outlaws.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span></p> - -<p>About this time the island of Cyprus had fallen in part under Turkish -domination. The Turks had</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Cicogna, Iscr. Ven. iii. 134.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">made a piratical descent upon Nicosia, and had carried off all the women -who were still young enough for the Eastern market. But one of these, a -heroine whose name is lost, fired the ship’s powder-magazine and saved -herself and her companions from outrage by causing the instant death of -every soul on board. This was in the latter half of the sixteenth -century.</p> - -<p>Thirsting for vengeance, the Venetians now eagerly joined Philip II. of -Spain in the league proposed by the Pope. The three fleets were to meet -at Messina, and much precious time was lost, during which the Turks -completed their conquest of Cyprus, which was heroically defended by -Marcantonio Bragadin. His fate was horrible. His nose and ears were cut -off, and he was obliged to witness the death of his brave companions, -Tiepolo, Baglione, Martinengo, and Quirini. They were stoned, hanged, -and carved to shreds before his eyes, and a vast number of Venetian -soldiers and women and children were massacred before him during the -following ten days. At last his turn came to die; he was hung by the -hands in the public square and slowly skinned alive. It is said that he -died like a hero and a saint, commending his soul to God, and forgiving -his enemies.</p> - -<p>The ferocious Mustapha, by whose orders these horrors were perpetrated, -ordered his skin to be stuffed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span> and had it carried about the streets, -under a red umbrella, in allusion to the arms of the Bragadin family. -The hideous human doll</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Seb. Venier.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was then hoisted to the masthead of Mustapha’s ship as a trophy and -taken in that way to Constantinople.</p> - -<p>But in his lifetime Bragadin had ransomed a certain man of Verona from -the Turks, and had earned his undying gratitude. This Veronese, hearing -of his benefactor’s awful end, swore to bring home his skin, since -nothing else remained, and with incredible skill and courage actually -entered the Turkish arsenal at Constantinople, where the trophy was -kept, stole it and brought it home. It is related that the skin was -found as soft as silk and was easily folded into a small space; it is -preserved in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo.</p> - -<p>The vengeance of the league was slow, but it was memorably terrible; in -1571 Don John of Austria, a stripling of genius, scarcely six and twenty -years of age, commanded the three fleets and led Christianity to victory -at Lepanto.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Lepanto, A. Vicentini; ducal palace.</i></div> - -<p>One of the decisive battles of the world checked the Mohammedan power -for ever in the Gulf of Corinth, and the blood of eighty thousand Turks -avenged the inhuman murder of Bragadin and the self-destruction of the -captive Venetian women.</p> - -<p>Not many days later, on the eighteenth of October 1571, the great ‘Angel -Gabriel,’ a galley of war, came sailing into the harbour of Venice, full</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Seb. Venier.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">dressed with flags, and trailing in her wake long line of Turkish -standards, and turbans and coats.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> Then the cannon thundered, and the -crew cried ‘Victory! Victory!’ and the triumphant note went rolling over -Venice, while Onofrio Giustiniani, the commander of the man-of-war, went -up to the ducal palace. Then the people went mad with joy, and demanded -that all prisoners should be set free in honour of the day; and the -Council allowed at least all those to be liberated who were in prison -for debt. Then, too, the people cried ‘Death to the Turks!’ and would -have massacred every Mussulman in the Turks’ quarter; but to the honour -of Venice it is recorded that the government was strong enough to hinder -that.</p> - -<p>And then the Doge, Aloise Mocenigo, found his way through the closely -packed crowd to the Basilica,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Aloise Mocenigo, praying, Tintoretto; Sala del Collegio.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and fifty thousand voices sang ‘Te Deum laudamus Domine,’ till the -triumphant strain must have been heard far out on the lagoon. During -four days processions marched through the streets and hymns of victory -and thanksgiving were sung; the greatest battle of the age had been -fought and won on the feast of Saint Justina, who was one of the patrons -of Venice. In return for her military assistance an enthusiastic and -devout people resolved to set up a statue of her in the Arsenal and to -build her a church in Padua, as she already had one in Venice.</p> - -<p>Religious obligations being thus cancelled, the universal rejoicing -manifested itself in civic pageantry,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vi. 317.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and, to use a modern expression, the Venetians held a general exhibition -of their treasures. The square of the Rialto was draped with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span> scarlet -cloth, on which were hung the pictures of the most famous masters, at a -time when some of the greatest that ever lived were alive in Venice and -at the height of their glory. In the midst of the square a trophy was -raised, composed of Turkish arms and banners, turbans, slippers, jewels, -and all sorts of ornaments taken from the slain. From the jewellers’ -lane to the bridge a canopy of blue cloth covered with golden stars was -spread high across the way, the most precious tapestries were hung on -the walls of the houses, the shops showed all their most artistic wares -in their windows. The German quarter was so crammed with beautiful -objects that it seemed one great enchanted palace. To increase the -general gaiety, the government made a special exception and allowed -masks in the streets.</p> - -<p>When it is remembered that Venice really obtained little or no immediate -advantage from the battle of Lepanto, her frenzy of triumph may seem -exaggerated; yet it was moderate compared with the reception Rome gave -to the commander of the Papal fleet, Marcantonio Colonna. The Venetian -captain, Sebastian Venier, was not present, and there was not the least -personal note in the rejoicings; that, indeed, would have been very -contrary to the usual behaviour of the Republic towards her own sons, -for if they failed she disowned them or put them to death, and if they -succeeded it was her motherly practice to disgrace them as soon as -possible, and generally to find an excuse for imprisoning them, lest -they should grow dangerous to herself.</p> - -<p>We cannot help reproaching her for that; yet out<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span> of her magnificent -past comes back ever that same answer: she succeeded, where others -failed. She bred</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_038" style="width: 408px;"> -<a href="images/ill_046.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_046.jpg" width="408" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>DOOR OF THE CARMINE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">such men as Enrico Dandolo, Vittor Pisani, Carlo Zeno, and Sebastian -Venier, yet she was never enslaved by one of her own children. Rome -served her Cæsar,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span> and her many Cæsars; France, her Bonaparte; Russia, -her Ivan Strashny, the Terrible; Spain, her Philip II.; England, her -Richard III.—and her Cromwell, Protector and Tyrant. But Venice was -never subject to any one Venetian man beyond the time needed to compass -his destruction and death, which was never long, and sometimes was -awfully brief.</p> - -<p>Venier did not return to Venice till long after the battle of Lepanto, -and his presence was necessary in the Archipelago in order to protect -such colonies as were left to the Republic.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Venier returns in triumph, Palma Giovane; Sala dei -Pregadi.</i></div> - -<p>For though the Turks had suffered a disastrous defeat, final in the -sense that their advance westwards was checked as effectually as the -spreading of the Moorish conquest had been by Charles Martel at -Poitiers, yet they were still at the height of their power in -Constantinople, and were strong on the eastern side of the dividing line -which was now drawn across the Mediterranean, and which marked the -eastern limit of Christian domination. When Venier returned, the Turks -were absolute masters of the island of Cyprus, and Venice was already -beginning to pay what was really a war indemnity, destined to reach the -formidable sum of three hundred thousand ducats. As Montesquieu truly -says, it looked as if the Turks had been the victors at Lepanto.</p> - -<p>Three years after that battle Venice was again adorned in her best to -greet Henry III. of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vi. 341.</i></div> - -<p>France, who visited the city in July 1574, the year of his accession. -The King was to make his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> entry on the eighteenth, and he was requested -to stop at Murano on the previous evening, in the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Horatio Brown, Venetian studies.</i></div> - -<p>Palazzo Cappello, which was all hung with silk and cloth of gold in his -honour. Forty young nobles were attached to his person and sixty -halberdiers mounted guard, dressed in yellow and blue, which were -regarded by the Venetians as his colours, and wearing a</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Henry III. visits Venice, A. Vicentino; Sala delle Quattro -Porte.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">cap with a white tuft for a cockade. Their weapons were taken from the -armoury of the Council of Ten. There were also eighteen trumpeters and -twelve drummers dressed in the King’s colours.</p> - -<p>Henry III. was still in mourning for his brother Charles IX., and -appeared very plainly clad in the midst of all this display. The -chronicles have preserved the details of his costume; he wore a brown -mantle that fell from his neck to his feet, and beneath it a violet -tunic of Flemish cloth with a white lace collar. He also wore long -leathern boots, perfumed gloves, and an Italian hat.</p> - -<p>The night was passed in feasting, during which the French and the -Venetians fraternised most closely, and on the following morning a huge -galley was ready to take the King to Venice by way of the Lido.</p> - -<p>On the high poop-deck a seat was placed for the King, covered with cloth -of gold; on his right sat the Papal Nuncio, who was the Cardinal San -Sisto, then came the Dukes of Nevers and Mantua; on his left the Doge -and the Ambassadors. Four hundred rowers pulled the big vessel over, and -fourteen galleys followed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> bringing the Senators and many others. To -amuse the King during the short passage, the glass-blowers of</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_039" style="width: 406px;"> -<a href="images/ill_047.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_047.jpg" width="406" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<p>Murano had constructed on rafts a furnace in the shape of a marine -monster that belched flames from its jaws and nostrils, while the most -famous workmen blew<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span> beakers and other vessels in the beast’s body, of -the finest crystal glass, for the King and his suite.</p> - -<p>Just when he might be thought to be weary of this spectacle a long array -of decorated boats began to manœuvre before his eyes, with sails set and -banners flying. These belonged to the various guilds and were -wonderfully adorned. One represented a huge dolphin; on its back stood -Neptune driving two winged steeds, while four aged boatmen in costume -stood for the four rivers of the Republic, Brenta, Adige, Po, and Piave. -Some of the boats had arrangements for sending up fireworks, others were -floating exhibitions of the richest and most marvellous tapestries and -stuffs.</p> - -<p>The royal vessel, instead of proceeding straight to Venice, went round -by the Lido to the landing of Saint Nicholas, where the State architect -Palladio had erected a triumphal arch which Tintoretto and Paolo -Veronese had covered with ten beautiful paintings. Here the King was -invited to leave his galley in order to go on board the Bucentaur. -Tintoretto was in the crowd, looking out for a chance of sketching the -King, precisely as a modern reporter hangs about the docks and railway -stations to get a snapshot at royalty. Tintoretto did not disdain the -methods of a later time either; he succeeded in exchanging his -threadbare cloak for the livery of one of the Doge’s squires or footmen, -by which trick he managed to get on board the Bucentaur. Once there he -made a sketch in pastels of the King which pleased the royal treasurer, -De Bellegarde, and the latter persuaded his master to sit to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span> the artist -for a full-length portrait, which was presented to the Doge on the -King’s departure, in recollection of the visit.</p> - -<p>During the following days nothing was omitted which might amuse the -Sovereign or tend to strengthen the pleasant impression he had already -received. Every sort of Venetian game was played, and all the -traditional contests of strength and skill between Niccolotti and -Castellani were revived, and with such earnestness on both sides as to -lead to a fresh outbreak of their hereditary hate. Two hundred men -fought with sticks at the Ponte del Carmine, as savagely as if the -safety and honour of their wives and children depended on the result. At -the most critical moment the fisherman Luca, the famous chief of the -Niccolotti, fell into the canal, his followers were momentarily thrown -into disorder by the accident, and the Castellani won the day.</p> - -<p>Afterwards a banquet was given to the King, of which the remembrance -remains alive amongst the people to our own time. The gondoliers and -fishermen of to-day describe the feast, its magnificence, the beauty of -the patrician ladies, the splendour of the service, as if they were -speaking of something that happened yesterday instead of more than ten -generations ago.</p> - -<p>The tables were set in the hall of the Great Council for three thousand -persons. The King sat in the middle of the hall under a golden canopy. -We are told that the bill of fare set forth twelve hundred different -dishes, and that all the company ate off solid silver plates, of which -there were enough for all without<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span> having recourse to the reserve which -had been set up for show on a huge sideboard at the end of the hall. -After the feast, the King assisted at the performance of the first opera -ever given in Italy, composed by the once famous master Zarlino da -Chioggia.</p> - -<p>The banquet and the music must have occupied several hours; yet we are -amazed to learn that so short a time sufficed for putting together a -whole galley, of which Henry had seen the pieces, all taken apart, just -before sitting down to table. When he left the ducal palace, he saw to -his stupefaction the vessel launched into the canal on rollers, and -towed away towards the Lido.</p> - -<p>Not surfeited by the official amusements offered him by the Republic, -the King diverted himself on his own account and went about the city in -disguise,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mut. Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">like Otho of old. The government had directed the jewellers and -merchants to have in readiness their finest wares in order that when the -King sent for them, he might buy objects worthy of the reputation of the -Venetian shops; and the shopkeepers inquired with feverish anxiety when -they were to go to the Palazzo Foscari.</p> - -<p>But Henry preferred to go out shopping himself. One morning the jeweller -at the Sign of the Old Woman on the Rialto Bridge was visited by a noble -stranger, who inquired the price of a marvellously chiselled golden -sceptre: apparently the Venetian jewellers kept sceptres in stock in -case a king should look in. The price of this one was twenty-six -thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">{181}</a></span> ducats, or between eighteen and nineteen thousand pounds, -which seems dear, even for a sceptre. But the noble stranger was not at -all surprised, thought the matter over for a few seconds, nodded -quietly, and ordered the thing to be sent to the Foscari palace, to</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_040" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_048.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_048.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CAMPO BEHIND S. GIACOMO IN ORIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the inexpressible joy of the jeweller, who knew the address well enough.</p> - -<p>At that time there dwelt in Venice a branch of the famous Fugger family -of Augsburg, the richest bankers of the sixteenth century. They owned -all</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the district of the city round the church of San Giacomo, and had even -protected themselves by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> a sort of wall. There they had built a bank, a -hospital, and houses for their numberless retainers, and they lived in a -kind of unacknowledged principality of their own which was respected -both by the State and the people.</p> - -<p>The family had the most magnificent traditions of hospitality. When the -Emperor Charles V. passed through Augsburg in the earlier part of the -same century, he lodged in the Fuggers’ house, and as it was winter, his -hosts caused his fires to be made only of aromatic wood imported as a -perfume from Ceylon. Henry III. visited the Fuggers in Venice, and they -were neither surprised by his unannounced visit nor unprepared to -receive a royal guest.</p> - -<p>While in Venice the King spent much of his time with Veronica Franco, -the celebrated poetess and courtesan. She, on her side, fell deeply in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">love with the man who was to be the worst of all the French kings. But -he was only twenty-three years old then, he was half a Medici by blood, -and all of one by his passionate nature. Veronica loved him with all her -heart, and amidst all the evil he did there was at least one good -result, for when he was gone she would not be consoled, nor would she -ever look on another man, but mended her life and lived in a retirement -to which she sought to attract other penitent women.</p> - -<p>She had a picture of the King painted, and no doubt he was vividly -present in her thoughts when she wrote the following sonnet, which is -attributed to her, and which I do into prose for greater accuracy:<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span>—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Begone, deceiving thoughts and empty hope,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Greedy and blind desires, and bitter cravings,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Begone, ye burning sighs and bitter woes,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Companions ever of my unending pain.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Go memories sweet, go galling chains,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Of a heart that is loosed from you at last,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">That gathers up again the rein of reason,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Dropped for a while, and now goes forth in freedom.<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">And thou, my soul, entangled in so many sorrows,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Unbind thyself and to thy divine Lord<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Rejoicing turn thy thoughts;<br /></span> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Now bravely force thy fate,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Break through thy bonds; then, glad and free,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Direct thy steps in the securer way!<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>In order to give my readers some idea of what was done to furnish the -Palazzo Foscari for Henry’s visit, I quote some items of the expenditure -from the <i>Souvenirs</i> of Armand Baschet:—</p> - -<p>‘Crimson silk and gold hangings, fifty-eight pieces making three hundred -and seven braccia and a half at a ducat for each braccio and twelve -inches. White silk and silver stuff; shot-silk and silver stuff; white -satin with gold lines, etc. Cushions of brocade embroidered with gold -and of blue velvet with gold and fringes etc. at forty ducats each. A -bed quilt with gold lines and scarlet checks, twenty ducats. Yellow -damask with little checks at one ducat the braccio. A rep rug of gold -edged with blue velvet and lined with red silk, sixty ducats. A -tablecloth of silver and gold brocade with white and gold fringe, -thirty-four ducats. Green<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span> and blue velvet for the floor, at one ducat -the braccio. Complete hangings for a room of yellow satin with gold and -silver fringe and gold lace, over seven hundred and thirty ducats.’</p> - -<p>Further, we find for the royal gondolas the following items:—</p> - -<p>‘Felse of scarlet satin, one hundred and fifty-six ducats. A boat’s -carpet of violet Alexandria velvet; a felse of the same velvet lined -with silk, fifty-five ducats. Another velvet carpet of the same colour, -two canopies, one of violet satin fringed and embroidered with gold, the -other of white satin, and two cushions of scarlet satin and gold.’</p> - -<p>These things were put away in boxes, an inventory was taken, and they -were valued at four thousand two hundred sequins, or more than three -thousand pounds. The King on his side was generous. When he went away he -presented each of the young noblemen who had attended him with a chain -worth a hundred ducats, and gave a collar worth three hundred to his -host, Foscari. The captain of his guard received a silver basin and ewer -worth a hundred crowns. For the halberdiers of the guard there were -three hundred crowns, eighty for the trumpeters and sixty for the -drummers. His Majesty left a thousand crowns for the workmen of the -Arsenal, two hundred for the rowers of the Bucentaur, one hundred for -the major-domo, and fifty to the chief steward of the house.</p> - -<p>The Duke of Savoy, who accompanied the King of France, also left some -splendid presents. To the wife<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_041" style="width: 351px;"> -<a href="images/ill_049.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_049.jpg" width="351" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE PIAZZA</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">of Luigi Mocenigo, in whose house he had been staying, he gave a belt -composed of thirty gold rosettes, ornamented with fine pearls and -valuable precious stones. The Duke was doubtless unaware that as soon as -he was gone the handsome ornament would have to be handed over to the -Provveditori delle Pompe, not to be worn again unless a special and -elaborate decree could be obtained for the purpose.</p> - -<p>In the first year of the reign of Sixtus V. Japan sent ambassadors to -the Pope ‘to recognise him officially as Christ’s vicar on earth.’ These</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1585. Rom. vi. 387.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">personages, who were converts to Christianity, were received with -demonstrations of the greatest joy and esteem when they visited Venice, -and were regaled with spectacles which were partly religious in -character and partly secular. A procession was organised against which -the Pope himself protested in the most formal manner; but the Republic -paid no more attention than usual to this expression of papal -displeasure. It was always the dream of Venice to be Roman Catholic -without Rome.</p> - -<p>The Japanese envoys looked on while all the clergy of the city passed in -review before them, as well as all the guilds bearing the images of -their</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Giustina Renier Michiel, Origini.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">patron saints and their standards; these were followed by cars carrying -enormous erections of gold and silver vessels, built up in the form of -pyramids, and of columns, stars, eagles, lions, and symbolic beasts. -Other cars came after these with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span> platforms, on which actors represented -scenes from the lives of saints, even including martyrdom. The</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_042" style="width: 416px;"> -<a href="images/ill_050.png"> -<img src="images/ill_050.png" width="416" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PIGEONS IN THE PIAZZA</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Japanese may have been more amazed than edified by these performances.</p> - -<p>The Venetians always loved processions, and it is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span> one of these -pageants that the pigeons of Saint Mark’s owe their immunity. As early -as the end of the fourteenth century it was the custom to make a great -procession on Palm Sunday, in the neighbourhood of Saint Mark’s. A canon -of the Cathedral deposited great baskets on the high altar, containing -the artificial palms prepared for the Doge, the chief magistrates, and -the most important members of the clergy. The Doge’s palm was prepared -by the nuns of Sant’ Andrea, and was a monument of patience. The leaves -were plaited with threads of palm, of gold, of silver, and of silk; and -on the gilded handle were painted the arms of the Doge. According to the -appointed service the procession began immediately after the -distribution of the palms; and while the choir chanted the words -‘Gloria, laus et honor’ of the sacred hymn, a great number of pigeons -were sent flying from different parts of the façade down into the -square, having little screws of paper fastened to their claws to prevent -them from flying too high. The people instantly began to catch the -birds, and a great many were actually taken; but now and then, one -stronger than the rest succeeded in gaining the higher parts of the -surrounding buildings, enthusiastically cheered by the crowd. Those who -had once succeeded in making their escape were regarded as sacred for -ever with all their descendants. The State provided them with food from -its granaries, and before long, lest by some mistake any free pigeons -should be caught on the next Palm Sunday, the Signory decreed that other -birds than pigeons must be used on the occasion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_043" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_051.png"> -<img src="images/ill_051.png" width="500" height="393" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>SOTTO PORTICO DELLA GUERRA</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII<br /><br /> -THE HOSE CLUB—VENETIAN LEGENDS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">In</span> the fourteenth century, life in Venice was simple and vigorous, and -found its civic expression in the formation of the Guilds which united -in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Vita Privata. Sansovino. Galliccioli, ii. 267, -269. Mutinelli, Lessico.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">close and brotherly bonds men of grave and energetic character, devoted -to their country and to its advantage. In the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries the tendencies of the later Venetians took visible shape in -brotherhoods of joyous and not harmless amusement, and chiefly in that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span> -known as the ‘Compagnia della Calza,’ in plain English the ‘Hose Club.’</p> - -<p>The learned Professor Tomassetti of the University of Rome, whose -authority in all that concerns the Middle Ages in Italy is indisputable, -informs me that he believes the right of wearing hose of two or more -colours, as one leg white and one leg red, or quartered above and below -the knee, belonged exclusively to free men, and that the fashion was -adopted by them in order that they might be readily distinguished from -the serf-born, in crowds and in public places. This is, indeed, the only -reasonable explanation of the practice which has ever been offered, and -is borne out by a careful examination of the pictures of the time. The -‘Hose Club’ distinguished themselves and recognised one another by their -hose, which were of two colours, one leg having at first a peacock -embroidered on it, whence the whole company was sometimes nicknamed ‘The -Peacocks.’</p> - -<p>The Doge Michel Steno, who painted his four hundred horses yellow, and -had been concerned in the libel against the nephew of Marin Faliero,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1400.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">had been counted among the gayest youths of his day; and when he was -elected the rich young men of Venice, knowing by hearsay from their -fathers that he had been wild in his youth, determined to celebrate the -accession of a former dandy in a manner suited to their own tastes. They -agreed upon the dress which afterwards became famous, and each paid a -sum of two thousand ducats into a general fund<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> which was entirely spent -in pageantry, banqueting, and masquerades.</p> - -<p>They had not at first intended the Club to be permanent, but when the -anniversary of the Doge’s coronation came round in the following year, -they met again to consider the advisability of prolonging an institution -which made such an agreeable contrast to the general gravity of Venetian -life.</p> - -<p>They now composed a sort of charter or constitution, which would have -made the heads of the artisan Guilds tremble with indignation, and might</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1401.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">well have caused the fathers of Venetian families to look even more -grave than usual.</p> - -<p>The Club was to be always a Company of twenty members, chosen for four -years only; for as soon as a young Venetian married, or took his seat in -the Great Council, he put on the long gown of older years and more -dignified habits, which effectively eclipsed his brilliant legs from the -public gaze. Each Company was to choose its name, an emblem, and a -motto. There were to be officers, a president, a secretary, and a -treasurer; and as the Venetians had a mania for sanctioning even the -most frivolous doings by means of some religious exercise, each Company -was to have a chaplain to celebrate a solemn mass at the admission of -each young scapegrace who joined. The chaplain also administered the -oath which every Companion was bound to take on admission.</p> - -<p>The smallest infraction of the rules entailed a heavy fine, and the -fines were, of course, periodically spent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span> in riotous amusements. As for -the dress, the hose always remained a part of it, but the greatest -latitude was allowed in the matter of colour and embroidery, or other -ornamentation.</p> - -<p>The formation of the joyous Companies was a natural reaction after the -huge efforts, the strenuous labours, the awful dangers that had filled -the fourteenth century, and had placed Venice high among the European -powers. From the foundation of the first of the Company, that of the -‘Peacocks,’ to the dispersion of the ‘Accesi,’ the ‘Ardent,’ which was -the last, a hundred and eighty-six years went by, which may be called -six generations, during which forty-three Companies succeeded each -other, and the ‘Hose Club’ became famous throughout Europe for its -extravagance, and for the fertility of its festive inventions.</p> - -<p>It made it its especial business to adorn with its presence in a body -the public baptisms of noble children, and important weddings, the -visits of illustrious personages, and even elections where there was -much at stake. When a foreign sovereign stopped in Venice, he asked to -be made an honorary member of the Company, he sometimes adopted its -dress, and he took home with him its emblem and its motto.</p> - -<p>The most famous of all the Companies was that of the ‘Reali,’ the -‘Royals,’ which was in existence about the year 1530. The members wore a -red</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Cicogna, Iscr. iii. 366.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">stocking on the right leg, and a blue one on the left, which was -embroidered on one side with large flowers of violet colour, and on the -other the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span> emblem of the Company, which was a cypress, over which ran -the motto, ‘May our glorious name go up</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_044" style="width: 413px;"> -<a href="images/ill_052.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_052.jpg" width="413" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PONTE S. ANTONIO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">to heaven.’ The members wore a vest of velvet embroidered with gold and -fine pearls, and the sleeves were fastened on by knots of ribband of -different colours,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span> a fashion permitting the wearer to display his shirt -of gossamer linen, exquisitely embroidered.</p> - -<p>A leathern or a gilded girdle was worn too, ornamented with precious -stones, and over the shoulder was carelessly thrown a short mantle of -cloth of gold, or damask, or brocade, with a hood thrown back, in the -lining of which was seen again the emblematic cypress.</p> - -<p>Last of all the ‘toga,’ the great cloak, was red, and was fastened at -the neck by a small golden chain, from the end of which a handsome jewel -hung down below the ear, over one shoulder. The boots were of -embroidered or cut leather, and were made with very thin soles.</p> - -<p>Venice had to thank the Companions of the Hose Club for some of the -first real theatrical performances ever given, which gradually led to -the creation of the ‘ridotti,’ and were more or less aristocratic -gambling clubs in connection with the theatres. We read that in 1529 the -Companions played a comedy with immense success in the house of one of -the Loredan family. In the following year the Duke of Milan visited the -city, and the Club determined to out-do all its previous festivities. A -Giustiniani was then the president of the ‘Royals,’ and he appeared with -a deputation before the Doge and the Signory. After announcing that the -Club had determined to produce the spectacle of a naval combat, he -requested the government to lend for the purpose forty of the light -war-pinnaces from the Arsenal. As if this were nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span> unusual, he went -on to ask for the use of the hall of the Great Council for a dance, of -the Library for a supper, and of the Square of Saint Mark’s for a -stag-hunt.</p> - -<p>The Hose Club evidently had large ideas. The Doge, however, granted all -that was necessary for the naval show, but said that he should have to -think over the other requests!</p> - -<p>It is needless to say that the ladies of Venice had their share in the -gay doings of the Club, first as invited guests only, but later as -honorary Companions, wearing the emblem embroidered on their sleeves and -on the scarlet ‘felse’ of their gondolas, until the sumptuary laws -interfered.</p> - -<p>There were times when the Signors of the Night and the Council of Ten -thought fit to limit the Club’s excessive gaiety, and it was found -necessary to issue a decree which strictly prohibited any of the eleven -thousand light ladies of the city from being received as Companions, or -asked to its entertainments; for, oddly enough, the reputables do not -seem to have resented the presence of the disreputables in the sixteenth -century.</p> - -<p>Now and then the Companions fell out among themselves. Marin Sanudo, in -his diary, mentions that in February 1500 the Companions</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Marin Sanudo, iii. I, 39.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">dined in the house of Luca Gritti, son of late Omobono; and after dinner -Zuan Moro, the treasurer of the Club, went out with Angelo Morosini, -Andrea Vendramin, and Zacaria Priuli; and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span> quarrelled about a -matter concerning which I refer my scholarly reader to his Muratori, and -Zuan Moro was wounded in the face, and turned and gave his assailants as -good as he had got, to the infinite scandal of the whole city, for these -Companions were all the young husbands of beautiful women, and they -disfigured each other!</p> - -<p>We learn also from Sanudo that the Companions frequented the parlours of -nunneries as well as the palaces of their noble relations and friends, -and that in 1514, for instance, they played a comedy by Plautus in the -convent of Santo Stefano. The Company of the ‘Sempiterni,’ the -‘Eternals,’ wished to give a performance of Pietro Aretino’s ‘Talanta’ -in one of the monasteries, but this was more than the monks could -endure, which will not surprise any one who has read Aretino’s works; -they might as well have proposed to give one of Giordano Bruno’s obscene -comedies; and perhaps they would, if he had then already lived and -written. Refused by the monks, the Companions hired a part of an -unfinished palace on the Canarregio for their performance.</p> - -<p>At first sight, what surprises us is the impunity enjoyed by these young -gentlemen of pleasure, and we ask what the three ‘Wise Men on Blasphemy’ -were doing. They were the Censors of the Republic, and it is amusing to -note that they acted in regard to licensing plays precisely as the -modern English government censorship does, for whereas they allowed a -scandalous piece by Aretino to be performed un<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span>challenged, they most -strictly forbade the presentation of any biblical personage or subject -on the stage. The stories of Judith, of Jephthah’s daughter, and of -Samson were those of which the wise magistrates most particularly -disapproved, I know not why.</p> - -<p>The first theatre Venice had was built by the Companions</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_045" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_053.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_053.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. ZOBENIGO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">in 1560 after the designs of Palladio, of wood, in the court of the -monastery of the Carità, but after a few years it took fire, and the -monastery itself was destroyed with it.</p> - -<p>I find that the Companions were great ‘racket’ players; but I apprehend -that by ‘rackets’ the chroniclers intended to describe court tennis, -which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span> was played in Venice, whereas in most other Italian cities the -game of ‘Pallone’ was the favourite, and has survived to our own time. -It is played with a heavy ball which the player strikes with a sort of -wooden glove, studded with blunt wooden pins and covering most of the -forearm.</p> - -<p>To return to the question of the large freedom and impunity granted to -the Club by the government, the reason of such license is not far to -seek. Young men who spend their time in a ceaseless round of amusement -do not plot to overthrow the government that tolerates them. The -Signory, on the whole, protected the Companions even in their wildest -excesses, and no doubt believed them to be much more useful members of -society than they thought themselves, since their irrepressible gaiety -and almost constant popularity helped to keep the people in a good -humour in times of trouble and disturbance.</p> - -<p>At the time of the league of Cambrai, for instance, when Pope Julius -II., the Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of -Aragon agreed to destroy the Venetian Republic, and when it looked as if -they must succeed, the Company of the ‘Eternals’ produced a mummery -which was highly appreciated both by the government and the population.</p> - -<p>They gave a sumptuous feast, after which the dining-hall was, as by -magic, turned into an improvised theatre. In the middle of the stage</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1510. Rom. v. 246.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">sat a young noble who personated the King, splendidly arrayed in the -Byzantine fashion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span> and attended by his counsellors, his chancellor, and -his interpreter. Before him there came in state one who played the Papal -Legate, dressed as a bishop in silk of old-rose colour, and he presented -a brief and his credentials; whereupon, after crowning and blessing the -King, he observed that he should like to see a little dancing, and two -of the Companions at once danced for him with two of the fairest ladies. -The Legate was followed by the Ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, and -the Ambassadors of France, Spain, Hungary, and Turkey arrived in turn; -each spoke in the language of his country, and his speech was -interpreted to the King. Last of all came the Ambassador of the Pigmies -mounted on a tiny pony accompanied by four dwarfs and the professional -buffoon Zanipolo. We must suppose the speeches to have been very witty, -and the dwarfs and buffoons highly comic, since this incomprehensible -nonsense was a stupendous success and was talked of long afterwards.</p> - -<p>The taste for these ‘momarie,’ literally ‘mummeries,’ grew in Venice. -Marin Sanudo describes one which was produced in the Square of Saint -Mark’s on the Thursday before Lent in 1532. I translate a part of the -list of the masks, to give an idea of the whole.</p> - -<p>First, the goddess Pallas Athene with her shield and a book in her hand, -riding on a serpent.</p> - -<p>Second, Justice riding on an elephant, with sword, scales, and globe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span></p> - -<p>Third, Concord, on a stork with sceptre and globe.</p> - -<p>Fourth, Victory on horseback, with sword, shield, sceptre, and palm.</p> - -<p>Fifth, Peace riding a lamb, and holding a sceptre with an olive branch.</p> - -<p>And so on. Then Ignorance, riding an ass, and holding on by the tail, -met Wisdom and fought and was beaten. And Violence appeared on a -serpent, and Mars on a horse, and Want on a dog with a horn full of -straw for its emblem. And Violence was soundly beaten by Justice, -Discord by Concord, and Mars by Victory, and Abundance drove Want from -the field.</p> - -<p>Such were the shows that amused the Venetians, while written comedy was -slowly growing out of infancy.</p> - -<p>The Companions of the Hose Club revenged themselves cruelly on any one -of their own number who</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under Osteria della Campana.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">showed signs of meanness. Sanudo tells the following anecdote. Alvise -Morosini, one of the ‘Eternals,’ on the occasion of his marriage with a -daughter of the noble house of Grimani, gave his fellow-Companions a -very meagre dinner. Not long afterwards they got into the Grimani palace -and carried off two magnificent silver basins; these were placed in the -hands of professional buffoons who paraded the city with them, informing -the public that the bridegroom meant to pawn them to pay for the dinner -which the Companions were going to eat at the sign of the Campana -instead of the dinner which they should have eaten at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span> the Palazzo -Morosini, and also to pay for wax torches for taking home the fair -ladies who were to be asked to the feast.</p> - -<p>The paternal and business-like government of Venice, seeing how much the -Companions contributed to the national gaiety, allowed them to -transgress the sumptuary laws which were so binding on every one else. -For instance, ordinary mortals were forbidden to ask guests to more than -one meal in the twenty-four hours, but the Companions eluded the -law—with the consent of the police—by keeping an open table all night, -so that breakfast appeared to be only the end of supper. Even in the -matter of the gondolas, the rule was that the ‘felse’ should be of black -cloth, yet the Companions covered theirs with scarlet silk and the -Provveditori delle Pompe had nothing to say.</p> - -<p>Then, suddenly, the government had a fit of morality, and in 1586 the -Hose Club was abolished by law, all privileges were revoked, and the -decree was enforced. Venice lost some amusement and much beautiful -pageantry, and gained nothing in morality. It was not very long before -the grave senators who objected to the Companions were seen in their -scarlet togas presiding over authorised gambling establishments in the -‘ridotti.’</p> - -<p>The Venetians were an imaginative people who delighted in fables, -amusing, terrible, or pious, as the case might be. Their stories differ -from those of other European races in the Middle Ages by the total -absence<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span> of the element of chivalry upon which most other peoples -largely depended for their unwritten fiction. One can make almost -anything of a business man except a knight.</p> - -<p>Near the Ponte dell’ Angelo in the Giudecca stands a house which shows -great age in spite of much</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_046" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_054.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_054.jpg" width="500" height="378" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PONTE DELL’ ANGELO, GIUDECCA, OLD WOODEN BRIDGE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">modern plastering. The windows are gothic, of the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Angelo.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">ogival design, and on the façade there is an image of the Virgin with -the infant Christ in her arms. Higher up, a bas-relief represents an -angel standing with outstretched wings as if he were about to fly away -after blessing with his right hand the globe he holds in his left.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span></p> - -<p>In the year 1552 this house was inhabited by a barrister of the ducal -court who professed unbounded devotion to the Madonna, and practised the -most indelicate methods of improving his fortunes.</p> - -<p>One day the lawyer asked to dinner a holy Capuchin monk who enjoyed the -highest reputation for sanctity. Before sitting down to table he -explained to the good friar that he had a most wonderful servant in the -shape of a learned ape, that kept his house clean, cooked for him, and -did his errands. The holy man at once perceived that the ape was no less -a personage than the Devil in disguise, and asked to see him; but Satan, -suspecting trouble, hid himself till at last he was found curled up in -his master’s bed, trembling with fright.</p> - -<p>‘I command thee,’ said the monk, ‘in the name of God, to say why thou -hast entered this house.’</p> - -<p>‘I am the Devil,’ answered the ape, seeing that prevarication would be -useless, ‘and I am here to take possession of this lawyer’s soul, which -is mine on several good grounds.’</p> - -<p>The monk inquired why the Devil had not flown away with the soul long -ago, but the fiend replied that so far it had not been possible, because -the lawyer said ‘Hail, Mary,’ every night before going to bed. Thereupon -the Capuchin bade the Devil leave the house at once; but the Devil said -that if he went he would do great damage to the building, as the -heavenly powers had authorised him to do. But the monk was a match for -him.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span></p> - -<p>‘The only damage you shall do,’ said the friar, ‘shall be by making a -hole in the wall as you leave, which shall be a witness of the truth of -what we have seen and heard and of the story we shall tell.’</p> - -<p>The Devil obeyed with alacrity and disappeared through the wall with a -formidable crash, after which the lawyer and his guest sat down to -table, and the monk discoursed of leading a good life; and at last he -took the table-cloth and wrung it with both hands, and a quantity of -blood ran out of it which he said was the blood the lawyer had wrung -from his clients. Then the sinner began to shed tears and promised to -make full reparation, and he told the monk that if the hole in the wall -were not stopped up, he feared the Devil would come in by it again. So -the friar advised him to place a statue of the Madonna before the hole -and an angel over it, to scare the Devil away. And so he did.</p> - -<p>Another Venetian legend of slightly earlier date tells how there was -once in the confraternity of Saint John</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘San Lio.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Evangelist a man who led a bad life, to the great scandal of all who -knew him. One of the brethren having died, the Superior hoped to touch -the heart of that wicked man by asking him to bear the Cross in the -funeral procession. ‘I will neither walk in the procession to-day,’ -answered the sinner, ‘nor do I wish to be so accompanied when the Devil -carries me off.’ After some time he died, and the brethren proceeded to -bury him, walking in procession after the Cross; but when they reached -the bridge<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span> of San Lio it became so heavy that it was impossible to lift -it from the ground, much less to carry it. The Superior now remembered -the words of the blasphemer, and told the story to the brethren while</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Picture representing the scene, Mansueti; Accademia delle -belle Arti.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">they halted. So they all decided that the Cross must not follow the -procession, and thereupon it instantly became light again, and was -carried back to the chapel of Saint John the Evangelist.</p> - -<p>The fireside is the natural place for telling stories, and there is -certainly some connection in the human mind between firelight and the -fabulous. Dante tells that in his time the women of Venice consulted the -fire in order to know the future. When a girl was engaged to be married -she appealed to one of the burning logs, and decided from the augury -whether she was to be happy or unhappy. Those who wanted money struck -the log with the tongs, calling out softly, ‘Ducats! ducats!’ If the -sparks flew out abundantly there was some hope that a rich relation -might die and leave the inquirer a legacy. When the sparks were few and -faint, poverty was prophesied.</p> - -<p>Unlike all other Italians, who believe that hunchbacks bring good luck, -the Venetians feared them excessively. A Venetian proverb says, ‘Leave -three steps between thyself and those whom God has marked, eight if it -is a hunchback, and twenty-eight if the man be lame.’</p> - -<p>One of the pretty superstitions of Venetian mothers was that if they -took their little children out before<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span> dawn on Saint John’s Day, the -twenty-fourth of June, so that the morning dew might dampen their cheeks -and hair, they would have lovely complexions and golden locks. There are -old Venetian lullabies that promise babies the midsummer dew.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_047" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_055.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_055.jpg" width="500" height="419" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO S. SOFIA, NIGHT</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX<br /><br /> -THE DECADENCE</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> seventeenth century, like the fourteenth, was one of transition; but -whereas the earlier period was one of improvement, the latter was one of -decay. When time at last began to do its work upon the Republic, Venice -had been independent nine hundred years; she was still at the height of -her glory, still in the magnificence of her outward splendour, but the -long-strained machinery of government was beginning to wear out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span> At the -commencement of the seventeenth century all Italy seemed to be -threatened by war; the peace</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1598. Rom. vii. 5.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">patched up between Philip II. of Spain and Henry IV. of France at -Vervins had been of an unsatisfactory and precarious nature; the Holy -See was more and more on its guard against the Protestant powers, and -Spain took advantage of this in order to sow discord between the court -of Rome and other governments. Venice was especially involved in these -difficulties, because she had signed in 1589 a commercial treaty with -the Grisons which had greatly displeased Spain, the latter being then in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vi. 412.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">possession of Milan. The Republic was accused of being too obliging to -Protestants, and her enemies assured the Pope that she had seriously -endangered the safety of the Catholic Church by allowing the English -ambassador to have an Anglican Church service in his private oratory. -The complaints of Clement VIII. and Paul V. were received with stony -indifference by the Republic, which never had the slightest respect for -Rome. The latter had many causes of complaint. Venice had been granted -in former times the privilege of trying priests for ordinary crimes in -the ordinary courts, on condition that the Patriarch should sit among -the judges. Little by little the Venetian government stretched this -privilege to make it apply to all suits whatsoever brought</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 43, notes.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">against ecclesiastics, and in most cases the Patriarch was not even -represented. It chanced, at the very time when the Pope had</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_008" style="width: 404px;"> -<a href="images/ill_056.png"> -<img src="images/ill_056.png" width="404" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CAMPIELLO DELLE ANCORE</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">complained of the liberty granted to the English ambassador, that two -priests were accused of an abominable crime, and were tried like -ordinary delinquents. This encroachment upon the bulls of Innocent VIII. -and Paul III. took place just when the Senate was passing a law which -greatly restricted the holding of property by the clergy. As if these -facts were not enough to show the Pope that the Venetian flock intended -to manage its own corner of the Catholic fold in its own way, the -government, on the death of the Patriarch, named as his successor a -member of the house of Vendramin, and merely announced the fact to the -court of Rome, although the old canonical law required that in cases -where governments were authorised to appoint their bishops, the latter -should be examined and approved by the Pope’s delegates.</p> - -<p>Spain took advantage of all these circumstances to bring about a -complete rupture between Venice and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 45, 50-51.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Holy See. Paul V. now hesitated no longer, and discharged a major -excommunication against the whole Venetian State. This measure produced -little impression on the Senate, and none at all on the Doge Leonardo -Dandolo. He declared openly that the sentence was unjust, and therefore -null and void. The Capuchin, Theatin, and Jesuit orders closed their -churches in obedience to the Pope, and were immediately expelled from -Venetian territory by the government. The Pope’s wrath was as tremendous -as it was futile, and it is impossible to say how far<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> matters might -have gone if Henry IV. had not used his influence to bring about a -reconciliation. It was his interest to do so in order that Venice, being -friendly to him, might in a measure balance the power of hostile Spain, -and he sent the Cardinal de Joyeuse to Italy to try and obtain from the -Pope some concession which</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 53.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">might facilitate an act of submission on the part or the Republic. Spain -was playing a double game as usual, but the Cardinal was too much for -the Spanish diplomatists, and he brought about an arrangement by which -Venice handed over to the Pope the two priests who were on trial, and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 64.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">permitted the Patriarch to undergo the examination required by the -canonical law. On his side the Pope exempted from that examination all -future Patriarchs.</p> - -<p>It is a singular fact that the usually docile Venetian population -greatly resented the attitude taken by the government towards the Holy -See. The Doge himself was hissed and howled at when he went to the -church of Santa Maria Formosa on the Feast of Candlemas. ‘Long live the -Doge Grimani, the father of the poor,’ yelled the rabble, for Grimani -had been a man of exemplary piety and had been dead and buried for some -time. ‘The day will come when you shall wish to go to church and shall -not be able!’ screamed others. Even after the reconciliation with the -Pope,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 251.</i></div> - -<p>Spain did not cease to conspire against the Republic, and while -persecuting the Catholics in Valtellina tried to make out that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> -Republic was allied with the Protestant powers because it opposed those -persecutions.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to speak of the quarrels between Venice and Rome -without mentioning the monk Paolo Sarpi who played so large a part in -them. At the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_048" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_057.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_057.jpg" width="500" height="412" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>SANTA MARIA FORMOSA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">time when the attitude of the Pope made it clear that serious trouble -was at hand, the Signory felt the need of consulting a theologian in -order to give her resistance something like an orthodox shape. There was -at that time in Venice a monk well known for his profound learning and -austere life. He had entered the order of the Servites as a novice at -the age of thirteen, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> now fifty-four years old. In more than -forty years</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 73, 77.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">his love of retirement and study and his profound devotion had suffered -no change. He was brought from his seclusion by an order from the Senate -to give his opinions on the burning questions of the moment. Fra Paolo -Sarpi vigorously sustained the cause of the Republic, and was at once -denounced to the Pope as a sectarian and a secret partisan of the -Protestants. Fanatics attempted to assassinate him, and the government -spread the report that the murder</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Statue of Fra Paolo Sarpi erected in 1812 in the church of -Santa Fosca, near the spot where he narrowly escaped assassination, -Marsili.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">had been attempted by the court of Rome. These reports further -exasperated the Vatican against him, while the Republic supported him -all the more obstinately and consulted him on every occasion. He was -installed in a little house in the Square of Saint Mark’s in order to be -within easy reach of the ducal palace, and the severest penalties were -threatened for any attempt against his life.</p> - -<p>In spite of these precautions two more attempts were made to assassinate -him, and he was heard to say that death would be preferable to the -existence which the government obliged him to lead. Nevertheless he -lived sixteen years in the service of the Republic. The unbounded -confidence which was placed in him is amply proved by the fact that he, -and he only, in the history of the Council of Ten, was allowed free -access to its archives, a privilege which, oddly enough, proved fatal to -him; for it was while working on his own account amongst those documents -that he caught<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span> a cold from which he never recovered, and he died three -months afterwards in the winter of 1622. On the fourteenth of January he -felt his end approaching, and the news was at once known throughout the -city. The Signory at once sent for Fra Fulgenzio, his most intimate -friend. ‘How is Fra Paolo?’ inquired the Ten. ‘He is at the last -extremity,’ answered the monk. ‘Has he all his wits?’ ‘As if he were -quite well,’ answered Fra Paolo’s friend.</p> - -<p>Immediately three questions regarding an important affair were sent to -the dying man, who concentrated his mind upon them and dictated the -answers with marvellous clearness and precision. His last words were a -prayer for his country’s enduring greatness. ‘Esto perpetua!’ he prayed -as he closed his eyes for ever.</p> - -<p>The government gave him a magnificent funeral, and ordered the sculptor -Campagna to make a marble bust of him for the church of the Servites; -but the Venetian ambassador in Rome advised the Republic not to rouse -the Pope’s anger again by such a tribute to the great monk’s memory. We -are not called upon to decide upon the orthodoxy of Fra Paolo’s -opinions, but he was undeniably one of the greatest and most gifted -Italians of the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p>The troubles with Rome, and the general excommunication which had -brought them to a crisis, had disturbed the confidence of the Venetian -people in their government more than anything that had happened for -years; and soon afterwards matters were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span> made worse by the terrible -judicial murder of Antonio Foscarini, in which England was deeply -concerned.</p> - -<p>Foscarini was a fine specimen of the patriotic Venetian noble, devoted -to his country, imbued with the most profound respect for the -aristocratic caste to which he belonged, haughty and contemptuous -towards most other people, as the following anecdote shows. He was in -Paris as ambassador when Maria de’ Medici, the wife of Henry IV., was -crowned, and as he had only recently arrived he was not acquainted with -all his diplomatic colleagues when he met them in the church of Saint -Denis. After the ceremony he bowed to the Spanish Ambassador, who -inquired who the stranger was who saluted him. Foscarini introduced -himself. ‘Oh,’ exclaimed the Spaniard, ‘the Ambassador of the -Pantaloons!’ ‘Pantaloon’ was a Venetian theatrical mask, and the word -had become a contemptuous nickname for the Venetians. But the Spaniard</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, St. e Ric.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">had counted without his host, for Foscarini fell upon him then and -there. He described what he did in a letter to his government: ‘I loaded -the Spanish Ambassador with vigorous blows and kicks, as he deserved.’</p> - -<p>A Venetian, Pietro Gritti, who was in Foscarini’s suite, wrote a letter -at the same time in which he said that his chief kicked the Spanish -Ambassador down the whole length of the court.</p> - -<p>Foscarini was afterwards ambassador in England, and the long series of -circumstances which led to his tragic end dates from that period. He was -still young,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span> he was inclined to be fond of amusement, and for some -unknown reason the secretaries of embassy who were sent with him hated -him and calumniated him in the basest manner, accusing him to the -Council of Ten of being a Protestant in secret, and of carrying on a -treacherous correspondence with the Spanish government. But there was -worse than this. A famous French spy, La Forêt, bribed Foscarini’s -valet, Robazza, got access to the ambassador’s rooms when he was out, -and copied his most important letters for the French government.</p> - -<p>His second secretary of embassy, Muscorno, obtained leave to return to -Venice on pretence of visiting his father who was ill, and when -Foscarini was suddenly recalled he found the ground prepared for an -abominable action against him. He himself, his valet, and his chaplain -were all imprisoned, and his trial for high treason began. It proceeded -very slowly, but he was acquitted after having been in prison three -years, for Robazza confessed his treachery without being tortured. -Having been declared innocent of high treason, Foscarini had little -difficulty in disproving some minor accusations that were brought -against him; and a few weeks after his release he appeared before the -Senate to give an official account of his embassy in England. Muscorno, -who had accused him falsely, was condemned to two years’ imprisonment in -a fortress; Robazza, the valet who had been bribed, had his right hand -struck off and was exiled for twenty years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span></p><p>James I. of England sent Foscarini especial congratulations, and he was -again employed in important affairs. Unhappily, however, Muscorno had a -successor worthy of him in the person of Girolamo Vano, a professional -spy in the service of the Republic. If by any chance the smallest State -secret was known abroad, it was always insinuated by Foscarini’s enemies -that he was responsible for divulging it, and it was quite in keeping -with the ordinary practice of the Venetian government to employ spies to -watch a man who had been once suspected, even though he had been -declared innocent and was again in high office.</p> - -<p>The spy Vano took advantage of Foscarini’s friendship, or affection, for -the English Countess of Arundel, as a means of making out a strong case</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 183.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">against him. Foscarini had known her in London, and she had afterwards -made long visits to Venice, in order to be near her sons, who were -making their studies at the university of Padua. At her house Foscarini -often met the Envoy of Florence and the secretaries of the Spanish and -Austrian embassies.</p> - -<p>She did not spend all her time in Venice, however, but was often many -months in England. It was when she was returning to Venice after one of -these absences that she was stopped at some distance from the city by a -messenger from the English ambassador, Sir Henry Wotton, who entreated -her to turn back. The unfortunate Foscarini had been convicted of high -treason and strangled, and his corpse was that very morning hanging -between the two red columns of the fatal window in the ducal palace. -Lady Arunde<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span>l’s name had been connected during the trial with that of -the condemned man, and the ambassador was anxious to save her any -possible trouble.</p> - -<p>But she was not of the sort that turns back from danger at such times, -and that very evening she reached</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_049" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_058.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_058.jpg" width="500" height="413" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>GRAND CANAL, LOOKING TOWARDS MOCENIGO PALACE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the English Embassy and demanded an audience of the Doge; it was with -the greatest difficulty that she could be made to understand the -impossibility of being admitted until the next morning, and she -reluctantly retired for the night to her hired house, that Mocenigo -palace which was afterwards successively inhabited by Lady Mary Wortley -Montagu and by Lord Byron.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span></p> - -<p>On the morrow the ambassador went with her to the ducal palace, and she -must have passed below the window from which the body of her friend had -hung all the previous day. She was admitted to the presence of the -Signory, and the Doge made her sit on his right hand. She now learned -that she was believed to have allowed Foscarini to use her house as a -place from which to carry on intrigues with foreign courts. Sir Henry -Wotton spoke in the Countess’s defence, and proved that her relations -with Foscarini had always been of the most honourable character, and -that the two had not met for many months. England’s star was in the -ascendant, Elizabeth had reigned, and it was not good to contradict an -English ambassador nor to speak lightly of an English lady. The Doge -made the Countess his most humble excuses and promised to send them to -her husband, the Earl Marshal, through the Venetian ambassador in -London.</p> - -<p>The Senate took cognisance of the affair also, and voted a small sum of -money to be expended in a present of comfits and wax to the Countess, -this being the custom for all persons of quality who appeared before the -Signory. But that was all. Lady Arundel had exculpated herself, but so -far Foscarini’s guilt seemed to be so incontrovertibly proved, that Fra -Paolo Sarpi refused to accept a legacy which the unhappy patrician had -left him in his last will.</p> - -<p>But as time went on the whole of Vano’s fabricated evidence began to go -to pieces. The Inquisitors of State themselves seem to have been the -first to suspect<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span> that they had made a mistake, and before long the -dreadful truth was only too clear. Foscarini</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 196; Armand Baschet, Arch. 631.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">had been perfectly innocent and had been murdered by justice. It was not -a case that could be hushed and put out of the way, either, for too many -people knew what had happened.</p> - -<p>The Council of Ten made amends: let us give them such credit as we can -for their public repentance, without inquiring too closely what pressure -was brought to bear upon them by the public, and not improbably by -England. Monsieur Baschet becomes lyric in his praise of their -magnanimity. For my part, I do not think it would have been safe for the -Council to try and hide its mistake. The Ten apologised amply before the -world: that is the important matter. Monsieur Baschet gives the original -text of the apology, of which I translate a part from the Italian:—</p> - -<p>‘Since the Providence of our Lord God has disposed, by means truly -miraculous and incomprehensible to human intelligence, that the authors -and promoters of the lies and impostures machinated against our late -beloved and noble Antonio Foscarini should be discovered ..., it behoves -the justice and mercy of this Council, whose especial business it is, -for the general quiet and safety to protect the immunity of the honour -and reputation of families, to rehabilitate as far as possible those who -lie under the imputation of an infamous crime ...,’ and so on.</p> - -<p>The Ten also decreed that an inscription should be set up in the church -of Sant’ Eustachio, recording the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220">{220}</a></span> error of the court, a unique example -of such a public and enduring retractation.</p> - -<p>Other circumstances occurred to prove that organisation of the Venetian -tribunals was beginning to wear out. Too many conflicting regulations -had been introduced, and there were too many magistracies. Venice was -‘over-administered,’ as generally happens to old countries, and -sometimes to new ones that are too anxious to be scientifically -governed. The jurisdictions of the different officials often encroached -upon one another. The three Inquisitors of State were frequently at odds -with the other seven members of the Council of Ten, and in the confusion -which this caused it was impossible that the laws should be as well -administered as formerly.</p> - -<p>About this time a grave case enlightened the public as to certain abuses -of which the existence had not</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 210, 215, 223, 229.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">been previously suspected. The Council of Ten was always charged with -the duty of seeing that the Doge performed to the letter the promises of -the ‘Promission ducale.’ These solemn engagements were several times -violated by the Doge Corner for the advantage of his sons. He allowed -one of them to accept the dignity of the Cardinalate while two others -were made senators, but as the Council of Ten did not like to interfere, -one of its heads, Renier Zeno, took upon himself to impeach the Doge. -The latter was accused of illegal acts in contradiction with the -‘Promission,’ and the question was taken up by the whole aristocracy and -discussed before all the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span> Councils. The opposite parties were -fast reaching a state of exasperation, when one of the Doge’s sons -attempted the life of Renier Zeno. He and his accomplices were merely -exiled to Ferrara, and the lenity of the sentence sufficiently shows the -weakness of the government.</p> - -<p>At the same time Renier Zeno was arbitrarily forbidden, contrary to all -law, to call into question the conduct of the courts in general, but he -was too proud and energetic to submit to such despotism, and what it -pleased the Council of Ten to call his ‘pride’ served his adversaries as -a pretext for accusing him. The Council had the imprudence to condemn -him to ten years’ imprisonment in the fortress of Cattaro; but this was -too much, and the Ten were soon forced to revoke the sentence as -completely as they had annulled that of the unfortunate Foscarini. But -the world saw, and the prestige of the Council was gone; the government -cast about in vain for some means of restoring it, and could find -nothing to do except to make a few reforms and changes in its old system -of spying and repression.</p> - -<p>Ever since the fourteenth century there had been a locked box with a -slit in it, placed in a public part of the ducal palace, into which any -one might drop an anonymous written accusation against any one else, -from the Doge down. Little by little the use of this means of -‘informing’ developed, until it had now become common to try cases on -the mere strength of such unsupported accusations. The boxes were -called<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span> the Lions’ Mouths on account of the shape they had taken, and -there was much talk about them when it was attempted to reform the Code -of Laws in the seventeenth century. A decree of the year 1635 restored -the old regulations as to the nature of the misdeeds which might be thus -denounced.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_050" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_059.png"> -<img src="images/ill_059.png" width="500" height="380" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE FONDAMENTA S. GIORGIO, REDENTORE IN DISTANCE</p></div> -</div> - -<p>It was decided that if the accusation was signed, four-fifths of the -judges must agree before the case could be brought to trial; if the -information was anonymous there could be no trial without the consent of -the Doge, his counsellors, and the chiefs of the Ten to bring the case -before the Great Council, and the trial could not be opened unless it -were voted necessary by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span> five-sixths of the assembly. These measures -were no doubt prudent, but it was the system itself that was at fault; -any Venetian was authorised by it to take upon himself the duties of a -detective, and was encouraged to spy on his neighbours, because the -courts generally rewarded the informer after a conviction.</p> - -<p>It is always a fault in a government to make laws unchangeable like -those of the Medes and Persians, and some authors have said that the -Venetian Republic never looked upon any of its decrees as immutable. -This is true as regards the form, for no government ever remodelled its -laws more often in their text. Sometimes the same decree appears in more -than one hundred shapes, but neither the spirit nor the point of view is -modified. A law passed against the freemasons in the eighteenth century -is conceived in precisely the same spirit as the decrees against the -conspirators in the days of Baiamonte Tiepolo and Marin Faliero; the -last Missier Grande of the police was very like the sbirri of the Middle -Ages in character and in methods. The Republic was growing old; the tree -might still bear fruit, but the fruit it bore had no longer within it -the seeds of future life.</p> - -<p>It cannot be denied that Venetian diplomacy was better of its kind than -Venetian magistracies. During the thirty years’ war, for instance,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 275.</i></div> - -<p>Venice never once lost sight of the great object it had in view, which -was to abase the closely related powers of Spain and Austria, while -skilfully avoiding any action which might bring about reprisals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span></p> - -<p>On the other hand, it was impossible to remain neutral in the war of -succession to the Duchy of Mantua, in which Carlo Gonzaga, Duke</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 276.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of Nevers, was supported by France, and Ferrante Gonzaga by the Emperor. -As Austria’s</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_051" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_060.png"> -<img src="images/ill_060.png" width="500" height="410" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>STEPS OF THE REDENTORE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">enemy, Venice naturally backed the former. Venice furnished him -abundantly with money and soldiers, and between the month of November -1629 and the month of March following, spent six hundred and -thirty-eight thousand ducats to support the party which was defending -the cause of Italian independence against the Empire. Austria -nevertheless succeeded, and got<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span> the better of the formidable coalition; -but though the Imperials took possession of Mantua at the time, they -were obliged to give it up to Carlo Gonzaga soon afterwards, in April -1631, by the treaty of Cherasco.</p> - -<p>About the same time Venice suffered another terrible visitation of the -plague, and more than thirty-six thousand persons perished in the city</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 302.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">alone. On a similar occasion in 1575 the Venetians had vowed a church to -the Redeemer if the plague was stayed, and the church they built is that -of the Redentore; in 1630 a church was vowed to the Blessed Virgin, -under the name of the Madonna della Salute. This was at first only a -wooden</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 306.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">building, in which a great thanksgiving took place on the first of -November. The present church was not finished until 1687.</p> - -<p>Amongst the many circumstances which hastened the decadence of the -Republic during the seventeenth century was the terrible war in Crete. -In</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Quadri, 275.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">that memorable struggle with the Turks for the possession of the island -the Venetians displayed much of their old heroism and good generalship, -but the Republic was no longer young, and could not make such gigantic -efforts with impunity; Venice was permanently weakened by that last -great war. It originated in a piece of rash imprudence on the part of -the Knights of Malta, who seized a number of Turkish vessels; it lasted -twenty-five years, and it cost the Republic her best generals and her -bravest soldiers, besides vast sums of money. Yet the enthusiasm was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span> -boundless; mindful of Enrico Dandolo and Andrea Contarini, the aged Doge -Francesco Erizzo determined to take command himself, but death overtook -him on the eve of his departure.</p> - -<p>Prodigies of valour were performed. Tommaso Morosini, with a single -ship, victoriously resisted the attack of forty-five Turkish galleys, -but lost his life in the engagement. Lorenzo Marcello took eighty-four -Turkish vessels and their crews with a far inferior force, but like -Morosini he was killed in the fight. Ten thousand Turks were slain and -five thousand were taken prisoners.</p> - -<p>Europe looked on in amazement and admiration, and many brave captains -and soldiers thought it an honour to serve under the standard of Saint -Mark. There were more Germans and Frenchmen among these volunteers than -soldiers of other nations, and Louis XIV. himself hoped to associate his -name with the campaign. He sent the Duc de Beaufort with a considerable -fleet, twelve of his best regiments, and a detachment of the Guards, -besides a great number of volunteers under the command of the Duc de -Noailles. Yet all was in vain, and after a quarter of a century of -fighting Venice was obliged to yield Crete to the Turks.</p> - -<p>The peace was of no long duration, for the Turks attacked Austria next, -and, though the brave Sobieski drove them away from Vienna, they allied -themselves with the Hungarians, and became so dangerous to the Empire -that the Pope himself was in anxiety for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span> safety of Christianity in -general. Exhausted by her long war in Crete, the Republic attempted to -decline all requests that she should join a league against the Turks, -but was at last obliged to yield, and war was renewed in the Archipelago -and the Peloponnesus.</p> - -<p>Francesco Morosini, the same general who a few years earlier had been -obliged to evacuate Crete after the most heroic efforts, was placed in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 490.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">command of the Venetian forces and commissioned to drive the Turks from -the islands of Santa Maura and other strong places in the Ionian Sea. On -the eleventh of August 1687 a swift felucca brought to Venice news that -Morosini had taken Patras and Corinth, besides Santa Maura. In joyful</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Bust of Francesco Morosini, Hall of the Council of Ten.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">enthusiasm the Senate forthwith voted the victor a bronze bust, which -was placed in hall of the Council of Ten, with the standard taken from -the Turks. It bears the inscription:—</p> - -<p class="c"> -<span class="smcap">Francisco Mauroceno</span><br /> -Peloponnesiaco adhuc viventi<br /> -Senatus.<br /> -</p> - -<p>Another monument in Venice recalls the glorious war of the Peloponnesus. -After having taken Athens, Morosini hastened to the Parthenon, for he</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Quadri, 302; Rom. vii. 491.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">appears to have been a man of highly cultivated tastes. To his -inexpressible disappointment he found the temple half ruined, for the -Turks had used it as a powder magazine, and a Venetian bomb had blown it -up. Morosini was so much overcome that he broke<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span> out into lamentations -over a loss which nothing could replace. But there amidst piles of ruins -he saw two splendid lions of marble from Pentelicus, which he at once -caused to be placed on board his vessel, rather to save them, perhaps, -than to exhibit them as trophies. In Venice they were set up on each -side of the gate of the Arsenal.</p> - -<p>Morosini was one of the few Venetian generals who was not made to suffer -for his success. When</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1688. Rom. vii. 504.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">at the very height of his triumph he learnt that he was elected Doge, -and though he had little success in the campaign after that, and was -even dangerously ill, he was magnificently received when he returned to -Venice. Pope Alexander VIII., Ottoboni, sent him the staff and military -hat which it was customary to give to generals who had distinguished -themselves in war against infidels. But it was clear that in his absence -nothing could be accomplished, and he soon obtained permission of the -government to take command of the Venetian forces once more. His -departure on the twenty-fourth of May 1693 was a sort of national -festivity. The Senate went to fetch him in his own apartment, and a long -procession accompanied him to Saint Mark’s. Preceded by halberdiers, -singers, files of servants in liveries of scarlet velvet and gold, many -priests, canons, and the Patriarch himself, besides the traditional -silver trumpets, the Doge walked between the Pope’s nuncio and the -French ambassador. He wore the full dress of a Venetian -commander-in-chief, which was of gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span> brocade with a long train. But -even in his glory the Venetians noticed with displeasure and suspicion -that he carried in his hand the staff of the General, which he evidently -preferred to the sceptre of the Doge, and which suggested to the crowd -the thought that he might seize the supreme power.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_052" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_061.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_061.jpg" width="500" height="414" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE NAVE OF S. STEFANO</p></div> -</div> - -<p>On the following day he embarked upon the Bucentaur, which took him on -board his flagship amidst the applause of the crowd, the pealing of the -church bells, and a salute of artillery from the fort of Saint Nicholas -on the Lido, as his vessel got under way.</p> - -<p>The expedition proved of little advantage to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span> Republic, and cost -Morosini his life, for his health was undermined by the fatigues of his -previous campaigns, and he died in the Greek province of Romania, where -he had hoped to rest for a few weeks. His body was brought back to -Venice, and buried with great pomp in the church of Santo Stefano.</p> - -<p>The war went on under his successor, Silvestro Valier, but it now -entered upon a new phase, for the Czar Peter the Great threatened the -Turks on their northern frontier, while the Venetian fleet held them in -check in the south. A treaty of peace was signed at Carlowitz in 1699, -by which the Republic kept her conquests in the Morea as far as the -isthmus of Corinth, including the islands of Egina, Santa Maura, and -other less important places. Dalmatia was also left to her, but she was -obliged to withdraw her troops from Lepanto and Romania on the north -side of the Gulf of Corinth.</p> - -<p>From all this it is clear that the military spirit was still alive in -Venice, when the administration had almost</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vii. 370, 371, 487; Quadri, 293.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">completely broken down. Nothing gives the measure of the situation -better than the fact that in order to meet the expenses of the war in -Crete any Venetian who would engage to support a thousand soldiers for -one year, or any foreigner who would support twelve hundred for the same -period, was allowed thereby to have and hold all the privileges of -nobility. This speculation was never sanctioned by law, and was even -rejected by the Great Council when proposed, but it was nevertheless -actually<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> practised, and a number of seats in the Great Council were -sold to the highest bidder. The government went one step farther, and -sold the office of procurator of Saint Mark. The decadence had reached -the point of decay.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_053" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_062.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_062.jpg" width="500" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE RIVA FROM THE DOGANA</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X<br /><br /> -THE LAST HOMES—THE LAST GREAT LADIES</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Two</span> men, a painter and a dramatist, have left us the means of knowing -exactly what the eighteenth century</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Pictures of Venetian life by Longhi; Accademia, Room XIV., -and Museo Correr, Rooms II. and IX.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was in Venice. It is not a paradox to say that Longhi painted comedies, -and that Goldoni wrote portraits. Both were Venetians, and they had the -courage to depict and describe respectively the glaring faults of their -own people, not realising, perhaps, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span> the general corruption was -beyond remedy, and that the end was at hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_054" style="width: 410px;"> -<a href="images/ill_063.png"> -<img src="images/ill_063.png" width="410" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CAMPO S. BARTOLOMEO, STATUE OF GOLDONI</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Look at Longhi’s ‘Fortune-Teller’ or ‘Dancing-Master,’ at his ‘Tailor,’ -his ‘Music-Master,’ or his ‘Toilet,’ and you may see precisely what the -Republic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span> was when it died of old age; there are all the successions of -light colours, as in a pastel-painter’s box; you can hear the high -running laughter that rings from rosy lips, you can guess what dreams of -pleasure fill those pretty heads, and yet there is something sad about -it all; unless one belongs to that little band of human beings who love -the eighteenth century, it sets one’s teeth on edge—like the dance -music in the ‘Ballo in Maschera,’ danced while Riccardo is dying. -Something rings false; I think there is too much discrepancy between -what we see or read and what we really know about that time. About other -centuries, even the nineteenth and twentieth, we can still have -illusions, but the eighteenth was all a sham that went to pieces with -the French Revolution.</p> - -<p>As for the position of women at that time, it was never lower. They were -dolls, and nothing more. They were perhaps more neglected in the -sixteenth century, but, at least in theory, there was still some respect -for them. In the eighteenth they existed only to adorn places of -amusement, theatres, and gambling houses. The biographer of that -remarkable woman, Giustina Renier Michiel, says they were so little -esteemed that it seemed useless to teach them anything, and he adds that -the Signory looked upon an educated woman as a being dangerous to -society and the State.</p> - -<p>Most young girls of noble family were brought up in convents, where the -most crass ignorance accompanied the loosest ideas of morality. The -greater number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span> these convents were only nominally connected with the -ecclesiastical authorities. In practice</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 351.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">they were controlled by lay inspectors, ‘Provveditori sopra Monasteri,’ -who were commissioned by the government to superintend the morals of -convents in general, but found it much more diverting to help in -undermining them.</p> - -<p>While the girls were being brought up in such places, their father was -chiefly preoccupied in assuring and increasing the fortune which was to -be inherited by his eldest son. The natural consequence of this was that -the marriage portions of the daughters became smaller and smaller, so -that it was found hard to marry them at all, and much less troublesome -to leave them in their convents for life. Each of the fashionable -convents was a little court of noble ladies; in the one, Her Most -Reverend Excellency the Mother Abbess was a Rezzonico; in another, the -Noble Dame Eleonora Dandolo was Mistress of the Larder.</p> - -<p>The scholars did not leave the convent at all while their education -lasted, but nothing was neglected which could amuse them, and their -principal lessons were in dancing, singing, and reciting verses. In -Carnival, the convent parlours were turned into theatres or ballrooms; -dames and cavaliers danced the minuet or the ‘furlana’; ‘Punch,’ -‘Pantaloon,’ and ‘Pierrot’ vied with each other to make the bevies of -aristocratic young ladies laugh at jests they should never have -understood.</p> - -<p>Even during the rest of the year the convents were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span> what would now be -called brilliant social centres, to</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 92.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">which married women came accompanied by their officially recognised -‘cicisbei,’ while young gentlemen of leisure flirted with the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 61-62.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">scholars. It was even common for the girls to keep up a regular -correspondence with their admirers.</p> - -<p>Take the following passage which I translate from Goldoni’s -autobiography, a book which may</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xix.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">be trusted and is singularly free from exaggeration. The adventure -happened to him in Chioggia.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>I had always cultivated the acquaintance of the nuns of Saint -Francis, where there were some very beautiful scholars, and the -Signora B. (one of the nuns) had one under her direction who was -very lovely and very rich and amiable. She would have been exactly -to my taste, but my youth, my condition, and my want of fortune did -not allow me to entertain any illusions.</p> - -<p>However, the nun did not refuse me hope, and when I went to see her -she always made the young lady come down to the parlour. I felt -that I should become attached to her in good earnest, and the -governess (the nun) seemed glad of it; and yet I could not believe -it possible. But one day I spoke to her of my inclination and of my -timidity; she encouraged me and confided the secret to me. This -young lady had good qualities and property, but there was something -doubtful about her birth. ‘This little defect is nothing,’ said the -veiled lady; ‘the girl is well behaved and well brought up, and I -will be surety to you for her character and conduct. She has a -guardian,’ she continued, ‘and he must be won over, but leave that -to me. It is true that this guardian, who is very old and ruined in -health,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span> has some pretensions as to his ward, but he is wrong, -and—well, as I am also interested in this—leave it to me,’ she -repeated, ‘and I will manage for the best.’ I confess that after -this talk, after this confidence and this encouragement, I began to -think myself happy. The Signorina N. did not look unkindly on me, -and I considered the matter as settled. All the convent had noticed -my inclination for the pupil, and there were some young ladies who -knew the intrigues of the parlour and had pity on me, and explained -to me what was happening; and this is how they did it. The windows -of my room were precisely opposite the belfry of the convent. In -building it there had been placed in it several casements of cloudy -glass through which one could vaguely make out the outlines of -people who came near them. I had several times noticed at those -apertures, which were oblong, both figures and gestures, and in -time I was able to understand that the signs represented letters of -the alphabet, and that words were formed, and that one could talk -at a distance: almost every day I had half an hour of this mute -conversation, in which, however, we conversed properly and -decently.</p> - -<p>By means of this hand-alphabet I learned that the Signorina N. was -very soon to be married to her guardian. Angry at the Signora B.’s -way of acting, I went to see her during the day in the afternoon, -quite determined to show her all my displeasure. She is sent for, -she comes, she looks steadily at me, and perceiving that I am -angry, guessing what had happened, she does not give me time to -speak but is the first to attack me vigorously, with a sort of -transport.</p> - -<p>‘Well, sir,’ she said to me, ‘you are displeased, I see it in your -face’—I tried to speak, but she does not hear me, raises her voice -and goes on—‘Yes, sir, the Signorina N. is to be married, and she -is going to marry her guardian.’ I tried to raise my voice too. -‘Hush, hush,’ she cries, ‘listen to me; this marriage is my doing: -after having reflected upon it, I helped<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span> it on, and on your -account I wished to hasten it.’ ‘On my account?’ I said. ‘Hush,’ -she replied, ‘you shall understand the conduct of a prudent woman -who has a liking for you. Are you,’ she went on, ‘in a position to -take a wife? No, for a hundred reasons. Was the Signorina to wait -your convenience? No, she had not the power to do so; it was -necessary to marry her; she might have married a young man and you -would have lost her forever. She marries an old man, a man in his -decline and who cannot live long; and though I am not acquainted -with the joys and disappointments of marriage, yet I know that a -young wife must shorten the life of an old husband, and so you will -possess a beautiful widow who will have been a wife only in name. -Be quite easy on this point, therefore; she will have improved her -own affairs, she will be much richer than she is now, and in the -meantime you will make your journey. And do not be in any anxiety -about her; no, my dear friend, do not fear; she will live in the -world with her old fellow and I shall watch over her conduct. Yes, -yes! She is yours, I will be surety to you for that, and I give you -my word of honour——’</p> - -<p>And here comes in the Signorina N. and approaches the grating. The -nun says to me with an air of mystery, ‘Congratulate the young lady -on her marriage!’ I could bear it no longer; I make my bow and go -away without saying more. I never saw either the governess or her -pupil again, and thank God it was not long before I forgot them -both.</p></div> - -<p>After reading such stories and looking into the archives of the -‘Superintendents of Convents,’ it is easy to understand that Pope -Gregory XIII.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. vi. 360.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">should have exclaimed bitterly, ‘I am Pope everywhere except in Venice’; -and more than one of his successors in the eighteenth century had cause -to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> repeat his words. The Church protested in vain against the abuse of -the veil by Venetian ladies, for the State protected them on the -specious pretext of superintending their morals, and the remonstrances -of the popes and of the patriarchs of Venice were not even heard within -the walls of those sham cloisters. With such a system of education and -such examples the bankruptcy of morality was merely a question of time. -The number of marriages diminished amongst the aristocracy, and when a -young man made up his mind to matrimony he consulted nothing but his -financial interests.</p> - -<p>The expenses of a fashionable marriage were considerable. There were -always several festive ceremonies in the bride’s house. The first was -the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 86; Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xxvi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">signature of the contract; the second, which followed soon afterwards, -was a gathering of all the relations and friends of the two families -with a sort of standing collation, and it was on this occasion that the -future bridegroom gave his betrothed the first present, which was -generally a big diamond set in other stones, and was called the -‘ricordino,’ the ‘little remembrance.’</p> - -<p>A few days before the wedding the two families and their friends met -again, and if the man’s mother was still alive it was she who gave the -bride a pearl necklace; otherwise the duty fell to one of his near -female relations. This pearl necklace was thought absolutely -indispensable for the honour of the family, and the bride was bound to -put it on at once and to wear it till the end of the first year of her -marriage. Where it would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span> caused financial difficulty it was simply -hired for the time, and was returned to the jeweller at the end of the -year.</p> - -<p>After her marriage every well-born woman took a ‘cicisbeo’ or ‘cavalier -servente.’ These cavaliers were in most cases, especially at the -beginning</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 13.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of the century, neither young, nor handsome, nor the least lover-like, -though there were</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Grassi.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">exceptions to the rule. The choice of them was often the occasion of the -first conjugal dispute, and a lady of the Condulmer family retired to a -convent for life because her husband objected to the cavalier whom she -wanted.</p> - -<p>The serving cavalier accompanied his lady on all occasions, for the -husband never did, and the two were</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 207, 303, and ix. II; Molmenti, Vita Priv.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">seen everywhere together, and especially under the felse of the gondola; -for ladies never used the gondola uncovered, even on beautiful summer -evenings. And they were perpetually out, so that grave historians inform -us that they only spent a few hours of the night in their palaces, and -during the day the time they needed for dressing. When required, the -‘cicisbeo’ waited on his lady instead of her maid; her smallest caprices -were his law, and she dragged him after her everywhere, to mass, -benediction, and the sermon. ‘The object of mass is to go to walk,’ said -Businallo in one of his satires, after saying that the proper purpose of -pilgrimages was to make a great deal of noise.</p> - -<p>Not unfrequently the cicisbei were mere adventurers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span> who pretended to be -great nobles from other Italian cities, and to have left their homes in -consequence of some misfortune.</p> - -<p>Goldoni wrote a comedy called ‘Il Cavaliere e la Dama’ on the subject of -the ‘cicisbei,’ whom he calls ‘singular beings, martyrs to gallantry, -and slaves to the caprices of the fair sex.’ In speaking of this piece, -in his autobiography, he observes that he could not have printed the -word ‘cicisbeatura’ on the bill for fear of offending the numerous class -whom he intended to satirise.</p> - -<p>He goes on to say of his play that a man is presented who is the husband -of one lady and the serving cavalier of another, and the mutual -satisfaction of the two women is exhibited. ‘A married woman,’ Goldoni -says, ‘complains to her cicisbeo that one of her lacqueys has been -disrespectful to her; the cavalier answers that the man should be -punished. “And whose business is it but yours to see that I am obeyed -and respected by my servants?” cries the lady.’</p> - -<p>The playwright no doubt heard the speech in actual life. The cavalier -was the real master of the house in many families, yet now and then a -husband could be jealous, though not in the least in love.</p> - -<p>Goldoni says that there were husbands who put up with their wives’ -cavaliers in a submissive spirit, but that there were others who were -enraged</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, vol. ii. chap. x.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">by those strange beings, who were like second masters of the house in -disorganised families.</p> - -<p>It is certain that the Venetian ladies cared more for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> gambling than for -adornment, or anything else. In the morning they wore a dress of more or -less rich stuff, but always black, and when they went out they wore a -long scarf, also black, which they disposed with much grace upon their -heads, crossed upon their bosom, and knotted loosely behind the waist. -This dress went by the general name of ‘Cendaleto,’ and it was the -custom to apply the appellation also to those who wore it. They said, -for instance, that there were so many ‘Cendaleti’ at a ceremony, meaning -that number of ladies. Giustina Renier Michiel, the historian of all -that was left of grace and beauty in Venice, says that the scarf had the -magic power of making the plainest women pretty.</p> - -<p>Though dress was simple enough on ordinary occasions, conforming to -certain rules, yet on gala occasions the latest fashions were consulted.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 303.</i></div> - -<p>In earlier times Venice had set the fashion for the world, and -beautifully dressed dolls had been sent by the Venetian women’s tailors -as models to Paris. In the eighteenth century Paris sent dolls to -Venice. These dolls were exhibited at the fair of the Ascension, near -the entrance to the Merceria, and took the place of fashion-plates and -dressmakers’ journals. The men wore the cut-away coat, breeches, silk -stockings, shoes with buckles, wigs, and three-cornered hats, then -common throughout Italy and France; but they had invented a singular -fashion of their own, which was that of throwing a light mantle of -velvet, satin, or cloth over their hat and wig. It was called the -‘velada,’ and was adorned with embroidery,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span> lace, or a fringe. In the -end, it was sometimes made of lace only. As the law did not allow any -member of the Great Council to appear in public without his toga, the -nobles introduced a fashion which soon became common in all classes; -they wore a black or white mask,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_055" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_064.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_064.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>SS. GIOVANNI E PAOLO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">and covered themselves entirely with a black silk mantle having a hood, -on the top of which they</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Lessico; G. R. Michiel, i. 283.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">placed the three-cornered hat. This garment was nothing, in fact, but a -domino. Of course the women soon discovered the advantages of a dress in -which they could not only disguise themselves but could even pass for -men. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span> ‘Cendaleto’ remained as the proper dress for going out in the -morning, but in the afternoon and evening, at</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_056" style="width: 423px;"> -<a href="images/ill_065.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_065.jpg" width="423" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>NIGHT ON THE RIVA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the theatre, at the ridotti, or in the piazza, the mask and domino -became indispensable, and men and women wore precisely the same -three-cornered hat.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span></p> - -<p>It was soon noticed, however, that the domino did not tend to improve -the public morals, and a decree was issued limiting its use to the -period between the first Sunday in October and Advent Sunday, and during -Carnival and the festivities which took place at the Ascension.</p> - -<p>The women, no doubt, amused themselves in various ways, not excepting -that form of diversion in which women have such marked advantages over -men; but their chief enjoyment, if not their principal occupation, was -gambling. Games of chance were played for very high stakes in the -ridotti, which were gaming-clubs, not much better than the ‘hells’ of -modern cities. The most celebrated was that connected with the theatre -of San Moisè, which the government protected as a useful social -institution. A patrician, generally a senator, presided in his toga at -the tables, in order to see that there was no cheating. The singular -rule of admission was that one must be either noble or masked, and the -consequence was that the Venetian ridotti were frequented not only by -the Venetians themselves, but by half the gamblers, adventurers, and -blacklegs in Europe.</p> - -<p>King Frederick IV. of Denmark once visited San Moisè disguised in a -domino, and won a large sum of money from a Venetian noble who was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Ridotto.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">risking the last remains of his fortune. On being told the -circumstances, he pretended to stumble, upset the table with all the -money on it, and disappeared, leaving the embarrassed gentleman to pick -up his gold again, which he did with marvellous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span> alacrity. The number of -players at San Moisè was so great that in 1768 the government enlarged -the place, using for the purpose the proceeds of property confiscated -from the nuns, which terribly scandalised the population and provoked -some bitter epigrams. At the ridotto the most illustrious patrician -ladies quarrelled for places at the table with ladies of no character at -all, and a contemporary observes that in order to pay their gambling -debts and continue to</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 54.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">amuse themselves, they were reduced to the last extremity. He adds that -they played from the hour of tierce, which is half-way between dawn and -noon at all times of the year.</p> - -<p>In 1780, when the Republic had but a few years more to live, the two -ridotti of San Moisè and San</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 303, and ix. II.</i></div> - -<p>Cassian, which had been protected and superintended by the government, -were suppressed, but the only result was that a new class of -gaming-houses came into existence called Casini, which were much worse -in character than the old establishments. Ruined nobles borrowed -enormous sums from usurers, and even from plebeians, sharing the -winnings with the lender when successful, and being entirely at his -mercy if they lost. Some women kept private Casini of their own, to -which they invited</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">men and women; and while they played at Pharaoh, Basset, and Biribissi -within, the gondoliers played Morra at the landing outside.</p> - -<p>Venice slept little, and was devoured day and night by the fever of -pleasure. The lighting of the city</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_009" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_066.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_066.jpg" width="500" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE SALUTE FROM THE RIVA</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">was paid for by the proceeds of the lotto, which had been introduced in -1734. Goldoni says that the shops were always open until ten o’clock</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, vol. i. chap. xxxv.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">at night, while a great many did not close till midnight, and some never -shut at all. In Venice, he continues, you would find eatables exposed -for sale at midnight exactly as at midday, and all the eating-houses -were open. It was not the custom to give many dinners or suppers in -Venetian society, but a few such occasions have remained famous, and the -invited guests appear to have behaved with as little restraint as if -they had been in a common eating-house. A certain noble, of the Labia -family, once gave a supper at which he showed all his finest plate, and -the guests could not refrain from admiring the magnificent chiselled -pieces of gold and silver that covered the table. Suddenly, as the -gaiety increased, the master of the house jumped up and began to throw -the plates and dishes through the open windows into the canal, -accompanying this mad proceeding with one of the worst puns ever made in -the Italian</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Labia.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">language, or rather in the Venetian dialect: ‘L’abia o non l’abia, sarò -sempre Labia’—the words mean, ‘Whether I have it or not I shall always -be Labia.’</p> - -<p>The conditions of married life in the decadence were such amongst the -nobles that it is best not to inquire too closely as to what went on. In</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 303; Mutinelli, Ult. 86.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">a great number of cases husband and wife were like strangers to each -other, and the children were utterly neglected, when there were any.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span> -When divorce becomes common, the family, which is the first of social -institutions, soon ceases to exist, and no country has ever shown -vitality or long endurance where society was not based on the relations -of father, mother, and children to each other. There never was any -divorce law in Italy, but there was, and is, such a thing as the -annullation of marriage. In Venice, between 1782 and 1796, the Council -of Ten registered two hundred and sixty-four applications for -annullation, and the great part of them were admitted.</p> - -<p>As generally happens when a form of government is exhausted and is about -to go to pieces, the Venetian</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 71.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">people retained ideas of morality longer than the wealthy burghers or -the worn-out nobility; the wives of the artisans necessarily lived more -at home than their richer sisters, and were generally able to keep their -husbands. The love of pleasure was too universal to admit of excepting a -whole class from its influence, and to the last the working people seem -to have been very prosperous under the old government; but their -amusements were harmless and their pleasures innocent compared with -those of the upper thousands. The women of the people organised their -diversions with a good deal of system, forming groups among themselves, -each of which had a presidentess and a treasuress, who collected the -subscriptions, kept the money in safety, and made out the accounts when, -at intervals, the little fund was drawn upon for excursions and parties -of pleasure, to which men were not invited.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span></p> - -<p>On the morning of one of those appointed days, the women and girls met -at the landing from which they were to start, all dressed very much -alike. Those who belonged to the class of the better artisans wore a -rather dark cotton skirt, a blouse of scarlet cloth, a chintz apron with -a design of large flowers, and lastly, a white linen kerchief called the -‘niziol,’ which was to them what the black ‘cendal’ was to the Venetian -ladies; and from ‘niziol’ the word ‘nizioleto’ was formed, like -‘cendaleto,’ and meant a pretty woman or girl of the people. Of course, -when they met for a day’s pleasure they wore whatever ornaments they -possessed.</p> - -<p>The women of the poorest class wore over the dark skirt a very wide -apron which covered it entirely when let down, but which they pulled up -over their heads like a sort of hood when they went out.</p> - -<p>The fathers, husbands, and brothers of the women came with them as far -as the boat, but left them then, as the people would have thought it -highly</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 18.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">improper that decent women should amuse themselves in the company of the -other sex. Yet for their protection two elderly men of unexceptionable -character went with them, as well as the necessary rowers, and it was a -common practice to be rowed about for a time before leaving the city, -singing songs together.</p> - -<p>The principal diversions of the day were the picnic, which was a solid -affair, a dance, generally the country ‘villotta,’ accompanied by the -singing of couplets, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> the return to Venice in the boat, illuminated -with festoons of little coloured lanterns. At the landing they parted, -dividing what was left of the provisions, lest anything should be lost, -and no doubt each good wife did her best to bring home a few titbits for -the men of her household, if only to make them envy her for being a -woman. I find no record of what the men did with themselves on picnic -days, but it must have been very quiet in the house, and they may have -felt that there were compensations even for being left at home.</p> - -<p>Another time of gaiety was the evening after a regatta. Then the houses -of the winners were decked with garlands of green, and the doors were -open to every friend; the silk flag, which was the token of victory, was -hung in a conspicuous place for all visitors</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 318.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to admire, and when it grew late they all sat down to a plentiful -supper, which on those occasions generally consisted principally of -several dishes of fish washed down with copious draughts of the island -wine. The last homes of Venice, in any real sense, were the homes of the -working people.</p> - -<p>Life in the country did little to bring the members of a noble family -nearer together, but there was a good deal of it, such as it was. At a -time when France set the fashions, which she was before long to impose -on the greater part of Europe, every rich Venetian noble dreamt of -making a little Versailles of his own villa. The residences of the -Marcello, the Corner, the Gradenigo, the Foscarini, and the Pisani, on -the road<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span> to Treviso and on the banks of the Brenta, were so many little -courts, in which every element was represented from the sovereign to the -parasite, from the parasite to the buffoon, and the lesser nobles -imitated the greater throughout a scale which descended from the sublime -to the ridiculous. The villas themselves were often decorated by the -greatest artists. In the hall of the Pisani’s country-house at Strà, for -instance, Tiepolo had painted a wonderful picture representing the -reception of Henry III. in Venice.</p> - -<p>In going from the city to the villas, people went by water as far as it -was possible, and each family had a sort of light house-boat for this -purpose,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Ult. 112, 116.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">called a ‘burchiello,’ and fitted with all possible comfort. The -travellers dined and supped sumptuously on board, and spent most of -their time in playing cards; and when the end of the journey was reached -a long round of pleasures and amusements began, in which the ‘cicisbei’ -played an important and, one would think, a terribly fatiguing part. -They were assisted by regular relays of parasites who were invited for a -few days at a time, and who were expected to pay with ready flattery and -story-telling for the hospitality they received.</p> - -<p>Eating then played a much larger part in what was called pleasure than -we moderns can well understand. We are ourselves no great improvement</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Vita Priv.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">on our fathers, in respect of manly virtue, faith in things divine, or -honesty when it does not happen to be the best policy; but as an age of -men we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span> are not greedy of food. The Venetians were. Not only did they -employ French cooks and spend much time in considering what things to -eat, but their dinners were so interminably long, and the courses they -ate were so numerous, that they found it convenient to use three -dining-rooms in succession for the same meal, the first being for the -soup and the beef, the second for the roast meats and vegetables, and -the third for the pudding and dessert.</p> - -<p>The Venetians were near their end when they ceased to be men of business -and turned into gamblers and spendthrifts. All this extravagance, -especially in the country, led to financial embarrassment at the end of -the season; and in order to satisfy the creditors who then appeared in -force, it was necessary to rackrent the peasants or to sell property and -produce at ruinous prices. In one of his comedies Goldoni makes a ruined -nobleman say again and again to his steward, ‘Caro vecchio, fè vu’—‘My -dear old man, manage it yourself.’ The expression was so true to life -that not one but a number of nobles complained to the government that -they were being publicly libelled by a playwright.</p> - -<p>Everything was in a state of decay already approaching ruin. When the -Princess Gonzaga came to Venice</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Archivio Stor. Ital. fourth series, vol. xvi. p. 180.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">she had such an abominable reputation that no Venetian lady had the -courage to present her to the society of the capital. At last, however, -the Signora Tron, the wife of a procurator of Saint Mark, offered to do -so. She introduced the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> Princess with these historic words: ‘Ladies, -this is the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_057" style="width: 380px;"> -<a href="images/ill_067.png"> -<img src="images/ill_067.png" width="380" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO DELLA TORESELA</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Princess Gonzaga. She belongs to an illustrious family.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span> As for the -rest, I will not answer for her, nor for you, nor for myself.’</p> - -<p>She was wise in refusing to answer for herself, at all events, for she -was accused of setting a higher price on</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Horatio Brown, Sketches.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">her box at the theatre than on herself. ‘That is true,’ she answered, -‘for I sometimes give myself for nothing.’</p> - -<p>It is comprehensible that where great ladies talked like this, a burgher -dame should have put up her</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 82.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">daughter’s honour at a lottery, for which the tickets were sold at a -sequin, about fifteen shillings, each.</p> - -<p>The decadence was turning into final degeneration, and everything morbid -was hailed with enthusiasm.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Carrer, Annali, 34.</i></div> - -<p>Two lovers committed suicide, for instance, and immediately -handkerchiefs were sold everywhere adorned with a death’s head in one -corner, and embroidered in the middle with the lovers’ initials -surrounded with stains of the colour of blood.</p> - -<p>The average Venetian lady was at once ignorant and witty, yet here and -there one succeeded in cultivating her mind by reading and intercourse -with the famous foreigners who spent much time in Venice at the end of -the eighteenth century. Giustina Renier Michiel was undoubtedly the most -remarkable and admirable Venetian woman of her times. She was born in -1755, the daughter of Andrea Renier, afterwards Doge, and the niece of -Marco Foscarini. At the age of three she was sent to a convent of -Capuchin nuns at Treviso; at nine she was brought back to Venice and -placed in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span> fashionable boarding-school kept by a Frenchwoman, where -she learned French badly, and Italian not at all. But the girl was a -born bookworm, and even in her school succeeded in reading a vast number -of books, and in filling her girlish imagination with a vast store of -ideals. She naturally hated complication and prejudice, and aspired to -be simple and just. Like many women of independent mind, she could not -help associating dress with moral qualities and defects; and when she -was old enough to please herself, she always wore a long straight -garment of woollen or white linen, according to the season, and adorned -her beautiful hair with a crown of roses. Such a costume might surprise -us nowadays, but she loved flowers, and deemed that to wear them brought -her nearer to nature. If she was obliged to wear fashionable clothes for -some public occasion, she spoke of them as a disguise, and hastened to -‘take off her mask and domino,’ as she expressed it, as soon as she -reached home. ‘Molière may say that a Countess is certainly something,’ -she wrote in French to a friend; ‘he should have written that a Countess -is very little, or a Count either!’ She often used to say: ‘I should -like to know why every one does not try to please me, since it would -take so little to succeed!’ One of her hobbies was not to give trouble, -and she pushed this admirable virtue so far that one day, when her frock -caught fire, she would not call any one, but rolled herself on the -carpet till the flames were extinguished.</p> - -<p>She had a great admiration for the Cavalier Giusti<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span>niani, the same who -faced Bonaparte so bravely a few years later, but she did not marry him.</p> - -<p>She is said to have been very beautiful, but short, a fact which -disturbed her unnecessarily, to judge by a note found in one of the -commonplace books in which she copied passages from her reading and -wrote out her own reflections. ‘A monarch who was rather famous in the -last century,’ she wrote with child-like simplicity, ‘forbade his -soldiers to marry short women; on the other hand, he rewarded them if -they married gigantic women. Can it be because people fear that short -women will turn out more mischievous than tall ones?’</p> - -<p>At the age of twenty she was married to Marcantonio Michiel, and a few -months later she accompanied him to Rome, where her father, Andrea -Renier, was ambassador. She made a profound impression on Roman society, -and soon went by the name of ‘Venerina Veneziana,’ the little Venetian -Venus. In Rome she met the genial poet Monti, then very young, and -recommended to the Venetian ambassador by Cardinal Braschi. To fill her -idle hours, the industrious little lady studied engraving on wood.</p> - -<p>Not long after her return from Rome her paternal uncle was elected Doge. -He was not a very estimable personage, and as he had married a dancer -whom the people refused to accept as the Dogess, his niece Giustina did -the honours of the ducal palace when occasion required.</p> - -<p>In her early youth she began several literary works, among which a -rather inaccurate translation of some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span> Shakespeare’s plays has come -down to us. She was a literary personage, however, when still young, and -the drawing-rooms of the Palazzo Michiel were frequented by all that was -most distinguished in Venice, as well as by the best of the foreign -element. Giustina, like all women who succeed in gathering intellectual -people about them, encouraged the discussion of all sorts of subjects -from the broadest point of view. At that time she was slightly inclined -towards the new order of ideas, and boasted of being somewhat -democratic; but if this was true, it did not prevent her from sincerely -lamenting the fall of the Republic a few years later.</p> - -<p>On the twelfth of May 1797, after the fatal session which ended the -history of Venice, a few nobles gathered at her house to mourn over the -sudden end. While they sat together, heavy-hearted and conversing in -broken sentences, they heard the rabble in the street below, howling at -those whom it called the assassins of Saint Mark. The little group -upstairs understood the danger, and after a moment’s silence Giustina -called upon them to save the city at least, if they could no longer save -the Republic. Her cousin Bernardino Renier was there, and was -temporarily charged with seeing to the safety of the city. The only -means he could think of for preventing pillage was violence, and he -swept the streets with artillery.</p> - -<p>For a while Giustina cherished the vain hope that Bonaparte would help -Venice to rise from her ashes. That fact explains why she was willing to -receive in her house the handsome, fair-haired Marina Benzon, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> -danced round the tree of liberty in the Square of Saint Mark’s with the -‘Carmagnola’ on her head, on the day that saw the Venetian flag replaced -by the Phrygian cap of liberty. It explains, too, why Giustina was in</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1809.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the square ten years later, when Napoleon came to Venice a second time. -It was a singular meeting enough.</p> - -<p>When the Emperor was passing his troops in review in the square, -Bernardino Renier pointed out his cousin Giustina, who was in the crowd -looking on, and Napoleon at once sent two officers to bring her to him. -The story is that the Emperor planted himself before her with his arms -crossed and his legs apart.</p> - -<p>‘What are you celebrated for?’ he asked roughly.</p> - -<p>‘I, sire? Celebrated?’ cried the lady.</p> - -<p>‘Yes, you. But to what do you owe your celebrity?’</p> - -<p>‘To friendship, no doubt, which attributes to me an importance I do not -possess.’</p> - -<p>‘What have you written?’ demanded the Emperor.</p> - -<p>‘Little things not worth mentioning,’ answered Giustina.</p> - -<p>‘Verse or prose?’</p> - -<p>‘In prose, sire. I never was able to write a verse in my life.’</p> - -<p>‘Ah, then you improvise, you improvise, do you?’</p> - -<p>‘I wish I could, sire! for I should have an excellent opportunity to-day -of covering myself with glory!’</p> - -<p>‘Come, what have you written?’ asked the Emperor impatiently.</p> - -<p>‘A few translations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span>’</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_058" style="width: 317px;"> -<a href="images/ill_068.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_068.jpg" width="317" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>A NARROW STREET, NEAR THE ACADEMY</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span></p> - -<p>‘Translations?’</p> - -<p>‘Of tragedies,’ answered Giustina.</p> - -<p>‘The tragedies of Racine, I suppose?’</p> - -<p>‘I beg your majesty’s pardon, I have translated from the English.’</p> - -<p>The eye-witnesses of this meeting say that when the Emperor received -this answer he turned on his heel and left the high-born lady standing -there.</p> - -<p>The final state of Giustina’s mind was somewhat contradictory, for her -frankly democratic dreams had faded away, yet there remained an -unlimited indulgence for the most contradictory opinions which were -sometimes expressed in her presence, together with the greatest -indignation against those who judged Venice by modern standards, whether -they were Venetians or foreigners. She seemed to make it her duty to -prevent anything from disturbing the ghost of the defunct Republic.</p> - -<p>When Chateaubriand made his first visit to Venice</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1806.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">he had the bad taste to write an article in the <i>Mercure de France</i>, -from which I translate a few extracts:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Trieste</span>, July thirtieth, 1806.—In Venice there had just been -published a new translation of the <i>Génie du Christianisme</i>. This -Venice, unless I am mistaken, would please you as little as it -pleases me. It is a city against nature; one cannot take a step -without being obliged to get into a boat, or else one is driven to -go round by narrow passages more like corridors than streets! The -Square of St. Mark alone is by its general effect worthy of its -reputation. The architecture of Venice, which is almost altogether -Palladio’s, is too capricious and too varied;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span> it is as if two or -three palaces were built one upon the other. And the famous -gondolas, all black, look like boats that carry coffins; I took the -first one I saw for a corpse on the way to burial. The sky is not -our sky beyond the Apennines. Rome and Naples, my dear friend, and -a bit of Florence, there you have all Italy. There is, however, one -remarkable thing in Venice, and that is the number of convents -built on the islands and reefs round the city, just as other -maritime cities are surrounded with forts which defend them; the -effect of these religious monuments seen at night over a calm sea -is picturesque and touching. There are a few pictures left by Paolo -Veronese, Titian....</p></div> - -<p>Giustina was filled with indignation on reading these lines, which were -signed by an author whose sentimentalism had found an echo in her heart. -A lady who admired Foscolo’s <i>Jacopo Ortis</i> would naturally be pleased -with the <i>Génie du Christianisme</i>. The attack on her beloved native city -seemed all the more unkind for that, and she hastened to reply in a long -letter written in French, which she published in Pisa in the <i>Giornale -dei Letterati</i>. She answered Chateaubriand categorically, concluding -with the following words:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>I know that you have promised to return here; come then, but come -in a mood less sad, in a spirit less weary, with feelings less -cold.... I do not flatter myself that you will exclaim with that -Neapolitan poet that Venice was built by the gods, but I hope at -least that you will find here something more interesting than the -convents on the islands and the translation of your works.</p></div> - -<p>Giustina had been in her grave eighteen years when Chateaubriand -returned to Venice, with a spirit indeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span> less weary, and allowed -himself to grow enthusiastic, and wrote a beautiful description of the -city in his <i>Mémoires d’Outre Tombe</i>.</p> - -<p>At one time Napoleon ordered a species of inquiry to be made on the -following and similar questions:—What are the prejudices of the -Venetians? What are their political opinions? What are their dominant -tastes? The well-known and learned writers, Filiasi and Morelli, were -commissioned to answer these inquiries, but they refused on the ground -that such questions admitted no answer. Giustina’s interest and ambition -were roused at once, and during several weeks she worked hard at a book -on moral statistics which has never been published, but which, no doubt, -suggested to her the excellent work she afterwards produced on the -origin of Venetian feasts, a book which I have often quoted in these -pages. She worked at this with enthusiasm, bent on evoking in the minds -of future generations the memory of beautiful and touching ceremonies -long disused when the Republic fell. In that age which loved epithets -and classic parallels, the lady who had been nicknamed in Rome the -little Venetian Venus was now called the Venetian Antigone. Indeed, she -made it her business to defend Venice and Venetian history too. But as -she grew old her enthusiasm got the better of her, and she wrote such -terrible answers to people who made small mistakes that she could not -always get her articles printed. In particular, the tragedian Niccolini -published in 1827 a tragedy upon the story of Antonio Foscarini, in -which he held up<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span> the court that condemned and executed that innocent -man to execration, but by methods not honestly historical. Giustina was -now over seventy years of age, but she wrote such a furious article on -Niccolini’s play that no one dared to publish it.</p> - -<p>She was fond of Englishmen, and called them the Swallows, because they -came back to Venice at regular intervals, and she used to say that -England seemed to her the sister of the ancient Republic of Venice. She -had known the Duke of Gloucester when he was a mere child, and when he -returned to Venice in 1816 his first visit was for her. I translate the -note she wrote in answer to his message announcing his visit:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>A message from H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester, delivered at the -theatre last night, and saying that he wished to honour the Michiel -with his presence, has filled her with lively exaltation. She much -desired to see him again. If H.R.H. had not become the great Prince -he is in virtue of his birth; if he were still that amiable little -boy whom she so often embraced, she would have let him know by this -time that she desired to embrace him affectionately. And indeed she -might have said so now, since the difference of ages is always the -same. Then he was a child and she was young and pretty; now he is -young and charming and she is a little old woman, and also somewhat -deaf. There might therefore still be the purest innocence in the -sweetest embrace. But setting aside this jesting, which is indeed -too familiar, H.R.H. will please to accept in advance the thanks of -Giustina Renier Michiel for the honour which he intends to do her -this evening, and she is impatiently awaiting that desired moment.</p></div> - -<p>Though Giustina had begun life by giving signs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> being emancipated, -she behaved with the greatest devotion to her daughter and her -grandchildren. ‘I have hardly any company but that of children,’ she -wrote to a friend. ‘I think very highly of their patience, since there -is between me and them the same distance of age which exists between -them and me. I find I have nothing in common with them but the taste for -“anguria,” and this is a good argument for the truth of what I say.’</p> - -<p>Her most intimate friend was Isabella Teodochi Albrizzi. This lady was -born in Greece, and was a passionate worshipper of the beautiful; her -taste in all matters seems to have been more delicate than Giustina’s -and her character was much more gay and forgetful. Giustina lived in the -past, Isabella in the present. Everything about Giustina was Venetian, -the mantilla she wore on her head, the furniture she had in her house, -the refreshments she offered her friends; to the very last everything -connected with her belonged to the eighteenth century. With Isabella -Albrizzi nothing, on the contrary, was Venetian, nothing was durable; at -one moment the French taste ordered her furniture, her bibelots, and her -books, and provided her with subjects of conversation; at another, -everything about her was English. ‘When you left the Michiel’s -drawing-room you had learned to love Venice,’ says her biographer; ‘when -you left Madame Albrizzi’s drawing-room you had learned to love Madame -Albrizzi.’</p> - -<p>They died nearly at the same time. Giustina breathed her last at the age -of seventy-seven on April sixth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span> 1832, surrounded by her grandchildren -and her friends. Andrea Maffei wrote that the death of Giustina Michiel -was indeed a public loss. ‘To the excellence of her mind she united in a -high degree the beauty of her character, and I know of no writer who -more dearly loved his country than she.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span>’</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_059" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_069.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_069.jpg" width="500" height="417" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI<br /><br /> -THE LAST CARNIVALS—THE LAST FAIRS THE LAST FEASTS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">No</span> people ever combined business with pleasure so advantageously as the -Venetians, and few governments have understood as well as theirs how to -make use of amusement in managing the people; indeed, the method was so -convenient that at last the Signory preferred it to all others, and took -most pains to promote the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span> public gaiety just when the Republic was on -the verge of dissolution. There is something unnatural</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 213.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">in the contrast between the outward life and the inward death of Venice -in those last years; something that reminds one of the strangest tales -ever told by Hoffmann or Edgar Poe.</p> - -<p>Never dull, even at the last, all Venice went mad with delight at the -feast of the Ascension, when the great fair was held. It will be -remembered that Pope</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1177.</i></div> - -<p>Alexander III., on the occasion of his visit to Venice, issued a brief -granting numerous indulgences to all persons who would pray in the -basilica of Saint Mark between the hour of Vespers on the eve of -Ascension Day and Vespers on the day itself; and the brief concluded by -invoking the malediction of heaven on any one who should oppose this -practice or destroy the document itself.</p> - -<p>With their usual keen eye for business, the Venetians saw at once that -while their souls were profiting by the much-needed indulgence, their -pockets could be conveniently filled without vitiating that state of -grace which is especially necessary during such religious exercises. -Many strangers from the mainland would visit the city on the -anniversary, and by holding out a rational and sufficient inducement -they could be made to come again, in greater numbers, year after year. -Nothing was so sure to attract a rich class of pilgrims as a great -annual fair, and to make their coming absolutely certain it was only -necessary to suspend the duties on imported wares during eight days.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span></p> - -<p>The first Ascension Fair was held in the year 1180, when Orio -Mastropiero was Doge, and it was a vast financial and popular success. -Merchants of all the nations of the earth spread out their merchandise -for sale in booths and tents, and under every sort of improvised -shelter. For more than a week the Square of Saint Mark’s was a vast -bazaar of little shops, following the most irregular and winding lanes, -just wide enough for two persons. Every merchant, foreign or Venetian, -was free to set up his booth as he pleased and where he pleased, and -there were thousands of them, in each of which at least one person had -to sleep at night. The effect of it all must have been vastly -picturesque, as many things were when effect was never thought of.</p> - -<p>The annual fair was held in this same way for about five hundred years, -during which time it did not occur to any of the Signory that the -contrast between the amazing irregularity of the bazaar and the solemn -symmetry of the surrounding architecture was disagreeable.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1678.</i></div> - -<p>Then in the Barocco age came artificial taste and set things to rights, -and the Senate issued a decree ordering that the shops should be set up -in straight lines, and by squares, like Chicago; and it seems to me that -about that time the Ascension Fair turned itself into the first -Universal Industrial Exhibition. From that time there was a commission -established to which all exhibitors were required to send a detailed -list of their merchandise. There were no prizes and no medals, yet I -have no doubt but that the result was much the same, and that certain -houses of mer<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span>chant-manufacturers made their reputations and their -fortunes on the strength of the impression they created at the Venetian -Fair.</p> - -<p>It was destined to be still more like a modern exhibition. In 1776 the -Signory commissioned an architect to put up a vast oval building of -wood, like a double portico, looking both inwards and outwards, and -almost filling the Square of Saint Mark’s. It was very practically -arranged, for to those who sold the more valuable objects shops were -assigned on the inside of the oval, where they were better protected, -and the shops on the outside, facing the porticoes of the Procuratie, -were filled with the more ordinary wares, which would naturally attract -more buyers from the lower classes.</p> - -<p>On this occasion painters and sculptors exhibited their work, and -Canova, who was then but nineteen years old, is said to have shown one -of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, vol. i. 279.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">his earliest groups. But we learn without surprise that the products -offered for sale by Venetians</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Marble Group, Daedalus and Icarus, Accademia, Room XVII.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">were of inferior quality, and that there was a bad contrast between the -showy architectural shops and the poor wares they contained. The end was -at hand, and Venetian manufacture was dead.</p> - -<p>But the people cared not for that, and were as gay and happy over the -Fair as their ancestors had been hundreds of years ago. It mattered -nothing to them; if the wares were poor, the charlatans who cried them -up were wittier than ever. There was one in particular, a certain Doctor -Buonafede Vitali of Parma, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span> employed four celebrated actors, one of -whom was Rubini, famous in Goldoni’s companies; they were dressed in the -four Italian theatrical masks, and by their clever improvisations and -witty sallies they advertised the doctor’s miracles, and amused the -clients that waited to be cured by him.</p> - -<p>There were professional jesters, too, who joked on their own account, -and there was usually somewhere a black African buffoon-contortionist; -and there were long-legged tumblers, called ‘guaghe,’ absurdly dressed -as women, who kept the crowd laughing, and while the people looked on -they chewed the pods of carobs, which were sold off trays with nuts and -other things by the Armenians who moved about in the throng. In the -motley multitude nobles and magistrates</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and foreign ambassadors elbowed each other, and great ladies and light -ladies, all effectually disguised under the ‘tabarro,’ the ‘bauta,’ and -the mask, which were allowed in public during the Fair.</p> - -<p>The Espousal of the Sea was the great ceremony of the week, and the one -which most directly recalled the visit of Alexander III. It was last -performed by the last Doge in 1796, the six-hundred-and-eighteenth time, -I believe, since its institution, and all the ancient ceremonial was -carefully followed.</p> - -<p>On the eve of the Ascension, the Bucentaur was hauled out of the Arsenal -and anchored off the Piazzetta</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Lessico.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">in full view of the delighted population. It was no longer the ‘Busus -aureus,’ built by the Senate in 1311, and towed by a small boat from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span> -Murano, called the ‘peota.’ In four hundred years new ones had been -constructed several times, and the last</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_060" style="width: 413px;"> -<a href="images/ill_070.png"> -<img src="images/ill_070.png" width="413" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CHURCH OF THE MIRACLE</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Bucentaur was built in 1728. It was about one hundred and fifteen feet -over all, with twenty-two feet beam,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span> and was twenty-six feet deep from -upper poop-deck to keel. In length and beam it had therefore about the -dimensions of a fair-sized schooner yacht, but it was vastly higher out -of water, and was flat-bottomed, so as to draw very little. The -consequence was that even in smooth water it might have been laid over -by a squall, and it was never used except in absolutely fine weather. It -was rowed by one hundred and seventy-eight free artisans from the -Arsenal, who swung forty-two oars, each of which, however, according to -the model now preserved, consisted of three, linked and swung together -in one rowlock. The rowers occupied what we should call the main deck, -and the upper deck was fitted up</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, Origini, i. 197.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">as one long cabin or saloon, taking the whole length of the vessel, but -rising by a step at the after end, and having a small window at the -stern from which the Doge threw out the ring in the course of the -ceremony. His throne was further raised by two steps. Over the cabin -were spread enormous draperies of crimson velvet, ornamented with gold -fringe, gold lace, and gold tassels. In the stern, within the cabin, was -figured a marine Victory with appropriate trophies, and two carved -babies, of the rotund and well-creased breed dear to the eighteenth -century, supported a huge shell as a canopy over the throne. The fair -Giustina Michiel’s description of the decorations makes one’s blood run -cold. Prudence and Strength stood sentinels at the Doge’s elbows. In the -ceiling of the saloon Apollo smiled upon the nine Muses, pleased to -consider the Bucentaur as his temple; the Virtues were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span> inappropriately -present, too, and with more reason the Arts, or Occupations, of -Shipbuilding, Fishing, Hunting, and the like. The saloon had no less -than forty-eight windows, from which the numerous party of ambassadors, -magistrates, and distinguished strangers who accompanied the Doge could -see all that went on. Lastly, the vessel’s figurehead was a colossal -wooden statue of Justice, ‘protecting goddess of every well-regulated -government,’ says the lady Giustina, and therefore as inappropriate -there as the Virtues themselves.</p> - -<p>At the hour of tierce, which was somewhere near eight o’clock in the -morning at Ascension, all the bells began to ring, except, I think, that -solemn one that tolled while condemned men were being led to death; and -excepting, too, that one of lighter tone, the ‘Bankrupt’s Bell,’ which -was rung every day for half an hour about noon, during which time -debtors might walk abroad and sun themselves without being arrested.</p> - -<p>Then the Doge came from his palace preceded by his squires, and the -silver trumpets, and the standards, and the bearer of the ducal sword, -and the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Carrer, Annali.</i></div> - -<p>Missier Grande, who was nothing more nor less than the head constable of -Venice; and after his Serenity came the High Chancellor, the Pope’s -Nuncio, the ambassadors, and the principal magistrates. When all were on -board the Bucentaur, a salute of artillery gave the signal of departure, -and the huge oars began to swing and dip; and after the big barge came -the smaller one of the ‘Doge’ of the fishermen, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span> Niccolotti, the -little ‘peota’ of the Murano glass-blowers, and the barges and boats of -the Signory, and all the gondolas of Venice, richly draped for that one -day. So all moved slowly out; and when they passed the statue of the -Virgin before the Arsenal all the people sang, and sent up prayers and -invocations with suppliant gestures ‘to the Great Mother of Victories,’ -and the sailors cheered and yelled. Then they went on to Saint Helen’s -island.</p> - -<p>There the Patriarch was waiting with his flat boat, and the monks of -Saint Helen served him a collation of chestnuts and red wine, which, at -eight or nine o’clock in the morning, was cruelly ungastronomic; and the -Patriarch gave his sailors bread and fresh broad beans in the shell.</p> - -<p>The Patriarch sent acolytes to the Doge with a nosegay of Damascus -roses; and his flat boat having been taken in tow by the Bucentaur, and -another boat in which a choir sang the hymns composed for the occasion, -they all moved out towards the open sea.</p> - -<p>Then, in profound silence, the Doge opened the little stern window -behind his throne, and the Patriarch,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Horatio Brown, Venice.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">who had come on board, poured holy water into the sea and prayed, -saying, ‘Lord, vouchsafe calm and quiet weather to all them that journey -by sea’; after which prayer the Patriarch handed the ring to the Doge, -who dropped</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Carrer, Annali.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">it into the sea just where the holy water had been poured, saying, ‘We -espouse thee, O Sea, in token of perpetual sovereignty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span>’</p> - -<p>The guns of the fortresses thundered out a salute, and all the thousands -of spectators cheered for Saint Mark, and all the young men waved flags; -then the whole company began to throw flowers, freshly cut, from boat to -boat, and the Patriarch presented great silver dishes full of flowers to -the Doge; and all went ashore at San Nicola on the Lido to hear the -pontifical high mass, after which every man went home to his own house.</p> - -<p>That was the ceremony at which the Venetians assisted in 1796, little -guessing that they saw it for the last time. A few months later a vandal -mob</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 305; Mutinelli, Lessico and Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">beached the Bucentaur on the island of San Giorgio Maggiore, and -stripped it of all its ornaments, to burn them and get the gold. The -hull was then armed with four heavy old guns, and was turned into a sort -of floating battery and sailors’ prison at the entrance of the harbour. -On her stern was painted her new name ‘Idra,’ the Hydra, and there she -rotted for years. A few fragments of the old vessel are now preserved in -the Arsenal. More than two hundred men worked at reducing the Bucentaur -and the two big carved boats of the Signory to the democratic standard -of beauty.</p> - -<p>The last pilot of the Bucentaur was Andrea Chiribini, who, like all his -predecessors, called himself ‘admiral,’ and was a ruffian not worth the -rope with</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.; Bembo, Ben. 265.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">which he should have been hanged when he was young. He was one of the -worst types in the Venetian revolution; and after living all his life on -the bounty of the Signory, he was the first to help in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> breaking up the -Bucentaur, and in sacking the Arsenal. In order to reward him for these -noble acts of patriotism, and in the absence of appropriate funds, he -was given a magnificent carved jewel of oriental chalcedony from the -treasure of Saint Mark. The talisman did not bring the fellow luck. -After wandering about for nearly thirty years, living more or less -dishonestly by his wits,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_061" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_071.png"> -<img src="images/ill_071.png" width="500" height="305" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE PROCESSION OF THE REDENTORE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">he presented himself one day in 1826 at one of the asylums for the poor, -where he spent a day; but when towards evening he was requested to put -on the dress of the establishment, he flew into such a terrible rage -that he had fever all night, and had to be watched. On the following -morning he shook the dust from his feet and departed, declaring that a -gentleman like himself could not live among such brigands. During two -years the workmen of the Arsenal subscribed to give him a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span> pittance; at -the end of that time, feeling that his days were numbered, he consented -to enter the little hospice of Saint Ursula, which a pious person of the -fourteenth century had founded for the perpetual support of three poor -old men.</p> - -<p>It is said that the last Carnival of Venice was the gayest in all her -history, and fully realised the condition of things described by Goldoni -some years earlier in his comedy <i>La Mascherata</i>. I translate the -couplet into prose:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Here the wife and there the husband,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Each one does as best he likes;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Each one hastens to some party,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Some to gamble, some to dance.<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Provided every one in Carnival<br /></span> -<span class="i0">May do exactly as he chooses,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">It would not seem a serious matter<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Even to go raving mad.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>A good many different traditional and legendary feasts amused the -Venetians in old times, but the only one that has survived to our own -day is</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, iii. 389.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Festa del Redentore, the feast of the Redeemer, which was instituted -as a thanksgiving after the cessation of the plague in 1576, and is kept -even now both as a civil and religious holiday. The serenades, -illuminations, and feasts in the island of the Giudecca certainly -delight the Venetian populace of to-day as much as in the times when the -old flag of Saint Mark floated over everything, and the little movable -kitchens on wheels were adorned with the symbols of the Evan<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span>gelist -prettily outlined with flowers on a ground of green leaves.</p> - -<p>The central point of all amusement in Carnival was the theatre, for the -Venetians always had a passion for spectacles, and, at a time when the -worst possible taste debased the stage throughout Italy, the reform -which has since raised the Italian theatre so high began in Venice with -Goldoni’s comedies. Properly speaking, there was no dramatic art in -Italy before him. As I have explained in speaking of the sixteenth -century, the Hose Club founded the first theatre, but most of the -performances were what we still call mummeries, in which more or less -symbolic personages said anything witty or profound that occurred to -them, or talked nonsense in the absence of inspiration. Pantaloon was -the national mask of Venice, and was always supposed to be a doctor who -became involved in the most astonishing adventures. Valaresso, a man of -taste in those days, produced a play that ended with a battle supposed -to be fought behind the scenes. In his satire the poet makes the -prompter appear upon the stage carrying a little lamp. ‘Ladies and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Aureli, Vita del Pergolesi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">gentlemen,’ he says, ‘I see that you are expecting some one to bring you -news of the battle; but it is of no use to wait, for every one is dead.’ -Thereupon he blows out his lamp, and goes off to bed.</p> - -<p>In his memoirs Goldoni explains the rules then followed by dramatic -authors. He had occasion to</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, i. xxviii.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">learn them himself when he read his first piece, <i>Amalasunta</i>, to Count -Prata, director of one of the large theatres in Milan.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>‘It seems to me,’ said the Count, ‘that you have studied tolerably -well the <i>Poetics</i> of Aristotle and the <i>Ars Poetica</i> of Horace, -and that you have written your composition according to the true -principles of tragedy. Then you did not know that a musical drama -is an imperfect work, subject to rules and traditions which have no -common sense, it is true, but which must be followed to the very -letter. If you had been in France you might have thought more of -pleasing the public, but here you must please actors and actresses, -you must satisfy the composer of the music, you must consult the -scene-painter; everything has its rules, and it would be a crime of -<i>lèse majesté</i> against the art of playwriting to dare to break them -or not to submit to them. Listen to me,’ he continued, ‘I am going -to point out to you some rules which are unchangeable, and which -you do not know. Each of the three principal characters in the -drama must sing five airs—two in the first act, two in the second -act, and one in the third. The second actress and the second “man” -soprano can only have three, and the third parts must be satisfied -with one, or two at the most. The author of the words must provide -the musician with the different shades which form the chiaroscuro -of the music, taking good care that two pathetic airs shall not -follow each other. It is also necessary to separate with the same -care showy airs, airs of action, of undefined character, minuets, -and rondeaux. One must be especially careful to give no airs of -affection or movement nor showy airs nor rondeaux to the second -parts. These poor people must be contented with what is assigned to -them, for they are not allowed to make a good figure.’</p></div> - -<p>Count Prata would have said more, but Goldoni stopped him, for he had -heard quite enough. He went home in that state of mind which some young -authors have known, and obtained a sort of morbid satisfaction from -burning his manuscript.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>‘As I was poking the pieces of my manuscript together to complete -the burning,’ he says, ‘it occurred to me that in no case had any -disappointment made me sacrifice my supper. I called the waiter, -and told him to lay the cloth and bring me something to eat at -once.... I ate well, drank better, went to bed and slept with the -most perfect tranquillity.’</p></div> - -<p>Goldoni was of the strong, to whom is the race.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Portrait of Goldoni, P. Longhi; Museo Civico, Room IX.</i></div> - -<p>From the ashes of his Amalasunta rose comedies that reformed the Italian -stage.</p> - -<p>The composers were not much better off than the playwrights.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>‘The modern master,’ says Marcello, ‘must make his manager give him -a large orchestra of violins, hautboys, horns,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Teatro alla moda, Benedetto Marcello, quoted by -Molmenti in Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and so forth, saving him rather the expense of the double basses, -as he need not use these except for giving the chords at the -beginning. The Symphony is to consist of a French time, or -<i>prestissimo</i> of semiquavers in major, which as usual must be -succeeded by a <i>piano</i> of the same key in minor, closing finally in -a minuet, gavotte, or jig, again in the major, thus avoiding -fugues, <i>legature</i>, themes, etc., etc., as old things outside of -the modern fashion. He will endeavour to give the best airs to the -prima donna, and if he has to shorten the opera he will not allow -the suppression of airs or roundels.’</p></div> - -<p>The same master observes wittily that the authors of the words to -accompany this sort of music generally excused themselves from reading -the works of older writers, on the ground that the latter had not been -able to read their successors, but had, nevertheless, done<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> very well. -When the playwright or musician had succeeded in pleasing the actors, -the actresses, the manager, the scene-painter, and all the rest of the -company, he still had to please the Council of Ten, not to mention the -Inquisitors of State and the Inquisitors of the Holy Office, for they -all had something to say in the censorship of the theatre.</p> - -<p>The infamous Jacopo Casanova, who amongst a number of ignoble -occupations acted as a confidant or spy to the Council of Ten, called -attention</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 300.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">in 1776 to a piece called <i>Coriolanus</i>, which was being given in the -theatre of San Benedetto. It appears to have been a sort of pantomime, -which presented on the stage a starving population, a cruel nobility, -the unjust condemnation of Coriolanus, the tears of Virgilia and -Volumnia, everything, in short, which, according to the scrupulous -Casanova, could pervert the Venetian people; and the Inquisitors -accordingly suppressed the piece.</p> - -<p>Sometimes these gentlemen shut up the provincial theatres altogether for -a time with a view to stopping the advance of modern ideas. Here is an -edict relating to these measures of prudence, signed by the Doge one -year before the fall of the Republic. The first paragraph is in Latin, -the rest is in Italian.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Ludovicus Manin, by the grace of God Doge of Venice,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to the noble and wise man, Federicus Bembo, by his commission -Podestà and Captain of Mestre, Fid. Dil. Sal. et Dil. Aff. [<i>Fideli -dilecto salutem et dilectionis affectum.</i>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span></p> - -<p>Seeing that the Austrian troops now coming down from Friuli are -about to enter the Trevisan province, to which some of the French -troops may also move, and it being according to the zealous -forethought of the government to remove all inducements which give -individuals of the troops the desire to come still nearer to these -lagoons, the Council of Ten, considering that one inducement might -be the reopening of the theatre, orders you to put it off as long -as may seem best to the prudence of the Heads of the said Council.</p> - -<p>Given in our Ducal Palace on the twenty-seventh of September in the -fifteenth year of the Indiction, 1796. [I find that the year of the -Indiction does not correspond with the date.]</p></div> - -<p>There was another magistracy which also had to do with the theatres. The -‘Provveditori di Commun’</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Lessico, ‘Teatro.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">fixed the price of the libretto of the play. It was Council of Ten, -however, that named the hour at which the performance was to begin and -end.</p> - -<p>The lighting of the theatres was wretched and the boxes were completely -dark, which appears to have</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">given the ladies a considerable sense of security, for I find that in -1756 the noble dame Pisani Grimani, who owned the theatre of San -Benedetto, was forbidden by the Inquisitors of State to stand at the -door of her box in a costume which might ‘produce grave disorder.’</p> - -<p>In 1776 the government made an effort to limit such extreme views of -comfort in warm weather, and an edict was issued commanding ladies to -wear modest dresses, with domino and hood, at the theatre. The noble -ladies Maria Bon Toderini and Elisabetta Labia<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span> Priuli were put under -arrest in their own houses in the following year for having, in their -boxes, thrown back their hoods and allowed them to slip down upon their -shoulders.</p> - -<p>The musicians’ desks were lighted with candles of Spanish wax, from -Segovia in Castile. The stage was illuminated by lamps fed with olive -oil. In the dim house there seems to have been a good deal of rough -play, and the patricians in the boxes occasionally threw -‘projectiles’—possibly hard sweet-meats are meant—at the people in the -pit. The lights were put out as soon as the curtain fell on the last -act, and the spectators groped their way out in the dark as they could, -helped by the big brass lanterns which the gondoliers brought to the -door when they came to wait for their masters.</p> - -<p>Plays were not advertised at all. A small bill giving the name of the -play and the names of the authors was pasted up in the Piazzetta, and -another was to be seen at the Rialto, but that was all. It was the -business of the State to provide foreign ambassadors and ministers with -boxes, and a vast deal of care was bestowed on this matter, which was -full of difficulties; for the boxes were generally the property of -private families that did not at all like to give them up. But the -government always reserved the right to take any boxes it chose for the -use of the Diplomatic Corps. In Venice, the smallest affairs were always -conducted according to a prescribed method, and there was a regular rule -by which the boxes were distributed. The document has been found by -Signor Molmenti in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span> Archives of the Inquisitors of State, docketed -and labelled: ‘Theatres. Foreign Ambassadors. Boxes.’ Here it is:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The Ambassadors present themselves with a formal request -(memoriale) to the Most Excellent Council. By the latter, through a -Secretary of the Senate, His Serenity is requested to draw the lots -for the boxes of each. He puts into the ballotbox the numbers of -all the boxes on that row which corresponds to the rank of the -Minister who applies, and he draws one number. The proscenium boxes -are excepted, and the balcony, the boxes occupied by other -Ministers, and the one that belonged to the Minister who last went -away. Afterwards, by the method explained hereinafter, notice (of -the number drawn) is sent to the Minister, the owner (of the box), -and the Council.</p> - -<p>When the Minister does not like the box drawn for him, he lays -before the Council his request that it may be changed, and by the -same method His Serenity is requested to draw again. In that case -he only puts in the numbers of the boxes opposite which are free, -he draws again and sends the notices to that effect, informing the -owner of the second box that he may use the one first drawn.</p></div> - -<p>When the box was at last drawn and had been accepted by the Minister, -the owner of it received a notice in the following form:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>This day ... (date). By order of the Most Excellent Savi -(literally, ‘Wise Men’) notice is given to Your Excellency the -Noble Sir, etc., etc.... (or Noble Dame, or Your Illustrious -Worship, or other proper title), that His Serenity has drawn Box -No.... Row ... in the ... theatre belonging to Your Excellency (or -other title) for His Excellency the Ambassador (or Minister) of -..., and this notice is sent you for your guidance.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span></p> - -<p>The feelings of the box-owner, dispossessed by this formal nonsense, may -be guessed, for the indemnity paid by the ambassadors was very small.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Lessico.</i></div> - -<p>It seems that even the Council anticipated that he would use bad -language, for the underling who took him the notice was a -Comandator-Portier, and was made to wear a red cap with the arms of the -Republic as a badge ‘to protect him against abuse’!</p> - -<p>In 1791, when a company formed of nobles undertook to build the Fenice -Theatre, using part of the ruins of the old theatre of San Benedetto, -they presented to the Doge a memorandum concerning the boxes for the -Diplomatic Corps, of which I give an extract for the sake of its -monumental absurdity, translating the terms quite literally:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>The reverend Company of the New Theatre is disposed to meet the -public commands with submissive obedience, and will therefore at -all times venerate whatsoever Your Serenity may be pleased to -prescribe....</p> - -<p>In order to continue the building begun, it is necessary to sell -the new boxes which have been added to those which formed the last -theatre, and the greatest profit that may be hoped for lies in -those situated in the first and second rows; but, as those places -are subject to the dispositions above alluded to, which take from -the owners the use of their own boxes, without fixing the measure -of the corresponding indemnity, the sale of those boxes would be -rendered impossible in the present state of things, to the -incalculable damage of the sinking company, which would thus see -removed the hope of soon finishing the building begun, or else -would be put to new and enormous expense which would cause to -vanish those expecta<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span>tions of profit which the Sovereign Clemency -of the Most Excellent Council of Ten had benignly permitted the -Company to entertain.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_062" style="width: 416px;"> -<a href="images/ill_072.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_072.jpg" width="416" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>NEAR THE FENICE</p></div> -</div> - -<p>The memorandum ends with the rather startling statement that the -pretensions of the ambassadors, if<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span> admitted, would cause the Company to -lose eleven thousand ducats.</p> - -<p>The Doge, who afterwards showed small alacrity to act when the country -was in mortal danger, was apparently much moved on receiving the -Company’s petition, and forthwith summoned the Senate to consider the -weighty matter; it is true that if he had done anything for the -petitioners without appealing to that body, he would have been naturally -suspected of being a shareholder.</p> - -<p>The Senate decided that, without making any change in the method of -drawing boxes, and without prejudice to the existing system in any other -theatre, ambassadors should pay owners one hundred and sixty’ ducats for -boxes in the first row, and that ministers should pay eighty ducats for -those in the second; whereby, said the Senate, which still preserved -traditions of business, the owners of the said boxes would be getting -four per cent on the money they had invested.</p> - -<p>The construction of the famous Fenice lasted twenty months, and the new -theatre opened with an opera by Paisiello on a libretto by Alessandro -Pepoli.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_063" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_073.png"> -<img src="images/ill_073.png" width="500" height="415" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>GRAND CANAL FROM THE FISH MARKET</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII<br /><br /> -THE LAST MAGISTRATES</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> philosophical reader will naturally ask what elements composed the -Great Council of the Venetian Republic at a time when France was on the -brink of the Revolution, and all Europe was about to be shaken by the -explosion of the first new idea that had dawned on mankind since -Christianity. I shall try to answer the question.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_064" style="width: 361px;"> -<a href="images/ill_074.png"> -<img src="images/ill_074.png" width="361" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>S. BARNABÒ</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span></p> - -<p>There were three classes of men in the Council: first, the ancient -aristo-plutocracy which, though with a few</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 7.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">additions to its numbers, and though itself divided into two parties, -had on the whole steered the Republic through eleven hundred years of -history; secondly, a number of families, mostly of ‘new men,’ though -they had sat in the Council four hundred years and more, but who had all -been more or less occupied with the legal profession since they had -existed; thirdly and lastly, the poor nobles called the ‘Barnabotti,’ -from the quarter of San Barnabò, where most of them were lodged at the -public expense.</p> - -<p>The first category generally held the posts of highest dignity, many of -which implied a salary by no means small, but never sufficient to pay -for the display which the position required, according to accepted -customs. The traditional splendour which the Venetian ambassadors of the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had inaugurated was dear to the -Senate, and had come to be officially required, if not actually -prescribed in so many words. These great families had long been -accustomed to play the leading parts, and as the business spirit which -had made Venice the richest power in Europe died out, their pride was -often greater than their sense of responsibility. These and many other -causes lowered the standard according to which young Venetians had been -brought up during centuries to understand the administration of their -country; and the result was that they were not fit to fill the offices -to which they were called, and therefore handed over their work to -private<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span> secretaries, who were generally ambitious and intriguing men. -To be a member of the Great Council had now only a social value, like -those hereditary coats of arms in which there had once been such deep -meaning. Throughout ages the aristocracy of Venice had differed -altogether from the nobility of other countries, but as decadence -advanced to decay, and decay threatened destruction, the Venetian -senator grew more and more like the French marquis of the same period.</p> - -<p>In an access of greatness Louis XIV. is reported to have said, ‘L’état -c’est moi!’ but the State continued to exist without him. The Venetian -nobles might have said with much more truth, and perhaps with more -reasonable pride, ‘We nobles are the Republic!’ For when they -degenerated into dolls, the Republic soon ceased to exist.</p> - -<p>The second category of nobles comprised by far the sanest and most -intelligent part of the aristocracy, and it was generally from their -ranks that the Quarantie were chosen, as well as the ‘Savi,’ and those -magistrates from whom special industry and intelligence were required, -or at least hoped.</p> - -<p>The Barnabotti had nothing in common with the two other classes, except -their vanity of caste, which was so infinitely far removed from pride. -As I have said, they owed their name to the parish</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 308.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">which most of them inhabited. Their nobility was more or less recent and -doubtful, and almost all had ruined themselves in trying to rival the -richer families. The majority of them had nothing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span> but a small pension, -paid them by the government, and barely sufficient to lift them out of -actual misery. It was especially for them</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Horatio Brown, Venice, 109; Rom. ix. 7.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">that the College of Nobles had been founded, in which their sons were -educated for nothing, with all the usual imperfections of gratuitous -education. Like the ‘New Men’ of the fourteenth century, they felt that -an insurmountable barrier separated them from the older and richer -classes, and the humiliations to which they were often exposed by the -latter kept alive in them the sort of hatred which was felt in other -parts of Europe by the agricultural population for the owners of the -land. Their poverty and rancorous disposition made them especially the -objects of bribery when any party in the Great Council needed the -assistance of their votes against another.</p> - -<p>The better sort of Venetians were well aware of the evils that were -destroying the governing body. In 1774 a member of the Council made a -speech on the subject, in which he said that the greatest damage the -Republic had suffered had been caused by the action of time; it lay in -the already very sensible diminution in the numbers of the Great -Council, which was, in fact, the government itself. He pointed out that -within one century a large number of patrician families had become</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Cecchetti, quoting Arch. Ven. iii. 435.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">extinct, and that the condition of the aristocracy must clearly continue -to go from bad to worse. It could not be otherwise, since marriages were -yearly becoming less numerous. A family was looked upon as a calamity, -because<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span> it meant a division of fortune, and therefore interfered with -those ancient traditions of almost royal</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_065" style="width: 409px;"> -<a href="images/ill_075.png"> -<img src="images/ill_075.png" width="409" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>INSTITUTO BON, GRAND CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">magnificence which appealed to the vanity of younger men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span></p> - -<p>The speech to which I have alluded was delivered not very many years -after the time when a number of seats in the Grand Council had been sold -in order to meet the expenses of the Turkish war. In 1775, in order to -increase the numbers of the Council, it was proposed to admit to it -forty noble families from the provinces, provided they could prove that -they had a yearly income of ten thousand ducats. The proposal was -energetically opposed by a Contarini. If the sons of ancient families -showed so little zeal for the public welfare, he argued, what could be -expected of strangers? Was it wise to display to all Europe the evils -from which the Republic was suffering? Moreover, even if the bill were -passed, would it be easy to find forty families willing to leave their -homes and establish themselves in the capital to the great damage of -their fortunes? And if they were found, would their admission not result -in impoverishing the provinces by the amount of their incomes which -would be spent in Venice? It was luxury and extravagance that were -ruining the country, he said.</p> - -<p>A lively discussion followed. ‘Beloved sons,’ cried one old noble, ‘for -us who are old there may be a little of the Republic left, but for you -children it is completely finished!’ The bill passed, but Contarini had -been right; only about ten families asked to be inscribed in the Golden -Book.</p> - -<p>Satirists and lampooners made merry with the proceedings of the Great -Council. After the stormy sittings just referred to, the caricatures of -the five<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span> patricians entrusted with framing measures of reform were to -be seen everywhere in the city, and a copy of the cut is still in the -Archives. It</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 211.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">represents the most eloquent and zealous of the committee, Alvise Emo, -urging his horse against an enormous marble column; two of his -colleagues follow him in a post-chaise and observe his movements with a -spy-glass; a fourth, who is lame, is trying to follow the carriage on -foot, and the fifth comes after him, beating him to make him mend his -pace.</p> - -<p>On the twenty-second of May 1779 the secretary of the Inquisitors of -State wrote to his brother Giuseppe Gradenigo, then in France: ‘If these -gentlemen do not seriously think of taking measures to meet the events -which are brewing, if they do not introduce some order into the affairs -of the army and navy, the Republic will be lost as soon as an enemy -appears on land or by sea.’</p> - -<p>This letter was prophetic. The idleness and indolence of the nobility -were such that it was hard to obtain an attendance at meetings of the -Great Council or the Senate. The members were accustomed to spend their -nights in gambling-dens and cafés, and it was a hard matter for them to -get up in the morning. Their physicians recommended rest, which they -indeed needed; and as they could not take any at night, they devoted a -large part of the day to following the doctor’s advice. Yet as it was -necessary that the government should go on in some way, it became -habitual to leave everything to the Savi of the Council, who on their -part fell<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span> into the habit of not always rendering an account of what -they did. By obligingly saving their colleagues the trouble of getting -out of bed, they made themselves the arbiters of the Republic’s final -destiny.</p> - -<p>With regard to the other magistracies, a few anecdotes will give a good -idea of what they had become. My readers know that the Avogadori enjoyed -very great consideration, and that it was their business to see that all -the tribunals did their work smoothly and regularly. One of these -important officers, Angelo Quirini, who was at the same time one of the -most distinguished members of the Senate, exhibited his power and -courage by banishing from Venice a little milliner who had made a -mistake in trimming certain caps for a great lady in whom he was -interested. From her exile the woman wrote a protest to the Inquisitors -of State, who did her justice and recalled her. Quirini now lost his -temper with these gentlemen and swore that they were encroaching upon -his rights, just at this time a</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 104.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">rich member of the parish of San Vitale departed this life, and the -sacristans prepared to bury his body; but the deceased belonged to a -confraternity called La Scuola Grande della Carità, and his brethren -claimed the right of burying him to the exclusion of the parish -sacristans. The Inquisitors of State and the Council of Ten took the -matter up; the Provveditori alla Sanità, who were the health officers, -declared that the matter concerned them only; the elders and judges of -the guilds and corporations took part in the discussion, and a general -quarrel ensued, which was only<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span> brought to a close by the authority of -the Council of Ten. But this did not please Angelo Quirini, who -violently attacked the Council and began to give himself the airs of a -popular tribune, though not possessing the popularity which is essential -for the position. The people, in fact, would have none of him. One night -the Council of Ten caused him to be quietly taken from his palace and -carried off under a good escort to the fortress of Verona. The matter -now had to be brought before the Great Council, and a regular trial was -held to ascertain how the Council of Ten and the Inquisitors were in the -habit of performing their duties.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 108.</i></div> - -<p>During several days the Corregitori received all the complaints that -were handed in, and examined the archives of the two tribunals. Those of -the Ten were found to be in perfect order, but those of the Inquisitors -were in the utmost confusion.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 114.</i></div> - -<p>The whole city discussed the affair excitedly, and nothing else was -spoken of in the streets, in the cafés, and in drawing-rooms. It was the -first time in history that the tribunal of the Inquisitors of State had -been put under an inquiry, and this tremendous result had been produced -because a little milliner had made a cap that did not fit.</p> - -<p>Endless discussions followed. A number of patricians declared that if -the Council of Ten and the Inquisitors of State were abolished, they -themselves would not stay another day in Venice, as there would no -longer be any check on the violence and the intrigues of men of their -own class: a confession which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span> suddenly exhibits the whole aristocracy -in its true light.</p> - -<p>Others proved beyond all question that a tribunal which was particularly -charged with the preservation of the State from danger could not always</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1762.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">do its work with the miserable tardiness of the other magistracies, and -they recalled the many cases in which the Ten had saved Venice.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 136-137.</i></div> - -<p>One of the debates was prolonged for five consecutive hours. At last the -Conservative party carried the day.</p> - -<p>The wild enthusiasm of the population, on learning that the Ten and the -Inquisitors were to remain in existence, shows well enough what the -people thought; their only protection against the nobles lay in the two -tribunals. Six thousand persons waited in the Square of Saint Mark’s to -learn the result of the contest, and when it was known proceeded to burn -fireworks before the palaces of the nobles who had been the chief -speakers in defence of the Ten—Foscarini, Marcello, and Grimani. The -populace then declared that it would set fire to the houses of the -nobles who had tried to do away with the only institution they still -feared, and the palaces of the Zen and the Renier were only saved from -fire and pillage by the energetic intervention of the Inquisitors of -State, whose office those aristocrats had attempted to abolish.</p> - -<p>I know of no more convincing answer to the numerous dilettante -historians who have accused the Council of Ten of oppressing the -people.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span></p> - -<p>If the Council and the Inquisitors were in need of an excuse for -occasionally overstepping their powers in order to act quickly, they had -a good one in the absurdly cumbrous system of the magistracies, as they -existed in the eighteenth century. As a curiosity,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 399.</i></div> - -<p>I give a list or the principal magistracies, taken by Romanin from an -almanack of 1796, the last year of the Republic:—</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td>The Doge’s Counsellors</td><td class="rt">6</td></tr> -<tr><td>Savi of the Council</td><td class="rt">16</td></tr> -<tr><td>Procurators of Saint Mark</td><td class="rt">9</td></tr> -<tr><td>‘Criminal’ Quarantia</td><td class="rt">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>‘Old’ Civil Quarantia</td><td class="rt">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>‘New’ Civil Quarantia</td><td class="rt">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>Colleges of the XXV. and the XV.</td><td class="rt">40</td></tr> -<tr><td>Senate</td><td class="rt">60</td></tr> -<tr><td>‘Zonta,’ supplementary to Senate</td><td class="rt">60</td></tr> -<tr><td>Council of Ten</td><td class="rt">10</td></tr> -<tr><td>Inquisitors (of Ten)</td><td class="rt">3</td></tr> -<tr><td>Avogadori of the Commonwealth</td><td class="rt">3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Total</td><td class="undl">327</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="nind">besides the whole of the Great Council, which consisted of all nobles -over twenty-five years of age, and of the younger men chosen by lot to -sit without a vote.</p> - -<p>And these are only the principal magistracies. The secondary ones -comprised over five hundred officials, divided between something like -one hundred and thirty offices, such as Provveditors, or inspectors of -some forty different matters, from artillery to butchers’ shops, from -‘Ancient and Modern Justice’ to oats: Savi,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span> Inquisitors of all matters -except religion, Auditors, Executors, Correctors, Reformers, Deputies, -and Syndics; a perfect ant-hill of officials who were perpetually in one -another’s way.</p> - -<p>Here is an instance of the manner in which ordinary justice was -administered, even by the Council of Ten.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_066" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_076.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_076.jpg" width="500" height="412" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>WHEN THE ALPS SHOW THEMSELVES, FONDAMENTA NUOVE</p></div> -</div> - -<p>On the sixth of March 1776 a patrician called Semitecolo, who was a -member of one of the Quarantie, and therefore a magistrate, was walking -in the Fondamenta Nuove when he saw a big butcher named Milani -unmercifully beating a wretched peddler of old books. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span>He stopped and -expostulated; the butcher took his interference ill, and delivered a -blow with his fist which caused the blood to gush abundantly from the -magistrate’s nose. Semitecolo was taken into a neighbouring house, and -the butcher walked off.</p> - -<p>Still covered with blood, Semitecolo hastened to lay the matter before -the Council of Ten, demanding the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_067" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_077.png"> -<img src="images/ill_077.png" width="500" height="387" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CAFÉ ON THE ZATTERE</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">arrest of Milani. But Pier Barbarigo, who was one of the Capi for the -week, while sympathising deeply, excused himself from arresting the -culprit, on the ground that a detailed account of the affair signed by -witnesses must be laid before the Council; and, moreover, the Council -was busy just then, he said, owing to the arrival of the Pope’s Nuncio, -and there would be no<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span> meeting on the next day. Semitecolo could not -even get an order to have the butcher watched by the police, and the -culprit had full time and liberty to leave Venice before anything was -done. Note that he himself did not expect impunity, but only a very long -delay before his arrest was ordered.</p> - -<p>The public followed the affair and was indignant, and freely criticised -the Ten in public places; whereupon the Inquisitors ordered all the -cafés to be closed two hours after dark. This was especially galling to -the Venetians, who were fond of sitting up late, and loved the bright -lights of the cafés.</p> - -<p>One morning a notice appeared on the walls, drawn up in the following -terms:—</p> - -<p>‘The Guild of the Night-Thieves wishes to thank his Excellency the -“Capo” Barbarigo for having provided them with much more sufficient and -convenient</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 399.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">means of earning their bread during the present hard times.’</p> - -<p>The Inquisitors’ ordinance was soon modified so as to allow the cafés to -remain open till midnight.</p> - -<p>As for the minor courts, Goldoni, who was brought up to be a lawyer, -says that there were nearly as many different ones as there were -different kinds of suits possible. They paralysed each other, and could -not have worked well even if they had been honest.</p> - -<p>But they were not. An Avogador acquitted a man accused of theft. The -Signors of the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 143.</i></div> - -<p>Night—the chiefs of police—who had committed the accused for trial -believed him guilty and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span> determined to examine the papers relating to -the trial.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_068" style="width: 377px;"> -<a href="images/ill_078.png"> -<img src="images/ill_078.png" width="377" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE DOGANA</p></div> -</div> - -<p>With this intention they made a search in the house of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span> the Avogador and -confiscated the private accounts in which he set down the profit and -loss of his judicial industry; for he was a very careful man. Surely -enough, the Signors found an entry of one hundred and fifty sequins -(£112. 10s.) received for acquitting the thief.</p> - -<p>About the same time there was a very beautiful dancer called the Cellini -at the theatre of San Cassian.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 144.</i></div> - -<p>A magistrate who exercised the righteous functions of an ‘Executor -against Blasphemy’ became anxious to get into her good graces, but as -she would have nothing to do with him, he brought an accusation against -her in his own court, tried her, and condemned her to a severe penalty. -But she appealed to the Council of Ten, proved her innocence, and was -acquitted. Thereupon the Venetians began to swear ‘by the holy Virgin -Cellini.’</p> - -<p>With such a state of things in Venice, it was only to be expected that -the condition of justice in the provinces should be still worse. When</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mut. Ult.</i></div> - -<p>Goldoni was Secretary to the Chancery of Feltre, in the Venetian -territory, there was a huge scandal about a whole forest cut down and -sold without any order or authority from the government. An inquiry was -attempted and begun; it was found that more than two hundred persons -were implicated, and as it soon became apparent that the same thing had -been done before them, within the century, it was judged better to draw -a veil over the whole affair.</p> - -<p>This naturally encouraged others. In 1782 the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span> Provveditor Michiel -informed the Senate that the Podestà of the city of Usmago had calmly -pocketed the price of an oak forest, which he had asked leave to cut -down on pretence of using the funds for repairing his official -residence.</p> - -<p>Finally, a number of posts, especially in the ducal household, were -openly sold; in the last years of the Republic even the office of a -procurator of Saint Mark could be bought.</p> - -<p>In close connection with the magistracies and the legal profession -generally, I give the following amusing extract from Goldoni’s memoirs.</p> - -<p>He begins by telling us that although he had been entered at a lawyer’s -office for two years, he left it fitted for the profession in eight -months,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, i. 23.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">because the administration interpreted the two years to mean the dates -of two consecutive years, without any regard to the months. Young -Goldoni then took a lodging in the lawyers’ quarter near San Paterniano, -and his mother and aunt lived with him.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>I put on the toga belonging to my new station (he continues), and -it is the same as that of the Patricians; I smothered my head in an -enormous wig and impatiently awaited the day of my presentation in -the Palace. The novice must have two assistants who are called in -Venice Compari di Palazzo [‘Palace godfathers’]. The young man -chooses them amongst those of the old lawyers who are most friendly -to him....</p> - -<p>So I went between my two sponsors to the foot of the grand -staircase in the great courtyard of the Palace, and for an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> hour -and a half I made so many bows and contortions that my back was -broken and my wig was like a lion’s mane. Every one who passed -before me gave his opinion of me; some said, Here is a youth of -good character; others said, Here is another Palace sweeper; some -embraced me, some laughed in my face. To be short, I went up the -stairs and sent the servant to find a gondola, so as not to show -myself in the street in such a dishevelled state, naming as a place -of meeting the Hall of the Great Council, where I sat down on a -bench whence I could see every one pass without being seen by any -one. During this time, I reflected on the career I was about to -embrace. In Venice there are generally two hundred and forty -lawyers entered on the register; there are ten or twelve of the -first rank, about twenty who occupy the second; all the others are -hunting for clients; and the poorer Procurators gladly act as their -dogs on condition of sharing the prey....</p> - -<p>While I was thus alone, building castles in the air, I saw a woman -of about thirty approaching me, not disagreeable in face, white, -round, and plump, with a turned-up nose and wicked eyes, a great -deal of gold on her neck, her ears, her arms, her fingers, and in a -dress which proclaimed that she was a woman of the common class, -but pretty well off. She came over and saluted me.</p> - -<p>‘Sir, good day!’</p> - -<p>‘Good day, Signora!’</p> - -<p>‘Will you allow me to offer you my congratulations?’</p> - -<p>‘For what?’</p> - -<p>‘On your entrance into the Forum; I saw you in the courtyard when -you were making your salaams. Per Bacco! Sir, your hair is nicely -done.’</p> - -<p>‘Isn’t it? Am I not a handsome young fellow?’</p> - -<p>‘But it makes no difference how your hair is done; Signor Goldoni -always cuts a good figure.’</p> - -<p>‘So you know me, Signora?<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span>’</p> - -<p>‘Did I not see you four years ago in the land of the lawyers, in a -long wig and cloak?’</p> - -<p>‘True; you are right, for I was then in the house of the -Procurator.’</p> - -<p>‘Just so; in the house of Signor Indrie’ [Goldoni’s uncle].</p> - -<p>‘So you know my uncle too?’</p> - -<p>‘In this part of the world I know every one, from the Doge to the -last copyist of the Courts.’</p> - -<p>‘Are you married?’</p> - -<p>‘No.’</p> - -<p>‘Are you a widow?’</p> - -<p>‘No.’</p> - -<p>‘Oh—I do not dare ask more!’</p> - -<p>‘All the better.’</p> - -<p>‘Have you any business?’</p> - -<p>‘No.’</p> - -<p>‘From your appearance I took you for a well-to-do person.’</p> - -<p>‘I really am.’</p> - -<p>‘Then you have investments?’</p> - -<p>‘None at all.’</p> - -<p>‘But you are very well fitted out; how do you manage to do it?’</p> - -<p>‘I am a daughter of the Palace, and the Palace supports me.’</p> - -<p>‘That is very strange! You say you are a daughter of the Palace?’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, sir; my father had a position in it.’</p> - -<p>‘What did he do?’</p> - -<p>‘He listened at the doors and then went to take good news to those -who were expecting pardons, or verdicts, or favourable judgments; -he had capital legs and always got there first. As for my mother, -she was always here, as I am. She was not proud, she took her fee, -and undertook some commissions. I was born and brought up in these -gilded halls, and, as you see, I also have gold on me.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span>’</p> - -<p>‘Yours is a most singular story. Then you follow in your mother’s -footsteps?’</p> - -<p>‘No, sir. I do something else.’</p> - -<p>‘That is to say?’</p> - -<p>‘I push lawsuits.’</p> - -<p>‘Push lawsuits? I do not understand.’</p> - -<p>I am as well known as Barabbas. It is very well understood that all -the lawyers and all the Procurators are my friends, and a number of -people apply to me to obtain advice for them and counsel for -defence. Those who come to me are generally not rich, and I look -about amongst the novices and the unemployed [lawyers] who want -nothing but work in order to make themselves known. Do you know, -sir, that though you see me as I am, I have made the fortunes of a -round dozen of the most famous lawyers in the profession. Come, -sir, courage, and if you are willing, I shall make yours too.’</p> - -<p>It amused me to listen to her, and as my servant did not come, I -continued the conversation.</p> - -<p>‘Well, Signorina, have you any good affairs on hand now?’</p> - -<p>‘Yes, sir, I have several, indeed I have some excellent ones. I -have a widow who is suspected of having occultated her monkey; -another who wishes to prove a marriage contract got up after the -fact; I have girls who are petitioning for a dowry; I have women -who wish to bring suits for annulment of marriage; I have sons of -good families who are persecuted by their creditors; as you see, -you need only choose.’</p> - -<p>‘My good woman,’ I said, ‘so far I have let you talk; now it is my -turn. I am young, I am about to begin my career, and I desire -occasions for showing myself and obtaining occupation; but no love -of work nor fancy for litigation could make me begin with the -disgraceful suits you offer me.’</p> - -<p>‘Ha, ha!’ she laughed, ‘you despise my clients because I warned you -that there was nothing to earn; but listen! My<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span> two widows are -rich, you will be well paid, and shall be even paid in advance, if -you wish.’</p> - -<p>I saw my servant coming in the distance; I rose and answered the -chattering woman in a fearless and resolute tone.</p> - -<p>‘No, you do not know me, I am a man of honour....’</p> - -<p>Then she took my hand and spoke gravely.</p> - -<p>‘Well done! Continue always in the same mind.’</p> - -<p>‘Ah!’ I exclaimed, ‘you change your tone now?’</p> - -<p>‘Yes,’ she replied, ‘and the tone I take now is much better than -the one I have been using. Our conversation has been somewhat -mysterious; remember it and see that you speak to no one about it. -Good-bye, sir. Always be wise, be always honourable, and you will -be satisfied with the result.’</p> - -<p>She went away, and I was left in the greatest astonishment. I did -not know what all this meant; but I learned later that she was a -spy and had come to sound me; yet I never knew, nor wished to know, -who sent her to me.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_069" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_079.png"> -<img src="images/ill_079.png" width="500" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO DELLA SENSA</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII<br /><br /> -THE LAST SBIRRI</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">It</span> is worth while to glance at the agents of the police, of the Council -of Ten, and of the Inquisitors of State</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Lessico.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">at the end of the Republic. The two Councils had six in their service, -called the Fanti de’ Cai, the footmen of the Heads, and one of them was -at the beck and call of the Inquisitors. This particular one was the -famous Cristofolo de<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span>’ Cristofoli, whose name is connected alike with -all the tragedies and the comic adventures of the last days.</p> - -<p>He was a sort of general inspector of freemasons, rope-dancers, -circus-riders, antiquaries, bravi, and gondoliers, and he exercised in -his manifold functions all the civility of which a detective can -dispose. He was a giant in body, a jester and a wit by nature, a -combination certainly intended for the stage rather than the police.</p> - -<p>His especial bugbear was freemasonry, together with all the secret -societies which were then largely in the pay of France, employed by her -to promote general revolution. A manuscript preserved in the Museo -Correr gives an account of the first discovery of a Lodge.</p> - -<p>A patrician named Girolamo Zulian, says this document, when returning -one night from a meeting of the Lodge left upon the seat of his gondola -a piece of paper on which were drawn certain incomprehensible signs. The -gondoliers found the paper, and supposed that the symbols were those of -some kind of witchcraft. One of the men took the scrap to a monk he knew -and begged him to decipher the signs, or at least to give his advice as -to what should be done with the thing, as it might be fatal even to -destroy a spell of black magic. The monk told the gondolier to take it -to the Inquisitors of State. The man did so, and one of them kept him in -a garret of his house, to protect him against any possible vengeance on -the part of the secret society, and Cristofolo de’ Cristofoli was -com<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span>missioned to clear up the mystery. On the following night he raided -the house indicated by the gondolier with thirty Sbirri, and found there -assembled a large meeting of the brethren, one of whom had the presence -of mind to throw into the canal the heavy register containing a complete -list of their names. Cristofoli took a quantity of papers, however, -together with the paraphernalia of the Lodge, and he afterwards, says -the manuscript, dictated from memory the names of the persons he had -seen at the meeting. But he must have made mistakes, since several of -the persons he designated are known to have been absent from Venice on -foreign missions at the date of the raid, May sixth, 1785.</p> - -<p>Another manuscript, published by Dandolo, gives a different account of -the affair, under the same date. It was copied by the famous Cicogna, -and is amusing for its language:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>It was the anniversary of the feast of the principal Protector of -this most serene dominion, Saint Mark the Evangelist, April the -twenty-fifth, 1785, when it was discovered that the public Arsenal -of Venice had been treacherously set on fire; the fire was -eventually discovered by a certain woman, who was rewarded for life -[<i>i.e.</i> with a pension] by the public munificence; and by the -discovery of it, a fire was prevented which might have been fatal -to a large part of the city, and which was not to have broken out -till the night following the twenty-fifth, but which showed itself -after noon on account of an extraordinary wind which had -temporarily arisen from the east and which blew with fury all day.</p> - -<p>Such an accident, as fatal as its prevention by the Evangelist</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_010" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_080.png"> -<img src="images/ill_080.png" width="500" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FONDAMENTE NUOVE</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Saint Mark was miraculous, not only moved the public vigilance to -guard that public edifice under more jealous custody, but also [to -watch] all the quarters of the city; to this end multiplying -watchmen and spies, in order to discover, if that</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_070" style="width: 467px;"> -<a href="images/ill_081.png"> -<img src="images/ill_081.png" width="467" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO S. STIN</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">might be possible, the perpetrators of such an horrible and -terrifying felony.</p> - -<p>In the inquiries, it was observed by trustworthy spies on the night -of the [date omitted in the original] May, that a certain palace -situated in Riomarin, in the parish of San Simon<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> Grande, was -entered from time to time after midnight by respectable-looking -persons, for whom the door was opened at the simple signal of a -little tap. Information of this being given to the Supreme -Tribunal, the latter ordered the most circumspect inquiries; when, -on the same morning, information was given to the Secretary of the -said Supreme Magistracy by a certain ship’s carpenter that having, -on commission of N. N., finished making a large wardrobe, he -inquired of that cavalier where he was to bring it in order to set -it up properly; and that he had been told to bring it to a certain -palace in Riomarin and to leave it in the entrance (gateway) of the -same, and that he would be sent for later to place it where it was -to go; that seeing several days go by without receiving that -notice, and yielding to curiosity, he stole near in the night to -see if the wardrobe were still in the entrance of the palace, where -he had placed it, and he convinced himself that it had been taken -elsewhere; and being displeased with this, because some other -workman might have handled his work, and guessing from a hint of -the gentleman’s that the wardrobe had been intended to be placed -against the windows of a balcony, and observing in this palace a -balcony of just about the length of the wardrobe made by him, he -tried to get into the apartment above the one where the balcony was -[let to some one], explaining to the people who lived in that house -that his suspicion induced him to ask their permission to make a -hole with a gimlet, in order to see whether his wardrobe had been -put up where he guessed it must be; and that he had obtained -consent to this request, because the lodgers in that second -apartment had conceived some curiosity to know who the persons -might be who met there only at night time; that therefore he betook -himself to that dwelling on the night of the fourth of May, having -previously made a hole, and stopped there till the first-floor -apartment was opened, and he saw that after midnight a hall was -lighted up which was hung with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span> mourning and furnished with a -throne covered with blue cloth and with other symbols of death, and -here and there were disposed small lanterns, and persons also -sitting here and there, dressed in black robes; so that at this -horrid sight he was terrified, and he heard him who sat on the -throne say these very words: ‘Brethren, let us suspend our meeting, -for we are watched’; and in that room he saw indeed his wardrobe -placed against a balcony.</p> - -<p>And that he left the lodgers in that second apartment in -consternation, and he himself, full of amazement and terror, and -still surprised by the novelty of the things, and supposing, in his -simplicity, that witchcraft was practised there and the works of -the devil, he was scandalised, and went to the parish priest of San -Simon Grande, his confessor, and that having told him all he had -seen, heard, and observed, he (the priest) advised him to quickly -lay before the government all that he had chanced to see and hear.</p> - -<p>The good man did so, and told all to the Secretary of the -Inquisitors of State. A warrant was therefore issued on that same -morning of the sixth of May by the Supreme Tribunal to its own -officer Cristofoli, to go thither (to Riomarin), accompanied by the -Capitan Grande and twenty-four men. Having entered that apartment, -where he surprised a nobleman who guarded the place, he -(Cristofoli) discovered a lodge of freemasons.</p> - -<p>Emanuele Cicogna [the distinguished historian] copied this on the -twenty-fourth of August 1855, from two codices existing in his -collection.</p></div> - -<p>On the following day, the Inquisitors publicly burned the black -garments, the utensils, the ‘conjuring books,’ as they are described, -and</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">all the booty Cristofoli had confiscated, while the populace, believing -that it was all a case of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> witchcraft, danced round the fire and cheered -for Saint Mark.</p> - -<p>The persons implicated were treated with the greatest indulgence, and -Malamani observes that in the whole affair it was the furniture that got -the worst of it.</p> - -<p>About the same time Cristofoli made a vain attempt to arrest the -notorious Cagliostro.</p> - -<p>This man, whose real name was Giuseppe Balsamo, was born in Palermo on -the eighth of June 1743. His youth was wild and disreputable. He tried -being a monk, but soon tired of it, and threw his frock to the nettles, -as the French say, in Caltagirone, in Sicily; after that he lived by -theft, by coining false money, and by every sort of imposture. In Rome -he married a girl of singular beauty, Lorenza Feliciani, who became his -tool in all his intrigues.</p> - -<p>The French freemasons made use of the singularly intelligent couple to -propagate the doctrines of the revolution. Pretending to change hemp -into silk, and every metal into gold, and selling marvellous waters for -restoring the aged to youth and beauty, the two got into many excellent -houses, changing their names and their disguises whenever they were -compromised.</p> - -<p>Balsamo arrived in Venice in 1787 or 1788, under the name of Count -Cagliostro, and began an active revolutionary campaign, to the great -annoyance</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 31.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of the Inquisitors, who fancied they had suppressed the whole movement -when Cristofoli had discovered the famous Lodge. He was less for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span>tunate -this time. He tracked the Count everywhere, but could get no substantial -evidence against him, till he suddenly came upon positive proof that the -impostor had stolen a thousand sequins from a rich merchant of the -Giudecca. And then, at the very moment when the great policeman was sure -of his game, the man disappeared as into thin air and was next heard of -beyond the Austrian frontier.</p> - -<p>The chief of the Sbirri had better luck when he raided the Café -Ancilotto, which was a favourite place of meeting for the -revolutionaries. They</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Ancilotto.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">tried to open a reading-room there, furnished with all the latest -revolutionary literature, but Cristofoli got wind of the plan, called on -the man who kept the café, and informed him that the first person who -entered the ‘reading-room’ would be invited to pay a visit to the -Inquisitors of State. After that, no one showed any inclination to read -the French papers. In connection with Cristofoli, we also come upon the -curious fact that he arrested, at the Café</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘Caffetero.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of the Ponte dell’ Angelo, a number of Barnabotti, who were preaching -suspicious doctrines. As usual, the poor nobles were the class most -easily bribed and most ready to betray their country.</p> - -<p>Cristofoli was occasionally entrusted with missions more diplomatic than -the arrest of revolutionaries. He was sometimes sent to present his -respects to great nobles who did not guess that they had attracted the -eyes of the police.</p> - -<p>It was the business of the Inquisitors to watch over<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> the artistic -treasures of the capital. During the last year of the Republic a number -of nobles sold precious</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_071" style="width: 407px;"> -<a href="images/ill_082.png"> -<img src="images/ill_082.png" width="407" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>RIO DELLA GUERRA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">objects to strangers, such as paintings and statues, of which the -government much regretted the loss to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span> city. A few measures were -passed for preventing this dispersion of private collections, but it -happened only too often that priceless things were suddenly gone, -leaving no trace of their destination, except in the pockets of the -former owners.</p> - -<p>The Grimani family possessed some magnificent statues and a wonderful -library of rare books, inherited from Cardinal Domenico Grimani, who -died in 1523. Shortly before the fall of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Statue of M. Agrippa; Museo Correr.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Republic a foreigner bought the statue of Marcus Agrippa; the boat -which was to take it on board an outward bound ship was at the door of -the palace, and the men who were to take it down from its pedestal and -box it were ready, when Cristofolo Cristofoli appeared at the entrance, -gigantic and playful.</p> - -<p>He walked straight to the statue, took off his cap to it and bowed -gravely before he delivered his message to the marble: ‘The Supreme -Tribunal of the Inquisitors, having heard that you wish to leave this -city, sends me to wish a pleasant journey, both to you and his -Excellency Grimani.’</p> - -<p>‘His Excellency Grimani’ did not relish the idea of exile; the workmen -disappeared, the boat was sent away, and the statue remained. It was -destined to be left as a gift to the city by another Grimani, less -avaricious than ‘His Excellency.’</p> - -<p>In spite of his good-humour, Cristofoli inspired terror, and his mere -name was often</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Studi e Ricerche.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">used to lend weight to practical jokes. It is related, for instance, of -the famous Montesquieu,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span> the author of the <i>Esprit des Lois</i> and the -friend of King Stanislaus Leczinski, that when he was making notes in -Venice his friend Lord Chesterfield managed to cause a mysterious -message to be conveyed to him, warning him to be on his guard, as the -Chief of the Ten employed spies to watch him, and Cristofoli was on his -track. And thereupon, says the story, the excellent Montesquieu burned -all his most compromising notes, and fled straight to Holland with the -remainder of his manuscripts.</p> - -<p>The Council of Ten and their Sbirri had not yet done with the Bravi. -They were numerous in the provinces, and when they were caught they were -tried and hanged in Venice. The ‘Signorotti’—the rich landowners, who -were not Venetian nobles, but called themselves ‘knights’—were many and -prosperous, and were the professional murderers’ best clients. Indeed, -the Venetian mainland provinces and much of Lombardy presented a case of -arrested development; at the end of the eighteenth century they had not -emerged from the barbarism of the early fifteenth.</p> - -<p>The lordlings entertained Bravi, and when there was no more serious -business on hand, they laid wagers with each other as to the courage of -their hired assassins. A bet of this kind was made and settled in 1724 -between an Avogadro and a Masperoni, two country ‘knights’ who lived on -their estates in the province of Brescia. One evening the two were -discussing the character of a ruffian whom Masperoni had just taken into -his service. His new master maintained that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span> fellow was the bravest -man in the ‘profession.’ Avogadro, on the other hand, wagered that he -would not be able to traverse the road between his master’s castle and -Lumezzane, which belonged to Avogadro. Masperoni took the bet, and -explained the situation to the man. The latter, feeling that his -reputation was at stake, started at once, carrying on his shoulder a -basket of fine fruit as a present from Masperoni to his friend, and he -took his way across the hills of Valtrompia. When he was a few miles -from Lumezzane he was met by two well-armed fellows, who ordered him to -turn back, but he was not so easily stopped. He set down his basket, and -in the twinkling of an eye killed both his adversaries, after which he -quietly pursued his journey.</p> - -<p>Avogadro was very much surprised to see him, and asked with curiosity -what sort of trip he had made.</p> - -<p>‘Excellent,’ he answered. ‘I met a couple of good-for-nothings who -wanted to stop me, but I killed them, and here I am.’</p> - -<p>Avogadro, filled with admiration, gave him a purse of gold and sent him -back to Masperoni with a letter of congratulation.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Banditi, 289.</i></div> - -<p>Incidents of this kind occurred long afterwards, even after the fall of -the Republic. The name of Cristofoli is associated with that of Count -Alemanno Gambara in a story which could not be believed if the documents -that prove it were not all preserved in the various archives, and -principally in those of the Inquisitors.</p> - -<p>The Gambara family was of Lombard origin, and had always been very -influential in the neighbourhood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span> of Brescia. The race had produced fine -specimens of all varieties—soldiers, bishops, cardinals, murderers, and -one woman poet, besides several bandits, traitors, and highwaymen. In -the late sixteenth century two brothers of the family, Niccolò and -Lucrezio, had a near relative, Theodora, an orphan girl of fourteen -years and an heiress, who was in charge of a guardian. On the -twenty-second of January 1569 the two brothers went to the guardian and -ordered him to give up the girl. On his refusal they threw him down his -own stairs, wounded his people who tried to defend him, broke down the -door of the girl’s room, and carried her off.</p> - -<p>I only quote this as an instance of the family’s manners. The last scion -of the race who lived under the Republic, and who outlived it, was Count -Alemanno, a young monster of perversity. He was born after his father’s -death at the castle of Pralboino, on a feudal holding belonging to his -house. His mother was soon married again to Count Martinengo Cesaresco, -and she took the boy with her to her new home. He was naturally violent -and unruly; at fifteen he was an accomplished swordsman, and was -involved in every quarrel and evil adventure on the country side. When -still a mere boy his conduct was such as to give the government real -trouble, and the authorities imposed a guardian upon him in the person -of a priest of his family, who was instructed to teach him the ordinary -precepts of right and wrong; but the clergyman soon announced that he -was not able to cope with his young<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span> relative, and the Council of Ten -learned that the boy’s violent character showed no signs of improvement.</p> - -<p>He was now arrested, brought to Venice, and confined in one of the -Piombi, his property being administered under the direction of the -government. The Inquisitors of State examined the record of the -complaints laid against him, and concluded that his faults were due to -his extreme youth; they therefore ordered him to reside within the -fortress of Verona, but gave him control of his fortune.</p> - -<p>The Captain of Verona, knowing the sort of prisoner he had to deal with, -and being made responsible for him, sent for an engineer and asked his -opinion as to the possibilities of escape for a prisoner who was not -locked up in a cell. The engineer wrote out a careful criticism of the -fortress, concluding with an extremely practical remark: ‘With good -means of escape,’ he observed, ‘a man may escape from any place, but -without means it is not possible to escape at all.’</p> - -<p>The Captain, only partially reassured, set to work to convert his -prisoner, and sent him a good priest to teach him his Catechism and -exhort him to the practices of Christianity; but the young Count would -have neither exhortation nor religious instruction. The Council of Ten -now sent him to the fortress of Palma for a change of air, and the -commander of that place inherited the feverish anxiety about his charge -which had tormented the Captain of Verona. He did not consult an -engineer, however, and one morning the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span> prisoner was not in his room, -nor in the fortress, nor anywhere in the neighbourhood of Palma.</p> - -<p>The Inquisitors now sent Sbirri in all directions throughout the -Venetian territory. They could not catch Alemanno, but he wearied of -eluding them, and judged that he could get better terms by submitting to -the Inquisitors. He did so, using the offices of his aunt, Countess -Giulia Gambara, who was married to a gentleman of Vicenza. The Podestà -of the latter city sent an officer and six soldiers to the place -designated by Alemanno, and he surrendered, and was taken first to -Padua, and then to Venice. As soon as he landed at the Piazzetta he was -put in charge of Cristofoli and the Sbirri, who took him before the -Inquisitors.</p> - -<p>They exiled him to Zara, and wrote to the Governor of Dalmatia: ‘We -desire him to have a good lodging.... See that he frequents persons of -good habits, thanks to whom he may not wander from the right path on -which he has entered, and in which we wish him to continue.’</p> - -<p>The Inquisitors, good souls, so mildly concerned for the wild boy’s -moral welfare, were soon to learn what Alemanno considered the ‘right -path,’ for the Governor of Dalmatia kept them well informed. Before long -they learned that a certain fisherman, who had refused to let the -Count’s butler, Antonio Barach, have a fine fish which was already sold -to another client, had been seized, taken into the Count’s house, and -severely beaten.</p> - -<p>But the Inquisitors were inclined to be clement and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span> paid no attention -to the accounts of his doings. In 1756 he was authorised to return to -his domains of</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_072" style="width: 426px;"> -<a href="images/ill_083.png"> -<img src="images/ill_083.png" width="426" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>VIA GARIBALDI</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Pralboino and Corvione, and his real career began. His first care was to -engage as many desperate Bravi as he could find. One of these having had -a little<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span> difficulty with the police, and having been killed during the -argument, Alemanno captured a Sbirro, and so handled him that he sent -him back to his post a cripple for life.</p> - -<p>Scarcely a year after his return from Zara, he rode through the town of -Calvisano, and without answering the Customs officer, whose duty it was -to ascertain if he were carrying anything dutiable, he galloped on and -escaped recognition. His servant, who followed him at a little distance, -was stopped, and as he answered the Customs men very rudely he was -locked up in jail. But when the officer in charge learned who the man -was, his fright was such that he not only set him at liberty at once, -but conversed with him and treated him in the most friendly manner.</p> - -<p>The young Count was of course delighted to learn that his name spread -terror amongst government officials, and by way of showing what he could -do, he sent fifteen of his Bravi to Calvisano with orders to besiege the -Customs men. In the fighting that followed, one of the latter was killed -and their officer narrowly escaped.</p> - -<p>The Council of Ten now interfered, and summoned Count Alemanno Gambara -to appear before them, and if he refused, the local authorities were -ordered to take him and send him by force. Instead of obeying, he -fortified his two castles, increased the numbers of his band of Bravi, -and defied the law. With his ruffians at his back he rode through the -length and breadth of the Brescian territory as he pleased, and once -even traversed</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_011" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_084.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_084.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FROM SAN GEORGIO TO THE SALUTE</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">the city itself with his formidable escort. No one dared to meddle with -him. His neighbours in the country were completely terrorised, and he -and his head ruffian, Carlo Molinari, committed the wildest excesses.</p> - -<p>Alemanno seems to have especially delighted to watch the effect of -fright on his victims. One day his men chased a priest of Gottolengo and -three friends, who had been shooting in the woods not far beyond the -boundary of the estate of Corvione. The fugitives succeeded in reaching -the church of Gottolengo, in which they took refuge, barricading the -door against their pursuers. But the Bravi starved them out, and they -were obliged to surrender unconditionally. They were then led out to a -lonely field and were exhorted to commend their souls to God, as they -were about to be killed and buried on the spot. Alemanno watched their -agony with delight, concealed behind a hedge. When he was tired of the -sport, he came out of concealment and ordered his men to beat and kick -them back to Gottolengo.</p> - -<p>A retired colonel lived quietly on a small estate near one of Gambara’s. -His servants accidentally killed one of the Count’s dogs; he had them -taken, cruelly beaten, and sent back to their master after suffering -every indignity. The colonel thought of lodging a complaint with the -Council of Ten, but on reflection he gave up the idea as not safe, for -Gambara’s vengeance would probably have been fatal to any one who -ventured to give information of his doings. No one was safe<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span> within his -reach, neither man, nor woman, nor child. A volume might be filled with -the list of his crimes.</p> - -<p>At last, in 1762, the municipality of the town of Gambara, from which he -took his title, resolved to petition the Council of Ten for help and -protection against him. When he learned that this was their intention, -he rode into the town with his escort, and halting in the market-place -addressed the citizens; his threats of vengeance were so frightful, and -he was so well able to carry them out, that the chief burghers fell upon -their knees before him, weeping and imploring his forgiveness.</p> - -<p>One day several Sbirri traversed some of his land in pursuit of a -smuggler who sought his protection. He met them smiling, and cordially -invited them to spend a night under his roof. With the childlike -simplicity which is one of the most endearing characteristics of most -Italians, they fell into the trap. On the next day, a cart loaded with -greens entered Brescia, and stopped opposite the house of the Venetian -Podestà. The horses were taken out and led away, without exciting any -remark, and the cart remained where it had been left, till the foul -smell it exhaled attracted attention. It was unloaded, and underneath -the greens were found the bloody corpses of the Sbirri who had accepted -Gambara’s hospitality.</p> - -<p>This time the Inquisitors of State took matters seriously, and sent a -squadron of cuirassiers and a detachment of Sbirri, under the command of -an officer called Rizzi, to arrest him and his henchman Molinari.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span> Rizzi -came to Pralboino and broke down the gates, but the two men were already -gone, and the expedition ended in the confiscation of a few -insignificant letters found in Alemanno’s desk.</p> - -<p>He had understood that he must leave Venetian territory for a time, and -riding down into the Duchy of Parma he sought the hospitality of his -friend, the Marchese Casali, at Monticelli. He next visited Genoa, and -judging that it was time to settle in life, he married the Marchesa -Carbonare, whom he judged, with some reason, to be a woman worthy of his -companionship.</p> - -<p>They returned together to Monticelli, where they led a riotous existence -for some time. Being one day short of money, Alemanno stopped the -messengers who were conveying to Venice the taxes raised in Brescia, and -sent them on after giving them a formal receipt for the large sum he had -taken from them. But this was too much for the Duke of Parma, who now -requested the couple to spend their time elsewhere than in his Duchy.</p> - -<p>They consulted as to their chances of getting a free pardon for the -crimes the Count had committed on Venetian territory and against the -Republic, and the Countess addressed a petition to the Doge which begins -as follows: ‘Every penitent sinner who sincerely purposes to mend his -life obtains of God mercy and forgiveness; shall I, Marianna Carbonare, -the most afflicted wife of Count Alemanno Gambara, not feel thereby -encouraged to fall upon my knees before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span> august Throne of your -Serenity?...’ And much more to the same effect.</p> - -<p>Another petition signed by both was addressed to the Inquisitors, and a -third, signed only by Alemanno, to the Doge and the Inquisitors -together. In this precious document he calls them ‘the most perfect -image of God on earth, by their power.’</p> - -<p>The object of these petitions was that the Count might be sent into -exile, anywhere, so long as he were not shut up in a fortress, a -sentence which would soon kill him, as he was in bad health.</p> - -<p>He had certainly committed many murders and had killed several servants -of the Republic in the performance of their duties; and he had stolen -the taxes collected in Brescia. Amazing as it may seem, his petition was -granted, and he was exiled to Zara for two years, after which he was -allowed to come to Chioggia on the express condition that he should not -set foot outside the castle, and should see no one but his wife and son. -He remained in Chioggia just a year, from the twenty-fifth of September -1777, to the twenty-sixth of September 1778, after which the Inquisitors -were kind enough to give him his liberty if he would present himself -before their Secretary, which he did with alacrity.</p> - -<p>My readers need not be led into a misapprehension by the touching -unanimity which the loving couple exhibited in the petitions they -signed. They never agreed except when their interests did, and were soon -practically separated in their private life. The Countess took<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span> Count -Miniscalchi of Verona for her lover, while Alemanno showed himself -everywhere with the Countess of San Secondo. In the end they separated -altogether, and the son, Francesco, remained with his father, who -educated him according to his own ideas.</p> - -<p>So far as can be ascertained, the man never changed the manner of his -life. After his pardon he returned to his estates in the province of -Brescia, where he found his old friends, who were few, and the -recollections of his youth, which were many. In a short time Pralboino -and Corvione were once more dens of murderers and robbers as of old, and -as in former days he had been helped in his blackest deeds by Carlo -Molinari, his chief Bravo, so now he was seconded by his steward, -Giacomo Barchi, who kept the reign of terror alive in the country when -it pleased the Count to reside in Venice.</p> - -<p>He was sleeping soundly in his apartment in the capital one morning -towards the end of March 1782, after having spent most of the night at a -gambling house by the Ponte dell’ Angelo—he never slept more than four -hours—when he was awakened by an unexpected visit from Cristofolo de’ -Cristofoli, who requested him to appear at once before the Secretary of -the Inquisitors. An examination of conscience must have been a serious -affair for Alemanno, and not to be undertaken except at leisure; and it -appears that on this occasion he really did not know what he was to be -accused of doing. The Secretary of the Inquisitors merely commanded him -not to leave the city on pain<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> of the Tribunal’s anger, and on the -morrow he learned that his steward Barchi had also been arrested.</p> - -<p>For some reason impossible to explain, nothing was done to either, and -before long even the steward was set at liberty. The Inquisitors -confined themselves to threatening the two with ‘the public indignation’ -and their own severest measures, if the Count did not dismiss his Bravi -and ‘reform his conduct.’</p> - -<p>After that, history is silent as to his exploits. He was no longer -young, and even the zest of murder and rapine was probably beginning to -pall on his weary taste. We know that he sincerely mourned the fall of -the Republic which had been so consistently kind to him, and he never -plotted against the government. He could not but feel that it would have -been an exaggeration to accuse it of having been hard on him.</p> - -<p>His son Francesco, on the contrary, turned out to be one of the most -turbulent of revolutionaries, and helped to lead the insurrection at -Bergamo. But for the intervention of Bonaparte himself, he would have -been killed by the inhabitants of Salò, who remained faithful to the -Republic, when they repulsed the insurgents. He was one of the five -delegates whom the city of Brescia sent to Bonaparte, to name him -president of the Cisalpine Republic. He died in 1848, after having -written a life of his father, which was published eleven years later in -Trieste. One cannot but feel that in composing a memoir of his parent, -filial piety led him too far.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span></p><p>In concluding this chapter, which has dealt with criminals, I shall -take the opportunity of observing that the places in which criminals -were confined in Venice shared in the general decay of everything -connected with the government. In the seventeenth century and earlier -all prisoners had been carefully kept separate according to their -misdeeds; in the eighteenth, mere children were shut up with adult -criminals, and debtors were confined with thieves. In the women’s -prisons lunatics were often imprisoned with the sane, a state of things -that led to the most horrible scenes.</p> - -<p>The gaolers of the Pozzi and the Piombi did not even keep the prisons -clean, and the state of the cells was such that I do not care to disgust -the reader by describing it. In the other prisons, or attached to them, -a regular tavern was tolerated and perhaps authorised, as a place of -gathering for the prisoners, and here games of chance were played, even</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">such as were forbidden elsewhere in the city. The archives of the Ten -show how many crimes were committed in the very places where men were -confined to expiate earlier offences. As for the gaolers, they were one -and all corruptible. One of the Savi, the patrician Gritti, denounced to -the Senate, in 1793, a gaoler who let the healthiest and most airy cells -to the highest bidders.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_073" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_085.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_085.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE PESARO PALACE, GRAND CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV<br /><br /> -THE LAST DOGES</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">Between</span> the beginning of the eighteenth century and the end of the -Republic eleven Doges occupied the throne. Of these the only one who -might</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1700-1797.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">have saved the government or retarded its fall was the very one who -reigned the shortest time. Let us say that if he had lived, he might -have so far restored the strength of the ancient aristocracy as to admit -of its perishing in a struggle instead of dying of old age.</p> - -<p>This Doge was Marco Foscarini, who was elected<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span> on the thirty-first of -May 1762, and died on the thirty-first of the following March. He was a -man whose integrity was never questioned, even by</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 142.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the revolutionaries, and he accepted the Dogeship with the greatest -regret. He was a man of letters, and the endless empty ceremonial of the -ducal existence obliged him to leave unfinished his noble work on -Venetian literature. Even had the Doge’s action not been hopelessly -paralysed by the hedge of petty regulations that bristled round him, -Foscarini’s experience of affairs in the course of occupying many -exalted posts had left him few illusions as to the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 302.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">future of his country. ‘This century will be a terrible one for our -children and grandchildren,’ he wrote some time after his election.</p> - -<p>Like many of the Doges he was a very old man when he was elected, and -was over eighty-eight years of age when he died, apparently much -surprised at finding himself at his end, though not unprepared for it. -He complained that his physicians had not told him how ill he was, and -he asked for a little Latin book, <i>De modo bene moriendi</i>, which had -been given him by his friend Cardinal Passionei; presently he tried to -dictate a few reflections to his doctor, but was too weak, and expired -whispering, ‘My poor servants!’ He had apparently not provided for them -as he would have done if he had not been taken unawares.</p> - -<p>His successor was Aloise IV. Mocenigo, who had been Ambassador to Rome -and to Paris. His election was celebrated in a manner that recalled the -festivities<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span> of the sixteenth century. A secretary was sent to the -Mocenigo palace to announce the news to</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1763.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">his family, and the Dogess took four days in which to complete her -preparations, after which she came to the ducal palace accompanied by -her two married nieces, her sisters, her mother, all her own female -cousins, and all those of her husband; and this battalion of noble women -in their gondolas was followed down the Grand Canal by an innumerable -fleet of gondolas and boats. All the male relations were waiting at the -landing of the Piazzetta to escort the ladies to the palace, where the -Dogess, seated on a throne, received the homage of the electors and of -all the nobility. She did not wear the ducal insignia on that day. In -the evening there was a ball, which she opened with one of the -Procurators of Saint Mark.</p> - -<p>A series of festivities began on the following day, at which she -appeared in a memorably magnificent dress: a long mantle of cloth of -gold, like the Doge’s own, with wide sleeves lined with white lace, -opened to show a skirt and body all of gold lace-work; a girdle of -diamonds encircled her waist; her head-dress was a veil, arranged like a -cap, but the two ends hung down to her shoulders, and were picked up and -fastened to her back hair by two diamond clasps.</p> - -<p>On three consecutive evenings there were balls at the palace, and at -each the Dogess danced only one minuet, with a Procurator of Saint Mark,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 148.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">as etiquette required when there were no foreign princes in Venice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span></p> - -<p>This reminds one of old times; it is even true that in some ways the -display at the ducal palace was greater than it had ever been. The -banquets especially took the importance of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, i. 289.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">public spectacles, and were always five in number, given at the feasts -of Saint Mark, the Ascension, Saint Vitus, Saint Jerome, and Saint -Stephen, after the last of which the distribution of the ‘oselle’ took -place, representing the ducks of earlier days, as the reader will -remember. At these great dinners there were generally a hundred guests; -the Doge’s counsellors, the Heads of the Ten, the Avogadors and the -heads of all the other magistracies had a right to be invited, but the -rest of the guests were chosen among the functionaries at the Doge’s -pleasure.</p> - -<p>In the banquet-hall there were a number of sideboards on which was -exhibited the silver, part of which belonged to the Doge and part to the -State, and this was shown twenty-four hours before the feast. It was -under the keeping of a special official. The glass service used on the -table for flowers and for dessert was of the finest made in Murano. Each -service, though this is hard to believe, is said to have been used in -public only once, and was designed to recall some important event of -contemporary history by trophies, victories, emblems, and allegories. I -find this stated by Giustina Renier Michiel, who was a contemporary, was -noble, and must have often seen these banquets.</p> - -<p>The public was admitted to view the magnificent spectacle during the -whole of the first course, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span> ladies of the aristocracy went in -great numbers. It was their custom to walk round the tables, talking -with those of their friends who sat among the guests, and accepting the -fruits and sweetmeats which the Doge and the rest offered them, rising -from their seats to do so. The Doge himself rose from his throne to -salute those noble ladies whom he wished to distinguish especially. -Sovereigns passing through Venice at such times did not disdain to -appear as mere spectators at the banquets, which had acquired the -importance of national anniversaries.</p> - -<p>Between the first and the second courses, a majestic chamberlain shook a -huge bunch of keys while he walked round the hall, and at this hint all -visitors disappeared. The feast sometimes lasted several hours, after -which the Doge’s squires presented each of the guests with a great -basket filled with sweetmeats, fruits, comfits, and the like, and -adorned with the ducal arms. Every one rose to thank the Doge for these -presents, and he took advantage of the general move to go back to his -private apartments. The guests accompanied him to the threshold, where -his Serenity bowed to them without speaking, and every one returned his -salute in silence. He disappeared within, and all went home.</p> - -<p>During this ceremony of leave-taking, the gondoliers of the guests -entered the Hall of the banquet and each carried the basket received by -his master</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, Origini i. 302.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to some lady indicated by the latter. ‘One may imagine,’ cries the good -Dame Michiel, ‘what curiosity there was about the destination of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span> -baskets, but the faithful gondoliers regarded mystery as a point of -honour, though the basket was of such</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_074" style="width: 417px;"> -<a href="images/ill_086.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_086.jpg" width="417" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>MARCO POLO’S COURT</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">dimensions that it was impossible to take it anywhere unobserved; happy -were they who received these evidences of a regard which at once touched -their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span> feelings and flattered their legitimate pride! The greatest -misfortune was to have to share the prize with another.’</p> - -<p>The reign of Aloise Mocenigo was the one in which the question of -reforms was the most fully discussed, but many of the discussions turned -on theories, and though a few led to the passage of measures which -somewhat affected commerce and public instruction, no real result was -produced. The Republic, I repeat, was dying of old age, which is the -only ill that is universally admitted to be incurable.</p> - -<p>At the death of Mocenigo, three candidates were proposed for the ducal -throne, namely, Andrea Tron, Girolamo Venier, and Paolo Renier. If the -people had been consulted, Venier would have been acclaimed, though I do -not pretend to say that his election would have retarded the end. -Nothing is easier than to speculate about what ‘the people’ might have -done at any given point in history; nothing is harder than to guess what -they are going to do; nothing, on the whole, is more certain than that -the voice of the people never yet turned the scale at a great moment in -a nation well out of its infancy. No one pretends nowadays that the -French revolution was made by ‘the people.’</p> - -<p>The many in Venice were vastly surprised to hear of Paolo Renier’s -candidacy, for he had a very indifferent reputation; to be accurate, the -trouble was that it was not indifferent, but bad. He was, indeed, a man -of keen penetration, rarely eloquent, and a first-rate scholar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span> He knew -Homer by heart, and he had translated Plato’s <i>Dialogues</i>, which latter -piece of work might partly explain, without excusing,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>R. viii. 240, 241; Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">his deplorable morals; but it was neither from Plato nor from Homer that -he had learned to plunder the government of his country. One of his -contemporaries, Gratarol, described him as possessing ‘the highest of -talents, the most arrogant of characters, and the most deceptive of -faces.’</p> - -<p>It was commonly reported in Venice that when he had been Bailo at -Constantinople he had taken advantage of the war between Turkey and -Russia, under Catherine the Great, to enrich himself in a shameful -manner, and the ninety thousand sequins he made on that occasion -afterwards served him, according to popular report, for bribing the -Barnabotti in the Great Council in order that the forty-one electors -chosen might be favourable to him. He was certainly not the inventor of -this plan, but he is generally said to have just outdone his -predecessors in generosity, without overstepping the limits of strict -economy. The general belief is that he bought three hundred votes at -fifteen sequins each, which was certainly not an excessive price. It -appears, too, that he distributed money to the people in order to soothe -the irritation his candidacy caused. If all these accusations were not -clearly proved, they were at least the subject of contemporary satire.</p> - -<p>A certain priest in particular wrote biting verses on him, in Venetian -dialect, describing the righteous anger<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span> of the late Marco Foscarini’s -ghost at the election of such a successor. The shade of the honourable</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Malamani.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">man tears off the ducal insignia in disgust, and bitterly reproaches -Venice.</p> - -<p>‘Ah, foolish Venice!’ it exclaims, ‘a Renier is Doge of our country, one -who with ribald heart and iniquitous words sought to undo that tribunal -which defends our country from all evil! Ah, mad Venice! Now indeed I do -repent me of having been Doge one year! Strike my name from the series -of the Doges, for I disdain to stand among traitors.’</p> - -<p>After his election Paolo Renier had his first ‘osella’ coined with a -peculiarity in the superscription which irritated the public. The words -ran: ‘Paulus Reinerius principis munus,’ his name being in the -nominative case, a grammatical mistake which had always been regarded as -the special privilege of kings and emperors.</p> - -<p>He made money of everything, by selling posts, franchises, and licenses -to beg at the door of the Basilica of Saint Mark. The Dogess was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">not a person likely to increase her husband’s popularity, for she had -been a rope-dancer, and never appeared at public ceremonies. As I have -explained elsewhere, it was the Doge’s niece who did the honours of the -palace, Dame Giustina, who was beloved and esteemed by all Venetians, -but ‘the Delmaz,’ as the Doge’s wife was called, interfered in a hundred -details of the administration.</p> - -<p>It is told, for instance, that the priest of the church<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span> of San Basso -used to have the bell rung for mass very early in the morning, and that -it had a peculiarly harsh and shrill tone which disturbed the Dogess’s -slumbers. She sent for</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘San Basso’; also Molmenti, Vecchie Storie.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">him and promised to make him a canon of Saint Mark’s if he would only -have the bell moved, or not rung. The good man promised and went away -delighted, but when, after a time, the canonry was not given to him, he -began ringing again, and doubtless enjoyed the thought that every stroke -set the faithless Dogess’s teeth on edge.</p> - -<p>The people revenged themselves on the Renier family for its many -misdeeds in scathing epigrams, and when at last the Doge lay dying in -long agony, the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">gondoliers said that his soul refused to leave without being paid. The -truth is that as his death took place in Carnival week, on February -eighteenth, 1789, it was decided to keep his death a secret not only -over Ash Wednesday, but until the first Monday in Lent, in order not to -disturb the merrymaking,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 300.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">nor the reaction which was supposed to follow it; and he was buried -without much ceremony and with no display in the church of the -Tolentini.</p> - -<p>The candidates proposed for election to succeed him were numerous, but -not of good quality. One of them, Sebastiano Mocenigo, was such a bad</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii, 301.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">character that when he had been in Vienna as Ambassador the Empress -Maria Teresa had asked the Republic to recall him. The truth was that -the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span> few who were fit for the Dogeship would not accept it, or were -opposed by the whole body of the corruptible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_075" style="width: 406px;"> -<a href="images/ill_087.png"> -<img src="images/ill_087.png" width="406" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PONTE DELLA PIETÀ</p></div> -</div> - -<p>As a specimen of what went on during the election of the last Doge of -Venice, I subjoin an official list<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span> of what were considered the -legitimate expenses of the electors. The figures are from Mutinelli</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">and may be trusted. They are given in Venetian ‘lire,’ one of which is -considered to have been equal to half a modern Italian ‘lira,’ or French -franc.</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="c">Ven. Lire.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Bread, wine, oil, and vinegar</td><td class="rt">29,421</td></tr> -<tr><td>Fish</td><td class="rt">24,410</td></tr> -<tr><td>Meat, poultry, game</td><td class="rt">20,370</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sausages, large and small</td><td class="rt">3,980</td></tr> -<tr><td>Preserved fruits and candles</td><td class="rt">47,670</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wines, liquors, coffee</td><td class="rt">63,845</td></tr> -<tr><td>Spices, herbs, fruit, flowers</td><td class="rt">6,314</td></tr> -<tr><td>Wood and charcoal</td><td class="rt">31,851</td></tr> -<tr><td>Utensils hired, worn, and lost</td><td class="rt">41,624</td></tr> -<tr><td>Small expenses</td><td class="rt">45,327</td></tr> -<tr><td>Given to footmen and to workmen of the guilds</td><td class="rt">63,583</td></tr> -<tr><td>Tobacco and snuff</td><td class="rt">4,931</td></tr> -<tr><td>Poem ‘La Scaramuccia’ (The Skirmish)</td><td class="rt">48</td></tr> -<tr><td>Almanacks</td><td class="rt">8</td></tr> -<tr><td>Game of Rocambole (said to have been a kind of Ombre)</td><td class="rt">550</td></tr> -<tr><td>Nightcaps</td><td class="rt">450</td></tr> -<tr><td>Felt caps</td><td class="rt">56</td></tr> -<tr><td>Socks</td><td class="rt">16</td></tr> -<tr><td>Black silk wig-bags</td><td class="rt">48</td></tr> -<tr><td>French, German, and Spanish snuff-boxes</td><td class="rt">3,077</td></tr> -<tr><td>Combs ‘à la royale,’ for wigs, and for caps</td><td class="rt">2,150</td></tr> -<tr><td>Essence of rose, carnation, lavender, and vanilla; -olive gum and gold powder;</td><td class="rt">173</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rouge</td><td class="rt">9</td></tr> -<tr><td>One rosary</td><td class="rt">15</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">Total</td><td class="undl rt">389,926</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span></p> - -<p>Romanin, probably with another copy of the account which he does not -give in items, and writing earlier than Mutinelli, makes the sum a -little smaller. In any case it is certainly one of the most -extraordinary bills ever brought in by a Republic for electing its -chief.</p> - -<p>In view of modern methods it will interest some</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 302, note.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of my readers to see how the expenses of Venetian elections increased -towards the end, according to Romanin:—</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td colspan="4"> </td><td class="c">Ven. Lire.</td></tr> -<tr><td>Election of</td><td>Carlo Ruzzini</td><td class="c">in</td><td class="rt">1732</td><td class="rt">68,946</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Aloise Pisani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1734</td><td class="rt">70,629</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Pietro Grimani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1741</td><td class="rt">70,667</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Francesco Loredan</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1752</td><td class="rt">134,290</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Marco Foscarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1762</td><td class="rt">120,868</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Aloise Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1763</td><td class="rt">125,234</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Paolo Renier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1779</td><td class="rt">222,410</td></tr> -<tr><td class="c">“</td><td>Ludovico Manin</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1789</td><td class="rt">378,387</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Greatly increased expenditure for successive elections during half a -century can only mean one of two things, the approach of a collapse, or -the imminence of a tyranny. The greater the proportionate increase from -one election to the next, the nearer is the catastrophe. The election of -the last Doge of Venice cost five and a half times as much as that of -Carlo Ruzzini. It would be interesting to know what proportion Julius -Cæsar’s enormous expenses, when he was elected Pontifex Maximus, bore to -those of a predecessor in the same office fifty years earlier.</p> - -<p>The Venetian electors who managed to consume, or make away with, nearly -eight thousand pounds’ worth<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span> of food, drink, tobacco, and rose-water in -nineteen days, chose an honest man, though a very incompetent one, and -the public showed no enthusiasm for the new Doge, in spite of the great -festivities held for his coronation. The Venetian people, too, preserved -their artistocratic tendencies to the very last, and always preferred a -Doge of ancient lineage to one who, like Manin, came of the ‘New men.’</p> - -<p>He was not fortunate in his choice of a motto for his first ‘osella.’ -He, who was to dig the grave of Venetian liberty, chose the single word -‘Libertas’ for the superscription on his first coin; and on that which -appeared in the last year but one of the independence of Venice were the -words ‘Pax in virtute tua,’ which, as Mr. Horatio Brown has pointedly -observed, ‘reads like a mocking epitaph upon the dying Republic.’</p> - -<p>Manin was a weak and vacillating man, though truthful, generous to a -fault, and not a coward. As Doge, he was bound hand and foot, and only a -man of great character could have broken through such bonds to strike -out an original plan that might have prolonged his country’s life. He -gave his fortune without stint, but the idea of giving anything else did -not occur to him. Before the tremendous storm of change that broke with -the French revolution and raged throughout Europe for years, he bowed -his head, and Venice went down. No man is to be blamed for not being -born a hero; nor is the mother of heroes in fault when she is old and -can bear them no more.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_076" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_088.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_088.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FROM THE PUBLIC GARDEN AT SUNSET</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV<br /><br /> -THE LAST SOLDIERS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">During</span> the eighteenth century Venetian diplomacy succeeded in preserving -the Republic’s neutral position in spite of the great wars that agitated -Europe. Her only war was with the Turks, and it was disastrous.</p> - -<p>Early in the century the Turks attacked the Peloponnesus, and Venice -lost her richest colonies in rapid</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1715.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">succession. Her navy was no longer a power, and she was almost without -allies, for the European powers were exhausted by the recent<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span> war of the -Spanish succession, and though Malta and the Pope befriended her, the -help they could give was insignificant. It was not until the Turks -attacked Hungary that she received any efficient assistance; by uniting -her forces with those of the Empire she obtained some success, and the -desperate courage of Marshal Count von Schulenburg, a Saxon general in -the Venetian service, saved Corfu. The Turks, beaten at sea by the -Venetians, and on the Danube by the Hungarians at Temesvar, made peace, -and the treaty of Passarowitz put an end to the war.</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1718.</i></div> - -<p>But Venice had for ever lost the Peloponnesus, Crete, and other valuable -possessions.</p> - -<p>After this disastrous struggle, it was impossible to preserve any -further illusions as to the future. Venice felt that she was in full -decadence, and only endeavoured to hide its outward signs. Instead of -trying to beat against the current, she allowed herself to drift; things -went from bad to worse, and before long the army, the navy, and the -Arsenal were completely disorganised, though their expenses had not in -the least diminished. A contemporary says that a regiment looked like a -company, and a</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 150 sqq.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">company like a corporal’s guard, whereas the Republic was paying for -regiments with their full complement of men.</p> - -<p>The service of the hired troops was beneath contempt. In Padua the -students of the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 176.</i></div> - -<p>University defied the garrison. On one occasion, in a hideous orgy, they -accidentally or in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span>tentionally did to death a pretty beggar girl; but -when a detachment of Croatian soldiers attempted to arrest the culprits, -the students treated them with such utter contempt that their commander -was terrified, fled with his men to the safety of the barracks, and -bolted and barred the doors.</p> - -<p>If such things happened on Venetian territory one may fancy what the -state of things was in the colonies. Corfu was supposed to be defended -by a company of Venetian soldiers and two companies of Albanians. From -1724 to 1745 the latter were represented by two men, a major and a -captain, whose sole business was to draw the pay of the whole force. The -two officers embezzled the sums allowed for the men’s food and uniforms, -and the pay was sent to the soldiers, who lived in their own homes in -the mountains. No trouble was taken even to identify them, and when one -died it was customary for another to take his name and receive his pay. -The two companies thus literally earned immortality, and the names on -the rolls never changed. Several Albanians who drew their pay as -Venetian mercenaries enrolled themselves also in the so-called ‘Royal -Macedonian’ regiment, in the service of the King of Naples, and were -never found out by the Republic. In twenty-one years these imaginary -troops cost Venice 54,300 sequins, or over £40,000.</p> - -<p>The colonial garrisons economised their gunpowder by abolishing all -target practice, and consisted chiefly of utterly untrained old men who -were absent most of the time. The fortresses were not more serviceable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span> -than the troops that were supposed to defend them. On the mainland, the -frontier fort of Peschiera was half dismantled, the drawbridges had</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. and Tassini, under ‘Bombardiere.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">long rusted in their positions and could, not be raised, and the -ramparts were so overgrown with trees and shrubs as to be impassable; at -one time the fort did not even possess a flag to show its nationality. -Ninety of its guns had no carriages; the gunners lived quietly at their -homes in Venice, and if they ever remembered that they were supposed to -be soldiers it was because the government dressed them up on great -occasions as a guard of honour for the ducal palace. Their number was -between four and five hundred.</p> - -<p>As for the fort of Corfu, it was robbed by a common thief. In 1745, a -certain Vizzo Manducchiollo promised the Turks two good guns, one of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 169.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">bronze and one of iron. With the help of his gang he scaled the wall of -the Raimondo Fort one night, carried off the cannon, and sold them to -the Turks for twenty-seven sequins.</p> - -<p>The workmen of the Arsenal in Venice, who had formerly been the -best-organised body of men in the Republic, had completely come to grief -in the eighteenth century. The Arsenal was supposed to be governed by a -voluminous code of laws, most of which were now either altogether -disregarded, or were administered with culpable leniency. The disorder -was incredible. Every son of a workman in the Arsenal had an hereditary -right to be employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span> there, but the officials who were in command did -not take any means of checking the men’s attendance; they paid so much a -head for every workman on the payroll, according to his age, whether he -ever appeared except on pay-days or not. In this way the State paid out -vast sums to men who only entered the gates once a month to draw their -wages for doing nothing. Many of them had other occupations, at which -they worked regularly and industriously. Some were even actors, and one -of the cleverest ‘Pantaloons’ was officially known as one of the -best-paid Arsenal hands. The six hundred apprentices who were supposed -to attend the technical schools attached to the different departments of -the yard, only looked in now and then. When the time came for them to -pass for the certificate of master workman they paid the sum of -thirty-four Venetian lire, in consideration of which the Examiners -pronounced them competent. In this way, as Mutinelli</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 145, 153.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">truly says, ignorance became hereditary, as employment in the Arsenal -already was, and the yard became a mere monument of former generous -initiative, very expensive to maintain.</p> - -<p>At the fall of the Republic, Bonaparte seized and sent to France a large -number of vessels. When the Arsenal was sacked in 1797 it was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 162, note 2, and 304.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">found to contain 5293 pieces of artillery, of which 2518 were of bronze, -and the rest of iron; and at the last there were brought from the docks -ten ships of seventy guns, eleven of seventy-six, one of fifty-five, -thirteen of forty-two, two of thirty-two,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span> twenty-three galleys, one -floating howitzer battery, two ‘cutters,’ whatever the Italian writer -may have meant,</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_077" style="width: 406px;"> -<a href="images/ill_089.png"> -<img src="images/ill_089.png" width="406" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>BOAT-BUILDERS</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">twelve gunboats, three brigs of sixteen to eighteen guns, one -fore-and-aft schooner, seven galleons and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> as many ‘zambecchi,’ five -feluccas, many boats armed with grenade mortars, ten floats with two -guns, and one floating-battery of seven guns.</p> - -<p>If these vessels were not all badly built, they were certainly badly -fitted out and badly sailed when they went to sea. The Provveditori and -Inquisitors Extraordinary, sent from time to time by the Senate to -inspect the fleet, complained that they found neither good carpenters -nor good sailors. One frigate, which had a nominal crew of one hundred -and fifty-seven men, the <i>Concordia</i>, was found to have barely thirty, -and not able seamen at that. As for the convicts who pulled the oars on -the war-galleys, they were kept half-clothed and shelterless when -ashore; but being only carelessly guarded they often ran away, and not -unfrequently succeeded in finding employment, under assumed names, in -the smaller ports of the Republic. Some are known to have become -house-servants. Nevertheless the overseer of each gang regularly -pocketed the money allowed for their food and clothing.</p> - -<p>In 1784 it was proved that for a long time from sixty to seventy -thousand fagots of wood and an immense number of barrel staves had -disappeared yearly, no one knew how. The workmen of the Arsenal did not -think it necessary to buy firewood when it could be had for nothing.</p> - -<p>In 1730, the Provveditor Erizzo was ordered to one of the Eastern -colonies on an important mission, with several large vessels. Almost at -the moment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span> starting, the officers of one of these galleys came and -begged him to give them a captain not belonging to the</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_078" style="width: 422px;"> -<a href="images/ill_090.png"> -<img src="images/ill_090.png" width="422" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE VEGETABLE MARKET</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">navy, as they should not otherwise feel safe to go to sea.</p> - -<p>Yet at this very time Goldoni wrote that every one<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span> sang in Venice: -‘They sing in the squares, in the streets, on the canals; the -shopkeepers</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Goldoni, i. chap. xxxv.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">sing as they sell their wares; the workmen sing as they leave their -work; the gondolier sings while he waits for his master. The -characteristic of the nation is its gaiety.’</p> - -<p>In the midst of this laughing decadence, in the very depth of this gay -and careless disintegration of a country’s body and soul, we come across -one devoted, energetic character, a fighting man of the better days, who -reminds us of what Venice was in her greatness.</p> - -<p>Angelo Emo was great, considering the littleness of Venice in his time. -If we compare him with Vittor Pisani, Carlo Zeno, or Sebastian Venier, -he seems small as a leader; but as a plain, brave man, he is not dwarfed -by comparison with men who were colossal in an age of giants.</p> - -<p>He was born in 1731, and was brought up by his father to dream of older -and greater times, and to know more of his country’s history than most</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 289.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">youths of his day. He travelled early and far, often employed on -business of the State, and he was able to compare the condition of -Venice with that of other European countries, especially England and -France, in regard to military and naval matters.</p> - -<p>He was not yet thirty years old when the government sent him to Portugal -to study the means of reviving the commercial relations between that -kingdom and Venice. Sailing down the Adriatic, he put into Corfu, -probably for fresh provisions; but on learning</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_012" style="width: 424px;"> -<a href="images/ill_091.png"> -<img src="images/ill_091.png" width="424" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>PONTE CANONICA</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">that many intrigues were already on foot to deprive</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_079" style="width: 408px;"> -<a href="images/ill_092.png"> -<img src="images/ill_092.png" width="408" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FONDAMENTA WEIDERMANN</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">him of his mission, he set sail again at once for the Mediterranean in -order to be beyond reach of recall.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span> He passed the Straits of Gibraltar, -but fell in with a gale of wind in the ocean which nearly put an end to -his sailing for ever. The Venetian vessels were not remarkable for their -seaworthiness at best, and ocean weather was almost too much for Emo’s -ship. He himself describes the frightful confusion in the storm, and the -difficulty he had in managing his men. To make matters worse, the -freshwater tanks were sprung and most of the supply was lost, so that -water was served out in rations, while the food consisted principally of -what the British sailor terms ‘salt horse.’ Then the vessel lost her -rudder, and things looked badly; but the gale moderated and died out at -last, and the ship brought to near a wooded coast, whence Emo was able -before long to get a tree, which was rough hewn to serve as a rudder, -and he got his vessel into port at last, ‘with the admiration and -applause of every one,’ says Romanin, after describing the affair of the -jury-rudder as only a landsman can describe an accident at sea.</p> - -<p>His mission to Portugal was successful, and Emo returned to Venice; but -when he tried to direct the attention of the government to reforms of -which the army and navy stood in urgent need, he could obtain no -practical result, so that when he was</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1784.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">placed in command of a fleet, with orders to punish the Bey of Tunis and -the Algerian pirates, he was well aware that his force was by no means -what it appeared to be to the inexperienced public. In the course of the -campaign his largest ship, <i>La Forza</i>, ill<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span>-equipped and worse -officered, sank before his eyes off Trapani, and none of the other -vessels could be relied on to do any better. Yet with such material and -such men he sustained a conflict that lasted three years, and if he was -unable to destroy the Bey of Tunis, he at least humbled him, brought</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 150, and Rom. viii. 294.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">him to terms, and obtained from him a formal treaty engaging to put down -piracy on the African coast. France profited much by the result of this -expedition, and one of the last documents signed by Louis XVI. before he -fell was a letter to the Doge Manin, in which Angelo Emo was praised to -the skies for the good work he had done.</p> - -<p>The Admiral was rewarded with the title of Cavaliere, the only one the -Republic ever conferred, and with the office of Procurator of Saint -Mark’s, but I cannot find that his advice as to reforms was ever -listened to. A few years later, the Bey of Tunis broke his promise in -regard to piracy, and Emo was again sent with a fleet to chastise him, -but was suddenly taken ill in Malta, and died in a few days. He was -poisoned, it is said, by Condulmer, his principal lieutenant, who at -once succeeded him as admiral.</p> - -<p>The last Venetian fighting man was of average height and lean, and -stooped a little; he</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Statue of Emo, Canova; Arsenal.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was pale, his forehead was broad, and he had blue eyes and black -eyebrows, particularly thick and bushy. His mouth was strong, but the -lips were thick and coarse.</p> - -<p>His remains were carefully embalmed in Malta and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> were brought home to -Venice on his flagship, the <i>Fama</i>—‘fame’—which came to anchor on the -twenty-fourth of May 1792. The body was followed from the mole to Saint -Mark’s by the clergy, the schools, the magistracies, and a vast -concourse of people. The funeral mass was sung in the presence of the -Doge, and the vast procession wended its way to the church of the -Serviti. To the martial sound of drums and the solemn roar of the minute -gun, Venice laid her last captain to rest beside his fathers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_080" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_093.png"> -<img src="images/ill_093.png" width="500" height="392" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE SALUTE FROM S. GIORGIO</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI<br /><br /> -THE LAST DIPLOMATISTS</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">During</span> the seventeenth century the Republic had no doubt of her own -military strength, but nevertheless trusted much to her diplomacy; in -the eighteenth the latter was the last good weapon left her of the many -that had once been in her armoury, and skilled as her diplomatic agents -were, their efforts could not prevent her from spoliation by the Turks, -whose simple rule was to take first and to talk about rights -afterwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span></p> - -<p>In a measure, too, Venice’s position as a neutral power was dearly -bought, and more than once in the war of the Spanish succession her -territory was the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 5, sqq.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">scene of fighting between French and Germans. The same skill kept her -out of the field during the quarrels for the succession of Parma, of -Tuscany, of Poland, and of Austria, and obtained for Venetian -Ambassadors a place of honour in the congresses that resulted in the -treaties of Utrecht, Vienna, and Aix-la-Chapelle.</p> - -<p>During the American war of independence, there were constant diplomatic -relations between the Republic and the American deputies who came to -France for the congress of Versailles. The Venetian archives contain a -letter signed by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson, by -which the Americans hoped to lay the foundations of a commercial treaty; -but owing to the excessive caution of Venice the attempt had no result. -The Republic of the Adriatic had almost always looked eastward for her -trade, and distrusted the new world which she had declined to help to -discover. The original letter, written in the English language, and -addressed to the Venetian Ambassador in Paris, Daniele Dolfin, has not -been published, I believe; and I shall not insult the memory of such -writers by attempting to turn Romanin’s</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. viii. 229, 230.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">translation back into their language. The letter explains that the three -signers are fully empowered by their government to negotiate a friendly -treaty of commerce, and will be glad to enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span> upon the negotiation as -soon as the Venetian Ambassador is properly authorised to do so; in -signing they use the form, ‘your most obedient, humble servants.’ For -the benefit of any American who may wish to get at the original, I may -add that Romanin found the letter in the Archives of the Senate, with -the despatches from France of Daniele Dolfin, envelope 261.</p> - -<p>A letter from another Venetian Ambassador in Paris, Cappello, -prophetically dated July fourteenth, 1788, exactly one year before the -destruction</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 153.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of the Bastille, to the very day, sounds the first warning alarm of the -approaching revolution; few writers have better summed up the condition -of the French monarchy when it was on the brink of the abyss, and no -diplomatist could have given his own country better advice.</p> - -<p>The Committee of the Savi, who concentrated all power into their own -hands, did not even communicate this letter to the Senate. Cappello -spoke still more clearly when he made his formal report in person, on -returning from his mission and after leaving Paris just when the King -was to be asked to sign the Constitution, a document for which the -Ambassador confesses that he can find no name. ‘It is not a monarchy,’ -he says, ‘for it takes everything from the monarch; it is not a -democracy, because the people are not the legislators; it is not that of -an aristocracy, for the mere name is looked upon in France not as -treason against the King, but as treason against the nation.... The -National Assembly began by encroaching upon all powers, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span> by -confounding within itself all the attributes of sovereignty, usurping -the administrative functions from the executive power, and from the -judiciary the right of judging criminal cases.’</p> - -<p>It is easy to understand the impression made by such a report, in the -course of which the Ambassador narrated the scenes that took place in -Versailles and at the Tuileries after the night of October sixth, 1789. -The aristocratic Venetian Republic sympathised profoundly with the dying -French monarchy; but it was impossible to believe that such a state of -things would last long, and the government was painfully surprised by -the letter in which Louis XVI. announced that he accepted the situation. -That letter is in existence. In it the King declares that he has -accepted the new form of government ‘of his own free will; that the -National Assembly is only a reform of the ancient States General, and -will ensure the happiness of the nation and the monarchy.’ The King -adds, as if to hide his weakness from himself, that what is called a -‘revolution’ is mostly only the destruction of a mass of prejudices and -abuses which endanger the public wealth, and that he was therefore proud -to think that he should leave his son something; better</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 178.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">than the crown as he had inherited it from his ancestors, namely, a -constitutional monarchy.</p> - -<p>This letter, with its artificial enthusiasm, is dated March fourteenth, -1791, three months before the King’s flight and his arrest at Varennes, -and less than two years before his murder on the scaffold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_081" style="width: 288px;"> -<a href="images/ill_094.png"> -<img src="images/ill_094.png" width="288" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FROM THE PONTE DELLA PIETÀ</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span></p> - -<p>Cappello’s successor as Ambassador in Paris, Alvise Pisani, continued to -keep his government informed of what occurred. On the twenty-fifth of -September 1791, Louis XVI. addressed another letter to his ‘most dear -friends, allies, and confederates,’ the Venetians, in which he expresses -the certainty that they will be rejoiced to hear of his having signed -the Constitution, which had so greatly shocked Cappello. In spite of the -painful impression produced by these documents, it was necessary to -answer them, if only as a matter of etiquette.</p> - -<p>The position of the Republic was a difficult one. Prudence required the -strictest neutrality as to the affairs of other nations; but the mere -fact that every one recognised this as Venice’s only possible position -exposed her to perfidious and secret attacks of all sorts. France -maintained a vast number of secret agents to propagate revolutionary -doctrines in the Venetian territory, and at the same time lost no -opportunity of trying to pick a quarrel with the Republic, by insulting -her flag. On the twenty-ninth of November 1792, the captain of a French -man-of-war, bearing a Spanish name, the <i>Buenos Ayres</i>, asked permission -to land with eight men on the Venetian shore, but refused to submit to -the regulations of the Health Office. His request was refused. Thereupon -he proceeded to abuse the Venetian government from the deck of his ship. -He wound up by declaring that there was no such thing existing as a -Sovereign Government, that all men were equal, and that he was a -magistrate, as good as any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span> senator. He chose to land, and he would land -if he chose. A Venetian galley hindered him</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 219.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">from doing so, but as he made off he cried out: ‘You will change your -minds in a year!’</p> - -<p>Poor France! She herself was to learn a century later that all men are -equal—in the eyes of German Jews.</p> - -<p>At that time Austria allied herself with Piedmont to oppose the French -invasion which was imminent, and the Venetian Envoy at the court of -Turin continually advised his government to join this league, which -alone could save the Republic and the other Italian powers.</p> - -<p>The Committee of the Savi who had absorbed the government of Venice -simply by saving trouble to all the other officials, allowed the Senate -to</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 195.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">discuss this proposition, probably because they understood its vast -importance. But the Senate declared for strict neutrality, and the Savi -felt that after this they were free to do as they pleased, and from that -time they decided according to their own judgment as to the question of -showing any despatch to the Councils or of suppressing it in order to -avoid public discussions.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, they felt the danger of the moment enough to recall the -Venetian vessels stationed at Malta and Corfu, in order to defend the -approaches to Venice, a measure which displeased France on the ground -that it was a preparation for hostilities. Thus the success of the -French army in Savoy obliged the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span> Savi to call in the Senate again, to -discuss the public safety. The ‘fathers of their country’ were at that -time mostly in their country places, thoroughly enjoying themselves; but -they too must have felt that there was danger in the air, for they -answered the summons of Francesco Pesaro, the presiding Savio for the -week. A lively discussion took place, but once more neutrality was voted -by a strong majority, and the government of the Savi now entered upon a -course of half measures more dangerous in reality than any one mistake -could have been. Permission was granted to the Imperial troops to -transport provisions from Trieste to Goro, and with a last revival of -the business spirit the Republic violated the neutrality she had voted -by selling corn and oats to the Austrians. At this the Venetian -Ambassador withdrew to London for safety, leaving his secretary in -charge.</p> - -<p>An incident now occurred in Venice</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 203.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">which was calculated to bring matters to a crisis.</p> - -<p>The French Ambassador, who had quitted Venice, had left in charge of the -Embassy a certain Monsieur Henin, who had taken as his private secretary -a priest called Alessandri. On the twenty-ninth of December 1792 this -priest was sent for in haste by the Superior of the bare-footed -Carmelites of the monastery of San Geremia, close to the palace occupied -by the French Embassy. He was introduced with some mystery, but with no -loss of time, and was conducted to the Superior’s room, where he was -warned that unless he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span> left Venice by the sixth of January, he would be -assassinated. There was a plot to kill him, but one of the intended -murderers had confessed to the Superior himself, and under the seal of -confession had begged the monk to save Alessandri’s life.</p> - -<p>The priest, who does not seem to have been timid, was much surprised, -but promised nothing as to leaving the city, though he appears to have -at once considered</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_082" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_095.png"> -<img src="images/ill_095.png" width="500" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>ON THE WAY TO FUSINA, FROM THE MOUTH OF THE BRENTA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">the means of getting away. But on that same evening the Superior -received an anonymous note with these words: ‘Either the Abbé Alessandri -will leave Venice to-morrow, and at once quit Venetian territory, or -something serious will happen to him.’ The Superior sent for Alessandri -again. The note, strange to say, had been delivered together with -fifteen gold sequins, which the unknown writer sent to help the priest’s -flight.</p> - -<p>The priest now lost no time, but left at once for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span> Fusina on the -mainland, and finding no means of getting on at once, pursued his -journey on foot. He had left with the monk a written receipt for the -money, which he had been forced to accept, and he had also informed his -employer, Monsieur Henin, of the cause of his sudden departure.</p> - -<p>Monsieur Henin was furious, and not without some reason. He wrote a -violent letter to the Venetian Government, inquiring how an unknown -person could dare anything so outrageous in a well-regulated community. -Who was instigating the outrageous crime? What monster had paid fifteen -sequins to have the murder committed? What was the meaning of the -pretended confession? Why did the villainous author of the abominable -plan drag a monk into the plot? This was the gist of Monsieur Henin’s -letter, and he ended by demanding the immediate arrest and condign -punishment of the murderer, or murderers, and the recall of his fugitive -secretary, who, he insisted, must be so well guarded by the government -as not to be in fear of his life.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of Embassy certainly had right on his side so far, but he -followed up his letter in an interview with one of the Inquisitors, in -which he declared his belief that it was the government itself that -threatened Alessandri. The Inquisitors might have answered that they -disposed of much simpler and surer means than the hand of a hired -assassin whenever they wished to be rid of an obnoxious person. Henin -suggested, too, that the outrage was instigated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span> Austria in order to -exasperate France, an idea which seems deficient in logic.</p> - -<p>Henin appears to have been a violent sort of person, and anything but a -diplomatist. Of course he had right on his side, but Alessandri, on -inquiry, turned out to be a bad character, and anything but the ‘mild, -tranquil, reticent, and retiring’ creature of fifty-six, whom the -Frenchman represented him to be. He had been obliged to leave his native -city, Trent, for debt and various misdemeanours; he was a violent -revolutionary, and in his ‘tranquil retirement’ he dwelt with a -disreputable woman of the people, whom he had enticed away from her -family; from which facts it was easy to argue that he had made himself -the object of some private vengeance.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, and although Henin had not at that time any proper -credentials as <i>Chargé d’Affaires</i>, the Inquisitors thought it best to -avoid disturbance, and Alessandri was brought back and properly -protected. Almost immediately upon this Henin received credential -letters from his government, and asked to present them to the Senate.</p> - -<p>The Savi, who detested the man, were much disturbed; and as the Senate -and the Great Council left the matter to them, they asked the assistance</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 207.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of those of their colleagues who had served their time and retired. As -they wore black cloaks the people nicknamed them the ‘Consulta Nera,’ -the ‘Black Cabinet.’</p> - -<p>Not to receive the official representative of the new<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span> French government -would have been contrary to the policy of strict neutrality adopted by -the Venetian Republic; to receive him was to irritate Austria and to -expose Venice to an attack from that side. She had pursued a policy of -half measures, and the end of half measures is always a fall between two -stools. The fall was precipitated by the soothing eloquence of one of -the speakers, who assured his colleagues that all Europe would -understand and forgive them for yielding to necessity.</p> - -<p>The Senate accordingly voted with the Black Cabinet that Henin should be -received, but instructed its ambassadors at the various European courts -to convey information of the fact with all the circumspection possible, -and in such a way as to palliate the action of the Venetian government -in the eyes of the world.</p> - -<p>While this was going on, the secretary whom the Venetian Ambassador -Pisani had left in charge at Paris, wrote an eloquent letter describing -the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1793.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">death of Louis XVI., and he sent at the same time a scrap of the cloak -which the King had worn on his way to the scaffold. This caused the most -profound emotion. In the Senate, Angelo Quirini loudly declared that all -diplomatic relations with a government of hangmen and executioners must -be instantly broken off.</p> - -<p>The matter was still in discussion when Henin demanded, in the name of -his government, the authorisation to place the arms of the French -Republic over the door of his residence. As his credentials had been -accepted it was impossible to refuse this request, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span> the general -indignation of the better sort of the people was unbounded.</p> - -<p>There were now two parties in Venice. On the one hand, the secret -emissaries of France preached revolutionary doctrines, and stirred up -the criminal classes; on the other, a vast literature of pamphlets, -articles, satires, and caricatures, all attacking the French, were -openly circulated throughout the city. In the hope of diverting the -attention of the whole population from political matters the Savi made -frantic and extravagant efforts to amuse everybody. The very last -carnival before the end was the most magnificent ever remembered.</p> - -<p>In the year of the French King’s murder, Bonaparte was a captain of -artillery, and France was about to face the first coalition of the -powers, after putting down the royalists in Vendée.</p> - -<p>Henin continued to annoy the Signory in every possible way, and made the -smallest incidents the subjects of official complaint and protest. He -was at last recalled, but his successor was a man called Noël, who was -such a notoriously bad character that the Venetian Senate put off -receiving his credentials again and again on all sorts of grounds, -doubtless believing, too, that the French revolutionary government was -not going to last even so long as it did. To gain time was to save -dignity, thought the Senators. But Noël grew tired of waiting, and -abruptly returned to Paris in a very bad humour, to stir up against -Venice the resentment of the Committee of Public Safety.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span></p> - -<p>It was now no longer an easy matter to keep up</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_083" style="width: 385px;"> -<a href="images/ill_096.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_096.jpg" width="385" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>A LONELY CANAL</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">appearances of neutrality. England, especially, lost no <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span>opportunity of -urging Venice to join the European League, and Worsley, the last English -Minister, was perpetually insisting on a rupture with France.</p> - -<p>Another circumstance occurred to increase the difficulty of Venice’s -position. The Comte de Lille, afterwards Louis XVIII., who styled -himself Regent of France during the captivity of his nephew, the -unfortunate child Louis XVII., being obliged to leave Piedmont, asked -permission to reside in Verona, and the Signory, anxiously hoping for a -restoration in France, received him with the honours due to his rank and -the welcome a friend might expect. At this the French Republic took -umbrage and protested violently, but the Venetians answered that the -presence of the Comte de Lille in Verona, where he led a retired life, -was no violation of neutrality.</p> - -<p>The Savi now had more on their hands than they could manage, for they -were obliged at one and the same time to watch the movements of the -revolutionary propaganda and to keep themselves informed of the doings -of the royalist party who plotted in Venice to restore the French -monarchy. And meanwhile, in spite of a nominal press censorship, the -<i>Postiglione</i> newspaper satirised the French Republic in the bitterest -manner, giving Robespierre constant cause of complaint.</p> - -<p>Diplomatic relations were now strained almost to the breaking point. -Pisani was still supposed to be the Venetian Ambassador in Paris, though</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 231-239.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">he resided in London, and the French <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span>Envoy in Venice had left in -disgust at not being received. On the latter point the French yielded, -and sent another and more respectable representative, a certain -Lallement, whom the Signory consented to receive in spite of the -objections of the English Minister.</p> - -<p>The question now arose, who was to succeed Pisani in Paris, and how the -new envoy was to be styled. Lallement had brought very simply worded -credentials, and had agreed to assume any designation which the Signory -desired. The Savi were much distressed about this matter, but they -selected Aloise Quirini for the mission, and at last decided that he -should be addressed neither as Ambassador nor Minister, but simply as -‘the Noble Quirini.’ They could hardly have chosen a title better -calculated to irritate a government which held that nobility was a worse -crime than forgery or assassination.</p> - -<p>The Noble Quirini accordingly went to Paris with a very magnificent -salary, and with instructions to keep up the splendid traditions of -former Venetian representatives abroad.</p> - -<p>But meanwhile the child Louis XVII. had disappeared from the scene, and -the Comte de Lille, or the Comte de Provence as he was called</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 252.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">when not travelling incognito, was a source of much anxiety to Venice. -He was now undoubtedly the legitimate King of France, and his modest -residence in Verona had become a court at which every point of etiquette -was most rigorously <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span>observed. The European powers encouraged him in his -efforts to restore the monarchy in his own person, and England, Austria, -and Russia sent envoys to him in Verona without in the least considering -the difficulties which their action might cause the Venetian government.</p> - -<p>At this juncture France invented another form of government, and -Lallement appeared before the Senate with an entirely new set of -credentials as</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1796.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the Envoy of the Directory, which, he declared, was no less disposed -than its predecessors in power to remain ‘in perfect understanding and -on the most friendly terms’ with the Venetian Republic. The man who was -to end the hideous and grotesque succession of butcheries and farces -which had lasted seven years was in favour with this last-hatched and -half-fledged government, and his dominating influence was beginning to -be felt. Bonaparte was now twenty-six years old; he was grown up.</p> - -<p>A few months earlier Lallement had read before the Venetian Senate a -proclamation which the ‘Representatives of the People’ sent to the army</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1795.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of the Alps, as a general warning against the Genoese, the Tuscans, and -the Venetians, who, in spite of their protestations of friendship, -allowed their ships to capture and plunder French vessels on the high -seas. By the end of 1795 the French were masters of the Riviera, having -beaten the Austrians very badly.</p> - -<p>Venice was now accused of having violated her neutrality by allowing the -passage of Austrian troops<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span> through her dominions. She answered that she -had acted in accordance with a very ancient treaty which accorded the -Empire the use of the road to Gambara, and that she was as neutral as -ever; but this the French found it hard to believe. When further accused -of favouring royalist intrigues, the Signory made a show of punishing -the authors of a few libels on the Directory.</p> - -<p>As for Louis XVIII., as the Comte de Lille was now called by his -adherents, Venice was reluctantly obliged to ask him to leave her -territory, as the Directory threatened war if he remained.</p> - -<p>He departed, shaking the dust from his feet. He demanded that the name -of his family should be</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Smedley, Sketches from Venetian History, ii. chap. xx. -note.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">erased from the Golden Book, and that the armour of his ancestor Henry -IV. should be given back to him. This armour Smedley rightly conjectures -to have been the sword worn by Henry IV. at the battle of Ivry, with -which he had knighted the Venetian Ambassadors after his accession, and -which he then presented to the Treasury of Saint Mark’s.</p> - -<p>The Signory entirely refused to accede to the Comte de Lille’s demands. -It could not deprive itself, it replied, of the satisfaction of counting -the royal family of France amongst its nobility, and it could not bring -itself to part with such a valuable gift as it had received from Henry -IV.; and with this quiet answer to the Russian envoy who represented him -the Comte de Lille had to be satisfied.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span></p> - -<p>But France was not, and the Inquisitors received many private warnings -to the effect that the French government would seize upon any pretext -for attacking Venice. ‘Arm, if you hope not to be trodden under foot!’ -Such was the burden of these fruitless messages.</p> - -<p>Austria, Sardinia, Naples, and Pius VII. openly allied themselves -together, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena secretly promised their -help. Genoa was paralysed by the vicinity of the French army; Tuscany -was playing the game of neutrality, like Venice.</p> - -<p>The Signory had great confidence in the army of the allies and in its -chief, Bonaparte was only a boy; the old general Beaulieu would easily -beat him.</p> - -<p>But the Signory was mistaken. The boy had grown up—‘Napoleon, Apollyon, -destroyer of Cities, being a Lion roaming about,’ as the barbarous Greek -jest on his name has it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_084" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_097.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_097.jpg" width="500" height="416" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>EVENING</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XVII" id="XVII"></a>XVII<br /><br /> -THE LAST HOUR</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> end was at hand when Bonaparte crossed the river Po. One is apt to -forget that he had already showed himself to be much more than a -victorious</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1796. Rom. ix. 284.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">general, and that throughout the campaign he displayed that marvellous -skill in dealing with men which so often ensured him an enthusiastic -reception in places where he could not have been expected to be -welcome.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span></p> - -<p>He had soon realised the horrible impression produced everywhere outside -of France by the Revolution, the Terror, and the Committee of Public -Safety, and he hastened, by his numberless agents, to exalt the virtues -of the Directory. They were not a herd of bloodthirsty ruffians, he -taught, but an assemblage of the future saviours of mankind, who were to -emancipate the world from all those ancient political and social -prejudices which had so long held it in bondage.</p> - -<p>He could not unteach the scum of the Italian populace what the agents of -the Revolution had taught it with such lavish expenditure in -disreputable taverns and worse resorts, but he could control the -teachers and gradually change the direction of the education. The -Venetian gondoliers could be taught something, too, and the Venetian -Barnabotti could be bribed to learn anything, and to impart what they -learned.</p> - -<p>‘No organisation,’ says Bonnal, ‘was ever superior to his (Bonaparte’s), -no revolutionary organisation was ever more formidable. We mean -“revolutionary” as regards the legitimate governments</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Bonnal, Chute d’une République, 273-274.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">existing in Italy, with which we were not at war, and as regards the -means used.... It was at Milan that his system became a definite -official service, both political and military. Thence arose two -principal offices exactly answering the aim he was pursuing, that is, -the political propaganda and the military propaganda. By means of the -political propaganda he sought to bring about either the substitution of -one domination for another, or the modification of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span> the forms of -government.... Lombardy is an example of the first case, the Italian -Duchies of the second. By his military propaganda he roused the -populations to arms, sometimes against the legitimate sovereign, as -happened in Venice and Parma, sometimes against a foreign power, as at -Milan.’</p> - -<p>Once more, as in the war of the Spanish succession, the Venetian -territory became a refuge and a provision market for two hostile armies. -The fortresses, as has been seen, were really at the mercy of any one -who chose to occupy them. On the ninth of May the Imperial troops, -yielding to the request of Contarini the Governor of Crema, and -supposing the place to be capable of defence, consented to pass by the -city without entering it. If they had insisted no one could have -hindered them, and the letter Contarini afterwards wrote to the Venetian -government disturbed even the astounding optimism of the Savi. The -latter were shocked when they thought of the risk they had run, and by -way of getting rid of all further responsibility they appointed a -Provveditor to watch over the safety of the Venetian territory. More -than this their worst enemies could not have expected them to do. They -selected a Foscarini for the office, and were particularly careful to -admonish him that he must ‘preserve intact the tranquillity of the -Republic, and administer comfort and consolation to its subjects.’ I -translate literally the phrase, which sounds like the drivelling of an -old man in second childhood.</p> - -<p>The imperial troops were barely out of sight of</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="plt_013" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_098.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_098.jpg" width="500" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>OUT IN THE LAGOON</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383">{383}</a></span></p> - -<p>Crema when the French appeared, and Contarini renewed his request that -the city might not be entered. Berthier consented, but requisitioned -provisions and forage. Soon afterwards came Bonaparte himself and he -also consented to pass on, but not until he had squeezed every particle -of available information out of the governor, whose letter narrating the -interview gives a remarkably clear idea of the great young man’s -conversation.</p> - -<p>The Senate wrote to the Commander of the fortress of Peschiera not to -allow any foreign soldiers to enter under any circumstances. I have -described the condition of the place elsewhere, and the unlucky colonel -at once answered, inquiring what in the world he was to do in order to -prevent the passage of the Imperial troops.</p> - -<p>The Austrian general Liptay found it convenient to install himself in -Peschiera for some time, and when the Republic protested, he answered -with admirable coolness and much truth that the place was not a fortress -at all, and that he was encamped there as the French were in the fields -towards Brescia.</p> - -<p>Even Bonaparte understood the absurdity of this case. ‘The truth about -the affair of Peschiera,’ he wrote to the Directory, ‘is that the -Venetians</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 297-299.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">have been duped by Beaulieu; he asked leave to pass with fifty men and -then made himself master of the city.’</p> - -<p>In spite of this conviction, Bonaparte took advantage of the incident to -declare to the Provveditor Foscarini that he would burn Verona to punish -the Venetians<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384">{384}</a></span> for having favoured the Austrian troops; and Foscarini, -obliged to act on the spur of the moment and without consulting the -government, opened the gates of Verona to Masséna on receiving the -latter’s assurance that the city should not be burned. He probably -fancied that he had obtained a great concession, and did not understand -that Verona was absolutely necessary to the French as a base from which -to advance on Mantua, held by the Imperial troops.</p> - -<p>The news of the occupation of Verona produced the utmost alarm in -Venice, yet the Great Council was not summoned, nor was there a regular -sitting of the Senate. The days had gone by when the great bell of Saint -Mark’s was rung backward to call every fighting man to arms, and every -aged Senator to the Council. The handful of scared and vacillating men -who had steered Venice to her end met stealthily by night in the Casino -Pesaro, more like conspirators than defenders of their country. Most of -them fancied the French already in the lagoons, if not in the city; -some, forgetting that they had neither troops nor captains, were for -defence to the death; some, who had secretly adopted revolutionary ideas -and principles, rejoiced at heart because the end was so near.</p> - -<p>Such a meeting of such men could come to nothing; and nothing was -decided except that Foscarini, the Provveditor, should be assisted by -two other nobles, commissioned to negotiate with Bonaparte.</p> - -<p>They went and found him apparently in the mildest and most friendly -humour, but the report of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385">{385}</a></span> interview with him reached the Senate -together with a communication from the Inquisitors explaining -Bonaparte’s plan for taking possession of the fort of</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_085" style="width: 454px;"> -<a href="images/ill_099.png"> -<img src="images/ill_099.png" width="454" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>THE SALUTE FROM THE LAGOON</p></div> -</div> - -<p>Legnago, making sure of the free navigation of the Adige, and -threatening to destroy Venice in order to extort a sum of five or six -millions of francs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386">{386}</a></span></p> - -<p>So Venice, still theoretically neutral, was driven to collect such poor -forces as she had by land and sea, in order to defend herself against -the depredations of the combatants. She had not a single general to -direct her men, or to plan a defence. Three nobles were in charge of her -boundaries on the mainland; another was made responsible for the -capital, and two were placed in charge of the lagoons. A war-tax was -levied, too, and it is due to the citizens of the dying State to say -that they were generous to their country to the last. Many citizens of -all classes gave large sums of their own free will to help the defence, -and not in Venice only; the cities of Friuli and Dalmatia, and even -small communities at a great distance, made heavy sacrifices -spontaneously for the public safety.</p> - -<p>The historian Romanin was of opinion that even at that moment, if the -government had found resolution enough to sacrifice all her possessions -on</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 321.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">the mainland, as at the time of the League of Cambrai, a clever -diplomacy might yet have saved the State. But he was a Venetian and a -most patriotic one, and he could not understand that it needed something -more than skill to keep Venice alive, that it needed life itself, the -life that was all spent, at last, after more than a thousand years.</p> - -<p>The Provveditor for the lagoons, Giacomo Nani, wrote to the Doge the -courageous words: ‘A State has not the right to possess provinces which -it cannot defend.’ He, too, remembered the League of Cambrai. But the -Doge was not to be roused; it was no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span> vacillation, it was -paralysis of the will that made him follow the Senate. Yet Nani’s -letters determined the Savi to look about for some general into whose -hands the whole defence might be given. It was the old tradition of -employing the condottiero; but there was only one man alive just then -who had the genius and the conviction that save a cause all but lost; he -was a man who could have stopped a host with Falstaff’s ragged company, -and he was at the gates of Venice. The Savi hit upon the Prince of -Nassau as a possible captain, but Austria stepped in and forbade that he -should be called.</p> - -<p>The King of Naples now signed an armistice with the French, and -Bonaparte made himself at home on the Venetian mainland, quartering his -troops at Bergamo, Brescia, and Crema without ceremony, and merely -notifying the Venetian Senate that he did so, as if no excuse were -needed. He took the Venetian guns he found at Legnago and used them at -the siege of Mantua as if they were his own. Bonaparte was well aware of -the truth of what Nani had written to the Doge, and he took full -advantage of the axiom. If the governors of the cities in which he chose -to stop did not please him, he wrote them notes like the following:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>... I beg you, Sir, to let me know what game we are playing, for I -do not believe you will allow your brothers in arms [the French -soldiers!] to die without help</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 341.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">within the walls of Brescia, or to be murdered on <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388">{388}</a></span>the highroad. If -you are not able to keep order in your country, and to make the -city of Brescia furnish what is needed for establishing hospitals -and for the wants of the troops, I shall have to take more -efficient measures.—Believe me, with feelings of esteem and -consideration,</p> - -<p class="r"> -<span class="smcap">Bonaparte</span>.<br /> -</p></div> - -<p>Bonnal says of him that he avenged legitimate complaints with a host of -accusations and denials, and with unmistakable threats; and the -Venetians</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Bonnal, 275.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">made excuses. Whereupon Bonaparte answered that he would ‘beat the -Austrians and make the Venetians pay for the war.’ Which he did.</p> - -<p>At the same time he was writing to the Directory:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>... I am obliged to be indignant with the Provveditor, to -exaggerate the number of assassinations, etc., in order that he, to -calm my fury, may furnish me everything I</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. ix. 351.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">need; they will continue to give us what we want, willingly or by -force, until Mantua is taken, after which I shall demand of them -such contribution as you may order me, which will not be in the -least difficult.</p></div> - -<p>If Bonaparte could find pretexts for accusing the Venetians of helping -the Austrians, the latter had excellent reasons for complaining that -Venice helped the French. Austria and France were the two stools between -which half measures had led the Republic, and between which she fell.</p> - -<p>The position of the French army was not enviable at that time, and the -alliance of Venice would really have been worth having, which was the -reason why her obstinate efforts at neutrality exasperated Bonaparte to -such a degree. At last his patience gave out and he<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389">{389}</a></span> ordered General -Baraguay d’Hilliers, the father of the marshal of that name who died in -1878,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Twenty-fifth of December 1796.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">to occupy Bergamo, not as a guest, but as master. The Austrians at once -replied by seizing Palma and Osopo.</p> - -<p>The peasants and the small communities were now driven to extremities; -for the Government had left them to their fate, and they were plundered -alike by the French and the Austrians. Discontent spread rapidly, and -the rural population may be supposed to have been in the best possible -disposition to receive the revolutionary doctrines by which Bonaparte -had already called into existence the Cispadane Republic. That -short-lived affair was made up of the cities and territories of Ferrara, -Bologna, Modena, and Reggio d’Emilia, and was momentarily the -headquarters of republicanism. In spite of all that the remnant of -government in Venice could do against it, its influence was felt on -Venetian territory. Behind all, the propaganda of Milan worked</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 12.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">steadily to carry out Bonaparte’s plan under General Landrieux, whom he -had deputed to take charge of that end of it.</p> - -<p>Bergamo was the first city to rise and drive out the Venetian governor, -in order to join the Cispadane Republic; the city of Brescia followed,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi, 356.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">naturally enough. But the country people of the two provinces still -remained faithful to the Republic, and the peasants about Brescia were -so indignant with the city for its defection that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390">{390}</a></span> would have -marched upon it to burn it down if they had not been hindered by their -Bishop, Dolfin. At Vallesabbia, certain emissaries of the republicans -from the city were so ill received that they fled precipitately in fear -of their lives.</p> - -<p>Two days after the latter incident, the inhabitants of the villages of -the valley met in a field</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>March 1797.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">near Nozze, and drew up the following declaration, which was approved -with absolute unanimity.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Vallesabbia</span>, -<i>March 27th, 1797</i>.</p> - -<p>In order to record its own fidelity and obedience to its beloved -Prince of Venice, and taking oath of perpetual loyalty and -adherence to the said Prince, this body votes that if persons of -any class or condition are found in this Valley having the cockade -of rebels against the Prince of Venice, and actually having that -cockade on their hats, any one shall be free to arrest them, and -let him have a prize of three hundred lire piccole for each one, of -[the funds of] the Valley.</p> - -<p>And let this present vote be made known in every commune and put up -in the usual and habitual places for public notices; and it is not -to go into effect for three days, within which the parish priests -in their parishes shall publicly give notice of it to the people. -And if gangs of rebels against the Prince of Venice, or troops of -theirs, enter the Valley, the communities comprising the Valley -shall ring the bells with a hammer [meaning to ring them out, and -not to ‘chime’ them only]; and whosoever is between sixteen and -sixty years old, and whosoever else will volunteer, is to take arms -in the name of the Valley to arrest them [rebels or troops], and -may also kill them; and whoever refuses shall be punished by -confiscation of all his goods.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391">{391}</a></span></p> - -<p>The government might have done something to encourage people capable of -such devotion; it might at least have ordered them to send deputations -to the capital to give information of the state of the country. This the -province of Verona asked to be allowed to do, through the Marchese -Scipione Maffei, in a petition which the Savi suppressed, without even</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 32.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">presenting it to the Great Council, because they considered that it -might lead to dangerous discussion. They confined themselves to -recommending every subject of the most Serene Republic to act with the -greatest circumspection towards all the French, as the Venetians had no -means of defending themselves against the latter’s pretensions.</p> - -<p>In spite of the bad impression made by such weakness, more than thirty -thousand men from the provinces volunteered to put down the republican -rising, but they had to be sent home for lack of funds and weapons. One -hundred young men of the burgher class offered to arm and support -themselves at their own expense. From all this it is clear enough that, -at the very last, the descendants of the nobles who had made Venice were -responsible</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Nievo, Memorie d’un ottuagenario, 262.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">for her fall. Ippolito Nievo said pithily, that the Venetian aristocracy -was a corpse that could not revive, while the Venetian people were a -living race shut up with it in the tomb.</p> - -<p>The republican revolution thus progressed almost without finding any -resistance and practically aided and abetted by the French troops. -Bonaparte was so sure<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392">{392}</a></span> of his plan that he did not even make a mystery -of it to the envoys of the Venetian Republic who met him at Goritz. He -actually offered to pacify the Venetian provinces for the modest sum of -a million of francs monthly for six months, which was generous, -considering that he alone had caused all the disturbance. A Venetian -noble of the fifteenth century would certainly have got the better of -him in such a matter of business, but he was too much for the two nobles -with whom he had to deal. The monthly million was granted, but on -condition that he was not to interfere in the civil discord that -distracted the Republic, and not to hinder the government in its efforts -to reduce the rebellious cities to subordination.</p> - -<p>Such an attempt was made, and the insurgents were beaten more than once, -and some of the ringleaders were brought to Venice. In other times</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 56.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">they would have been tried by the Council of Ten and hanged within -twenty-four hours; now they were merely confined in the fort on the -Lido, in charge of two nobles, Tommaso Soranzo and Domenico Tiepolo, who -were recommended ‘to treat them charitably.’</p> - -<p>But these successes so greatly encouraged the reaction against the -insurrection that Bonaparte feared lest he should lose some of the -fruits of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi St. 356, 357.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">his industrious propaganda. Accordingly, by his instructions, General -Landrieux accused the Venetian troops of threatening the French army in -the valleys of Bergamo, and ordered the Venetian Governor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393">{393}</a></span> Battaglia, -to be put in irons, and his ‘accomplices’ to be hanged. These were mere -threats, of course, but after that the rebels were openly supported by -the French. On the other hand, the communities that meant to remain -faithful to the Republic invoked its help a last time before returning -the weapons they had taken from the insurgents, and swore that if they -were only given a leader they would die to a man in defence of Venice. -Even after the French had occupied the whole Venetian territory the -Senate still received loyal letters from Vallesabbia; one of these ended -with these words: ‘Our hearts will always be for Saint Mark, and we -therefore swear to break any promise that may be before long got from us -by force, at the first sight of the Venetian standard we love.’</p> - -<p>The truce of Judenburg between France and Austria was destined in -Bonaparte’s opinion to decide the destinies of the Republic. Junot -appeared suddenly in Venice on Good Friday, bringing a despatch from -Bonaparte dated the ninth of April. A more violent and theatrical -document can hardly be imagined. The general accuses the Venetians of -rousing the country people to murder the French and ordering a perfect -Massacre of the Innocents. His magnificent generosity has met with -‘impious perfidy’ on the part of the Senate. His adjutant offers peace -or war, and war is declared if the authors of the massacres are not -delivered. Observe, that as there had been no massacres, no authors of -them could be given up, and therefore the declaration of war was made; -Bonaparte was always logical.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">{394}</a></span> He was ‘not a Turk,’ he adds; he was not -even an enemy. These were ‘not the days of Charles VIII.,’ and he gave -the Venetians twenty-four hours to realise the fact or perish. But he -would not come like their ‘assassins,’ to ‘lay waste the lands of an -innocent and unhappy people.’ He came to protect. The people would ‘one -day bless even the crimes which had obliged the French army to free them -from the tyranny of Venice.’</p> - -<p>Bonaparte’s name is still execrated throughout Italy, and in a large -part of the south ‘French’ means ‘abominable.’ Even the southern sailors -call a dangerous storm ‘French weather.’</p> - -<p>Junot had been informed that the government could transact no business -till after Holy Week, but he insisted on being received, and read the -despatch before the Doge and the Signory in an imperious tone. Bonaparte -possessed a marvellous dramatic sense, and he trained his men to act his -comedies to perfection. In the part of the Avenging Angel, Junot was -terribly impressive.</p> - -<p>It may be supposed that even then Venice had a choice: she might submit, -or perish bravely in self-defence. But such men as Ludovico Manin and -the Savi were not free to choose. No weak man is when the strong man has -him by the collar. The Signory was used to humiliation, and was past -shame, and it followed to the end the path it had chosen.</p> - -<p>The truce between France and Austria continued, but only the possession -of Venice could be the basis of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395">{395}</a></span> a durable peace. Bonaparte’s plan was -to exasperate the Venetians till they really violated their neutrality, -and then to seize the city. No one ever comments on the morality of -conquerors nowadays. Virtue has nothing to do with the greatness of -princes. Bonaparte’s scheme was odious, of course, but it succeeded.</p> - -<p>It had been part of the comedy to christen a ship of the French fleet -‘the <i>Liberator of Italy</i>.’ With this vessel a certain commander, -Laugier,</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 112 sqq.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was despatched to carry out Bonaparte’s stratagem. The ship sailed up -towards the Lido, stopped a fishing-boat, and took an old</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>April twentieth, 1797.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">fisherman for a pilot. The man protested that foreign war vessels were -not allowed to enter the harbour. Laugier threatened to hang him, and -set him to con the wheel, after asking him many questions as to the -vessels of which Venice disposed.</p> - -<p>When the ship was opposite the Lido she saluted, and the guns of the San -Nicola Fort answered; as Laugier did not bring to, the commander of the -fort, Domenico Pizzamano, sent two boats alongside him to warn him not -to enter, yet the French captain took no notice. Other French vessels -were following at a distance; Pizzamano fired two shots to warn them -off, and they bore away. Laugier now said he was going to anchor, though -he did not clew up his top-gallant sails nor otherwise shorten sail; it -is clear that there was only a very light breeze on that day.</p> - -<p>A Venetian galley lay at her moorings in the Lido harbour, and Laugier -proceeded to foul her, inten<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396">{396}</a></span>tionally without doubt, for he evidently -knew his business. This was enough. The two vessels were close -alongside, and their crews were fighting one another in an instant. At -the same time the cannon from Fort Sant’ Andrea chimed in, and an -indescribable confusion followed. Laugier was killed by a ball; the old -fisherman who had steered him in was wounded, and died soon afterwards. -The Venetians got the better of the fight, and plundered the French war -vessel in spite of Pizzamano’s desperate efforts to prevent it. The -French officers and crew were handed over to the ‘benevolent custody’ of -Tommaso Soranzo and Domenico Tiepolo.</p> - -<p>The account of the affair sent by the Minister, Lallement, to the -Directory was wholly untrue, of course; but Bonaparte had what he -wanted.</p> - -<p>He was so sure of it that by the preliminary treaty of Leoben, preceding -the treaty of Campo-Formio, he had already ceded to Austria all the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>April eighteenth. Rom. x. 121, and Document at 377.</i></div> - -<p>Venetian provinces that lay between the Po, the Oglio, and the Adriatic; -it was pretended that in compensation for these she was to receive the -three legations of Romagna, Ferrara, and Bologna.</p> - -<p>Much of this preliminary agreement had been kept secret; but the -Venetian Ambassador in Vienna, Grimani, knew of the general tenor of the -document, and warned the Senate that it was intended to dismember the -Venetian territory.</p> - -<p>The Senate was roused from its apathy when it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397">{397}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_086" style="width: 348px;"> -<a href="images/ill_100.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_100.jpg" width="348" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>FROM THE PONTE S. ROCCO</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398">{398}</a></span></p> - -<p class="nind">too late, and now sat permanently. Orders were given that no stranger -was to be allowed to enter the city unless bearing official letters, and -no ship was to pass into the lagoons that did not fly the Venetian flag. -Some attempt was made to get more vessels ready for sea.</p> - -<p>The French had not wasted time, and a general insurrection had broken -out under their management in all the cities of the mainland. Within -twenty-four hours the governors of Padua, Verona, and other important -places came in for refuge, as also the Provveditors of the army, whose -occupation was gone.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile two nobles, Francesco Donà and Leonardo Giustiniani, had been -sent in haste to Gratz, after Junot’s appearance, and they were received -by Bonaparte on the twenty-fifth of April. The interview that followed -is highly characteristic of the man when it suited his ends to work -himself into a fury. The political prisoners were to be liberated, or he -would ‘come and break down the Piombi; he would have no Inquisition, no -antique barbarities.’ He spoke of the imaginary massacre of his innocent -troops. ‘His army cried vengeance, and he could not refuse it.’ ‘If all -the culprits were not punished, if the English Minister were not driven -away, if the people were not disarmed, if all the prisoners were not set -free, if Venice would not choose between France and England, he declared -war.’ ‘He would have no Inquisition, no Senate, he would be an Attila to -the Venetian State.’ And much more to the same effect, all of which is -on record.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399">{399}</a></span> The two Venetians answered sensibly, when they could get in -a word, but Bonaparte meant war, and when he meant that he would listen -to no one.</p> - -<p>Having acted his scene, he asked the two to dinner and proceeded to -extract information from them, after his manner. His inquiries chiefly -concerned the horrors attributed to the aristocratic government by the -very imaginative French democratic mind; for the lower classes, being -nearer to nature, have always had much more imagination than their -social betters, which explains their belief in ghost stones, hidden -treasures, and the rights of man.</p> - -<p>After dinner Bonaparte condescended to state his demands. He wanted -twenty-two millions from the Venetian mint and all English drafts -deposited in Venice. That was all. There was no mention of the Duke of -Mantua’s treasure, from which the envoys suspected that it was included -in the secret treaty of Leoben, but I find no mention of it in that -curious document, though it may have been tacitly included in Article -VI. which provided for the restitution of Mantua and other places to -Austria.</p> - -<p>Having thus expressed himself, Bonaparte left the envoys to their -reflections and went off to Bruck. Almost at the same time they received -news of the fighting at the Lido, with instructions to inform Bonaparte -of the death of Laugier, with all the caution possible; they did so by -letter, and probably congratulated themselves on not being materially -able to convey the news by word of mouth; but they nevertheless<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400">{400}</a></span> really -asked another audience. He answered in a fury, called Laugier’s death an -assassination, and spoke of them and the Venetian Senate as ‘dripping -with French blood.’ If they had anything new to tell him, he would -receive them, he said, after writing on the same page that he would not.</p> - -<p>They went before him again, poor men, and listened once more to his -furious language. ‘Not a hundred millions of money, not all the gold of -Peru, would now prevent him from avenging the blood of his men,’ and so -forth, and so on. This was the truth, as he had purposely risked -shedding it for the very purpose of being revenged.</p> - -<p>On the twenty-ninth of April, French troops occupied the Venetian -frontiers, and General Baraguay d’Hilliers entered the capital with -perfect assurance—and, it must be added, with perfect fearlessness—and -installed himself in the best hotel. The Senate tried in vain to -ascertain from him Bonaparte’s intentions; the soldier answered that he -was accustomed to obey his chiefs without question and that he knew -nothing of their plans. He had been told to come to Venice and he had -come.</p> - -<p>On learning that Bonaparte so very particularly detested them, the Savi -agreed that it was no longer safe to meet publicly, and they held their -sittings in the Doge’s private apartments in the presence of the -Counsellors, and the ‘Savi of the Mainland,’ ‘Savi of Orders,’ ‘Savi of -Writings,’—Savi of every species. To all these were added the three -Heads of the Ten.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401">{401}</a></span> This last assembly was a sort of amplification of the -Black Cabinet already explained.</p> - -<p>They have been described as the sextons of the Republic, met together to -arrange the details of the funeral. Their acts and resolutions can only -excite pity. The first question discussed on the night of April -thirtieth was whether a supposed intimate friend of Bonaparte’s (Haller, -at one time French Minister of Finance) should be treated with in order -to calm his master’s anger. The next question was, whether this -proposition might be discussed at once, or whether eight days must be -allowed to pass before beginning the debate, according to the law. A -third question asked what measures should be taken to inform the Great -Council of what was happening.</p> - -<p>Several hours had been consumed in these miserable quibbles, during -which no attention was paid to the distant booming of guns from the -direction</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 138.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of Fusina, when a messenger brought a letter for the ‘Savio on -Writings.’ He passed it on anxiously to the Savio of the week, who -opened it with evident emotion. It was a message from Condulmer, in -command of the flotilla of the lagoons, to say that the French had begun -operations for improving the approaches to Venice, and that he was going -to attempt to destroy what they did as fast as they worked. It was at -this moment that the Assembly first noticed the sound of artillery. In -the frightened silence the Doge walked up and down the room. ‘To-night -we are not safe even in our beds,’ he said.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402">{402}</a></span></p> - -<p>The Procurator, Pesaro, turned to the Secretary: ‘I see that it is all -over with my country,’ he said, in broad Venetian dialect. ‘I can -certainly be of no assistance. To an honest man, every place is his -country; one may easily occupy oneself in Switzerland.’</p> - -<p>He rose as he finished this remarkable speech, apparently with the -intention of proceeding to Switzerland at once, but his colleagues -‘comforted’ him, he took snuff, and sat down again to help Valeressi in -framing a measure for calling the Great Council together on the morrow. -These curious details can be trusted. Pesare was afterwards, in fact, -the first to make his escape to Istria and Vienna.</p> - -<p>During the remainder of the meeting it was debated whether it might not -be possible and advisable to give Venice a democratic form of government -likely to please Bonaparte, and the majority adopted the idea of -introducing any modifications which he might suggest.</p> - -<p>It was hoped by this means that he would be moved to forgive the -Inquisitors and the captain of the Lido, whose punishment he had -demanded, and to excuse the Venetian banks from handing over the English -drafts.</p> - -<p>The next day was the first of May, the anniversary on which the Doge had -always paid his annual visit to the Convent of the Vergini, since the -days of Pier Candiano, a ceremony which was always the occasion of great -festivities in the city. But to-day, instead, the bell of the Grand -Council was ringing, and the nobles assembled anxiously. The Doge -explained in broad<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403">{403}</a></span> dialect the situation of the Republic with regard to -France. Peace, he said, must be made with Bonaparte</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_087" style="width: 422px;"> -<a href="images/ill_101.png"> -<img src="images/ill_101.png" width="422" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>CAMPO SS. GIOVANNI E PAOLO</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">at any price, and the best thing the members of the Council could do was -to say their prayers and ask the help of Heaven in their supreme -danger.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404">{404}</a></span></p> - -<p>Heaven, as usual in such circumstances, did not help those who would not -help themselves. The Council thought it had done wonders when it voted -by 598 to 21 that two deputies should be sent to Bonaparte with power to -discuss radical changes in the Venetian constitution. The envoys chosen -were Angelo Giacomo Giustiniani, who had been Provveditor extraordinary -in Treviso since the second of April, Alvise Mocenigo, the Governor of -Udine, and Francesco Donà. They were given regular credentials, and -were, as usual, exhorted to use the utmost caution in all they said.</p> - -<p>On the same day Bonaparte declared war against Venice in his most -furiously bombastic style. The document must be read, not to be -believed, as most of the statements it contains were totally untrue, but -to appreciate the marvellous gifts of the man of genius who composed it. -It is long, and I have not space for it; I can only say that it -altogether outdid the former letters and speeches I have referred to.</p> - -<p>The deputation found Bonaparte in Treviso. To the eternal glory of the -family that had lost an hundred of its name in one campaign, Giustiniani -quietly faced Bonaparte on every point, reproached him with the -shallowness of the pretexts under which he justified his acts of -violence, swore to the sincerity of the Venetian government when it had -protested that it had no intention of doing any injury to the French, -and concluded by saying that if Bonaparte required a hostage or a victim -he, Giustiniani, was there to give his life.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405">{405}</a></span></p> - -<p>Bonaparte was everything except a coward. He was a conqueror and a -comedian, a brutal dictator and a subtle diplomatist; he was a great -commander and he was the Little Corporal. He was also as brave as the -bravest man in any of his armies. Giustiniani’s speech affected him -strangely, for he well knew what terror he inspired in most people. His -sudden admiration for the Venetian patriot was as boundless as -everything else in his nature, and broke out in words of praise. He -concluded by promising that even if he confiscated the property of every -noble in Venice, whatsoever belonged to Giustiniani should be respected. -There spoke the man of the middle class that Bonaparte always was. The -gentleman answered proudly that he had not come to promote his own -interests when those of his country were so desperately at stake.</p> - -<p>A truce of four days was signed, within which time the three Inquisitors -of State and the commander of the Lido fort were to be arrested and -punished, and all political prisoners were to be set at liberty.</p> - -<p>On the fourth of May the Doge had the courage, or the cowardice, to -propose to the Great Council the arrest of the Inquisitors and their -impeachment as required by Bonaparte. There</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 159.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">was no hope for Venice in any other course, he said.</p> - -<p>This dastardly measure was voted by 704 votes to 27. The Inquisitors and -the commander of the Lido were arrested and taken to San Giorgio -Maggiore, and all the political prisoners were released from the Piombi, -the Pozzi, and the other prisons of the city. On the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406">{406}</a></span> following day, two -hundred and eighty-eight Frenchmen who had been taken with weapons in -their hands during the insurrections in the provinces were handed over -to Baraguay d’Hilliers in Venice.</p> - -<p>Bonaparte was now sure that he had only to show himself in order to be -master of the city. The Venetians also made haste to present Bonaparte’s -‘friend,’ Haller, with a little present of six thousand sequins in -bullion, in the hope that he would use his kind offices with the great -man.</p> - -<p>‘I beg you,’ Bonaparte wrote about that time to the Directory, ‘to order -the citizen Haller, a scoundrel who</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Bonnal, Chute, 287.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">has come here to steal, to present his accounts to the head manager’ -(‘ordonnateur en chef’).</p> - -<p>So much for Bonaparte’s ‘friend.’ The Republic also offered the most -profuse hospitality to Madame Baraguay d’Hilliers, in the hope that she -would soften her husband’s harsh temper.</p> - -<p>By this time Bonaparte knew as well as Condulmer himself that the -Venetian fleet was miserably manned, and that the city must yield at -once if besieged, and he thought it quite useless to receive any more -envoys. Besides, he knew that his propaganda had succeeded in the -capital itself; his paid agents had done their work well, and it had -been bravely seconded by the manifest incompetence of the government -which had exasperated all classes. It is said that there were fifteen -thousand republicans ready to answer the first signal as soon as it -should be given by Villetard, the Secretary of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_407" id="page_407">{407}</a></span> French Legation. -These were not by any means all of the people, for many ladies of the -nobility had been</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_088" style="width: 397px;"> -<a href="images/ill_102.png"> -<img src="images/ill_102.png" width="397" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>SO-CALLED HOUSE OF DESDEMONA</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="nind">spending their time in making tricolour cockades, and the government -knew it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_408" id="page_408">{408}</a></span></p> - -<p>The French no longer took the trouble to conceal the preparations they -were making for a revolution. A wholesale grocer who played a very -suspicious part in the whole affair, Tommaso Zorzi, was dining with -Villetard, and heard several Frenchmen speaking of the revolution that -was arranged for the next day; it was intended to set up a tree of -liberty in the Square of Saint Mark’s and to declare the fall of the -aristocratic government. When every one else was gone, Zorzi implored -Villetard to put off firing the train, and explained that a large part -of the populace would side with their old masters. The French Secretary -would promise nothing, and on leaving him Zorzi hastened to the ducal -palace and was received by the Doge in spite of the late hour.</p> - -<p>He told what he had heard. The Doge sent at once for Pietro Donà, and -the two bade Zorzi obtain from Villetard a written declaration of the -conditions on which he would consent to give up the revolution. On the -following day Zorzi and his friend Spada appeared before the Savi with a -paper which they said they had drawn up in the presence of Villetard, -who had refused to write anything himself.</p> - -<p>The impression one gets in reading this document is that Zorzi and his -shadow were in the trick with Villetard. The paper calls them -‘mediators,’</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 386 for the text.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">talks of ‘pacifically changing the aristocratic forms of government,’ -‘leaving open to the sight of the public the prisons called the Piombi -and Pozzi,’ abolishing capital punishment, setting up a tree of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_409" id="page_409">{409}</a></span> liberty -in the Square of Saint Mark’s, publicly burning the insignia of the old -government, a universal amnesty, and a Te Deum in Saint Mark’s, where -the image of the Virgin Mary was to be exhibited.</p> - -<p>The paper also named the provisional government, in which the grocer and -his shadow were to occupy high positions.</p> - -<p>This stuff was not read by Zorzi before the assembly. The Doge deputed -Pietro Donà and Francesco Battagia to hear him in a neighbouring room. -Donà dismissed him with the remark that the government would wait to -discuss such propositions until they were officially laid before the -Venetian envoys by Bonaparte himself.</p> - -<p>Then Donà returned to the hall and communicated the contents of Zorzi’s -paper to the government. The effect was terrific. A few voices protested -that no attention should be paid to such an informal proposition, but -terror prevailed, and Donà and Battagia were charged to go at once to -Villetard to ask him to put off his revolution till the envoys should -return from their interview with Bonaparte. Villetard, for reasons known -to himself, granted the government a respite of four days.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile it was thought wise to dismiss the Slavonic troops, yielding -in this to one of the demands expressed in Zorzi’s paper. Their presence -‘irritated’ Villetard. They were accordingly ordered home under the -command of Niccolò Morosini, but they did not leave at once.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_410" id="page_410">{410}</a></span></p><p>On the twelfth of May the Great Council met. Early in the morning -Villetard had informed Battagia that the Venetian envoys sent to -Bonaparte had refused to accept a democratic and representative -government, but that the French meant to obtain it by force unless the -aristocracy would resign its powers. It was Haller who had brought the -news to Villetard after accepting a bribe of six thousand sequins a few -days earlier. An American politician once defined a scoundrel as ‘a man -who will not stay bought.’</p> - -<p>Donà came back with an official letter from Villetard to the Doge, which -contained Bonaparte’s ultimatum. The city was in a state of nervous -excitement that must break into action before long; the members of the -Council were already in terror of their lives while they stood waiting -for the hour of meeting. Even then, everything had to be done according -to tradition. The patricians were, no doubt, devising more concessions -to be made to Bonaparte, as they moved towards the ducal palace, and -most of them were ready to sacrifice everything, including their honour, -in exchange for personal safety. The last of the Slavonic soldiers were -embarking under the direction of the Arsenal men; there were republican -conspirators everywhere, and they found their way even to the Doge’s -private apartments.</p> - -<p>The Council met at the usual hour, and the roll was called. Only 537 -members were present, whereas 600 constituted a quorum. It is possible -that the many absent members had hoped to obstruct all proceedings by -keeping away, for to the last the minutest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_411" id="page_411">{411}</a></span> rules had been observed. But -the members who had assembled decided that they had a right to act.</p> - -<p>The Doge opened the sitting, pale and overcome. Painfully, and in his -Venetian dialect, he recapitulated the acts of the Consulta of Savi and -others, who had taken charge of affairs on the thirtieth of April. His -miserable speech was followed by the reading of the report of Donà and -Battagia, Haller’s letter, and other documents.</p> - -<p>The Secretary, Valentin Marin, then read the measure which was brought -before the Council.</p> - -<p>The Bill had the old sanctimonious tone. ‘The principal purpose of -preserving religion,’ etc., were the first words; the measure was, that -the Great Council should accept ‘the proposed provisional representative -government.’</p> - -<p>The Secretary had finished reading the Bill, and was just beginning his -comments on it, when the sound of a discharge of musketry rang sharply -through the ancient hall. The patricians rushed to the doors. One voice -called them back.</p> - -<p>‘Divide! Divide!’ it cried, above the din.</p> - -<p>To the last gasp formality bound them. Hastily, but not informally, they -went through the form of voting. The Bill to accept the democratic -government was passed by 512 yeas to 30 nays and 5 blanks.</p> - -<p>Then, in the twinkling of an eye, the</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>1797, May twelfth.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">hall was silent and empty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_412" id="page_412">{412}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_089" style="width: 500px;"> -<a href="images/ill_103.jpg"> -<img src="images/ill_103.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>SAILS</p></div> -</div> - -<h2><a name="XVIII" id="XVIII"></a>XVIII<br /><br /> -CONCLUSION</h2> - -<p class="nind"><span class="smcap">The</span> discharge of musketry which had frightened the Great Council out of -its senses had been only the parting salute of the Slavonic soldiers as -they</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Tassini, under ‘San Bartolomeo.’</i></div> - -<p class="nind">sailed out of the harbour. It was the last mark of respect the Venetians -of Venice received, and it was by a dramatic coincidence that it was -offered at the very instant when the Republic ended. Every one has read -how the Doge went back to his own room and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_413" id="page_413">{413}</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="ill_090" style="width: 350px;"> -<a href="images/ill_104.png"> -<img src="images/ill_104.png" width="350" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -<div class="caption"><p>A GATEWAY</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_414" id="page_414">{414}</a></span> handed his ducal bonnet to his servant, -saying that he should not need it again.</p> - -<p>What has been less noticed by historians is that General Salimbeni, who -knew that the crowd was waiting to know what had taken place, put his -head out of a window and shouted ‘Viva la Libertà’; and that when no one -broke the silence that followed, he took breath again and shouted ‘Viva -San Marco,’ whereupon the multitude took up the cry and cheered till -they were hoarse, and the old flag of Saint Mark was hoisted everywhere, -and the populace took it into its head to burn down the houses of Donà -and Battagia and the grocer Zorzi, and though they were hindered, they -did plunder and burn the dwellings of a number of burgher families that -had played a double game and had helped to bring on the final -catastrophe.</p> - -<p>In the midst of this confusion well-armed republican gangs appeared in -all directions, and during the night between the twelfth and the -thirteenth of May there was a hideous tumult. The last time that -Venetian cannon was fired by Venetian orders, it was pointed at -Venetians.</p> - -<p>On the fifteenth, the French occupied the city as conquerors. On the -sixteenth, two notices were put up in the Square of Saint Mark’s. The</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">first simply announced that the aristocratic government yielded up its -powers to a provisional Municipality which would sit in the hall of the -Great Council; and this was the last public document which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_415" id="page_415">{415}</a></span> began with -the words, ‘The Most Serene Prince announces,’ etc.</p> - -<p>The other informed the public that the provisional Municipality of -Venice declared the Great Council to have ‘deserved well of the nation’ -because it had abdicated; it thanked particularly the members of the -late government which had put down the riot on the night of the twelfth; -and it went on to declare a ‘solemn amnesty’ for all political misdeeds, -and so forth, and so on.</p> - -<p>Then came the usual French nonsense about liberty, equality, -brotherhood, peace, the rights of man, and the like; all of which might, -perhaps, be excused on the ground of mistaken and foolish sentiment, if -we did not know that Bonaparte was even then almost in the act of -selling his newly found, free, and equal brothers into slavery to -Austria, then the most really absolute despotism in Europe.</p> - -<p>The whole affair was a horrible farce. The new Municipality decided to -preserve the Lion of Saint Mark as the national symbol, but for the -words ‘Pax tibi Marce’ inscribed on the book under the Lion’s paw were -substituted the words ‘Rights and Duties of Man and Citizen.’ The -gondoliers observed that Saint Mark had at last turned over a new leaf.</p> - -<p>The Lion, however, was soon thrown down from his column, and was broken -into more than eighty pieces on the pavement. On the fourth</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Rom. x. 219.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">of June the tree or liberty was raised in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_416" id="page_416">{416}</a></span>the middle of the Square. -Around it were grouped emblems of the sciences and arts. Fagots were -heaped up near by, to make a fire in which the Golden Book and the ducal -insignia were solemnly burned between two statues representing Freedom -and Equality. Inane verses were inscribed on the pedestals of</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Molmenti, Nuovi Studi.</i></div> - -<p class="nind">these images. Lest I should be thought to exaggerate their atrociously -bad literary quality I give the original Italian.</p> - -<p>One ran:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Depono la tirannide,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Sollevo l’innocente,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Ognor lieto e ridente<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Il popol mio sarà.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The other said:—</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">Il libro d’ oro abbruciasi<br /></span> -<span class="i0">L’accende il reo delitto,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">All’ uom resta il suo dritto<br /></span> -<span class="i0">La dolce libertà.<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The Procuratie, both the old and the new, were renamed, according to the -revolutionary dictionary, ‘Gallery of Liberty,’ ‘Gallery of Equality.’</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>Mutinelli, Ult. 218; also Tassini, 591.</i></div> - -<p>In the course of the month of June began the trial of the three -Inquisitors, Agostino Barbarigo, Angelo Maria Gabrieli, and Catterino -Corner, and of Pizzamano, the commander of the Lido fort. Even Bonaparte -was obliged to admit that there was nothing against them, but he would -not allow them to be acquitted; he thought it better policy to pardon -them ‘in consideration of their advanced age.’ His letter on the subject -is dated the fourth of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_417" id="page_417">{417}</a></span> October. But Pizzamano, though declared free, -was still kept in prison at Bonaparte’s pleasure, and on the -twenty-sixth of October sent a petition directly to the latter. -Bonaparte sent it on to General Serrurier, in Venice, with an order for -the man’s liberation written in the margin.</p> - -<p>Bonaparte had kept up his comedy to the very last. On the eighth of -October, General Balland had given the Venetians, in his chief’s name, -the most ample assurances of attachment and devotion.</p> - -<p>On the seventeenth, nine days later, by the treaty of Campo-Formio, -Bonaparte sold Venice and the whole Venetian territory to the Emperor of -Austria, including Dalmatia and Istria, in exchange for the Ionian -Islands, the Cisalpine Republic, the Duchy of Modena, and the provinces -of Lombardy as far as the Adige and Mantua.</p> - -<p>Having got his price for the dead body, Bonaparte proceeded to strip it -of everything valuable, so far as he could, before handing it over. The -horses of Saint Mark’s were taken down from the façade of the basilica, -the most valuable pictures, parchments, and books were packed, and all -was sent to Paris.</p> - -<p>The farce of freedom was over, and the bitterness of reality came back, -harder to bear, perhaps, but as much more honourable, as suffering is -more dignified than drunken rioting. On the eighteenth of January 1798 -the Austrian garrison took possession of Venice.</p> - -<p>Before closing these pages, I shall go back a few months and shall -translate Giustina Renier Michie<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_418" id="page_418">{418}</a></span>l’s touching account of the scene which -took place in Dalmatia, in the preceding month of August, when the -Austrians came by sea to take possession of the country.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>On the twenty-second of August, Rukavina [the Austrian general] -arrived with a fleet and a thousand soldiers and landed at Pettana, -a mile and a half from Perasto. The</p> - -<div class="sidenote"><i>G. R. Michiel, Origini. Compare also Rom. x. 249.</i></div> - -<p>Dalmatians, taken by surprise, and seeing that they had nothing -more to hope, resolved to render the last honours to the great -standard or Saint Mark. To this end the people of Perasto, and of -the neighbouring country, and others, assembled before the palace -of the Captain in command; and he, with twelve soldiers armed with -sabres, and two colour-sergeants, went to the hall where the -standard was, and the colours carried in the field, which Venice -had entrusted many centuries ago to the valour and loyalty of the -brave Dalmatians. They were now to take away those dearly loved -flags; but in the very moment of doing what it broke their hearts -to do, their strength failed them, and they could only shed a flood -of tears.</p> - -<p>The throng of people who waited in the Square, not seeing any one -come out again, knew not what to think. So one of the judges of the -town was sent up to ascertain the cause; but he, too, was so much -moved that his presence [in the hall] only increased the grief of -the others. At last the Captain, controlling himself of sheer -necessity, made the painful effort; he took down the flags from the -place where they were hung and attached them to two pikes; and he -handed them to the two colour-sergeants, and they and the soldiers, -led by the lieutenant, marched out of the hall; and after them the -Captain, the Judge, and all the rest. As soon as the well-beloved -standard was seen, the grief and tears of the multitude were -universal. Men, women, and children all sobbed and their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_419" id="page_419">{419}</a></span> tears -rolled down; and nothing was heard but the complaint of mourning, -no doubtful proof of the hereditary devotion of that generous -nation to its Republic.</p> - -<p>When the sad procession reached the Square, the Captain unfastened -the flags from the pikes and at the same time the ensign of Saint -Mark on the fort was hauled down, and a salute of twenty guns was -fired. Two armed vessels that guarded the port answered with eleven -guns, and all the merchant vessels saluted also; this was the last -good-bye of sorrowing glory to the valour of a nation. The sacred -colours were placed upon a metal salver and the lieutenant received -them in the presence of the Judge, of the Captain, and of the -people. Then all marched with slow and melancholy steps to the -cathedral. There they were received by the clergy and its chief, to -whom the sacred trust was delivered, and he placed it on the high -altar. Then the Captain commanding spoke the following words, which -were again and again interrupted by quick sobbing, and streaming -tears that came from men’s hearts more truly than from their -eyes:—</p> - -<p>‘In this cruel moment,’ he said, ‘that rends our hearts for the -fatal destruction of the Most Serene Venetian Government, in this -last expression of our love and faith, with which we do honour to -the colours of the Republic, let us at least find some consolation, -dear fellow-citizens, in the thought that neither our past deeds, -nor those we have done in these recent times, have led to this sad -office, which, for us, is now become a good deed. Our sons will -know from us, and history will teach all Europe, that Perasto -upheld to the last breath the glory of the Venetian flag, honouring -it and bathing it in universal and most bitter tears. -Fellow-citizens, let us freely pour out our grief; but amidst the -last solemn thoughts with which we seal the glorious career that -has been ours under the Most Serene Government of Venice, let us -turn to these well-loved colours and cry out to them, in our -sorrow, “Dear<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_420" id="page_420">{420}</a></span> flag that has been ours three hundred and -seventy-seven years without a break, our faith and courage have -ever kept you unstained both on the sea and wheresoever you were -called to face your enemies, which were the enemies of the Church -also. For three hundred and seventy-seven years our goods, our -blood, and our lives have always been devoted to you, and since you -have been with us, and we with you, we have ever been happy, and -famous on the sea, and victorious on land. No man ever saw us put -to flight with you; with you none were ever found to overcome us. -If these most wretched times of rash action, of corrupt manners, of -dissensions and of lawless opinions that offend nature and the law -of nations had not ruined you in Italy, our goods, our blood, our -lives should still be yours; and rather than have seen you overcome -and dishonoured, our courage and our faith would have chosen to be -buried with you. But since we can do nothing more for you than -this, let your honoured grave be in our hearts, let our desolation -be your highest praise.”<span class="lftspc">’</span></p> - -<p>Then the Captain went up and took a corner of the flag and put it -to his lips as if he could not let it leave them; and all thronged -to kiss it most tenderly, washing it with their hot tears. But as -the sad ceremony had to come to an end at last, these dear colours -were laid in a chest, which the Rector placed in a reliquary -beneath the high altar.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_421" id="page_421">{421}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="THE_DOGES_OF_VENICE" id="THE_DOGES_OF_VENICE"></a>THE DOGES OF VENICE</h2> - -<p class="c">(ACCORDING TO ROMANIN)</p> - -<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—<i>The Venetian year began on March first, whence the frequent -discrepancies between the dates given by different writers. In this -work every effort has been made to bring all dates under the usual -reckoning.</i></p> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:90%;"> - -<tr><td class="rt">I.</td><td> Paolo Lucio Anafesto</td><td class="c">elected</td><td class="rt">697</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">717 </td><td>Seat in Heraclea.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">II.</td><td> Marcello Tegaliano</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">717</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 726</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">III.</td><td> Orso Ipato</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">726</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 737</td><td>(murdered). Seat in Malamocco.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt"> </td><td colspan="6"> (From 737 to 742, military governors called ‘Magistri Militum.’)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">IV.</td><td> Teodato Orso</td><td class="c">elected</td><td class="rt">742</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">755</td><td>(blinded and deposed).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">V.</td><td> Galla Gaulo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">755</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">756</td><td>(blinded and exiled).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">VI.</td><td> Domenico Monegario</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">756</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">764</td><td>(blinded and deposed).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">VII.</td><td> Maurizio Galbaio</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">764</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">787</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">VIII.</td><td> Giovanni Galbaio and his son Maurizio</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">787</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">804</td><td>(both deposed).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">IX.</td><td> Obelerio with his sons Beato and Costantino</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">804</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">811</td><td>(the father put to death as a traitor).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">X.</td><td> Agnello Partecipazio</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">811</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 827 </td><td>Seat henceforth in Rialto.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XI.</td><td> Giustiniano Partecipazio</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">827</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 829</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XII.</td><td> Giovanni Partecipazio I.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">829</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">836</td><td>(deposed).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XIII.</td><td> Pietro Tradonico</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">836</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">864</td><td>(murdered).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XIV.</td><td> Orso Partecipazio I.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">864</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 881</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XV.</td><td> Giovanni Partecipazio II.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">881</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">888</td><td>(abdicated).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XVI.</td><td> Pietro Candiano I.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">888</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">888</td><td>(killed in battle with pirates).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XVII.</td><td> Pietro Tribuno</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">888</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 912</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XVIII.</td><td> Orso Partecipazio II. (Badoer)</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">912</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">932</td><td>(abdicated and died a monk).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XIX.</td><td> Pietro Candiano II.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">932</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">939</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XX.</td><td> Pietro Partecipazio (Badoer)</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">939</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 942</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXI.</td><td> Pietro Candiano III.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">942</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 959</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXII.</td><td> Pietro Candiano IV.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">959</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 976</td><td>(murdered).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXIII.</td><td> Pietro Orseolo I.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">976</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">978</td><td>(abdicated and died a monk, with the reputation of a saint).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXIV.</td><td> Vital Candiano</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">978</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">979</td><td>(abdicated and became a monk).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXV.</td><td> Tribuno Memmo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">979</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">991</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXVI.</td><td> Pietro Orseolo II.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">991</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1008</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXVII.</td><td> Ottone Orseolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1008</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1026</td><td>(exiled to Constantinople).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXVIII.</td><td> Pietro Centranigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1026</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1032</td><td>(driven out).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXIX.</td><td> Domenico Flabianico</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1032</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1043</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXX.</td><td> Domenico Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1043</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1071</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXI.</td><td> Domenico Selvo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1071</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1085</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXII.</td><td> Vital Falier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1085</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1096</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXIII.</td><td> Vital Michiel I.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1096</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1102</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXIV.</td><td> Ordelafo Falier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1102</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1118</td><td>(died in the Hungarian war).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXV.</td><td> Domenico Michiel</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1118</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1130</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXVI.</td><td> Pietro Polani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1130</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1148</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXVII.</td><td> Domenico Morosini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1148</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1156</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXVIII.</td><td> Vital Michiel II.</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1156</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1172</td><td>(killed).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XXXIX.</td><td> Sebastian Ziani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1172</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1178</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XL.</td><td> Orio Mastropiero</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1178</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1192</td><td>(abdicated and became a monk).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLI.</td><td> Enrico Dandolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1192</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1205</td><td>(died in Constantinople).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLII.</td><td> Pietro Ziani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1205</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1229</td><td>(abdicated).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLIII.</td><td> Jacopo Tiepolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1229</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1249</td><td>(abdicated).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLIV.</td><td> Marin Morosini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1249</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1253</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLV.</td><td> Renier Zeno</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1253</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1268</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLVI.</td><td> Lorenzo Tiepolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1268</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1275</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLVII.</td><td> Jacopo Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1275</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1280</td><td>(abdicated).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLVIII.</td><td> Giovanni Dandolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1280</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1289</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XLIX.</td><td> Pietro Gradenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1289</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1311</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">L.</td><td> Marin Zorzi</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1311</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1312</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LI.</td><td> Giovanni Soranzo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1312</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1329</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LII.</td><td> Francesco Dandolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1329</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1339</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LIII.</td><td> Bartolommeo Gradenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1339</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1343</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LIV.</td><td> Andrea Dandolo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1343</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1354</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LV.</td><td> Marin Falier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1354</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1355</td><td>(beheaded April 17).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LVI.</td><td> Giovanni Gradenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1355</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1356</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LVII.</td><td> Giovanni Dolfin</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1356</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1361</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LVIII.</td><td> Lorenzo Celsi</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1361</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1365</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LIX.</td><td> Marco Corner</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1365</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1368</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LX.</td><td> Andrea Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1368</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1383</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXI.</td><td> Michel Morosini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1383</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1384</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXII.</td><td> Antonio Venier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1384</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1400</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXIII.</td><td> Michel Steno</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1400</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1413</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXIV.</td><td> Tommaso Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1413</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1423</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXV.</td><td> Francesco Foscari</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1423</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1457</td><td> (deposed, and died a few days later).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXVI.</td><td> Pasquale Malipiero</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1457</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1462</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXVII.</td><td> Cristoforo Moro</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1462</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1471</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXVIII.</td><td> Niccolò Tron</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1471</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1474</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXIX.</td><td> Niccolò Marcello</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1474</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1474</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXX.</td><td> Pietro Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1474</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1476</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXI.</td><td> Andrea Vendramin</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1476</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1478</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXII.</td><td> Giovanni Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1478</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1485</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXIII.</td><td> Marco Barbarigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1485</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1486</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXIV.</td><td> Agostino Barbarigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1486</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1501</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXV.</td><td> Leonardo Loredan</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1501</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1521</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXVI.</td><td> Antonio Grimani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1521</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1523</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXVII.</td><td> Andrea Gritti</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1523</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1538</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXVIII.</td><td> Pietro Lando</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1538</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1545</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXIX.</td><td> Francesco Donato</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1545</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1553</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXX.</td><td> Marcantonio Trevisan</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1553</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1554</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXI.</td><td> Francesco Venier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1554</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1556</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXII.</td><td> Lorenzo Priuli</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1556</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1559</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXIII.</td><td> Girolamo Priuli</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1559</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1567</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXIV.</td><td> Pietro Loredan</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1567</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1570</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXV.</td><td> Aloise (Luigi) Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1570</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1577</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXVI.</td><td> Sebastian Venier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1577</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1578</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXVII.</td><td> Niccolò Da Ponte</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1578</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1585</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXVIII.</td><td> Pasquale Cicogna</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1585</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1595</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">LXXXIX.</td><td> Marin Grimani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1595</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1606</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XC.</td><td> Leonardo Donà</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1606</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1612</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCI.</td><td> Marcantonio Memmo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1612</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1615</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCII.</td><td> Giovanni Bembo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1615</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1618</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCIII.</td><td> Niccolò Donà</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1618</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1618</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCIV.</td><td> Antonio Priuli</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1618</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1623</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCV.</td><td> Francesco Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1623</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1624</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCVI.</td><td> Giovanni Corner</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1624</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1630</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCVII.</td><td> Niccolò Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1630</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1631</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCVIII.</td><td> Francesco Erizzo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1631</td><td class="c">d.</td><td class="rt">1646</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">XCIX.</td><td> Francesco Molin</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1646</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1655</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">C.</td><td> Carlo Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1655</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1656</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CI.</td><td> Francesco Corner</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1656</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1656</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CII.</td><td> Bertuccio Valier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1656</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1658</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CIII.</td><td> Giovanni Pesaro</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1658</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1659</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CIV.</td><td> Domenico Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1659</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1674</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CV.</td><td> Niccolò Sagredo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1674</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1676</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CVI.</td><td> Aloise Contarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1676</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1683</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CVII.</td><td> Marcantonio Giustiniani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1683</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1688</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CVIII.</td><td> Francesco Morosini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1688</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1694</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CIX.</td><td> Silvestro Valier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1694</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1700</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CX.</td><td> Aloise Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1700</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1709</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXI.</td><td> Giovanni Corner</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1709</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1722</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXII.</td><td> Aloise Sebastian Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1722</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1732</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXIII.</td><td> Carlo Ruzzini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1732</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1735</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXIV.</td><td> Luigi Pisani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1735</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1741</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXV.</td><td> Pietro Grimani</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1741</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1752</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXVI.</td><td> Francesco Loredan</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1752</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1762</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXVII.</td><td> Marco Foscarini</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1762</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1763</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXVIII.</td><td> Aloise Mocenigo</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1763</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1779</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXIX.</td><td> Paolo Renier</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1779</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt"> 1788</td></tr> -<tr><td class="rt">CXX.</td><td> Ludovico Manin</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="rt">1788</td><td class="c">—</td><td class="rt">1797 </td><td> (abdicated with the aristocratic government).</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_425" id="page_425">{425}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_THE_PRINCIPAL_DATES_IN_VENETIAN_HISTORY" id="TABLE_OF_THE_PRINCIPAL_DATES_IN_VENETIAN_HISTORY"></a>TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DATES IN VENETIAN HISTORY</h2> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:90%;"> - -<tr> - -<td class="rt"><small>A.D.</small></td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">421</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (about)</td> -<td valign="top">Venice founded by fugitives from Aquileia, Altinum, and -Padua. (According to tradition on March 25, 421, at noon.)</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Paulus Lucas Anafestus of Heraclea chosen as first Doge.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Pepin, son of Charlemagne, attempts to take Venice and is -defeated.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">828</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (about)</td> -<td valign="top">The body of Saint Mark is brought to Venice, and he is -proclaimed protector of the Republic in place of Saint -Theodore.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">959 </td> -<td class="c" valign="top">(about)</td> -<td valign="top">The brides of Venice and their dowries are carried off by Istrian -pirates.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The first basilica of Saint Mark is destroyed by fire.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Pietro Orseolo is acclaimed as Doge of Venice and Dalmatia.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The Emperor Otho III. visits Venice secretly.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venice is ravaged by the plague.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venetians defeat the Pisans off Rhodes.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Defeat of the Turks at Jaffa.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The Doge Domenico Michiel takes Tyre.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venice joins the Lombard League, with Verona, Padua, Milan, -Bologna, and other cities.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Institution of the Great Council, in which membership is -open and elective.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa makes submission to -Pope Alexander III. at Venice.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The ceremony of the Espousal of the Sea by the Doge -instituted.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1202</td> -<td valign="top" class="c"> (Oct. 8)</td> -<td valign="top">The Venetian fleet sets out for the Fourth Crusade under the -Doge Enrico Dandolo.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1204</td> -<td valign="top" class="c"> (April 12)</td> -<td valign="top">Constantinople taken by the Venetian and French forces.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Membership in the Great Council limited to those of legitimate -birth.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Closure of the Great Council, in which membership becomes -a privilege of the nobles.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Conspiracy of Marino Bocconio.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Conspiracy of Marco Quirini and Bajamonte Tiepolo.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Permanent institution of the Council of Ten.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venice loses half her population by the plague.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Conspiracy of Marino Faliero.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1379-80</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">War of Chioggia.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1404-54</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">During this time Venice possesses herself, on the mainland, -of Padua, Ravenna, Verona, Treviso, Vicenza, Brescia, Bergamo, -Feltre, Belluno, Crema, and Friuli.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Carlo Zeno takes Padua from Carrara.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">League with Florence concluded. Brescia surrenders to the -allied forces, the Venetian troops being commanded by -Carmagnola.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Bergamo surrenders to Carmagnola.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1432 </td> -<td class="c">(May 5)</td> -<td valign="top">Carmagnola executed as a traitor to the Republic.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Erasmo da Narni, nicknamed Gattamelata, is made commander -of the Venetian army.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Bartolommeo Colleoni is commander of the Venetian forces.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1453</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (May 29)</td> -<td valign="top">Constantinople taken by the Turks. Many Venetians are -massacred and much Venetian property destroyed.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Scutari, besieged by the Turks, is successfully defended by -Antonio da Lezze.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venice annexes Cyprus, leaving Catharine Cornaro the empty -title of its Queen.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">League of Cambrai, between the Emperor Maximilian, Pope -Julius II., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1571</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (Oct. 7)</td> -<td valign="top">Battle of Lepanto won by the allied fleets of Venice, Genoa, -the Holy See, and Spain, commanded respectively by Sebastiano -Venier, Andrea Doria, and Marcantonio Colonna, under -Don John of Austria as commander-in-chief.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Visit of Henry III. of France.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1575-7</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Venice, swept by the plague, loses one-fourth of her population, -Titian among them. Church of the Redentore built to commemorate -its cessation.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1577</td> -<td class="c"> (Dec. 20)</td> -<td valign="top">Fire destroys the Hall of the Great Council, with many -magnificent works of art.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Another visitation of the plague, commemorated by the Church -of the Salute.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1715-18</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The Turks wrest from Venice Crete and the Peloponnesus.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Angelo Emo, the last Venetian leader, humbles the Bey of Tunis.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">Election of the 120th and last Doge, Ludovico Manin.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">975</td> -<td class="c">...</td> -<td valign="top">The ceremony of the Espousal of the Sea by the Doge takes -place for the last time.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1797 </td> -<td class="c" valign="top">(April 18)</td> -<td valign="top">General Bonaparte, by the treaty of Campo-Formio, cedes -to Austria the Venetian provinces between the Po, the Oglio, -and the Adriatic, in exchange for Romagna, with Ferrara and -Bologna.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1797</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (May 12)</td> -<td valign="top">The Doge Ludovico Manin abdicates, and the Great Council -accepts the Provisional Government required by General -Bonaparte.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1798</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (Jan. 18)</td> -<td valign="top">The Austrian garrison takes possession of Venice.</td></tr> - -<tr> -<td class="rt" valign="top">1866</td> -<td class="c" valign="top"> (Oct. 19)</td> -<td valign="top">Austria cedes Venice to Napoleon III., who transfers it to -Victor Emanuel II., King of Italy.</td></tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_428" id="page_428">{428}</a></span>  </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_429" id="page_429">{429}</a></span>  </p> - -<h2><a name="SOME_EMINENT_MEN_AND_WOMEN_CONNECTED_WITH_VENICE" id="SOME_EMINENT_MEN_AND_WOMEN_CONNECTED_WITH_VENICE"></a>SOME EMINENT MEN AND WOMEN CONNECTED WITH VENICE</h2> - -<p class="c"><i>The places where some of the principal works of Painters and Architects -may be seen are given in this list, which, however, is by no means -exhaustive.</i></p> - -<p class="chead">ARCHITECTS</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>Many of these were also Sculptors.</i>)</p> - -<p>1618-1684. <span class="smcap">Giuseppe Benoni.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">The Dogana.</p> - -<p>(Not known)-1529. <span class="smcap">Bartolommeo Bon.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, S. Maria dell’ Orto, Scuola di San Rocco, Palazzo Foscari.</p> - -<p>(Not known)-about 1680. <span class="smcap">Baldassare Longhena.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">S. Maria degli Scalzi, S. Maria della Salute, Palazzo Giustiniani Lolin, Palazzo Rezzonico, Palazzo Pesaro.</p> - -<p>1518-1580. <span class="smcap">Andrea Palladio.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, San Giorgio Maggiore, Il Redentore.</p> - -<p>1512-1597. <span class="smcap">Giovanni Antonio da Ponte.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">The Rialto.</p> - -<p>1484-1549. <span class="smcap">Michele Sammichele.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Palazzo Grimani, Palazzo Corner Mocenigo, Castello di S. Andrea.</p> - -<p>1479-1570. <span class="smcap">Jacopo Sansovino.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Libreria Vecchia, Loggietta, Procuratie Nuove, Zecca, S. Giuliano, S. Salvatore, S. M. Mater Domini, Palazzo Corner, Palazzo Manin.</p> - -<p>1552-1616. <span class="smcap">Vincenzo Scamozzi.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Libreria Vecchia, Procuratie Nuove, I Tolentini, Palazzo Contarini degli Scrigni.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_430" id="page_430">{430}</a></span></p> - -<p class="chead">CONDOTTIERI</p> - -<p>1390-1432. <span class="smcap">Carmagnola (Francesco Bussone).</span></p> - -<p>1400-1475. <span class="smcap">Bartolommeo Colleone.</span></p> - -<p>(Not known)-1443. <span class="smcap">Gattamelata (Erasmo da Narni).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">His statue by Donatello is at Padua.</p> - -<p>1401-1466. <span class="smcap">Francesco Sforza.</span></p> - -<p class="chead">MEN AND WOMEN OF LETTERS</p> - -<p>1492-1566. <span class="smcap">Aretino (Pietro Bacci)</span>, Essayist and Playwright.</p> -<p>(About) 1510-1571. <span class="smcap">Andrea Calmo</span>, Essayist and Poet.</p> -<p>1310-1354. <span class="smcap">Andrea Dandolo</span>, Historian.</p> -<p>1554-(after 1591). <span class="smcap">Veronica Franco</span>, Poetess.</p> -<p>1707-1793. <span class="smcap">Carlo Goldoni</span>, Playwright.</p> -<p>1720-1806. <span class="smcap">Carlo Gozzi</span>, Playwright and Satirist.</p> -<p>1449-1515. <span class="smcap">Aldus Manutius</span>, Printer.</p> -<p>1512-1574. <span class="smcap">Paulus Manutius</span> (son of <span class="smcap">Aldus</span>), Printer.</p> -<p>1547-1597. <span class="smcap">Aldus Manutius</span> (son of <span class="smcap">Paulus</span>, and grandson of <span class="smcap">Aldus</span> I.), Printer.</p> -<p>1755-1832. <span class="smcap">Giustina Renier Michiel</span>, Historian.</p> -<p>1523-1554. <span class="smcap">Gaspara Stampa</span>, Poetess.</p> - -<p class="chead">PAINTERS</p> - -<p>1556-1629. <span class="smcap">Aliense (Antonio Vasillacchi).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia delle Belle Arti.</p> - -<p>1510-1592. <span class="smcap">Bassano (Jacopo da Ponte).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, Museo (Civico).</p> - -<p>1548-1591. <span class="smcap">Bassano</span> (<span class="smcap">Francesco da Ponte</span>, eldest son of <span class="smcap">Jacopo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, San Giacomo dell’ Orio.</p> - -<p>1558-1623. <span class="smcap">Bassano</span> (<span class="smcap">Leandro da Ponte</span>, third son of <span class="smcap">Jacopo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia.</p> - -<p>1400-1470. <span class="smcap">Jacopo Bellini</span> (father of <span class="smcap">Gentile</span> and <span class="smcap">Giovanni</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Museo Civico.</p> - -<p>1421-1501. <span class="smcap">Gentile Bellini</span> (eldest son of <span class="smcap">Jacopo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, Museo Civico, S. Giobbe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_431" id="page_431">{431}</a></span></p> - -<p>1426-1516. <span class="smcap">Giovanni Bellini</span> (second son of <span class="smcap">Jacopo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, San Francesco della Vigna, Frari, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, S. -Pietro Martire at Murano, Museo Correr.</p> - -<p>1491-1553. <span class="smcap">Bonifazio (il Veneziano).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Salvatore, S. Leo, S. Angelo Raffaele.</p> - -<p>1513-1588. <span class="smcap">Paris Bordone.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Giovanni in Bragora, S. Giobbe, S. Maria -dell’ Orto.</p> - -<p>1697-1768. <span class="smcap">Canaletto (Antonio Canal).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Museo Civico.</p> - -<p>(About) 1450-1522. <span class="smcap">Vittore Carpaccio.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Giorgio degli Schiavoni, S. Vitale, SS. -Giovanni e Paolo, Museo Correr.</p> - -<p>1675-1757. <span class="smcap">Rosalba Carriera.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Museo Correr.</p> - -<p>1549-1605. <span class="smcap">Giovanni Contarini.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1477-1511. <span class="smcap">Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Palazzo Giovanelli.</p> - -<p>1712-1793. <span class="smcap">Francesco Guardi.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Museo Civico.</p> - -<p>(Unknown)-1515 or 1529. <span class="smcap">Pietro Lombardo.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1702-1762. <span class="smcap">Pietro Longhi.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Museo Civico, Palazzo Grassi.</p> - -<p>1480-1548. <span class="smcap">Jacopo Palma (Palma Vecchio).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Maria dell’ Orto, S. Maria Formosa, Scuola -di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, S. Cassiano.</p> - -<p>1544-1628. <span class="smcap">Jacopo Palma</span> (<span class="smcap">Palma Giovane</span>, great-nephew of <span class="smcap">Palma Vecchio</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, Frari.</p> - -<p>1566-1638. <span class="smcap">Sante Peranda.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1693-1769. <span class="smcap">Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">La Fava, Gli Scalzi, I Gesuati, S. Martino, Palazzo Labia.</p> - -<p>1512-1594. <span class="smcap">Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Scuola di San Rocco, Accademia, S. Maria dell’ Orto, S. -Maria della Salute, Hospital of S. Marco, S. Cassiano.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_432" id="page_432">{432}</a></span></p> - -<p>1519-1594. <span class="smcap">Domenico Tintoretto</span> (son of <span class="smcap">Jacopo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia.</p> - -<p>1477-1576. <span class="smcap">Titian (Tiziano Vecellio).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, Scuola di San Rocco, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, -Frari, S. Maria della Salute.</p> - -<p>1545-1611. <span class="smcap">Marco Vecellio</span> (nephew of <span class="smcap">Titian</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1528-1588. <span class="smcap">Paul Veronese (Paolo Caliari).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace, Accademia, S. Pantaleone, S. Catarina, S. Francesco della -Vigna.</p> - -<p>1568-1637. <span class="smcap">Gabriele Caliari</span> (eldest son of <span class="smcap">Paolo</span>).</p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1539-1614. <span class="smcap">Andrea Vicentino (dei Michieli).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1525-1608. <span class="smcap">Alessandro Vittoria.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Palazzo Balbi, Decorations of the Scala d’ Oro in the Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p>1543-1616. <span class="smcap">Federigo Zuccaro.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Ducal Palace.</p> - -<p class="chead">SCULPTORS</p> - -<p>1757-1822. <span class="smcap">Antonio Canova.</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Accademia, Frari, Arsenal, Museo Civico, Palazzo Trèves.</p> - -<p>1435-1488. <span class="smcap">Verrocchio (Andrea Cioni di Michele).</span></p> - -<p class="indd">Square of SS. Giovanni e Paolo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_433" id="page_433">{433}</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> - -<p class="c"> -<a href="#A">A</a>, -<a href="#B">B</a>, -<a href="#C">C</a>, -<a href="#D">D</a>, -<a href="#E">E</a>, -<a href="#F">F</a>, -<a href="#G">G</a>, -<a href="#H">H</a>, -<a href="#I-i">I</a>, -<a href="#J">J</a>, -<a href="#K">K</a>, -<a href="#L">L</a>, -<a href="#M">M</a>, -<a href="#N">N</a>, -<a href="#O">O</a>, -<a href="#P">P</a>, -<a href="#Q">Q</a>, -<a href="#R">R</a>, -<a href="#S">S</a>, -<a href="#T">T</a>, -<a href="#U">U</a>, -<a href="#V-i">V</a>, -<a href="#W">W</a>, -<a href="#Y">Y</a>, -<a href="#Z">Z</a>.</p> - -<p class="nind"> -<a name="A" id="A"></a>Academies, <a href="#page_147">147-149</a><br /> - -Academy of ‘La Fama,’ <a href="#page_160">160</a><br /> - -Accoramboni, Vittoria, <a href="#page_58">58</a><br /> - -Adams, Brooks, <a href="#page_164">164</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John, <a href="#page_362">362</a></span><br /> - -Adige, the, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Adriatic, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Agrippa, Marcus, statue of, <a href="#page_319">319</a><br /> - -Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Albanians, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Albrizzi, Isabella Teodochi, <a href="#page_264">264</a><br /> - -Aldine Academy, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Aldine press, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Algerian pirates, <a href="#page_358">358</a><br /> - -Alviano, Bartolomeo d’, <a href="#page_67">67</a><br /> - -Ambassadors, <a href="#page_77">77-94</a><br /> - -American War of Independence, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -‘Angel Gabriel,’ war-galley, <a href="#page_171">171</a><br /> - -Architects, <a href="#page_429">429</a><br /> - -Archives of—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Council of Ten, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inquisitors of State, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Senate, <a href="#page_363">363</a></span><br /> - -Aretino, Pietro, <a href="#page_136">136-144</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Aristocracy, Venetian—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws relating to baptism, <a href="#page_6">6</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage laws, <a href="#page_6">6-8</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">registration of births and marriages, <a href="#page_7">7</a></span><br /> - -Aristotle’s works, first Greek edition, <a href="#page_150">150-151</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Armenians, <a href="#page_114">114</a><br /> - -Arsenal, the, <a href="#page_95">95-98</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_351">351-354</a><br /> - -Arsenalotti, <a href="#page_97">97</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a><br /> - -Art, dramatic, <a href="#page_278">278-280</a><br /> - -Arundel, Countess of, <a href="#page_216">216-218</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sir John, <a href="#page_164">164</a></span><br /> - -Athens, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Augsburg, <a href="#page_68">68</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a><br /> - -Austria, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_415">415</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Emperor of, <a href="#page_417">417</a></span><br /> - -Avogadori, the, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="B" id="B"></a>Badoer, Federigo, <a href="#page_159">159-161</a><br /> - -Bailo of Constantinople, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -Balland, General, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Ballarin, Zorzi, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -Ballot-boxes, office of carrying, <a href="#page_8">8</a><br /> - -Balsamo, Giuseppe, <a href="#page_316">316-317</a><br /> - -Bandits, <a href="#page_52">52-53</a>, <a href="#page_55">55</a><br /> - -Banquets, ducal, <a href="#page_337">337-340</a><br /> - -Baraguay d’Hilliers, General, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Barbaro, Marcantonio, <a href="#page_8">8</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_79">79</a><br /> - -Barbarigo, Agostino, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Barchi, Giacomo, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Baschet, M. Armand, <a href="#page_37">37</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Souvenirs</i> of, <a href="#page_85">85</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br /> - -Basilica of Saint Mark, <a href="#page_66">66</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a><br /> - -Bastionero, <a href="#page_112">112</a><br /> - -Battagia, Francesco, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a>, <a href="#page_411">411</a><br /> - -Beaufort, Duc de, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Beaulieu, General, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> - -Bellini, the, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gentile, <a href="#page_107">107</a></span><br /> - -Bembo, Cardinal, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -Beneto, Domenico, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Benzon, Marina, <a href="#page_257">257</a><br /> - -Bergamo, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a><br /> - -Bernardo, Pietro, <a href="#page_148">148-149</a><br /> - -Beroviero, Angelo, <a href="#page_103">103-105</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_434" id="page_434">{434}</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marietta, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a></span><br /> - -Berthier, Marshal, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Bey of Tunis, <a href="#page_358">358-359</a><br /> - -Biri Grande, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Bisaccia, Bishop of, <a href="#page_84">84</a><br /> - -‘Black Cabinet,’ <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -‘Black Inquisitors,’ <a href="#page_14">14</a><br /> - -Boleyn, Anne, <a href="#page_91">91</a><br /> - -Bollani, Bishop Pietro, <a href="#page_60">60</a><br /> - -Bologna, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Bonaventuri, Pietro, <a href="#page_121">121-127</a><br /> - -Bonnal, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a><br /> - -Bragadin, Marcantonio, <a href="#page_170">170-171</a><br /> - -Braschi, Cardinal, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br /> - -Bravi, <a href="#page_52">52-53</a>, <a href="#page_55">55</a>, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_320">320-332</a><br /> - -Brenta, the, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a><br /> - -Brescia, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Bridge. <i>See</i> Ponte<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of San Lio, <a href="#page_205">205</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Sighs, <a href="#page_46">46</a></span><br /> - -British Constitution, <a href="#page_88">88</a><br /> - -Brown, Horatio, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rawdon, <a href="#page_65">65</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a></span><br /> - -Bruno, Giordano, <a href="#page_26">26-29</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Bucentaur, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_270">270-276</a><br /> - -Burano lace, <a href="#page_109">109</a><br /> - -Businallo, <a href="#page_240">240</a><br /> - -Byron, Lord, <a href="#page_217">217</a><br /> - -Byzantine Empire, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="C" id="C"></a>Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#page_346">346</a><br /> - -Cæsars, the Roman, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Café Ancilotto, <a href="#page_317">317</a><br /> - -Cagliostro, Count. <i>See</i> Balsamo, Giuseppe<br /> - -Calmo, Andrea, <a href="#page_139">139-140</a><br /> - -Calvisano, <a href="#page_326">326</a><br /> - -Cambrai, League of, <a href="#page_66">66</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, <a href="#page_86">86</a></span><br /> - -Cambridge University, <a href="#page_88">88</a><br /> - -Campanile, <a href="#page_141">141</a><br /> - -Campo-Formio, treaty of, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Canova, Antonio, <a href="#page_269">269</a><br /> - -Cappelletti, the, of Verona, <a href="#page_68">68</a><br /> - -Cappello, the, <a href="#page_63">63</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bartolommeo, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bianca, <a href="#page_121">121-128</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittor, <a href="#page_46">46</a></span><br /> - -Carbonare, Marchesa, <a href="#page_329">329-330</a><br /> - -Carlowitz, treaty of, <a href="#page_230">230</a><br /> - -Carpaccio, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a><br /> - -Casali, Marchese, <a href="#page_329">329</a><br /> - -Casanova, Jacopo, <a href="#page_281">281</a><br /> - -Castaldi, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Catharine of Aragon, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a><br /> - -Catherine the Great, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -Cattaro, fortress of, <a href="#page_221">221</a><br /> - -Cesaresco, Count Martinengo, <a href="#page_322">322</a><br /> - -Charles V., Emperor, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a><br /> - -Charles VIII. of France, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a><br /> - -Charles IX. of France, <a href="#page_176">176</a><br /> - -Chateaubriand, <a href="#page_260">260-261</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mémoires d’Outre Tombe</i> by, <a href="#page_262">262</a></span><br /> - -Cherasco, treaty of, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> - -Chesterfield, Lord, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Chioggia, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -Chioggia, Zarlino da, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Chiribini, Andrea, <a href="#page_275">275-277</a><br /> - -Churches of—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Frari, <a href="#page_149">149</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Madonna della Salute, <a href="#page_225">225</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Redentore, <a href="#page_225">225</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Serviti, <a href="#page_360">360</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Tolentini, <a href="#page_343">343</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Pantales, <a href="#page_131">131</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Patrinian, <a href="#page_154">154</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Basso, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Giacomo, <a href="#page_181">181</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Giovanni e Paolo, <a href="#page_171">171</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant’ Eustachio, <a href="#page_219">219</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santa Maria Formosa, <a href="#page_210">210</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santo Stefano, <a href="#page_230">230</a></span><br /> - -Cicero’s <i>Rhetoric</i>, <a href="#page_151">151</a><br /> - -‘Cicisbei,’ <a href="#page_240">240-241</a><br /> - -Cicogna, Emanuele, <a href="#page_312">312-315</a><br /> - -Cisalpine Republic, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Cispadane Republic, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Clogs, <a href="#page_128">128-129</a><br /> - -Colbert, Jean Baptiste, <a href="#page_108">108</a><br /> - -Collalto, Collaltino di, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -College of Nobles, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Painters, <a href="#page_146">146</a></span><br /> - -Colonna, Marcantonio, <a href="#page_173">173</a><br /> - -Commines, Philippe de, <a href="#page_168">168</a><br /> - -Condottieri, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Constantinople, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Contarini, Andrea. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Convent of Santo Stefano, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_435" id="page_435">{435}</a></span>Convents, <a href="#page_234">234-239</a><br /> - -Corinth, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gulf of, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a></span><br /> - -Corner, Catterino, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Council of Ten, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_11">11-19</a>, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, <a href="#page_55">55</a>, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_66">66</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_219">219-222</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_296">296-302</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_326">326-328</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a><br /> - -Couriers, State, <a href="#page_84">84-86</a><br /> - -Courtesans, <a href="#page_130">130-131</a><br /> - -Crema, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Crete, <a href="#page_225">225-227</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Criminal history, Venetian, <a href="#page_51">51-66</a><br /> - -Cristofoli, Cristofolo de’, <a href="#page_311">311-321</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br /> - -Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Crusades, the, <a href="#page_4">4</a><br /> - -Cyprus, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="D" id="D"></a>Dalmatia, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_418">418</a><br /> - -Dandolo, Andrea, <a href="#page_312">312</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vincenzo, <a href="#page_60">60</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also under</i> Doges</span><br /> - -Dante, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a><br /> - -Danube, the, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Daru, <a href="#page_11">11</a>, <a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Deserto, island of, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Didot, M., <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a><br /> - -Diplomacy, Venetian, <a href="#page_77">77-94</a><br /> - -Directory, French, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a><br /> - -Doge, the, palace of, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href="#page_97">97</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictions on freedom of, <a href="#page_43">43-50</a></span><br /> - -Doges—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Contarini, Andrea, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dandolo, Enrico, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leonardo, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Donà, Leonardo, <a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Erizzo, Francesco, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foscari, Francesco, <a href="#page_44">44</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foscarini, Marco, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_334">334-335</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giustiniani, Marcantonio, <a href="#page_49">49</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gradenigo, Bartolommeo, <a href="#page_84">84</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grimani, Antonio, <a href="#page_49">49</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gritti, Andrea, <a href="#page_38">38</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manin, Ludovico, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mastropiero, Orio, <a href="#page_268">268</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mocenigo, Aloise (Luigi), <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aloise IV., <a href="#page_335">335-340</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giovanni, <a href="#page_45">45</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moro, Cristoforo, <a href="#page_46">46</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morosini, Francesco, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_227">227-230</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renier, Paolo, <a href="#page_340">340-343</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Steno, Michel, <a href="#page_46">46</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valier, Silvestro, <a href="#page_230">230</a></span><br /> - -Dogess, the, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, <a href="#page_47">47</a><br /> - -Dolfin, Daniele, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a><br /> - -Don John of Austria, <a href="#page_171">171</a><br /> - -Doná, Francesco, <a href="#page_398">398</a>, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leonardo. <i>See under</i> Doges</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Niccolò, <a href="#page_12">12</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pietro, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a>, <a href="#page_411">411</a></span><br /> - -Dress and fashion, <a href="#page_34">34-38</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_242">242-245</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a><br /> - -Drownings, official, <a href="#page_18">18-19</a><br /> - -‘Ducal promise,’ <a href="#page_220">220</a><br /> - -Ducat, gold, <a href="#page_92">92</a><br /> - -Ducks, tribute of, <a href="#page_48">48-50</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="E" id="E"></a>Edward III. of England, <a href="#page_84">84</a><br /> - -Egina, <a href="#page_230">230</a><br /> - -Elections of Doge, cost of, <a href="#page_345">345-346</a><br /> - -Elizabeth, Queen of England, <a href="#page_86">86</a><br /> - -Emo, Alvise, <a href="#page_295">295</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angelo, <a href="#page_356">356-360</a></span><br /> - -England, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href="#page_27">27</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venetian ambassadors to, <a href="#page_83">83-93</a></span><br /> - -Erasmus, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Erizzo, Francesco. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -‘Espousal of the Sea,’ ceremony of the, <a href="#page_270">270-275</a><br /> - -Euganean Hills, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Executives against Blasphemy, <a href="#page_24">24</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Ten, <a href="#page_14">14</a></span><br /> - -Exhibition, first Universal Industrial, <a href="#page_268">268</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="F" id="F"></a>Fair of the Ascension, <a href="#page_266">266-277</a><br /> - -Falier, Ludovico, <a href="#page_86">86-93</a><br /> - -Fata Morgana, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Father Inquisitor, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a><br /> - -Faust, Johann, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Feasts of—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ascension, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Candlemas, <a href="#page_210">210</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_436" id="page_436">{436}</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Jerome, <a href="#page_337">337</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Justina, <a href="#page_172">172</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Mark, <a href="#page_337">337</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Stephen, <a href="#page_337">337</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint Vitus, <a href="#page_337">337</a></span><br /> - -Feliciani, Lorenza, <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Feltre, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Ferdinand of Aragon, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Ferrara, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Filiasi, <a href="#page_262">262</a><br /> - -Florence, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Florentines, <a href="#page_4">4</a><br /> - -Fornaretto, legend of, <a href="#page_65">65-66</a><br /> - -Forts of—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Nicola, <a href="#page_395">395</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sant’ Andrea, <a href="#page_396">396</a></span><br /> - -Foscari, Francesco. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Foscarini, Antonio, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href="#page_214">214-220</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marco. <i>See under</i> Doges</span><br /> - -Foscolo, Ugo, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br /> - -Foundling Asylum, <a href="#page_8">8</a><br /> - -France, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_79">79</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_362">362-379</a>, <a href="#page_360">360-417</a><br /> - -Francis I. of France, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a><br /> - -Franco, Veronica, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_182">182-183</a><br /> - -Frangipane, Cristoforo, <a href="#page_66">66-76</a><br /> - -Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Frederick III., Emperor, <a href="#page_105">105-106</a><br /> - -Frederick IV. of Denmark, <a href="#page_245">245</a><br /> - -Freemasonry, <a href="#page_311">311-316</a><br /> - -French Revolution, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_363">363-379</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a><br /> - -Friuli, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Fugger family of Augsburg, <a href="#page_181">181-182</a><br /> - -Fulin, Signor, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, <a href="#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_19">19</a><br /> - -Fusina, <a href="#page_401">401</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="G" id="G"></a>Gabrieli, Angelo Maria, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Galilei, Galileo, <a href="#page_164">164-167</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter of, quoted, <a href="#page_166">166-167</a></span><br /> - -Gambara, the, <a href="#page_321">321-322</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Count Alemanno, <a href="#page_321">321-333</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Countess Giulia, <a href="#page_324">324</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a></span><br /> - -Gambling establishments, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_245">245-246</a><br /> - -Garda, Lake of, <a href="#page_36">36</a><br /> - -Genoa, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> - -Germany, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a><br /> - -Geronimo, Count, <a href="#page_57">57-59</a><br /> - -Gibraltar, Straits of, <a href="#page_358">358</a><br /> - -Ginevra, Countess, <a href="#page_57">57-60</a><br /> - -Giovanna of Austria, Archduchess, <a href="#page_126">126</a><br /> - -Giraldi, <a href="#page_65">65</a><br /> - -Giudecca, the, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Giustiniani, Angelo Giacomo, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leonardo, <a href="#page_398">398</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio. <i>See under</i> Doges</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Onofrio, <a href="#page_172">172</a></span><br /> - -Glass-works, <a href="#page_98">98-106</a><br /> - -Gloucester, Duke of, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Godi, Paolo, <a href="#page_103">103</a><br /> - -‘Golden Book,’ the, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a href="#page_7">7</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a><br /> - -Goldoni, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_236">236-238</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_277">277-280</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_305">305-309</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a><br /> - -Gondolas, <a href="#page_38">38-42</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a><br /> - -Gonzaga, Carlo, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferrante, <a href="#page_224">224</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Princess, <a href="#page_252">252-254</a></span><br /> - -Goritz, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a><br /> - -Goro, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Government of Venice—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aristocratic, <a href="#page_2">2</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">provisional, <a href="#page_411">411</a></span><br /> - -Gradenigo, Bartolommeo. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giuseppe, <a href="#page_295">295</a></span><br /> - -Grand Canal, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br /> - -Gratarol, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -Gratz, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> - -Great Council, the, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a href="#page_7">7</a>, <a href="#page_8">8-10</a>, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_47">47</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_288">288-296</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_410">410</a>, <a href="#page_411">411</a>, <a href="#page_415">415</a><br /> - -Greek archipelago, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Greeks, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Grimani, Antonio. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cardinal Domenico, <a href="#page_319">319</a></span><br /> - -Gritti, Andrea. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luca, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br /> - -Guttenberg, Johannes, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -<br /> -<i><a name="H" id="H"></a>Halimedia Opuntia</i>, <a href="#page_108">108</a><br /> - -Hall of the Great Council, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burning of, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a></span><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_437" id="page_437">{437}</a></span>Hapsburg family, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Henin, M., <a href="#page_368">368-373</a><br /> - -Henry III. of France, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_175">175-186</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a><br /> - -Henry IV. of France, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Henry VIII. of England, <a href="#page_86">86-92</a><br /> - -Heretics, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a><br /> - -High Chancellor, <a href="#page_82">82</a><br /> - -Hoffmann, <a href="#page_267">267</a><br /> - -Holy Inquisition, <a href="#page_11">11</a>, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Holy Office, <a href="#page_23">23-34</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">diagram of Court of, <a href="#page_25">25</a></span><br /> - -Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a><br /> - -Homer, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -‘Hose Club,’ the, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, <a href="#page_189">189-201</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Hospice of Saint Ursula, <a href="#page_277">277</a><br /> - -Hôtel Danieli, <a href="#page_72">72</a><br /> - -Hungary, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="I-i" id="I-i"></a>Illasi, <a href="#page_57">57</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Castle of, <a href="#page_60">60</a></span><br /> - -Inquisition, the, <a href="#page_11">11</a>, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Inquisitors—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Council of Ten, <a href="#page_13">13</a>, <a href="#page_14">14</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Holy Office, <a href="#page_11">11</a>, <a href="#page_23">23-34</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of State, <a href="#page_11">11-22</a></span><br /> - -Ionian Islands, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Istria, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Ivan Strashny, the Terrible, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Ivry, battle of, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="J" id="J"></a>James I. of England, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Japanese envoys in Venice, <a href="#page_186">186-187</a><br /> - -Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Jews, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a><br /> - -Joseph II., Emperor, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Joyeuse, Cardinal de, <a href="#page_210">210</a><br /> - -Judenburg, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Juliet, <a href="#page_68">68</a><br /> - -Junot, Marshal, <a href="#page_393">393</a>, <a href="#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> - -Jupiter’s moons, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="K" id="K"></a>Knights of the Golden Stole, <a href="#page_82">82-83</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a><br /> - -Knights of Malta, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> - -Kugler, Franz, <a href="#page_118">118</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="L" id="L"></a>La Forét, <a href="#page_215">215</a><br /> - -Lace-making, <a href="#page_105">105-110</a><br /> - -Ladies, Venetian, of eighteenth century, <a href="#page_234">234-246</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of sixteenth century, <a href="#page_117">117-131</a></span><br /> - -Landrieux, General, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a><br /> - -Lange, Apollonia von, <a href="#page_68">68-76</a><br /> - -Laugier, <a href="#page_105">105</a><br /> - -Laws, sumptuary, <a href="#page_34">34-43</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venetian Code, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a></span><br /> - -Legends, Venetian, <a href="#page_201">201-206</a><br /> - -Legnago, fort of, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Leoben, treaty of, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a><br /> - -Lepanto, battle of, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_171">171-175</a><br /> - -Lezze, Antonio da, <a href="#page_3">3</a><br /> - -Lido, the, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_395">395</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a><br /> - -Lion of Saint Mark, <a href="#page_415">415</a><br /> - -Lions of marble from Pentelicus, <a href="#page_228">228</a><br /> - -‘Lions’ Mouths’ (boxes), <a href="#page_222">222</a><br /> - -Liptay, General, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Lizzafusina, <a href="#page_76">76</a><br /> - -Lodron, Count of, <a href="#page_68">68</a><br /> - -Lombards, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Lombardy, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Longhi, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a><br /> - -Louis XII., <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Louis XIV., <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a><br /> - -Louis XVI., <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a><br /> - -Louis XVII., <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> - -Louis XVIII., <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Luca, chief of the Niccolotti, <a href="#page_179">179</a><br /> - -Luther, Martin, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="M" id="M"></a>Maffei, Andrea, <a href="#page_265">265</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marchese Scipione, <a href="#page_391">391</a></span><br /> - -Magistracies of Venice—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aristocratic, <a href="#page_1">1-11</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in eighteenth century, <a href="#page_299">299</a></span><br /> - -Malamani, V., <a href="#page_316">316</a><br /> - -Malta, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Manin, Ludovico. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Mantua, <a href="#page_224">224-225</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a></span><br /> - -Manutius, Aldus, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_149">149-154</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulus, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a></span><br /> - -Marcello, Benedetto, <a href="#page_280">280</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lorenzo, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br /> - -Maria Teresa, Empress, <a href="#page_343">343</a><br /> - -Marin, Valentin, <a href="#page_411">411</a><br /> - -Martel, Charles, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Martini, Signor, <a href="#page_117">117</a><br /> - -Mary, Queen of Scots, <a href="#page_93">93</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_438" id="page_438">{438}</a></span>Masséna, Marshal, <a href="#page_384">384</a><br /> - -Mastropiero, Orio. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Maurice of Nassau, <a href="#page_165">165</a><br /> - -Maximilian, Emperor, <a href="#page_66">66</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_68">68</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Mayne, Christopher, <a href="#page_164">164</a><br /> - -Medici, Cardinal Ferdinando dei, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cosmo dei, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco dei, <a href="#page_124">124-127</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Isabella dei, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maria de’, <a href="#page_214">214</a></span><br /> - -Mediterranean, the, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a><br /> - -Men and women of letters, <a href="#page_430">430</a><br /> - -Merceria, the, <a href="#page_242">242</a><br /> - -Messina, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Mestre, <a href="#page_111">111</a><br /> - -Michelangelo, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Michiel, Giustina Renier, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href="#page_254">254-265</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_417">417-420</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcantonio, <a href="#page_256">256</a></span><br /> - -Milan, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_76">76</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></span><br /> - -Ministry of Public Worship, European, <a href="#page_23">23</a><br /> - -Mocenigo, Alvise, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giovanni, <a href="#page_27">27</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sebastiano, <a href="#page_343">343</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also under</i> Doges</span><br /> - -Modena, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Molière, <a href="#page_255">255</a><br /> - -Molinari, Carlo, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a><br /> - -Molmenti, <a href="#page_26">26</a>, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_57">57-65</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a><br /> - -Monasteries of—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Carità, <a href="#page_197">197</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint George, <a href="#page_22">22</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Geremia, <a href="#page_368">368</a></span><br /> - -Money-lenders, <a href="#page_111">111-115</a><br /> - -Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, <a href="#page_217">217</a><br /> - -Montecchi, Romeo, <a href="#page_68">68</a><br /> - -Montesquieu, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_319">319-320</a><br /> - -Monti Vincenzo, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br /> - -Moorish conquest, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Morelli, <a href="#page_262">262</a><br /> - -Moro, Cristoforo. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zuan, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a></span><br /> - -Morosini, Alvise, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angelo, <a href="#page_195">195</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Francesco. <i>See under</i> Doges</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Niccolò, <a href="#page_409">409</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tommaso, <a href="#page_226">226</a></span><br /> - -Mummeries, <a href="#page_198">198-200</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Murano—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Councils, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glass-makers, <a href="#page_100">100-106</a>, <a href="#page_177">177-178</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Golden Book, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heraldic arms, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">podestà, <a href="#page_102">102</a></span><br /> - -Muratori, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Musæus, <a href="#page_152">152</a><br /> - -Museo Civico, <a href="#page_106">106</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Correr, <a href="#page_311">311</a></span><br /> - -Mustapha, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a><br /> - -Mutinelli, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a><br /> - -Muzina (prison), <a href="#page_19">19</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="N" id="N"></a>Nani, Giacomo, <a href="#page_386">386</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -Naples, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">King of, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a></span><br /> - -Napoleon, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_258">258-260</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_380">380-417</a><br /> - -Narenta, pirates of, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Nassau, Prince of, <a href="#page_387">387</a><br /> - -National Assembly of France, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a><br /> - -Navagero, Andrea, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -Nevers, Duke of, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a><br /> - -Niccolini, tragedian, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a><br /> - -Niccolotti and Castellani, <a href="#page_179">179</a><br /> - -Nicolosi, Angelo, <a href="#page_12">12</a><br /> - -Nicosia, <a href="#page_170">170</a><br /> - -Nievo, Ippolito, <a href="#page_391">391</a><br /> - -Noailles, Duc de, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Nobles, College of, <a href="#page_292">292</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="O" id="O"></a>Oglio, the, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Opera, first, in Italy, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Orford, Lord, <a href="#page_131">131</a><br /> - -Orsini, Paolo Giordano, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Virginio, <a href="#page_58">58-59</a></span><br /> - -Osella, coining of the, <a href="#page_49">49-50</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a><br /> - -‘Oselle,’ gift of the, <a href="#page_48">48</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a><br /> - -Osopo, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -<i>Othello</i>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a><br /> - -Oxford University, <a href="#page_88">88</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a>Pace, island of, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Padua, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bishop of, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">University of, <a href="#page_162">162-167</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a></span><br /> - -Painters, <a href="#page_132">132-146</a>, <a href="#page_430">430-431</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">College of, <a href="#page_146">146</a></span><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_439" id="page_439">{439}</a></span>Paisiello, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Palace (Palazzo)—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mocenigo, <a href="#page_217">217</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renier, <a href="#page_298">298</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zen, <a href="#page_298">298</a></span><br /> - -Palazzo (Palace)—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cappello, <a href="#page_176">176</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foscari, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, <a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Michiel, <a href="#page_257">257</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morosini, <a href="#page_201">201</a></span><br /> - -Palladio, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a><br /> - -‘Pallone,’ game of, <a href="#page_198">198</a><br /> - -Palma, fortress of, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Papal Court, <a href="#page_10">10</a><br /> - -Parenzo, <a href="#page_49">49</a><br /> - -Paris, <a href="#page_242">242</a><br /> - -Parma, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, <a href="#page_329">329</a></span><br /> - -Parthenon, the, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Pasqualigo, Cosimo, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Passarowitz, treaty of, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Passionei, Cardinal, <a href="#page_335">335</a><br /> - -Patras, <a href="#page_227">227</a><br /> - -Pawnbrokers, <a href="#page_111">111-115</a><br /> - -Peloponnesus, the, <a href="#page_227">227-230</a>, <a href="#page_348">348</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Pepoli, Alessandro, <a href="#page_287">287</a><br /> - -Pesaro, Niccolò da, <a href="#page_22">22</a><br /> - -Peschiera, fort of, <a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a><br /> - -Peter the Great, Czar, <a href="#page_230">230</a><br /> - -Petrarch, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a><br /> - -Philip II. of Spain, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a><br /> - -Philippe de Valois, <a href="#page_84">84</a><br /> - -Piave, the, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br /> - -Piazza of Saint Mark, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Piazzetta, the, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">columns of, <a href="#page_55">55</a></span><br /> - -Piedmont, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a><br /> - -Pigeons of Saint Mark’s, <a href="#page_188">188</a><br /> - -Pio, Prince, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a><br /> - -Piombi, the, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a><br /> - -Pirates, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a><br /> - -Pisa, <a href="#page_165">165</a><br /> - -Pisani, Alvise, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vittor, <a href="#page_3">3</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a></span><br /> - -Pizzamano, Domenico, <a href="#page_395">395</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a>, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Plague, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a><br /> - -Plato’s <i>Dialogues</i>, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -Plautus, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Plays, <a href="#page_196">196-197</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a><br /> - -Po, the, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Poe, Edgar, <a href="#page_267">267</a><br /> - -Poitiers, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Poland, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -Political prisoners, <a href="#page_66">66-76</a><br /> - -Ponte, Antonio da, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Ponte. <i>See also</i> Bridge<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dell’Angelo, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">del Carmine, <a href="#page_179">179</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">di Donna Onesta, <a href="#page_131">131</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">della Paglia, <a href="#page_70">70</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Storto, <a href="#page_121">121</a></span><br /> - -Popes—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander III., <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander VI., <a href="#page_153">153</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alexander VIII., <a href="#page_228">228</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement VII., <a href="#page_91">91</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clement VIII., <a href="#page_208">208</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gregory XIII., <a href="#page_238">238</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Innocent VIII., <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Julius II., <a href="#page_198">198</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul III., <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paul V., <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pius II., <a href="#page_46">46</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pius VII., <a href="#page_379">379</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sixtus V., <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a></span><br /> - -Pordenone, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_68">68</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a><br /> - -Portugal, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a><br /> - -Pozzi, the, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a><br /> - -Prata, Count, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a><br /> - -Printing, invention of, <a href="#page_149">149</a><br /> - -Prisons and prisoners—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in eighteenth century, <a href="#page_333">333</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in sixteenth century, <a href="#page_19">19-22</a></span><br /> - -Priuli, Zacaria, <a href="#page_195">195</a><br /> - -Procession of Corpus Domini, <a href="#page_73">73</a><br /> - -Provisional Government of Venice, <a href="#page_411">411</a><br /> - -Provveditori, <a href="#page_34">34-43</a>, <a href="#page_129">129</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a><br /> - -Psalms of David, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Ptolemy, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Q" id="Q"></a>Quirini, the, <a href="#page_53">53</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aloise, <a href="#page_376">376</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angelo, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a></span><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="R" id="R"></a>Rabelais, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br /> - -Raphael, <a href="#page_132">132</a><br /> - -Record Office, English, <a href="#page_19">19</a><br /> - -‘Red Inquisitor,’ <a href="#page_14">14</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_440" id="page_440">{440}</a></span>Reggio d’Emilia, <a href="#page_389">389</a><br /> - -Renascence, the, <a href="#page_119">119</a><br /> - -Renier, Bernardino, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paolo. <i>See under</i> Doges</span><br /> - -Revolutionaries, <a href="#page_316">316-317</a><br /> - -Rialto, the, <a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bridge of, <a href="#page_115">115-116</a>, <a href="#page_180">180</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">column of, <a href="#page_54">54</a></span><br /> - -Richard III. of England, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a><br /> - -Riviera, the, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -Robert, King, <a href="#page_84">84</a><br /> - -Robespierre, <a href="#page_375">375</a><br /> - -Romagna, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> - -Romanin, <a href="#page_11">11-12</a>, <a href="#page_18">18</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_363">363</a>, <a href="#page_386">386</a><br /> - -Rome, <a href="#page_10">10</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barberini Gallery in, <a href="#page_118">118</a></span><br /> - -‘Royal Macedonian’ regiment, <a href="#page_350">350</a><br /> - -Rubini, the actor, <a href="#page_270">270</a><br /> - -Russia, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="S" id="S"></a>Sabellico, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a><br /> - -Saint Catharine, <a href="#page_84">84</a><br /> - -Saint Helen’s Island, <a href="#page_274">274</a><br /> - -Saint Justina, <a href="#page_172">172</a><br /> - -Saint Mark—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">procurators of, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standard of, <a href="#page_418">418-420</a></span><br /> - -Saint Mark’s Church, <a href="#page_18">18</a>, <a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">horses of, <a href="#page_417">417</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sacristy, <a href="#page_25">25</a></span><br /> - -Saint Mark’s Square, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href="#page_414">414</a>, <a href="#page_415">415</a><br /> - -Salimbeni, General, <a href="#page_414">414</a><br /> - -Salò, <a href="#page_332">332</a><br /> - -Salò, Pietro di, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Salviati, banking house of, <a href="#page_121">121</a><br /> - -San Cassian, <a href="#page_134">134</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a><br /> - -San Cristoforo, island of, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -San Giacomo in Orio, <a href="#page_157">157</a><br /> - -San Giorgio Maggiore, island of, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_405">405</a><br /> - -San Sisto, Cardinal, <a href="#page_176">176</a><br /> - -Sanmichele, <a href="#page_142">142</a><br /> - -Sansovino, Jacopo, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href="#page_140">140-144</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -Sant’ Omobono, <a href="#page_64">64</a><br /> - -Santa Maura, islands of, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a><br /> - -Sanudo, Marin, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, <a href="#page_35">35</a>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>, <a href="#page_68">68</a>, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_155">155-158</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a><br /> - -Sardinia, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> - -Sarpi, Fra Paolo, <a href="#page_211">211-213</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Saturn’s rings, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -Savoy, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duke of, <a href="#page_184">184</a></span><br /> - -Sbirri, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_57">57</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_310">310-333</a><br /> - -Scholars, <a href="#page_149">149-167</a><br /> - -Schulenburg, Marshal Count von, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -Sculptors, <a href="#page_432">432</a><br /> - -See, Holy, <a href="#page_10">10</a>, <a href="#page_23">23</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a><br /> - -Senate, sittings of, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -Serrurier, General, <a href="#page_417">417</a><br /> - -Shakespeare, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_65">65</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a><br /> - -Sign of the Old Woman, <a href="#page_180">180</a><br /> - -Signorotti, <a href="#page_56">56-57</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -Signors of the Night, <a href="#page_10">10</a>, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a><br /> - -Signory, the, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href="#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a><br /> - -‘Silver Book,’ the, <a href="#page_144">144</a><br /> - -Slaves, <a href="#page_169">169</a><br /> - -Smedley, E. W., <a href="#page_11">11</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a><br /> - -Sobieski, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> - -Societies, secret, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> - -Soranzo, Jacopo, <a href="#page_93">93</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tommaso, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a></span><br /> - -Spain, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a><br /> - -Stampa, Gaspara, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a><br /> - -Stanislaus Leczinski, King, <a href="#page_320">320</a><br /> - -‘Statutes of the Inquisitors of State,’ <a href="#page_11">11-12</a><br /> - -Steno, Michel. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Superstitions, <a href="#page_205">205-206</a><br /> - -<br /> -‘<a name="T" id="T"></a>Talanta,’ Pietro Aretino’s, <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -Tassini, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a><br /> - -Temesvar, <a href="#page_349">349</a><br /> - -<i>Terremoto</i>, <a href="#page_143">143</a><br /> - -Thames, the, <a href="#page_27">27</a><br /> - -Theatre—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fenice, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of San Benedetto, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of San Cassian, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of San Moisè, <a href="#page_245">245-246</a></span><br /> - -Theatres, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_278">278-287</a><br /> - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_441" id="page_441">{441}</a></span>Theatrical performances, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Thieves, flogging of, <a href="#page_54">54</a><br /> - -Thode, Dr. Heinrich, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a><br /> - -Tiepolo, Domenico, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Giovanni Battista, <a href="#page_251">251</a></span><br /> - -Tintoretto, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a><br /> - -Titian, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_133">133</a>, <a href="#page_135">135-136</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_141">141-145</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br /> - -Tomassetti, Professor, <a href="#page_190">190</a><br /> - -Torcello, <a href="#page_134">134</a><br /> - -Torre, Count Francesco della, <a href="#page_12">12</a><br /> - -Torture, use of, <a href="#page_16">16-18</a>, <a href="#page_25">25</a><br /> - -Tower of London, <a href="#page_21">21</a><br /> - -Trade, protection of, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a><br /> - -Treviso, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_404">404</a><br /> - -Trieste, <a href="#page_368">368</a><br /> - -Tron, Andrea, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> - -Tuileries, <a href="#page_364">364</a><br /> - -Turin, <a href="#page_367">367</a><br /> - -Turkey, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a><br /> - -Turks, <a href="#page_169">169-175</a>, <a href="#page_225">225-230</a>, <a href="#page_348">348-349</a>, <a href="#page_351">351</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a><br /> - -Turner, <a href="#page_116">116</a><br /> - -Tuscan language, <a href="#page_11">11</a><br /> - -Tuscany, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grand Duke of, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_136">136</a></span><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="U" id="U"></a>Usmago, podestà of, <a href="#page_305">305</a><br /> - -Utrecht, treaty of, <a href="#page_362">362</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="V-i" id="V-i"></a>Valaresso, <a href="#page_278">278</a><br /> - -Valier, Silvestro. <i>See under</i> Doges<br /> - -Vallesabbia, <a href="#page_390">390</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a><br /> - -Valtellina, <a href="#page_210">210</a><br /> - -Vano, Girolamo, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Vatican, <a href="#page_23">23</a>, <a href="#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a><br /> - -Vendramin, Andrea, <a href="#page_195">195</a><br /> - -Venice—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ceded to Austria, <a href="#page_417">417</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">English ambassadors to, <a href="#page_84">84</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Henry III. of France visits, <a href="#page_175">175-186</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period of decadence, <a href="#page_207">207-254</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period of greatest prosperity, <a href="#page_5">5</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plague visitations, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a></span><br /> - -Venier, Girolamo, <a href="#page_340">340</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sebastian, <a href="#page_173">173-175</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a></span><br /> - -Verona, <a href="#page_57">57</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_398">398</a><br /> - -Veronese, Paolo, <a href="#page_26">26</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trial of, <a href="#page_29">29-34</a></span><br /> - -Versailles, <a href="#page_364">364</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#page_362">362</a></span><br /> - -Vervins, <a href="#page_208">208</a><br /> - -Vienna, <a href="#page_68">68</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of, <a href="#page_362">362</a></span><br /> - -Villetard, <a href="#page_406">406-410</a><br /> - -Vinciolo, Francesco, <a href="#page_107">107</a><br /> - -Visconti, the, <a href="#page_4">4</a><br /> - -Vitali, Doctor Buonafede, <a href="#page_269">269</a><br /> - -Viviani, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="W" id="W"></a>War of the Spanish Succession, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href="#page_382">382</a><br /> - -‘Wehmgericht,’ the, <a href="#page_12">12</a><br /> - -Williams, Henry, <a href="#page_164">164</a><br /> - -Wine-sellers, <a href="#page_111">111-114</a><br /> - -‘Wise Men on Blasphemy,’ <a href="#page_196">196</a><br /> - -‘Wise Men on Heresy,’ <a href="#page_23">23</a>, <a href="#page_24">24</a><br /> - -Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href="#page_92">92</a><br /> - -Women of Venice—<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in eighteenth century, <a href="#page_234">234-246</a></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in sixteenth century, <a href="#page_117">117-131</a></span><br /> - -Worsley, Sir Richard, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a><br /> - -Wotton, Sir Henry, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_218">218</a><br /> - -Wyatt, Sir Thomas, <a href="#page_164">164</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Y" id="Y"></a>Yriarte, M., <a href="#page_8">8</a>, <a href="#page_29">29</a>, <a href="#page_44">44-45</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a>, <a href="#page_79">79</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a><br /> - -<br /> -<a name="Z" id="Z"></a>Zeno, Carlo, <a href="#page_3">3</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renier, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a></span><br /> - -Zulian, Girolamo, <a href="#page_311">311</a><br /> -</p> - -<p class="fint">THE END</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_442" id="page_442">{442}</a></span>  </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_443" id="page_443">{443}</a></span>  </p> - -<p class="cbig250">SOUTHERN ITALY AND SICILY<br /> <small>AND</small><br /> THE RULERS OF THE SOUTH</p> - -<p class="cb">By F. MARION CRAWFORD</p> - -<p class="c">WITH A HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS BY HENRY BROKMAN</p> - -<p class="cb"> -Cloth <span style="margin-left: 2em; -margin-right:2em;">Crown 8vo</span> $2.50 net<br /> -</p> - -<p>“No living man of letters could have handled his materials with greater -skill, or distilled them with more certainty into a fluent and -fascinating narrative.”—<i>The Dial.</i></p> - -<p>“Mr. Crawford’s manner and method throughout are those of the romantic -historian: true to fact, but true, also, to the romance of events, and -enlivening and strengthening the whole through the historical -imagination. He has taken a subject which he is peculiarly well fitted -to treat by his experience and his studies and his former work, and it -becomes, in his hand, a source of unexpected pleasure.”—<i>Boston -Herald.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="cbig250">AVE ROMA IMMORTALIS</p> - -<p class="cb">STUDIES FROM THE CHRONICLES OF ROME</p> - -<p class="cb">By F. MARION CRAWFORD</p> - -<p class="cb"><i>Author of “Rulers of the South,” etc.</i></p> - -<p class="cb"> -Fully Illustrated Cloth Crown 8vo $3.00 net<br /> -</p> - -<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">S. Weir Mitchell</span> writes: “I have not for a long while read a book -which pleased me more than Mr. Crawford’s ‘Roma.’ It is cast in a form -so original and so available that it must surely take the place of all -other books about Rome which are needed to help one to understand its -story and its archæology.... The book has for me a rare interest.”</p> - -<p>“The ablest popular work on Rome published in recent years.”—<i>Chicago -Tribune.</i></p> - -<p>“The ideal chronicle of the Eternal City.”—<i>Inter-Ocean.</i></p> - -<p>“More valuable to the general reader than any other.”—<i>San Francisco -Chronicle.</i></p> - -<p>“He recalls the Rome of the great age of the conquests; of the Empire; -of those years when the fires of life were dying; of the age of the -barbarians; of the middle age; of the Renaissance; and of the modern -time.”—<span class="smcap">H. W. Mabie.</span></p> - -<p class="c"> -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> -64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_444" id="page_444">{444}</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="cb"><span class="big"> -Writings of F. Marion Crawford</span></p> - -<p class="cb"> -12mo Cloth<br /> -</p> - -<table cellpadding="0"> -<tr><td>Whosoever Shall Offend</td><td class="rt">$1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Heart of Rome</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Cecilia</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Marietta</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Corleone</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Mr. Isaacs</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Dr. Claudius</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>A Roman Singer</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>An American Politician</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>To Leeward</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Zoroaster</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>A Tale of a Lonely Parish</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Marzio’s Crucifix</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Paul Patoff</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Pietro Ghisleri</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Children of the King</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Marion Darche</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Three Fates</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Katharine Lauderdale</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Ralstons</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Love in Idleness</td><td class="rt">2.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Casa Braccio, 2 vols.</td><td class="rt">2.00</td></tr> -<tr><td>Taquisara</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Adam Johnstone’s Son, and A Rose of Yesterday</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Saracinesca</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sant’ Ilario</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Don Orsino</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>With the Immortals</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Greifenstein</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>A Cigarette-Maker’s Romance, and Khaled</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>The Witch of Prague</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>Via Crucis</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -<tr><td>In the Palace of the King</td><td class="rt">1.50</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="blk"> -<p><b>WHOSOEVER SHALL OFFEND.</b>—“Not since George Eliot’s ‘Romola’ brought her -to her foreordained place among literary immortals, has there appeared -in English fiction a character at once so strong and sensitive, so -entirely and consistently human, so urgent and compelling in its appeal -to sustained, sympathetic interest.”—<i>Philadelphia North American.</i></p> - -<p><b>THE HEART OF ROME (A Tale of the “Lost Water”).</b>—“Mr. Crawford has -written as absorbingly interesting a story as any of the perennially -engrossing ‘Saracinesca’ trilogy.”—<i>Brooklyn Times.</i></p> - -<p><b>CECILIA (A Story of Modern Rome).</b>—“The love story, which is the -dominating interest throughout, is so strange and novel a one that many -readers will, we think, compare it with ‘Mr. Isaacs,’ the author’s first -and most popular book.... Mr. Crawford will, we think, be held to have -scored a new and distinct success in this story.”—<i>The Philadelphia -North American.</i></p> - -<p><b>MARIETTA (A Maid of Venice).</b>—“The workshop, its processes, the ways and -thought of the time, all this is handled in so masterly a manner, not -for its own sake, but for that of the story.... It has charm and the -romance which is eternally human, as well as that which was of the -Venice of that day. And over it all there is an atmosphere of worldly -wisdom, of understanding, sympathy, and tolerance, of intuition and -recognition, that makes Marion Crawford the excellent companion he is in -his books for mature men and women.”—<i>New York Mail and Express.</i></p> - -<p><b>CORLEONE (A Tale Of Sicily).</b>—<i>The last of the famous Saracinesca -Series.</i>—“It is by far the most stirring and dramatic of all the -author’s Italian stories.... The plot is a masterly one, bringing at -almost every page a fresh surprise, keeping the reader in suspense to -the very end.”—<i>The Times</i>, New York.</p> - -<p><b>MR. ISAACS.</b>—“It is lofty and uplifting. It is strongly, sweetly, -tenderly written. It is in all respects an uncommon novel.”—<i>The -Literary World.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_445" id="page_445">{445}</a></span></p> - -<p><b>DR. CLAUDIUS.</b>—“The characters are strongly marked without any suspicion -of caricature, and the author’s ideas on social and political subjects -are often brilliant and always striking. It is no exaggeration to say -that there is not a dull page in the book, which is peculiarly adapted -for the recreation of the student or thinker.”—<i>Living Church.</i></p> - -<p><b>A ROMAN SINGER.</b>—“A powerful story of art and love in Rome.”—<i>The New -York Observer.</i></p> - -<p><b>AN AMERICAN POLITICIAN.</b>—“One of the characters is a visiting -Englishman. Possibly Mr. Crawford’s long residence abroad has made him -select such a hero as a safeguard against slips, which does not seem to -have been needed. His insight into a phase of politics with which he -could hardly be expected to be familiar is remarkable.”—<i>Buffalo -Express.</i></p> - -<p><b>TO LEEWARD.</b>—“It is an admirable tale of Italian life told in a spirited -way and far better than most of the fiction current.”—<i>San Francisco -Chronicle.</i></p> - -<p><b>ZOROASTER.</b>—“As a matter of literary art solely, we doubt if Mr. -Crawford has ever before given us better work than the description of -Belshazzar’s feast with which the story begins, or the death-scene with -which it closes.”—<i>The Christian Union</i> (now <i>The Outlook</i>).</p> - -<p><b>A TALE OF A LONELY PARISH.</b>—“It is a pleasure to have anything so -perfect of its kind as this brief and vivid story. It is doubly a -success, being full of human sympathy, as well as thoroughly -artistic.”—<i>The Critic.</i></p> - -<p><b>MARZIO’S CRUCIFIX.</b>—“We take the liberty of saying that this work -belongs to the highest department of character-painting in words.”—<i>The -Churchman.</i></p> - -<p><b>PAUL PATOFF.</b>—“It need scarcely be said that the story is skilfully and -picturesquely written, portraying sharply individual characters in -well-defined surroundings.”—<i>New York Commercial Advertiser.</i></p> - -<p><b>PIETRO GHISLERI.</b>—“The strength of the story lies not only in the -artistic and highly dramatic working out of the plot, but also in the -penetrating analysis and understanding of the impulsive and passionate -Italian character.”—<i>Public Opinion.</i></p> - -<p><b>THE CHILDREN OF THE KING.</b>—“One of the most artistic and exquisitely -finished pieces of work that Crawford has produced. The picturesque -setting, Calabria and its surroundings, the beautiful Sorrento and the -Gulf of Salerno, with the bewitching accessories that climate, sea, and -sky afford, give Mr. Crawford rich opportunities to show his rare -descriptive powers. As a whole the book is strong and beautiful through -its simplicity.”—<i>Public Opinion.</i></p> - -<p><b>MARION DARCHE.</b>—“We are disposed to rank ‘Marion Darche’ as the best of -Mr. Crawford’s American stories.”—<i>The Literary World.</i></p> - -<p><b>THE THREE FATES.</b>—“The strength of the story lies in portrayal of the -aspirations, disciplinary efforts, trials, and triumphs of the man who -is a born writer, and who by long and painful experiences learns the -good that is in him and the way in which to give it effectual -expression. Taken for all in all, it is one of the most pleasing of all -his productions in fiction, and it affords a view of certain phases of -American, or perhaps we should say of New York, life that have not -hitherto been treated with anything like the same adequacy and -felicity.”—<i>Boston Beacon.</i></p> - -<p><b>KATHARINE LAUDERDALE.</b>—“It need scarcely be said that the story is -skilfully and picturesquely written, portraying sharply individual -characters in well-defined surroundings.”—<i>New York Commercial -Advertiser.</i></p> - -<p><b>THE RALSTONS.</b>—“The whole group of character studies is strong and -vivid.”—<i>The Literary World.</i></p> - -<p><b>LOVE IN IDLENESS.</b>—“The story is told in the author’s lightest vein; it -is bright and entertaining.”—<i>The Literary World.</i></p> - -<p><b>CASA BRACCIO.</b>—“We are grateful when Mr. Crawford keeps to his Italy. -The poetry and enchantment of the land are all his own, and ‘Casa -Braccio’ gives promise of being his masterpiece.... He has the life, the -beauty, the heart, and the soul of Italy at the tips of his -fingers.”—<i>Los Angeles Express.</i></p> - -<p><b>TAQUISARA.</b>—“A charming story this is, and one which will certainly be -liked by all admirers of Mr. Crawford’s work.”—<i>New York Herald.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_446" id="page_446">{446}</a></span></p> - -<p><b>ADAM JOHNSTONE’S SON and A ROSE OF YESTERDAY.</b>—“It is not only one of -the most enjoyable novels that Mr. Crawford has ever written, but is a -novel that will make people think.”—<i>Boston Beacon.</i></p> - -<p>“Don’t miss reading Marion Crawford’s new novel, ‘A Rose of Yesterday.’ -It is brief, but beautiful and strong. It is as charming a piece of pure -idealism as ever came from Mr. Crawford’s pen.”—<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p> - -<p><b>SARACINESCA.</b>—“The work has two distinct merits, either of which would -serve to make it great: that of telling a perfect story in a perfect -way, and of giving a graphic picture of Roman society.... The story is -exquisitely told, and is the author’s highest achievement, as yet, in -the realm of fiction.”—<i>The Boston Traveler.</i></p> - -<p><b>SANT’ ILARIO (A Sequel to Saracinesca).</b>—“A singularly powerful and -beautiful story.... It fulfils every requirement of artistic fiction. It -brings out what is most impressive in human action, without owing any of -its effectiveness to sensationalism or artifice. It is natural, fluent -in evolution, accordant with experience, graphic in description, -penetrating in analysis, and absorbing in interest.”—<i>The New York -Tribune.</i></p> - -<p><b>DON ORSINO (A Sequel to Saracinesca and Sant’ Ilario).</b>—“Offers -exceptional enjoyment in many ways, in the fascinating absorption of -good fiction, in the interest of faithful historic accuracy, and in -charm of style. The ‘New Italy’ is strikingly revealed in ‘Don -Orsino.’<span class="lftspc">”</span>—<i>Boston Budget.</i></p> - -<p><b>WITH THE IMMORTALS.</b>—“The strange central idea of the story could have -occurred only to a writer whose mind was very sensitive to the current -of modern thought and progress, while its execution, the setting it -forth in proper literary clothing, could be successfully attempted only -by one whose active literary ability should be fully equalled by his -power of assimilative knowledge, both literary and scientific, and no -less by his courage, and so have a fascination entirely new for the -habitual reader of novels. Indeed, Mr. Crawford has succeeded in taking -his readers quite above the ordinary plane of novel interest.”—<i>The -Boston Advertiser.</i></p> - -<p><b>GREIFENSTEIN.</b>—” ... Another notable contribution to the literature of -the day. Like all Mr. Crawford’s work, this novel is crisp, clear, and -vigorous, and will be read with a great deal of interest.”—<i>New York -Evening Telegram.</i></p> - -<p><b>A CIGARETTE-MAKER’S ROMANCE and KHALED.</b>—“It is a touching romance, -filled with scenes of great dramatic power.”—<i>Boston Commercial -Bulletin.</i></p> - -<p>“It abounds in stirring incidents and barbaric picturesqueness; and the -love struggle of the unloved Khaled is manly in its simplicity and noble -in its ending.”—<i>The Mail and Express.</i></p> - -<p><b>THE WITCH OF PRAGUE.</b>—“The artistic skill with which this extraordinary -story is constructed and carried out is admirable and delightful.... Mr. -Crawford has scored a decided triumph, for the interest of the tale is -sustained throughout.... A very remarkable, powerful, and interesting -story.”—<i>New York Tribune.</i></p> - -<p><b>VIA CRUCIS (A Romance of the Second Crusade).</b>—“Throughout ‘Via Crucis’ -the author shows not only the artist’s selective power and a sense of -proportion and comparative values, but the Christian’s instinct for -those things that it is well to think upon.... Blessed is the book that -exalts, and ‘Via Crucis’ merits that beatitude.”—<i>New York Times.</i></p> - -<p><b>IN THE PALACE OF THE KING (A Love Story of Old Madrid).</b>—“Marion -Crawford’s latest story, ‘In the Palace of the King,’ is quite up to the -level of his best works for cleverness, grace of style, and sustained -interest. It is, besides, to some extent, a historical story, the scene -being the royal palace at Madrid, the author drawing the characters of -Philip II. and Don John of Austria, with an attempt, in a broad -impressionist way, at historic faithfulness. His reproduction of the -life at the Spanish court is as brilliant and picturesque as any of his -Italian scenes, and in minute study of detail is, in a real and valuable -sense, true history.”—<i>The Advance.</i></p> -</div> - -<p class="fint">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /><br /> -64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/back.jpg"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="369" height="550" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> -</div> - -<hr class="full" /> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SALVE VENETIA, GLEANINGS FROM VENETIAN HISTORY; VOL. 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