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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #67221 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67221)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pueblo pottery making;, by Carl E.
-Guthe
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Pueblo pottery making;
-       a study at the village of San Ildefonso
-
-Author: Carl E. Guthe
-
-Release Date: January 22, 2022 [eBook #67221]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-             https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-             generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING; ***
-
-
-
-
-
-                 PAPERS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN EXPEDITION
-                              NUMBER TWO
-
-                         PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING
-
-                        [Illustration: PLATE 1
-
-                      _Courtesy Wesley Bradfield_
-
-                            MARIA MARTINEZ
-
-              The most skillful potter of San Ildefonso.]
-
-
-
-
-                       DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY
-              PHILLIPS ACADEMY · ANDOVER · MASSACHUSETTS
-
-                         PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING
-                A STUDY AT THE VILLAGE OF SAN ILDEFONSO
-
-                                  BY
-                             CARL E. GUTHE
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                               NEW HAVEN
-              PUBLISHED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY
-              PHILLIPS ACADEMY · ANDOVER · MASSACHUSETTS
-                     BY THE YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
-                                 1925
-
-
-               COPYRIGHTED 1925 BY YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
-
-                PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
-                         BY THE ANDOVER PRESS
-
-
-
-
-TABLE OF CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-INTRODUCTION                                                           1
-
-RAW MATERIALS; COLLECTION AND PREPARATION                             19
-
-INGREDIENTS                                                           19
-
-RED CLAY                                                              19
-
-WHITE CLAY                                                            21
-
-TEMPER                                                                21
-
-COOKING VESSEL CLAY                                                   22
-
-SLIPS AND PAINTS                                                      23
-
-NATIVE SLIP                                                           23
-
-SANTO DOMINGO SLIP                                                    23
-
-RED SLIP                                                              23
-
-ORANGE-RED SLIP                                                       24
-
-BLACK WARE PAINT                                                      24
-
-BLACK OR GUACO PAINT                                                  25
-
-FUEL                                                                  26
-
-MANURE                                                                26
-
-KINDLING                                                              26
-
-PARAPHERNALIA                                                         27
-
-PRIMARY PARAPHERNALIA                                                 27
-
-MOULDS                                                                27
-
-MOULDING SPOONS                                                       27
-
-SCRAPERS                                                              27
-
-POLISHING STONES                                                      27
-
-PAINT BRUSHES                                                         28
-
-SECONDARY PARAPHERNALIA                                               29
-
-CARRYING AND STORING RECEPTACLES                                      29
-
-MIXING SURFACES                                                       29
-
-BOARDS                                                                29
-
-WATER CONTAINERS                                                      29
-
-MOPS                                                                  30
-
-PAINT RECEPTACLES                                                     30
-
-WIPING-RAGS                                                           30
-
-FIRING ACCESSORIES                                                    30
-
-MOULDING                                                              31
-
-BOWLS                                                                 37
-
-OLLAS                                                                 42
-
-COOKING-VESSELS                                                       46
-
-PRAYER-MEAL BOWLS                                                     48
-
-DOUBLE-MOUTHED VASES                                                  49
-
-HANDLES                                                               50
-
-SUN-DRYING                                                            52
-
-SCRAPING                                                              54
-
-SLIPPING AND POLISHING                                                57
-
-WHITE SLIP                                                            57
-
-ORANGE-RED SLIP                                                       59
-
-RED SLIP                                                              59
-
-DARK-RED SLIP                                                         62
-
-PAINTING                                                              66
-
-FIRING                                                                70
-
-PREPARATION                                                           70
-
-BUILDING THE OVEN                                                     70
-
-BURNING                                                               72
-
-ACCIDENTS                                                             76
-
-TREATMENT AFTER BURNING                                               77
-
-PAINTING OF DESIGNS                                                   78
-
-SYMBOLISM                                                             85
-
-BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                          89
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-PLATES
-             PAGE
-
-1. Maria Martinez, the leading potter of San Ildefonso     _Frontispiece_
-
-2. Fragments of ancient corrugated wares                               6
-
-3. Old decorated vessels from the Pueblo villages                      8
-
-4. Old San Ildefonso vessels                                           8
-
-5. Old San Ildefonso vessels                                          10
-
-6. Modern polychrome ware by Maria Martinez                           10
-
-7. Modern polychrome and black-on-red wares                           12
-
-8. Modern plain and decorated polished black ware                     14
-
-9. Winnowing clay                                                     16
-
-10. _a_, Digging tempering material, _b_, Guaco plant                 20
-
-11. Gourd spoons                                                      26
-
-12. _a_, Kneading clay   _b_, Primary stages of bowl moulding         32
-
-13. Method of building vessels                                        32
-
-14. _a_, Work on rim of unfinished bowl,   _b_, Shaping vessel        36
-
-15. Successive stages in the moulding of an olla                      42
-
-16. _a_, Moulding an olla,   _b_, A typical potter                    44
-
-17. _a_, Finishing touches,   _b_, Application of handle              46
-
-18. Sun-drying                                                        52
-
-19. Scraping                                                          54
-
-20. _a_, Cutting down an olla   _b_, Applying slip                    58
-
-21. _a_, Applying slip,   _b_, _c_, Polishing                         60
-
-22. Decorating small vessels                                          66
-
-23. Decorating ollas                                                  68
-
-24. _a_, Drying the oven site, _b_, Preparing the oven                70
-
-25. Oven-building                                                     72
-
-26. Firing                                                            72
-
-27. _a_, Smothered fire,   _b_, Wiping fired vessels                  74
-
-28. Zuñi potter preparing clay                                        76
-
-29. Zuñi potter moulding a vessel                                     76
-
-30. Zuñi potter finishing a vessel                                    76
-
-31. Zuñi potter decorating and firing a vessel                        76
-
-32. Design by Maria Martinez                                          81
-
-33. Design by Maria Martinez                                          82
-
-34. Design by Maximiliana Martinez                                    82
-
-35. Design by Antonita Roybal                                         84
-
-
-FIGURES IN THE TEXT
-
-1. Outlines of post-Basket Maker vessels                               6
-
-2. Pre-Pueblo pottery                                                  7
-
-3. Decorations of ancient Pueblo bowls                                 9
-
-4. Bad examples of modern pottery                                     13
-
-5. Paint brushes                                                      28
-
-6. Sections of a bowl during building                                 34
-
-7. Method of terracing a prayer-meal bowl                             48
-
-8. Angles of paint brush during stroke                                68
-
-9. Growth of a polychrome design                                      80
-
-10. Raincloud design                                                  83
-
-11. Elements of design                                                87
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-The present paper is a careful study by Dr. Guthe of pottery making at
-San Ildefonso, a typical Pueblo Indian town on the Rio Grande, north of
-Santa Fe, New Mexico. The field-work was undertaken in 1921 as part of
-an archaeological survey of the Southwest, that has been carried on for
-a number of years by the Department of Archaeology of Phillips Academy.
-From prehistoric archaeology to modern pottery making may seem a far
-cry, but in the Southwest the past merges almost imperceptibly into the
-present, and the Pueblos of today live in almost exactly the same way,
-and practise almost exactly the same arts, as did their ancestors of a
-thousand years ago. In the Southwest, therefore, the archaeologist has
-the invaluable opportunity of observing, and of studying at first hand,
-the life whose earlier remains he unearths from the ancient ruins. When
-one considers what such a privilege would mean to the excavator in, for
-example, the mounds of the Mississippi Valley, or the Neolithic
-village-sites of Europe, it becomes obvious that the Southwestern
-archaeologist should devote a not inconsiderable part of his time to the
-study of that industrious, kindly, hospitable, and thoroughly charming
-folk, the Pueblo Indians.
-
-Living a sedentary, agricultural life in an arid country it was
-inevitable that the Pueblos should early have developed into expert and
-prolific potters; and so pottery, in the form of sherds scattered about
-their former dwellings, and of vessels piously interred with their dead,
-is the most striking, the most abundant, and the most readily accessible
-form of evidence to be dealt with by the Southwestern archaeologist. The
-value of pottery to the student of the past cannot be more happily
-expressed than in the words of the historian Myres: “When with the soft
-clay which has, so to say, no natural shape or utility at all, the human
-hand, guided by imagination, but otherwise unaided, creates a new form,
-gourd-like, or flask-like, or stone-bowl-like, but not itself either
-gourd, or skin, or stone, then invention has begun, and an art is born
-which demands on each occasion of its exercise a fresh effort of
-imagination to devise, and of intellect to give effect to, a literally
-new thing. It is a fortunate accident that the material in question,
-once fixed in the given form by exposure to fire, is by that very
-process made so brittle that its prospect of utility is short;
-consequently the demand for replacement is persistent. The only group of
-industries which can compare with potmaking in intellectual importance
-is that of the textile fabrics; basketry and weaving. But whereas
-basket-work and all forms of matting and cloth are perishable and will
-burn, broken pottery is almost indestructible, just because, once
-broken, it is so useless. It follows that evidence so permanent, so
-copious, and so plastic, that is to say so infinitely sensitive a
-register of the changes of the artist’s mood, as the potsherds on an
-ancient site, is among the most valuable that we can ever have, for
-tracing the dawn of culture.”
-
-Myres wrote of arid Egypt, and in many ways conditions in the likewise
-arid Southwest, where a primitive people were also building up for
-themselves through agriculture a new type of civilization, closely
-parallel those of the Nile Valley in predynastic times. And the
-analogy, naturally enough, holds good in the matter of archaeological
-methods. The rise and spread of the predynastic cultures of Egypt are
-being traced out in large part by studies of ceramic types and of their
-stratigraphic relation one to another. The same methods are applicable,
-and indeed are now beginning to be applied, to the problems of the
-Southwest.
-
-To understand the trend of recent archaeological work in the Pueblo
-field it is necessary to take a bird’s-eye view, so to speak, of the
-region. Over a vast area in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and the
-state of Chihuahua in Old Mexico, are found the remains of the
-prehistoric Pueblos. Their villages, now in ruins, were built in all
-sorts of places, on the tops of mesas, in open plains, in narrow
-canyons, on the ledges of great cliffs, and in the shelter of caves.
-They range in size from one-or two-room houses of the roughest
-construction, to great communal buildings of five hundred or even a
-thousand rooms, compactly built of excellent masonry and terraced to a
-height of three, four, or five stories. The artifacts, too, found in
-them vary bewilderingly, both in degree of perfection, and in type. All
-Southwestern houses, however, and all Southwestern artifacts, have a
-certain family resemblance that allies them to each other and makes it
-evident that they are all the product of a single culture, a culture
-distinct, for example, from that of Central Mexico or that of the
-Mississippi Valley. To reconstruct the history of that culture, to trace
-its origin, to follow its growth, and to explain how and why it
-developed in the peculiar way it did, are the tasks which confront the
-Southwestern archaeologist.
-
-As in any scientific problem, the first step must be to collect and
-classify the data; and although Pueblo sites are numbered in thousands,
-and an overwhelming amount of merely descriptive work must still be
-done, the outlines of a classification have been achieved. We know, for
-example, what sort of ruins are found in the San Juan drainage of
-northern New Mexico; what kinds of pottery occur along the Gila river in
-southern Arizona. But what relationship, genetically and in time, there
-existed between, say, Pueblo Bonito and Casa Grande, we do not know. The
-time element, or in other words the historical sequence of our material,
-remains in large part to be determined.
-
-To set up an historical outline we must first determine the relative
-ages of the different ruins, and then estimate the size and distribution
-of the Pueblo tribes from the earliest times to the present. At the top,
-so to speak, of our series the problem is simple enough--we are
-acquainted with the present location of the tribes, and the various
-Spanish accounts tell us where they have been living during the past
-three hundred and fifty years. But for the prehistoric period (and
-everything in the Southwest prior to 1540 is prehistoric) we must rely
-almost wholly on such evidence as may be turned up by the
-archaeologist’s shovel, for of native written records there are none,
-nor can native legendary testimony be safely depended upon. This, of
-course, throws a heavy burden upon the archaeologist, a burden which is
-made heavier by the fact that stratigraphy of remains is so rarely found
-in the Pueblo country.
-
-Stratigraphy, in other words the superposition of the more recent upon
-the more ancient, has been the Open Sesame to all the reconstructive
-sciences. The very framework of geology, for example, has been built up
-from stratigraphic observations. In archaeology, too, stratigraphy has
-revealed the sequence of the Stone Ages; made clear the development of
-the early Mediterranean cultures, and the rise of predynastic
-civilization in Egypt. Therefore, as has just been said, the general
-lack of stratigraphic conditions in the Southwest renders the task of
-the student a particularly hard one. For some reason, not yet clearly
-understood, the Pueblos ancient and modern were very prone to shift from
-one dwelling place to another, and a site once abandoned was seldom
-reoccupied. Although their houses were of the most permanent
-construction, and their agricultural life should have tended to render
-them solidly sedentary, they moved about to a surprising extent. The
-result of this is that one seldom finds a ruin which was lived in for
-more than a few decades or, at most, centuries; and few have so far been
-discovered to contain superimposed remains illustrating any long period
-of development. Where such evidence is so rare, what can be found
-naturally becomes of the greatest importance; hence the recent diligent
-search for, and excavation of, such sites as show signs of long
-occupancy.
-
-The choice of Pecos for investigation by Phillips Academy was due to the
-above considerations. The ruin was a large one, was occupied at the time
-of the Discovery and was not abandoned until 1838. A surface examination
-also showed that it must have been tenanted for a long time prior to the
-Conquest because its mounds were scattered over with potsherds not only
-of recent date, but also of several distinct prehistoric types, each one
-well enough known to students, but whose relative ages were entirely a
-matter of conjecture. It was hoped, therefore, that excavation might
-disclose some definite cases of superposition, and that several
-prehistoric periods might thereby be arranged in their proper
-chronological order.[1]
-
-The results have been more than satisfactory. Pecos proved to have been
-built on the edge of a sharp-sided mesa, a fact not suspected before
-digging began, because the rubbish from the town had heaped up to such
-an extent against the original cliff as completely to mask its
-steepness. The first inhabitants naturally threw their refuse over the
-edge of the mesa, their descendants added to the accumulation, and the
-process continued down the centuries until there grew up a midden of
-enormous extent and, for the Southwest, of unusually great depth. It is
-stratified as neatly as a layer-cake.
-
-When the exploratory trenches revealed the size and probable importance
-of the Pecos rubbish heap, all other projects were postponed, and two
-full field-seasons were devoted to the meticulous dissection of large
-areas of the deepest deposit. At frequent intervals stratigraphic tests
-were made, in which all the specimens from each successive stratum were
-kept separate and shipped to the Museum for study. It was found that
-many changes in culture had taken place during the long occupancy of
-Pecos; in the stone and bone implements, in the pipes, and in burial
-customs. But the most abundant, the most easily gathered, and the most
-readily interpreted evidence of cultural change was offered by the
-thousands of pottery fragments that filled the mound from subsoil to
-surface.
-
-We have been able to recognize about twenty distinct wares, to arrange
-them into eight chronological groups, and to determine the exact
-sequence of these groups. This information, derived from the
-stratigraphic study of the pottery in the mounds, has been of the
-greatest value. Its application has been both local and non-local. In
-the excavations that we have since carried on at Pecos it has enabled us
-to date relatively to each other the various kivas, cemeteries, and
-small refuse mounds that occurred on the mesa top, and also to unravel
-much more confidently than we would otherwise have been able to do, the
-extraordinarily complex jumble of ruined, torn-down, stone-robbed,
-rebuilt, abandoned, and reoccupied rooms that we encountered when we
-attacked the pueblo itself. As helpful as has been the knowledge of the
-sequence of the pottery types in working out the details of local
-archaeology, its usefulness in that regard is small as compared with the
-flood of light which has been thrown on much larger and more vital
-problems. It has just been stated that some twenty types of pottery were
-identified; the majority of these are not peculiar to Pecos; many of
-them occur throughout large areas in the Rio Grande drainage; and so we
-are now able, in most cases by a hasty examination of the surface
-sherds, to assign to its proper place in the chronological series any
-ruin at which our types are present. Thus mere reconnaissance (a cheap
-and rapid undertaking) now serves to make clear the major outlines of
-Rio Grande archaeology. But the usefulness of the stratigraphic studies
-at Pecos does not end with the territory in which the Pecos types of
-pottery are found, for Pecos, because of its size and because of its
-situation on the main route between the Pueblo country to the West and
-the buffalo ranges to the East, was an important trade centre.
-
-From its mounds we have taken potsherds from almost all parts of the
-Southwest, shells from the Pacific, spindle-whorls from Central Mexico,
-as well as pottery and stone objects from the Mississippi drainage. The
-importance of such finds is evident; every sherd from an outside culture
-found in a datable stratum at Pecos helps to fit into our general
-chronological scheme the culture from which it came; as conversely, does
-every Pecos or even Rio Grande sherd that turns up beyond the limits of
-the Rio Grande. Only a start has been made, but enough has already come
-to light at Pecos and at such stratified sites as have been excavated by
-other institutions, to provide us with a surprisingly full knowledge of
-the rise and growth of the Pueblo civilization. Ten years ago it would
-have been hard to believe how much could be accomplished by the
-stratigraphic work carried on by Nelson in the Galisteo Basin, Hodge at
-Hawikuh, Judd at Pueblo Bonito, Morris at Aztec, Guernsey in the Kayenta
-country, and the writer and his associates at Pecos.
-
-The work, as I have said, has just begun, but the prospects are bright.
-Success will depend, as in any such endeavor, upon intelligent
-excavation, careful collection of data, and accurate observation of
-specimens, but the investigator cannot hope to derive the best results
-from his labors if he does not hold to a very broad view of his field.
-He must familiarize himself not only with the material of the locality
-he is working in but must also know as much as possible about that of
-other regions, for it is of the last importance that trade-objects be
-recognized wherever they occur. Of all trade-objects, vessels and
-potsherds are likely to be the commonest and most easily recognizable.
-
-When the members of the Pecos expedition realized how vitally important
-was to be a close knowledge of the pottery, not only of that particular
-site, but also of the Rio Grande in general, and, indeed, of the entire
-Southwest, they devoted a large part of their time, both in the field
-and at the Museum, to the study of ceramics. A difficulty was at once
-encountered in our ignorance of the technique of Pueblo pottery making.
-We were constantly obliged to compare the paints and slips of different
-wares, to decide whether observed variations were technically
-fundamental, or were merely accidents of clay-mixing or firing. No full
-published accounts existed, nor had any of us had the opportunity for
-more than casual observation of potters at work. Dr. Guthe, accordingly,
-spent the month of August, 1921, at San Ildefonso in making detailed
-studies. His results are published in the hope that they may be of use
-to Southwestern archaeologists and ethnologists, and also to students of
-the primitive pottery of other areas who may be in need of material for
-comparative purposes.
-
-In order that the reader may envisage the long history that lies behind
-the work of the modern potters, I give a summary of our present
-knowledge of the origin and development of pottery in the Southwest.
-
-To go back to the very beginning, it is not yet certain whether pottery
-making was introduced into the region from Mexico, or whether it was a
-local invention. There is evidence in favor of each theory. As will
-presently be shown, there can be traced in the Southwest an almost
-unbroken development from the earliest and crudest forms, through
-intermediate stages, to the perfected styles of later times; nor can
-Mexican influence be seen in the wares themselves at any period from
-beginning to end. Hence it might appear that the art was of purely local
-origin and growth. On the other hand, Mexico was the breeding ground for
-all the higher elements of native American culture; corn-growing, the
-cultivation of cotton, the use of stone masonry, the true loom, etc.,
-and it is practically certain that all these traits worked into the
-Southwest from Mexico. It would thus seem reasonable to suppose that the
-concept of pottery came from the same source, particularly as pottery
-does not appear in our area until some time after the introduction of
-corn, and the mere presence of corn proves contact of one sort or
-another with Mexico, where presumably pottery had been in use for a
-considerable period. My present feeling is, however, that the
-importation consisted of no more than the bare idea that vessels could
-be made of clay, and that the subsequent development of the art was
-entirely unaffected by outside influences. This question, so important
-for its bearing on general problems of dissemination _versus_
-independent origin of culture traits, can only be settled by work in the
-archaeologically still unknown field of northern Mexico.
-
-The earliest inhabitants of the Southwest of whom we have certain
-knowledge were the Basket Makers, so called by their discoverer because
-basketry rather than pottery was buried with their dead. They lived in
-southeastern Utah and northern Arizona, were an agricultural or
-semi-agricultural people who built no permanent houses, and who had no
-true pottery. In some of the caves that they occupied, however, there
-have been found a few fragments of crude, unfired clay dishes whose
-thick, bungling sides bear the imprints of the fingers of their makers.
-Save for occasional hesitating lines of incised marks, or straggling
-daubs of black paint, these vessels are undecorated. They bear no slip,
-nor, as was said above, were any of them subjected to the burning which
-would have converted them into true pottery. In the course of time,
-though whether that time should be counted in tens, or hundreds, or even
-thousands of years, we have at present no way of telling, the Basket
-Makers began to build houses of stone slabs, to group their hitherto
-scattered dwellings together into small communities, and, most important
-of all from the point of view of our present inquiry, to make hard,
-thin-walled, thoroughly fired vessels, in other words real pottery. The
-culture stage characterized by these
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1. Outlines of Post-Basket Maker vessels. (Courtesy
-S. J. Guernsey.)]
-
-remains and further distinguishable from the classic Basket Maker on the
-basis of house structure, sandal form, and other traits, was first
-identified by S. J. Guernsey, and named by him “post-Basket Maker”.
-
-Post-Basket Maker pottery is simple in form and in decoration. It is
-normally light gray in color. The vessel forms most commonly found are
-bowls (fig. 1, d, e), globular vessels with restricted orifices (fig. 1,
-a), and water jars, the latter often having a swollen neck (fig. 1, b).
-The body of the ware in cross-section has a markedly granular
-appearance, due to the large size of the bits of tempering material
-included in it. A small percentage of the bowls bear a thin white slip
-on the interior
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 2
-
-ANCIENT CORRUGATED WARES
-
-a. Pre-Pueblo. b. Early Pueblo. c. Classic Pueblo period.]
-
-and are ornamented with irregularly drawn designs in black paint (fig.
-1, e). Many of the patterns suggest basketry prototypes.
-
-All in all, post-Basket Maker pottery, judging from the few specimens so
-far recovered, is surprisingly well made; so well as to raise the
-suspicion that an earlier stage still awaits discovery. Hints of such a
-stage have, indeed, been found in the form of heavy clay dishes,
-tempered with shredded juniper bark, unbaked but distinctly superior in
-size and workmanship to the Basket Maker product. These specimens have
-turned up in post-Basket Maker sites, but in caves stratigraphically so
-confused that it is still uncertain whether they antedated, or were
-contemporaneous with, the more highly-perfected post-Basket Maker wares.
-They are too crude, however, to be considered the direct forerunners of
-post-Basket Maker pottery. If the development took place in the San
-Juan, one step at least is still lacking. These questions will be
-answered by further work of the sort now being carried on by Guernsey in
-the Kayenta country and by Morris in the Canyon del Muerto.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2. Pre-Pueblo vessels.]
-
-From post-Basket Maker times down to the present day, however, the
-development of Southwestern pottery can already be outlined with
-considerable confidence. The next stage is usually called the
-pre-Pueblo. It is marked by further improvements in house-building, by
-the introduction of cranial deformation, and by certain innovations in
-ceramics. It had been the custom with the post-Basket Makers (as among
-many primitive people) to build up their vessels by adding to the
-growing walls successive rings of clay. When the process was complete
-and the sides had reached the requisite height, all trace of the rings
-was obliterated by rubbing down the surface. In the interiors of some
-post-Basket Maker pieces, however, with orifices so small that a
-smoothing tool could not be introduced, there were left the telltale
-junction-lines between the structural rings. In pre-Pueblo times it
-became the fashion purposely to leave unsmoothed the last few rings at
-the necks of certain small cooking vessels (fig. 2, a; pl. 2, a). This
-was the beginning of the elaborate coiled or corrugated technique, later
-so widely used.
-
-Pre-Pueblo black-on-white ware takes the form of bowls, pitchers,
-ladles, small jars, and ollas. Its paste is hard, is less heavily
-tempered than post-Basket Maker paste, and the surfaces of the pieces
-are better smoothed. The decoration is characterized by boldness and
-dash, the brushwork being correspondingly hasty. The lines are of
-irregular width, nor was care exercised that the junctions of strokes
-should be accurate. As is shown by the accompanying drawings (fig. 2, b,
-c), the commonest elements are the stepped figure and the triangle, both
-often emphasized by sets of widely spaced thin lines which follow the
-outer edges of the basic patterns.
-
-The transition between the pre-Pueblo and the Pueblo was evidently a
-gradual one. There was no violent break, either in culture or in
-physical type; and so it is hard to say just where the dividing line
-should be drawn. The introduction of indented corrugated pottery,
-however, forms a convenient milepost on the road of ceramic progress.
-The change was brought about as follows: the plain, broad rings of
-pre-Pueblo ware were replaced by a continuous thin fillet of clay
-applied spirally; the junctions between the successive laps of the
-fillet were left unobliterated, not only at the neck, but over the
-entire vessel; and the fillet itself was also notched or pinched or
-otherwise indented to produce various ornamental effects (pl. 2, b, c).
-Thus was made the well-known coiled or corrugated cooking-ware so
-characteristic of all the archaic true Pueblo ruins, a style introduced
-at about the same time as the development of the above-ground
-rectangular living-room, the clustered method of building, and the use
-of horizontally coursed masonry, all elements that are commonly
-recognized as typical of true Pueblo culture. The earliest varieties of
-Pueblo pottery are imperfectly known, for little work has so far been
-done in the small and often nearly obliterated mounds that mark the
-house-sites of the first pueblo-dwellers. It is certain, however, that
-in the San Juan and Little Colorado drainages there was a strong growth
-in corrugated ware. This technique was experimented on and played with.
-The variety and even virtuosity of the results are extraordinary: waved
-coiling, pinched coiling, incised coiling, and all manner of indenting
-were practised (pl. 2, b). The black-on-white ware evidently did not
-advance so rapidly, the vessels, to judge from the sherds, were not
-particularly symmetrical as to shape or notable as to finish. The
-decoration ran to hachure in wavy lines and to poorly drawn spiral
-figures.
-
-As I have just said, little is known of the early Pueblo sites. The
-period which they represent, however, was undoubtedly a long one. The
-date of its beginning is entirely problematical, nor can we even say
-with any assurance when it ended, but the probabilities are that as
-early as the opening of the Christian era the Pueblos had begun to
-gather together into larger settlements, to develop the closely-knit
-community life, and the many-storied terraced style of architecture
-which typify the golden age of their existence. Between that time and
-1000 or 1100 A.D. the more or less uniform early culture split up into
-distinct and often highly specialized local sub-cultures, each of which
-followed its own line of growth in house-building, pottery-making, and
-the minor arts. It was during this general phase of Southwestern history
-that there came into being the great pueblos and cliff-dwellings that
-housed entire villages: Pueblo Bonito and the other Chaco Canyon towns;
-the cliffhouses of the Mesa Verde and of the Kayenta country; the
-enormous adobe constructions such as Casa Grande on the Gila and Casas
-Grandes in Chihuahua.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 3
-
-OLD MODERN DECORATED WARE
-
-a. Acoma. b. Zuñi. c. Sia. d. Hopi. e. San Ildefonso. f. Tesuque. g.
-Santo Domingo. h. Cochiti.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 4
-
-OLD PIECES FROM SAN ILDEFONSO
-
-a, b. Black-on-buff. c, d. Polished black.]
-
-To describe the many different wares of the classic Pueblo period would
-entail far more space than is available in this introduction. Brief
-accounts of the more important styles are included in the first paper of
-the present series,[2] and a handbook of Southwestern pottery will, it
-is hoped, appear as a subsequent number. A single
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3. Black-on-white bowls of classic Pueblo period. a.
-Chaco Canyon. b. Mimbres Valley. c. Upper Gila River. d. Mesa Verde.]
-
-illustration (fig. 3) must suffice to show the bewildering variety and
-the high artistic perfection which were reached at this time.
-
-It seems ordained that periods of high achievement shall be followed by
-periods of slackening and even atrophy. So it was with the Pueblos. The
-years between about 1000 A.D. and the Spanish invasion of 1540 were
-evidently a time of tribulation. The formerly prosperous communities of
-the North and the South were abandoned, the population shrank, the arts
-degenerated, and when Coranado entered the Southwest he found the
-Pueblos occupying a mere fraction of their former range. What brought
-about this decline is not surely known, droughts, intertribal wars,
-pestilences, inbreeding, may all have been in part responsible; but its
-principal cause was probably the ever-increasing attacks of nomadic
-enemies. At all events Pueblo culture of the sixteenth century was not
-what it had been in the past, and pottery making suffered with the other
-arts. By that time the beautiful and elaborate, but difficult,
-corrugated technique had been given up, and cooking vessels had become
-mere unornamented pots; black-on-white ware with its handsome, intricate
-geometric decoration had long been extinct, replaced by various local
-styles, few of which equalled it in technical excellence or artistic
-perfection. As a matter of fact the ceramic products of the historic
-period are very little known. In old times pottery formed an essential
-accompaniment of the dead, hence at nearly every prehistoric ruin may be
-found a burial place richly stocked with mortuary vessels. With the
-arrival of the priests, however, missions and Catholic cemeteries were
-established, all interments took place under the supervision of the
-Padres, and no more bowls or ollas went into the graves.
-
-Pottery, of course, is short-lived, few vessels, other than reverently
-guarded ceremonial jars, can be expected to escape breakage for more
-than a generation or two, and so we have practically no material to
-illustrate the changes which took place between the Conquest and the
-present day. Much will eventually be learned in regard to seventeenth
-and eighteenth century Pueblo pottery, but the work will have to be done
-largely on the basis of sherds from the rubbish heaps of the older
-towns, and such broken pieces as may be found under the fallen walls of
-abandoned dwellings. We can, however, supplement this research by
-working backwards, so to speak, from the modern wares. If we can acquire
-a thorough knowledge of them it will be much easier to understand the
-fragmentary material we shall have to deal with in studying the early
-historic period. We should accordingly collect all possible data as to
-the wares turned out in recent years at the various pottery-making
-Pueblos.
-
-The term pottery-making Pueblos is used advisedly, for, queerly enough,
-no pottery is manufactured at a number of the towns. If this condition
-had come about within the last decade it would be easy to account for,
-as tin oil cans for holding water, enamelled pots for cooking, and china
-dishes for serving food have lately been pushing native pottery out of
-use. But no pottery, other than rough cooking ware, has been made for a
-long time at Taos, Picuris, San Felipe, Jemez, and Sandia; while the art
-is practically or wholly extinct at Laguna, Isleta, and Santa Ana.
-Potters occasionally marry into these towns and continue to exercise
-their craft, but they seem to have no disciples among their daughters or
-among the local tribeswomen. At all the other Pueblos, however, potting
-is still carried on, but in most cases with a decreasing output and a
-lamentable degeneration in technique. The vessels, being mostly made to
-sell to tourists or curio dealers, are carelessly fashioned, crudely
-decorated, and insufficiently fired. Good contemporary pieces
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 5
-
-OLD MODERN SAN ILDEFONSO WARES
-
-a, c, d. Polychrome. b, e. Black-on-red.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 6
-
-_Courtesy K. M. Chapman_
-
-PRESENT-DAY POLYCHROME WARE BY MARIA MARTINEZ]
-
-are becoming rare, and the older vessels, which are naturally the best
-material for study, are now almost gone from the villages. Some pieces,
-however, are still left, and many more are in the hands of Mexicans and
-Americans living in the Southwest. These should be got into the custody
-of museums as rapidly as possible, for pottery is fragile stuff and
-every year sees the breakage of many unreplacable old vessels.
-
-Excellent work in collecting and preserving the older pieces is being
-done by certain residents of Santa Fe, who have organized the
-“Southwestern Pottery Fund”. In spite of limited resources they have got
-together a most remarkable collection from the Eastern pueblos, and are
-constantly adding to it as specimens come into the market.
-
-A plate showing a typical example of old modern decorated ware from each
-of the pottery-making pueblos is here given, in order that the reader
-may appreciate the striking differences which obtain (pl. 3); San
-Ildefonso vessels of this period are illustrated elsewhere (pls. 4, 5).
-
-In closing this introduction something should be said of the older San
-Ildefonso wares, and of the remarkable renaissance which has led to the
-high artistic achievements of the present-day potters.
-
-Of the pottery made at San Ildefonso during the early historic period we
-have as yet no definite knowledge, but from the fact that the sherds at
-the ruined pueblo of Cuyamongé, a Tewa village only a few miles from San
-Ildefonso which was abandoned in 1698, are closely similar to the
-seventeenth century wares of Pecos, we may conclude that the San
-Ildefonso product of that time also bore resemblance to that of Pecos.
-The Pecos wares in question have as yet been but briefly described.[3]
-The following are the leading varieties: rough black cooking ware;
-polished red; polished black; and decorated ware of two varieties,
-black-on-buff, and black-and-red-on-buff. The ornamentation is in heavy
-black lines, for the most part sloppily drawn, but the designs are bold,
-free, and effective. Although these styles all differ to some extent
-from the ceramics of late nineteenth century San Ildefonso, the artistic
-and technical relationship of the two groups is evident at a glance. The
-principal differences lie in the much greater amount of polished red
-found at Pecos, and in the absence from Pecos of a black-on-red
-decorated ware made at San Ildefonso.
-
-What we know of nineteenth century San Ildefonso pottery is derived from
-pieces found in the pueblo when collecting began about 1870; and from
-vessels secured between that date and 1900. The oldest examples we have
-were thus probably not made much before 1850, and the great bulk of the
-specimens now in museums and in private hands were presumably turned out
-during the last third of the century. This material (aside from cooking
-pots, of which the older collections contain practically no examples) is
-divisible into five types, two plain and three decorated. The plain
-wares are polished black and polished red; the decorated are
-black-on-buff, black-and-red-on-buff (usually called polychrome), and
-black-on-red.
-
-The polished black and polished red are, as Dr. Guthe brings out in
-greater detail below (p. 74), merely variants of the same ware--the red
-being produced by a preliminary burning in a more or less open fire--the
-black by smothering the fire with pulverized manure at a late stage in
-the burning. Vessels of both sorts were evidently made at San Ildefonso
-during the period under discussion, the red rarely, the black fairly
-commonly. It is usually supposed that the making of these wares,
-particularly the polished black, was confined to the nearby town of
-Santa Clara, and vessels of the latter type are ordinarily referred to
-as “Santa Clara black”. This is a natural enough error as the Santa
-Clara turn out nothing but the polished wares, and until the last ten
-years they led all the other pueblos in the excellence of their
-manufacture. The Indians of San Ildefonso, however, say that they have
-always made polished black pottery, and while its production may have
-partly or wholly lapsed during the 90’s and early 1900’s, there is
-little doubt that many of the older specimens, such as the ones here
-illustrated (pl. 4), are actually from San Ildefonso. The majority of
-the examples of old black are large storage jars with full, round bodies
-and relatively small orifices; there are also capacious bowl-like
-vessels (called by the Mexicans _cajetes_), which were used for the
-mixing of dough. The old pieces are less meticulously finished than are
-those of today, but their deep, velvety black lustre is of even greater
-beauty than the extremely high polish of the modern pieces.
-
-The black-on-buff decorated ware was evidently the commonest variety of
-nineteenth century pottery. It took the form of prayer-meal bowls (small
-open vessels with terraced sides); medium-sized pots (pl. 3, e); and
-large storage jars (pl. 4). The ware, like all San Ildefonso work, is
-thick and heavy, giving a “woodeny” sound when tapped. The surface color
-is a creamy buff and the decoration is in deep black pigment. The
-bottoms of all the pieces, and the interiors of the necks of the jars,
-are painted red. The general nature of the elaborate designs is best
-brought out by the illustrations.[4]
-
-Black-and-red-on-buff or polychrome was apparently not an abundant style
-in old times. Its occurrence at Cuyamongé and at Pecos, however, seem to
-indicate that it was always made at San Ildefonso. There are also in
-museums and private collections pieces which appear to be as old as any
-of the examples of non-polychrome. The style was seemingly limited to
-bowls and small jars (pl. 5). The ware itself is the same as the
-foregoing, but various areas in the decorations (which themselves seem
-to differ from those of the black-on-buff) are filled in with a purplish
-red paint of very characteristic shade.
-
-The red-on-black, like the polychrome, was not common. As was said
-above, it is absent from Pecos and Cuyamongé, therefore it is apparently
-of fairly recent origin in the Rio Grande. Its introduction or invention
-may, indeed, date from as recent a time as 1850. It differs from the
-buff wares in having a dark red slip, much more highly polished than are
-the buff slips. The decoration is in deep black. No large pieces, as far
-as I know, were made, most specimens being small globular jars without
-necks. One of these and a vase-like vessel are illustrated (pl. 5).
-
-Such was the pottery of San Ildefonso during the second half of the
-nineteenth century. Toward the end of that period, however, a marked
-degeneration set in.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 7
-
-_Courtesy K. M. Chapman_
-
-PRESENT-DAY SAN ILDEFONSO POTTERY
-
-a, b. Black-on-red by Antonita Roybal. c. Polychrome, by Maria
-Martinez--one black-on-red piece by Maximiliana Martinez.]
-
-This was due to the substitution for native pottery of American utensils
-for cooking, food-serving, and containing water; and to the growing
-tendency to produce pottery for sale to curio stores and tourists rather
-than for home use. The black-on-buff ware and the polished black were
-given up entirely, the potters concentrating on the more showy
-black-on-red and particularly on the polychrome. In the case of the
-black-on-red the high gloss of the older pieces was no longer produced,
-and the paint, being neither carefully mixed nor sufficiently aged (see
-p. 26) developed on firing a dull, bluish cast. The polychrome also fell
-off in technical perfection and in artistic excellence. The old, dull,
-purplish reds were replaced by brighter colors, the designs became
-flamboyant, and many ugly non-Indian vessel shapes were introduced (fig.
-4). This state of affairs went from bad to worse until, in 1907, the
-potter’s art at San Ildefonso was in a thoroughly bad way. A few women,
-however,
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4. Bad examples of modern pottery--un-Indian shapes
-and slipshod decoration.]
-
-retained something of the old craftsmanship and were ready to profit by
-the opportunity which was about to present itself.
-
-In 1907 Dr. E. L. Hewett of the School of American Research began a
-series of excavations in the ancient ruins of the Pajarito Plateau. The
-diggers were all Tewa Indians from San Ildefonso. They proved to be
-excellent shovelmen, who took a keen interest in everything they found.
-They helped us identify many specimens which would otherwise have been
-puzzling, and their comments on the pottery, and especially on the
-designs, were most illuminating. The women of the Pueblo, when visiting
-camp, often held animated discussions as to the vessels from the ruins,
-and it was suggested to some who were known to be good potters, that
-they attempt to revive their art, and try to emulate the excellence of
-the ancient wares. While the response was not immediate, there was
-observable, during the next few years, a distinct improvement in the
-pottery of San Ildefonso. Realizing the importance of this, the
-authorities of the Museum of New Mexico and the School of American
-Research threw themselves heartily into the task of stimulating the
-industry. They urged the women to do better and better work, and in
-particular induced them to return to the sound canons of native art.
-Some old pieces remained in the pueblo, many others were in the Museum,
-of still others photographs were obtained. These were all brought to the
-attention of the potters.
-
-The undertaking was not an easy one, however, for it was difficult to
-get most of the women to go to the trouble of making good pieces when
-the tourists, who were still the principal purchasers, were equally or
-even better pleased with imitations of china water-pitchers, ill-made
-raingods, and candlesticks. The problem thus resolved itself into one of
-supplying a market. The Museum bought many good pieces, and Mr. Chapman,
-who from the beginning had been a leading spirit in the attempt at
-rehabilitating the art, himself purchased large amounts of pottery,
-never refusing a creditable piece, never accepting a bad one.
-
-Progress was slow, but eventually certain women, becoming interested in
-their work, made real progress both technically and artistically. Their
-products began to sell more freely and at better prices than did those
-of others. Antonita Roybal, Ramona Gonzales, Maximiliana Martinez, and
-Maria Martinez all turned out fine vessels, the two latter being greatly
-aided by their husbands, who developed into skillful decorators. Maria
-especially shone. By 1915 she had far surpassed all the others, her pots
-were in great demand, and at the present time she has a ready market, at
-prices which ten years ago would have seemed fantastic, for everything
-she can find time to make. Her income is probably not less than
-$2,000.00 a year, and following her example, many other women are now
-doing fine work and are earning substantial amounts. The beneficial
-effect of this on the pueblo has naturally been great. New houses have
-been built, new farm machinery, better food, and warmer clothing have
-been bought, and, best of all, there has been acquired a wholesome
-feeling of independence and of accomplishment, the value of which cannot
-be gauged in dollars and cents.
-
-From the point of view of ceramics the development has been most
-interesting. Maria began with the manufacture of polychrome ware, as
-that was the style most commonly being made at the time. The shapes were
-improved, the finish of the surfaces was given greater attention, and
-the decorations were applied with a surer, more delicate touch (pl. 6;
-pl. 7, c). Black-on-red ware was taken in hand, the oldtime polish was
-restored, the vegetable paint properly prepared and aged (pl. 7, a, b).
-Polished black was also reintroduced; pieces of this sort, with their
-simple, graceful shapes and high black gloss sold so well that they soon
-became an important product (pl. 8, b). In 1921, as Dr. Guthe records
-(p. 24), Maria discovered how to apply to polished vessels dull designs
-which give the appearance of being etched (pl. 8, a). This method was in
-its infancy when Dr. Guthe made his study, but it has since proved so
-remarkably successful that it bids fair to drive out completely the
-making of plain polished ware. Late in the past autumn there appeared at
-the Indian Fair in Santa Fe, some pieces of a warm pinkish color, an
-entirely new departure in San Ildefonso pottery making, and one which
-promises much of interest. Developments and changes in design have kept
-pace with the improvements in
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 8
-
-_Courtesy K. M. Chapman_
-
-PRESENT-DAY POLISHED BLACK WARES]
-
-technique, yet the development has been purely Indian, and the basic
-processes of today are essentially the same as they were a hundred or a
-thousand years ago.
-
-A somewhat similar revival has taken place at the Hopi towns in Arizona.
-In 1897 Dr. J. W. Fewkes of the Bureau of Ethnology was excavating the
-ruin of Sikyatki near First Mesa. Nampeo, a woman of Hano, the wife of
-one of the workmen, observed the beautiful old bowls that came from the
-graves, skillfully copied their designs and then searched out beds of
-clay that could be burned to the exact shades of the ancient pieces. Her
-work was a direct imitation of a lost style rather than a development,
-such as Maria’s, of a current one; but the effect has been no less
-extraordinary. Nampeo’s bowls and ollas were so attractive that they
-sold well; they were copied by other women for sale and for their own
-use, and thus the potter’s art of the Hopi was not only greatly
-stimulated but also radically changed.
-
-In addition to their economic importance, the cases of San Ildefonso and
-Hopi are of great interest as anthropological phenomena. The stimulus at
-both places was of course partly commercial, but it could scarcely have
-acted without an inherent capacity for rapid artistic and technical
-progress among the Indians themselves, nor could it possibly have
-brought about such great results without the inspiring example of
-exceptionally gifted leaders. It is, therefore, quite conceivable that
-other stimuli, as the discovery of new clays of surpassing excellence,
-or of fine new pigments, may have proved equally potent in ancient
-times, and that some of the striking mutations in pottery making, which
-have so puzzled archaeologists, may have been originally started by such
-discoveries, and been brought to fruition by the genius of prehistoric
-Marias and Nampeos.
-
-                                                           A. V. KIDDER
-                                            _Director Pecos Expedition_
-
-
-
-
-PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING
-
-BY CARL E. GUTHE
-
-
-The Pueblo of San Ildefonso is a Tewa village of about one hundred
-people, situated on the east bank of the Rio Grande some twenty miles
-northeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico. San Ildefonso was chosen for the
-present study because its women have always been skillful potters, and
-under the wise and friendly encouragement of the authorities of the
-School of American Research at Santa Fe have of recent years been
-steadily improving in their work without, however, sacrificing any of
-their native methods. Furthermore, they make more varieties of pottery
-than are turned out at any other one village. Last, and in some ways
-most important, the men of San Ildefonso have for a long time been
-accustomed to work in the various excavations carried on by the School,
-cordial relations have been established, the confidence of the Indians
-has been thoroughly won, and I did not encounter that reticence toward
-strangers, so characteristic of the Rio Grande Pueblos, because I was
-known to be a friend of their friends.
-
-To the Pueblo woman pottery making is simply one of the mechanical
-household tasks, just as dishwashing is among us. Nearly every woman at
-San Ildefonso is a potter, good, bad, or indifferent. In two cases, at
-least, women have developed into real artists, and are relieved of other
-household duties in order to devote their time to pottery making. Each
-potter of today watched her mother make innumerable pots while she was
-growing up, and now with a family of her own, she makes pottery just as
-did her mother. Many steps and small details are carried out for no
-other reason than that the mother used to do likewise. Obviously every
-potter has her own technique, which differs slightly from that of
-others. The daughters in one family work in more nearly the same manner
-than outsiders, because they all have had the same teacher. In this
-report the attempt has been made not only to record the essential steps
-in the making of pottery, but also to note individual variations as an
-index of the amount of latitude a given process may permit.
-
-Because religion and ceremony play so important a role in the everyday
-life of the Pueblo Indians, it is certain that there must be involved in
-the making of pottery and particularly in its decoration, a mass of
-esoteric beliefs and practises. The Pueblos, however, are so loath to
-refer in any way to the mystical side of their existence, and, if it is
-even mentioned, at once become so suspicious, that it seemed best to
-steer clear of all allusion to such matters. The present report,
-therefore, confines itself to a description and discussion of the
-purely technical side of the potter’s art.
-
-The writer is indebted to the staff of the School of American Research,
-especially to Mr. Kenneth M. Chapman, for the facilities given for and
-the interest shown in the work; also to the Governor of San Ildefonso,
-Juan Gonzales, for his cordial coöperation. Of the eight informants
-used, Maria, wife of Julian Martinez, and Antonita, wife of Juan Cruz
-Roybal, should specially be mentioned because of their constant
-patience, and their willingness to answer the many questions which to
-them must often have seemed absurd. Thanks are also due to the American
-Museum of Natural History, New York, for the photographs of pottery
-making at Zuñi (pls. 28-31) which are introduced in this paper for
-comparative purposes.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 9
-
-WINNOWING CLAY
-
-a. Hand method. As the material is sifted through the uplifted hands,
-the wind blows the fine, pure clay upon the shawl at the left, while the
-heavier impurities drop back on the pile.
-
-b. Basket method. The clay is repeatedly tossed upward from the basket,
-until all the fine particles have been blown out and have fallen upon
-the shawl.]
-
-
-
-
-RAW MATERIALS; COLLECTION, AND PREPARATION
-
-
-INGREDIENTS
-
-_Red Clay_[5]
-
-The region most often visited for obtaining this clay is directly south
-of San Ildefonso, about a quarter of a mile from the village itself, in
-the arroyos of the low hills.[6] The deposit lies directly under a
-sandstone ledge and spreads over a considerable area. The clay is in the
-form of soft earth, easily scooped up with the hand. In gathering it the
-Indians first scrape off the top half-inch or so, which contains
-impurities such as small pebbles and twigs. When an area from two to
-three feet in diameter has been cleared in this way, the clay itself is
-scooped into a loose pile in the centre of the space, and transferred by
-the cupped hands into a woman’s shawl or a gunny-sack, and so
-transported to the house on the back.[7]
-
-One method of cleaning the clay may be used either at the beds or at
-home. The material is winnowed like wheat to remove small pebbles and
-fine gravel, either of which will ruin a vessel. The larger impurities
-are of course picked out by hand. The cloth containing the clay is
-placed in front of the woman and a second cloth or shawl is spread on
-the ground to leeward of her. A gusty wind requires several shiftings of
-the shawl, to the woman’s evident annoyance. A double handful is lifted
-and allowed to sift through the fingers; the fine particles and dust are
-blown upon the shawl by the wind, while the heavier pieces fall again
-upon the pile of uncleaned clay (pl. 9, a). The height to which the
-hands are lifted, varying from three to five feet, the speed of the
-movements, and the rapidity with which the material is allowed to sift
-through the fingers, all depend upon the force of the wind. Sometimes,
-instead of lifting the clay in the hands, it is allowed to flow over the
-side of a shallow basket tilted toward the woman at the level of her
-shoulder; the coarser particles fall straight down in front of her on
-the pile of uncleaned clay. Another variation is to toss the clay into
-the air from a shallow basket (pl. 9, b). The movement is repeated
-quickly and rhythmically; the wind as before blowing the fine stuff on
-the shawl, while the coarse particles fall back into the basket. After
-this tossing has been repeated a dozen or more times, the residue, which
-consists mostly of coarse impurities, is thrown away. The process
-occupies approximately half an hour, depending somewhat upon the amount
-of clay handled. The cleaned clay, which is now ready for mixing, is by
-no means entirely dust; it contains no lumps, but flaky particles fully
-three-sixteenths of an inch across are often found in it.
-
-If at the time of gathering the wind is not strong enough for winnowing,
-the uncleaned clay is brought to the house. Here it may be kept for a
-windy day, or may at once be sifted through an ordinary kitchen sieve of
-medium large mesh.
-
-The clay, when cleaned, may be stored in a variety of receptacles
-(pottery vessels, sacks, or boxes), or, if it is the intention of the
-woman to use it within a few days, it is simply left in the shawl.
-During the fall the Indians gather great quantities of clay, and pile it
-on the floor in the corner of a room for use during the winter when the
-clay beds are frozen.
-
-The preparation of the clay for use consists of two processes, mixing
-and kneading. The mixing, which as a rule immediately precedes the
-kneading, consists of the addition of temper (see page 21). This is done
-while both ingredients are dry. Different varieties of clay are not
-mixed together. The work is done on a piece of canvas, an opened
-cement-sack, or the inner side of a skin (usually that of a goat or
-dog).[8] Either the clay or the temper may be put on the mixing surface
-first; the other ingredient is then added, and the whole is sifted
-through the fingers until the mass is uniform in color. The Indians have
-no definite idea of the necessary proportions. They judge simply by the
-color of the resulting mixture. The proportions used by three different
-informants seemed to be about one-third temper and two-thirds clay.
-Before mixing, the clay is reddish brown; the addition of temper
-lightens the color several shades.
-
-The scrapings from partly finished vessels (see page 54) and the
-ground-up fragments of pots which have cracked badly in the course of
-sun-drying are used a second time. This re-used clay, since it already
-has temper in it, does not need to be mixed over again. It is mingled
-with newly mixed clay just before kneading, or is kneaded by itself, as
-occasion demands.
-
-The kneading is usually done on the same canvas or skin that was used
-for the mixing. If a large amount of clay is to be treated at one time,
-a quantity of water is poured into a hollow formed in the centre of the
-pile. Later, as the worked clay or paste approaches the proper
-consistency, water is sprinkled over it with one hand, just as clothes
-are sprinkled, at first copiously, later more sparingly. At the
-beginning, the entire mass is kneaded until the water has been
-thoroughly absorbed. When the paste is wet, it becomes of course
-considerably darker. It is then divided into masses which can easily be
-handled, about the size of two large loaves of white bread. The woman
-works the paste to a uniform consistency in exactly the same way that
-dough is kneaded (pl. 12, a), and piles the masses, now ready for use in
-moulding, on a board or canvas, covering then with a piece of cloth to
-keep them damp until they come under the potter’s hands. The consistency
-is that of putty, just dry enough to crack if pinched. The mixing and
-kneading can be completed in half an hour.[9]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 10
-
-a. Indian digging material for tempering pottery from an outcrop near
-the village.
-
-b. Guaco, or Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, from the juice of which is made
-black paint for decorating pottery.]
-
-
-_White Clay_
-
-White clay is used interchangeably with red, but the two are never
-mixed. It is obtained in the bad-lands to the northeast of San
-Ildefonso, from the side of an arroyo at some distance from the village.
-The Indians dig it, bring it home, and prepare it in exactly the same
-manner as the red clay. The color, when dry, is greyish white; when wet,
-brownish grey.
-
-
-_Temper_
-
-The Indians of San Ildefonso obtain their tempering material from
-outcrops along the Santa Fe-Española road, in the vicinity of the
-landmark known as Camel Rock. Near the crest of the first high hill
-crossed by the road north of Camel Rock, just west of the road, in the
-eastern bank of the cut of the old abandoned road, is a small cave made
-by the digging of this temper (pl. 10, a). There is another outcrop in
-the ridge of which Camel Rock is a part. This mineral is a very light
-grey in color. When freshly exposed to the air it is soft and
-crumbly--fragments as large as the fist can be crushed in the hand--but
-after being exposed for some time it hardens. When chopped out with an
-axe or hatchet it takes the form of small fragments and fine powder.
-There are veins and nodules of a hard yellow rock in the stratum, which
-are chopped out and thrown away. The source of the temper is at such a
-distance from the pueblo that trips to it are made only at long
-intervals when a large quantity is secured in cement-bags, and carried
-home in a wagon. Two cement-bags may be filled with from fifteen to
-twenty minutes’ work at the quarry.
-
-Some of the Indians, while still at the quarry, pound the temper with an
-axe or hatchet, or a stone, to break the larger pieces and remove the
-coarser impurities. Others wait to clean it until reaching the house. In
-the latter case the temper is spread on a cloth or skin; the skin being
-preferred as offering a smoother, more resistant surface. It is then
-broken up by trampling it with moccasined feet. Formerly the Indians
-ground the temper on their metates. The final step in the preparation is
-to pass the material through a sieve to remove the smaller impurities
-such as sand and crushed rock. Before the sieve was known, the Indians
-spread the temper in a very thin layer on a board or skin, and went over
-it carefully and painstakingly with their fingers, feeling for any
-slight irregularities or rough places. The temper when cleaned is a fine
-powder, which looks and feels like dry cement. It is stored in old
-cement-bags ready to be mixed with the clay.
-
-The purpose of the addition of tempering material is to counteract the
-tendency of the pure clay to crack during the shrinkage that takes place
-in sun-drying and in firing. If, however, there is too much temper, the
-clay becomes “short” and loses its adhesiveness. The Indians understand
-this fully, for if vessels crack badly during sun-drying, they are
-ground up, and more temper is added to the paste before it is used
-again; if, on the other hand, a pot will not retain its shape while
-being moulded, it is pulled down, more dry clay added to the paste, and
-the mass rekneaded.[10]
-
-
-_Cooking-Vessel, or Apache, Clay_
-
-This is very different from the two other kinds of clays used. It is
-light brown in color, with a large quantity of fine mica flakes in
-it[11]; it also has a distinctive odor. When wet it smells cleaner and
-fresher than the red or white clay, like a newly plowed field after a
-shower. Some of the San Ildefonso Indians obtain this clay from Las
-Truchas, a mountain district to the northeast of the village[12]; others
-get it from Santa Fe Canyon. It is dug either with the hand or with a
-small stick, and is brought to the pueblo in the form of small lumps.
-While still in this condition, it is stored in vessels or bags.
-
-The preparation for use is very different from that of the other clays.
-The lumps are put in a receptacle, such as an enameled washbasin, and
-sufficient water is added to saturate them. If too much water has been
-mixed in, the mass is put in the sun to dry out for a while. After the
-clay has been thoroughly softened by the water, the next step is to
-remove the pebbles. A small handful is carefully and slowly squeezed and
-kneaded in the left hand, while the thumb and forefinger of the right
-are used to pick out the numerous small pebbles as they are encountered.
-After most of these have been removed, the clay is put on a canvas or
-skin, and a small part of it at a time is flattened out with the heel of
-the right hand, pressing away from the body, and against the cloth or
-skin so as to produce a very thin layer, in which the smaller pebbles
-are readily felt and from which they can easily be eliminated. Finally
-when this has been done with all the clay, the whole mass is kneaded
-together, just as the red and white clays are kneaded. When a uniform
-consistency has been attained--that of putty--the mass is ready for use.
-The removal of pebbles and the kneading consume from one-half to
-three-quarters of an hour. The pebbles which have been removed are
-placed in a small lard-pail containing water, and when the clay adhering
-to them has dissolved, they are thrown away and the clayey water is used
-in the process of moulding the paste.
-
-The most important difference between this clay and the others is that
-no temper of any kind is mixed with it; the clay, after being cleaned,
-is used in the vessels just as it came out of the claypit. The fine mica
-flakes probably act as temper.
-
-
-SLIPS AND PAINTS
-
-_Native Slip_[13]
-
-This is a white, flaky, fairly soft mineral, which is used in solution
-to give a white outer coating to the bodies of vessels. It is found at
-some distance from the pueblo, beyond the bad-lands which are visible to
-the northeast. When the Indians reach the place they pick up small
-sticks to use as digging tools, but if the deposit happens to be soft
-enough, the material is merely scooped out with the hand. It is carried
-home in shawls or bags, and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly; then
-stored in pottery vessels, usually ollas. It receives no further
-treatment at this time. When preparing it for use, the Indians simply
-place it in water as it is, in small lumps. The container is either a
-small pottery vessel or an enamelled basin. A sufficient amount is mixed
-with the water to give it the color of milk, but not to thicken it.
-Occasionally the consistency of thin cream is obtained. Undissolved
-lumps remain in the solution.
-
-
-_Santo Domingo Slip_
-
-This substance, known to the Indians of San Ildefonso either as “Santo
-Domingo white” or “Cochiti white”, is usually obtained from the Santo
-Domingo people; it is dug, according to some informants, in the same
-manner as the native slip. In color and general appearance it is exactly
-like the latter, but its surface feels more soapy. Santo Domingo slip
-has largely replaced the native product, because when applied it does
-not need to be polished with a stone, as does the native slip. It is
-prepared for use in exactly the same manner as the native slip.
-
-
-_Red Slip_
-
-This is a rather loose red earth, which is dug either with the hands or,
-if conditions demand it, with a small stick. The San Ildefonso Indians
-obtain it near Santa Fe, but not all of the women know the exact
-location of the beds. One informant said it was found in Santa Fe
-Canyon, east of the town, a short distance below the Apache clay beds,
-at a spot where the convicts from the Penitentiary get material for
-their bricks. There are three different colors of clay at this place,
-red, yellow, and white. The red is the clay under discussion. The white
-is used to color the women’s moccasins.[14]
-
-This slip is handled in much the same manner as the other clays. It is
-brought home in the usual receptacles--either shawls or bags--and placed
-in the sun to dry thoroughly. It is then stored, usually in ollas or
-other earthenware vessels, without further treatment.
-
-There are two ways of preparing red slip for use, according to the kind
-of vessel for which it is intended. For polished black ware, it is
-simply mixed to a thin solution with water. For decorated red ware, the
-process is slightly complicated. At some previous time, equal parts of
-temper and native slip have been mixed in water and allowed to dry in
-cakes. When desired for use on a vessel, the cakes are broken and
-redissolved in water. A sufficient amount is put in to give the water an
-opaque, milky color, but not to thicken it. To this mixture is added a
-thin solution of the red slip. There is, apparently, no definite rule in
-regard to the amount of the red solution to be added. The woman simply
-puts in enough to give to the slip, when applied to a pot, the proper
-shade of red. In some cases this mixing of the red and white is done
-once for all at the beginning of the application of the red slip. In
-other cases the woman has a bowl of each solution beside her, and from
-time to time, as she works, adds some of the red to the white. In each
-bowl lumps of the undissolved substances still remain. Occasionally the
-slip is stirred to the consistency of cream, but nearly always it has
-that of water.
-
-
-_Orange-Red Slip_
-
-This substance is a yellow clayey earth, in texture somewhat like the
-two white slips. It occurs in the “Valle” to the west, beyond the first
-Jemez range, near Ojo Caliente. It is dug with a stick, in the same
-manner as the native white, and is carried home in shawls and bags.
-Before being stored it is put out in the sun to dry thoroughly, then
-placed in ollas and kept until needed. Like the other slips, it is
-prepared for use by being mixed with water. A saturated solution is
-made, but the consistency remains that of water.
-
-This material, which in solution is a brilliant yellow, is used for two
-purposes--as a slip to color the bases of bowls and ollas, and as a
-paint to supply the red elements of polychrome designs. After being
-fired it assumes an orange-red or burnt-sienna color.[15]
-
-
-_Black Ware Paint_
-
-This is a paint used for making matte designs on polished black ware, a
-new departure in decorative technique first used by Maria and Julian
-Martinez of San Ildefonso, in June, 1921. The substance is a hard yellow
-stone, said to occur in the “Valle”, west of the Jemez range, near Ojo
-Caliente, in the same district as the orange-red paint.
-
-The first step in preparing the paint for use is to scrape the stone
-with a knife. The resulting powder is mixed with water, and there is
-then added about one-fourth as much dissolved “guaco” (see below) as
-there is paint. It is said that the purpose of the guaco is to make the
-paint “stick” to the polished surface. This paint, when ready for use,
-is kept in a small earthenware or china dish. The consistency of the
-mixture, like the other paints, is that of water.
-
-
-_Black or Guaco Paint_
-
-This is the only vegetable paint used by the San Ildefonso Indians for
-the decoration of their pottery. It is obtained from a very common weed,
-known as the Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, or Guaco,[16] which grows in the
-moister flats of this district in great profusion. It flowers late in
-July and early August, and the seedpods open toward the first of
-September. The Indians say it grows at a given place only in alternate
-years. In favorable spots the plants attain a height of five or six feet
-(pl. 10, b).
-
-The plant is gathered during April and May, when the shoots are only six
-to ten inches high, and therefore tender. Great quantities of it are
-carried home in shawls and bags. It is placed with water in Apache-clay
-cooking-pots, and is boiled over an open fire, never on a stove. As
-guaco has a bitter taste (“hot like pepper”, the women describe it) when
-not cooked sufficiently, it is necessary to boil it until this
-unpleasant flavor has disappeared. Over a hot fire half a day is long
-enough, but often a whole day is required. Then the liquid is drained
-into wide-mouthed earthen vessels and placed in the sun to harden into a
-solid, black, rather sticky, mass. Some women reboil the liquid until it
-thickens, before placing it in the sun. Metal containers are not used,
-because they are said to spoil the color. The informants stated that
-hardened guaco was not eaten. When it has become completely solidified
-it is set away for future use in painting. It will keep indefinitely.
-
-The residue in the pot, after the liquid has been poured off consists of
-tender stems and leaves. This is eaten by the Indians, and is not unlike
-spinach.
-
-The hardened guaco juice is stored at least a year before it is used in
-painting; the longer it is kept the better black it produces. If it is
-used during the first year, the resulting color on the vessel is a
-streaky blue-black.
-
-Guaco is prepared for use in painting in the same manner as the other
-pigments. A chunk of the hardened mass is broken off and dissolved in
-water. One informant makes a solution which, although black, has the
-consistency of water. The others use a syrupy solution almost like thin
-molasses. The paint has a distinctive, not unpleasant, vegetable odor,
-and is rather sticky. Any small, wide-mouthed Indian bowl, not too
-shallow, is used as a paint-cup. In this bowl there is always a
-stirring-stick, usually a splinter from a board.
-
-
-FUEL
-
-_Manure_
-
-Both cow-manure and horse-manure are used for fuel in burning pottery,
-but sheep-dung, when obtainable, is preferred, because it is thought to
-make a hotter fire.
-
-The cow-manure is collected from the corrals, and while still soft is
-patted into large circular cakes, sixteen to twenty inches in diameter.
-These, after being hardened in the sun, are stored in a dry room until
-needed. Such circular cakes, with the hand-prints showing, are usually
-employed for making the top of the oven.
-
-The horse-manure is obtained from the corrals in the early spring, where
-during the winter it has been trampled down by the horses into a compact
-layer a foot or more thick. When the corrals are cleaned during April
-this deposit is cut with an axe into chunks roughly two feet square.
-After being removed, the squares are split with an axe into slabs
-several inches thick, which are then stood up against the bases of house
-or barn walls to dry in the sun, and later stored indoors until needed.
-Disused bread-ovens sometimes serve as temporary storage places. Further
-splitting of the slabs may be done at the time of firing. When used in
-the ovens the slabs are from one to two inches thick.
-
-Sometimes the slabs of manure are placed in the sun for a day or two
-before being burned, but often they are taken directly from the
-store-room to the fire, where they are supplemented by dried manure
-collected from the pastures.
-
-During the burning of polished black ware (see p. 74) the oven is
-smothered with loose manure, which is brought in galvanized washtubs
-directly from the stables and corrals, either at the time of burning, or
-on the preceding day.[17]
-
-
-_Kindling_
-
-For starting the fire in the oven no wood but cedar is ever used. This
-is cut into pieces from six to eighteen inches long and is split into
-fine kindling at the time of burning.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 11
-
-Gourd spoons, or kajepes, used to shape and smooth the walls of
-vessels.]
-
-
-
-
-PARAPHERNALIA
-
-
-PRIMARY PARAPHERNALIA
-
-
-_Earthenware Moulds or “Pukis”_
-
-These moulds are usually the bases of broken bowls or ollas.
-Occasionally pieces of pottery are made especially for moulds; in such
-cases, although they are fired, they are neither finished carefully nor
-decorated.
-
-When a mould is to be used, a small amount of temper or wood ashes is
-placed in it, so that the vessel being moulded will not stick to it.[18]
-
-
-_Gourd Moulding Spoons or “Kajepes”_
-
-These spoon-like implements (pl. 11) are made from pieces of gourd-rind,
-usually from broken rattles or dippers. They vary greatly in size,
-ranging in diameter from a little over one inch to as much as four, or
-four and a half, inches. There are also many different shapes: round,
-several forms of ovals, and a few which have one concave edge. The
-various shapes are used for the different parts of the vessels. As a
-general rule the larger kajepes are used on the larger vessels. Each
-woman has from four to a dozen of these implements, which are distinctly
-individual, for one potter shows awkwardness in handling the spoons of
-another. It is said that potsherds were formerly used for the same
-purpose as these gourd spoons.[19]
-
-
-_Scrapers_
-
-Two kinds of scrapers are used at the present time. One is the top of a
-baking-powder can, which is popular because its shape makes it possible
-to apply it to any part of a vessel. The other scraper is an ordinary
-kitchen case-knife. The scraping of the vessels is done after they have
-been dried in the sun. It is said that potsherds, with edges sharpened
-on a piece of sandstone, were formerly used.
-
-
-_Polishing Stones_
-
-Very smooth, fine-grained pebbles of various colors are used to put the
-final finish on certain kinds of pottery. They vary considerably in
-size, from three-quarters of an inch long to three, or even three and a
-half, inches. It is impossible to classify them by shape, except that
-the larger ones are usually more flat than spherical. Most of the stones
-appear to be waterworn pebbles, without any acute angles or sharp edges.
-Usually two surfaces of the stone are highly polished, most frequently
-at the ends, where they come in contact with the vessel. Some specimens
-show signs of great wear.
-
-Each potter has several polishing stones, the number varying from seven
-to sixteen; they are distinctly the personal property of the potter, and
-apparently have a semi-sacred significance. For the most part they are
-heirlooms, handed down from mother to daughter, but additional stones
-are picked up from ruins which the potters have visited. One informant
-has four stones which her mother gave her, and three which she found at
-the ruined pueblo of Puyé. Another informant uses a stone that belonged
-to her great-grandmother, although her favorite is a small one which she
-found herself at a nearby ruin. Stones are sometimes lent by one potter
-to another, but they very seldom find their way outside the family
-group.[20]
-
-
-_Paint Brushes_
-
-These brushes are narrow slivers of the leaves of yucca or soapweed,
-from five to six inches long, and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch
-wide. For a distance
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5. Slivers of yucca leaf with shredded ends, used as
-paint brushes for decorating pottery.]
-
-of about an inch from one end, the fibres are chewed and thus separated.
-Most of the chewed fibres are then cut off, and the number remaining
-determines the fineness of the point (fig. 5). For very thin lines a
-brush of only one fibre is used. When out of service, the brushes are
-kept in some receptacle which will protect the shredded ends. When the
-implement is dry the chewed fibres become stiff and rather brittle, and
-must be handled with care; before using they are soaked in water for two
-or three minutes in order to soften them.[21]
-
-
-SECONDARY PARAPHERNALIA
-
-
-_Carrying and Storing Receptacles_
-
-The receptacles used for bringing clays and other ingredients from the
-pits to the village vary somewhat according to the distance that the
-material must be carried. If the beds are close at hand, the material is
-placed in a shawl spread flat on the ground. The shawl is then picked
-up, the corners are tied, and the bundle is carried on the back.
-Sometimes gunny-sacks and cement-sacks are used instead. If the beds are
-at some distance from the pueblo, the material is placed in sacks and
-brought home in the body of a wagon. As a rule the ingredients brought
-home in shawls are transferred to sacks or boxes for storage. Paints are
-kept in ollas, with the exception of the guaco paint, which is allowed
-to remain in the bowl in which it is dried.
-
-
-_Mixing Surfaces_
-
-Whenever ingredients are to be mixed or crushed, the work is done upon
-some sort of extra surface laid upon the floor. This surface is about a
-yard square, and may be, apparently, of any suitable material--a bit of
-old canvas, an opened-out cement-sack, or a small skin such as that of a
-goat or dog. Similar surfaces also serve for mixing clay and temper, for
-cleaning temper, for mixing the paste with water and kneading it, and
-finally for holding the kneaded clay during moulding. Partly finished
-vessels are placed upon such a surface at various stages of
-construction. For winnowing clay, the women’s shawls are used.
-
-
-_Boards_
-
-No boards are placed beneath the pukis, or moulding trays, while they
-are being used on the hard floor of the house, but in the courtyard
-boards are used under them in order that holes may not be worn in the
-ground during the constant turning necessary in moulding vessels. When
-small vessels are completed they are placed in rows on a board, where
-they remain during the early stages of the drying process. Rectangular,
-flat-bottomed vessels are built directly on boards, or on low footstools
-made of short boards with legs at each end.
-
-
-_Water Containers_
-
-While the potter is at work, she always has beside her a small lard-pail
-partly filled with water, which serves to keep the kajepes damp, to
-moisten parts of the vessel, and from time to time to clean her hands.
-When the kajepes are not in use, they are usually placed in the pail. At
-San Ildefonso such a pail is now the only form of water-container;
-formerly pottery bowls were probably used.
-
-
-_Mops for Slips_
-
-These mops are the same for all slips. Each consists of a rag, folded
-and refolded until it is about an inch or an inch and a half wide and
-from two to two and a half inches long. One end of the rag or mop is
-held between the thumb and the first two fingers of either hand; the
-other end serves as a wide paint brush. The potters state that in former
-times a piece of leather or skin served the same purpose as the cloth
-mop.[22]
-
-
-_Paint Receptacles_
-
-Various receptacles hold the slips and paints that are ready for use.
-The white slips are usually mixed and kept in enamelled basins and pans,
-because a large quantity is prepared at one time. The red and orange-red
-slips may be in small pottery bowls, or in china sauce-dishes. The guaco
-is invariably in an Indian bowl. Undoubtedly at one time native bowls
-were used exclusively, and there may even have been bowls of special
-shapes or designs for this purpose; at present, however, no trace of
-such a custom remains.
-
-
-_Wiping Rags_
-
-Wiping rags or, more simply, the aprons of the potters are used at
-various stages of the work--after scraping, after polishing, after the
-slip has dried, and after burning. Apparently any convenient piece of
-cloth is satisfactory.
-
-
-_Accessories in Firing_
-
-When the vessels are to be fired, various accessories must be at hand.
-Four or more half-bricks or stones are needed upon which to set the
-grate. The latter may be either a discarded stove-grate, or a collection
-of strips of iron, metal barrel-hoops, and odds and ends, placed
-together to form a grill.[23] Small stones and tin cans--such as small
-condensed milk cans and meat cans--are needed as props to keep the fuel
-from touching the vessels during the burning. Flat pieces of tin and the
-covers of large lard-pails serve at times to close spaces between the
-fuel cakes, and to cover the oven-top, to support which metal rods are
-often used. Lastly, pokers are needed to handle the fuel and to remove
-the hot vessels. These may be wooden or iron rods, broomsticks, old
-shovels, or even pitchforks. Each potter has her own collection of the
-above materials and implements, stored away ready for use. These
-collections of apparent refuse vary to a surprising extent.
-
-
-
-
-MOULDING
-
-
-For the purpose of this report the vessels may be divided into four
-large groups: bowls, ollas, cooking vessels, and unusual shapes. With
-respect to size there are two classes of bowls: those less than four
-inches in diameter, and those larger than that size. In shape bowls may
-be either wide-mouthed (pl. 6, b, g) or constricted-mouthed (pl. 6, a,
-c). The ollas all have full, globular bodies and relatively small
-orifices with or without flaring lips (pls. 7, 15, a). As a rule, the
-cooking vessels are shaped like small ollas. Under unusual shapes fall
-all the types and forms which are not of the first three classes, such
-as terraced (prayer-meal) bowls, double-mouthed vessels, double bowls or
-“baskets”, and vessels with handles.
-
-The moulding of each of the above forms may be said to consist of four
-principal steps: the making of the base, the building of the walls, the
-shaping, and the finishing. Very briefly, the process is as follows: The
-potter first forms a pancake-shaped pat of paste from six to eight
-inches in diameter; this she presses into the mould, or puki, to form a
-base. Then the walls of the vessel are built up by the addition of
-successive ropes, or rolls, of paste laid one upon another. The small
-bowls are the only exception, for they are formed in the hands of the
-potter from a single lump. In some cases the building is done all at one
-time; in others, and always with the larger vessels, a few rolls are
-added, then the piece is set aside to dry a little before the addition
-of a few more rolls. The potter usually builds two or more vessels at
-once in order to permit work upon one while the other is undergoing a
-brief period of drying. The preliminary shaping of the vessel is done
-either in the course of the building or after the building has been
-completed. The obliteration of the junctions between the rolls and of
-finger-marks is accomplished with the kajepe, or gourd-spoon, and
-further use of this implement aids in giving the vessel its shape. The
-final step, the finishing, consists of going over the entire vessel
-carefully, first with the kajepe, then with the fingers, to remove
-slight irregularities to even the lip and rim. The finishing is a slow,
-exacting process, and the difference between the artist and the mere
-pot-maker comes out at this stage of the work.
-
-The moulding, although usually done in the house, may also take place in
-some shady spot outdoors. If a woman begins her moulding in the morning,
-she will commonly devote the entire day to it. By evening she will have
-completed from five to thirty vessels, the number depending partly upon
-the size of the pieces and partly upon the rapidity with which she
-works.
-
-The potter sits upon her heels on some kind of mat; it may be a
-sheepskin with the wool side up, a piece of canvas, or a small woven
-rug. Her attitude is changed only when stiffness requires it. Thereupon
-she sits with her feet out in front of her; or with one leg bent, the
-foot flat on the ground, the knee beside her shoulder, and with the
-other leg under her or fully flexed in front with both the knee and
-foot upon the floor. Toward the end of the day the potter usually sits
-against a wall to rest her back, for any one of the postures assumed is
-tiring. At the end of the day the women frequently complain of stiff
-backs and sore abdominal muscles, caused by the almost constant stooping
-posture. Some potters cover their laps with shawls, others wear aprons,
-and still others use no protection whatever for their clothing.
-
-When the potter is sitting upon her heels, the mould, or puki, is laid
-directly in front of her upon the floor. If she is sitting with her legs
-extended, it is either held in the lap or placed close to her right
-side. In the house the puki rests directly upon the hard earthen floor;
-outdoors, a short board is placed under it to prevent its constant
-turning from wearing a hole in the relatively softer ground. In the puki
-is sprinkled a thin layer of temper or wood-ashes to prevent the vessel
-from sticking to it. At the right of the potter, within arm’s reach, on
-a canvas or a piece of cloth, is a mass of prepared clay. Rarely this
-reserve paste is on the left. If the paste is in constant use, it is not
-covered unless exposed to the sun; when, however, the moulding is
-abandoned for even a few minutes, a corner of the canvas or cloth is
-thrown over it. A small lard-pail partly filled with water is an
-indispensable accessory during moulding. This is usually kept between
-the potter and the paste; occasionally it is on the left, sometimes near
-the puki beside the potter’s right knee. The gourd moulding spoons, or
-kajepes, are also placed within easy reach, on the floor near the puki,
-beside the waterpail, or in the pail itself. The potter is then ready to
-begin moulding.
-
-The first step is to ascertain by a little handling whether the paste is
-of the proper consistency. If it was kneaded the day before, it may
-prove to be too dry; in such a case the hands are well moistened and
-perhaps a little water is sprinkled on the paste; it is then rekneaded
-for a few minutes. Then a handful is scooped out of the mass with the
-right hand. If the first handful is not sufficient, a second scoop gives
-the required amount. It is next worked with the hands for half a minute
-to five minutes; if it is of just the right consistency, it is hardly
-worked at all; if it is too dry, the hands are occasionally dipped in
-water while it is being worked; if it is too wet, kneading continues
-until it is sufficiently dry. There are three distinct movements in this
-final working of the paste. First, the handful is pinched and squeezed
-by opening and closing the hands; if any gritty particle is encountered,
-it is picked out with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and
-snapped upon the floor. The second movement consists in rolling the
-paste between the two flattened hands. When the roll is about six inches
-long, it is doubled and rerolled. This may be repeated from two to
-half-a-dozen times. Occasionally this step is entirely omitted,
-especially when a pat is being made. In the third movement the paste,
-now a spherical lump, is slapped back and forth between the cupped
-hands, which are held from six to eight inches apart. Sometimes this
-third movement precedes the second. The handful of paste is now ready to
-be made into a pat.
-
-There are two ways of forming a pat. In the first one, the spherical
-lump is held on the open left hand and pounded flat with the right fist;
-from time to time it is turned a few degrees by a slight tossing motion.
-It is then finished by patting
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 12
-
-a. Kneading clay preparatory to modeling a vessel.
-
-b. Bowl-moulding, primary stages. 1, Base formed in mould, edge crimped
-to receive first roll (cf. pl. 13, a); 2, Walls built to full height; 3,
-The same piece after shaping and smoothing.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 13
-
-a
-
-Applying the first roll of clay to the base. The roll is held in the
-left hand, and is flattened and pinched into place in the inside of the
-rim by the fingers of the right hand.
-
-b
-
-A bowl-base to which four rolls of clay have been added; the potter is
-making a new roll. Note the junctions of the roll on the interior of the
-vessel.]
-
-it with the flat right hand until it is fairly smooth and of uniform
-thickness; in doing this the pat is turned by slapping it from the left
-hand to the right and back again. During this interchange, through the
-natural placing of the hands, the pat is turned through an angle of
-ninety to one hundred and twenty degrees. When the pat has been
-completely formed by this method, it is like a large pancake, six to
-eight inches in diameter and from three-eighths to half an inch thick.
-It is then pressed firmly into the puki, and the edge is turned up and
-crimped with the thumb and first two fingers of each hand to form a
-slight rim (pl. 12, b, 1).
-
-In the second method, the spherical lump of paste is first pounded with
-the heel and then with the upper knuckles of the right hand; it is
-turned meanwhile by the tossing motion of the left hand. The next
-movement is the same as in the corresponding stage of the first method,
-namely, patting the paste with the flat right hand while turning it by
-transferring it to the right hand and back. Finally, before the pat is
-put into the puki, the edge is bent up and smoothed off a little, so
-that a shallow flat circular tray is formed instead of the slab obtained
-by the first method. This tray is then placed in the puki, where it is
-pressed down very firmly with either the heel of the hand or the balls
-of the fingers, in order to insure a solid uniform base and to expel any
-air-bubbles in the paste.
-
-Another handful of clay is now scooped out of the mass on the canvas to
-the right and worked to the proper consistency as before. From the
-resulting spherical lump the potter very skillfully forms a roll of
-uniform diameter by a backward and forward motion of her two hands
-placed palms together (pl. 13, b).[24] There seems to be a tendency for
-the first part of the roll to be of slightly smaller diameter than the
-last part; if this occurs, the roll is reversed and partially rerolled.
-One end is then taken in the right hand, while the left hand holds it
-near the other at a point chosen to prevent too much sagging at the
-middle. The potter then places the end which is in her right hand
-against the inside of that part of the edge of the pat nearest her.[25]
-The roll is pressed against the edge just enough to hold it in place
-(see pl. 13, a). The thumb is on the exterior, the fingers on the
-interior of the edge. Usually only the first two fingers are used,
-although the third finger is occasionally brought into contact with the
-paste. Then, as the puki is revolved counterclockwise,[26] the rest of
-the roll is pressed against the edge of the pat. If the roll is not long
-enough completely to encircle the pat, another is made and placed on it
-in a similar manner. When the edge has thus been completely encircled,
-the unused remainder of the roll is pinched off and tossed back on the
-mass of paste on the canvas. The potter then pinches the roll more
-firmly to the edge of the pat. This is done with both hands. The thumbs,
-almost touching, are on the exterior, the fingers on the interior of the
-vessel. The puki is usually moved counterclockwise, although the same
-potter will sometimes revolve it clockwise. During this process of
-pinching, the roll is flattened until it assumes in cross-section the
-shape of a very much elongated ellipse (fig. 6, b). An attempt is made
-to keep the thickness of the side as nearly uniform as possible, and in
-order to accomplish this it is often necessary for the hands to be moved
-back over a part already flattened.
-
-The diameter of the rolls, except for cooking-pots, varies from half an
-inch to slightly over an inch, according to the size of the vessel being
-built, and the individual doing the building. When a roll is pressed
-against the interior of the rim of the growing vessel,[27] from a half
-to three-quarters of it lies below the level of the rim (see fig. 6, a).
-Then, when the roll is flattened, the junction-plane between it and the
-preceding roll will not be horizontal, but will slope downward sharply
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6. Diagramatic sections of a bowl on the mould.
-
-a. Base made and first roll applied to inner side of rim. b. First roll
-flattened and welded on. c. Second roll applied. d. Second roll
-flattened and welded on.]
-
-from the exterior (see fig. 6, b, d), thus producing a broad holding
-surface and minimizing the risk of the vessel’s cracking along the
-junction-plane. In other words, the junction-line between any two rolls
-on the outside wall of the vessel is considerably higher than the
-corresponding line on the inside. The flattened rolls, in all but
-cooking-pots, are from an inch and a half to two inches wide, but
-because of the overlapping just described the distance between the
-junction-lines is considerably less (see pl. 13, b, and pl. 15, a).
-
-During the process of flattening the roll, some potters obliterate the
-junction-line on the exterior by rubbing it with the first and second
-finger of the right hand, and by the addition of small pellets of paste
-in the more conspicuous indentations. Others consider it unnecessary to
-obliterate this line during the building of the vessel, in spite of the
-fact that the roll may break away because of not being firmly welded.
-Certain women smooth the temporary rim after flattening each roll,
-others do not. When the flattening has been finished, the puki has made
-a second complete revolution, and the junction of the two ends of the
-roll is again directly in front of the potter; but if a few additional
-touches are required she may again shift the puki in one direction or
-another. No potter pays any attention whatever to the location of the
-junction points of the ends of the rolls; in successive rolls,
-therefore, they may lie directly above one another, or they may be
-distributed about the circumference of the vessel (pl. 13, b). When one
-roll has been completely welded on, flattened out, and incorporated into
-the vessel, another roll is formed, and is applied in exactly the same
-manner. Thus the building proceeds to the height at which the shaping is
-begun. The steps so far enumerated are the same for both bowls and
-ollas. The further treatment of the vessel varies slightly, according to
-the shape desired.
-
-Stevenson, describing the moulding of vessels at Zuñi, in 1879, wrote:
-“When the clayey dough is ready to be used, a sufficient quantity is
-rolled into a ball. The dough, if worked by a careful artist, is first
-tested as to its fitness for molding by putting a piece of the paste to
-the tongue, the sensitiveness of which is such as to detect any gritty
-substance or particles, when the fingers fail to do so. The ball is
-hollowed out with the fingers into the shape of a bowl (see pl. 29, a),
-this form constituting the foundation for all varieties of earthenware,
-and assumes the desired form by the addition of strips of clay; all
-traces of the addition of each strip are removed before another is
-added,[28] by the use of a small trowel fashioned from a piece of gourd
-or fragment of pottery, the only tool employed in the manufacture of
-pottery. The bottoms of old water jars and bowls form stands for the
-articles while being worked by the potter” (see pl. 29).[29]
-
-Mrs. Stevenson, writing later, also of the Zuñis, said: “In beginning
-the work a sufficient quantity is first made into a ball and then
-hollowed out with the fingers until is assumes a conventional bowl
-shape, which serves as the foundation to be afterward built up and
-elaborated into any desired shape. The vessel is then formed by the
-successive additions of strips of the paste long enough to encircle the
-bowl, each layer being pressed on the brim with the fingers and
-accurately fitted, the trowel being then skillfully used to finish the
-joining and to remove all traces of the original separation of the
-strips. Most of the work of remodelling the vessel into its final shape
-is done on the inside with a trowel, this implement being used on the
-outside chiefly to smooth the surface. The clay, if it has been properly
-worked, possesses sufficient tenacity and plasticity to admit of being
-pressed and scraped without cracking.”[30]
-
-The following quotation is of interest as showing how closely modern
-studio-practice, undoubtedly evolved experimentally, resembles Pueblo
-Indian methods: “The clay for building should be rather soft as it is
-apt to dry quickly on handling. A plaster bat (mould) should be made. It
-is first necessary to roll out the clay into cords which should be a
-little thicker than the proposed walls are to be. These cords should be
-as uniform as possible and should be rolled quickly to avoid undue
-hardening. It is best to roll them as required. A roll of clay is taken,
-one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is coiled around it
-in a spiral line. When the disc so formed has reached the proper size,
-the coils are gently rubbed over with the fingers until they have
-thoroughly united and the lines of the spiral have disappeared. The clay
-disc may now be turned over and the rubbing continued on the other side.
-The circle is cut true and a new coil is laid on the outer edge, thus
-making a shallow circular tray. In raising the walls it is best to pinch
-off the roll of clay when one circle has been completed, and the new
-roll should be begun at another point so that all the joints will not be
-at the same place. This plan is better than coiling a long roll in a
-spiral, for in this case one side of the piece will be higher than the
-other.
-
-“After three rolls have been laid in position, the wall, both inside and
-out, should be worked like the bottom so that the rolls will disappear
-and the clay be welded uniformly together. This should be done without
-water or with as little as possible. The use of water is very tempting.
-It makes the clay so smooth and seems to help, but it will inevitably
-make the work sloppy and will tend to soften the walls.
-
-“After three or four rolls have been worked in, the piece should be laid
-aside for some hours to stiffen. If this be not done the weight of the
-second building will cause the work to sag and fall out of shape. For
-this reason it is well to have two or three pieces in hand at once so
-that there need be no waiting. When the cylinder is of sufficient height
-it should be allowed to become quite stiff and then the irregularities
-should be corrected with a little soft clay which is worked into the
-joints. The whole surface may now be gone over with tools and brought to
-the required finish.”[31]
-
-Before describing in detail the moulding of the various sorts of
-vessels, the accidents which are associated with this process should be
-discussed. These may result from one of two causes, the presence of
-foreign matter in the paste or imperfect moulding.
-
-If the clay has been carefully sifted, as it usually is, there should be
-very little foreign matter in the paste. It is, however, impossible to
-remove entirely all gravel or stones fragment. If gravel is allowed to
-remain, it will cause the vessel-walls to scale during firing because of
-the difference in the rates of expansion under heat of stone and paste.
-In order to prevent this, the potter while moulding is constantly on the
-lookout for these small particles, which may be discovered at any stage
-of the work. They are at once picked out of the vessel, even if it is
-all but finished. The irregular hollow formed is then filled with a
-small pellet of fresh paste and smoothed over. The women say that a bit
-of hard clay does not cause flaking as does a piece of gravel or a stone
-splinter. Another kind of foreign matter is an air-bubble, which if left
-in the vessel will cause the same form of accident, because of the
-difference in the rates of expansion of air and clay. In order to
-eliminate these small air-bubbles, the pat is pressed down hard upon the
-puki
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 14
-
-a
-
-Levelling and smoothing the rim of a bowl after it has been scraped with
-the kajepe, or gourd spoon. The left hand serves to keep the piece
-turning and to support the plastic wall.
-
-b
-
-Use of the kajepe in shaping a vessel; the left hand supports the wall
-within, while the kajepe, held in the right hand, thins the top of the
-wall and gently presses it inward.]
-
-and the rolls are carefully pinched at every point about the vessel. A
-skillful potter is able to feel an air-bubble even if it is covered with
-a layer of clay: such a bubble is pricked and the resulting hollow is
-filled as before.
-
-If the moulding is imperfect, that is, if the rolls are not carefully
-welded, a weak spot occurs at the junction, which probably contains a
-thin layer of air. When the vessel is fired, it cracks along this line
-and is ruined. Such accidents seem to occur most commonly at the bases
-of large vessels, either because the first roll was not sufficiently
-welded to the base, or because the pat itself was not pressed into the
-puki with sufficient force. Since flaws between the rolls cannot be
-discovered until the firing, they cannot be corrected as in the case of
-foreign bodies in the clay.
-
-
-BOWLS
-
-From two to eight rolls may be used to form a bowl, according to its
-destined size and shape. When the building has been completed, the piece
-is in the form of a cylinder, with sides either vertical or very
-slightly flaring (pl. 12, b, 2, and pl. 13, b). As a rule the
-fingerprints and the irregular horizontal junction-lines may be seen
-both on the interior and exterior. The next step is the finishing of the
-temporary rim. This is done with the right hand, the fingers of which
-assume much the same position that they would for holding a pencil (pl.
-14, a). The thumb is on the interior of the rim, the forefinger on the
-top, and the middle finger on the outer edge. The thumb and middle
-finger are used as guides to help keep the rim uniform in thickness. The
-forefinger removes the paste from the higher parts of the rim and
-transfers it to the hollows. The fingers do not move with respect to
-each other except to exert slight pressure. The play of the right hand
-during this process is a gliding backward-forward motion repeated many
-times, while at the same time the puki is usually kept revolving
-counterclockwise by the left hand, which also is generally but not
-always, used to steady the side of the vessel. Occasionally the same
-potter will turn the puki clockwise. In the former case the right hand
-is kept in the twelve-to-two-o’clock sector; in the latter in the
-six-to-eight-o’clock sector. If the rim is smoothed hastily, as it
-sometimes is at this stage, the puki may not be turned at all. This
-completes the building of the bowl, which is then set aside for a few
-minutes, while another is begun.
-
-The next step is the shaping. This is done with a kajepe, or gourd
-spoon. The kajepe should always be damp when used, and for that reason
-is often kept in the water-pail. It is somewhat difficult to describe in
-detail the use of the kajepe, for no two potters work with it in exactly
-the same way. Often the same potter will show variations in her method
-of handling the tool.
-
-Each woman has from four to a dozen kajepes beside her while she is
-moulding. These implements vary much both in size and shape (pl. 11).
-Most of them are circular or elliptical with all edges convex, although
-every potter has at least one with a concave edge. Generally the
-smaller, circular kajepes are used on the interior of bowls, the oval
-ones on the exterior, and the one with a concave edge on the exterior at
-the shoulder, where it would be difficult to use the other types. As a
-rule the larger kajepes serve for the larger vessels. A potter
-occasionally changes kajepes in the midst of her work, usually because
-of the edge, which may be rougher on one than on another. The kajepes
-are held at an angle of from thirty to sixty degrees to the tangent of
-the bowl at the point of contact, according to the curvature of the part
-of the vessel being worked upon.
-
-The kajepe is always used first on the inside. This is done in order to
-press out the sides and to give the bowl something of its final shape
-before the paste becomes too dry. The work begins at the bottom of the
-vessel and slowly advances toward the top; the bowl gradually assumes a
-spherical shape, the sides being forced farthest out about half way
-between the base and the rim. During this process the outside surface,
-since it is being expanded, begins to show innumerable small cracks. The
-strokes of the kajepe on the interior are short and always nearly
-horizontal, the implement being pulled towards the body. During this
-first use of the kajepe all traces of the junction-lines between the
-rolls are removed from the inside of the vessel. The tool is always held
-in the right hand, and the left hand, which is constantly used on the
-exterior as a brace and stop, is placed directly opposite the spot on
-the inside which is being worked. One woman scrapes in the
-seven-to-ten-o’clock sector, turning the bowl clockwise; that is,
-working from the scraped to the unscraped surface. The vessel is turned
-through about sixty degrees at each change of position, and about a
-third of the surface just scraped is gone over again by the strokes on
-the new sector. Another works in the nine-to-twelve-o’clock sector,
-turning the bowl counterclockwise, that is, working from unscraped to
-scraped surface; in doing this she turns the puki five or six times
-through an angle of between sixty and eighty degrees for each turn,
-before the entire interior has been gone over.
-
-The kajepe is then applied to the exterior of the bowl (pl. 14, b). The
-concave surface of the kajepe is preferred for the first of the exterior
-scraping, although the convex surface is not infrequently used. The
-strokes begin again at the base. At first, when the kajepe comes in
-contact with the puki, the strokes are very nearly vertical. A little
-higher on the bowl they become diagonal. Near the rim the strokes are
-almost horizontal, but still have a perceptible downward slant. The
-kajepe is always pulled toward the body. The stroke on the exterior is
-from four to five inches, generally a little longer than that on the
-interior. During this step one woman turns the puki counterclockwise,
-working in the two-to-four-o’clock sector; another turns it in the same
-direction, but works in the four-to-six-o’clock sector. In both cases
-the strokes are from the scraped to the unscraped surface. Although the
-larger portion of the actual shaping of the bowl is done from the
-interior, the drawing in of the upper part to form a constricted mouth
-is done with the kajepe on the exterior, when the step last described is
-nearing completion. As when working on the interior, the left hand again
-acts as a brace and a stop, but this time on the inside of the bowl.[32]
-Usually only the ends of the fingers rest against the side. Upon the
-completion of the use of the kajepe on the outside for the first time,
-all traces of the coil-marks and of the fine cracks developed during the
-interior scraping are removed, but the surface is still rather rough
-(pl. 14, b; also 12, b, 3). After both surfaces have been gone over for
-the first time with the kajepe, the rim is once more trued up in the
-manner already described. Then, depending upon the stiffness of the
-paste, the piece may be set aside to harden a little or the work may
-continue without interruption.
-
-The women hold the kajepe with fingers either slightly bent, or nearly
-fully flexed; in the latter position the tool is grasped between the
-thumb and bent forefinger. Just before using, the kajepe is dipped in
-water; and the edge is then drawn across the palm of the left hand to
-remove excess water before it is applied to the bowl. After perhaps a
-dozen strokes, the paste which has collected on the tool is removed by a
-dexterous motion: the inner side of the thumb of the left hand is run
-along the edge of the kajepe to collect the paste; then the inner side
-of the forefinger of the same hand is run from the base to the tip of
-the thumb. This brings the paste to the ends of the two fingers in the
-form of a pellet, which is thrown upon the mass on the canvas. Since the
-paste has a tendency to stick to the fingers, the potter must throw it
-with a jerk or snap.
-
-When the kajepe has been used once over the entire surface, it is
-usually reversed so as to present its convex side to the bowl, made a
-little damper than for the previous scraping, and the whole process
-repeated in detail for both the interior and exterior. This results in
-better symmetry and a smoother surface. The rim is again finished in the
-manner already described. The walls of the bowl have by this time been
-thinned to about one-half or two-thirds of their original thickness, all
-major irregularities and rough spots have been removed, the vessel is
-fully shaped, and only the finishing touches are needed before it is
-ready to be sun-dried. The paste now has the consistency of soft thick
-leather.
-
-The first step in the finishing sometimes consists in again going over
-both surfaces with a wet kajepe, to smooth them still more. Occasionally
-only the exterior is so treated. Then the bowl is turned repeatedly,
-while the potter touches small areas with the convex surface of the
-kajepe. At this point particular attention is given to the bottom of the
-interior; it may be retouched with the kajepe, or simply smoothed over
-with the ball of the thumb or forefinger. If the surface seems slightly
-uneven, small pellets of paste are rubbed into the bottom and then
-levelled down with the kajepe. The bowl on the puki is then placed upon
-the palm of the left hand, held at eye level, and revolved slowly, while
-the potter examines it for rough spots and slight irregularities of
-contour, which when found are smoothed over with the forefinger of the
-right hand. After being replaced upon the floor, the bowl may be gently
-pressed between the hands in order slightly to improve its symmetry.
-Finally the rim is smoothed for the last time, little pellets of paste
-being added, if necessary, to fill in shallow depressions, and great
-care is taken to make it as regular and smooth as possible. It is
-obviously impossible to describe in detail the exact procedure followed
-in this finishing process, for the method adopted is chosen according to
-the needs of the individual vessel. After all this is done, the piece is
-ready to be sun-dried. Its present appearance is very different from
-that which it had when the building was completed (compare pl. 12, b, 2,
-and b, 3).
-
-The moulding of bowls less than four inches in diameter is a very simple
-matter compared with that of the larger ones, for there is no use of
-puki, rolls, or kajepe. After working the paste in the hands the
-resulting lump is formed into a flat spheroid. The forefinger of the
-right hand is inserted in the centre of this, the clay held horizontally
-and slowly revolved by a slight tossing rotary motion of the left hand.
-The forefinger of the right hand enlarges the hole and gradually shapes
-the mass into the desired form, thinning the sides at the same time. If
-the resulting bowl is too high, the rim is pinched off with the thumb
-and fore-finger of the right hand. When the proper shape and thickness
-have been attained, the little bowl is held upright in the left hand,
-while the fingers of the right smooth the sides and the rim. When
-completed it is set on a board to dry. Sometimes one of the larger of
-these bowls is placed in a small puki and reshaped with the kajepe. One
-woman used the kajepe on the interior of the vessel while it rested upon
-her left hand. The bowl, when treated in this way, and finished in the
-same manner as the larger bowls, was noticeably a better piece of
-moulding than the average small piece.
-
-The time consumed in moulding bowls is variable, depending on the
-dexterity and speed of the potter and to a somewhat lesser degree upon
-the sort of vessel being moulded. Comparisons between potters are apt to
-be misleading, for no two make bowls of exactly the same size or
-exercise the same amount of care in finishing, which, from the point of
-view of time consumed, is the most variable phase of the moulding. One
-potter moulded a wide-mouthed bowl of four rolls in twenty minutes;
-another finished two spherical bowls of six rolls each in forty-eight
-minutes; a third potter, the swiftest of the three, finished a
-wide-mouthed bowl of two rolls after it had been under her hands just
-fourteen and one-half minutes. The first potter moulded six of the small
-bowls (less than four inches in diameter) in fifty-five minutes,
-averaging nine minutes to each, but to refinish one of them with a
-kajepe she took thirteen minutes. The third potter moulded one of the
-small type of bowls in four minutes.
-
-In considering in detail the time consumed in moulding, the work of
-Maria Martinez was studied. She is the swiftest and most dexterous
-potter of San Ildefonso, and moulds in a quarter to a third less time
-than the slowest of the others. In three hours she turned out ten bowls,
-averaging about seven inches in diameter, of the constricted-mouthed and
-similar types; this is an average of one in eighteen minutes. She was
-working constantly, first on one, then on another. Subsequently she
-moulded six two-roll constricted-mouthed bowls in one hour and
-twenty-six minutes, an average of fourteen and a third minutes each. The
-various steps in the moulding of two bowls are recorded in Table I,
-which gives the actual time consumed in minutes and seconds from the
-beginning of the first of the pair until the two were finished and set
-aside. In Table II the growth and treatment of a single bowl are given
-in more detail, with the time in minutes and seconds that it was under
-the hands of the potter. This piece was one of five constricted-mouthed
-bowls of three rolls each which were moulded in sixty-four minutes, an
-average of twelve minutes, forty-eight seconds for each vessel.
-
-
-TABLE I
-
-Bowl A, constricted-mouthed bowl, diam. 8 in.; Bowl B, wide-mouthed
-bowl, diam. 7 in.
-
-     _Min._ _Sec._
-      { 0.00     Bowl A -- clay picked up from pile
-      { 2.00      “   “ -- pat in puki and pinched up
-4.30  { 3.00      “   “ -- first roll on and pinched flat
-      { 4.00      “   “ -- second roll on and pinched flat
-      { 4.30      “   “ -- rim smoothed and bowl set aside
-
-               (_no pause_)
-
-      { 4.30     Bowl B -- clay picked up from pile
-      { 5.30      “   “ -- pat in puki and pinched up
-2.50  { 6.20      “   “ -- first roll on and pinched flat
-      { 7.10      “   “ -- second roll on and pinched flat
-      { 7.20      “   “ -- rim smoothed and bowl set aside
-
-               (_pause of 40 seconds_)
-
-      {  8.00    Bowl A -- picked up again
-      {  8.30     “   “ -- interior scraping stopped
-      {  9.15     “   “ -- exterior scraping stopped
-      {  9.45     “   “ -- first rim smoothing stopped
-      { 11.00     “   “ -- first interior smoothing stopped
-8.00  { 11.30     “   “ -- first exterior smoothing stopped
-      { 12.45     “   “ -- second rim smoothing stopped
-      { 13.45     “   “ -- second interior smoothing stopped
-      { 14.30     “   “ -- second exterior smoothing stopped
-      { 15.15     “   “ -- third rim smoothing stopped
-      { 16.00     “   “ -- finishing touches stopped; bowl completed
-
-               (_pause of 15 seconds_)
-
-      { 16.15     Bowl B -- picked up again
-      { 16.45      “   “ -- interior scraping stopped
-      { 17.00      “   “ -- exterior scraping stopped
-      { 18.00      “   “ -- first rim smoothing stopped
-      { 18.30      “   “ -- first interior smoothing stopped
-5.05  { 19.00      “   “ -- second rim smoothing stopped
-      { 19.45      “   “ -- second interior smoothing stopped
-      { 20.45      “   “ -- touching up stopped
-      { 21.00      “   “ -- third rim smoothing stopped
-      { 21.15      “   “ -- third interior smoothing stopped
-      { 21.20      “   “ -- bowl completed
-
-Total, Bowl A--12 minutes, 30 seconds
-Total, Bowl B--7 minutes, 55 seconds
-
-
-TABLE II
-
-Small, constricted-mouthed bowl
-
-_Min._ _Sec._
-00.00 -- clay picked up from pile
-00.15 -- pat put in puki
-01.00 -- clay for first roll picked up
-01.15 -- one end of first roll pinched on pat
-01.50 -- first roll flattened, and clay for second roll picked up
-02.10 -- one end of second roll pinched on pat
-02.40 -- second roll flattened, and clay for third roll picked up
-02.50 -- one end of third roll pinched on pat
-03.30 -- third roll flattened, and rim smoothing begun
-03.50 -- bowl set aside
-
-         (_14 minutes, 10 seconds, elapsed_)
-
-03.50 -- interior kajepe-scraping begun
-04.25 -- exterior kajepe-scraping begun
-04.55 -- rim smoothing begun
-05.20 -- bowl set aside
-
-         (_18 minutes, 30 seconds, elapsed_)
-
-05.20 -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun
-06.00 -- small roll placed around edge of interior base and patted down
-06.40 -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun
-06.55 -- exterior kajepe-smoothing begun, lip turned in
-07.45 -- rim smoothing begun
-08.50 -- exterior kajepe-smoothing begun
-09.25 -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun
-10.05 -- rim smoothing begun
-10.50 -- bowl held at eye level, exterior kajepe-smoothing begun
-11.17 -- bowl placed on floor, interior kajepe-smoothing begun
-11.45 -- moulding completed, bowl set aside
-
-
-OLLAS
-
-In the moulding of ollas the first step is the building of the lower
-part of the body to a height of four or five rings in the same manner as
-in bowl-construction. Since ollas have a larger diameter than bowls,
-more than one roll is needed to form a complete ring about the growing
-edge. The number of rolls per ring varies from one and a half to four,
-depending upon the size of the olla and the part worked upon. When this
-first building has been completed (pl. 15, a), the rim is smoothed
-somewhat and the scraping and shaping are at once begun.
-
-The use of the kajepe in the shaping of ollas is identical in all
-details with that described above in discussing the moulding of bowls.
-The roll-junctions and the fingerprints are entirely removed and the
-sides of the vessel are flared a little. Great care is taken not to
-flare the sides too much, for the paste at this stage is still rather
-soft, and if the sides are flared unduly they collapse outward of their
-own weight. When the preliminary shaping has been finished the rim is
-smoothed a
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 15
-
-SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE MOULDING OF AN OLLA
-
-a. Lower wall built up of rings of clay. b. Sides smoothed and flared by
-use of the kajepe. c. Sides further flared and more carefully smoothed.
-d. Shoulder partly formed. e. Shoulder finished. f. Neck built. g, h.
-Neck flared and final smoothing completed; the vessels have been shifted
-in the moulds to allow work on lower sides.]
-
-little, and the olla is placed in the sun to stiffen. The moulding has
-now reached the second stage (pl. 15, b).
-
-The vessel remains in the sun from twenty to thirty minutes. This period
-may be extended to as much as an hour and a half, if the vessel is in
-the shade or if other things occupy the potter’s time. During all the
-drying periods, at intervals varying from five to fifteen minutes, the
-potter dips her right hand in the water of the lard-pail, and moistens
-the rim of the partly finished olla in order to keep it soft enough to
-permit perfect welding when additional rolls are added. While one vessel
-is drying, the potter is usually occupied with another. In case the work
-on the latter is finished before the former is dry enough, the potter
-simply waits, or finds some other work with which to occupy herself
-until it is ready.
-
-The test of the condition of the olla after this short drying is to pat
-the side gently with the balls of the fingers. The clay is now very much
-like soft leather. The degree of resistance offered by the side
-indicates the condition of the paste. Of course the value of such a test
-depends entirely upon the knowledge and sense of touch possessed by the
-potter, two qualities which can be gained only through long experience.
-
-When the paste in the olla, which now has the shape of an open-mouthed
-bowl, has reached the proper degree of firmness, the vessel is brought
-in and the shaping continued. By using the kajepe first on the interior
-and then on the exterior, the sides are flared still more until the
-desired shape for the lower part of the olla has been obtained. Then,
-after a hasty smoothing of the rim, the vessel, now in the third stage
-(pl. 15, c), is again set aside to dry. When it has become firm enough
-to support the weight of the new rolls to be added, the building is
-continued. The temporary rim has been kept soft by the application of
-water from time to time. The method of preparing this rim for the
-application of the rings varies slightly with different potters. The rim
-may be pinched into scallops between the thumb and forefinger of either
-hand, usually the right, or it may be roughened by vertical strokes of
-the kajepe on the exterior. In the former case the scallops may touch
-one another (pl. 16, a), or they may be separated by a quarter to a half
-inch of unpinched rim. When the kajepe is used, it also destroys the
-original smoothness of the rim, producing an irregular, broken surface
-to which the new roll can easily be welded.
-
-The potter must now build that part of the olla which has the greatest
-diameter. Each new ring of clay must therefore be of greater diameter
-than those which preceded and those which will follow. Three or four
-rather slender rolls are used to make such a ring. After two complete
-rings have been placed on the vessel and flattened, the shaping is
-begun. Gradually the new rim is drawn in until the shoulder of the olla
-has been formed. Again the rim is smoothed before the vessel is set
-aside. The moulding of the olla has now reached the fourth stage (pl.
-15, d).
-
-The olla is once more allowed to dry for about the same length of time
-as before. During these successive dryings the presence or absence of
-wind plays a considerable part in the length of time the vessel is
-allowed to remain in the sun; for a stiff breeze will dry the paste
-almost as quickly as the sun itself. The potters do not like to mould
-ollas when there is much wind because the paste dries so quickly that
-the vessel is ready to be taken up again before the second vessel, upon
-which the potter is working, is ready to set aside. Occasionally, but by
-no means always, the drying olla is turned so as to present a fresh
-section of the side to the sun.
-
-After testing with the hand the newly built part of the olla, to
-determine its firmness, the vessel, if sufficiently dried, is taken to
-the work-board and the building continued. The pinching of the rim is
-done as before, two more rings are added, and their shaping is begun.
-The rolls decrease very slowly in diameter. In shaping with the kajepe
-only the newly added section of the vessel is treated. At this stage the
-work becomes more difficult, for the two rings just added form the lower
-part of the neck of the olla, and therefore constrict the mouth of the
-partly finished vessel. If the paste is a little too soft, the newly
-built section will sag when the shaping is begun. The vessel must then
-be set aside at once until it reaches the proper degree of stiffness.
-While using the kajepe on the exterior, during this stage of the
-construction, the left hand is held inside the vessel not only as a
-brace or stop, but also as a support for the incurving side. When the
-scraping and smoothing have been finished, and the side has been given
-the proper curve, the rim is smoothed a little before the vessel, now in
-the fifth stage (pl. 15, e), is again set aside.
-
-Half an hour or so later the building of the olla is completed by the
-addition of one more ring. The rolls composing this ring are distinctly
-more slender than the first rolls used in the vessel. When this ring has
-been applied the rim is cursorily smoothed and the last shaping begun.
-The final delicate contour of the vessel depends to a large extent upon
-this final shaping near the rim. The kajepe is used with painstaking
-care, and the work progresses slowly. A slight outward flare is given to
-the lip by careful manipulation of the kajepe on the interior. When this
-is completed, the olla has reached the sixth stage (pl. 15, f).
-
-The finishing touches consist largely in going over the rim carefully
-and adding pellets of paste when necessary, thus making its curve as
-nearly uniform as possible. This process consumes a considerable amount
-of time, for the work is done very painstakingly and slowly (pl. 17, a).
-The vessel has now attained its final shape (pl. 15, g and h), and for
-the last time is set out in the sun to dry.
-
-The time taken to mould an olla is far greater than that necessary for a
-bowl. The type of olla shown in the illustrations is about fourteen
-inches in diameter at the shoulder. The potter who made these counted on
-moulding two such ollas each day. On some days a little time was left in
-the afternoon in which to make some smaller vessels, but no olla was
-ever begun in the afternoon. Ollas were usually started between ten and
-eleven o’clock in the morning and finished between half-past-three and
-half-past-four in the afternoon. During the early morning the household
-tasks had to be attended to; at noon about an hour was used in preparing
-and eating lunch; and at various times during the day the children,
-especially the baby, made it necessary for the potter to leave her work.
-Table III, columns A and B, gives in detail the various steps in the
-construction of two ollas, together with the time each vessel was
-actually under the hands of the potter and the length of the intervals
-in which the vessel was drying; columns C and D record two other ollas
-on which the observations were less complete. As a rule it requires one
-and a half
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 16
-
-a
-
-Potter moulding an olla. The first roll at the shoulder has just been
-added. The temporary rim has been pinched up with the thumb and
-forefinger to provide a firm seat for the succeeding roll.
-
-b
-
-A potter of San Ildefonso. The costume is typical of the Rio Grande
-Pueblos. With the exception of the shawl it is entirely of native
-manufacture.]
-
-hours’ work to mould an olla. In the case of olla A, the potter was
-unfortunate in misjudging the proper consistency of the paste, which
-delayed the construction of this vessel an entire half-hour, omitting
-the periods of additional drying. The two ollas were begun at eleven
-o’clock in the morning; the second of the two was set aside completed at
-eight minutes past four in the afternoon.
-
-It is said that it requires one whole day, and sometimes two, to mould a
-single very large olla. The process is identical with that just
-described. In the case of small ollas (such as those seen in pl. 18, a)
-a single period of drying elapses between the construction of the body
-and that of the neck. These small ollas can be moulded in a little less
-than twice the time taken for a bowl of about the same diameter.
-
-
-TABLE III
-
-                                     A          B          C          D
-                                                 _Min._ _Sec._
-First clay picked up                00.00      00.00      00.00      00.00
-Pat placed in puki                  04.00      04.00
-Second handful of clay picked up    04.30      05.30
-First roll added                    05.00      06.00
-First ring flattened, second begun  06.45      08.30
-Second ring flattened, third begun  09.00      10.00
-Third ring flattened, fourth begun  11.30      12.30
-Fourth ring flattened, fifth begun  15.00      16.45
-Fifth ring flattened (Stage I,
-  pl. 15, a), inside scraping begun 18.30      20.00
-Exterior scraping begun             21.00      21.30
-Rim smoothed and interior
-  scraping begun                    23.00      24.00
-Rim smoothing begun                 25.00      27.30
-Set aside (Stage II, pl. 15, b)     26.00      29.00
-        _Time out_                  34.00      24.30
-Interior smoothing, then exterior   26.00      29.00
-Set aside (Stage III, pl. 15, c)    33.00      32.30
-        _Time out_                  53.00      59.00
-Pinching of rim begun               33.00      32.30      33.00      33.00
-Pinching of rim completed           34.15      33.30
-First roll made                     35.00      34.15
-First roll pinched on, second begun 35.30      34.30
-Second roll pinched on,
-  flattening begun                  39.45      36.30
-First ring flattened                41.00      37.30      37.00
-Second ring flattened, rim
-  smoothing begun                   45.00      41.30      41.00
-Interior scraping begun             45.30      42.00      42.00
-Exterior scraping begun             50.00      45.00      45.00
-Rim smoothing begun                 52.00      47.00
-Interior smoothing begun            53.30      48.30      47.00
-Exterior smoothing begun            55.00      49.30      52.00
-Rim smoothing begun                 57.00      50.15
-Set aside (Stage IV, pl. 15, d)     58.00      50.45      54.00      55.00
-       _Time out_                   27.00      20.45      28.00      68.00
-Pinching of rim begun               58.00      50.45      54.00      55.00
-Pinching of rim completed           58.45      51.15
-First roll completed                59.30      52.00
-First ring flattened, second begun  64.00      56.45
-Second ring on                      66.15      59.45
-Second ring flattened, rim
-  smoothing begun                   67.15      60.30      61.00
-Exterior scraping begun             68.00      60.45      61.15
-Interior scraping begun             70.00     omitted    omitted    omitted
-Set aside (clay too soft)           70.30        “          “          “
-Rim smoothing begun                 omitted    63.00        “          “
-Set aside                           omitted    63.45        “          “
-      _Time out_                    13.45      17.00        “          “
-Interior scraping begun             70.30      63.45      64.00
-Exterior smoothing begun            75.15      69.15
-Rim smoothing begun                 77.15      71.45
-Set aside (Stage V, pl. 15, e)      79.15      73.30      69.00      67.00
-      _Time out_                    18.00      15.15      68.00      42.00
-Interior smoothing begun            79.15     omitted    omitted    omitted
-Exterior smoothing begun            83.45        “          “          “
-Rim smoothing begun                 84.15        “          “          “
-Set aside                           84.45        “          “          “
-      _Time out_                    33.00        “          “          “
-Interior smoothing begun            84.45        “          “          “
-Exterior smoothing begun            88.00        “          “          “
-Set aside                           89.45        “          “          “
-      _Time out_                    21.00        “          “          “
-Pinching of rim begun               89.45      73.30      69.00      67.00
-First roll put on                   92.45      75.00
-Ring flattened, rim smoothed,
-  exterior scraping begun           94.45      77.30                 73.00
-Interior scraping begun              97.45      79.00      76.00
-Exterior smoothing begun            100.15      81.30
-Interior smoothing begun
-  (Stage VI, pl. 15, f)             101.45      83.00
-Exterior smoothing begun            102.45     omitted    omitted    omitted
-Rim smoothing begun                 103.30      84.30      84.00      83.00
-Set aside (clay in rim
-  too soft)                         105.15     omitted    omitted    omitted
-      _Time out_                     16.30        “          “          “
-Interior and exterior
-  smoothing begun                   omitted       “          “        87.00
-Rim finishing begun                 105.15      90.30                 91.00
-Vessel completed
-  (Stage VII, pl. 15, g, h)         119.45      94.30      93.00      98.00
-
-Total elapsed time from beginning: Ollas A and B, 5 hours, 7 minutes, 30
-seconds; Ollas C and D, about 5 hours.
-
-
-COOKING-VESSELS
-
-The clay forming the paste of these pieces is called Apache clay, and is
-very different from that employed in making ordinary ware (see p. 22);
-it is used without the addition of any tempering material.
-
-Just before moulding is started, the clay is carefully gone over in a
-final search for small pebbles. The moulding differs only in detail from
-that of vessels made from other kinds of paste. A pat very much thinner
-than those described above is made and placed in the puki. The vessel is
-built by the addition of rolls which are of smaller diameter than
-usual--about three-eighths of an inch. When the body has been built to
-the desired height, the scraping and smoothing with the kajepe are
-begun. At first the vessel, like the others, is cylindrical; but the
-scraping, first on the
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 17
-
-a. Putting the finishing touches on an olla. The potter’s left hand is
-supporting the soft neck while she shapes it from the outside with the
-kajepe. In front is a pile of base-moulds (pukis) for small bowls; at
-the potter’s right is a lard-pail of water and a reserve supply of clay
-wrapped in a canvas.
-
-b. Applying a horizontal handle to a small olla; two gourd spoons
-(kajepes) are lying on the table.]
-
-interior and then on the exterior, thins the sides and gives it a
-spherical shape. After the smoothing the sides are from one-eighth to
-three-sixteenths of an inch thick, much thinner than the walls of
-vessels made of other kinds of paste. When the body has assumed the
-desired shape, additional rolls are added to form the lip, which is
-scraped, smoothed, and flared with the kajepe. During the entire period
-of moulding small pebbles are constantly being found and removed, for
-Apache clay contains a great many more pebbles than the other clays.
-After the finishing touches have been completed, the rim is indented,
-and a vertical handle is added as described below (see p. 50).
-
-The indenting of the rim is done with the thumb and forefinger of the
-right hand. The thumb is placed under the flaring rim, with the nail
-vertical; the forefinger rests upon the lip, the nail horizontal. The
-fingers are in about the position they would assume were the potter
-holding a pencil. A gentle downward pressure of the hand indents the rim
-slightly, the nail of the thumb leaving a small mark on the under side
-of the lip. This pressure is repeated at intervals of about
-three-quarters of an inch until the entire lip has been given an
-indented or undulating edge.
-
-The construction described above is that of a small olla about six
-inches in diameter. Larger ollas are built in several stages in the same
-manner as ollas made of the other forms of paste.[33]
-
-The time consumed in the moulding of cooking vessels was noted in only
-one case. Six rolls were used for the body and two for the lip. Before
-the kajepe was used for the first time the cylindrical body was five
-inches in diameter and four and a half inches high. Table IV gives the
-time of construction, divided according to the various steps of the
-work.
-
-
-TABLE IV
-
-_Min._ _Sec._
-00.00 -- Kneading of small handful of clay to eliminate pebbles begun
-04.00 -- Pat placed in puki, kneading of clay for rolls begun
-12.00 -- Making of first roll begun
-19.00 -- Six rolls added and flattened, interior scraping begun
-20.30 -- Exterior scraping begun, later interior smoothing begun,
-         followed shortly by exterior smoothing
-26.00 -- Seventh roll added
-29.00 -- Eighth roll flattened and interior smoothing begun
-29.30 -- Exterior smoothing begun
-32.00 -- Rim smoothing begun
-38.00 -- Finishing touches begun, followed by indenting rim
-46.00 -- Moulding completed, vessel set aside
- 9.00 -- _Time out_
-46.00 -- Work upon handle begun
-49.00 -- Handle finished, vessel completed
-
-
-PRAYER-MEAL BOWLS
-
-Prayer-meal bowls are of two sorts, bowl-shaped with a terraced
-elevation on one side of the rim, and rectangular, or box-like, with a
-terraced elevation at either end. In the construction of a rectangular
-prayer-meal bowl, no puki is employed. The pat, either circular or
-rectangular in shape, is made as usual. It is placed upon a board, care
-being taken to press it down hard, and the rectangular shape is
-accentuated by the pinching up of the edge. A thin layer of temper may,
-or may not, be sprinkled on the board before the pat is placed upon it.
-To this pat are added two or three rolls in the manner already
-described. When it is desired to turn the vessel, the board upon which
-it rests is turned. The board is either held in the lap or rests on the
-top of a low stool. In scraping and shaping the vessel one potter began
-to use the kajepe on the exterior first, then proceeded to the interior;
-another reversed the process. The stroke on the exterior is vertical at
-the corners and nearly horizontal on the sides; on the interior it is
-nearly horizontal. When the building of the vessel has been completed,
-the rim is smoothed, and the corners
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7. The three stages in making the terraced end of a
-prayer-meal bowl: a. End built to full height. b. Notches cut with a
-taut string. c. Bits of clay removed from the notches and edges of
-terracing smoothed down.]
-
-made straight. The bowl may be pressed lightly between the hands to
-improve the symmetry and to make all the corners more nearly right
-angles; it is then set aside for a while.
-
-The next step is the construction of the terraced ends. A single short
-roll is attached to the interior of the rim at one end. This roll is
-pressed flat, and smoothed with the kajepe, first on the interior and
-then on the exterior. The sharp edges are softened, the rim is smoothed,
-and the junctions of this new portion with the sides are rounded off.
-The result is a flattened semicircular vertical projection at the end
-(see fig. 7, a). The other end is then treated in the same manner. The
-bowl is now ready to have the terraces put in. There are two methods of
-doing this. One potter uses a long string in making the first marks. The
-string is stretched taut horizontally, parallel to the length of the
-bowl. It is then pressed lightly on both ends at the same time, first on
-one side of the centre, then on the other. The distance between the
-hands is next shortened, and two notches are cut on either side of the
-centre of the end with this string, which is still held horizontally.
-Similar notches are cut in the other end. Each end of the bowl is now as
-shown in fig. 7, b. Another potter does not make the initial marks in
-the two ends simultaneously. Holding the end of the bowl towards her,
-she lightly marks the lines to be cut with her fingernail. Then, picking
-up the string and following the marks made by her fingernail, the
-notches are cut in the way described.
-
-As soon as the notches have been cut, the small triangular pieces of
-clay are removed, the edges rounded with the thumb and forefinger of the
-right hand, and the corners made into curves. Small pellets of clay may
-be added if necessary. After a few finishing touches with the forefinger
-the terracing of the ends of the bowl is completed (see fig. 7, c).[34]
-
-The time consumed by the swiftest potter of the village, in moulding an
-unusually large prayer-meal bowl, is recorded in Table V. The piece was
-seven and a half inches long, four and three-quarters inches wide, and
-three and a half inches high. The terraces raised the ends one and
-three-quarters inches more.
-
-
-TABLE V
-
-_Min._ _Sec._
-
-00.00 -- First handful of paste for the bowl picked up
-
-08.00 -- Two rolls put on the pat and flattened, the rim smoothed and
-interior scraping begun (exterior scraping done later)
-
-22.00 -- Moulding of the bowl itself completed, after some time spent
-in pressing down the pat on the interior of the bowl. Vessel set aside
-
-22.00 -- _Time out_
-
-22.00 -- Interior and exterior smoothing begun
-
-26.00 -- Paste picked up for roll to be placed on one end of bowl
-
-29.45 -- Roll flattened and smoothing of edges begun
-
-30.30 -- Interior scraping begun
-
-31.10 -- Exterior scraping begun
-
-31.45 -- Smoothing of connection with sides begun
-
-32.30 -- Roll placed on other end
-
-33.45 -- Roll flattened and interior scraping begun
-
-34.15 -- Exterior scraping begun
-
-
-34.45 -- Very small roll placed on first end to improve curve, followed
-by a little smoothing with kajepe
-
-35.45 -- Finishing of end begun
-
-37.30 -- Marking of one end with fingernail begun
-
-38.15 -- Notches cut with thread, pieces removed, and finishing of
-terrace begun
-
-40.15 -- Marking of other end with fingernail begun
-
-40.35 -- Cutting of notches with thread begun
-
-41.05 -- Pieces removed and finishing of terrace begun
-
-43.15 -- Finishing completed
-
-
-DOUBLE-MOUTHED VASES
-
-The first step in the construction of this type of vessel is the
-moulding of an open-mouthed bowl. Across the mouth of this bowl a clay
-bridge is placed. Finishing touches are given at this stage of the work,
-just as if the moulding had been entirely completed. The piece is set
-aside for a while to stiffen.
-
-Later, additional rolls are added to each half of the mouth of the bowl
-by attaching them to the rim proper and also to the bridge. In this way
-two necks are gradually built up. At regular intervals the work is set
-aside to stiffen in order that it may support the additional weight to
-be added. The shape and height of the two necks depend entirely upon the
-whim of the potter. The moulding of the upper parts of the two necks is
-a delicate process, and requires considerable skill. The roll-marks on
-the interior of the neck, if obliterated at all, are destroyed by the
-fingers only, since the diameter of the neck is too small to permit the
-use of a kajepe. After the moulding has been entirely finished, a handle
-connecting the two necks is usually put across the top at right angles
-to the bridge which forms the base of the necks. Obviously this handle
-has a structural as well as ornamental purpose.[35]
-
-
-HANDLES
-
-In all cases in which handles are to be applied the vessel is entirely
-finished before they are put on. The potters of San Ildefonso make three
-types of handles: (1) passing across the top of an open-mouthed bowl,
-(2) attached vertically to the side of a vessel, (3) attached
-horizontally to the side of a vessel. All three types consist of a short
-roll of paste of the proper length, usually somewhat smaller in diameter
-than the rolls used in the body of the vessel. This roll is slightly
-flattened before it is applied.
-
-The first two types of handles are placed on the vessel in the same
-manner. The ends of the flattened roll are pinched still flatter. In the
-case of the handle over the top of a bowl, first one end of the roll,
-then the other, is attached by pressure to the exterior of the rim. The
-vertical handle on the side of a vessel is attached first to the
-exterior of the rim, then bent over and attached to the side just above
-the shoulder. The left hand is used as a stop on the inside of the
-vessel in order that the shape of the side may not be altered by the
-pressure exerted in applying the handle. The junction-lines between the
-handle and the vessel are then obliterated with the forefinger of the
-right hand. Small pellets of paste may be added to the side of the
-contacts, especially on the inner side of the handle where it makes an
-acute angle with the side of the bowl. In this way the welding is made
-solid, and the curves regular. Finally the curve of the handle itself is
-made symmetrical. A few finishing touches, such as the obliterating of
-fine cracks in the handle and the smoothing of its surface, complete the
-process. Such a handle may be constructed in three to five minutes.
-
-Horizontal handles are attached to the sides of vessels in an entirely
-different manner, being keyed or riveted in, rather than merely welded
-on. Handles of this type are usually put on in pairs. The position of
-one handle is chosen and the rim of the finished pot is marked to show
-its location; by sighting across the top of the vessel a point exactly
-opposite is also marked to give the location of the other. For each
-handle two holes, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter and fairly
-close together, are cut through the side of the vessel from the exterior
-with a small stick. One end of the roll which is to form the handle is
-inserted in one of the two holes. Then the other end is similarly
-inserted. The left hand holds the first end in place on the interior,
-while the other end is being put in (pl. 17, b). Next the junctions
-between the ends of the roll and the interior surface of the vessel are
-smoothed over and obliterated with the fingers of the right hand. The
-handle itself is flattened a little, and small pellets of paste are
-added at the junctions between it and the exterior of the vessel. These
-are smoothed over with the fingers, so that superficially the handle
-looks as if it had been pressed upon the surface in the same manner as a
-vertical handle. A smoothing of curves, and touching up of the handles
-to make them symmetrical, form the last stage of the construction. It
-took one potter just an hour to place a pair of handles of this type on
-a globular bowl.[36]
-
-
-
-
-SUN-DRYING
-
-
-The purpose of sun-drying is to allow the vessels to harden, and to
-remove all moisture before the work on them is completed. During
-sun-drying, which immediately follows moulding, the ability of the
-vessels to withstand some heat is also tested. Pieces made of improperly
-mixed clay are eliminated at this stage of the work, because of the
-cracks which develop (see under Temper, p. 21). The length of time
-allowed for sun-drying depends upon the weather and also upon the place
-where the vessels are exposed.
-
-During the dry months of the year, notably in May and June, vessels
-placed in the sun will dry completely in less than a day, often in half
-a day (pl. 18, a). In the fall it requires an entire day under the same
-conditions. When the sky is cloudy or showers threaten, the drying is
-done in the house. If time is not pressing, the pots are placed on a
-table, or in the corner of the room, and allowed to remain there three
-or more days. At the end of that time they are usually sufficiently dry.
-Vessels moulded one afternoon and placed on the table for the night are
-dry enough the following morning to permit lifting them from the pukis,
-which can then be used again. If, during cloudy weather, the potter
-desires to dry the vessels quickly, they are placed in the oven of the
-small wood-stove with which most San Ildefonso houses are nowadays
-equipped. Sometimes a piece of corrugated cardboard from a carton is
-placed on the floor of the oven, the door of which is left open to allow
-the evaporating moisture to escape. Only a low fire is built in the
-stove, for a hot one would cause the vessels to dry too quickly. Under
-such treatment a batch of pottery can be dried in two days, more or
-less. The length of time depends very largely upon the number of pieces
-to be dried, for the potter tries to keep all the vessels at about the
-same stage of drying; this of course requires frequent relays in the
-oven. The most common, and most natural, method, however, is to place
-the vessels in the sun and, when showers threaten, to carry them
-hurriedly into the house. In this way pottery is dried in a day or a day
-and a half. The loss of moisture in the paste changes its color from a
-dark reddish or greyish brown to a light reddish or whitish grey, and in
-the early stages the variations in the color of the paste serve as
-indications of the dryness of the vessel. Later the color-change is very
-difficult to detect. Various parts of the vessel dry at different rates;
-the rim always first, then the body, and last the base, both because it
-is thicker and because it is usually in the shadow of the vessel itself;
-in spite of this the vessels are never inverted while they are drying.
-
-The occurrence of cracks in the paste is the only form of accident which
-takes place during drying. There are three sorts of cracks: those in the
-bottom of the vessel, which usually pass through or very near the centre
-of the base; rim-cracks; and vertical cracks in the body. All are caused
-by the contraction of the paste in drying. The part of the vessel which
-receives the greatest strain is the base, which,
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 18
-
-a. Vessels on their base-moulds drying in the sun; the pottery is always
-thoroughly sun-dried after it is moulded and before it is decorated.
-
-b. Summer house of Antonita Roybal, a woman who specializes in the
-manufacture of large red ollas: a row of these may be seen drying before
-the house.]
-
-because of the amount of paste in it, has a tendency to contract more
-than the bottom of the side. The next greatest strain is at the bottom
-of the side, where the paste must adjust itself to the contraction in
-the base as well as to that in the body of the vessel. The body and lip
-have the least strain, for the contraction may be compensated for by a
-slight settling of the paste. It is in the base, therefore, that cracks
-usually occur, and then near the centre of it, since that is the point
-of greatest strain. The size and quantity of the cracks are an
-indication of the amount of temper still needed to make the paste of
-just the right consistency. If there are many small cracks, or a single
-serious one, the piece may be discarded entirely, to be broken up later,
-and re-used in moulding. If a crack is not serious, it is filled as
-follows. With a small sliver of wood, or the end of a case-knife, the
-paste on the edge of the crack is forced down into it, first on the
-interior and then on the exterior; little pellets of paste are then
-added and pressed into the crack until it is filled. Final smoothing
-with the finger or the kajepe completes the obliteration.
-
-Small vertical cracks near the base of the body probably also indicate
-faulty mixture of the paste. The potters, however, say that these fine
-cracks are caused by a vessel’s drying too quickly in the sun, and
-insist that if it had been allowed to dry slowly in the house, they
-would not have appeared. Such cracks are too fine and too numerous to
-warrant the careful filling of each one; so accordingly the surface is
-merely dampened, some soft paste is added and rubbed in with the fingers
-or the kajepe.
-
-Cracks running downward from the rim are exceedingly rare. The women of
-San Ildefonso make no attempt to repair them, but occasionally cut down
-the vessel to a smaller size. In the single instance noted[37] the crack
-was first traced downward from the rim until its end was located upon
-the neck, then the upper part of the neck was cut off below the end of
-the crack. It was thus possible to use the base of the olla as a large
-bowl. A line parallel with the rim was marked about the circumference of
-the neck with a lead-pencil. This line was incised with a penknife, and
-gone over again in order to deepen it. A second line was incised around
-the neck about three-sixteenths of an inch nearer the rim. Then the
-paste between these two lines was dug out with great care, forming a
-V-shaped groove (pl. 20, a). This groove was cut through about one-half
-the thickness of the wall all the way around the neck. Then at one point
-the wall was pierced, and, from there around, the groove was deepened by
-long and short strokes of a knife pulled toward the body until the wall
-had been cut through for about three-fifths of the circumference. The
-remainder broke away easily. The raw surface of the new rim was then
-softened by the application of water and smoothed with the fingers. The
-potter said this was the usual method of treating a rim crack.
-
-
-
-
-SCRAPING
-
-
-The purpose of this process is twofold, to improve the surface of the
-vessel by removing the marks left by the kajepe and the puki, and to
-thin the sides, thus reducing the weight of the finished piece. It is
-usually begun the day following the completion of the moulding and
-sun-drying, unless other duties, such as planting, harvesting, and the
-like, force a postponement. Large vessels such as ollas are allowed to
-dry nearly forty-eight hours before they are scraped. At San Ildefonso
-vessels are made in quantities ranging from a dozen to fifty pieces. The
-moulding and drying of the entire group, a process which may extend over
-a period of several days, is entirely finished before the scraping is
-begun.
-
-There are three steps in the scraping: the wetting, the actual scraping,
-and the smoothing of the surface. The implements employed are a wet
-cloth and a scraper. The latter is either the top of a baking-powder
-can, or a kitchen case-knife. The can-top seems to be the more popular
-because it may be used on nearly any type of curve on the vessel. The
-informants said that their people formerly used potsherds, stones, or
-broken animal-bones as scrapers, in fact anything that had a suitable
-edge; the potsherds were sharpened and straightened by rubbing them on
-coarse sandstone.
-
-When the vessel is brought in from drying, it is easily lifted from the
-puki, since the layer of ashes or temper prevents sticking. A small olla
-or bowl is held upon the left knee, with the mouth tilted to the left
-and away from the body. A bowl is held with the left hand, the fingers
-on the interior, the thumb on the exterior of the lip. The exterior
-surface of the vessel is then softened by wiping it with a wet rag. This
-step is omitted by some potters always, by others only when the vessel
-needs a small amount of scraping. The scraping itself is begun while the
-surface is still damp. The scraper first touches the vessel near the
-shoulder. The work then continues toward the base by means of short,
-quick strokes taken toward the body. As the work advances the upper part
-of the bowl is turned away from the body, that is, the vessel turns
-counterclockwise. When the ridges marking the former position of the
-edge of the puki are being destroyed, care is taken to keep the curve of
-the side uniform from the base to the shoulder. If the scraping
-discloses an impurity, such as a stone fragment in the paste, it is
-removed; the resulting irregularity is filled with a pinch of soft
-paste, and smoothed over. The strokes of the scraper are usually
-approximately parallel to the rim of the vessel. The upper part is
-scraped as far as the surface remains convex. In bowls the scraping is
-done to the very rim. In both large and small ollas with flaring lip,
-the scraping continues only to the base of the flare. The interiors of
-vessels, even of wide-mouthed bowls, are never scraped. When a bowl
-requires little scraping to make the surface uniform, it may be finished
-in from three to five minutes. Those which are too
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 19
-
-a. Scraping an olla after sun-drying; the implement used is an ordinary
-kitchen case-knife.
-
-b. Scraping; the dark part of the olla has just been moistened to
-soften the clay.]
-
-heavy, and therefore need thinning, take considerably longer. It may
-even be necessary to moisten the surface a second time. The potters
-judge the proper thickness of the bowls by weighing them in the two
-hands with the elbows unsupported.
-
-Large ollas, while being scraped, are held in the lap, with the mouth
-inclined to the left and away from the body. The left hand supporting
-the olla is placed palm down upon the neck (pl. 19, b). Because of the
-extent of surface to be gone over only that part of the olla about to be
-scraped is moistened with the cloth. When a case-knife is used instead
-of a can-top, it is held either at right angles to the surface worked or
-at an angle of about sixty degrees with the surface, the upper edge of
-the knife tilted away from the body (pl. 19, a). In all vessels, bowls
-as well as ollas, the angle with the horizontal made by the mouth varies
-considerably, according to the part of the vessel being scraped. After
-the scraping proper is completed, one potter sometimes rubs the surface,
-including the rim and lip, with a little steel wool, which noticeably
-improves the smoothness. The final step is to go over the entire surface
-carefully with the palm of the right hand in search of irregularities or
-small uneven spots.
-
-When the scraper is laid aside for the last time, the surface of the
-vessel is again softened with a wet cloth. By means of vigorous rubbing
-the thin film of moist surface-paste is redistributed over the entire
-exterior of the vessel, filling the small scratches made by the scraper,
-and softening the edges of the larger ones. If the vessel is a bowl or a
-large olla, its position is then changed so that its mouth is tilted to
-the right and towards the body, whereupon the interior is treated with a
-wet cloth. The finishing touches consist in smoothing, either with a wet
-cloth or the ball of the finger, small areas of the surface which are
-not quite to the potter’s satisfaction. The use of the wet cloth gives a
-uniform smooth texture which is a distinct improvement over the scraped
-surface. The paste resumes its dry color in three to five minutes after
-the wetting. This process actually amounts to the same thing as putting
-a thin slip of paste upon the vessel, but the potters do not think of it
-in that light. It is said that some women entirely omit this final
-smoothing step. Formerly a wet cloth was not used; the fingers alone, a
-piece of sandstone, or a corncob served, according to the informants, to
-smooth the surface after scraping. As a matter of fact, however, cloth
-was used in old times for smoothing pottery, as clay-smeared rags are
-occasionally discovered in the rubbish of ancient cliff houses. Ground
-potsherds, on the other hand, were more often used than gourd-rind
-kajepes, the latter being very rare even in the dry deposits found in
-caves. At Pecos well-worn fragments of the spongy interior parts of
-large animal bones have been found which may well have been employed for
-smoothing.
-
-The time element in scraping is a variable quantity. Table VI on the
-following page is the record of one potter. A, B, and C were large
-ollas; D, E, and F were small globular ollas six inches in diameter and
-five inches high; G was a shallow, wide-mouthed bowl.
-
-
-TABLE VI
-
-                             A      B      C      D      E      F      G
-                                       _Min._   _Sec._
-Wet cloth applied          00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00
-Scraping begun             00.30  01.00  00.30
-Wet cloth applied again    02.30  08.30
-Wet cloth applied again    04.00  11.00
-Steel wool rub begun       05.30  16.30
-Scraping done, exterior
-    smoothing begun        08.00  18.30  18.00  08.30  03.00  05.00  08.00
-Interior smoothing begun   14.30         26.00  11.00  05.30  07.30  11.00
-Finishing begun            17.00
-Set aside                  17.30  31.30  35.00  13.00  08.30  08.30  15.30
-
-The treatment of the vessels after scraping varies considerably among
-different potters. One places the scraped vessels in the sun for a
-period of not less than three days in order to test them for cracks;
-another begins the next step in the work, that of slipping, almost at
-once, sometimes the same day; a third after scraping ollas replaces them
-in the sun for a day or so, in order to allow them to “get warm” (that
-is, dry thoroughly),[38] before the slipping and polishing are begun.
-
-
-
-
-SLIPPING AND POLISHING
-
-
-Up to this point all vessels are made in the same general manner. In the
-succeeding stages the treatment differs according to the type of
-decoration which is eventually to be applied. The making of the vessel
-has been completed, and the finishing is now begun. Just as the making
-is divided into three general processes--moulding, sun-drying, and
-scraping, so the finishing is similarly divided into slipping, painting,
-and firing.
-
-Slipping is the application of a very thin layer of clay to the surface
-or surfaces of the vessel to produce a smooth texture, uniform in color,
-which gives the pottery a pleasing appearance; it also serves as a
-background upon which designs may be painted. The slip further acts as a
-sizing. San Ildefonso slip is a saturated solution of a colored clay in
-water; it is very little thicker than water, and is applied by means of
-a small piece of cloth, used in much the same way in which a painter
-would handle a brush an inch and a half or two inches wide. It is said
-that formerly a small piece of skin was used instead of a cloth mop. The
-treatment after application depends upon the slip used; some slips are
-merely wiped vigorously with a cloth, others must be polished with
-smooth, fine-grained stones.
-
-At San Ildefonso the potters use slips of four different colors--white
-(of two varieties), orange-red, red, and dark-red. The red and dark-red
-slips and one variety of the white must be polished; the other white and
-the orange-red do not need it. The white slips are principally used as
-backgrounds in polychrome ware (see pl. 6), the red for undecorated red
-ware and polished black ware (see pl. 8), and the dark-red for decorated
-red ware (see pl. 7, a, b). The orange-red slip is the only one of the
-four which is not used on the body of vessels, it being confined to the
-bases of ollas and of some bowls. The white and the orange-red are used
-also in the elements of designs.[39]
-
-
-WHITE SLIP
-
-The native white slip (see p. 23) is applied and polished in the same
-manner as the red slip (see p. 23). It has been very largely supplanted
-by the Santo Domingo white slip, which does not require polishing.
-
-The Santo Domingo white slip (see p. 23) is a soapy clay which the San
-Ildefonso potters obtain from the Indians of Santo Domingo and Cochiti.
-It is mixed with water in enamelled pans and basins or in china dishes,
-although formerly pottery vessels were used to hold it. Although
-undissolved lumps of the clay remain in the bottom of the vessel
-containing the solution, the latter is not appreciably thicker than
-water. The mop with which it is applied is a folded cloth, about two
-inches wide and three, or three and a half, inches long. This is held at
-one end, between the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand,
-the other end of the cloth acting as a two-inch wide paint-brush, which
-is manipulated with an easy, backward-forward stroking motion, parallel
-to the rim.[40]
-
-Before the slip is applied, the hand is rubbed over the surface in order
-to remove any dust or powder which may remain after the scraping. Some
-vessels, while being slipped, are held with the mouth vertical and to
-the left, supported by the bent fingers of the left hand against the
-interior of the rim. Others are held upright, resting upon the palm of
-the left hand (pl. 20, b). In both cases the vessels are revolved
-counterclockwise as the slip is applied. In the container the slip is
-creamy white, but when first laid on it turns a muddy yellowish-white,
-because the clay below darkens as it absorbs the moisture. Within two or
-three minutes the under clay dries, and the surface becomes dead white.
-Five or six coats are applied, the vessel being allowed to become
-completely dry after each one. One potter rubbed the surface vigorously
-with a dry cloth after each application and before the slip had
-thoroughly dried. Another rubbed the vessel with a cloth only after all
-the coats had been put on, but before the last had dried. Usually the
-work is done in the sun, at the place where the pieces have been drying,
-but occasionally it is carried on in the house, and between coatings the
-vessels are placed in an oven heated by a slow fire. The length of time,
-five or more minutes, during which the vessel remains in the oven is
-determined by testing the warmth of its surface. When the work has been
-completed, the very faint marks of the mop are visible.
-
-Pieces of pottery of various shapes are slipped on different surfaces.
-Small ollas and constricted-mouthed bowls are coated with white only on
-the upper two-thirds or three-quarters of the exterior. No particular
-care is taken to keep the lower edge of the slip regular. Of smaller
-vessels the entire exterior, including the base, is usually covered.
-Open-mouthed bowls are coated with white both in the interior and the
-upper part of the exterior. Shallow open-mouthed bowls may be coated
-only on the interior. The exterior surfaces not treated with white slip
-are later coated with orange-red slip (see below).
-
-The actual length of time that each vessel is in the hands of the potter
-while it is being slipped is very short. It requires one-quarter to
-one-half a minute to apply a coat of slip to a constricted-mouthed bowl
-six to eight inches in diameter. The six coats could be applied in less
-than three minutes. Another half minute is needed for the rubbing with
-the cloth at the end. Four minutes in all is a generous estimate. A coat
-of slip is applied to the entire group of vessels at one time (pl. 20,
-b). Less than fifteen minutes are required to give a single coat of slip
-to a group of from twenty to thirty pieces. After this step has been
-completed, the vessels are placed in the sun for an hour or more before
-the painting of the design is begun, the length of time depending upon
-attendant circumstances.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 20
-
-a
-
-Cutting the top from an olla which had cracked slightly at the rim
-during the final sun-drying. The raw edge was afterwards worked down to
-form a new rim, and the vessel was successfully fired.
-
-b
-
-Applying white slip with a cloth mop. The enamelled pan containing the
-prepared slip is on the bench at the potter’s side. A number of vessels
-are slipped at one time.]
-
-
-ORANGE-RED SLIP
-
-This slip is applied only to the bases of vessels (ollas and certain
-bowls) and to the interior of the lips of ollas. Before burning it is
-mustard-yellow in color, but after firing it becomes orange-red. A cloth
-mop is used for application in the same manner as with the white slip;
-one coat only is applied to each surface.
-
-As a rule the vessel being slipped is held in the lap, the mouth
-vertical and turned to the left (pl. 21, a). The left hand is placed in
-the interior to support it and keep it turning counterclockwise, that
-is, the upper part is turned away from the body, as the strokes are
-taken towards the body. The formation of the junction-line between this
-base-slip and the body-slip is very carefully handled. No attention is
-paid to the lower edge of the body-slip, except to notice its general
-location, for the base-slip covers it and itself produces the edge. This
-upper line, made by long, careful, slow, trailing strokes of the mop, is
-drawn entirely free-hand, yet the potters succeed surprisingly well in
-keeping it always the same distance from the centre of the base. Three
-or four strokes are more than sufficient to encircle the vessel (pl. 21,
-a). It is often possible in the finished piece to trace the lower edge
-of the body-slip, under the orange-red coating. After the junction line
-has been drawn, the rest of the base is covered with shorter
-forward-backward strokes. The application of the orange-red slip to the
-interior of the lips of ollas is done with the same careful, slow
-technique used in forming the junction-line near the base of the body;
-during the process the vessel is held on the palm of the hand right-side
-up. The exterior of shallow bowls which receive no white slip is
-completely coated with the orange-red, the bowl being inverted over the
-left hand during the application.
-
-The orange-red slip may be put on either before or after the painting of
-the design; if before, the painting may be begun at once; if after, the
-application may be delayed until within an hour or two of burning. If
-the vessels are set aside for a while at this stage, they are covered
-with a cloth to keep the dust and flies away. The time element is
-practically the same as in the case of the white slip.
-
-
-RED SLIP
-
-The red slip, as was said above, serves to cover the surfaces of
-undecorated red-ware. It is always polished with the rubbing-stone after
-application. When given a certain special firing (see p. 74) it turns a
-lustrous black and so produces polished black ware (pl. 8, b). This slip
-is a saturated solution in water of the red clay just as it was obtained
-from the claypits (see p. 24). Although undissolved lumps remain at the
-bottom of the solution, the latter is no thicker than water. The
-containers are either open-mouthed pottery bowls or china dishes. The
-slip is applied as usual with a small folded rag. While it is being put
-on, the vessel may be hung from the fingers of the left hand with the
-mouth vertical, or held in the usual way upon the palm of the left hand,
-its position depending upon whether or not the base is to be slipped.
-The surface is covered two or three times with the cloth mop, in a
-rather haphazard manner, so that certain portions where the strokes
-overlap receive as many as four coats. The potter herself is uncertain
-regarding the number of coats the surface has received, as they are
-applied one immediately after the other, with no wait between. The
-mopping is stopped when the surface seems uniformly covered with just
-the right shade--a rather bright red. San Ildefonso potters usually
-cover with this slip the entire exterior of small ollas and bowls,
-including the base.[41] In some cases shallow open-mouthed bowls are
-slipped only on the interior.
-
-Before the slip dries, the rubbing with the polishing-stone is begun.
-The stone is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the right
-hand. The entire surface is gone over several times with a
-backward-forward motion in strokes about three or four inches long.[42]
-Each stroke is made with the entire forearm, there being no noticeable
-play in either the wrist or the fingers. This is a rather fatiguing and
-exacting process, for to obtain the best results all parts of the
-surface must receive equal attention: a definite system, however, has
-been developed by means of which the entire surface is gone over.
-
-In polishing the exterior of a small olla or of a bowl, the vessel is
-first placed upon the lap in an inverted position, tilted slightly to
-the right. It is held at the rim by the left hand, which rests upon the
-left thigh. The polishing is begun on the right-hand side of the base
-near the body, and proceeds diagonally across the base to the far
-left-hand side. The vessel is then tipped up with the mouth to the left
-and the rim nearly vertical. The polishing is begun at the shoulder and
-continued down to within a very short distance of the centre of the base
-(pl. 21, b). At this stage some potters polish from the base to the
-shoulder. As the work continues, the upper part of the bowl is turned
-counterclockwise away from the body. Usually the stroke is parallel to
-the rim, but occasionally a diagonal motion develops. The strokes across
-the bottom are then made at right angles to the previous series. A
-constricted-mouthed bowl is then turned so that the mouth, still
-vertical, is to the right, and the section from the lip to the shoulder
-is polished; the bowl is now turned clockwise, that is, the top still
-turns away from the body. Small ollas may be held either in this
-position or with the mouth tilted at an angle of about forty-five
-degrees to the left and away from the body, in which case the polishing
-is done from the shoulder to the lip (see pl. 30, b, which shows a Zuñi
-potter using the polishing stone).
-
-After the surface has been completely covered in this manner once, and
-none too carefully, the rim is coated with the slip, applied by the
-forefinger of the right hand, and gone over with the stone. The vessel
-is then wiped with a cloth upon
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 21
-
-a. Applying orange-red slip with a cloth mop; the beginning of the
-stroke may be seen just above the lap of the potter. b. Polishing a bowl
-with a small stone after red slip has been applied. The marks of the
-stone are visible at first, but quickly disappear as the slip dries. c.
-Women working with the polishing stone. Note the light line about the
-shoulder of the large olla, where a space is always temporarily left
-unpolished.]
-
-which a little lard has been rubbed. The lard may be kept near the
-potter in any convenient receptacle, like a sauce-dish or the bowl of a
-spoon. A clean cloth is then immediately used to distribute the lard
-evenly upon the surface, and to remove any surplus. Some potters do not
-use this second cloth at all; others apply the lard to the vessels with
-their fingers, wiping it immediately afterwards with a cloth. In some
-cases, the application of the lard is withheld until the polishing is
-entirely completed.
-
-The polishing is then continued in exactly the manner just described.
-The surface is covered more carefully and more slowly, the areas worked
-upon often overlapping considerably. A cloth, sometimes a part of the
-potter’s apron, is now between the left hand and the vessel in order to
-protect the smooth surface. A considerable pressure is exerted. Some
-women use a short, very quick stroke; others a somewhat longer, slower
-stroke, hence taking more time for the work. In this way the surface is
-covered several times. Finally the routine treatment is dropped, and
-finishing touches are given by polishing small areas here and there
-which do not show the required amount of lustre. The strokes used at the
-end are usually slightly longer than the previous ones. Finally, after
-the stone has been laid aside, the surface is wiped once with a clean
-cloth before the vessel is set aside; it is usually placed upon a mat or
-cloth in order that the base may not be scratched by contact with the
-earthen floor. When the polishing of several vessels has been completed,
-they are gathered in a corner of a room on a mat or rug, and covered
-with a cloth to keep the flies and dust away, for it is said that
-fly-specks leave a black mark upon the burned vessel.
-
-In the case of large ollas one half of the vessel is doubtless coated
-with slip and polished before the other half is slipped. This is the
-process employed in polishing large ollas slipped with dark-red (see p.
-63). No opportunity presented itself to see a large polished olla being
-made.
-
-In polishing the interior of a shallow bowl, the vessel is held in its
-normal position, tilted slightly to the right, and resting upon the
-right knee and the palm of the left hand, which in turn, rests upon the
-left knee. The polishing is done from the lip to the centre of the
-vessel. As the work advances, the bowl is turned counterclockwise.
-
-The degree of polish obtained by different potters varies considerably,
-and yet in even the very finest examples of polishing the marks left by
-the stone may be faintly seen in certain lights in the form of
-exceedingly low ridges, generally running roughly parallel to the rim
-and too low to be felt with the fingers. The surface has a lustre almost
-equal to that of burnished metal. In pieces which are not as well
-polished, the ridges are higher and may be felt with the fingers; indeed
-they are often prominent enough to make the lustre uneven. Maria
-Martinez, who does the best polishing, is also the swiftest worker in
-the village. From the moment the vessel is picked up to apply the slip
-until the completion of the polishing, it is not laid down for an
-instant. Her strokes are quicker than those of the other potters; she
-covers the surface in much less time and therefore polishes a given area
-more often before the slip dries. Continued polishing tires the wrist
-and hand very quickly and is apt to produce cramps. Other potters are
-inclined to rest for a few minutes from time to time, especially after
-the application of the slip and again after the lard has been put on.
-One woman complained of the humid weather, because it did not allow the
-slip to dry quickly enough. The potters themselves say that streaky
-polish is due to lack of persistence on the part of the polisher. Maria
-attributes her success to the fact that she uses a faster stroke and
-puts on a little more lard than the others. Large vessels usually have a
-poorer polish than small ones. The secret of good polishing seems to lie
-in the ability of the potter to go over her work as many times as
-possible after the slip has been applied and before it becomes too dry.
-
-The time during which the vessel being polished is actually in the hands
-of the potter is given in Table VII. The first column (A) represents a
-constricted-mouthed bowl, about eight inches in diameter at the shoulder
-and four inches high, which was polished by Maria. In one hour and
-fifteen minutes elapsed time three such bowls were done, an average of
-twenty-five minutes for each. The second column (B) represents the
-polishing by another potter of the interior of a shallow wide-mouthed
-bowl. The actual time from the moment the bowl was picked up for the
-application of the slip until the polishing was done was forty-one
-minutes. A rest of one minute was taken after the slip had been applied,
-another of thirteen minutes after the application of the lard, in order
-to let the bowl “dry”, and a third of one minute when the final
-polishing was about half done. The interior of this bowl was a very fine
-example of polishing.
-
-
-TABLE VII
-
-                                   _Min._  _Sec._     _Min._  _Sec._
-First application of the slip         00.00         00.00
-First polishing begun                 02.50         03.00
-Slipping of rim begun                 04.45
-Polishing of rim begun                05.30
-Application of lard begun             06.05         10.00
-Wiping with dry cloth begun           06.40
-Final polishing begun                 07.05         11.00
-Polishing finished                    24.05         26.00
-
-
-DARK-RED SLIP
-
-The dark-red slip is a mixture of red slip, native white slip, and
-tempering material. It is applied to vessels which are later to receive
-a black design (see pl. 7, a, b). It is mopped on with a cloth in
-exactly the same manner as the red, and is also polished with a stone
-but never acquires as high a lustre as does the red. There seems to be a
-tendency for the first coat of this slip to dry more readily than the
-first coat of the red slip.
-
-While applying the slip to small ollas about six inches in diameter, the
-vessel is held by the rim with the left hand. Either the entire exterior
-may be slipped, or the base may remain uncoated, to be covered later
-with the orange-red slip. The slip is first applied to the rim, the
-forefinger being used instead of a mop. During this process the vessel
-is right-side up either in the lap or on the floor. The body is then
-slipped with the cloth mop, and the polishing done in two parts, with
-the shoulder as the dividing line. In polishing the lower part the
-strokes begin at the base, or at the lower edge of the slip in case the
-base has not been coated, and proceed upward to the shoulder. The
-direction of the strokes is practically parallel to the rim. The upper
-part is polished from the shoulder to the lip. On the base, if it has
-been slipped, the strokes are first made in one direction, then at right
-angles to that direction. From time to time, as the polishing proceeds,
-the vessels are set aside in order to allow the slip to dry somewhat.
-They may even be placed in the sun or near a fire on the hearth. The
-potters explain that if the work is completed while the slipped surface
-is very damp, the resulting polish will not be as high as when the slip
-is just drying. Apparently, the work done just before the surface
-becomes dry plays an important part in securing a high lustre. One of
-the potters working on this ware applied a little lard to the surface
-after the polishing had been completed. Another potter used no lard
-whatever for this class of ware.[43] When the polishing has been
-completed the vessel is placed in the sun or near a fire to dry
-thoroughly before it is put away to await decoration. While the olla is
-drying it is covered with a cloth to protect it from flies.
-
-In polishing larger ollas one half of the vessel is coated with the
-dark-red slip and polished before the other half is slipped. Either the
-half above the shoulder or the half below the shoulder may be polished
-first. Rather quick strokes, three or four inches long, are made with
-the stone. Sufficient pressure is exerted to cause motion in the entire
-body of the worker. The strokes, as before, are usually parallel to the
-rim. Because of the larger surface to be covered in these vessels, the
-position of the olla on the lap of the potter is changed frequently. It
-is supported with the left hand, which is placed palm down upon the
-exterior surface. While the lip is being polished, the mouth is turned
-toward the body and to the right, making an angle of about sixty degrees
-from the horizontal. In polishing the upper part of the shoulder the
-potter turns the mouth to the left and away from the body (pl. 21, c).
-Usually the mouth is more nearly horizontal in this position than in the
-former.
-
-Before applying the slip to the lower half of the olla, a faint line is
-drawn with the polishing-stone around the lower part of the body to
-define the lower edge of the body-slip. During the slipping and
-polishing of this portion of the surface, the olla is held with the
-mouth nearly vertical and to the left, directed away from the body. When
-the polishing proper is completed, the finishing touches are given to
-the entire exterior by rubbing small areas here and there which do not
-entirely satisfy the potter.
-
-As in the case of the red slip, the polishing must be completed before
-the slip becomes too dry. When there is a large surface to be polished,
-as in the case of these ollas, it is of course necessary that the work
-upon any given section of the surface be completed as quickly as
-possible. Therefore when two potters are working together, the swifter
-of the two does the polishing on the larger vessel, regardless of which
-of the two applies the slip. After the polishing proper has been
-completed, the olla may be turned over to the slower worker for the
-finishing touches. This necessity for speed in polishing is probably the
-reason for slipping only a part of the surface at one time.
-
-Now and then, as the polishing proceeds, the potter changes stones. An
-important factor in this change is the desire to rest the fingers
-through the slight alteration in grip afforded by the different shapes
-of the stones. Occasionally the change is due to a wish to obtain a
-stone with just the proper shaped surface for the section of the olla
-being worked upon. There is also a tendency to use a larger, rougher
-stone at the beginning of the work, for which is substituted later for
-the final finish a smaller, finer-grained, and therefore smoother,
-stone.
-
-Because of the practice of slipping and polishing only half the surface
-at a time, there develops around the shoulder a narrow line of dried
-slip, which is naturally lighter in color than the worked areas. (This
-line may be seen encircling the olla in pl. 21, c). After the polishing
-of the upper and lower areas has been completed, the potter’s attention
-turns to this line, and since dry slip cannot be polished, the rubbing
-stone is either wet with the tongue or dipped into the liquid in the
-slip-container before being used on the line. The latter method appears
-to give the best results, but in either case, the moistening of the
-stone is done very frequently, and the process of eliminating the
-lighter line is a painfully slow one. Even when the best results have
-been obtained, the line is not entirely obliterated. Occasionally the
-stone is moistened with the tongue while giving final touches to other
-parts of the surface.
-
-When the polishing with the stone has been entirely completed, a little
-lard is rubbed on the surface either with the forefinger or with a
-greasy cloth; the surface is then vigorously rubbed with a chamois.[44]
-This distributes the lard evenly and very noticeably improves the
-lustre. Then the vessel, after being covered with a cloth, is put in the
-sun to dry thoroughly.
-
-The great difference in the time required for polishing large and small
-ollas requires two tables to present the details. Table VIII gives the
-time during which a large olla, about fourteen inches in diameter at the
-shoulder, was under the hands of the potters. The time devoted to
-obliterating the light junction-line, about fifteen to twenty minutes,
-was considerably longer than usual. Table IX gives the time required for
-three small globular ollas, about six inches in diameter at the
-shoulder. The surface of each of these was approximately the same as
-that of the polished black constricted-mouthed bowl recorded in Table
-VII.
-
-
-TABLE VIII
-
-_Hrs._ _Min._ _Sec._
-  00.00 -- Drawing of line about lower part of body begun
-  01.00 -- Slipping of lower half of olla begun
-  08.30 -- Slipping finished, polishing begun
-  23.30 -- Vessel transferred to a slower worker
-  40.00 -- Set aside
-  04.45 -- _Time out_
-  40.00 -- Polishing by slower worker continued
-  47.45 -- First application of lard begun
-  48.45 -- Polishing with chamois begun
-  50.45 -- Lower part finished
-    ?   -- _Time out_
-  50.45 -- Slipping of upper half begun
-  55.15 -- Slipping of body done, slipping of rim begun
-  56.45 -- Polishing begun
-1.00.45 -- Vessel transferred to the swifter worker
-1.20.45 -- Vessel transferred to the slower worker,
-           obliteration of junction-line
-1.53.45 -- First application of lard begun
-1.55.45 -- Polishing with chamois begun
-1.59.45 -- Polishing of vessel completed
-
-
-TABLE IX
-
-                                                _Min._ _Sec._
-Slipping begun                            00.00       00.00       00.00
-Slipping completed                        03.00
-_Time out_                                01.00            omitted
-Polishing begun                           03.00       04.00       04.00
-Set aside (second one beside fire)        27.30       31.30
-_Time out_                                03.00       34.30      omitted
-Polishing continued                       27.30      omitted
-Lard first applied, chamois used later    30.30       31.30       32.00
-Work on vessel completed                  31.45       33.00       36.00
-
-
-
-
-PAINTING
-
-
-Three varieties of paint are employed in making the designs--the black,
-or guaco, which is used on red and polychrome wares, the orange-red
-(also used as a slip), which serves as a paint in filling certain spaces
-in the designs upon polychrome ware, and the black ware paint which
-produces the designs upon polished black ware.[45]
-
-The consistency of the guaco, when dissolved in water and ready for use,
-varies from that of water to that of thick cream. The solution is sticky
-and has a characteristic odor. A thin solution when applied to the
-surface of a vessel is yellowish-green, and has much the same appearance
-as a fresh coat of the orange-red paint. After drying the two are easily
-distinguishable. A thick solution of guaco is dark brownish-green when
-applied to the vessel, and on drying has a noticeable “body”, so that
-the lines appear slightly raised and glossy. It is not possible to draw
-as fine a line with the thick solution as with the thin one.
-
-The orange-red is never used in painting lines, but only for filling
-areas, and is therefore always applied with a medium or heavy brush.
-
-In preparing the black ware paint, a slight amount of guaco is added as
-an adhesive, and the solution is often stirred with the fingers in order
-to insure complete dissolving of the coloring matter. When first applied
-to the vessel, this paint is almost transparent; as it dries it becomes
-yellowish.
-
-The principal precaution taken when painting is begun is to guard
-against flies. They eat the moist guaco, causing blank spaces in the
-lines, and also make fly-specks on the slip which turn black in the
-firing. The room is therefore cleared of flies as far as possible, and
-great care then exercised to keep the door shut. The painter watches the
-pot constantly, and often interrupts her work in order to brush a fly
-from the design. If it is necessary to do the painting out of doors, the
-services of an assistant are required to wave a cloth back and forth
-across the top of the vessel to keep the flies away.[46] When the work
-has been completed the vessels are immediately covered with a cloth.
-
-The receptacle for paint may be either a small open-mouthed pottery bowl
-or a china sauce-dish. During the painting it is on the right side of
-the potter within easy reach, either on the floor or on a low stool. In
-it is always a stirring-stick.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 22
-
-Painting designs on small vessels. The decorator’s right hand does not
-come in contact with the pot, and the tip of the brush is trailed rather
-than stroked across the surface. a. Maria Martinez. b. Maximiliana
-Martinez.]
-
-The brushes are usually kept in the paint, or occasionally beside it,
-and sometimes a pencil is also near at hand (pl. 23, a).
-
-In decorating the exterior of a constricted-mouthed bowl, the vessel is
-held upright and inclined very slightly towards the body; it rests on
-the left knee and is steadied by the pressure of the left hand against
-the interior of the rim (pl. 22, a). The potter sits in a position which
-allows the light to come over her right shoulder directly upon the
-section of the bowl being painted. As the work proceeds the vessel is
-turned counterclockwise. When the design extends slightly below the
-shoulder, the bowl is inclined to the left and away from the body. If a
-considerable portion of the design is below the shoulder, the vessel is
-inverted and is supported by the fingers of the left hand against the
-interior base of the bowl.
-
-If the interior of an open-mouthed bowl is being painted, the enclosing
-lines near the rim are made first. During this process the bowl is held
-with the mouth vertical and to the right, while the lines are drawn on
-the lower part of the interior rim. The vessel moves counterclockwise.
-The bottom of the interior is painted with the bowl standing in its
-normal position on the left knee, the mouth inclined to the right and
-toward the body.
-
-When a large vessel, such as an olla, is to be painted, it is placed
-upon a box or table of the proper height, which has previously been
-covered with a rug or mat to protect the base (pl. 23). The painter
-chooses her position so that the light will fall over her shoulder upon
-the vessel. During the painting of the upper part of the vessel it is
-touched with the left hand only when it needs to be turned. In working
-below the shoulder the vessel is tilted slightly to the left, and away
-from the painter.
-
-The paint-brushes are made of slivers of yucca (fig. 5). They may be
-roughly grouped into three weights--fine, medium, and heavy.[47] The
-fine ones are used in making outlines on the smaller vessels; the medium
-ones either for line work or for the filling of small areas; and the
-heavy ones for filling only. During the painting there are from three to
-six brushes in the paint vessel. These brushes are of such durability
-that the potters have no definite idea of the length of their
-usefulness. Since the fibres are brittle when dry, brushes are
-occasionally broken by accident; to prevent such breakage they are
-soaked in water for a few minutes to soften them before they are used.
-
-The brush is held in the right hand, with the fingers in the position
-used in holding a pencil or pen. The ends of the fingers are two or
-three inches from the tip of the brush (pl. 22, a, b.; pl. 23, a). The
-fingers of the right hand do not rest upon the surface of the vessel and
-the entire right arm is unsupported (pl. 23), although at times the
-elbow may be unconsciously steadied against the body. The straightness
-and evenness of the lines drawn under these conditions are remarkable.
-
-There is a slight personal variation in the method of contact of the
-brush with the vessel. One potter uses only the tip of the brush;
-another first places the tip upon the surface, and then makes the line
-with the body of the brush; a third places the body of the brush upon
-the vessel at the first contact. In making a line a trailing stroke is
-invariably used; its direction is usually toward the body, but
-occasionally away from it. The brush is always moved slowly, and the
-angle at which it is held varies according to the part of the surface
-over which the line is being drawn, and upon the part of the stroke
-which is being made. At the beginning of a stroke the angle is an acute
-one, varying from forty-five to seventy degrees (fig. 8, a); about the
-middle it approximates ninety degrees (fig. 8, b); while at the end it
-is often an obtuse angle of as much as one hundred and twenty degrees
-(fig. 8, c). On small vessels the strokes seldom exceed four inches in
-length; on larger pots they are sometimes as much as six inches long.
-After each stroke the brush is dipped into the paint vessel; it is then
-always drawn across the stirring stick, which is kept
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8. Angles at which paint-brush is held during a long
-stroke; a. Beginning. b. Middle of stroke. c. End.]
-
-there, in order to remove excess paint before being applied again to the
-surface. Even after this precaution more paint occasionally remains on
-the brush than is needed; in such a case the excess is removed by
-touching with the tip of the brush various larger areas which will later
-be covered with paint.
-
-The width of the lines drawn is largely dependent upon personal
-variation, although the type of design also governs their width to some
-extent. Exceedingly fine lines, for example, would obviously look out of
-proportion in a bold design upon a large olla. The lines vary in width
-from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch; the great majority are
-between one-fifteenth and one-twentieth. Lines one-eighth or one-quarter
-of an inch wide are in reality double, that is, they actually consist of
-two lines painted so close together that they touch along their entire
-length. Still wider lines are made by two parallel lines, with the space
-between filled up. Some potters simply make the line once, retouching it
-only in small sections which most plainly require such treatment. Others
-go over each line at least twice in order to insure a constant width.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 23
-
-Decorating large ollas. Note the unsupported arm of the painter and the
-length of the brush. On the bench in front is the paint-cup with
-stirring-stick and extra brushes (Antonita Roybal).]
-
-From the point of view of technique, the lines upon the exteriors of
-small vessels, such as constricted-mouthed bowls, may be divided into
-two groups--the long enclosing lines and those within panels. In forming
-the enclosing lines, especially the long horizontal ones, the vessel is
-turned while the brush remains almost stationary. There are two methods
-of forming such long horizontal lines, which of necessity are made of a
-series of relatively short strokes. In one case the growth of the line
-is in the same direction as the strokes, that is, each stroke begins at
-the point at which the previous stroke ended. In this method the vessel
-is turned counterclockwise. In the other case the growth of the line is
-opposite to the direction of the stroke, that is, each stroke is begun a
-short distance beyond the end of the line and is drawn to meet the
-beginning of the previous stroke, the vessel being turned clockwise. In
-either case the fingers of the left hand, which hold the pot by the
-interior of the lip, are spread far apart in order to insure the
-constant and regular motion of the vessel. When the lines within a panel
-are being drawn, the procedure is just the reverse. The bowl remains
-stationary while the brush is drawn across it. Occasionally lines which
-are nearly horizontal are drawn first in one direction, then in the
-other. In some cases, when long diagonal or curved lines are being made,
-the vessel is turned very slightly counterclockwise.
-
-Large vessels, such as ollas, remain stationary while the brush is being
-drawn across the surface, and are turned only when a new area is to be
-worked upon. Lines within panels are usually made with a single stroke
-of the brush, for it is seldom that a diagonal or curved line within a
-panel is more than four or five inches long. In large open designs the
-long lines, both straight and curved, are often drawn in two parts.
-Crosshatching is made by two sets of parallel lines crossing each other.
-Dotting is done with the tip of the brush touched lightly to the
-surface. Spaces are filled with a heavier brush by means of many short
-strokes. As a rule the strokes begin at the upper right hand corner of
-the area and proceed downward. In filling spaces, as in drawing lines,
-some women go over their work only once, others apply two or three coats
-in order to insure even distribution of the paint.
-
-Some potters exhibit much sureness of touch and confidence in their own
-ability; their designs are executed without hesitation, but at the same
-time slowly. Others make hard work of the painting, seem uncertain, and
-occasionally stop to rest and inspect the symmetry of the pattern.
-
-There are two general points in the painting of vessels which should be
-emphasized. The first is the remarkable steadiness of the painter’s
-hand. It seems almost incredible that such straight, unwaving, even
-lines can be drawn by a hand which is supported only by a completely
-free arm, and guided merely by the end of the brush. The second is the
-fact that the men often assist in the painting of designs. They may
-either execute a complete design upon a vessel, or relieve the painter
-from time to time during the construction of large patterns. This is the
-only phase of the actual manufacture of pottery in which the men of the
-village take part.[48]
-
-
-
-
-FIRING
-
-
-The firing of the vessels is not only the last major step in the making
-of pottery, but it is also the most critical one. The supreme test of
-the potter’s work is to subject it to the fire, for many forms of
-accident occur during the process, some of them due to careless handling
-of the vessels or of the firing materials, others to defective
-workmanship or to hidden flaws in the paste. It is only natural that the
-potters should exhibit considerable excitement and nervousness during
-the firing. Some women proceed calmly and methodically, and take
-occasional accidents as part of the day’s work; others are exceedingly
-nervous, and show exasperation when things go wrong. The latter, as a
-rule, have more accidents than the former. One potter, in six burnings,
-lost two large ollas through breakage, and had innumerable smoke-clouds,
-several of them rather severe ones.
-
-The firing falls naturally into four distinct phases: the preparation,
-the building of the oven, the burning, and the treatment after burning.
-Each of these phases will be considered separately.
-
-
-PREPARATION
-
-The oven is usually situated behind the potter’s house. All that is
-required is a level space free from vegetation; no attention is paid, as
-a rule, to the position of the sun or to the direction of the prevailing
-wind, and the same spot is used time after time. If on the evening
-before the firing there are any signs of rain, or if a heavy dew is
-expected, the area on which the oven is to be built in the morning is
-covered with a thick layer of dead ashes to protect it from moisture. It
-would be a fatal mistake to make the oven on ground which would give off
-steam during the burning.
-
-About six o’clock the next morning a fire is started on the area over
-which the oven is to be built. While this preliminary fire is thoroughly
-drying the ground, the accessories are collected (pl. 24, a). Slabs of
-dung are brought out from the storage places; some of them are placed
-against the house wall to dry in the sun, others remain in the washtubs
-in which they have been carried. The material for the grate, and other
-iron bars, are placed nearby. Pokers of wood and iron, shovels, and
-sometimes pitchforks, which are to be used later in handling the burning
-fuel and hot vessels, are placed within reach. When a collection of
-small tin cans, pail-tops, and small stones saved for this purpose has
-been added, the workers are ready to begin the burning. Usually a supply
-of cedar kindling has been split, but sometimes this is done as the wood
-is needed.
-
-
-BUILDING THE OVEN
-
-When the preliminary fire has died down to a mass of coals, these are
-levelled to form an area of hot ashes about three feet in diameter. On
-this the oven is built. The surface upon which the vessels are placed
-must be raised a few inches
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 24
-
-a. Drying the oven site with a preliminary fire before burning the
-pottery. At the lower right-hand corner are an old iron grate which will
-later support the vessels, two iron rods to hold up the roof of the
-oven, and a wooden poker. Cakes of dung for the oven walls are drying in
-the sun against the house.
-
-b. The vessels on the grate, and the oven wall of dung cakes begun.
-Small tin cans support the cakes and keep them from touching the
-vessels. The grate rests on stones, and split cedar kindling is placed
-below it on the embers of the preliminary fire.]
-
-above the ground to permit the introduction of fuel below the pottery.
-Such a surface is usually formed of iron rods of one kind or another.
-One potter built up a grate of a varied assortment of iron junk
-supported on tin cans and odd-shaped iron fragments. Another potter used
-a worn-out stove-grate supported on four half-bricks.
-
-The vessels are then placed upon the grate in an inverted position. No
-attempt is made to keep them from touching one another. In fact, they
-are crowded together in order that the greatest possible number may be
-burned at once (pl. 24, b). In firing red ware and polychrome ware only
-one layer of vessels is placed upon the grate. When polished black ware
-is to be burned, two layers may be made. The vessels in the second layer
-are always placed carefully between those of the bottom layer, in order
-that there may be free circulation of air on both the interior and
-exterior of all the vessels (pl. 25, a). As a rule the larger bowls are
-placed in the lower layer.
-
-The number of polychrome vessels burned at one time varies from
-half-a-dozen to twenty, according to the area of the grate and the size
-of the vessels. At one burning there were eleven pieces, eight
-medium-sized and three small; in another there were twenty, eight of
-which were medium-sized, and the other twelve very small. It is possible
-to burn as many as thirty-five polished black bowls at once. Some
-potters burn both polychrome and red pottery in the same oven; others
-insist that this should not be done, because red ware requires far less
-time and heat than does polychrome.
-
-After the pots have been placed on the grate, pieces of split cedar six
-to fifteen inches long are inserted underneath it. Piñon is never used,
-but the potters could not explain this, saying they had never tried it.
-A wall-like ring of dung-cakes, placed on edge but not set as snugly
-together as they might be, is then built around the grate (pl. 25, b).
-Small tin cans, held in place by the weight of the dung, are used to
-prevent the cakes from touching the vessels (pi. 24, b, shows one of
-these cans very clearly). Sometimes small stones and broken bricks are
-used in place of cans. While the ring is being completed more kindling
-may be added. The Zuñi oven differs from that of San Ildefonso in being
-built of smaller pieces of manure which are laid up horizontally instead
-of on edge (see pl. 31, b, c).
-
-The fire may now be lighted before the oven is finished, but sometimes
-the potters wait until the roof is nearly complete. Cedar-bark shreds
-are generally used to start the fire. The lighting is done through the
-spaces between the dung-cakes, usually at more than one place, sometimes
-in as many as five. No attention is paid to the wind in this process. If
-the fire does not start quickly enough, cloths are used to fan the
-flames.
-
-The roof or vault of the oven is then built. Some potters place iron
-bars across the top of the dung-ring, keeping them from touching the
-vessels by inserting tin cans and stones. On these bars flat cakes of
-dung are laid, and the larger holes are covered with smaller pieces of
-dung. Other potters dispense with the bars and rest a large circular
-cake of dung upon cans and stones set in the centre of the pile of
-pottery. The space between this central cake and the top of the
-dung-ring is bridged by other cakes which rest on the dung alone. In
-this manner a low vault of dung-slabs is formed, roughly square in
-shape, two and a half to three feet on a side, and about a foot and a
-half high (pl. 25, c). There are still left numerous spaces, both large
-and small, between the cakes. These are covered with smaller pieces of
-dung, and with old tin tops of lard-pails or discarded tin plates (pl.
-26, a). Even after this, however, there remain enough small spaces to
-allow free circulation of air, and to prevent the smothering and
-consequent smoking of the vessels. Through these smaller spaces the
-flames and pots may be seen. The building of the oven is now complete;
-by this time the fire has usually been started, and the flames are well
-under way.
-
-As a rule more than one burning is undertaken during a morning. The
-building of the oven for the second burning differs slightly in its
-preliminary stages from that described above. After the previous oven
-has been destroyed, the ashes are smoothed out, and the grate set
-straight and carefully dusted so that no ashes remain (pl. 26, b). The
-bowls are than placed on it as before. Partly burned cakes of dung,
-which remain from the first burning, are re-used. If, in placing them on
-the oven, ashes drop on the vessels, care is taken to blow them off.
-
-Some potters stand the vessels which are to be burned on the warm cakes
-of dung for a few minutes before placing them on the grate (pl. 26, b),
-a process which is supposed to heat them slightly and thus prevent
-breakage during firing. Other potters would not think of doing this, for
-vessels treated in this manner always have discolored bases, where the
-warm dung has touched them.
-
-Ollas twelve to fourteen inches in diameter are burned in pairs, with a
-few smaller pieces beside them. The oven is built in the same manner as
-before. Very large ollas are usually fired one at a time; the oven,
-except for its greater size, is said to be of the usual type.
-
-
-BURNING
-
-As was said above, the firing of the pottery is done in the morning. The
-Indians say that they wish to get it over with “before the sun grows
-hot”. Their own personal comfort probably plays a more important part in
-this than does the effect of the sun upon the pottery. As a rule the
-firing is withheld until a sufficient number of finished vessels have
-accumulated to permit three or four burnings in one morning. The entire
-forenoon is spent at this work, and sometimes it drags over until early
-afternoon. The actual burning of the vessels occupies a period of about
-half-an-hour for each oven; it is said that the length of time has not
-been appreciably shortened in the past forty or fifty years. The black
-ware is always saved for the last oven, since the process employed
-completely precludes the possibility of rebuilding the oven at once.
-
-At the beginning of the burning white smoke is apt to be given off, but
-too much smoke is regarded as a bad sign, since it signifies that the
-dung cakes are not sufficiently dried. After fifteen minutes or so, that
-is when the process is about half finished, the amount of smoke has
-greatly diminished (pl. 26, a). About this time more kindling is added
-through openings made by temporarily removing a piece of tin, and new
-cakes of dung are added where necessary, usually on the top of the oven.
-
-The Indians say that they judge of the condition of the pottery in the
-oven by its color; the paste and slip must be of just the proper shade
-before the vessels are
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 25
-
-The building of an oven. a. A double layer of bowls is on the grate; the
-woman is placing a can between a dung-slab and a bowl. b. The wall of
-dung-cakes completed. c. The oven finished, but the chinks not yet
-filled.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 26
-
-a. The oven fired. The chinks between the dung-slabs have been partly
-closed by smaller pieces of dung. b. A firing completed and a grate
-prepared for a second firing. Two vessels to be burned are warming on
-hot dung-slabs; the pots that have just been taken from the fire are
-cooling in the shadow of the house.]
-
-thoroughly burned; if they are too dark the burning must continue.[49]
-Some potters seem to pay little or no attention to the color of the
-vessels in the oven.
-
-When the potter considers that the burning has been completed, the cakes
-of dung on the top of the oven are lifted off with a pair of pokers, and
-those in the ring around the grate are tipped outward. Thus the vessels
-on the grate are exposed, and their removal is begun at once. Some are
-tipped on shovels or hay forks; pokers are inserted under and into
-others. They are then deposited upon tins which have been placed on the
-ground within six or eight feet of the oven, and are left there from ten
-to twenty minutes to cool. The women often complain about the heat from
-the oven during the removal of the vessels. As soon as the grate has
-been cleared, preparations are begun for the next burning (pl. 26, b).
-
-In one instance a potter decided that a certain vessel which had been
-removed from the grate was not sufficiently burned. Another fire was
-already in progress, but when the third was built the vessel was
-replaced on the grate and burned again. When it came out, however, one
-side was badly overfired.
-
-The time occupied by various burnings is given in the following table.
-The first four columns represent burnings by Maria Martinez; the last
-three by Antonita Roybal. The seventh column records the oven in which
-the partly fired piece was reburned, and in which a cooking vessel was
-also placed.
-
-
-TABLE X
-
-                                            (1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6)  (7)
-                                                        _Minutes_
-Preparation and building of oven begun       00   00   00   00   00   00   00
-Fire started                                 25   15   06   12   15   15   09
-More kindling and dung added                 45   25   25        57
-Oven broken up                               52   37   36   41   72   40   27
-Last bowl removed from grate                 58   41   42   47   77   45   30
-
-The time required for burning the different wares varies only slightly.
-Some potters say that red ware takes less fuel, less heat, and less time
-than polychrome ware; others place both wares in the same oven. The
-difference in the time required for these two wares is probably no
-greater than the chance variations in the length of burning as given in
-Table X. Cooking vessels need to be fired only from one-half to
-two-thirds as long as the two wares just mentioned (cf. Table X, column
-7). The polished black ware will be considered later.
-
-The changes in color before and after firing, and when hot and cool, are
-very noticeable in some pigments and slips. The orange-red paint is
-yellow before firing, firing turns it orange-red, almost the color of
-burnt sienna; cooling produces no noticeable change in this shade.
-Burning has only a fugitive effect on the red and dark-red slips. While
-still hot, upon removal from the oven, these are both a dark chocolate
-shade. As the vessels cool the different reds gradually reappear, until
-when cold they are the same color as before firing. In some cases, these
-pigments seem to be just a shade darker after firing than before. The
-two kinds of white slip are a dead white when applied; after firing they
-take on a slight pinkish-brown tinge, more cream than white. Cooling
-produces no further change.
-
-The most interesting change caused by firing is in the black vegetable
-pigment (guaco). It has already been pointed out (p. 66), that when this
-paint is laid on thickly, the line made is a little raised and glossy,
-like a glaze. This “body” to the paint is probably formed by vegetable
-matter in suspension in the solution. When the vessels with such
-decorations are removed from the oven after burning, these lines are
-seen to be white or grey. The material which formed the body of the
-pigment has been reduced to white ash, which adheres to the surface, but
-can be rubbed off with the finger or a cloth, while the black color
-itself has been burned into the clay. Where a thin layer of the pigment
-was applied, the line, after burning, is light grey, because the black
-under the thin coat of ash shows through. In those vessels on which a
-thick solution of pigment was used, the decorations are dead white, and
-the surface of the ash is often crackled. The thickness of this ash
-seems to have some effect upon the manner in which the black pigment is
-burned into the clay, for in decorations covered with a thick layer of
-ash, the black is of an irregular color with streaks of grey in it. When
-the thin pigment is used, the resulting black on the finished vessel is
-of a uniform shade. The glossiness and raised character of the pigment
-is of course completely destroyed during burning. Guaco lines do not
-change in shade while the vessel is cooling.
-
-The color of the paste is little affected by burning. In both the red
-and the white clays, the change is simply one of tone, that is, the clay
-is lighter after burning than before. The cooking-vessel clay before
-burning is greyish yellow, but after it has been removed from the oven
-it is a rich orange-yellow. These cooking vessels eventually become
-blackened by use over an open fire.
-
-Vessels destined to be polished black ware are treated in quite a
-different manner during the firing stage, for they are to be subjected
-to a smothered fire, which will result in the deposition of carbon, thus
-turning them from red to black. The oven is built in the same way, but
-greater care is taken to fill gaps, so that more of the heat may be
-retained. Enough spaces remain, however, to permit free circulation of
-air. More kindling is used, for a hotter fire is necessary. When the
-fire has reached the stage at which other wares are removed, it is
-smothered with new, pulverized, loose manure. Just before the smothering
-the vessels have the dark chocolate color typical of the red wares while
-hot. The potter always attempts to smother the entire oven at once by
-dumping upon it a whole washtubful of fine loose manure. If there is a
-wind, flames are apt to break out in one or two places. They are,
-however, hurriedly extinguished. When the loose manure is added, the
-arch of the oven is, of course, broken, and both cakes and loose manure
-come in contact with the vessels. For this reason the potter does not
-exercise particular care in building the oven to keep the cakes from
-touching the vessels, as they are to be entirely black in the end and a
-little premature smoking does no harm. After the manure has been added,
-the mound is continually prodded with a poker to redistribute the loose
-manure and make certain that all the pieces are equally covered. An
-extra supply of loose manure is at hand, and this is added in large and
-small quantities from time to time, as occasion demands. Two washtubsful
-are generally used, sometimes three. The mound of manure gives off a
-dense white smoke after the smothering has begun (pl. 27, a). Great care
-is taken to prevent flames from appearing, since these would remove the
-carbon from the vessel.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 27
-
-a. A fire smothered with loose manure to produce polished black ware. b.
-Wiping vessels that have become cool enough to handle. One woman wipes
-off the ashes with a dry rag, then passes them to her companion, who
-goes over them with a slightly greasy cloth.]
-
-Ten or fifteen minutes after the smothering the first piece is dug out
-of the mound with the poker. It is placed a foot or two from the oven
-and hastily wiped with a dry cloth to remove all manure. The surface of
-the vessel is a beautiful shiny black color, which does not change at
-all on cooling. If black ware paint (see p. 24) has been used, it
-changes from the greenish-yellow color that it had before burning to a
-dead matte black which contrasts very effectively with the polished
-surface of the vessel (see pl. 8, a). At first the vessels come from the
-smoking mound slowly, and all holes left in the pile by the removal of
-vessels are carefully filled again, but later they are taken out as
-quickly as possible, and toward the end no attempt is made to keep the
-pieces still in the pile thoroughly covered. If, when a vessel is
-removed, its condition does not quite suit the potter, it is replaced in
-the smoking manure and completely covered.
-
-Certain polished black vessels are further manipulated in such a way as
-to produce an irregular red blotch upon them.[50] Specimens destined to
-receive this red blotch, which is usually placed near the rim, are
-reburied in the hot manure lying round the edge of the pile with that
-portion which is to have the blotch left uncovered. Against this exposed
-portion is placed a smoking fragment of a dung-slab. The action of the
-heat and air results in the removal of the carbon from the surface, so
-that that part of the vessel which is not covered with manure and ashes
-regains its former color, the red of the pigment. Since the pot is
-pushed about a good deal during this process, the line between the red
-and the black surface is not always very definite, which improves the
-appearance. The Indians themselves cannot tell beforehand just what
-shape the blotch is going to take, and must therefore watch the vessel
-continually. Sometimes burning shreds of cedar bark are placed against
-the exposed surface to hasten the process, but actual flames are not
-necessary in order to obtain the desired result. If the red blotch is
-too large, part of it is simply recovered with hot manure-ashes, and a
-few minutes later will again become jet black. So far as looks are
-concerned the success or failure of this red blotch upon black ware
-depends largely upon the artistic sense of the potter making it. In one
-group of thirty-three polished black vessels fired together, sixteen
-were given a red blotch; eight or ten of these were excellent pieces.
-
-The time consumed in burning polished black ware is shown in Table XI.
-It should be noted that before the loose manure was added, the vessels
-were subjected to the fire about the same length of time as those of
-other wares.
-
-
-TABLE XI
-
-                                         _Minutes_
-Preparation and building of oven begun   00     00
-Fire started                             16     18
-More fuel added                          41     39
-Oven smothered with loose manure         46     45
-First bowl removed                       59     59
-Last bowl removed                        74     99
-
-
-ACCIDENTS
-
-The accidents which may occur in firing are of two general
-classes--those which result from faulty treatment during the
-construction of the vessel itself and those which are due to careless
-manipulation in burning. The latter are the more frequent.
-
-A vessel may crack or flake badly in the oven; often the entire base
-breaks off. The fault in this case lies in the original moulding,
-because small stone fragments or air-bubbles were allowed to remain
-embedded in the paste. Since the rate of expansion under heat varies for
-different substances, a great strain develops about such stones or
-air-bubbles during firing, and the natural result is cracking or flaking
-of the clay. In some larger vessels the slip flakes away around the
-shoulder, where the two areas of the surface met when the polishing was
-done (see p. 64). In the potter’s opinion these flakes, which are
-exceedingly small, are probably caused by minute air-bubbles that had
-lodged under the slip while the line about the shoulder was being
-polished. A third type of accident is merely a blemish; it is due to
-flies settling on a vessel before burning; the resulting fly-specks are
-burned into the clay, and the surface of the pot is sprinkled with dots
-quite as black as guaco decorations.
-
-The most common form of blemish caused by careless manipulation during
-firing is the “smoke-cloud” or “fire-cloud”, a circular blackened area,
-the darkest part of which is at the centre. There is no question but
-that this is caused by contact between the vessel and a dung-cake, and
-the result is probably due to moisture in the dung which brings about a
-deposit of carbon on the surface. If, during the burning, a cake of dung
-falls, it will probably come in contact with the surface of some bowl.
-If it is removed at once there is little danger of a smoke-cloud, and
-the potter, when she notices such an accident, immediately tries to
-secure the fallen cake with two pokers. With much skill she carefully
-extricates it from within the oven without disturbing the other cakes
-about the place from which it fell. Fire-clouds may be produced upon the
-bases of vessels by setting them on hot cakes of dung before firing; or
-upon damp, or relatively damp, ground immediately after firing.
-Excessive dampness, such as steam from wet ground under the oven, may in
-addition to discoloration, produce warping of the vessels. Another sort
-of blemish is occasionally caused by rust from a tin can resting upon a
-vessel during firing; such a spot is usually reddish brown in color, and
-covers a very small area.
-
-If light areas appear on polished black ware, it is safe to assume that
-they were brought about by lack of proper ventilation within the oven
-during the preliminary burning, such as would occur if two vessels were
-so close together as to prohibit the free passage of air. If white slip
-is touched just before burning, the oil from the fingers is apt to be
-fired in, thus ruining the uniform appearance of the surface by the
-potter’s indelible fingerprint. To avoid such an accident, polychrome
-vessels are usually handled only by the interior of the rim on the day
-they are burned.
-
-Underfiring and overfiring, with consequent damage to the ware, are
-usually due to gross carelessness on the part of the potter in the
-irregular placing of kindling. The wind also has something to do with
-it. If there is a stiff breeze blowing, the probabilities are that the
-windward surfaces of vessels within the oven will be underfired, while
-those in the lee of the vessels will be overfired.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 28
-
-_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._
-
-ZUÑI. PREPARING CLAY
-
-a. Pulverizing dry ingredients on flat stone slab with a _mano_ or hand
-stone.
-
-b. Wetting, mixing, and kneading clay; water-container in foreground;
-prepared clay in bowl.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 29
-
-_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._
-
-ZUÑI. MOULDING
-
-a. Lower part of vessel completed; potter forming roll of clay with
-which to continue building.
-
-b. Applying roll of clay; left hand guides roll; right hand welds it to
-side of vessel.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 30
-
-_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._
-
-ZUÑI. SURFACING
-
-a. Going over outside of vessel with moulding tool to smooth out
-irregularities.
-
-b. Vessel has been removed from base-mould and covered with white slip
-from bowl in foreground. Potter now polishing slip with rubbing
-stone.]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 31
-
-ZUÑI. PAINTING AND FIRING
-
-a. Applying design with yucca-leaf brush. Black pigment in shallow stone
-mortar, red in small white bowl. b. Building oven of dung cakes--note
-kindling at feet of figure at right. c. Oven domed over and set afire.
-
-(Photographs from American Museum of Natural History).]
-
-In underfired vessels the color of the pigments is not true, being
-usually midway between the unfired color and the fired color; as a rule
-the paste is also dark and friable. Overfiring is more easily detected
-than underfiring. A slight overfiring may be first noticed in the black
-guaco paint, which has a tendency to become bluish and light if burned
-too much. Other bad results follow in quick succession as overfiring is
-increased: at an early stage the white slip becomes smoky; in severe
-overfiring it may turn black, as in a smoke-cloud; the paint of the
-designs is apt to flake off; and finally, in a bad case, the guaco will
-turn nearly white.
-
-
-TREATMENT AFTER BURNING
-
-Polished black vessels, when removed from the fire, are set directly
-upon the ground within a foot or two of the oven. They are at once wiped
-hastily with a dry cloth to prevent any fragments of the new manure from
-sticking to the surface. When the vessels are sufficiently cooled they
-are again wiped with a clean dry cloth and taken into the house for
-storage. Occasionally the first wiping, while the bowl is still hot, is
-omitted.
-
-When pieces of polychrome ware or red ware are removed from the oven
-they are placed on the ground some six or eight feet from the fire,
-resting on tins in order to prevent possible discoloration from contact
-with the damp soil, as well as to prevent dust and dirt from sticking to
-their bases. The vessels are piled on these tins in any manner, often
-three or four on top of one another. When the pottery first comes from
-the fire, it is still much too hot to touch, and radiates heat
-copiously. Ten or fifteen minutes later, when the vessels are cool
-enough to handle, they are removed from the tins and collected at some
-convenient place to await wiping.
-
-First the pieces are gone over with a clean dry cloth to take off the
-guaco ashes and any dust that may remain from the oven (pl. 27, b). Each
-vessel is then wiped with a slightly greasy cloth, which gives a faint
-sheen to the surface and removes the blue tinge which is apt to be found
-in the black guaco-covered areas. Some potters have substituted a
-chamois skin for this second cloth. It took the two women shown in pl.
-27, b, just fifteen minutes to wipe with the two kinds of cloths the
-twenty-two vessels figured. When the wiping is done, the pottery is
-carried to the house and stored in one of the rooms. The pieces are
-placed on the floor, usually with a carpet or rug under them, and
-covered with a sheet to keep off dust and flies.
-
-The time occupied in each of the individual stages of pottery making has
-been considered, but the total time, from the beginning of the moulding
-until the finished vessels are placed in the store room under a sheet,
-is far in excess of the mere sum of the separate hours and minutes used
-in each process. Household duties and other tasks are constantly
-interfering with the work. About nine o’clock on a certain morning one
-potter began moulding the first of a group of perhaps forty pieces. The
-scraping was commenced on the morning of the third day, and the
-polishing on the fourth morning. Nothing was done on the fifth day, but
-early on the sixth the painting began. A fiesta interrupted the work for
-two more days, and the burning was done on the morning of the tenth day,
-although it could have taken place on the seventh. Another potter
-finished burning several large ollas at noon on the ninth day.
-
-
-
-
-PAINTING OF DESIGNS
-
-
-By means of the decorations on the vessels the potter expresses her
-personality. The type of design used by any one potter is very constant,
-and is distinctly individual. It is a comparatively easy matter, by an
-inspection of the design alone, to distinguish the vessels made by one
-potter from those of another.
-
-The designs are planned in several different ways. Maria Martinez sits
-with the bowl in her hands for a few minutes doing nothing; apparently
-she is working out in her mind the combination of elements which she
-will use. Designs so conceived are generally simple. Maximiliana
-Martinez begins painting almost at once. While she is working ideas
-occur to her and are incorporated. Occasionally, after the painting has
-been completed and the vessel set aside, she will pick it up again to
-add some detail. This method of working is apt to cause somewhat
-involved figures. Antonita Roybal, in choosing her designs, refers to
-drawings of her own, or to photographs which have come into her hands,
-of old San Ildefonso vessels. This potter uses a pencil to outline very
-sketchily the design upon the vessel, as an aid in obtaining the proper
-symmetry. The figures obtained in this manner are usually very
-elaborate.[51]
-
-The first lines drawn in a design are almost without exception the
-enclosing lines under the rim. These are followed by the enclosing lines
-near the shoulder (in the case of an olla), or near the bottom of the
-interior (in the case of a bowl). When the design consists of panels,
-the vertical division-lines are then added. If there are to be four
-panels, one division-line is drawn, and then the one on the opposite
-side of the bowl, dividing the surface into halves. Each of these halves
-is then bisected. The next step is to double all the vertical
-division-lines. Occasionally each quadrant is judged by the eye only,
-and the division lines are drawn in sequence about the vessel. When
-there are to be either more or less than four panels, they are outlined
-one after the other. No measuring instrument of any kind is used.
-
-After the skeleton of the design has been completed, the outlines of the
-figure within each panel are drawn. All the lines are first placed in
-one panel, then the second panel is finished, and so on, until all have
-been filled with the outlines. All the areas on the vessel that are to
-be colored black are then filled, followed by the areas which are to be
-red. The strokes taken in outlining are not always made in the same
-order in the various panels. Such variation is entirely natural and
-should be expected in work done without the use of a visible pattern.
-
-When a design is attached to the lower enclosing line of a panel, it
-usually consists of a repetition of some small figure of one or two
-elements. The position of such added figures has absolutely no relation
-in the mind of the potter to the panel-design.
-
-When a design consists of a repetition of figures not enclosed within
-panels, the painter always refers, before adding another figure, to the
-amount of the surface as yet unfilled. The correctness of the painter’s
-judgment is therefore easily determined by the proportions of the last
-figure in the design as compared with the remaining figures. As a rule,
-with the product of the present-day potters of San Ildefonso, it is
-exceedingly difficult to determine in a finished vessel, which of the
-figures was the last one drawn.
-
-In designs which consist of a single figure, or of two or more figures,
-with several complex elements, the development of the design upon the
-vessel is necessarily at variance with that described above. As a
-general rule, each element is completed, including the filling of areas,
-before the next element is outlined. Similarly, each figure is finished
-before the next is begun.
-
-In considering generally the ornamentation of San Ildefonso vessels, a
-distinct group-similarity can be observed. The polychrome vessels are
-painted in black and orange-red upon a white base. The red-ware vessels
-are decorated only in black. The designs usually consist of several
-almost identical figures, each composed of a small number of rather
-simple elements, in which curved lines are common. And yet, in spite of
-this almost indefinable similarity among the vessels, the differences
-between the designs made by different potters of the village are
-clear-cut and distinct.
-
-Maria Martinez specializes in constricted-mouthed and similarly shaped
-bowls of polychrome ware. Her lines are relatively narrow, and the black
-of the design is very uniform in color. She uses panelled designs almost
-exclusively. The elements within the panels are simple, and few in
-number. Her work is easily recognized because of its simplicity and
-pleasing composition (see pl. 6). Maximiliana Martinez generally
-confines herself to red ware in the form of small ollas and small bowls
-with a slightly constricted lip. Her lines are somewhat wider and more
-uneven than those of Maria, and the black is of varying shades. As a
-result of her custom of developing the design as the work progresses,
-the figures are rather complex and intricate, or, as the Indians
-themselves say, “mixed up”. The outstanding characteristic of her work
-is the use of one or more elements entirely detached from the figure
-proper. Antonita Roybal devotes most of her time to making large ollas
-of red ware. Her lines are relatively broad, often indeed of double
-width. Her blacks are also uneven. The designs upon her vessels are
-usually composed of two or four very large, complex figures, in which
-spiral curves are conspicuous. Dotting, crosshatching, and filling of
-many small areas characterize her work. The products of a man painter,
-Julian Martinez, are easily recognized by the abundant use of very
-narrow lines. The figures, which are usually composed of many intricate
-elements, impress one with the amount of detailed and careful work
-lavished upon them. Julian has obviously been strongly influenced by the
-technique of modern Hopi potters, such as the famous Nampeo, whose work
-he of course often sees in the curio-stores and in the State Museum at
-Santa Fe.
-
-In the following pages typical designs of Maria, Maximiliana, and
-Antonita are discussed in detail, with the aid of figures upon which the
-direction and order of the strokes have been indicated. These drawings
-are given in order to amplify and clarify the general statements made
-above.
-
-DRAWING NO. 1 (fig. 9); original by Maria Martinez. This design was on a
-constricted-mouthed polychrome bowl, and consisted of four identical
-panels, each four and one-half inches long by two and one-half inches
-wide. The work was divided into four distinct sections, or stages, each
-of which was completed in all four panels, one after the other, before
-the next stage was begun.
-
-_First stage_ (fig. 9, a); construction of the framing lines. Lines 1-4
-are drawn completely around the bowl; then lines 5-8. The corresponding
-two pairs of lines are then drawn upon the other half of the bowl, thus
-dividing the space into four sections.
-
-_Second stage_ (fig. 9, b); placing of the outlines within each panel.
-The first three lines drawn (9-11) divide the panel into three
-triangles. Then the details are
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9. The growth of a polychrome design as painted by
-Maria Martinez (the shading indicates red).]
-
-outlined in each triangle in turn. When the outlining of one panel has
-been completed, each of the other panels is treated in turn in the same
-manner. The work of Maria is noteworthy in that the order and direction
-of the lines and the filling of spaces is hardly ever changed from one
-panel to the next.
-
-_Third stage_ (fig. 9, c); filling certain areas with solid black paint.
-The largest area (I) is always filled first. No order is followed in
-filling areas II, III, and IV, and in making the dot (V). In one panel,
-IV is filled before II, in another V precedes the other three. After
-this the dots (VI) are placed below line 21. In the different panels the
-number of these dots varies from six to eight. The last area filled in
-this stage is the triangle VII. When the first panel has been completed
-the other three are treated in like manner before the fourth stage is
-begun.
-
-_Fourth stage_ (fig. 9, d); filling of areas with red paint (shown in
-the reproduction by shading). In some panels area VIII precedes area IX,
-in others the reverse is the
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 32
-
-Design by Maria Martinez]
-
-case. With the completion of this fourth stage in all the panels, the
-painting of this comparatively simple design is finished. The time
-consumed was twenty-five minutes.
-
-DRAWING NO. 2 (pl. 32); original by Maria Martinez. This design may be
-placed upon either a constricted-mouthed bowl or an olla-bowl. It is
-made up of five identical panels. During the painting the bowl is turned
-counterclockwise. There are eleven distinct stages.
-
-_First stage_ (pl. 32, a); the enclosing lines of the panels are
-produced. Each panel is four inches long and one and a half inches wide.
-The horizontal lines (1-4) are drawn completely around the bowl before
-the dividing lines (5-8) are drawn.
-
-_Second stage_ (pl. 32, b); lines 9 and 10 are drawn, dividing each of
-the five panels into a semicircle and two triangles.
-
-_Third stage_ (pl. 32, c); the plumes are outlined in each of the panels
-by means of lines 11 to 20.
-
-_Fourth stage_ (pl. 32, d); the two triangles (areas I and II) are
-filled with black pigment. Sometimes area I is filled first, sometimes
-area II.
-
-_Fifth stage_ (pl. 32, e); when the triangles in all five panels have
-been filled, the dots are placed in two of the five plumes in each panel
-(areas III and IV). These dots are sometimes six in number, sometimes
-seven. They are painted from the base of the plume upwards.
-
-_Sixth stage_ (pl. 32, b); areas V to VII are filled with red pigment,
-thus completing the panel-design.
-
-_Seventh stage_ (pl. 32, g); now that the design in the panel has been
-finished, the second half of the figure, that below the bottom enclosing
-line, is begun. A series of small semicircles (lines numbered 21) are
-appended to the lowest enclosing line. The position of the semicircles
-bears no relation whatever to the series of panels. Three and a half to
-four semicircles fall below each panel or a total of from seventeen to
-twenty in the entire extent of the design as it encircles the vessel.
-
-_Eighth stage_ (pl. 32. g); by means of lines 22 and 23, a triangle is
-outlined below each of the semicircles.
-
-_Ninth stage_ (pl. 32, h); a very small semicircle (24) is drawn just
-below the point of each triangle.
-
-_Tenth stage_ (pl. 32, h); another similar semicircle (line 25) is drawn
-just below line 24.
-
-_Eleventh stage_ (pl. 32, i); the triangles (areas numbered VIII) are
-filled with black pigment.
-
-Although this figure is based upon the panel-design, it differs from
-pure panel-decoration in the use of a series of simple figures appended
-to the bottom enclosing-line of the panel. The time required to paint
-this design was thirty-five minutes.
-
-DRAWING NO. 3 (pl. 33); original by Maria Martinez. This design is of an
-entirely different type, in that there is no use of a panel. It was
-placed upon a constricted-mouthed bowl.
-
-_First stage_ (pl. 33, a); the enclosing lines (1, 2) are drawn around
-the rim of the vessel. These are immediately followed by the three lines
-(3 to 5) which form the outlines of the five spirals composing the
-design. The proportions of the figures were determined by constantly
-watching the position of the first spiral as the bowl was turned
-counterclockwise.
-
-_Second stage_ (pl. 33, b); the outlines of the details (lines 6 to 17)
-are drawn on each spiral in turn.
-
-_Third stage_ (pl. 33, c); the outlining is completed by adding to each
-spiral a horizontal triangle at the base of the curve. It is interesting
-to note that line 18, the first of the group 18 to 21, was the first one
-drawn, although it was entirely detached at that time from the main
-figure.
-
-_Fourth stage_ (pl. 33, d); the filling of areas is begun by painting
-the four small triangles on the upward curve of the spiral (areas I to
-IV). The order in which they are filled is apt to vary with the
-different spirals.
-
-_Fifth stage_ (pl. 33, e); the large triangle at the base of the spiral
-(area V) is filled with black pigment.
-
-_Sixth stage_ (pl. 33, f); the triangle at the bottom (area VI) is
-filled in each unit.
-
-_Seventh stage_ (pl. 33, g); this consists in placing a series of dots
-along the median line of the leaf-shaped area in the base of the spiral.
-In the various spirals these dots vary in number from eight to ten.
-
-_Eighth stage_ (pl. 33, h); the design is completed by filling the red
-areas (VIII and IX). In the first spiral so treated, area VIII was
-filled first, but in all the others area IX preceded area VIII.
-
-The base of each spiral is four and one-half inches long. The width of
-the design is three inches.
-
-DRAWING NO. 4 (pl. 34); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This rosette
-was placed in the interior bottom of a small constricted-mouthed bowl of
-red ware. A cloud-design which was painted on the rim of the same bowl
-is described and illustrated in fig. 6.
-
-_First stage_ (pl. 34, a); the outlines of one set of four leaves are
-drawn (lines 1-8).
-
-_Second stage_ (pl. 34, b); the areas within these enclosing lines are
-hatched (areas I-IV). These four areas are filled in clockwise rotation.
-
-_Third stage_ (pl. 34, c); the same areas (numbered V-VIII) are
-crosshatched, starting at the tip of each area and working towards the
-centre.
-
-_Fourth stage_ (pl. 34, d); four more leaves are drawn between the four
-already made. After lines 9 and 10 are drawn, the area between them is
-filled with black pigment, leaving an oblique white bar, before lines 11
-and 12 are placed upon the vessel. Each of the four leaves is entirely
-completed before the next is begun.
-
-_Fifth stage_ (pl. 34, e); this consists in the placing of four lines
-(17-20) at the end of each of the four longer leaves. These four groups
-of lines are drawn upon the design in clockwise rotation.
-
-_Sixth stage_ (pl. 34, f); at this point Maximiliana glanced at the
-drawing which the writer was making in his notes. By accident the ends
-of the shorter leaves had there been made more pointed than the actual
-painting. When she saw this, she pointed the tips of these leaves with
-black to make them correspond in shape to the writer’s drawing.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 33
-
-Design by Maria Martinez]
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 34
-
-Design by Maximiliana Martinez]
-
-This is an excellent example of the type of work done by a painter who
-develops her pattern while drawing it. The contrast between this and the
-simple strength of the first three designs (fig. 9 and pls. 32, 33)
-should be noticed.
-
-DRAWING NO. 5 (fig. 10); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This is a
-border decoration that was applied to the edge of the
-constricted-mouthed bowl on which was produced Drawing No. 4.
-
-_First stage_ (fig. 10, a); this is the drawing of the two enclosing
-lines (1 and 2) about the lip of the bowl. These are followed at once by
-3 to 5, which outline three small semicircles. Eight of these triple
-semicircles complete the circumference of the bowl.
-
-_Second stage_ (fig. 10, b); the three semicircles are filled with dots
-of pigment, two in each of the upper ones, three in the lower.
-
-_Third stage_ (fig. 10, c); the three small lines are added to the
-lowest of the three semicircles.
-
-The painting of the rosette (pl. 34) and the eight sets of semicircles
-took just sixteen minutes.
-
-DRAWING NO. 6 (pl. 35); original by Antonita Roybal. This elaborate
-decoration was placed upon a large red ware olla. Antonita, it may be
-noted, specializes
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10. Raincloud design by Maximiliana Martinez]
-
-in vessels of this sort, and her designs, while not slavishly repeated,
-all have a strong family resemblance, due to her bold use of scrolls and
-step-figures. The small upper drawing illustrates the method by which
-the design under consideration is applied to the vessel. In the larger
-one it is projected flat; the centre circle represents the mouth of the
-olla. The time taken for painting the various parts of the pattern is
-incorporated in the description; the total time at the end of each stage
-being given immediately thereafter.
-
-_Framework lines._ The heavy double-width line forming the middle of the
-central square is drawn first. Then two narrower lines are drawn, one
-inside and one outside, thus completing the square (sixteen minutes;
-00:00-16:00).
-
-The two lines encircling the mouth of the olla are next produced (four
-minutes; 16:00-20:00).
-
-_Neck-design within the square._ Each of the four corners of the square
-is ornamented with a small scroll-ended element. Each element is first
-outlined and then filled with black before the next is begun (twelve and
-one-half minutes; 20:30-32:00).
-
-Small irregularly placed spots are then dotted into the remaining
-surface within the square (six minutes; 33:00-39:00).
-
-_The medallions._ Appended to each of the four corners of the original
-square is a flower-like medallion. The drawing of each is done as
-follows. The outer line is first traced, then the inner one. Next the
-inner part is filled with black, except for a narrow band across the
-middle. To the exterior ring are added the outlines of the nine
-radiating elements. As a last step these are filled with black. The olla
-is then turned counterclockwise and the next medallion is begun.
-
-Each medallion is completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1,
-ten minutes (39:00-49:00); No. 2, eight minutes (49:00-57:00); No. 3,
-seven and one-half minutes (57:00-64:30); No. 4, six and one-half
-minutes (64:30-71:00).
-
-_The side patterns._ Each of the four sides of the square bears a design
-composed of two scrolls with a double stepped element and two long
-appendages between them. Each design is completed before the next is
-begun. The drawing proceeds as follows:
-
-1. The outlining of the scrolls and the drawing of the crossbar between
-them.
-
-2. The outlining of the central stepped figures.
-
-3. The filling of the stepped figures with black.
-
-4. The outlining of the two long appendages between the scrolls.
-
-5. The filling of the appendages with black, leaving two narrow
-crossbars in the ground color.
-
-6. The addition of the two small appendages between the stepped figures.
-
-7. The outlining of a central streak ending in a small circle in each of
-the scrolls.
-
-8. The filling of the scrolls with black, leaving the central streak and
-small circle in the ground color.
-
-As in the case of the medallions, each one of the side patterns is
-completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1, twenty-six
-minutes (71:00-97:00); No. 2, twenty-two and a half minutes
-(97:00-119:30); No. 3, twenty-one and a half minutes (119:30-141:00);
-No. 4, fourteen and a half minutes (141:00-155:30). The entire time
-required for painting the design was thus two hours, thirty-five
-minutes, and thirty seconds.
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 35
-
-Black design on red jar by Antonita Roybal (the small drawing above
-shows how this design is applied to the olla).]
-
-
-
-
-SYMBOLISM[52]
-
-
-Symbolism of one kind or another, plays a very important part in the
-existence of the Pueblo Indian. It is generally agreed that even the
-minor acts of everyday life have a certain religious symbolic meaning.
-For example, the gourd spoons, or kajepes, used in moulding pottery,
-must apparently be consecrated before they may be used. Similarly, a new
-technique in pottery making must pass through a period of consecration
-before it becomes completely established. On the other hand, white men
-often overemphasize the importance of symbolism in studying any
-civilization whose customs and philosophy differ radically from their
-own.
-
-In the light of what is known of the mental attitude of the Pueblo
-Indian, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the designs on their
-pottery have some symbolical meaning. Whether this symbolism is in any
-sense religious, or is merely the symbolism of conventionalization of
-design, is an open question.[53] It is probable that vessels made before
-the time when pottery became to some extent an article of commerce
-between the Indian and the tourist, bore designs of symbolical meaning.
-It may be that the vessels made today for their own use also have such
-meanings, but there is every reason to believe that much of the ware now
-turned out by the San Ildefonso potters for sale to tourists bears
-designs of no special meaning.
-
-It is true that through bitter experience, the Indians have learned to
-guard carefully their religious and secular philosophy, and it would
-require many years of study, living with them, to gain an intimate
-knowledge of their beliefs. If, however, there are definite meanings
-associated with the designs upon commercial pottery, the inhabitants of
-San Ildefonso have become past masters of the art of concealment.
-
-An attempt to obtain some idea of the general reason why vessels are
-decorated and of what was taking place in the mind of the painter while
-at work, proved wholly fruitless. Inquiries as to the meaning of whole
-designs, figures, and elements met with three kinds of response. One
-family, who have enjoyed considerable contact with investigators of
-Indian customs, were ready and eager with explanations of the meanings
-of various elements. They could not, however, explain the meaning of the
-entire design upon any vessel. Other potters met the inquiry with a
-frank statement of ignorance, such as “I don’t know”, or “Ask the men,
-the women don’t know”. A third group exhibited great uncertainty. These
-people would usually translate the questions into Tewa for the benefit
-of the rest of the Indians present. Then, after much laughter and
-discussion, the potter would sometimes offer a meaning, at other times
-say nothing. One old man explained with great gusto that the design
-which he had just finished upon a small globular olla represented four
-small clouds sailing across the sky, one behind the other, from west to
-east. His manner was very similar to that which one of us might adopt in
-telling an improbable yarn to a particularly guileless listener.
-
-Some potters gave meanings for whole figures. Another potter, however,
-composed her figures as the work advanced, evidently with no clear idea,
-when she began it, of the ultimate form of the figures and therefore
-probably with no idea in regard to their meaning. It has been suggested
-that minor variation in similar figures on the same vessel have some
-meaning. The more probable explanation would seem to be that these
-variations are due to the lack of a visible pattern. At one time a
-potter was distinctly annoyed because she noticed, after completing a
-figure, that she had filled the wrong part of a small detail.
-
-It is equally fallacious to lay too great importance upon alternating
-figures in a panel design. For example, one potter in filling the areas
-in a four-panel decoration filled the same areas in the first and third
-panels, and different areas in the second. When she began to fill the
-areas of the fourth panel in the same way as the first and third, her
-attention was called to the areas in the second, the order of which she
-obviously considered a mistake. The result was that the fourth panel was
-filled as the second had been, thus giving the vessel a panel-design
-with alternating figures.
-
-The fact that in excavations no two vessels have ever been found with
-identical designs has been attributed to something in the Indian’s way
-of thinking. Yet one potter at San Ildefonso placed upon one
-constricted-mouthed bowl out of a group of vessels a design identical
-with that on a bowl of the same shape in the previous group made.
-
-Among older pots the “line-break”, a small space left in the horizontal
-enclosing-line at the lip of the vessel, is a constant element. At San
-Ildefonso its use has become almost obsolete but one of the informants
-did employ it. Careful questioning on the subject with another potter as
-interpreter, brought out the fact that the line-break is called a
-“door”, through which a spirit may enter or depart. Persistent
-questioning in regard to the nature of the spirit caused an animated
-discussion among those present. The potter was clearly puzzled by the
-questions. Then, after a single sentence by her, the Indians all laughed
-heartily. Finally, the interpreter stated that the potter had said, in
-effect, that if the door was going to cause all that trouble she would
-close it. The matter was finally settled by the interpreter, who pointed
-out a passage in the advertising pamphlet of a Santa Fe curio-dealer
-which explained that the line-break was a passage through which the
-spirits of the dead might pass.
-
-The ready answers given by some potters in response to inquiries as to
-the meaning of elements of a design, seem to show that the elements are
-actually conventionalized symbols of definite objects. In one instance
-the potter, on noticing a dance-costume lying on the bed, pointed out
-certain parts of it, and then drew the elements representing those
-parts. Other potters simply deny all knowledge of the meaning of
-elements. Still others by their hesitancy, seem to grope for a
-plausible meaning and offer the first which occurs to them. Whether the
-elements do represent definite objects or not, it nevertheless remains a
-fact that the meanings given cause apparent contradictions. To elements
-essentially the same widely different meanings are often given and,
-conversely, the same idea or object
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11. Elements of design commonly used by the potters
-of San Ildefonso.]
-
-is often represented by entirely different elements. This is also true
-of more complex figures.
-
-The elements illustrated in figure 11, give examples of the type of idea
-or object said to be represented, and incidentally illustrate some of
-the contradictions spoken of above. Numbers 1 and 6 both refer to hills.
-On the other hand, No. 7 is a mountain, although it bears little
-resemblance to the “hills”. It resembles more closely No. 2 which one
-informant described as a pueblo and another as a kiva. The same regular
-zigzag appears in No. 12, which represents a tablita, or dance mask,
-with small feathers tied to the points of the zigzags. No. 17, in which
-the zigzag also appears, represents kiva-steps. Nos. 11 and 16 represent
-feathers, and No. 21 is a bunch of feathers on the end of a dance-pole.
-But No. 22 represents the poles of the kiva-ladder, and No. 3 is rain,
-which is falling a long way off. No. 10 represents fringed woolen
-armlets, and yet there is as close a resemblance between Nos. 3 and 10,
-as there is between Nos. 14 and 19, both of which represent the tassels
-on a man’s dance-belt. No. 8 is called rain-water, but a single spiral,
-as in No. 25, is a buffalo horn. The dots of No. 13 represent rain-drops
-in dust, but in No. 21 the dots are markings on feathers, and in No. 15
-they represent a procession of bugs on the rib of a leaf. No. 18
-represents water dripping through a hole in the roof and making a small
-cup-like depression in the floor, represented by a semicircle, or a
-whole circle with a dot in the centre of it; but No. 23, which is also a
-triangle, is called a leaf, as is also the case with No. 15. And yet No.
-4 is also a leaf, although if placed horizontally it more closely
-resembles the clouds represented in No. 5. But No. 9 is also a cloud,
-this time a big black cloud with an open space in it through which a
-small cloud may be seen. Nos. 20 and 24 represent respectively the sun
-and a star.
-
-In the light of the small amount of material obtained on the subject of
-symbolism, all that can be said is that the evidence is purely negative.
-If the elements do represent definite ideas and objects, which seems to
-the writer improbable, the meanings are so deeply hidden that only an
-intensive specialized study will result in an acceptable solution.
-
-
-MEANING OF ELEMENTS
-
-(M.--Maria. A.--Antonita)
-
- 1--“hillside”, M.
- 2--“pueblo”, M.; “kiva”, A.
- 3--“rain falling far away”, A.
- 4--“leaf”, M.
- 5--“clouds”, M.; A.
- 6--“hill”, M.
- 7--“mountain”, M.
- 8--“rainwater”, A.
- 9--“black cloud with open space through which one can see a small cloud”, A.
-10--“fringed woolen dance armlets”, M.
-11--“feather”, M.
-12--“tableta (wooden headdress) with feathers on points”, M.
-13--“rain-drops on dust”, A.
-14--“tassel on man’s dance-belt”, M.
-15--“leaf with bugs on it”, M.
-16--“feather”, M.
-17--“kiva-steps, the two small points fireplaces”, A.
-18--“water dripping through holes in roof and making holes in dirt floor”, M.
-19--“tassel on man’s dance-belt”, M.
-20--“sun”, A.
-21--“feathers on dance-pole, spots are markings on feathers”, M.
-22--“ladder-poles”, A.
-23--“leaf”, M.
-24--“star”, A.
-25--“buffalo horn”, A.
-
-
-
-
-BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
-BINNS, C. F.
-
-     1910. The potter’s craft. New York, 1910.
-
-HARRINGTON, J. P.
-
-     1916. The ethnogeography of the Tewa Indians. _Twenty-ninth Report
-     of the Bureau of American Ethnology._ Washington, 1916.
-
-     1916, a. Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians (In collaboration with W.
-     W. Robbins and B. Friere-Marreco). _Bulletin 55, Bureau of American
-     Ethnology._ Washington, 1916.
-
-HOLMES, W. H.
-
-     1886. Pottery of the ancient Pueblos. _Fourth Report of the Bureau
-     of Ethnology_, pp. 257-360. Washington, 1886.
-
-KIDDER, A. V.
-
-     1924. An introduction to the study of Southwestern archaeology,
-     with a preliminary account of the excavations at Pecos. _Papers of
-     the Phillips Academy Southwestern Expedition_, no. 1. New Haven,
-     1924.
-
-KIDDER, M. A. and A. V.
-
-     1917. Notes on the pottery of Pecos. _American Anthropologist_,
-     n.s., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 325-360. Lancaster, 1917.
-
-STEVENSON, J.
-
-     1883. Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the
-     Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1879. _Second Report of the
-     Bureau of Ethnology_, pp. 307-465. Washington, 1883.
-
-     1884. Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the
-     pueblos of Zuñi, New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in 1881. _Third
-     Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp. 511-594. Washington, 1884.
-
-STEVENSON, M. C.
-
-     1904. The Zuñi Indians, their mythology, esoteric fraternities, and
-     ceremonies. _Twenty-third Report of the Bureau of American
-     Ethnology._ Washington, 1904.
-
-     1915. Ethnobotany of the Zuñi Indians. _Thirtieth Report of the
-     Bureau of American Ethnology_, pp. 31-102. Washington, 1915.
-
-WOOTON, E. O. AND STANDLEY, PAUL C.
-
-     1915. Flora of New Mexico. _Contributions from the United States
-     National Herbarium_, Vol. 19. Washington 1915.
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] A brief history of Pecos, and a description of the work so far
-done at the site, are contained in “An Introduction to the Study of
-Southwestern Archaeology, with a Preliminary Account of the Excavations
-at Pecos”, by A. V. Kidder; No. 1 of the present series.
-
-[2] Kidder, 1924.
-
-[3] Kidder, M. A. and A. V., 1917, p. 330.
-
-[4] A searching study of San Ildefonso decoration has been made by
-K. M. Chapman of Santa Fe. When this is published it will throw much
-light on the morphology of Pueblo design, and upon the relation of San
-Ildefonso symbolism to that of other Rio Grande pueblos.
-
-[5] A vocabulary of the Tewa terms for clays, paints, and other
-ingredients; articles of paraphernalia; types of pottery; processes of
-pottery making, etc., was recorded by Dr. Guthe, and is available at
-Andover for consultation.
-
-[6] See Harrington, 1916, Map 19, point 63. Under the nearby point (60;
-p. 314) he says: “Clay ... is obtained at this place; just where could
-not be learned.”
-
-[7] Stevenson, to whom with Mrs. Stevenson we are indebted for
-practically our only comparative material, wrote in 1879 of Zuñi: “The
-clay mostly used by the Zuñians in the manufacture of pottery is a
-dark, bluish, carbonaceous clayey shale found in layers usually near
-the tops of the mesas” (1883, p. 329). Later, Mrs. Stevenson described
-at some length the ceremony of securing pottery clay (1904, p. 374).
-Among the San Ildefonso Indians of today there is no outward evidence
-of any such ceremony.
-
-[8] At Zuñi the ingredients are ground and mixed, and the clay is
-kneaded on a stone slab. (See pl. 28, facing p. 76.)
-
-[9] Stevenson said, in speaking of Zuñi pottery making: “This
-carbonaceous clay is first mixed with water and kneaded as a baker
-kneads dough until it reaches the proper consistency” (1883, p. 329).
-Mrs. Stevenson describes the preparation of clay at Zuñi as follows:
-“The clay is ground to a powder and mixed with a small quantity of
-pulverized pottery, fragments of the latter being carefully hoarded for
-this purpose. The powder thus compounded is mixed with water enough
-to make a pasty mass, which is kneaded like dough. The more care
-taken in pulverizing the material and the more time spent in working
-it, the finer becomes the paste. When the mass reaches such a state
-of consistency that the fingers can no longer detect the presence of
-gritty particles, it is still more delicately tested with the tongue,
-and when found to be satisfactory it is placed in a vessel and covered
-with a cloth, where it will retain the moisture until wanted for use”
-(1904, p. 374-5).
-
-[10] Stevenson (1883, p. 329) says: “With this (clay), crushed
-volcanic lava is sometimes mixed; but the Zuñians more frequently
-pulverize fragments of broken pottery, which have been preserved for
-this purpose. This seems to prevent explosion, cracking, or fracture
-by rendering the paste sufficiently porous to allow the heat to pass
-through without injurious effect.” And again: “The clays used by the
-Santa Clara Indians are of a brick-red color, containing an admixture
-of very fine sand, which, no doubt, prevents cracking in burning, and
-hence dispenses with the necessity of using lava or pottery fragments,
-as is the custom of the Indians of the western pueblos” (1883, p. 331).
-Binns, in “The Potter’s Craft”, describing the preparation of clay,
-says, “If the clay prove very sandy it must be washed, ... but all
-the sand should not be removed. Clay with no sand in it will be apt
-to crack in drying and burning. Clay with too much sand will be short
-and brittle in working. If the clay is very smooth and shows no sand,
-a little fine builder’s sand may be added with advantage, a definite
-proportion being used and recorded” (1910, p. 40).
-
-[11] Stevenson, in his catalogue of Zuñi collections, enumerated
-“_Tierra amarilla_, or yellow micaceous clay, of which the Rio Grande
-Indians make many varieties of vessels” (1883, p. 368).
-
-[12] Harrington, in speaking of a clay-pit near the village of Las
-Truchas, writes: “It is said that at this place the best red pottery
-clay known to the Tewa is obtained. It is pebbly, but makes very strong
-dishes, and it is used especially for ollas. It is said that Tewa of
-various pueblos visit this place frequently and carry away the clay.
-The clay deposit is a mile or two southeast of Truchas town” (1916, p.
-340). This may be the claypit referred to by the informant, although
-the clay, while pebbly, is by no means red.
-
-[13] Stevenson, writing of the Zuñi, said of their white slip: “A paint
-or solution is then made, either of a fine white calcareous earth,
-consisting mainly of carbonate of lime, or of a milk-white indurated
-clay, almost wholly insoluble in acids, and apparently derived from
-decomposed feldspar with a small proportion of mica” (1883, p. 329).
-Mrs. Stevenson, in a later publication, said: “A white clay is
-dissolved in water and then made into cones which are dried in the sun.
-When required for use these cones are rubbed to powder on a stone,
-again mixed with water, and applied in a liquid state to the object”
-(1904, p. 375).
-
-[14] Harrington mentions this bed as “a deposit of bright red paint
-situated about two miles east of Santa Fe, the informants think north
-of Santa Fe Creek, in high land a few hundred yards from that creek.
-This paint was used for body painting. It is said that Jicarilla Apache
-still go to the deposit to get this paint and sometimes sell it to
-the Tewa” (1916, p. 354). Stevenson is speaking of the black ware of
-Santa Clara and other Rio Grande pueblos, mentions “a solution of very
-fine ochre-colored clay” (1883, p. 331), which was probably this same
-substance. Mrs. Stevenson also mentions “red ochre” (1904, p. 375).
-
-[15] Stevenson, writing of the Zuñis in 1881, said: “The material used
-to produce the red or brown colors is a yellowish impure clay, colored
-from oxide of iron; indeed it is mainly clay, but contains some sand
-and a very small amount of carbonate of lime”; it “is generally found
-in a hard, stony condition, and is ground in a small stone mortar ...
-and mixed with water so as to form a thin solution” (1883, p. 330).
-Mrs. Stevenson added later: “Ferruginous clays which on heating burn to
-yellow, red, or brown are employed for decorating” (1904, p. 375).
-
-[16] _Peritoma serrulatum_ (Pursh); synonyms: _Cleome serrulata_, and
-_Cleome integrifolia_; (Wooton and Standley, 1915, p. 290). Stevenson
-wrote: “It is said that among the Cochiti, Santa Clara, and some
-other pueblos a vegetable matter is employed to produce some of their
-decorative designs; this, however, I was unable to verify, though
-some of the Indians assured me of the fact, and furnished me a bunch
-of the plant, which Dr. Vasey, of the Agricultural Department, found
-to be _Cleome integrifolia_, a plant common throughout the Western
-Territories” (1883, p. 331). Again, “That of the decorated class is
-ornamented with the juice of _Cleome integrifolia_, which is fixed to
-the ware in the process of burning” (loc. cit., p. 430). Harrington
-writes: “This is a very important plant to the Tewa, inasmuch as black
-paint for pottery decoration is made from it. Large quantities of young
-plants are collected, usually in July. The plants are boiled well in
-water; the woody parts are then removed and the decoction is again
-allowed to boil until it becomes thick and attains a black color. This
-thick fluid is poured on a board to dry and soon becomes hardened. It
-may be kept in hard cakes for an indefinite period. When needed these
-are soaked in hot water until of the consistency needed for paint.
-Guaco is also used as a food. The hardened cakes are soaked in hot
-water, and then fried in grease. The finely ground plants are mixed
-with water and the liquid is drunk as a remedy for stomach disorders;
-or sometimes fresh plants wrapped in a cloth are applied to the
-abdomen” (1916, a, pp. 58, 59). (It should be noted that the accounts
-obtained by the writer from the informants of San Ildefonso do not
-agree in detail with the one given by Harrington.) Mrs. Stevenson wrote
-of Zuñi: “Water from boiled _Cleome serrulata_ (Mexican name waco)
-is mixed with black pigment (a manganiferous clay containing organic
-matter) in decorating pottery” (1904, p. 375); and in more detail: “The
-entire plant, minus the root, is boiled for a considerable time, and
-the water in which it is cooked is allowed to evaporate. The firm paste
-secured from precipitation is used in conjunction with a black mineral
-paint for decorating pottery” (1915, p. 92).
-
-[17] Stevenson, in 1879, saw the Rio Grande Pueblo potters use
-“coarsely broken dried manure obtained from the corrals”, and added
-that for the polished black ware “another application of fuel, finely
-pulverized, is made” (1883, p. 331).
-
-[18] Stevenson, in 1879, observed at Zuñi that “the bottoms of old
-water jars and bowls form stands for the articles while being worked by
-the potter. The bowls are filled with sand when objects of a globular
-form are to be made” (1883, p. 329). At Pojuaque (a Tewa pueblo near
-San Ildefonso, now nearly extinct) he collected two “pottery moulds for
-bottoms of vessels” (loc. cit. p. 439). Mrs. Stevenson also noticed
-these olla bottoms at Zuñi (1904, p. 374).
-
-[19] Harrington writes: “Variously shaped section of gourd are used by
-women to smooth and shape pottery in the making” (1916, a, p. 102).
-Stevenson, in 1879, noted at Zuñi “a small trowel fashioned from a
-piece of gourd or fragment of pottery, the only tool employed in the
-manufacture of pottery” (1883, p. 329). Mrs. Stevenson also speaks of
-these trowels (1904, p. 374).
-
-[20] Stevenson, in speaking of the making of pottery at Santa Clara,
-mentions “the process of polishing--with smooth, fine-grained stones”,
-(1883, p. 331). In his catalogue of stone objects collected at Zuñi
-in 1881, he differentiates between “small stones used in polishing
-pottery”, “small stones used in polishing unburned vessels”, and the
-“small polisher for glazing and smoothing pottery”, giving three
-different Indian names for the three kinds. He does not, however,
-explain the difference (1884, pp. 525, 526). He also catalogues
-“fifteen rubbing or smoothing stones for pottery” obtained at Walpi
-(1884, p. 587). Mrs. Stevenson remarked: “Polishing stones are used to
-finish the surface” of vessels at Zuñi (1904, p. 375).
-
-[21] Stevenson, in 1879 at Zuñi, noted that the paint was applied to
-pottery “with brushes made of the leaves of the yucca. These brushes
-are made of flat pieces of the leaf, which are stripped off and bruised
-at one end, and are of different sizes adapted to the coarse or fine
-lines the artist may wish to draw” (1883, p. 330). Mrs. Stevenson
-wrote, again of Zuñi: “_Yucca glauca_ Nutt. Soapweed.... The brushes
-employed for decorating pottery are made from the leaves of this plant,
-which, for this purpose, are cut the proper lengths and fringed at one
-end” (1915, p. 82).
-
-[22] Mrs. Stevenson says the Zuñis used a “rabbit skin mop” (1904, p.
-375).
-
-[23] Mrs. Stevenson wrote of Zuñi: “The pieces to be fired are placed
-upon stones to raise them a few inches from the ground”, implying the
-absence of a grate (1904, p. 376).
-
-[24] I use the words “very skillfully” advisedly. Repeated attempts
-on my part to imitate the process resulted in rolls of exceedingly
-variable diameter. At Zuñi the roll is made by the apparently simpler
-and more efficient method of rolling the clay back and forth on a flat
-stone slab with one hand (see pl. 29, a).
-
-[25] Zuñi potters apply the roll to the outside instead of the inside
-of the growing vessel wall; otherwise the handling of the roll is
-exactly as at San Ildefonso (see pl. 29, b).
-
-[26] Throughout this report, the puki is spoken of as moving
-“clockwise” or “counterclockwise” and the sectors worked in are
-referred to the numerals on the face of the clock, as, “the
-six-to-eight-o’clock sector”. The point of view taken is that of the
-potter with “six o’clock” referring to that part of the bowl nearest
-her.
-
-[27] The “rim” of an unfinished vessel means the upper edge of the last
-roll added to it.
-
-[28] See, however, pl. 29. b; the Zuñi potter in this case has not
-obliterated the preceding rolls.
-
-[29] Stevenson, 1883, p. 331.
-
-[30] M. C. Stevenson, 1904, p. 375.
-
-[31] Binns, 1910, pp. 69-71.
-
-[32] The process is identical at Zuñi, see pl. 30, a.
-
-[33] From the earliest periods Southwestern pottery has been made in
-more or less the manner just described, that is, by the addition of
-successive rings of clay. During prehistoric times, however, there
-was developed a ware usually known as “corrugated”, in the building
-of which the roll was so lengthened as to become a spiral coil. The
-roll of paste forming the coil was very thin, averaging a little
-over one-quarter of an inch in diameter; and it was applied to the
-outside of the temporary rim, as at Zuñi (see pl. 29, b), instead
-of to the inside, as at San Ildefonso. Furthermore, the junctions
-between the coils were not obliterated on the exterior of the vessel,
-thus producing a ridged or corrugated effect. Corrugated pottery was
-principally used for cooking pots (see Holmes, 1886, p. 273).
-
-[34] One informant stated that these bowls, both with and without the
-terraces, were formerly, and are still, used to hold sacred meal.
-
-[35] The two-mouthed vase is rarely made at San Ildefonso. It is a type
-more commonly produced by the potters of Santa Clara.
-
-[36] Potsherds from pre-Spanish ruins show that handles have been
-applied to vessels in the ways described above for many centuries. The
-lug-type of handle, which is frequently found in ancient pottery, is
-no longer made at San Ildefonso. The probabilities are, however, that
-these lugs were welded to the exterior of the vessel, as in the first
-method described, rather than riveted on as in the second method.
-
-[37] The potter placed the responsibility for this crack upon a kitten
-which had jumped into the olla during the night. In the animal’s
-attempt to climb out, the vessel suffered some rather severe bumps. The
-story of the kitten’s adventure was told before the crack was noticed.
-Later it was used to explain the presence of the imperfection.
-
-[38] The expression “get warm” comes from the fact that while the
-vessel is damp the evaporating moisture causes it to feel cool; when
-thoroughly dry it feels warm.
-
-[39] The red slips are not used today in the designs, although some of
-the older vessels contain red elements which appear to have been made
-of the dark-red slip.
-
-[40] Stevenson says of the Zuñi: “This solution (of a fine white
-calcareous earth) is applied to the surface of the vessel and allowed
-to dry; it is then ready for the decorations” (1883, pp. 329, 330).
-Mrs. Stevenson, writing at a later date, gives more details: “A white
-clay is dissolved in water and then made into cones which are dried
-in the sun. When required for use these cones are rubbed to powder on
-a stone, again mixed with water, and applied in a liquid state to the
-object with a rabbit-skin mop. Polishing-stones are used to finish the
-surface” (1904, p. 375).
-
-[41] At Santa Clara and San Juan some polished ware is polished only
-from the rim to the shoulder and the lower half is apparently unslipped.
-
-[42] Stevenson in speaking of the polished black pottery of the Rio
-Grande pueblos says: “A solution of very fine ochre-colored clay is
-applied to the outside and inside near the top, or to such parts of
-the surface as are to be polished. While this solution thus applied is
-still moist, the process of polishing begins by rubbing the part thus
-washed with smooth, fine-grained stones until quite dry and glossy. The
-parts thus rubbed still retain the original red color of the clay. The
-vessels are again placed in the sun and allowed to become thoroughly
-dry, when they are ready for baking” (1883, p. 331). Mrs. Stevenson
-also gives an account somewhat similar: “In many of the pueblos the
-pottery is undecorated, the surface being finished in plain red or
-black. The ware is made of a yellowish clay, in the manner heretofore
-described, and the vessels are placed in the sun, where they remain for
-hours. They are then washed with a solution of red ochre, and while wet
-the process of polishing begins, the woman with untiring energy going
-over the surface again and again with her polishing-stone, every little
-while passing a wet cloth over the vessel to keep the surface moist.
-When the polishing is completed, the vessel is again placed in the sun
-for a short time before receiving its final baking in the oven” (1904,
-p. 375.)
-
-[43] This second potter, however, did use lard in polishing vessels to
-which the red slip had been applied.
-
-[44] The substitution of the chamois for a cloth was inaugurated by the
-potter using it.
-
-[45] The use of this paint for producing designs upon polished black
-ware was discovered by Maria Martinez in June, 1921. On inquiring why
-other potters did not copy the process, it was learned that because of
-certain taboo-like restrictions the secret of making this kind of ware
-would not be disclosed until a year after its discovery. Although the
-matter could not be further investigated because of the unwillingness
-of the Indians to discuss such things, it would appear that we have in
-this case a sort of primitive patent-right. At the present time (1925)
-practically all San Ildefonso potters make this ware, which has proved
-extraordinarily popular; Maria, however, still produces by far the
-finest pieces (see pl. 8, a).
-
-[46] Occasionally such precautions are disregarded, apparently through
-laziness. One potter did her painting in the same room in which some
-meat was being cooked. The combined odors of the cooking meat and the
-guaco attracted all the flies in the neighborhood, but fortunately
-screens kept some of them out of the room.
-
-[47] Stevenson gives no details of the painting at Zuñi; “When the
-pigment is properly reduced, and mixed with water so as to form a
-thin solution, it is applied with brushes made of the leaves of the
-yucca. These brushes are made of flat pieces of the leaf, which are
-stripped off and bruised at one end, and are of different sizes
-adapted to the coarse or fine lines the artist may wish to draw. In
-this manner all the decorations on the pottery are produced” (1883,
-p. 330). Mrs. Stevenson is just as brief: “After a thorough drying of
-this foundation, the slip, the designs are painted with brushes made
-of yucca needles, the pigments having been ground in stone mortars and
-made into a paste with water to which a syrup of yucca fruit is added”
-(1904, p. 375). The stone mortar for pigment grinding may be seen in
-pl. 31, a.
-
-[48] On pp. 78 to 84 will be found notes on the actual painting of
-several typical designs.
-
-[49] One woman tried her best to teach me how to tell these shades
-apart, but it proved utterly impossible for me to distinguish the
-darker from the lighter.
-
-[50] This variant in polished black ware is a new departure. It was
-discovered, probably accidentally, by one of the San Ildefonso potters
-early in the summer of 1921. The process by which the red blotch is
-made has not as yet been brought completely under control.
-
-[51] It is interesting to note that in making the preliminary pencil
-draft, she uses entirely different strokes from those made by the brush.
-
-[52] The subject of symbolism is touched upon in this report only with
-the greatest diffidence. No two students of Southwestern ceramics seem
-to entertain the same theory, in all details, upon this subject. The
-statements made here are given for what they may be worth. The time
-devoted to the work did not permit of a careful and exhaustive study of
-the subject.
-
-[53] One potter, after glancing at a small vessel which was undoubtedly
-old, informed the writer that it had once belonged to the “summer
-people”, a social-religious division of the community.
-
-
-
-
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pueblo pottery making;, by Carl E. Guthe</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
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-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Pueblo pottery making;</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>a study at the village of San Ildefonso</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Carl E. Guthe</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 22, 2022 [eBook #67221]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING; ***</div>
-<hr class="full" />
-
-<p class="figcenter">
-<a href="images/cover.jpg">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg"
-height="550" alt="[Image of
-the book's cover unavailable.]" /></a>
-</p>
-
-<table cellpadding="0"
-style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%;
-padding:1%;">
-<tr><td>
-
-<p class="c"><a href="#TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">Contents.</a></p>
-<p class="c"><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers]
-clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.)</span></p>
-<p class="c"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">Bibliography</a><br />
-<a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes</a></p>
-<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i">{i}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<p class="c">PAPERS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN EXPEDITION<br />
-NUMBER TWO<br /><br />
-PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii">{ii}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii">{iii}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv">{iv}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_1" style="width: 444px;">
-<a href="images/frontispiece.jpg">
-<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="444" height="565" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 1</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy Wesley Bradfield</i></p>
-
-<p>MARIA MARTINEZ</p>
-
-<p>The most skillful potter of San Ildefonso.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v">{v}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="c">
-DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
-PHILLIPS ACADEMY · ANDOVER · MASSACHUSETTS</p>
-
-<h1>PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING</h1>
-
-<p class="c">A STUDY AT THE VILLAGE OF SAN ILDEFONSO<br />
-<br />
-BY<br />
-CARL E. GUTHE<br />
-<br /><br />
-<img src="images/colophon.png"
-width="80"
-alt="[Image unavailable.]" />
-<br /><br />
-<br />
-NEW HAVEN<br />
-PUBLISHED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY<br />
-PHILLIPS ACADEMY · ANDOVER · MASSACHUSETTS<br />
-BY THE YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
-1925<br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi">{vi}</a></span><br />
-<br /><small>
-COPYRIGHTED 1925 BY YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
-<br />
-PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA<br />
-BY THE ANDOVER PRESS<br /></small>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii">{vii}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td>&#160; </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Introduction</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_1">1</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Raw Materials; Collection and Preparation</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Ingredients</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Red clay</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">White clay</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Temper</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Cooking vessel clay</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Slips and paints</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Native slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Santo Domingo slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Red slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Orange-red slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_24">24</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Black ware paint</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_24">24</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Black or Guaco paint</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Fuel</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Manure</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Kindling</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Paraphernalia</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Primary Paraphernalia</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Moulds</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Moulding spoons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Scrapers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Polishing stones</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_27">27</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Paint brushes</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Secondary paraphernalia</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Carrying and storing receptacles</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Mixing surfaces</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Boards</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Water containers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_29">29</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Mops</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Paint receptacles</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Wiping-rags</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd3">Firing accessories</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Moulding</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Bowls</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Ollas</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_42">42</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Cooking-vessels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Prayer-meal bowls</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_48">48</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Double-mouthed vases</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_49">49</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii">{viii}</a></span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Handles</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_50">50</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Sun-Drying</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_52">52</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Scraping</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Slipping and Polishing</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_57">57</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">White slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_57">57</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Orange-red slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Red slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_59">59</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Dark-red slip</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_62">62</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Painting</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_66">66</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Firing</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Preparation</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Building the oven</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Burning</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Accidents</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd2">Treatment after burning</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Painting of designs</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_78">78</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Symbolism</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85">85</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd1">Bibliography</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_89">89</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix">{ix}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-
-<tr><th colspan="3">PLATES</th></tr>
-
-<tr><td colspan="2">&#160; </td><td class="rt"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_1">1.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_1">Maria Martinez, the leading potter of San Ildefonso</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_6"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_2">2.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_2">Fragments of ancient corrugated wares</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_6">6</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_3">3.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_3">Old decorated vessels from the Pueblo villages</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_4">4.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_4">Old San Ildefonso vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_5">5.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_5">Old San Ildefonso vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_6">6.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_6">Modern polychrome ware by Maria Martinez</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_7">7.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_7">Modern polychrome and black-on-red wares</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_8">8.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_8">Modern plain and decorated polished black ware</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_14">14</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_9">9.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_9">Winnowing clay</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_10">10.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_10"><i>a</i>, Digging tempering material, <i>b</i>, Guaco plant</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_11">11.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_11">Gourd spoons</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_12">12.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_12"><i>a</i>, Kneading clay   <i>b</i>, Primary stages of bowl moulding</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_32">32</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_13">13.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_13">Method of building vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_32">32</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_14">14.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_14"><i>a</i>, Work on rim of unfinished bowl,   <i>b</i>, Shaping vessel</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_36">36</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_15">15.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_15">Successive stages in the moulding of an olla</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_42">42</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_16">16.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_16"><i>a</i>, Moulding an olla,   <i>b</i>, A typical potter</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_17">17.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_17"><i>a</i>, Finishing touches,   <i>b</i>, Application of handle</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_18">18.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_18">Sun-drying</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_52">52</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_19">19.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_19">Scraping</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_20">20.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_20"><i>a</i>, Cutting down an olla   <i>b</i>, Applying slip</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_58">58</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_21">21.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_21"><i>a</i>, Applying slip,   <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Polishing</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_60">60</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_22">22.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_22">Decorating small vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_66">66</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_23">23.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_23">Decorating ollas</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_68">68</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_24">24.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_24"><i>a</i>, Drying the oven site, <i>b</i>, Preparing the oven</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_70">70</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_25">25.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_25">Oven-building</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_26">26.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_26">Firing</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_27">27.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_27"><i>a</i>, Smothered fire,   <i>b</i>, Wiping fired vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_28">28.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_28">Zuñi potter preparing clay</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_29">29.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_29">Zuñi potter moulding a vessel</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_30">30.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_30">Zuñi potter finishing a vessel</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_31">31.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_31">Zuñi potter decorating and firing a vessel</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_32">32.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_32">Design by Maria Martinez</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_81">81</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_33">33.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_33">Design by Maria Martinez</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_34">34.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_34">Design by Maximiliana Martinez</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#plt_35">35.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#plt_35">Design by Antonita Roybal</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_84">84</a></td></tr>
-
-<tr><th colspan="3">FIGURES IN THE TEXT</th></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_1">1.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_1">Outlines of post-Basket Maker vessels</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_6">6</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_2">2.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_2">Pre-Pueblo pottery</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_3">3.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_3">Decorations of ancient Pueblo bowls</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_4">4.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_4">Bad examples of modern pottery</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_13">13</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_5">5.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_5">Paint brushes</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_28">28</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_6">6.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_6">Sections of a bowl during building</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_34">34</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_7">7.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_7">Method of terracing a prayer-meal bowl</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_48">48</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_8">8.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_8">Angles of paint brush during stroke</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_68">68</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_9">9.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_9">Growth of a polychrome design</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_80">80</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_10">10.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_10">Raincloud design</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="rt"><a href="#fig_11">11.</a></td><td class="pdd"><a href="#fig_11">Elements of design</a></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_87">87</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1">{1}</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x">{x}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
-
-<p>The present paper is a careful study by Dr. Guthe of pottery making at
-San Ildefonso, a typical Pueblo Indian town on the Rio Grande, north of
-Santa Fe, New Mexico. The field-work was undertaken in 1921 as part of
-an archaeological survey of the Southwest, that has been carried on for
-a number of years by the Department of Archaeology of Phillips Academy.
-From prehistoric archaeology to modern pottery making may seem a far
-cry, but in the Southwest the past merges almost imperceptibly into the
-present, and the Pueblos of today live in almost exactly the same way,
-and practise almost exactly the same arts, as did their ancestors of a
-thousand years ago. In the Southwest, therefore, the archaeologist has
-the invaluable opportunity of observing, and of studying at first hand,
-the life whose earlier remains he unearths from the ancient ruins. When
-one considers what such a privilege would mean to the excavator in, for
-example, the mounds of the Mississippi Valley, or the Neolithic
-village-sites of Europe, it becomes obvious that the Southwestern
-archaeologist should devote a not inconsiderable part of his time to the
-study of that industrious, kindly, hospitable, and thoroughly charming
-folk, the Pueblo Indians.</p>
-
-<p>Living a sedentary, agricultural life in an arid country it was
-inevitable that the Pueblos should early have developed into expert and
-prolific potters; and so pottery, in the form of sherds scattered about
-their former dwellings, and of vessels piously interred with their dead,
-is the most striking, the most abundant, and the most readily accessible
-form of evidence to be dealt with by the Southwestern archaeologist. The
-value of pottery to the student of the past cannot be more happily
-expressed than in the words of the historian Myres: “When with the soft
-clay which has, so to say, no natural shape or utility at all, the human
-hand, guided by imagination, but otherwise unaided, creates a new form,
-gourd-like, or flask-like, or stone-bowl-like, but not itself either
-gourd, or skin, or stone, then invention has begun, and an art is born
-which demands on each occasion of its exercise a fresh effort of
-imagination to devise, and of intellect to give effect to, a literally
-new thing. It is a fortunate accident that the material in question,
-once fixed in the given form by exposure to fire, is by that very
-process made so brittle that its prospect of utility is short;
-consequently the demand for replacement is persistent. The only group of
-industries which can compare with potmaking in intellectual importance
-is that of the textile fabrics; basketry and weaving. But whereas
-basket-work and all forms of matting and cloth are perishable and will
-burn, broken pottery is almost indestructible, just because, once
-broken, it is so useless. It follows that evidence so permanent, so
-copious, and so plastic, that is to say so infinitely sensitive a
-register of the changes of the artist’s mood, as the potsherds on an
-ancient site, is among the most valuable that we can ever have, for
-tracing the dawn of culture.”</p>
-
-<p>Myres wrote of arid Egypt, and in many ways conditions in the likewise
-arid Southwest, where a primitive people were also building up for
-themselves through agriculture a new type of civilization, closely
-parallel those of the Nile Valley in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2">{2}</a></span> predynastic times. And the
-analogy, naturally enough, holds good in the matter of archaeological
-methods. The rise and spread of the predynastic cultures of Egypt are
-being traced out in large part by studies of ceramic types and of their
-stratigraphic relation one to another. The same methods are applicable,
-and indeed are now beginning to be applied, to the problems of the
-Southwest.</p>
-
-<p>To understand the trend of recent archaeological work in the Pueblo
-field it is necessary to take a bird’s-eye view, so to speak, of the
-region. Over a vast area in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and the
-state of Chihuahua in Old Mexico, are found the remains of the
-prehistoric Pueblos. Their villages, now in ruins, were built in all
-sorts of places, on the tops of mesas, in open plains, in narrow
-canyons, on the ledges of great cliffs, and in the shelter of caves.
-They range in size from one-or two-room houses of the roughest
-construction, to great communal buildings of five hundred or even a
-thousand rooms, compactly built of excellent masonry and terraced to a
-height of three, four, or five stories. The artifacts, too, found in
-them vary bewilderingly, both in degree of perfection, and in type. All
-Southwestern houses, however, and all Southwestern artifacts, have a
-certain family resemblance that allies them to each other and makes it
-evident that they are all the product of a single culture, a culture
-distinct, for example, from that of Central Mexico or that of the
-Mississippi Valley. To reconstruct the history of that culture, to trace
-its origin, to follow its growth, and to explain how and why it
-developed in the peculiar way it did, are the tasks which confront the
-Southwestern archaeologist.</p>
-
-<p>As in any scientific problem, the first step must be to collect and
-classify the data; and although Pueblo sites are numbered in thousands,
-and an overwhelming amount of merely descriptive work must still be
-done, the outlines of a classification have been achieved. We know, for
-example, what sort of ruins are found in the San Juan drainage of
-northern New Mexico; what kinds of pottery occur along the Gila river in
-southern Arizona. But what relationship, genetically and in time, there
-existed between, say, Pueblo Bonito and Casa Grande, we do not know. The
-time element, or in other words the historical sequence of our material,
-remains in large part to be determined.</p>
-
-<p>To set up an historical outline we must first determine the relative
-ages of the different ruins, and then estimate the size and distribution
-of the Pueblo tribes from the earliest times to the present. At the top,
-so to speak, of our series the problem is simple enough&mdash;we are
-acquainted with the present location of the tribes, and the various
-Spanish accounts tell us where they have been living during the past
-three hundred and fifty years. But for the prehistoric period (and
-everything in the Southwest prior to 1540 is prehistoric) we must rely
-almost wholly on such evidence as may be turned up by the
-archaeologist’s shovel, for of native written records there are none,
-nor can native legendary testimony be safely depended upon. This, of
-course, throws a heavy burden upon the archaeologist, a burden which is
-made heavier by the fact that stratigraphy of remains is so rarely found
-in the Pueblo country.</p>
-
-<p>Stratigraphy, in other words the superposition of the more recent upon
-the more ancient, has been the Open Sesame to all the reconstructive
-sciences. The very framework of geology, for example, has been built up
-from stratigraphic observations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3">{3}</a></span> In archaeology, too, stratigraphy has
-revealed the sequence of the Stone Ages; made clear the development of
-the early Mediterranean cultures, and the rise of predynastic
-civilization in Egypt. Therefore, as has just been said, the general
-lack of stratigraphic conditions in the Southwest renders the task of
-the student a particularly hard one. For some reason, not yet clearly
-understood, the Pueblos ancient and modern were very prone to shift from
-one dwelling place to another, and a site once abandoned was seldom
-reoccupied. Although their houses were of the most permanent
-construction, and their agricultural life should have tended to render
-them solidly sedentary, they moved about to a surprising extent. The
-result of this is that one seldom finds a ruin which was lived in for
-more than a few decades or, at most, centuries; and few have so far been
-discovered to contain superimposed remains illustrating any long period
-of development. Where such evidence is so rare, what can be found
-naturally becomes of the greatest importance; hence the recent diligent
-search for, and excavation of, such sites as show signs of long
-occupancy.</p>
-
-<p>The choice of Pecos for investigation by Phillips Academy was due to the
-above considerations. The ruin was a large one, was occupied at the time
-of the Discovery and was not abandoned until 1838. A surface examination
-also showed that it must have been tenanted for a long time prior to the
-Conquest because its mounds were scattered over with potsherds not only
-of recent date, but also of several distinct prehistoric types, each one
-well enough known to students, but whose relative ages were entirely a
-matter of conjecture. It was hoped, therefore, that excavation might
-disclose some definite cases of superposition, and that several
-prehistoric periods might thereby be arranged in their proper
-chronological order.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
-
-<p>The results have been more than satisfactory. Pecos proved to have been
-built on the edge of a sharp-sided mesa, a fact not suspected before
-digging began, because the rubbish from the town had heaped up to such
-an extent against the original cliff as completely to mask its
-steepness. The first inhabitants naturally threw their refuse over the
-edge of the mesa, their descendants added to the accumulation, and the
-process continued down the centuries until there grew up a midden of
-enormous extent and, for the Southwest, of unusually great depth. It is
-stratified as neatly as a layer-cake.</p>
-
-<p>When the exploratory trenches revealed the size and probable importance
-of the Pecos rubbish heap, all other projects were postponed, and two
-full field-seasons were devoted to the meticulous dissection of large
-areas of the deepest deposit. At frequent intervals stratigraphic tests
-were made, in which all the specimens from each successive stratum were
-kept separate and shipped to the Museum for study. It was found that
-many changes in culture had taken place during the long occupancy of
-Pecos; in the stone and bone implements, in the pipes, and in burial
-customs. But the most abundant, the most easily gathered, and the most
-readily interpreted evidence of cultural change was offered by the
-thousands of pottery fragments that filled the mound from subsoil to
-surface.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4">{4}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We have been able to recognize about twenty distinct wares, to arrange
-them into eight chronological groups, and to determine the exact
-sequence of these groups. This information, derived from the
-stratigraphic study of the pottery in the mounds, has been of the
-greatest value. Its application has been both local and non-local. In
-the excavations that we have since carried on at Pecos it has enabled us
-to date relatively to each other the various kivas, cemeteries, and
-small refuse mounds that occurred on the mesa top, and also to unravel
-much more confidently than we would otherwise have been able to do, the
-extraordinarily complex jumble of ruined, torn-down, stone-robbed,
-rebuilt, abandoned, and reoccupied rooms that we encountered when we
-attacked the pueblo itself. As helpful as has been the knowledge of the
-sequence of the pottery types in working out the details of local
-archaeology, its usefulness in that regard is small as compared with the
-flood of light which has been thrown on much larger and more vital
-problems. It has just been stated that some twenty types of pottery were
-identified; the majority of these are not peculiar to Pecos; many of
-them occur throughout large areas in the Rio Grande drainage; and so we
-are now able, in most cases by a hasty examination of the surface
-sherds, to assign to its proper place in the chronological series any
-ruin at which our types are present. Thus mere reconnaissance (a cheap
-and rapid undertaking) now serves to make clear the major outlines of
-Rio Grande archaeology. But the usefulness of the stratigraphic studies
-at Pecos does not end with the territory in which the Pecos types of
-pottery are found, for Pecos, because of its size and because of its
-situation on the main route between the Pueblo country to the West and
-the buffalo ranges to the East, was an important trade centre.</p>
-
-<p>From its mounds we have taken potsherds from almost all parts of the
-Southwest, shells from the Pacific, spindle-whorls from Central Mexico,
-as well as pottery and stone objects from the Mississippi drainage. The
-importance of such finds is evident; every sherd from an outside culture
-found in a datable stratum at Pecos helps to fit into our general
-chronological scheme the culture from which it came; as conversely, does
-every Pecos or even Rio Grande sherd that turns up beyond the limits of
-the Rio Grande. Only a start has been made, but enough has already come
-to light at Pecos and at such stratified sites as have been excavated by
-other institutions, to provide us with a surprisingly full knowledge of
-the rise and growth of the Pueblo civilization. Ten years ago it would
-have been hard to believe how much could be accomplished by the
-stratigraphic work carried on by Nelson in the Galisteo Basin, Hodge at
-Hawikuh, Judd at Pueblo Bonito, Morris at Aztec, Guernsey in the Kayenta
-country, and the writer and his associates at Pecos.</p>
-
-<p>The work, as I have said, has just begun, but the prospects are bright.
-Success will depend, as in any such endeavor, upon intelligent
-excavation, careful collection of data, and accurate observation of
-specimens, but the investigator cannot hope to derive the best results
-from his labors if he does not hold to a very broad view of his field.
-He must familiarize himself not only with the material of the locality
-he is working in but must also know as much as possible about that of
-other regions, for it is of the last importance that trade-objects be
-recognized wherever they occur. Of all trade-objects, vessels and
-potsherds are likely to be the commonest and most easily recognizable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5">{5}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When the members of the Pecos expedition realized how vitally important
-was to be a close knowledge of the pottery, not only of that particular
-site, but also of the Rio Grande in general, and, indeed, of the entire
-Southwest, they devoted a large part of their time, both in the field
-and at the Museum, to the study of ceramics. A difficulty was at once
-encountered in our ignorance of the technique of Pueblo pottery making.
-We were constantly obliged to compare the paints and slips of different
-wares, to decide whether observed variations were technically
-fundamental, or were merely accidents of clay-mixing or firing. No full
-published accounts existed, nor had any of us had the opportunity for
-more than casual observation of potters at work. Dr. Guthe, accordingly,
-spent the month of August, 1921, at San Ildefonso in making detailed
-studies. His results are published in the hope that they may be of use
-to Southwestern archaeologists and ethnologists, and also to students of
-the primitive pottery of other areas who may be in need of material for
-comparative purposes.</p>
-
-<p>In order that the reader may envisage the long history that lies behind
-the work of the modern potters, I give a summary of our present
-knowledge of the origin and development of pottery in the Southwest.</p>
-
-<p>To go back to the very beginning, it is not yet certain whether pottery
-making was introduced into the region from Mexico, or whether it was a
-local invention. There is evidence in favor of each theory. As will
-presently be shown, there can be traced in the Southwest an almost
-unbroken development from the earliest and crudest forms, through
-intermediate stages, to the perfected styles of later times; nor can
-Mexican influence be seen in the wares themselves at any period from
-beginning to end. Hence it might appear that the art was of purely local
-origin and growth. On the other hand, Mexico was the breeding ground for
-all the higher elements of native American culture; corn-growing, the
-cultivation of cotton, the use of stone masonry, the true loom, etc.,
-and it is practically certain that all these traits worked into the
-Southwest from Mexico. It would thus seem reasonable to suppose that the
-concept of pottery came from the same source, particularly as pottery
-does not appear in our area until some time after the introduction of
-corn, and the mere presence of corn proves contact of one sort or
-another with Mexico, where presumably pottery had been in use for a
-considerable period. My present feeling is, however, that the
-importation consisted of no more than the bare idea that vessels could
-be made of clay, and that the subsequent development of the art was
-entirely unaffected by outside influences. This question, so important
-for its bearing on general problems of dissemination <i>versus</i>
-independent origin of culture traits, can only be settled by work in the
-archaeologically still unknown field of northern Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest inhabitants of the Southwest of whom we have certain
-knowledge were the Basket Makers, so called by their discoverer because
-basketry rather than pottery was buried with their dead. They lived in
-southeastern Utah and northern Arizona, were an agricultural or
-semi-agricultural people who built no permanent houses, and who had no
-true pottery. In some of the caves that they occupied, however, there
-have been found a few fragments of crude, unfired clay dishes whose
-thick, bungling sides bear the imprints of the fingers of their makers.
-Save for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6">{6}</a></span> occasional hesitating lines of incised marks, or straggling
-daubs of black paint, these vessels are undecorated. They bear no slip,
-nor, as was said above, were any of them subjected to the burning which
-would have converted them into true pottery. In the course of time,
-though whether that time should be counted in tens, or hundreds, or even
-thousands of years, we have at present no way of telling, the Basket
-Makers began to build houses of stone slabs, to group their hitherto
-scattered dwellings together into small communities, and, most important
-of all from the point of view of our present inquiry, to make hard,
-thin-walled, thoroughly fired vessels, in other words real pottery. The
-culture stage characterized by these</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_1" style="width: 446px;">
-<a href="images/ill_001.png">
-<img src="images/ill_001.png" width="446" height="331" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Outlines of Post-Basket Maker vessels. (Courtesy
-S. J. Guernsey.)</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">remains and further distinguishable from the classic Basket Maker on the
-basis of house structure, sandal form, and other traits, was first
-identified by S. J. Guernsey, and named by him “post-Basket Maker”.</p>
-
-<p>Post-Basket Maker pottery is simple in form and in decoration. It is
-normally light gray in color. The vessel forms most commonly found are
-bowls (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>, d, e), globular vessels with restricted orifices (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>,
-a), and water jars, the latter often having a swollen neck (<a href="#fig_1">fig. 1</a>, b).
-The body of the ware in cross-section has a markedly granular
-appearance, due to the large size of the bits of tempering material
-included in it. A small percentage of the bowls bear a thin white slip
-on the interior</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_2"  style="width: 449px;">
-<a href="images/ill_002.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_002.jpg" width="449" height="559" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 2</p>
-
-<p>ANCIENT CORRUGATED WARES</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Pre-Pueblo. b. Early Pueblo. c. Classic Pueblo period.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7">{7}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">and are ornamented with irregularly drawn designs in black paint (<a href="#fig_1">fig.
-1</a>, e). Many of the patterns suggest basketry prototypes.</p>
-
-<p>All in all, post-Basket Maker pottery, judging from the few specimens so
-far recovered, is surprisingly well made; so well as to raise the
-suspicion that an earlier stage still awaits discovery. Hints of such a
-stage have, indeed, been found in the form of heavy clay dishes,
-tempered with shredded juniper bark, unbaked but distinctly superior in
-size and workmanship to the Basket Maker product. These specimens have
-turned up in post-Basket Maker sites, but in caves stratigraphically so
-confused that it is still uncertain whether they antedated, or were
-contemporaneous with, the more highly-perfected post-Basket Maker wares.
-They are too crude, however, to be considered the direct forerunners of
-post-Basket Maker pottery. If the development took place in the San
-Juan, one step at least is still lacking. These questions will be
-answered by further work of the sort now being carried on by Guernsey in
-the Kayenta country and by Morris in the Canyon del Muerto.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_2"  style="width: 435px;">
-<a href="images/ill_003.png">
-<img src="images/ill_003.png" width="435" height="168" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Pre-Pueblo vessels.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>From post-Basket Maker times down to the present day, however, the
-development of Southwestern pottery can already be outlined with
-considerable confidence. The next stage is usually called the
-pre-Pueblo. It is marked by further improvements in house-building, by
-the introduction of cranial deformation, and by certain innovations in
-ceramics. It had been the custom with the post-Basket Makers (as among
-many primitive people) to build up their vessels by adding to the
-growing walls successive rings of clay. When the process was complete
-and the sides had reached the requisite height, all trace of the rings
-was obliterated by rubbing down the surface. In the interiors of some
-post-Basket Maker pieces, however, with orifices so small that a
-smoothing tool could not be introduced, there were left the telltale
-junction-lines between the structural rings. In pre-Pueblo times it
-became the fashion purposely to leave unsmoothed the last few rings at
-the necks of certain small cooking vessels (<a href="#fig_2">fig. 2</a>, a; pl. 2, a). This
-was the beginning of the elaborate coiled or corrugated technique, later
-so widely used.</p>
-
-<p>Pre-Pueblo black-on-white ware takes the form of bowls, pitchers,
-ladles, small jars, and ollas. Its paste is hard, is less heavily
-tempered than post-Basket Maker<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8">{8}</a></span> paste, and the surfaces of the pieces
-are better smoothed. The decoration is characterized by boldness and
-dash, the brushwork being correspondingly hasty. The lines are of
-irregular width, nor was care exercised that the junctions of strokes
-should be accurate. As is shown by the accompanying drawings (<a href="#fig_2">fig. 2</a>, b,
-c), the commonest elements are the stepped figure and the triangle, both
-often emphasized by sets of widely spaced thin lines which follow the
-outer edges of the basic patterns.</p>
-
-<p>The transition between the pre-Pueblo and the Pueblo was evidently a
-gradual one. There was no violent break, either in culture or in
-physical type; and so it is hard to say just where the dividing line
-should be drawn. The introduction of indented corrugated pottery,
-however, forms a convenient milepost on the road of ceramic progress.
-The change was brought about as follows: the plain, broad rings of
-pre-Pueblo ware were replaced by a continuous thin fillet of clay
-applied spirally; the junctions between the successive laps of the
-fillet were left unobliterated, not only at the neck, but over the
-entire vessel; and the fillet itself was also notched or pinched or
-otherwise indented to produce various ornamental effects (<a href="#plt_2">pl. 2</a>, b, c).
-Thus was made the well-known coiled or corrugated cooking-ware so
-characteristic of all the archaic true Pueblo ruins, a style introduced
-at about the same time as the development of the above-ground
-rectangular living-room, the clustered method of building, and the use
-of horizontally coursed masonry, all elements that are commonly
-recognized as typical of true Pueblo culture. The earliest varieties of
-Pueblo pottery are imperfectly known, for little work has so far been
-done in the small and often nearly obliterated mounds that mark the
-house-sites of the first pueblo-dwellers. It is certain, however, that
-in the San Juan and Little Colorado drainages there was a strong growth
-in corrugated ware. This technique was experimented on and played with.
-The variety and even virtuosity of the results are extraordinary: waved
-coiling, pinched coiling, incised coiling, and all manner of indenting
-were practised (<a href="#plt_2">pl. 2</a>, b). The black-on-white ware evidently did not
-advance so rapidly, the vessels, to judge from the sherds, were not
-particularly symmetrical as to shape or notable as to finish. The
-decoration ran to hachure in wavy lines and to poorly drawn spiral
-figures.</p>
-
-<p>As I have just said, little is known of the early Pueblo sites. The
-period which they represent, however, was undoubtedly a long one. The
-date of its beginning is entirely problematical, nor can we even say
-with any assurance when it ended, but the probabilities are that as
-early as the opening of the Christian era the Pueblos had begun to
-gather together into larger settlements, to develop the closely-knit
-community life, and the many-storied terraced style of architecture
-which typify the golden age of their existence. Between that time and
-1000 or 1100 A.D. the more or less uniform early culture split up into
-distinct and often highly specialized local sub-cultures, each of which
-followed its own line of growth in house-building, pottery-making, and
-the minor arts. It was during this general phase of Southwestern history
-that there came into being the great pueblos and cliff-dwellings that
-housed entire villages: Pueblo Bonito and the other Chaco Canyon towns;
-the cliffhouses of the Mesa Verde and of the Kayenta country; the
-enormous adobe constructions such as Casa Grande on the Gila and Casas
-Grandes in Chihuahua.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_3"  style="width: 448px;">
-<a href="images/ill_004.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_004.jpg" width="448" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 3</p>
-
-<p>OLD MODERN DECORATED WARE</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Acoma. b. Zuñi. c. Sia. d. Hopi. e. San Ildefonso. f. Tesuque. g.
-Santo Domingo. h. Cochiti.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_4"  style="width: 541px;">
-<a href="images/ill_005.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_005.jpg" width="541" height="449" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 4</p>
-
-<p>OLD PIECES FROM SAN ILDEFONSO</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a, b. Black-on-buff. c, d. Polished black.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9">{9}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>To describe the many different wares of the classic Pueblo period would
-entail far more space than is available in this introduction. Brief
-accounts of the more important styles are included in the first paper of
-the present series,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and a handbook of Southwestern pottery will, it
-is hoped, appear as a subsequent number. A single</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_3"  style="width: 440px;">
-<a href="images/ill_006.png">
-<img src="images/ill_006.png" width="440" height="445" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Black-on-white bowls of classic Pueblo period. a.
-Chaco Canyon. b. Mimbres Valley. c. Upper Gila River. d. Mesa Verde.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">illustration (<a href="#fig_3">fig. 3</a>) must suffice to show the bewildering variety and
-the high artistic perfection which were reached at this time.</p>
-
-<p>It seems ordained that periods of high achievement shall be followed by
-periods of slackening and even atrophy. So it was with the Pueblos. The
-years between about<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10">{10}</a></span> 1000 A.D. and the Spanish invasion of 1540 were
-evidently a time of tribulation. The formerly prosperous communities of
-the North and the South were abandoned, the population shrank, the arts
-degenerated, and when Coranado entered the Southwest he found the
-Pueblos occupying a mere fraction of their former range. What brought
-about this decline is not surely known, droughts, intertribal wars,
-pestilences, inbreeding, may all have been in part responsible; but its
-principal cause was probably the ever-increasing attacks of nomadic
-enemies. At all events Pueblo culture of the sixteenth century was not
-what it had been in the past, and pottery making suffered with the other
-arts. By that time the beautiful and elaborate, but difficult,
-corrugated technique had been given up, and cooking vessels had become
-mere unornamented pots; black-on-white ware with its handsome, intricate
-geometric decoration had long been extinct, replaced by various local
-styles, few of which equalled it in technical excellence or artistic
-perfection. As a matter of fact the ceramic products of the historic
-period are very little known. In old times pottery formed an essential
-accompaniment of the dead, hence at nearly every prehistoric ruin may be
-found a burial place richly stocked with mortuary vessels. With the
-arrival of the priests, however, missions and Catholic cemeteries were
-established, all interments took place under the supervision of the
-Padres, and no more bowls or ollas went into the graves.</p>
-
-<p>Pottery, of course, is short-lived, few vessels, other than reverently
-guarded ceremonial jars, can be expected to escape breakage for more
-than a generation or two, and so we have practically no material to
-illustrate the changes which took place between the Conquest and the
-present day. Much will eventually be learned in regard to seventeenth
-and eighteenth century Pueblo pottery, but the work will have to be done
-largely on the basis of sherds from the rubbish heaps of the older
-towns, and such broken pieces as may be found under the fallen walls of
-abandoned dwellings. We can, however, supplement this research by
-working backwards, so to speak, from the modern wares. If we can acquire
-a thorough knowledge of them it will be much easier to understand the
-fragmentary material we shall have to deal with in studying the early
-historic period. We should accordingly collect all possible data as to
-the wares turned out in recent years at the various pottery-making
-Pueblos.</p>
-
-<p>The term pottery-making Pueblos is used advisedly, for, queerly enough,
-no pottery is manufactured at a number of the towns. If this condition
-had come about within the last decade it would be easy to account for,
-as tin oil cans for holding water, enamelled pots for cooking, and china
-dishes for serving food have lately been pushing native pottery out of
-use. But no pottery, other than rough cooking ware, has been made for a
-long time at Taos, Picuris, San Felipe, Jemez, and Sandia; while the art
-is practically or wholly extinct at Laguna, Isleta, and Santa Ana.
-Potters occasionally marry into these towns and continue to exercise
-their craft, but they seem to have no disciples among their daughters or
-among the local tribeswomen. At all the other Pueblos, however, potting
-is still carried on, but in most cases with a decreasing output and a
-lamentable degeneration in technique. The vessels, being mostly made to
-sell to tourists or curio dealers, are carelessly fashioned, crudely
-decorated, and insufficiently fired. Good contemporary pieces</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_5"  style="width: 448px;">
-<a href="images/ill_007.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_007.jpg" width="448" height="548" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 5</p>
-
-<p>OLD MODERN SAN ILDEFONSO WARES</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a, c, d. Polychrome. b, e. Black-on-red.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_6"  style="width: 453px;">
-<a href="images/ill_008.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_008.jpg" width="453" height="609" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 6</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy K. M. Chapman</i></p>
-
-<p>PRESENT-DAY POLYCHROME WARE BY MARIA MARTINEZ</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11">{11}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">are becoming rare, and the older vessels, which are naturally the best
-material for study, are now almost gone from the villages. Some pieces,
-however, are still left, and many more are in the hands of Mexicans and
-Americans living in the Southwest. These should be got into the custody
-of museums as rapidly as possible, for pottery is fragile stuff and
-every year sees the breakage of many unreplacable old vessels.</p>
-
-<p>Excellent work in collecting and preserving the older pieces is being
-done by certain residents of Santa Fe, who have organized the
-“Southwestern Pottery Fund”. In spite of limited resources they have got
-together a most remarkable collection from the Eastern pueblos, and are
-constantly adding to it as specimens come into the market.</p>
-
-<p>A plate showing a typical example of old modern decorated ware from each
-of the pottery-making pueblos is here given, in order that the reader
-may appreciate the striking differences which obtain (<a href="#plt_3">pl. 3</a>); San
-Ildefonso vessels of this period are illustrated elsewhere (pls. 4, 5).</p>
-
-<p>In closing this introduction something should be said of the older San
-Ildefonso wares, and of the remarkable renaissance which has led to the
-high artistic achievements of the present-day potters.</p>
-
-<p>Of the pottery made at San Ildefonso during the early historic period we
-have as yet no definite knowledge, but from the fact that the sherds at
-the ruined pueblo of Cuyamongé, a Tewa village only a few miles from San
-Ildefonso which was abandoned in 1698, are closely similar to the
-seventeenth century wares of Pecos, we may conclude that the San
-Ildefonso product of that time also bore resemblance to that of Pecos.
-The Pecos wares in question have as yet been but briefly described.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
-The following are the leading varieties: rough black cooking ware;
-polished red; polished black; and decorated ware of two varieties,
-black-on-buff, and black-and-red-on-buff. The ornamentation is in heavy
-black lines, for the most part sloppily drawn, but the designs are bold,
-free, and effective. Although these styles all differ to some extent
-from the ceramics of late nineteenth century San Ildefonso, the artistic
-and technical relationship of the two groups is evident at a glance. The
-principal differences lie in the much greater amount of polished red
-found at Pecos, and in the absence from Pecos of a black-on-red
-decorated ware made at San Ildefonso.</p>
-
-<p>What we know of nineteenth century San Ildefonso pottery is derived from
-pieces found in the pueblo when collecting began about 1870; and from
-vessels secured between that date and 1900. The oldest examples we have
-were thus probably not made much before 1850, and the great bulk of the
-specimens now in museums and in private hands were presumably turned out
-during the last third of the century. This material (aside from cooking
-pots, of which the older collections contain practically no examples) is
-divisible into five types, two plain and three decorated. The plain
-wares are polished black and polished red; the decorated are
-black-on-buff, black-and-red-on-buff (usually called polychrome), and
-black-on-red.</p>
-
-<p>The polished black and polished red are, as Dr. Guthe brings out in
-greater detail below (p. 74), merely variants of the same ware&mdash;the red
-being produced by a preliminary burning in a more or less open fire&mdash;the
-black by smothering the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12">{12}</a></span> fire with pulverized manure at a late stage in
-the burning. Vessels of both sorts were evidently made at San Ildefonso
-during the period under discussion, the red rarely, the black fairly
-commonly. It is usually supposed that the making of these wares,
-particularly the polished black, was confined to the nearby town of
-Santa Clara, and vessels of the latter type are ordinarily referred to
-as “Santa Clara black”. This is a natural enough error as the Santa
-Clara turn out nothing but the polished wares, and until the last ten
-years they led all the other pueblos in the excellence of their
-manufacture. The Indians of San Ildefonso, however, say that they have
-always made polished black pottery, and while its production may have
-partly or wholly lapsed during the 90’s and early 1900’s, there is
-little doubt that many of the older specimens, such as the ones here
-illustrated (<a href="#plt_4">pl. 4</a>), are actually from San Ildefonso. The majority of
-the examples of old black are large storage jars with full, round bodies
-and relatively small orifices; there are also capacious bowl-like
-vessels (called by the Mexicans <i>cajetes</i>), which were used for the
-mixing of dough. The old pieces are less meticulously finished than are
-those of today, but their deep, velvety black lustre is of even greater
-beauty than the extremely high polish of the modern pieces.</p>
-
-<p>The black-on-buff decorated ware was evidently the commonest variety of
-nineteenth century pottery. It took the form of prayer-meal bowls (small
-open vessels with terraced sides); medium-sized pots (<a href="#plt_3">pl. 3</a>, e); and
-large storage jars (<a href="#plt_4">pl. 4</a>). The ware, like all San Ildefonso work, is
-thick and heavy, giving a “woodeny” sound when tapped. The surface color
-is a creamy buff and the decoration is in deep black pigment. The
-bottoms of all the pieces, and the interiors of the necks of the jars,
-are painted red. The general nature of the elaborate designs is best
-brought out by the illustrations.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
-
-<p>Black-and-red-on-buff or polychrome was apparently not an abundant style
-in old times. Its occurrence at Cuyamongé and at Pecos, however, seem to
-indicate that it was always made at San Ildefonso. There are also in
-museums and private collections pieces which appear to be as old as any
-of the examples of non-polychrome. The style was seemingly limited to
-bowls and small jars (<a href="#plt_5">pl. 5</a>). The ware itself is the same as the
-foregoing, but various areas in the decorations (which themselves seem
-to differ from those of the black-on-buff) are filled in with a purplish
-red paint of very characteristic shade.</p>
-
-<p>The red-on-black, like the polychrome, was not common. As was said
-above, it is absent from Pecos and Cuyamongé, therefore it is apparently
-of fairly recent origin in the Rio Grande. Its introduction or invention
-may, indeed, date from as recent a time as 1850. It differs from the
-buff wares in having a dark red slip, much more highly polished than are
-the buff slips. The decoration is in deep black. No large pieces, as far
-as I know, were made, most specimens being small globular jars without
-necks. One of these and a vase-like vessel are illustrated (<a href="#plt_5">pl. 5</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Such was the pottery of San Ildefonso during the second half of the
-nineteenth century. Toward the end of that period, however, a marked
-degeneration set in.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_7"  style="width: 448px;">
-<a href="images/ill_009.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_009.jpg" width="448" height="606" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 7</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy K. M. Chapman</i></p>
-
-<p>PRESENT-DAY SAN ILDEFONSO POTTERY</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a, b. Black-on-red by Antonita Roybal. c. Polychrome, by Maria
-Martinez&mdash;one black-on-red piece by Maximiliana Martinez.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13">{13}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This was due to the substitution for native pottery of American utensils
-for cooking, food-serving, and containing water; and to the growing
-tendency to produce pottery for sale to curio stores and tourists rather
-than for home use. The black-on-buff ware and the polished black were
-given up entirely, the potters concentrating on the more showy
-black-on-red and particularly on the polychrome. In the case of the
-black-on-red the high gloss of the older pieces was no longer produced,
-and the paint, being neither carefully mixed nor sufficiently aged (see
-p. 26) developed on firing a dull, bluish cast. The polychrome also fell
-off in technical perfection and in artistic excellence. The old, dull,
-purplish reds were replaced by brighter colors, the designs became
-flamboyant, and many ugly non-Indian vessel shapes were introduced (<a href="#fig_4">fig.
-4</a>). This state of affairs went from bad to worse until, in 1907, the
-potter’s art at San Ildefonso was in a thoroughly bad way. A few women,
-however,</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_4"  style="width: 435px;">
-<a href="images/ill_010.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_010.jpg" width="435" height="216" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Bad examples of modern pottery&mdash;un-Indian shapes
-and slipshod decoration.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">retained something of the old craftsmanship and were ready to profit by
-the opportunity which was about to present itself.</p>
-
-<p>In 1907 Dr. E. L. Hewett of the School of American Research began a
-series of excavations in the ancient ruins of the Pajarito Plateau. The
-diggers were all Tewa Indians from San Ildefonso. They proved to be
-excellent shovelmen, who took a keen interest in everything they found.
-They helped us identify many specimens which would otherwise have been
-puzzling, and their comments on the pottery, and especially on the
-designs, were most illuminating. The women of the Pueblo, when visiting
-camp, often held animated discussions as to the vessels from the ruins,
-and it was suggested to some who were known to be good potters, that
-they attempt to revive their art, and try to emulate the excellence of
-the ancient wares. While the response was not immediate, there was
-observable, during the next few years, a distinct improvement in the
-pottery of San Ildefonso. Realizing the importance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14">{14}</a></span> this, the
-authorities of the Museum of New Mexico and the School of American
-Research threw themselves heartily into the task of stimulating the
-industry. They urged the women to do better and better work, and in
-particular induced them to return to the sound canons of native art.
-Some old pieces remained in the pueblo, many others were in the Museum,
-of still others photographs were obtained. These were all brought to the
-attention of the potters.</p>
-
-<p>The undertaking was not an easy one, however, for it was difficult to
-get most of the women to go to the trouble of making good pieces when
-the tourists, who were still the principal purchasers, were equally or
-even better pleased with imitations of china water-pitchers, ill-made
-raingods, and candlesticks. The problem thus resolved itself into one of
-supplying a market. The Museum bought many good pieces, and Mr. Chapman,
-who from the beginning had been a leading spirit in the attempt at
-rehabilitating the art, himself purchased large amounts of pottery,
-never refusing a creditable piece, never accepting a bad one.</p>
-
-<p>Progress was slow, but eventually certain women, becoming interested in
-their work, made real progress both technically and artistically. Their
-products began to sell more freely and at better prices than did those
-of others. Antonita Roybal, Ramona Gonzales, Maximiliana Martinez, and
-Maria Martinez all turned out fine vessels, the two latter being greatly
-aided by their husbands, who developed into skillful decorators. Maria
-especially shone. By 1915 she had far surpassed all the others, her pots
-were in great demand, and at the present time she has a ready market, at
-prices which ten years ago would have seemed fantastic, for everything
-she can find time to make. Her income is probably not less than
-$2,000.00 a year, and following her example, many other women are now
-doing fine work and are earning substantial amounts. The beneficial
-effect of this on the pueblo has naturally been great. New houses have
-been built, new farm machinery, better food, and warmer clothing have
-been bought, and, best of all, there has been acquired a wholesome
-feeling of independence and of accomplishment, the value of which cannot
-be gauged in dollars and cents.</p>
-
-<p>From the point of view of ceramics the development has been most
-interesting. Maria began with the manufacture of polychrome ware, as
-that was the style most commonly being made at the time. The shapes were
-improved, the finish of the surfaces was given greater attention, and
-the decorations were applied with a surer, more delicate touch (<a href="#plt_6">pl. 6</a>;
-pl. 7, c). Black-on-red ware was taken in hand, the oldtime polish was
-restored, the vegetable paint properly prepared and aged (<a href="#plt_7">pl. 7</a>, a, b).
-Polished black was also reintroduced; pieces of this sort, with their
-simple, graceful shapes and high black gloss sold so well that they soon
-became an important product (<a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>, b). In 1921, as Dr. Guthe records
-(p. 24), Maria discovered how to apply to polished vessels dull designs
-which give the appearance of being etched (<a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>, a). This method was in
-its infancy when Dr. Guthe made his study, but it has since proved so
-remarkably successful that it bids fair to drive out completely the
-making of plain polished ware. Late in the past autumn there appeared at
-the Indian Fair in Santa Fe, some pieces of a warm pinkish color, an
-entirely new departure in San Ildefonso pottery making, and one which
-promises much of interest. Developments and changes in design have kept
-pace with the improvements in</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_8"  style="width: 450px;">
-<a href="images/ill_011.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_011.jpg" width="450" height="591" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 8</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy K. M. Chapman</i></p>
-
-<p>PRESENT-DAY POLISHED BLACK WARES</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">{15}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">technique, yet the development has been purely Indian, and the basic
-processes of today are essentially the same as they were a hundred or a
-thousand years ago.</p>
-
-<p>A somewhat similar revival has taken place at the Hopi towns in Arizona.
-In 1897 Dr. J. W. Fewkes of the Bureau of Ethnology was excavating the
-ruin of Sikyatki near First Mesa. Nampeo, a woman of Hano, the wife of
-one of the workmen, observed the beautiful old bowls that came from the
-graves, skillfully copied their designs and then searched out beds of
-clay that could be burned to the exact shades of the ancient pieces. Her
-work was a direct imitation of a lost style rather than a development,
-such as Maria’s, of a current one; but the effect has been no less
-extraordinary. Nampeo’s bowls and ollas were so attractive that they
-sold well; they were copied by other women for sale and for their own
-use, and thus the potter’s art of the Hopi was not only greatly
-stimulated but also radically changed.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to their economic importance, the cases of San Ildefonso and
-Hopi are of great interest as anthropological phenomena. The stimulus at
-both places was of course partly commercial, but it could scarcely have
-acted without an inherent capacity for rapid artistic and technical
-progress among the Indians themselves, nor could it possibly have
-brought about such great results without the inspiring example of
-exceptionally gifted leaders. It is, therefore, quite conceivable that
-other stimuli, as the discovery of new clays of surpassing excellence,
-or of fine new pigments, may have proved equally potent in ancient
-times, and that some of the striking mutations in pottery making, which
-have so puzzled archaeologists, may have been originally started by such
-discoveries, and been brought to fruition by the genius of prehistoric
-Marias and Nampeos.</p>
-
-<p class="r">
-<span class="smcap">A. V. Kidder</span><br />
-<i>Director Pecos Expedition</i><br />
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16">{16}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17">{17}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<h1><a name="PUEBLO_POTTERY_MAKING" id="PUEBLO_POTTERY_MAKING"></a>PUEBLO POTTERY MAKING</h1>
-
-<p class="c"><span class="smcap">By</span> CARL E. GUTHE</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p>The Pueblo of San Ildefonso is a Tewa village of about one hundred
-people, situated on the east bank of the Rio Grande some twenty miles
-northeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico. San Ildefonso was chosen for the
-present study because its women have always been skillful potters, and
-under the wise and friendly encouragement of the authorities of the
-School of American Research at Santa Fe have of recent years been
-steadily improving in their work without, however, sacrificing any of
-their native methods. Furthermore, they make more varieties of pottery
-than are turned out at any other one village. Last, and in some ways
-most important, the men of San Ildefonso have for a long time been
-accustomed to work in the various excavations carried on by the School,
-cordial relations have been established, the confidence of the Indians
-has been thoroughly won, and I did not encounter that reticence toward
-strangers, so characteristic of the Rio Grande Pueblos, because I was
-known to be a friend of their friends.</p>
-
-<p>To the Pueblo woman pottery making is simply one of the mechanical
-household tasks, just as dishwashing is among us. Nearly every woman at
-San Ildefonso is a potter, good, bad, or indifferent. In two cases, at
-least, women have developed into real artists, and are relieved of other
-household duties in order to devote their time to pottery making. Each
-potter of today watched her mother make innumerable pots while she was
-growing up, and now with a family of her own, she makes pottery just as
-did her mother. Many steps and small details are carried out for no
-other reason than that the mother used to do likewise. Obviously every
-potter has her own technique, which differs slightly from that of
-others. The daughters in one family work in more nearly the same manner
-than outsiders, because they all have had the same teacher. In this
-report the attempt has been made not only to record the essential steps
-in the making of pottery, but also to note individual variations as an
-index of the amount of latitude a given process may permit.</p>
-
-<p>Because religion and ceremony play so important a role in the everyday
-life of the Pueblo Indians, it is certain that there must be involved in
-the making of pottery and particularly in its decoration, a mass of
-esoteric beliefs and practises. The Pueblos, however, are so loath to
-refer in any way to the mystical side of their existence, and, if it is
-even mentioned, at once become so suspicious, that it seemed best to
-steer clear of all allusion to such matters. The present report,
-therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">{18}</a></span> confines itself to a description and discussion of the
-purely technical side of the potter’s art.</p>
-
-<p>The writer is indebted to the staff of the School of American Research,
-especially to Mr. Kenneth M. Chapman, for the facilities given for and
-the interest shown in the work; also to the Governor of San Ildefonso,
-Juan Gonzales, for his cordial coöperation. Of the eight informants
-used, Maria, wife of Julian Martinez, and Antonita, wife of Juan Cruz
-Roybal, should specially be mentioned because of their constant
-patience, and their willingness to answer the many questions which to
-them must often have seemed absurd. Thanks are also due to the American
-Museum of Natural History, New York, for the photographs of pottery
-making at Zuñi (pls. 28-31) which are introduced in this paper for
-comparative purposes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_9"  style="width: 454px;">
-<a href="images/ill_012.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_012.jpg" width="454" height="630" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 9</p>
-
-<p>WINNOWING CLAY</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Hand method. As the material is sifted through the uplifted hands,
-the wind blows the fine, pure clay upon the shawl at the left, while the
-heavier impurities drop back on the pile.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Basket method. The clay is repeatedly tossed upward from the basket,
-until all the fine particles have been blown out and have fallen upon
-the shawl.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19">{19}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="RAW_MATERIALS_COLLECTION_AND_PREPARATION" id="RAW_MATERIALS_COLLECTION_AND_PREPARATION"></a>RAW MATERIALS; COLLECTION, AND PREPARATION</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Ingredients</span></h3>
-
-<h3><i>Red Clay</i><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h3>
-
-<p>The region most often visited for obtaining this clay is directly south
-of San Ildefonso, about a quarter of a mile from the village itself, in
-the arroyos of the low hills.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The deposit lies directly under a
-sandstone ledge and spreads over a considerable area. The clay is in the
-form of soft earth, easily scooped up with the hand. In gathering it the
-Indians first scrape off the top half-inch or so, which contains
-impurities such as small pebbles and twigs. When an area from two to
-three feet in diameter has been cleared in this way, the clay itself is
-scooped into a loose pile in the centre of the space, and transferred by
-the cupped hands into a woman’s shawl or a gunny-sack, and so
-transported to the house on the back.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p>One method of cleaning the clay may be used either at the beds or at
-home. The material is winnowed like wheat to remove small pebbles and
-fine gravel, either of which will ruin a vessel. The larger impurities
-are of course picked out by hand. The cloth containing the clay is
-placed in front of the woman and a second cloth or shawl is spread on
-the ground to leeward of her. A gusty wind requires several shiftings of
-the shawl, to the woman’s evident annoyance. A double handful is lifted
-and allowed to sift through the fingers; the fine particles and dust are
-blown upon the shawl by the wind, while the heavier pieces fall again
-upon the pile of uncleaned clay (<a href="#plt_9">pl. 9</a>, a). The height to which the
-hands are lifted, varying from three to five feet, the speed of the
-movements, and the rapidity with which the material is allowed to sift
-through the fingers, all depend upon the force of the wind. Sometimes,
-instead of lifting the clay in the hands, it is allowed to flow over the
-side of a shallow basket tilted toward the woman at the level of her
-shoulder; the coarser particles fall straight down in front of her on
-the pile of uncleaned clay. Another variation is to toss the clay into
-the air from a shallow basket (<a href="#plt_9">pl. 9</a>, b). The movement is repeated
-quickly and rhythmically; the wind as before blowing the fine stuff on
-the shawl, while the coarse particles fall back into the basket. After
-this tossing has been repeated a dozen or more times, the residue, which
-consists mostly of coarse impurities, is thrown away. The process
-occupies approximately half an hour, depending somewhat upon the amount
-of clay handled. The cleaned<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">{20}</a></span> clay, which is now ready for mixing, is by
-no means entirely dust; it contains no lumps, but flaky particles fully
-three-sixteenths of an inch across are often found in it.</p>
-
-<p>If at the time of gathering the wind is not strong enough for winnowing,
-the uncleaned clay is brought to the house. Here it may be kept for a
-windy day, or may at once be sifted through an ordinary kitchen sieve of
-medium large mesh.</p>
-
-<p>The clay, when cleaned, may be stored in a variety of receptacles
-(pottery vessels, sacks, or boxes), or, if it is the intention of the
-woman to use it within a few days, it is simply left in the shawl.
-During the fall the Indians gather great quantities of clay, and pile it
-on the floor in the corner of a room for use during the winter when the
-clay beds are frozen.</p>
-
-<p>The preparation of the clay for use consists of two processes, mixing
-and kneading. The mixing, which as a rule immediately precedes the
-kneading, consists of the addition of temper (see page 21). This is done
-while both ingredients are dry. Different varieties of clay are not
-mixed together. The work is done on a piece of canvas, an opened
-cement-sack, or the inner side of a skin (usually that of a goat or
-dog).<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Either the clay or the temper may be put on the mixing surface
-first; the other ingredient is then added, and the whole is sifted
-through the fingers until the mass is uniform in color. The Indians have
-no definite idea of the necessary proportions. They judge simply by the
-color of the resulting mixture. The proportions used by three different
-informants seemed to be about one-third temper and two-thirds clay.
-Before mixing, the clay is reddish brown; the addition of temper
-lightens the color several shades.</p>
-
-<p>The scrapings from partly finished vessels (see page 54) and the
-ground-up fragments of pots which have cracked badly in the course of
-sun-drying are used a second time. This re-used clay, since it already
-has temper in it, does not need to be mixed over again. It is mingled
-with newly mixed clay just before kneading, or is kneaded by itself, as
-occasion demands.</p>
-
-<p>The kneading is usually done on the same canvas or skin that was used
-for the mixing. If a large amount of clay is to be treated at one time,
-a quantity of water is poured into a hollow formed in the centre of the
-pile. Later, as the worked clay or paste approaches the proper
-consistency, water is sprinkled over it with one hand, just as clothes
-are sprinkled, at first copiously, later more sparingly. At the
-beginning, the entire mass is kneaded until the water has been
-thoroughly absorbed. When the paste is wet, it becomes of course
-considerably darker. It is then divided into masses which can easily be
-handled, about the size of two large loaves of white bread. The woman
-works the paste to a uniform consistency in exactly the same way that
-dough is kneaded (<a href="#plt_12">pl. 12</a>, a), and piles the masses, now ready for use in
-moulding, on a board or canvas, covering then with a piece of cloth to
-keep them damp until they come under the potter’s hands. The consistency
-is that of putty, just dry enough to crack if pinched. The mixing and
-kneading can be completed in half an hour.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_10"  style="width: 455px;">
-<a href="images/ill_013.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_013.jpg" width="455" height="594" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 10</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Indian digging material for tempering pottery from an outcrop near
-the village.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Guaco, or Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, from the juice of which is made
-black paint for decorating pottery.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21">{21}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>White Clay</i></h3>
-
-<p>White clay is used interchangeably with red, but the two are never
-mixed. It is obtained in the bad-lands to the northeast of San
-Ildefonso, from the side of an arroyo at some distance from the village.
-The Indians dig it, bring it home, and prepare it in exactly the same
-manner as the red clay. The color, when dry, is greyish white; when wet,
-brownish grey.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Temper</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Indians of San Ildefonso obtain their tempering material from
-outcrops along the Santa Fe-Española road, in the vicinity of the
-landmark known as Camel Rock. Near the crest of the first high hill
-crossed by the road north of Camel Rock, just west of the road, in the
-eastern bank of the cut of the old abandoned road, is a small cave made
-by the digging of this temper (<a href="#plt_10">pl. 10</a>, a). There is another outcrop in
-the ridge of which Camel Rock is a part. This mineral is a very light
-grey in color. When freshly exposed to the air it is soft and
-crumbly&mdash;fragments as large as the fist can be crushed in the hand&mdash;but
-after being exposed for some time it hardens. When chopped out with an
-axe or hatchet it takes the form of small fragments and fine powder.
-There are veins and nodules of a hard yellow rock in the stratum, which
-are chopped out and thrown away. The source of the temper is at such a
-distance from the pueblo that trips to it are made only at long
-intervals when a large quantity is secured in cement-bags, and carried
-home in a wagon. Two cement-bags may be filled with from fifteen to
-twenty minutes’ work at the quarry.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the Indians, while still at the quarry, pound the temper with an
-axe or hatchet, or a stone, to break the larger pieces and remove the
-coarser impurities. Others wait to clean it until reaching the house. In
-the latter case the temper is spread on a cloth or skin; the skin being
-preferred as offering a smoother, more resistant surface. It is then
-broken up by trampling it with moccasined feet. Formerly the Indians
-ground the temper on their metates. The final step in the preparation is
-to pass the material through a sieve to remove the smaller impurities
-such as sand and crushed rock. Before the sieve was known, the Indians
-spread the temper in a very thin layer on a board or skin, and went over
-it carefully and painstakingly with their fingers, feeling for any
-slight irregularities or rough places. The temper when cleaned is a fine
-powder, which looks and feels like dry cement. It is stored in old
-cement-bags ready to be mixed with the clay.</p>
-
-<p>The purpose of the addition of tempering material is to counteract the
-tendency of the pure clay to crack during the shrinkage that takes place
-in sun-drying and in firing. If, however, there is too much temper, the
-clay becomes “short” and loses its adhesiveness. The Indians understand
-this fully, for if vessels crack badly during sun-drying, they are
-ground up, and more temper is added to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22">{22}</a></span> the paste before it is used
-again; if, on the other hand, a pot will not retain its shape while
-being moulded, it is pulled down, more dry clay added to the paste, and
-the mass rekneaded.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Cooking-Vessel, or Apache, Clay</i></h3>
-
-<p>This is very different from the two other kinds of clays used. It is
-light brown in color, with a large quantity of fine mica flakes in
-it<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>; it also has a distinctive odor. When wet it smells cleaner and
-fresher than the red or white clay, like a newly plowed field after a
-shower. Some of the San Ildefonso Indians obtain this clay from Las
-Truchas, a mountain district to the northeast of the village<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>; others
-get it from Santa Fe Canyon. It is dug either with the hand or with a
-small stick, and is brought to the pueblo in the form of small lumps.
-While still in this condition, it is stored in vessels or bags.</p>
-
-<p>The preparation for use is very different from that of the other clays.
-The lumps are put in a receptacle, such as an enameled washbasin, and
-sufficient water is added to saturate them. If too much water has been
-mixed in, the mass is put in the sun to dry out for a while. After the
-clay has been thoroughly softened by the water, the next step is to
-remove the pebbles. A small handful is carefully and slowly squeezed and
-kneaded in the left hand, while the thumb and forefinger of the right
-are used to pick out the numerous small pebbles as they are encountered.
-After most of these have been removed, the clay is put on a canvas or
-skin, and a small part of it at a time is flattened out with the heel of
-the right hand, pressing away from the body, and against the cloth or
-skin so as to produce a very thin layer, in which the smaller pebbles
-are readily felt and from which they can easily be eliminated. Finally
-when this has been done with all the clay, the whole mass is kneaded
-together, just as the red and white clays are kneaded. When a uniform
-consistency has been attained&mdash;that of putty&mdash;the mass is ready for use.
-The removal of pebbles and the kneading consume from one-half to
-three-quarters of an hour. The pebbles which have been removed are
-placed in a small lard-pail containing water, and when the clay adhering
-to them has dissolved, they are thrown away and the clayey water is used
-in the process of moulding the paste.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23">{23}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The most important difference between this clay and the others is that
-no temper of any kind is mixed with it; the clay, after being cleaned,
-is used in the vessels just as it came out of the claypit. The fine mica
-flakes probably act as temper.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Slips and Paints</span></h3>
-
-<p><i>Native Slip</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
-
-<p>This is a white, flaky, fairly soft mineral, which is used in solution
-to give a white outer coating to the bodies of vessels. It is found at
-some distance from the pueblo, beyond the bad-lands which are visible to
-the northeast. When the Indians reach the place they pick up small
-sticks to use as digging tools, but if the deposit happens to be soft
-enough, the material is merely scooped out with the hand. It is carried
-home in shawls or bags, and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly; then
-stored in pottery vessels, usually ollas. It receives no further
-treatment at this time. When preparing it for use, the Indians simply
-place it in water as it is, in small lumps. The container is either a
-small pottery vessel or an enamelled basin. A sufficient amount is mixed
-with the water to give it the color of milk, but not to thicken it.
-Occasionally the consistency of thin cream is obtained. Undissolved
-lumps remain in the solution.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Santo Domingo Slip</i></h3>
-
-<p>This substance, known to the Indians of San Ildefonso either as “Santo
-Domingo white” or “Cochiti white”, is usually obtained from the Santo
-Domingo people; it is dug, according to some informants, in the same
-manner as the native slip. In color and general appearance it is exactly
-like the latter, but its surface feels more soapy. Santo Domingo slip
-has largely replaced the native product, because when applied it does
-not need to be polished with a stone, as does the native slip. It is
-prepared for use in exactly the same manner as the native slip.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Red Slip</i></h3>
-
-<p>This is a rather loose red earth, which is dug either with the hands or,
-if conditions demand it, with a small stick. The San Ildefonso Indians
-obtain it near Santa Fe, but not all of the women know the exact
-location of the beds. One informant said it was found in Santa Fe
-Canyon, east of the town, a short distance below the Apache clay beds,
-at a spot where the convicts from the Penitentiary get material for
-their bricks. There are three different colors of clay at this place,
-red, yellow, and white. The red is the clay under discussion. The white
-is used to color the women’s moccasins.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24">{24}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This slip is handled in much the same manner as the other clays. It is
-brought home in the usual receptacles&mdash;either shawls or bags&mdash;and placed
-in the sun to dry thoroughly. It is then stored, usually in ollas or
-other earthenware vessels, without further treatment.</p>
-
-<p>There are two ways of preparing red slip for use, according to the kind
-of vessel for which it is intended. For polished black ware, it is
-simply mixed to a thin solution with water. For decorated red ware, the
-process is slightly complicated. At some previous time, equal parts of
-temper and native slip have been mixed in water and allowed to dry in
-cakes. When desired for use on a vessel, the cakes are broken and
-redissolved in water. A sufficient amount is put in to give the water an
-opaque, milky color, but not to thicken it. To this mixture is added a
-thin solution of the red slip. There is, apparently, no definite rule in
-regard to the amount of the red solution to be added. The woman simply
-puts in enough to give to the slip, when applied to a pot, the proper
-shade of red. In some cases this mixing of the red and white is done
-once for all at the beginning of the application of the red slip. In
-other cases the woman has a bowl of each solution beside her, and from
-time to time, as she works, adds some of the red to the white. In each
-bowl lumps of the undissolved substances still remain. Occasionally the
-slip is stirred to the consistency of cream, but nearly always it has
-that of water.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Orange-Red Slip</i></h3>
-
-<p>This substance is a yellow clayey earth, in texture somewhat like the
-two white slips. It occurs in the “Valle” to the west, beyond the first
-Jemez range, near Ojo Caliente. It is dug with a stick, in the same
-manner as the native white, and is carried home in shawls and bags.
-Before being stored it is put out in the sun to dry thoroughly, then
-placed in ollas and kept until needed. Like the other slips, it is
-prepared for use by being mixed with water. A saturated solution is
-made, but the consistency remains that of water.</p>
-
-<p>This material, which in solution is a brilliant yellow, is used for two
-purposes&mdash;as a slip to color the bases of bowls and ollas, and as a
-paint to supply the red elements of polychrome designs. After being
-fired it assumes an orange-red or burnt-sienna color.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Black Ware Paint</i></h3>
-
-<p>This is a paint used for making matte designs on polished black ware, a
-new departure in decorative technique first used by Maria and Julian
-Martinez of San Ildefonso, in June, 1921. The substance is a hard yellow
-stone, said to occur<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25">{25}</a></span> in the “Valle”, west of the Jemez range, near Ojo
-Caliente, in the same district as the orange-red paint.</p>
-
-<p>The first step in preparing the paint for use is to scrape the stone
-with a knife. The resulting powder is mixed with water, and there is
-then added about one-fourth as much dissolved “guaco” (see below) as
-there is paint. It is said that the purpose of the guaco is to make the
-paint “stick” to the polished surface. This paint, when ready for use,
-is kept in a small earthenware or china dish. The consistency of the
-mixture, like the other paints, is that of water.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Black or Guaco Paint</i></h3>
-
-<p>This is the only vegetable paint used by the San Ildefonso Indians for
-the decoration of their pottery. It is obtained from a very common weed,
-known as the Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, or Guaco,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which grows in the
-moister flats of this district in great profusion. It flowers late in
-July and early August, and the seedpods open toward the first of
-September. The Indians say it grows at a given place only in alternate
-years. In favorable spots the plants attain a height of five or six feet
-(<a href="#plt_10">pl. 10</a>, b).</p>
-
-<p>The plant is gathered during April and May, when the shoots are only six
-to ten inches high, and therefore tender. Great quantities of it are
-carried home in shawls and bags. It is placed with water in Apache-clay
-cooking-pots, and is boiled over an open fire, never on a stove. As
-guaco has a bitter taste (“hot like pepper”, the women describe it) when
-not cooked sufficiently, it is necessary to boil it until this
-unpleasant flavor has disappeared. Over a hot fire half a day is long
-enough, but often a whole day is required. Then the liquid is drained
-into wide-mouthed earthen vessels and placed in the sun to harden into a
-solid, black, rather sticky, mass. Some women reboil the liquid until it
-thickens, before placing it in the sun. Metal containers are not used,
-because they are said to spoil the color. The informants stated that
-hardened guaco was not eaten. When it has become completely solidified
-it is set away for future use in painting. It will keep indefinitely.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">{26}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The residue in the pot, after the liquid has been poured off consists of
-tender stems and leaves. This is eaten by the Indians, and is not unlike
-spinach.</p>
-
-<p>The hardened guaco juice is stored at least a year before it is used in
-painting; the longer it is kept the better black it produces. If it is
-used during the first year, the resulting color on the vessel is a
-streaky blue-black.</p>
-
-<p>Guaco is prepared for use in painting in the same manner as the other
-pigments. A chunk of the hardened mass is broken off and dissolved in
-water. One informant makes a solution which, although black, has the
-consistency of water. The others use a syrupy solution almost like thin
-molasses. The paint has a distinctive, not unpleasant, vegetable odor,
-and is rather sticky. Any small, wide-mouthed Indian bowl, not too
-shallow, is used as a paint-cup. In this bowl there is always a
-stirring-stick, usually a splinter from a board.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Fuel</span></h3>
-
-<h3><i>Manure</i></h3>
-
-<p>Both cow-manure and horse-manure are used for fuel in burning pottery,
-but sheep-dung, when obtainable, is preferred, because it is thought to
-make a hotter fire.</p>
-
-<p>The cow-manure is collected from the corrals, and while still soft is
-patted into large circular cakes, sixteen to twenty inches in diameter.
-These, after being hardened in the sun, are stored in a dry room until
-needed. Such circular cakes, with the hand-prints showing, are usually
-employed for making the top of the oven.</p>
-
-<p>The horse-manure is obtained from the corrals in the early spring, where
-during the winter it has been trampled down by the horses into a compact
-layer a foot or more thick. When the corrals are cleaned during April
-this deposit is cut with an axe into chunks roughly two feet square.
-After being removed, the squares are split with an axe into slabs
-several inches thick, which are then stood up against the bases of house
-or barn walls to dry in the sun, and later stored indoors until needed.
-Disused bread-ovens sometimes serve as temporary storage places. Further
-splitting of the slabs may be done at the time of firing. When used in
-the ovens the slabs are from one to two inches thick.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes the slabs of manure are placed in the sun for a day or two
-before being burned, but often they are taken directly from the
-store-room to the fire, where they are supplemented by dried manure
-collected from the pastures.</p>
-
-<p>During the burning of polished black ware (see p. 74) the oven is
-smothered with loose manure, which is brought in galvanized washtubs
-directly from the stables and corrals, either at the time of burning, or
-on the preceding day.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Kindling</i></h3>
-
-<p>For starting the fire in the oven no wood but cedar is ever used. This
-is cut into pieces from six to eighteen inches long and is split into
-fine kindling at the time of burning.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_11"  style="width: 369px;">
-<a href="images/ill_014.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_014.jpg" width="369" height="447" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 11</p>
-
-<p>Gourd spoons, or kajepes, used to shape and smooth the walls of
-vessels.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27">{27}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="PARAPHERNALIA" id="PARAPHERNALIA"></a>PARAPHERNALIA</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Primary Paraphernalia</span></h3>
-
-<h3><i>Earthenware Moulds or “Pukis”</i></h3>
-
-<p>These moulds are usually the bases of broken bowls or ollas.
-Occasionally pieces of pottery are made especially for moulds; in such
-cases, although they are fired, they are neither finished carefully nor
-decorated.</p>
-
-<p>When a mould is to be used, a small amount of temper or wood ashes is
-placed in it, so that the vessel being moulded will not stick to it.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Gourd Moulding Spoons or “Kajepes”</i></h3>
-
-<p>These spoon-like implements (<a href="#plt_11">pl. 11</a>) are made from pieces of gourd-rind,
-usually from broken rattles or dippers. They vary greatly in size,
-ranging in diameter from a little over one inch to as much as four, or
-four and a half, inches. There are also many different shapes: round,
-several forms of ovals, and a few which have one concave edge. The
-various shapes are used for the different parts of the vessels. As a
-general rule the larger kajepes are used on the larger vessels. Each
-woman has from four to a dozen of these implements, which are distinctly
-individual, for one potter shows awkwardness in handling the spoons of
-another. It is said that potsherds were formerly used for the same
-purpose as these gourd spoons.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Scrapers</i></h3>
-
-<p>Two kinds of scrapers are used at the present time. One is the top of a
-baking-powder can, which is popular because its shape makes it possible
-to apply it to any part of a vessel. The other scraper is an ordinary
-kitchen case-knife. The scraping of the vessels is done after they have
-been dried in the sun. It is said that potsherds, with edges sharpened
-on a piece of sandstone, were formerly used.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Polishing Stones</i></h3>
-
-<p>Very smooth, fine-grained pebbles of various colors are used to put the
-final finish on certain kinds of pottery. They vary considerably in
-size, from three-quarters of an inch long to three, or even three and a
-half, inches. It is impossible<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">{28}</a></span> to classify them by shape, except that
-the larger ones are usually more flat than spherical. Most of the stones
-appear to be waterworn pebbles, without any acute angles or sharp edges.
-Usually two surfaces of the stone are highly polished, most frequently
-at the ends, where they come in contact with the vessel. Some specimens
-show signs of great wear.</p>
-
-<p>Each potter has several polishing stones, the number varying from seven
-to sixteen; they are distinctly the personal property of the potter, and
-apparently have a semi-sacred significance. For the most part they are
-heirlooms, handed down from mother to daughter, but additional stones
-are picked up from ruins which the potters have visited. One informant
-has four stones which her mother gave her, and three which she found at
-the ruined pueblo of Puyé. Another informant uses a stone that belonged
-to her great-grandmother, although her favorite is a small one which she
-found herself at a nearby ruin. Stones are sometimes lent by one potter
-to another, but they very seldom find their way outside the family
-group.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Paint Brushes</i></h3>
-
-<p>These brushes are narrow slivers of the leaves of yucca or soapweed,
-from five to six inches long, and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch
-wide. For a distance</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_5"  style="width: 412px;">
-<a href="images/ill_014a.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_014a.jpg" width="412" height="121" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Slivers of yucca leaf with shredded ends, used as
-paint brushes for decorating pottery.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">of about an inch from one end, the fibres are chewed and thus separated.
-Most of the chewed fibres are then cut off, and the number remaining
-determines the fineness of the point (<a href="#fig_5">fig. 5</a>). For very thin lines a
-brush of only one fibre is used. When out of service, the brushes are
-kept in some receptacle which will protect the shredded ends. When the
-implement is dry the chewed fibres become stiff and rather brittle, and
-must be handled with care; before using they are soaked in water for two
-or three minutes in order to soften them.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">{29}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>SECONDARY PARAPHERNALIA</h3>
-
-<h3><i>Carrying and Storing Receptacles</i></h3>
-
-<p>The receptacles used for bringing clays and other ingredients from the
-pits to the village vary somewhat according to the distance that the
-material must be carried. If the beds are close at hand, the material is
-placed in a shawl spread flat on the ground. The shawl is then picked
-up, the corners are tied, and the bundle is carried on the back.
-Sometimes gunny-sacks and cement-sacks are used instead. If the beds are
-at some distance from the pueblo, the material is placed in sacks and
-brought home in the body of a wagon. As a rule the ingredients brought
-home in shawls are transferred to sacks or boxes for storage. Paints are
-kept in ollas, with the exception of the guaco paint, which is allowed
-to remain in the bowl in which it is dried.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Mixing Surfaces</i></h3>
-
-<p>Whenever ingredients are to be mixed or crushed, the work is done upon
-some sort of extra surface laid upon the floor. This surface is about a
-yard square, and may be, apparently, of any suitable material&mdash;a bit of
-old canvas, an opened-out cement-sack, or a small skin such as that of a
-goat or dog. Similar surfaces also serve for mixing clay and temper, for
-cleaning temper, for mixing the paste with water and kneading it, and
-finally for holding the kneaded clay during moulding. Partly finished
-vessels are placed upon such a surface at various stages of
-construction. For winnowing clay, the women’s shawls are used.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Boards</i></h3>
-
-<p>No boards are placed beneath the pukis, or moulding trays, while they
-are being used on the hard floor of the house, but in the courtyard
-boards are used under them in order that holes may not be worn in the
-ground during the constant turning necessary in moulding vessels. When
-small vessels are completed they are placed in rows on a board, where
-they remain during the early stages of the drying process. Rectangular,
-flat-bottomed vessels are built directly on boards, or on low footstools
-made of short boards with legs at each end.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Water Containers</i></h3>
-
-<p>While the potter is at work, she always has beside her a small lard-pail
-partly filled with water, which serves to keep the kajepes damp, to
-moisten parts of the vessel, and from time to time to clean her hands.
-When the kajepes are not in use, they are usually placed in the pail. At
-San Ildefonso such a pail is now the only form of water-container;
-formerly pottery bowls were probably used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30">{30}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>Mops for Slips</i></h3>
-
-<p>These mops are the same for all slips. Each consists of a rag, folded
-and refolded until it is about an inch or an inch and a half wide and
-from two to two and a half inches long. One end of the rag or mop is
-held between the thumb and the first two fingers of either hand; the
-other end serves as a wide paint brush. The potters state that in former
-times a piece of leather or skin served the same purpose as the cloth
-mop.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>Paint Receptacles</i></h3>
-
-<p>Various receptacles hold the slips and paints that are ready for use.
-The white slips are usually mixed and kept in enamelled basins and pans,
-because a large quantity is prepared at one time. The red and orange-red
-slips may be in small pottery bowls, or in china sauce-dishes. The guaco
-is invariably in an Indian bowl. Undoubtedly at one time native bowls
-were used exclusively, and there may even have been bowls of special
-shapes or designs for this purpose; at present, however, no trace of
-such a custom remains.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Wiping Rags</i></h3>
-
-<p>Wiping rags or, more simply, the aprons of the potters are used at
-various stages of the work&mdash;after scraping, after polishing, after the
-slip has dried, and after burning. Apparently any convenient piece of
-cloth is satisfactory.</p>
-
-<h3><i>Accessories in Firing</i></h3>
-
-<p>When the vessels are to be fired, various accessories must be at hand.
-Four or more half-bricks or stones are needed upon which to set the
-grate. The latter may be either a discarded stove-grate, or a collection
-of strips of iron, metal barrel-hoops, and odds and ends, placed
-together to form a grill.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Small stones and tin cans&mdash;such as small
-condensed milk cans and meat cans&mdash;are needed as props to keep the fuel
-from touching the vessels during the burning. Flat pieces of tin and the
-covers of large lard-pails serve at times to close spaces between the
-fuel cakes, and to cover the oven-top, to support which metal rods are
-often used. Lastly, pokers are needed to handle the fuel and to remove
-the hot vessels. These may be wooden or iron rods, broomsticks, old
-shovels, or even pitchforks. Each potter has her own collection of the
-above materials and implements, stored away ready for use. These
-collections of apparent refuse vary to a surprising extent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31">{31}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="MOULDING" id="MOULDING"></a>MOULDING</h2>
-
-<p>For the purpose of this report the vessels may be divided into four
-large groups: bowls, ollas, cooking vessels, and unusual shapes. With
-respect to size there are two classes of bowls: those less than four
-inches in diameter, and those larger than that size. In shape bowls may
-be either wide-mouthed (<a href="#plt_6">pl. 6</a>, b, g) or constricted-mouthed (<a href="#plt_6">pl. 6</a>, a,
-c). The ollas all have full, globular bodies and relatively small
-orifices with or without flaring lips (pls. 7, 15, a). As a rule, the
-cooking vessels are shaped like small ollas. Under unusual shapes fall
-all the types and forms which are not of the first three classes, such
-as terraced (prayer-meal) bowls, double-mouthed vessels, double bowls or
-“baskets”, and vessels with handles.</p>
-
-<p>The moulding of each of the above forms may be said to consist of four
-principal steps: the making of the base, the building of the walls, the
-shaping, and the finishing. Very briefly, the process is as follows: The
-potter first forms a pancake-shaped pat of paste from six to eight
-inches in diameter; this she presses into the mould, or puki, to form a
-base. Then the walls of the vessel are built up by the addition of
-successive ropes, or rolls, of paste laid one upon another. The small
-bowls are the only exception, for they are formed in the hands of the
-potter from a single lump. In some cases the building is done all at one
-time; in others, and always with the larger vessels, a few rolls are
-added, then the piece is set aside to dry a little before the addition
-of a few more rolls. The potter usually builds two or more vessels at
-once in order to permit work upon one while the other is undergoing a
-brief period of drying. The preliminary shaping of the vessel is done
-either in the course of the building or after the building has been
-completed. The obliteration of the junctions between the rolls and of
-finger-marks is accomplished with the kajepe, or gourd-spoon, and
-further use of this implement aids in giving the vessel its shape. The
-final step, the finishing, consists of going over the entire vessel
-carefully, first with the kajepe, then with the fingers, to remove
-slight irregularities to even the lip and rim. The finishing is a slow,
-exacting process, and the difference between the artist and the mere
-pot-maker comes out at this stage of the work.</p>
-
-<p>The moulding, although usually done in the house, may also take place in
-some shady spot outdoors. If a woman begins her moulding in the morning,
-she will commonly devote the entire day to it. By evening she will have
-completed from five to thirty vessels, the number depending partly upon
-the size of the pieces and partly upon the rapidity with which she
-works.</p>
-
-<p>The potter sits upon her heels on some kind of mat; it may be a
-sheepskin with the wool side up, a piece of canvas, or a small woven
-rug. Her attitude is changed only when stiffness requires it. Thereupon
-she sits with her feet out in front of her; or with one leg bent, the
-foot flat on the ground, the knee beside her shoulder, and with the
-other leg under her or fully flexed in front with both the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">{32}</a></span> knee and
-foot upon the floor. Toward the end of the day the potter usually sits
-against a wall to rest her back, for any one of the postures assumed is
-tiring. At the end of the day the women frequently complain of stiff
-backs and sore abdominal muscles, caused by the almost constant stooping
-posture. Some potters cover their laps with shawls, others wear aprons,
-and still others use no protection whatever for their clothing.</p>
-
-<p>When the potter is sitting upon her heels, the mould, or puki, is laid
-directly in front of her upon the floor. If she is sitting with her legs
-extended, it is either held in the lap or placed close to her right
-side. In the house the puki rests directly upon the hard earthen floor;
-outdoors, a short board is placed under it to prevent its constant
-turning from wearing a hole in the relatively softer ground. In the puki
-is sprinkled a thin layer of temper or wood-ashes to prevent the vessel
-from sticking to it. At the right of the potter, within arm’s reach, on
-a canvas or a piece of cloth, is a mass of prepared clay. Rarely this
-reserve paste is on the left. If the paste is in constant use, it is not
-covered unless exposed to the sun; when, however, the moulding is
-abandoned for even a few minutes, a corner of the canvas or cloth is
-thrown over it. A small lard-pail partly filled with water is an
-indispensable accessory during moulding. This is usually kept between
-the potter and the paste; occasionally it is on the left, sometimes near
-the puki beside the potter’s right knee. The gourd moulding spoons, or
-kajepes, are also placed within easy reach, on the floor near the puki,
-beside the waterpail, or in the pail itself. The potter is then ready to
-begin moulding.</p>
-
-<p>The first step is to ascertain by a little handling whether the paste is
-of the proper consistency. If it was kneaded the day before, it may
-prove to be too dry; in such a case the hands are well moistened and
-perhaps a little water is sprinkled on the paste; it is then rekneaded
-for a few minutes. Then a handful is scooped out of the mass with the
-right hand. If the first handful is not sufficient, a second scoop gives
-the required amount. It is next worked with the hands for half a minute
-to five minutes; if it is of just the right consistency, it is hardly
-worked at all; if it is too dry, the hands are occasionally dipped in
-water while it is being worked; if it is too wet, kneading continues
-until it is sufficiently dry. There are three distinct movements in this
-final working of the paste. First, the handful is pinched and squeezed
-by opening and closing the hands; if any gritty particle is encountered,
-it is picked out with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and
-snapped upon the floor. The second movement consists in rolling the
-paste between the two flattened hands. When the roll is about six inches
-long, it is doubled and rerolled. This may be repeated from two to
-half-a-dozen times. Occasionally this step is entirely omitted,
-especially when a pat is being made. In the third movement the paste,
-now a spherical lump, is slapped back and forth between the cupped
-hands, which are held from six to eight inches apart. Sometimes this
-third movement precedes the second. The handful of paste is now ready to
-be made into a pat.</p>
-
-<p>There are two ways of forming a pat. In the first one, the spherical
-lump is held on the open left hand and pounded flat with the right fist;
-from time to time it is turned a few degrees by a slight tossing motion.
-It is then finished by patting</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_12"  style="width: 461px;">
-<a href="images/ill_015.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_015.jpg" width="461" height="583" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 12</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Kneading clay preparatory to modeling a vessel.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Bowl-moulding, primary stages. 1, Base formed in mould, edge crimped
-to receive first roll (cf. pl. 13, a); 2, Walls built to full height; 3,
-The same piece after shaping and smoothing.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_13"  style="width: 600px;">
-<a href="images/ill_016.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_016.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 13</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a</p>
-
-<p>Applying the first roll of clay to the base. The roll is held in the
-left hand, and is flattened and pinched into place in the inside of the
-rim by the fingers of the right hand.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b</p>
-
-<p>A bowl-base to which four rolls of clay have been added; the potter is
-making a new roll. Note the junctions of the roll on the interior of the
-vessel.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33">{33}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">it with the flat right hand until it is fairly smooth and of uniform
-thickness; in doing this the pat is turned by slapping it from the left
-hand to the right and back again. During this interchange, through the
-natural placing of the hands, the pat is turned through an angle of
-ninety to one hundred and twenty degrees. When the pat has been
-completely formed by this method, it is like a large pancake, six to
-eight inches in diameter and from three-eighths to half an inch thick.
-It is then pressed firmly into the puki, and the edge is turned up and
-crimped with the thumb and first two fingers of each hand to form a
-slight rim (<a href="#plt_12">pl. 12</a>, b, 1).</p>
-
-<p>In the second method, the spherical lump of paste is first pounded with
-the heel and then with the upper knuckles of the right hand; it is
-turned meanwhile by the tossing motion of the left hand. The next
-movement is the same as in the corresponding stage of the first method,
-namely, patting the paste with the flat right hand while turning it by
-transferring it to the right hand and back. Finally, before the pat is
-put into the puki, the edge is bent up and smoothed off a little, so
-that a shallow flat circular tray is formed instead of the slab obtained
-by the first method. This tray is then placed in the puki, where it is
-pressed down very firmly with either the heel of the hand or the balls
-of the fingers, in order to insure a solid uniform base and to expel any
-air-bubbles in the paste.</p>
-
-<p>Another handful of clay is now scooped out of the mass on the canvas to
-the right and worked to the proper consistency as before. From the
-resulting spherical lump the potter very skillfully forms a roll of
-uniform diameter by a backward and forward motion of her two hands
-placed palms together (<a href="#plt_13">pl. 13</a>, b).<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> There seems to be a tendency for
-the first part of the roll to be of slightly smaller diameter than the
-last part; if this occurs, the roll is reversed and partially rerolled.
-One end is then taken in the right hand, while the left hand holds it
-near the other at a point chosen to prevent too much sagging at the
-middle. The potter then places the end which is in her right hand
-against the inside of that part of the edge of the pat nearest her.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
-The roll is pressed against the edge just enough to hold it in place
-(see <a href="#plt_13">pl. 13</a>, a). The thumb is on the exterior, the fingers on the
-interior of the edge. Usually only the first two fingers are used,
-although the third finger is occasionally brought into contact with the
-paste. Then, as the puki is revolved counterclockwise,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> the rest of
-the roll is pressed against the edge of the pat. If the roll is not long
-enough completely to encircle the pat, another is made and placed on it
-in a similar manner. When the edge has thus been completely encircled,
-the unused remainder of the roll is pinched off and tossed back on the
-mass of paste on the canvas. The potter then pinches the roll more
-firmly to the edge of the pat. This is done with both hands. The thumbs,
-almost touching, are on the exterior, the fingers on the interior of the
-vessel. The puki is usually moved counterclockwise, although the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34">{34}</a></span>
-potter will sometimes revolve it clockwise. During this process of
-pinching, the roll is flattened until it assumes in cross-section the
-shape of a very much elongated ellipse (<a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>, b). An attempt is made
-to keep the thickness of the side as nearly uniform as possible, and in
-order to accomplish this it is often necessary for the hands to be moved
-back over a part already flattened.</p>
-
-<p>The diameter of the rolls, except for cooking-pots, varies from half an
-inch to slightly over an inch, according to the size of the vessel being
-built, and the individual doing the building. When a roll is pressed
-against the interior of the rim of the growing vessel,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> from a half
-to three-quarters of it lies below the level of the rim (see <a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>, a).
-Then, when the roll is flattened, the junction-plane between it and the
-preceding roll will not be horizontal, but will slope downward sharply</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_6"  style="width: 444px;">
-<a href="images/ill_017.png">
-<img src="images/ill_017.png" width="444" height="243" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Diagramatic sections of a bowl on the mould.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Base made and first roll applied to inner side of rim. b. First roll
-flattened and welded on. c. Second roll applied. d. Second roll
-flattened and welded on.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">from the exterior (see <a href="#fig_6">fig. 6</a>, b, d), thus producing a broad holding
-surface and minimizing the risk of the vessel’s cracking along the
-junction-plane. In other words, the junction-line between any two rolls
-on the outside wall of the vessel is considerably higher than the
-corresponding line on the inside. The flattened rolls, in all but
-cooking-pots, are from an inch and a half to two inches wide, but
-because of the overlapping just described the distance between the
-junction-lines is considerably less (see <a href="#plt_13">pl. 13</a>, b, and pl. 15, a).</p>
-
-<p>During the process of flattening the roll, some potters obliterate the
-junction-line on the exterior by rubbing it with the first and second
-finger of the right hand, and by the addition of small pellets of paste
-in the more conspicuous indentations. Others consider it unnecessary to
-obliterate this line during the building of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">{35}</a></span> vessel, in spite of the
-fact that the roll may break away because of not being firmly welded.
-Certain women smooth the temporary rim after flattening each roll,
-others do not. When the flattening has been finished, the puki has made
-a second complete revolution, and the junction of the two ends of the
-roll is again directly in front of the potter; but if a few additional
-touches are required she may again shift the puki in one direction or
-another. No potter pays any attention whatever to the location of the
-junction points of the ends of the rolls; in successive rolls,
-therefore, they may lie directly above one another, or they may be
-distributed about the circumference of the vessel (<a href="#plt_13">pl. 13</a>, b). When one
-roll has been completely welded on, flattened out, and incorporated into
-the vessel, another roll is formed, and is applied in exactly the same
-manner. Thus the building proceeds to the height at which the shaping is
-begun. The steps so far enumerated are the same for both bowls and
-ollas. The further treatment of the vessel varies slightly, according to
-the shape desired.</p>
-
-<p>Stevenson, describing the moulding of vessels at Zuñi, in 1879, wrote:
-“When the clayey dough is ready to be used, a sufficient quantity is
-rolled into a ball. The dough, if worked by a careful artist, is first
-tested as to its fitness for molding by putting a piece of the paste to
-the tongue, the sensitiveness of which is such as to detect any gritty
-substance or particles, when the fingers fail to do so. The ball is
-hollowed out with the fingers into the shape of a bowl (see <a href="#plt_29">pl. 29</a>, a),
-this form constituting the foundation for all varieties of earthenware,
-and assumes the desired form by the addition of strips of clay; all
-traces of the addition of each strip are removed before another is
-added,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> by the use of a small trowel fashioned from a piece of gourd
-or fragment of pottery, the only tool employed in the manufacture of
-pottery. The bottoms of old water jars and bowls form stands for the
-articles while being worked by the potter” (see <a href="#plt_29">pl. 29</a>).<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
-
-<p>Mrs. Stevenson, writing later, also of the Zuñis, said: “In beginning
-the work a sufficient quantity is first made into a ball and then
-hollowed out with the fingers until is assumes a conventional bowl
-shape, which serves as the foundation to be afterward built up and
-elaborated into any desired shape. The vessel is then formed by the
-successive additions of strips of the paste long enough to encircle the
-bowl, each layer being pressed on the brim with the fingers and
-accurately fitted, the trowel being then skillfully used to finish the
-joining and to remove all traces of the original separation of the
-strips. Most of the work of remodelling the vessel into its final shape
-is done on the inside with a trowel, this implement being used on the
-outside chiefly to smooth the surface. The clay, if it has been properly
-worked, possesses sufficient tenacity and plasticity to admit of being
-pressed and scraped without cracking.”<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
-
-<p>The following quotation is of interest as showing how closely modern
-studio-practice, undoubtedly evolved experimentally, resembles Pueblo
-Indian methods: “The clay for building should be rather soft as it is
-apt to dry quickly on handling. A plaster bat (mould) should be made. It
-is first necessary to roll out the clay into<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36">{36}</a></span> cords which should be a
-little thicker than the proposed walls are to be. These cords should be
-as uniform as possible and should be rolled quickly to avoid undue
-hardening. It is best to roll them as required. A roll of clay is taken,
-one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is coiled around it
-in a spiral line. When the disc so formed has reached the proper size,
-the coils are gently rubbed over with the fingers until they have
-thoroughly united and the lines of the spiral have disappeared. The clay
-disc may now be turned over and the rubbing continued on the other side.
-The circle is cut true and a new coil is laid on the outer edge, thus
-making a shallow circular tray. In raising the walls it is best to pinch
-off the roll of clay when one circle has been completed, and the new
-roll should be begun at another point so that all the joints will not be
-at the same place. This plan is better than coiling a long roll in a
-spiral, for in this case one side of the piece will be higher than the
-other.</p>
-
-<p>“After three rolls have been laid in position, the wall, both inside and
-out, should be worked like the bottom so that the rolls will disappear
-and the clay be welded uniformly together. This should be done without
-water or with as little as possible. The use of water is very tempting.
-It makes the clay so smooth and seems to help, but it will inevitably
-make the work sloppy and will tend to soften the walls.</p>
-
-<p>“After three or four rolls have been worked in, the piece should be laid
-aside for some hours to stiffen. If this be not done the weight of the
-second building will cause the work to sag and fall out of shape. For
-this reason it is well to have two or three pieces in hand at once so
-that there need be no waiting. When the cylinder is of sufficient height
-it should be allowed to become quite stiff and then the irregularities
-should be corrected with a little soft clay which is worked into the
-joints. The whole surface may now be gone over with tools and brought to
-the required finish.”<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
-
-<p>Before describing in detail the moulding of the various sorts of
-vessels, the accidents which are associated with this process should be
-discussed. These may result from one of two causes, the presence of
-foreign matter in the paste or imperfect moulding.</p>
-
-<p>If the clay has been carefully sifted, as it usually is, there should be
-very little foreign matter in the paste. It is, however, impossible to
-remove entirely all gravel or stones fragment. If gravel is allowed to
-remain, it will cause the vessel-walls to scale during firing because of
-the difference in the rates of expansion under heat of stone and paste.
-In order to prevent this, the potter while moulding is constantly on the
-lookout for these small particles, which may be discovered at any stage
-of the work. They are at once picked out of the vessel, even if it is
-all but finished. The irregular hollow formed is then filled with a
-small pellet of fresh paste and smoothed over. The women say that a bit
-of hard clay does not cause flaking as does a piece of gravel or a stone
-splinter. Another kind of foreign matter is an air-bubble, which if left
-in the vessel will cause the same form of accident, because of the
-difference in the rates of expansion of air and clay. In order to
-eliminate these small air-bubbles, the pat is pressed down hard upon the
-puki</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_14"  style="width: 600px;">
-<a href="images/ill_018.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_018.jpg" width="600" height="428" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 14</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a</p>
-
-<p>Levelling and smoothing the rim of a bowl after it has been scraped with
-the kajepe, or gourd spoon. The left hand serves to keep the piece
-turning and to support the plastic wall.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b</p>
-
-<p>Use of the kajepe in shaping a vessel; the left hand supports the wall
-within, while the kajepe, held in the right hand, thins the top of the
-wall and gently presses it inward.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37">{37}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">and the rolls are carefully pinched at every point about the vessel. A
-skillful potter is able to feel an air-bubble even if it is covered with
-a layer of clay: such a bubble is pricked and the resulting hollow is
-filled as before.</p>
-
-<p>If the moulding is imperfect, that is, if the rolls are not carefully
-welded, a weak spot occurs at the junction, which probably contains a
-thin layer of air. When the vessel is fired, it cracks along this line
-and is ruined. Such accidents seem to occur most commonly at the bases
-of large vessels, either because the first roll was not sufficiently
-welded to the base, or because the pat itself was not pressed into the
-puki with sufficient force. Since flaws between the rolls cannot be
-discovered until the firing, they cannot be corrected as in the case of
-foreign bodies in the clay.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Bowls</span></h3>
-
-<p>From two to eight rolls may be used to form a bowl, according to its
-destined size and shape. When the building has been completed, the piece
-is in the form of a cylinder, with sides either vertical or very
-slightly flaring (<a href="#plt_12">pl. 12</a>, b, 2, and pl. 13, b). As a rule the
-fingerprints and the irregular horizontal junction-lines may be seen
-both on the interior and exterior. The next step is the finishing of the
-temporary rim. This is done with the right hand, the fingers of which
-assume much the same position that they would for holding a pencil (<a href="#plt_14">pl.
-14</a>, a). The thumb is on the interior of the rim, the forefinger on the
-top, and the middle finger on the outer edge. The thumb and middle
-finger are used as guides to help keep the rim uniform in thickness. The
-forefinger removes the paste from the higher parts of the rim and
-transfers it to the hollows. The fingers do not move with respect to
-each other except to exert slight pressure. The play of the right hand
-during this process is a gliding backward-forward motion repeated many
-times, while at the same time the puki is usually kept revolving
-counterclockwise by the left hand, which also is generally but not
-always, used to steady the side of the vessel. Occasionally the same
-potter will turn the puki clockwise. In the former case the right hand
-is kept in the twelve-to-two-o’clock sector; in the latter in the
-six-to-eight-o’clock sector. If the rim is smoothed hastily, as it
-sometimes is at this stage, the puki may not be turned at all. This
-completes the building of the bowl, which is then set aside for a few
-minutes, while another is begun.</p>
-
-<p>The next step is the shaping. This is done with a kajepe, or gourd
-spoon. The kajepe should always be damp when used, and for that reason
-is often kept in the water-pail. It is somewhat difficult to describe in
-detail the use of the kajepe, for no two potters work with it in exactly
-the same way. Often the same potter will show variations in her method
-of handling the tool.</p>
-
-<p>Each woman has from four to a dozen kajepes beside her while she is
-moulding. These implements vary much both in size and shape (<a href="#plt_11">pl. 11</a>).
-Most of them are circular or elliptical with all edges convex, although
-every potter has at least one with a concave edge. Generally the
-smaller, circular kajepes are used on the interior of bowls, the oval
-ones on the exterior, and the one with a concave edge on the exterior at
-the shoulder, where it would be difficult to use the other types. As a
-rule the larger kajepes serve for the larger vessels. A potter
-occasionally changes<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38">{38}</a></span> kajepes in the midst of her work, usually because
-of the edge, which may be rougher on one than on another. The kajepes
-are held at an angle of from thirty to sixty degrees to the tangent of
-the bowl at the point of contact, according to the curvature of the part
-of the vessel being worked upon.</p>
-
-<p>The kajepe is always used first on the inside. This is done in order to
-press out the sides and to give the bowl something of its final shape
-before the paste becomes too dry. The work begins at the bottom of the
-vessel and slowly advances toward the top; the bowl gradually assumes a
-spherical shape, the sides being forced farthest out about half way
-between the base and the rim. During this process the outside surface,
-since it is being expanded, begins to show innumerable small cracks. The
-strokes of the kajepe on the interior are short and always nearly
-horizontal, the implement being pulled towards the body. During this
-first use of the kajepe all traces of the junction-lines between the
-rolls are removed from the inside of the vessel. The tool is always held
-in the right hand, and the left hand, which is constantly used on the
-exterior as a brace and stop, is placed directly opposite the spot on
-the inside which is being worked. One woman scrapes in the
-seven-to-ten-o’clock sector, turning the bowl clockwise; that is,
-working from the scraped to the unscraped surface. The vessel is turned
-through about sixty degrees at each change of position, and about a
-third of the surface just scraped is gone over again by the strokes on
-the new sector. Another works in the nine-to-twelve-o’clock sector,
-turning the bowl counterclockwise, that is, working from unscraped to
-scraped surface; in doing this she turns the puki five or six times
-through an angle of between sixty and eighty degrees for each turn,
-before the entire interior has been gone over.</p>
-
-<p>The kajepe is then applied to the exterior of the bowl (<a href="#plt_14">pl. 14</a>, b). The
-concave surface of the kajepe is preferred for the first of the exterior
-scraping, although the convex surface is not infrequently used. The
-strokes begin again at the base. At first, when the kajepe comes in
-contact with the puki, the strokes are very nearly vertical. A little
-higher on the bowl they become diagonal. Near the rim the strokes are
-almost horizontal, but still have a perceptible downward slant. The
-kajepe is always pulled toward the body. The stroke on the exterior is
-from four to five inches, generally a little longer than that on the
-interior. During this step one woman turns the puki counterclockwise,
-working in the two-to-four-o’clock sector; another turns it in the same
-direction, but works in the four-to-six-o’clock sector. In both cases
-the strokes are from the scraped to the unscraped surface. Although the
-larger portion of the actual shaping of the bowl is done from the
-interior, the drawing in of the upper part to form a constricted mouth
-is done with the kajepe on the exterior, when the step last described is
-nearing completion. As when working on the interior, the left hand again
-acts as a brace and a stop, but this time on the inside of the bowl.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
-Usually only the ends of the fingers rest against the side. Upon the
-completion of the use of the kajepe on the outside for the first time,
-all traces of the coil-marks and of the fine cracks developed during the
-interior scraping are removed, but the surface is still rather rough
-(<a href="#plt_14">pl. 14</a>, b; also 12, b, 3). After both surfaces have been gone over for
-the first time with the kajepe, the rim is once more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39">{39}</a></span> trued up in the
-manner already described. Then, depending upon the stiffness of the
-paste, the piece may be set aside to harden a little or the work may
-continue without interruption.</p>
-
-<p>The women hold the kajepe with fingers either slightly bent, or nearly
-fully flexed; in the latter position the tool is grasped between the
-thumb and bent forefinger. Just before using, the kajepe is dipped in
-water; and the edge is then drawn across the palm of the left hand to
-remove excess water before it is applied to the bowl. After perhaps a
-dozen strokes, the paste which has collected on the tool is removed by a
-dexterous motion: the inner side of the thumb of the left hand is run
-along the edge of the kajepe to collect the paste; then the inner side
-of the forefinger of the same hand is run from the base to the tip of
-the thumb. This brings the paste to the ends of the two fingers in the
-form of a pellet, which is thrown upon the mass on the canvas. Since the
-paste has a tendency to stick to the fingers, the potter must throw it
-with a jerk or snap.</p>
-
-<p>When the kajepe has been used once over the entire surface, it is
-usually reversed so as to present its convex side to the bowl, made a
-little damper than for the previous scraping, and the whole process
-repeated in detail for both the interior and exterior. This results in
-better symmetry and a smoother surface. The rim is again finished in the
-manner already described. The walls of the bowl have by this time been
-thinned to about one-half or two-thirds of their original thickness, all
-major irregularities and rough spots have been removed, the vessel is
-fully shaped, and only the finishing touches are needed before it is
-ready to be sun-dried. The paste now has the consistency of soft thick
-leather.</p>
-
-<p>The first step in the finishing sometimes consists in again going over
-both surfaces with a wet kajepe, to smooth them still more. Occasionally
-only the exterior is so treated. Then the bowl is turned repeatedly,
-while the potter touches small areas with the convex surface of the
-kajepe. At this point particular attention is given to the bottom of the
-interior; it may be retouched with the kajepe, or simply smoothed over
-with the ball of the thumb or forefinger. If the surface seems slightly
-uneven, small pellets of paste are rubbed into the bottom and then
-levelled down with the kajepe. The bowl on the puki is then placed upon
-the palm of the left hand, held at eye level, and revolved slowly, while
-the potter examines it for rough spots and slight irregularities of
-contour, which when found are smoothed over with the forefinger of the
-right hand. After being replaced upon the floor, the bowl may be gently
-pressed between the hands in order slightly to improve its symmetry.
-Finally the rim is smoothed for the last time, little pellets of paste
-being added, if necessary, to fill in shallow depressions, and great
-care is taken to make it as regular and smooth as possible. It is
-obviously impossible to describe in detail the exact procedure followed
-in this finishing process, for the method adopted is chosen according to
-the needs of the individual vessel. After all this is done, the piece is
-ready to be sun-dried. Its present appearance is very different from
-that which it had when the building was completed (compare pl. 12, b, 2,
-and b, 3).</p>
-
-<p>The moulding of bowls less than four inches in diameter is a very simple
-matter compared with that of the larger ones, for there is no use of
-puki, rolls, or kajepe. After working the paste in the hands the
-resulting lump is formed into a flat spheroid.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40">{40}</a></span> The forefinger of the
-right hand is inserted in the centre of this, the clay held horizontally
-and slowly revolved by a slight tossing rotary motion of the left hand.
-The forefinger of the right hand enlarges the hole and gradually shapes
-the mass into the desired form, thinning the sides at the same time. If
-the resulting bowl is too high, the rim is pinched off with the thumb
-and fore-finger of the right hand. When the proper shape and thickness
-have been attained, the little bowl is held upright in the left hand,
-while the fingers of the right smooth the sides and the rim. When
-completed it is set on a board to dry. Sometimes one of the larger of
-these bowls is placed in a small puki and reshaped with the kajepe. One
-woman used the kajepe on the interior of the vessel while it rested upon
-her left hand. The bowl, when treated in this way, and finished in the
-same manner as the larger bowls, was noticeably a better piece of
-moulding than the average small piece.</p>
-
-<p>The time consumed in moulding bowls is variable, depending on the
-dexterity and speed of the potter and to a somewhat lesser degree upon
-the sort of vessel being moulded. Comparisons between potters are apt to
-be misleading, for no two make bowls of exactly the same size or
-exercise the same amount of care in finishing, which, from the point of
-view of time consumed, is the most variable phase of the moulding. One
-potter moulded a wide-mouthed bowl of four rolls in twenty minutes;
-another finished two spherical bowls of six rolls each in forty-eight
-minutes; a third potter, the swiftest of the three, finished a
-wide-mouthed bowl of two rolls after it had been under her hands just
-fourteen and one-half minutes. The first potter moulded six of the small
-bowls (less than four inches in diameter) in fifty-five minutes,
-averaging nine minutes to each, but to refinish one of them with a
-kajepe she took thirteen minutes. The third potter moulded one of the
-small type of bowls in four minutes.</p>
-
-<p>In considering in detail the time consumed in moulding, the work of
-Maria Martinez was studied. She is the swiftest and most dexterous
-potter of San Ildefonso, and moulds in a quarter to a third less time
-than the slowest of the others. In three hours she turned out ten bowls,
-averaging about seven inches in diameter, of the constricted-mouthed and
-similar types; this is an average of one in eighteen minutes. She was
-working constantly, first on one, then on another. Subsequently she
-moulded six two-roll constricted-mouthed bowls in one hour and
-twenty-six minutes, an average of fourteen and a third minutes each. The
-various steps in the moulding of two bowls are recorded in Table I,
-which gives the actual time consumed in minutes and seconds from the
-beginning of the first of the pair until the two were finished and set
-aside. In Table II the growth and treatment of a single bowl are given
-in more detail, with the time in minutes and seconds that it was under
-the hands of the potter. This piece was one of five constricted-mouthed
-bowls of three rolls each which were moulded in sixty-four minutes, an
-average of twelve minutes, forty-eight seconds for each vessel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41">{41}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>TABLE I</h3>
-
-<p class="c">Bowl A, constricted-mouthed bowl, diam. 8 in.; Bowl B, wide-mouthed
-bowl, diam. 7 in.</p>
-
-<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0">
-
-<tr><td>&#160; </td><td colspan="3"><small><i>Min.</i> <i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr><td rowspan="5" valign="middle">4.30</td><td class="blft"> 0.00     </td><td class="c">Bowl A</td><td>&mdash; clay picked up from pile</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 2.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; pat in puki and pinched up</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 3.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first roll on and pinched flat</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 4.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second roll on and pinched flat</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 4.30      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; rim smoothed and bowl set aside</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="4"
-style="padding-top:.5em;
-padding-bottom:.5em;">(<i>no pause</i>)</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td rowspan="5" valign="middle">2.50</td><td class="blft">4.30</td><td class="c">Bowl B</td><td>&mdash; clay picked up from pile</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 5.30      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; pat in puki and pinched up</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 6.20      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first roll on and pinched flat</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 7.10      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second roll on and pinched flat</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 7.20      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; rim smoothed and bowl set aside</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="4"
-style="padding-top:.5em;
-padding-bottom:.5em;">(<i>pause of 40 seconds</i>)</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td rowspan="11" valign="middle">8.00&mdash;</td><td class="blft">8.00    </td><td class="c">Bowl A</td><td>&mdash; picked up again</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft">  8.30     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; interior scraping stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft">  9.15     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; exterior scraping stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft">  9.45     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 11.00     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first interior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 11.30     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first exterior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 12.45     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 13.45     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second interior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 14.30     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second exterior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 15.15     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; third rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 16.00     </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; finishing touches stopped; bowl completed</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="4"
-style="padding-top:.5em;
-padding-bottom:.5em;">(<i>pause of 15 seconds</i>)</td></tr>
-
-<tr><td rowspan="11" valign="middle">5.05&mdash;</td><td class="blft">16.15     </td><td class="c">Bowl B</td><td>&mdash; picked up again</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 16.45      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; interior scraping stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 17.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; exterior scraping stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 18.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 18.30      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; first interior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 19.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 19.45      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; second interior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 20.45      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; touching up stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 21.00      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; third rim smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 21.15      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; third interior smoothing stopped</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="blft"> 21.20      </td><td class="c">“   “</td><td>&mdash; bowl completed</td></tr>
-<tr><td colspan="4">&#160; </td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="4">Total, Bowl A&mdash;12 minutes, 30 seconds</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="4">Total, Bowl B&mdash;7 minutes, 55 seconds</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">{42}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>TABLE II</h3>
-
-<p class="c">Small, constricted-mouthed bowl</p>
-
-<table cellpadding="1">
-<tr><td><small><i>Min.</i> <i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr><td>00.00 &mdash; clay picked up from pile</td></tr>
-<tr><td>00.15 &mdash; pat put in puki</td></tr>
-<tr><td>01.00 &mdash; clay for first roll picked up</td></tr>
-<tr><td>01.15 &mdash; one end of first roll pinched on pat</td></tr>
-<tr><td>01.50 &mdash; first roll flattened, and clay for second roll picked up</td></tr>
-<tr><td>02.10 &mdash; one end of second roll pinched on pat</td></tr>
-<tr><td>02.40 &mdash; second roll flattened, and clay for third roll picked up</td></tr>
-<tr><td>02.50 &mdash; one end of third roll pinched on pat</td></tr>
-<tr><td>03.30 &mdash; third roll flattened, and rim smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>03.50 &mdash; bowl set aside</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd4">(<i>14 minutes, 10 seconds, elapsed</i>)</td></tr>
-<tr><td>03.50 &mdash; interior kajepe-scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>04.25 &mdash; exterior kajepe-scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>04.55 &mdash; rim smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>05.20 &mdash; bowl set aside</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd4">(<i>18 minutes, 30 seconds, elapsed</i>)</td></tr>
-<tr><td>05.20 &mdash; interior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>06.00 &mdash; small roll placed around edge of interior base and patted down</td></tr>
-<tr><td>06.40 &mdash; interior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>06.55 &mdash; exterior kajepe-smoothing begun, lip turned in</td></tr>
-<tr><td>07.45 &mdash; rim smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>08.50 &mdash; exterior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>09.25 &mdash; interior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>10.05 &mdash; rim smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>10.50 &mdash; bowl held at eye level, exterior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>11.17 &mdash; bowl placed on floor, interior kajepe-smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr><td>11.45 &mdash; moulding completed, bowl set aside</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Ollas</span></h3>
-
-<p>In the moulding of ollas the first step is the building of the lower
-part of the body to a height of four or five rings in the same manner as
-in bowl-construction. Since ollas have a larger diameter than bowls,
-more than one roll is needed to form a complete ring about the growing
-edge. The number of rolls per ring varies from one and a half to four,
-depending upon the size of the olla and the part worked upon. When this
-first building has been completed (<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, a), the rim is smoothed
-somewhat and the scraping and shaping are at once begun.</p>
-
-<p>The use of the kajepe in the shaping of ollas is identical in all
-details with that described above in discussing the moulding of bowls.
-The roll-junctions and the fingerprints are entirely removed and the
-sides of the vessel are flared a little. Great care is taken not to
-flare the sides too much, for the paste at this stage is still rather
-soft, and if the sides are flared unduly they collapse outward of their
-own weight. When the preliminary shaping has been finished the rim is
-smoothed a</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_15"  style="width: 468px;">
-<a href="images/ill_019.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_019.jpg" width="468" height="593" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 15</p>
-
-<p>SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE MOULDING OF AN OLLA</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Lower wall built up of rings of clay. b. Sides smoothed and flared by
-use of the kajepe. c. Sides further flared and more carefully smoothed.
-d. Shoulder partly formed. e. Shoulder finished. f. Neck built. g, h.
-Neck flared and final smoothing completed; the vessels have been shifted
-in the moulds to allow work on lower sides.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">{43}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">little, and the olla is placed in the sun to stiffen. The moulding has
-now reached the second stage (<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, b).</p>
-
-<p>The vessel remains in the sun from twenty to thirty minutes. This period
-may be extended to as much as an hour and a half, if the vessel is in
-the shade or if other things occupy the potter’s time. During all the
-drying periods, at intervals varying from five to fifteen minutes, the
-potter dips her right hand in the water of the lard-pail, and moistens
-the rim of the partly finished olla in order to keep it soft enough to
-permit perfect welding when additional rolls are added. While one vessel
-is drying, the potter is usually occupied with another. In case the work
-on the latter is finished before the former is dry enough, the potter
-simply waits, or finds some other work with which to occupy herself
-until it is ready.</p>
-
-<p>The test of the condition of the olla after this short drying is to pat
-the side gently with the balls of the fingers. The clay is now very much
-like soft leather. The degree of resistance offered by the side
-indicates the condition of the paste. Of course the value of such a test
-depends entirely upon the knowledge and sense of touch possessed by the
-potter, two qualities which can be gained only through long experience.</p>
-
-<p>When the paste in the olla, which now has the shape of an open-mouthed
-bowl, has reached the proper degree of firmness, the vessel is brought
-in and the shaping continued. By using the kajepe first on the interior
-and then on the exterior, the sides are flared still more until the
-desired shape for the lower part of the olla has been obtained. Then,
-after a hasty smoothing of the rim, the vessel, now in the third stage
-(<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, c), is again set aside to dry. When it has become firm enough
-to support the weight of the new rolls to be added, the building is
-continued. The temporary rim has been kept soft by the application of
-water from time to time. The method of preparing this rim for the
-application of the rings varies slightly with different potters. The rim
-may be pinched into scallops between the thumb and forefinger of either
-hand, usually the right, or it may be roughened by vertical strokes of
-the kajepe on the exterior. In the former case the scallops may touch
-one another (<a href="#plt_16">pl. 16</a>, a), or they may be separated by a quarter to a half
-inch of unpinched rim. When the kajepe is used, it also destroys the
-original smoothness of the rim, producing an irregular, broken surface
-to which the new roll can easily be welded.</p>
-
-<p>The potter must now build that part of the olla which has the greatest
-diameter. Each new ring of clay must therefore be of greater diameter
-than those which preceded and those which will follow. Three or four
-rather slender rolls are used to make such a ring. After two complete
-rings have been placed on the vessel and flattened, the shaping is
-begun. Gradually the new rim is drawn in until the shoulder of the olla
-has been formed. Again the rim is smoothed before the vessel is set
-aside. The moulding of the olla has now reached the fourth stage (<a href="#plt_15">pl.
-15</a>, d).</p>
-
-<p>The olla is once more allowed to dry for about the same length of time
-as before. During these successive dryings the presence or absence of
-wind plays a considerable part in the length of time the vessel is
-allowed to remain in the sun; for a stiff breeze will dry the paste
-almost as quickly as the sun itself. The potters do not like to mould
-ollas when there is much wind because the paste dries so quickly<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44">{44}</a></span> that
-the vessel is ready to be taken up again before the second vessel, upon
-which the potter is working, is ready to set aside. Occasionally, but by
-no means always, the drying olla is turned so as to present a fresh
-section of the side to the sun.</p>
-
-<p>After testing with the hand the newly built part of the olla, to
-determine its firmness, the vessel, if sufficiently dried, is taken to
-the work-board and the building continued. The pinching of the rim is
-done as before, two more rings are added, and their shaping is begun.
-The rolls decrease very slowly in diameter. In shaping with the kajepe
-only the newly added section of the vessel is treated. At this stage the
-work becomes more difficult, for the two rings just added form the lower
-part of the neck of the olla, and therefore constrict the mouth of the
-partly finished vessel. If the paste is a little too soft, the newly
-built section will sag when the shaping is begun. The vessel must then
-be set aside at once until it reaches the proper degree of stiffness.
-While using the kajepe on the exterior, during this stage of the
-construction, the left hand is held inside the vessel not only as a
-brace or stop, but also as a support for the incurving side. When the
-scraping and smoothing have been finished, and the side has been given
-the proper curve, the rim is smoothed a little before the vessel, now in
-the fifth stage (<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, e), is again set aside.</p>
-
-<p>Half an hour or so later the building of the olla is completed by the
-addition of one more ring. The rolls composing this ring are distinctly
-more slender than the first rolls used in the vessel. When this ring has
-been applied the rim is cursorily smoothed and the last shaping begun.
-The final delicate contour of the vessel depends to a large extent upon
-this final shaping near the rim. The kajepe is used with painstaking
-care, and the work progresses slowly. A slight outward flare is given to
-the lip by careful manipulation of the kajepe on the interior. When this
-is completed, the olla has reached the sixth stage (<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, f).</p>
-
-<p>The finishing touches consist largely in going over the rim carefully
-and adding pellets of paste when necessary, thus making its curve as
-nearly uniform as possible. This process consumes a considerable amount
-of time, for the work is done very painstakingly and slowly (<a href="#plt_17">pl. 17</a>, a).
-The vessel has now attained its final shape (<a href="#plt_15">pl. 15</a>, g and h), and for
-the last time is set out in the sun to dry.</p>
-
-<p>The time taken to mould an olla is far greater than that necessary for a
-bowl. The type of olla shown in the illustrations is about fourteen
-inches in diameter at the shoulder. The potter who made these counted on
-moulding two such ollas each day. On some days a little time was left in
-the afternoon in which to make some smaller vessels, but no olla was
-ever begun in the afternoon. Ollas were usually started between ten and
-eleven o’clock in the morning and finished between half-past-three and
-half-past-four in the afternoon. During the early morning the household
-tasks had to be attended to; at noon about an hour was used in preparing
-and eating lunch; and at various times during the day the children,
-especially the baby, made it necessary for the potter to leave her work.
-Table III, columns A and B, gives in detail the various steps in the
-construction of two ollas, together with the time each vessel was
-actually under the hands of the potter and the length of the intervals
-in which the vessel was drying; columns C and D record two other ollas
-on which the observations were less complete. As a rule it requires one
-and a half</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_16"  style="width: 600px;">
-<a href="images/ill_020.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_020.jpg" width="600" height="431" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 16</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a</p>
-
-<p>Potter moulding an olla. The first roll at the shoulder has just been
-added. The temporary rim has been pinched up with the thumb and
-forefinger to provide a firm seat for the succeeding roll.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b</p>
-
-<p>A potter of San Ildefonso. The costume is typical of the Rio Grande
-Pueblos. With the exception of the shawl it is entirely of native
-manufacture.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">{45}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">hours’ work to mould an olla. In the case of olla A, the potter was
-unfortunate in misjudging the proper consistency of the paste, which
-delayed the construction of this vessel an entire half-hour, omitting
-the periods of additional drying. The two ollas were begun at eleven
-o’clock in the morning; the second of the two was set aside completed at
-eight minutes past four in the afternoon.</p>
-
-<p>It is said that it requires one whole day, and sometimes two, to mould a
-single very large olla. The process is identical with that just
-described. In the case of small ollas (such as those seen in pl. 18, a)
-a single period of drying elapses between the construction of the body
-and that of the neck. These small ollas can be moulded in a little less
-than twice the time taken for a bowl of about the same diameter.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE III</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="1">
-<tr><td>&#160;</td><td class="c">A</td><td class="c">B</td><td class="c">C</td><td class="c">D</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&#160;</td>
-<td  class="c"><i>Min.</i></td>
-<td  class="c"><i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td  class="c"><i>Min.</i></td>
-<td  class="c"><i>Sec.</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td>First clay picked up</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pat placed in puki</td><td class="c">04.00</td><td class="c">04.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second handful of clay picked up</td><td class="c">04.30</td><td class="c">05.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First roll added</td><td class="c">05.00</td><td class="c">06.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First ring flattened, second begun</td><td class="c">06.45</td><td class="c">08.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second ring flattened, third begun</td><td class="c">09.00</td><td class="c">10.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Third ring flattened, fourth begun</td><td class="c">11.30</td><td class="c">12.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Fourth ring flattened, fifth begun</td><td class="c">15.00</td><td class="c">16.45</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Fifth ring flattened (Stage I, pl. 15, a), inside scraping begun</td><td class="c">18.30</td><td class="c">20.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior scraping begun</td><td class="c">21.00</td><td class="c">21.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothed and interior scraping begun</td><td class="c">23.00</td><td class="c">24.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">25.00</td><td class="c">27.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (Stage II, pl. 15, b)</td><td class="c">26.00</td><td class="c">29.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">34.00</td><td class="c">24.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing, then exterior</td><td class="c">26.00</td><td class="c">29.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (Stage III, pl. 15, c)</td><td class="c">33.00</td><td class="c">32.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">53.00</td><td class="c">59.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pinching of rim begun</td><td class="c">33.00</td><td class="c">32.30</td><td class="c">33.00</td><td class="c">33.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pinching of rim completed</td><td class="c">34.15</td><td class="c">33.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First roll made</td><td class="c">35.00</td><td class="c">34.15</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First roll pinched on, second begun</td><td class="c">35.30</td><td class="c">34.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second roll pinched on, flattening begun</td><td class="c">39.45</td><td class="c">36.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First ring flattened</td><td class="c">41.00</td><td class="c">37.30</td><td class="c">37.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second ring flattened, rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">45.00</td><td class="c">41.30</td><td class="c">41.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior scraping begun</td><td class="c">45.30</td><td class="c">42.00</td><td class="c">42.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior scraping begun</td><td class="c">50.00</td><td class="c">45.00</td><td class="c">45.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">52.00</td><td class="c">47.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">53.30</td><td class="c">48.30</td><td class="c">47.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">55.00</td><td class="c">49.30</td><td class="c">52.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">57.00</td><td class="c">50.15</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (Stage IV, pl. 15, d)</td><td class="c">58.00</td><td class="c">50.45</td><td class="c">54.00</td><td class="c">55.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">27.00</td><td class="c">20.45</td><td class="c">28.00</td><td class="c">68.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pinching of rim begun</td><td class="c">58.00</td><td class="c">50.45</td><td class="c">54.00</td><td class="c">55.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pinching of rim completed</td><td class="c">58.45</td><td class="c">51.15</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First roll completed</td><td class="c">59.30</td><td class="c">52.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46">{46}</a></span>First ring flattened, second begun</td><td class="c">64.00</td><td class="c">56.45</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second ring on</td><td class="c">66.15</td><td class="c">59.45</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Second ring flattened, rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">67.15</td><td class="c">60.30</td><td class="c">61.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior scraping begun</td><td class="c">68.00</td><td class="c">60.45</td><td class="c">61.15</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior scraping begun</td><td class="c">70.00</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (clay too soft)</td><td class="c">70.30</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">63.00</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">63.45</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">13.45</td><td class="c">17.00</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior scraping begun</td><td class="c">70.30</td><td class="c">63.45</td><td class="c">64.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">75.15</td><td class="c">69.15</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">77.15</td><td class="c">71.45</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (Stage V, pl. 15, e)</td><td class="c">79.15</td><td class="c">73.30</td><td class="c">69.00</td><td class="c">67.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">18.00</td><td class="c">15.15</td><td class="c">68.00</td><td class="c">42.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">79.15</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">83.45</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">84.15</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside</td><td class="c">84.45</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">33.00</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">84.45</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">88.00</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside</td><td class="c">89.45</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">21.00</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Pinching of rim begun</td><td class="c">89.45</td><td class="c">73.30</td><td class="c">69.00</td><td class="c">67.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First roll put on</td><td class="c">92.45</td><td class="c">75.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Ring flattened, rim smoothed, exterior scraping begun</td><td class="c">94.45</td><td class="c">77.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">73.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior scraping begun</td><td class="c">97.45</td><td class="c">79.00</td><td class="c">76.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">100.15</td><td class="c">81.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing begun (Stage VI, pl. 15, f)</td><td class="c">101.45</td><td class="c">83.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">102.45</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim smoothing begun</td><td class="c">103.30</td><td class="c">84.30</td><td class="c">84.00</td><td class="c">83.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside (clay in rim too soft)</td><td class="c">105.15</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">16.30</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior and exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">“</td><td class="c">87.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Rim finishing begun</td><td class="c">105.15</td><td class="c">90.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">91.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Vessel completed (Stage VII, pl. 15, g, h)</td><td class="c">119.45</td><td class="c">94.30</td><td class="c">93.00</td><td class="c">98.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="c" colspan="5">Total elapsed time from beginning: Ollas A and B, 5 hours, 7 minutes, 30 seconds; Ollas C and D, about 5 hours.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Cooking-Vessels</span></h3>
-
-<p>The clay forming the paste of these pieces is called Apache clay, and is
-very different from that employed in making ordinary ware (see p. 22);
-it is used without the addition of any tempering material.</p>
-
-<p>Just before moulding is started, the clay is carefully gone over in a
-final search for small pebbles. The moulding differs only in detail from
-that of vessels made from other kinds of paste. A pat very much thinner
-than those described above is made and placed in the puki. The vessel is
-built by the addition of rolls which are of smaller diameter than
-usual&mdash;about three-eighths of an inch. When the body has been built to
-the desired height, the scraping and smoothing with the kajepe are
-begun. At first the vessel, like the others, is cylindrical; but the
-scraping, first on the</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_17"  style="width: 430px;">
-<a href="images/ill_021.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_021.jpg" width="430" height="561" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 17</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Putting the finishing touches on an olla. The potter’s left hand is
-supporting the soft neck while she shapes it from the outside with the
-kajepe. In front is a pile of base-moulds (pukis) for small bowls; at
-the potter’s right is a lard-pail of water and a reserve supply of clay
-wrapped in a canvas.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Applying a horizontal handle to a small olla; two gourd spoons
-(kajepes) are lying on the table.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47">{47}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">interior and then on the exterior, thins the sides and gives it a
-spherical shape. After the smoothing the sides are from one-eighth to
-three-sixteenths of an inch thick, much thinner than the walls of
-vessels made of other kinds of paste. When the body has assumed the
-desired shape, additional rolls are added to form the lip, which is
-scraped, smoothed, and flared with the kajepe. During the entire period
-of moulding small pebbles are constantly being found and removed, for
-Apache clay contains a great many more pebbles than the other clays.
-After the finishing touches have been completed, the rim is indented,
-and a vertical handle is added as described below (see p. 50).</p>
-
-<p>The indenting of the rim is done with the thumb and forefinger of the
-right hand. The thumb is placed under the flaring rim, with the nail
-vertical; the forefinger rests upon the lip, the nail horizontal. The
-fingers are in about the position they would assume were the potter
-holding a pencil. A gentle downward pressure of the hand indents the rim
-slightly, the nail of the thumb leaving a small mark on the under side
-of the lip. This pressure is repeated at intervals of about
-three-quarters of an inch until the entire lip has been given an
-indented or undulating edge.</p>
-
-<p>The construction described above is that of a small olla about six
-inches in diameter. Larger ollas are built in several stages in the same
-manner as ollas made of the other forms of paste.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
-
-<p>The time consumed in the moulding of cooking vessels was noted in only
-one case. Six rolls were used for the body and two for the lip. Before
-the kajepe was used for the first time the cylindrical body was five
-inches in diameter and four and a half inches high. Table IV gives the
-time of construction, divided according to the various steps of the
-work.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE IV</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr valign="top"><td><small><i>Min.</i></small>&#160;<small><i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">00.00</td><td class="pdd"> &mdash; Kneading of small handful of clay to eliminate pebbles begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">04.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Pat placed in puki, kneading of clay for rolls begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">12.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Making of first roll begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">19.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Six rolls added and flattened, interior scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">20.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Exterior scraping begun, later interior smoothing begun, followed shortly by exterior smoothing</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">26.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Seventh roll added</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">29.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Eighth roll flattened and interior smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">29.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Exterior smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">32.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Rim smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">38.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Finishing touches begun, followed by indenting rim</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">46.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Moulding completed, vessel set aside</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">9.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; <i>Time out</i></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">46.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Work upon handle begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">49.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Handle finished, vessel completed</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48">{48}</a></span>&#160; </p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Prayer-meal Bowls</span></h3>
-
-<p>Prayer-meal bowls are of two sorts, bowl-shaped with a terraced
-elevation on one side of the rim, and rectangular, or box-like, with a
-terraced elevation at either end. In the construction of a rectangular
-prayer-meal bowl, no puki is employed. The pat, either circular or
-rectangular in shape, is made as usual. It is placed upon a board, care
-being taken to press it down hard, and the rectangular shape is
-accentuated by the pinching up of the edge. A thin layer of temper may,
-or may not, be sprinkled on the board before the pat is placed upon it.
-To this pat are added two or three rolls in the manner already
-described. When it is desired to turn the vessel, the board upon which
-it rests is turned. The board is either held in the lap or rests on the
-top of a low stool. In scraping and shaping the vessel one potter began
-to use the kajepe on the exterior first, then proceeded to the interior;
-another reversed the process. The stroke on the exterior is vertical at
-the corners and nearly horizontal on the sides; on the interior it is
-nearly horizontal. When the building of the vessel has been completed,
-the rim is smoothed, and the corners</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_7"  style="width: 446px;">
-<a href="images/ill_022.png">
-<img src="images/ill_022.png" width="446" height="129" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> The three stages in making the terraced end of a
-prayer-meal bowl: a. End built to full height. b. Notches cut with a
-taut string. c. Bits of clay removed from the notches and edges of
-terracing smoothed down.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">made straight. The bowl may be pressed lightly between the hands to
-improve the symmetry and to make all the corners more nearly right
-angles; it is then set aside for a while.</p>
-
-<p>The next step is the construction of the terraced ends. A single short
-roll is attached to the interior of the rim at one end. This roll is
-pressed flat, and smoothed with the kajepe, first on the interior and
-then on the exterior. The sharp edges are softened, the rim is smoothed,
-and the junctions of this new portion with the sides are rounded off.
-The result is a flattened semicircular vertical projection at the end
-(see <a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>, a). The other end is then treated in the same manner. The
-bowl is now ready to have the terraces put in. There are two methods of
-doing this. One potter uses a long string in making the first marks. The
-string is stretched taut horizontally, parallel to the length of the
-bowl. It is then pressed lightly on both ends at the same time, first on
-one side of the centre, then on the other. The distance between the
-hands is next shortened, and two notches are cut on either side of the
-centre of the end with this string, which is still held horizontally.
-Similar notches are cut in the other end. Each end of the bowl is now as
-shown in fig. 7, b.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49">{49}</a></span> Another potter does not make the initial marks in
-the two ends simultaneously. Holding the end of the bowl towards her,
-she lightly marks the lines to be cut with her fingernail. Then, picking
-up the string and following the marks made by her fingernail, the
-notches are cut in the way described.</p>
-
-<p>As soon as the notches have been cut, the small triangular pieces of
-clay are removed, the edges rounded with the thumb and forefinger of the
-right hand, and the corners made into curves. Small pellets of clay may
-be added if necessary. After a few finishing touches with the forefinger
-the terracing of the ends of the bowl is completed (see <a href="#fig_7">fig. 7</a>, c).<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
-
-<p>The time consumed by the swiftest potter of the village, in moulding an
-unusually large prayer-meal bowl, is recorded in Table V. The piece was
-seven and a half inches long, four and three-quarters inches wide, and
-three and a half inches high. The terraces raised the ends one and
-three-quarters inches more.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE V</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="1">
-<tr valign="top"><td><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>00.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Moulding of the bowl itself completed, after some time spent in pressing down the pat on the interior of the bowl. Vessel set aside</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>22.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; <i>Time out</i></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>22.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Interior and exterior smoothing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>26.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Paste picked up for roll to be placed on one end of bowl</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>29.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Roll flattened and smoothing of edges begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>30.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Interior scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>31.10</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Exterior scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>31.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Smoothing of connection with sides begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>32.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Roll placed on other end</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>33.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Roll flattened and interior scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>34.15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Exterior scraping begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>34.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Very small roll placed on first end to improve curve, followed by a little smoothing with kajepe</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>35.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Finishing of end begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>37.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Marking of one end with fingernail begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>38.15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Notches cut with thread, pieces removed, and finishing of terrace begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>40.15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Marking of other end with fingernail begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>40.35</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Cutting of notches with thread begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>41.05</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Pieces removed and finishing of terrace begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td>43.15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Finishing completed</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Double-mouthed Vases</span></h3>
-
-<p>The first step in the construction of this type of vessel is the
-moulding of an open-mouthed bowl. Across the mouth of this bowl a clay
-bridge is placed. Finishing touches are given at this stage of the work,
-just as if the moulding had been entirely completed. The piece is set
-aside for a while to stiffen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50">{50}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Later, additional rolls are added to each half of the mouth of the bowl
-by attaching them to the rim proper and also to the bridge. In this way
-two necks are gradually built up. At regular intervals the work is set
-aside to stiffen in order that it may support the additional weight to
-be added. The shape and height of the two necks depend entirely upon the
-whim of the potter. The moulding of the upper parts of the two necks is
-a delicate process, and requires considerable skill. The roll-marks on
-the interior of the neck, if obliterated at all, are destroyed by the
-fingers only, since the diameter of the neck is too small to permit the
-use of a kajepe. After the moulding has been entirely finished, a handle
-connecting the two necks is usually put across the top at right angles
-to the bridge which forms the base of the necks. Obviously this handle
-has a structural as well as ornamental purpose.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Handles</span></h3>
-
-<p>In all cases in which handles are to be applied the vessel is entirely
-finished before they are put on. The potters of San Ildefonso make three
-types of handles: (1) passing across the top of an open-mouthed bowl,
-(2) attached vertically to the side of a vessel, (3) attached
-horizontally to the side of a vessel. All three types consist of a short
-roll of paste of the proper length, usually somewhat smaller in diameter
-than the rolls used in the body of the vessel. This roll is slightly
-flattened before it is applied.</p>
-
-<p>The first two types of handles are placed on the vessel in the same
-manner. The ends of the flattened roll are pinched still flatter. In the
-case of the handle over the top of a bowl, first one end of the roll,
-then the other, is attached by pressure to the exterior of the rim. The
-vertical handle on the side of a vessel is attached first to the
-exterior of the rim, then bent over and attached to the side just above
-the shoulder. The left hand is used as a stop on the inside of the
-vessel in order that the shape of the side may not be altered by the
-pressure exerted in applying the handle. The junction-lines between the
-handle and the vessel are then obliterated with the forefinger of the
-right hand. Small pellets of paste may be added to the side of the
-contacts, especially on the inner side of the handle where it makes an
-acute angle with the side of the bowl. In this way the welding is made
-solid, and the curves regular. Finally the curve of the handle itself is
-made symmetrical. A few finishing touches, such as the obliterating of
-fine cracks in the handle and the smoothing of its surface, complete the
-process. Such a handle may be constructed in three to five minutes.</p>
-
-<p>Horizontal handles are attached to the sides of vessels in an entirely
-different manner, being keyed or riveted in, rather than merely welded
-on. Handles of this type are usually put on in pairs. The position of
-one handle is chosen and the rim of the finished pot is marked to show
-its location; by sighting across the top of the vessel a point exactly
-opposite is also marked to give the location of the other. For each
-handle two holes, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter and fairly
-close together, are cut through the side of the vessel from the exterior
-with a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51">{51}</a></span> stick. One end of the roll which is to form the handle is
-inserted in one of the two holes. Then the other end is similarly
-inserted. The left hand holds the first end in place on the interior,
-while the other end is being put in (<a href="#plt_17">pl. 17</a>, b). Next the junctions
-between the ends of the roll and the interior surface of the vessel are
-smoothed over and obliterated with the fingers of the right hand. The
-handle itself is flattened a little, and small pellets of paste are
-added at the junctions between it and the exterior of the vessel. These
-are smoothed over with the fingers, so that superficially the handle
-looks as if it had been pressed upon the surface in the same manner as a
-vertical handle. A smoothing of curves, and touching up of the handles
-to make them symmetrical, form the last stage of the construction. It
-took one potter just an hour to place a pair of handles of this type on
-a globular bowl.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52">{52}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="SUN-DRYING" id="SUN-DRYING"></a>SUN-DRYING</h2>
-
-<p>The purpose of sun-drying is to allow the vessels to harden, and to
-remove all moisture before the work on them is completed. During
-sun-drying, which immediately follows moulding, the ability of the
-vessels to withstand some heat is also tested. Pieces made of improperly
-mixed clay are eliminated at this stage of the work, because of the
-cracks which develop (see under Temper, p. 21). The length of time
-allowed for sun-drying depends upon the weather and also upon the place
-where the vessels are exposed.</p>
-
-<p>During the dry months of the year, notably in May and June, vessels
-placed in the sun will dry completely in less than a day, often in half
-a day (<a href="#plt_18">pl. 18</a>, a). In the fall it requires an entire day under the same
-conditions. When the sky is cloudy or showers threaten, the drying is
-done in the house. If time is not pressing, the pots are placed on a
-table, or in the corner of the room, and allowed to remain there three
-or more days. At the end of that time they are usually sufficiently dry.
-Vessels moulded one afternoon and placed on the table for the night are
-dry enough the following morning to permit lifting them from the pukis,
-which can then be used again. If, during cloudy weather, the potter
-desires to dry the vessels quickly, they are placed in the oven of the
-small wood-stove with which most San Ildefonso houses are nowadays
-equipped. Sometimes a piece of corrugated cardboard from a carton is
-placed on the floor of the oven, the door of which is left open to allow
-the evaporating moisture to escape. Only a low fire is built in the
-stove, for a hot one would cause the vessels to dry too quickly. Under
-such treatment a batch of pottery can be dried in two days, more or
-less. The length of time depends very largely upon the number of pieces
-to be dried, for the potter tries to keep all the vessels at about the
-same stage of drying; this of course requires frequent relays in the
-oven. The most common, and most natural, method, however, is to place
-the vessels in the sun and, when showers threaten, to carry them
-hurriedly into the house. In this way pottery is dried in a day or a day
-and a half. The loss of moisture in the paste changes its color from a
-dark reddish or greyish brown to a light reddish or whitish grey, and in
-the early stages the variations in the color of the paste serve as
-indications of the dryness of the vessel. Later the color-change is very
-difficult to detect. Various parts of the vessel dry at different rates;
-the rim always first, then the body, and last the base, both because it
-is thicker and because it is usually in the shadow of the vessel itself;
-in spite of this the vessels are never inverted while they are drying.</p>
-
-<p>The occurrence of cracks in the paste is the only form of accident which
-takes place during drying. There are three sorts of cracks: those in the
-bottom of the vessel, which usually pass through or very near the centre
-of the base; rim-cracks; and vertical cracks in the body. All are caused
-by the contraction of the paste in drying. The part of the vessel which
-receives the greatest strain is the base, which,</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_18"  style="width: 425px;">
-<a href="images/ill_023.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_023.jpg" width="425" height="559" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 18</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Vessels on their base-moulds drying in the sun; the pottery is always
-thoroughly sun-dried after it is moulded and before it is decorated.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Summer house of Antonita Roybal, a woman who specializes in the
-manufacture of large red ollas: a row of these may be seen drying before
-the house.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53">{53}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">because of the amount of paste in it, has a tendency to contract more
-than the bottom of the side. The next greatest strain is at the bottom
-of the side, where the paste must adjust itself to the contraction in
-the base as well as to that in the body of the vessel. The body and lip
-have the least strain, for the contraction may be compensated for by a
-slight settling of the paste. It is in the base, therefore, that cracks
-usually occur, and then near the centre of it, since that is the point
-of greatest strain. The size and quantity of the cracks are an
-indication of the amount of temper still needed to make the paste of
-just the right consistency. If there are many small cracks, or a single
-serious one, the piece may be discarded entirely, to be broken up later,
-and re-used in moulding. If a crack is not serious, it is filled as
-follows. With a small sliver of wood, or the end of a case-knife, the
-paste on the edge of the crack is forced down into it, first on the
-interior and then on the exterior; little pellets of paste are then
-added and pressed into the crack until it is filled. Final smoothing
-with the finger or the kajepe completes the obliteration.</p>
-
-<p>Small vertical cracks near the base of the body probably also indicate
-faulty mixture of the paste. The potters, however, say that these fine
-cracks are caused by a vessel’s drying too quickly in the sun, and
-insist that if it had been allowed to dry slowly in the house, they
-would not have appeared. Such cracks are too fine and too numerous to
-warrant the careful filling of each one; so accordingly the surface is
-merely dampened, some soft paste is added and rubbed in with the fingers
-or the kajepe.</p>
-
-<p>Cracks running downward from the rim are exceedingly rare. The women of
-San Ildefonso make no attempt to repair them, but occasionally cut down
-the vessel to a smaller size. In the single instance noted<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> the crack
-was first traced downward from the rim until its end was located upon
-the neck, then the upper part of the neck was cut off below the end of
-the crack. It was thus possible to use the base of the olla as a large
-bowl. A line parallel with the rim was marked about the circumference of
-the neck with a lead-pencil. This line was incised with a penknife, and
-gone over again in order to deepen it. A second line was incised around
-the neck about three-sixteenths of an inch nearer the rim. Then the
-paste between these two lines was dug out with great care, forming a
-V-shaped groove (<a href="#plt_20">pl. 20</a>, a). This groove was cut through about one-half
-the thickness of the wall all the way around the neck. Then at one point
-the wall was pierced, and, from there around, the groove was deepened by
-long and short strokes of a knife pulled toward the body until the wall
-had been cut through for about three-fifths of the circumference. The
-remainder broke away easily. The raw surface of the new rim was then
-softened by the application of water and smoothed with the fingers. The
-potter said this was the usual method of treating a rim crack.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">{54}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="SCRAPING" id="SCRAPING"></a>SCRAPING</h2>
-
-<p>The purpose of this process is twofold, to improve the surface of the
-vessel by removing the marks left by the kajepe and the puki, and to
-thin the sides, thus reducing the weight of the finished piece. It is
-usually begun the day following the completion of the moulding and
-sun-drying, unless other duties, such as planting, harvesting, and the
-like, force a postponement. Large vessels such as ollas are allowed to
-dry nearly forty-eight hours before they are scraped. At San Ildefonso
-vessels are made in quantities ranging from a dozen to fifty pieces. The
-moulding and drying of the entire group, a process which may extend over
-a period of several days, is entirely finished before the scraping is
-begun.</p>
-
-<p>There are three steps in the scraping: the wetting, the actual scraping,
-and the smoothing of the surface. The implements employed are a wet
-cloth and a scraper. The latter is either the top of a baking-powder
-can, or a kitchen case-knife. The can-top seems to be the more popular
-because it may be used on nearly any type of curve on the vessel. The
-informants said that their people formerly used potsherds, stones, or
-broken animal-bones as scrapers, in fact anything that had a suitable
-edge; the potsherds were sharpened and straightened by rubbing them on
-coarse sandstone.</p>
-
-<p>When the vessel is brought in from drying, it is easily lifted from the
-puki, since the layer of ashes or temper prevents sticking. A small olla
-or bowl is held upon the left knee, with the mouth tilted to the left
-and away from the body. A bowl is held with the left hand, the fingers
-on the interior, the thumb on the exterior of the lip. The exterior
-surface of the vessel is then softened by wiping it with a wet rag. This
-step is omitted by some potters always, by others only when the vessel
-needs a small amount of scraping. The scraping itself is begun while the
-surface is still damp. The scraper first touches the vessel near the
-shoulder. The work then continues toward the base by means of short,
-quick strokes taken toward the body. As the work advances the upper part
-of the bowl is turned away from the body, that is, the vessel turns
-counterclockwise. When the ridges marking the former position of the
-edge of the puki are being destroyed, care is taken to keep the curve of
-the side uniform from the base to the shoulder. If the scraping
-discloses an impurity, such as a stone fragment in the paste, it is
-removed; the resulting irregularity is filled with a pinch of soft
-paste, and smoothed over. The strokes of the scraper are usually
-approximately parallel to the rim of the vessel. The upper part is
-scraped as far as the surface remains convex. In bowls the scraping is
-done to the very rim. In both large and small ollas with flaring lip,
-the scraping continues only to the base of the flare. The interiors of
-vessels, even of wide-mouthed bowls, are never scraped. When a bowl
-requires little scraping to make the surface uniform, it may be finished
-in from three to five minutes. Those which are too</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_19"  style="width: 430px;">
-<a href="images/ill_024.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_024.jpg" width="430" height="560" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 19</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Scraping an olla after sun-drying; the implement used is an ordinary
-kitchen case-knife.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55">{55}</a></span></p><p class="nind">b. Scraping; the dark part of the olla has just been moistened to
-soften the clay.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">heavy, and therefore need thinning, take considerably longer. It may
-even be necessary to moisten the surface a second time. The potters
-judge the proper thickness of the bowls by weighing them in the two
-hands with the elbows unsupported.</p>
-
-<p>Large ollas, while being scraped, are held in the lap, with the mouth
-inclined to the left and away from the body. The left hand supporting
-the olla is placed palm down upon the neck (<a href="#plt_19">pl. 19</a>, b). Because of the
-extent of surface to be gone over only that part of the olla about to be
-scraped is moistened with the cloth. When a case-knife is used instead
-of a can-top, it is held either at right angles to the surface worked or
-at an angle of about sixty degrees with the surface, the upper edge of
-the knife tilted away from the body (<a href="#plt_19">pl. 19</a>, a). In all vessels, bowls
-as well as ollas, the angle with the horizontal made by the mouth varies
-considerably, according to the part of the vessel being scraped. After
-the scraping proper is completed, one potter sometimes rubs the surface,
-including the rim and lip, with a little steel wool, which noticeably
-improves the smoothness. The final step is to go over the entire surface
-carefully with the palm of the right hand in search of irregularities or
-small uneven spots.</p>
-
-<p>When the scraper is laid aside for the last time, the surface of the
-vessel is again softened with a wet cloth. By means of vigorous rubbing
-the thin film of moist surface-paste is redistributed over the entire
-exterior of the vessel, filling the small scratches made by the scraper,
-and softening the edges of the larger ones. If the vessel is a bowl or a
-large olla, its position is then changed so that its mouth is tilted to
-the right and towards the body, whereupon the interior is treated with a
-wet cloth. The finishing touches consist in smoothing, either with a wet
-cloth or the ball of the finger, small areas of the surface which are
-not quite to the potter’s satisfaction. The use of the wet cloth gives a
-uniform smooth texture which is a distinct improvement over the scraped
-surface. The paste resumes its dry color in three to five minutes after
-the wetting. This process actually amounts to the same thing as putting
-a thin slip of paste upon the vessel, but the potters do not think of it
-in that light. It is said that some women entirely omit this final
-smoothing step. Formerly a wet cloth was not used; the fingers alone, a
-piece of sandstone, or a corncob served, according to the informants, to
-smooth the surface after scraping. As a matter of fact, however, cloth
-was used in old times for smoothing pottery, as clay-smeared rags are
-occasionally discovered in the rubbish of ancient cliff houses. Ground
-potsherds, on the other hand, were more often used than gourd-rind
-kajepes, the latter being very rare even in the dry deposits found in
-caves. At Pecos well-worn fragments of the spongy interior parts of
-large animal bones have been found which may well have been employed for
-smoothing.</p>
-
-<p>The time element in scraping is a variable quantity. Table VI on the
-following page is the record of one potter. A, B, and C were large
-ollas; D, E, and F were small globular ollas six inches in diameter and
-five inches high; G was a shallow, wide-mouthed bowl.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">{56}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>TABLE VI</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="1">
-<tr><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">A<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">B<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">C<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">D<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">E<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">F<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td>
-<td class="c">G<br /><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></td></tr>
-<tr><td>Wet cloth applied</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Scraping begun</td><td class="c">00.30</td><td class="c">01.00</td><td class="c">00.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Wet cloth applied again</td><td class="c">02.30</td><td class="c">08.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Wet cloth applied again</td><td class="c">04.00</td><td class="c">11.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Steel wool rub begun</td><td class="c">05.30</td><td class="c">16.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Scraping done, exterior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">08.00</td><td class="c">18.30</td><td class="c">18.00</td><td class="c">08.30</td><td class="c">03.00</td><td class="c">05.00</td><td class="c">08.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Interior smoothing begun</td><td class="c">14.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">26.00</td><td class="c">11.00</td><td class="c">05.30</td><td class="c">07.30</td><td class="c">11.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Finishing begun</td><td class="c">17.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Set aside</td><td class="c">17.30</td><td class="c">31.30</td><td class="c">35.00</td><td class="c">13.00</td><td class="c">08.30</td><td class="c">08.30</td><td class="c">15.30</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The treatment of the vessels after scraping varies considerably among
-different potters. One places the scraped vessels in the sun for a
-period of not less than three days in order to test them for cracks;
-another begins the next step in the work, that of slipping, almost at
-once, sometimes the same day; a third after scraping ollas replaces them
-in the sun for a day or so, in order to allow them to “get warm” (that
-is, dry thoroughly),<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> before the slipping and polishing are begun.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">{57}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="SLIPPING_AND_POLISHING" id="SLIPPING_AND_POLISHING"></a>SLIPPING AND POLISHING</h2>
-
-<p>Up to this point all vessels are made in the same general manner. In the
-succeeding stages the treatment differs according to the type of
-decoration which is eventually to be applied. The making of the vessel
-has been completed, and the finishing is now begun. Just as the making
-is divided into three general processes&mdash;moulding, sun-drying, and
-scraping, so the finishing is similarly divided into slipping, painting,
-and firing.</p>
-
-<p>Slipping is the application of a very thin layer of clay to the surface
-or surfaces of the vessel to produce a smooth texture, uniform in color,
-which gives the pottery a pleasing appearance; it also serves as a
-background upon which designs may be painted. The slip further acts as a
-sizing. San Ildefonso slip is a saturated solution of a colored clay in
-water; it is very little thicker than water, and is applied by means of
-a small piece of cloth, used in much the same way in which a painter
-would handle a brush an inch and a half or two inches wide. It is said
-that formerly a small piece of skin was used instead of a cloth mop. The
-treatment after application depends upon the slip used; some slips are
-merely wiped vigorously with a cloth, others must be polished with
-smooth, fine-grained stones.</p>
-
-<p>At San Ildefonso the potters use slips of four different colors&mdash;white
-(of two varieties), orange-red, red, and dark-red. The red and dark-red
-slips and one variety of the white must be polished; the other white and
-the orange-red do not need it. The white slips are principally used as
-backgrounds in polychrome ware (see <a href="#plt_6">pl. 6</a>), the red for undecorated red
-ware and polished black ware (see <a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>), and the dark-red for decorated
-red ware (see <a href="#plt_7">pl. 7</a>, a, b). The orange-red slip is the only one of the
-four which is not used on the body of vessels, it being confined to the
-bases of ollas and of some bowls. The white and the orange-red are used
-also in the elements of designs.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">White Slip</span></h3>
-
-<p>The native white slip (see p. 23) is applied and polished in the same
-manner as the red slip (see p. 23). It has been very largely supplanted
-by the Santo Domingo white slip, which does not require polishing.</p>
-
-<p>The Santo Domingo white slip (see p. 23) is a soapy clay which the San
-Ildefonso potters obtain from the Indians of Santo Domingo and Cochiti.
-It is mixed with water in enamelled pans and basins or in china dishes,
-although formerly pottery vessels were used to hold it. Although
-undissolved lumps of the clay remain in the bottom of the vessel
-containing the solution, the latter is not appreciably thicker than
-water. The mop with which it is applied is a folded cloth, about two
-inches wide and three, or three and a half, inches long. This is held at
-one end,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">{58}</a></span> between the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand,
-the other end of the cloth acting as a two-inch wide paint-brush, which
-is manipulated with an easy, backward-forward stroking motion, parallel
-to the rim.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
-
-<p>Before the slip is applied, the hand is rubbed over the surface in order
-to remove any dust or powder which may remain after the scraping. Some
-vessels, while being slipped, are held with the mouth vertical and to
-the left, supported by the bent fingers of the left hand against the
-interior of the rim. Others are held upright, resting upon the palm of
-the left hand (<a href="#plt_20">pl. 20</a>, b). In both cases the vessels are revolved
-counterclockwise as the slip is applied. In the container the slip is
-creamy white, but when first laid on it turns a muddy yellowish-white,
-because the clay below darkens as it absorbs the moisture. Within two or
-three minutes the under clay dries, and the surface becomes dead white.
-Five or six coats are applied, the vessel being allowed to become
-completely dry after each one. One potter rubbed the surface vigorously
-with a dry cloth after each application and before the slip had
-thoroughly dried. Another rubbed the vessel with a cloth only after all
-the coats had been put on, but before the last had dried. Usually the
-work is done in the sun, at the place where the pieces have been drying,
-but occasionally it is carried on in the house, and between coatings the
-vessels are placed in an oven heated by a slow fire. The length of time,
-five or more minutes, during which the vessel remains in the oven is
-determined by testing the warmth of its surface. When the work has been
-completed, the very faint marks of the mop are visible.</p>
-
-<p>Pieces of pottery of various shapes are slipped on different surfaces.
-Small ollas and constricted-mouthed bowls are coated with white only on
-the upper two-thirds or three-quarters of the exterior. No particular
-care is taken to keep the lower edge of the slip regular. Of smaller
-vessels the entire exterior, including the base, is usually covered.
-Open-mouthed bowls are coated with white both in the interior and the
-upper part of the exterior. Shallow open-mouthed bowls may be coated
-only on the interior. The exterior surfaces not treated with white slip
-are later coated with orange-red slip (see below).</p>
-
-<p>The actual length of time that each vessel is in the hands of the potter
-while it is being slipped is very short. It requires one-quarter to
-one-half a minute to apply a coat of slip to a constricted-mouthed bowl
-six to eight inches in diameter. The six coats could be applied in less
-than three minutes. Another half minute is needed for the rubbing with
-the cloth at the end. Four minutes in all is a generous estimate. A coat
-of slip is applied to the entire group of vessels at one time (<a href="#plt_20">pl. 20</a>,
-b). Less than fifteen minutes are required to give a single coat of slip
-to a group of from twenty to thirty pieces. After this step has been
-completed, the vessels are placed in the sun for an hour or more before
-the painting of the design is begun, the length of time depending upon
-attendant circumstances.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_20"  style="width: 600px;">
-<a href="images/ill_025.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_025.jpg" width="600" height="430" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 20</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a</p>
-
-<p>Cutting the top from an olla which had cracked slightly at the rim
-during the final sun-drying. The raw edge was afterwards worked down to
-form a new rim, and the vessel was successfully fired.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b</p>
-
-<p>Applying white slip with a cloth mop. The enamelled pan containing the
-prepared slip is on the bench at the potter’s side. A number of vessels
-are slipped at one time.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59">{59}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Orange-Red Slip</span></h3>
-
-<p>This slip is applied only to the bases of vessels (ollas and certain
-bowls) and to the interior of the lips of ollas. Before burning it is
-mustard-yellow in color, but after firing it becomes orange-red. A cloth
-mop is used for application in the same manner as with the white slip;
-one coat only is applied to each surface.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule the vessel being slipped is held in the lap, the mouth
-vertical and turned to the left (<a href="#plt_21">pl. 21</a>, a). The left hand is placed in
-the interior to support it and keep it turning counterclockwise, that
-is, the upper part is turned away from the body, as the strokes are
-taken towards the body. The formation of the junction-line between this
-base-slip and the body-slip is very carefully handled. No attention is
-paid to the lower edge of the body-slip, except to notice its general
-location, for the base-slip covers it and itself produces the edge. This
-upper line, made by long, careful, slow, trailing strokes of the mop, is
-drawn entirely free-hand, yet the potters succeed surprisingly well in
-keeping it always the same distance from the centre of the base. Three
-or four strokes are more than sufficient to encircle the vessel (<a href="#plt_21">pl. 21</a>,
-a). It is often possible in the finished piece to trace the lower edge
-of the body-slip, under the orange-red coating. After the junction line
-has been drawn, the rest of the base is covered with shorter
-forward-backward strokes. The application of the orange-red slip to the
-interior of the lips of ollas is done with the same careful, slow
-technique used in forming the junction-line near the base of the body;
-during the process the vessel is held on the palm of the hand right-side
-up. The exterior of shallow bowls which receive no white slip is
-completely coated with the orange-red, the bowl being inverted over the
-left hand during the application.</p>
-
-<p>The orange-red slip may be put on either before or after the painting of
-the design; if before, the painting may be begun at once; if after, the
-application may be delayed until within an hour or two of burning. If
-the vessels are set aside for a while at this stage, they are covered
-with a cloth to keep the dust and flies away. The time element is
-practically the same as in the case of the white slip.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Red Slip</span></h3>
-
-<p>The red slip, as was said above, serves to cover the surfaces of
-undecorated red-ware. It is always polished with the rubbing-stone after
-application. When given a certain special firing (see p. 74) it turns a
-lustrous black and so produces polished black ware (<a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>, b). This slip
-is a saturated solution in water of the red clay just as it was obtained
-from the claypits (see p. 24). Although undissolved lumps remain at the
-bottom of the solution, the latter is no thicker than water. The
-containers are either open-mouthed pottery bowls or china dishes. The
-slip is applied as usual with a small folded rag. While it is being put
-on, the vessel may be hung from the fingers of the left hand with the
-mouth vertical, or held in the usual way upon the palm of the left hand,
-its position depending upon whether or not the base is to be slipped.
-The surface is covered two or three times with the cloth mop, in a
-rather haphazard manner, so that certain portions where the strokes
-overlap receive as many as four coats. The potter herself is uncertain
-regarding the number of coats the surface has received, as they are
-applied one immediately after the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">{60}</a></span> other, with no wait between. The
-mopping is stopped when the surface seems uniformly covered with just
-the right shade&mdash;a rather bright red. San Ildefonso potters usually
-cover with this slip the entire exterior of small ollas and bowls,
-including the base.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> In some cases shallow open-mouthed bowls are
-slipped only on the interior.</p>
-
-<p>Before the slip dries, the rubbing with the polishing-stone is begun.
-The stone is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the right
-hand. The entire surface is gone over several times with a
-backward-forward motion in strokes about three or four inches long.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
-Each stroke is made with the entire forearm, there being no noticeable
-play in either the wrist or the fingers. This is a rather fatiguing and
-exacting process, for to obtain the best results all parts of the
-surface must receive equal attention: a definite system, however, has
-been developed by means of which the entire surface is gone over.</p>
-
-<p>In polishing the exterior of a small olla or of a bowl, the vessel is
-first placed upon the lap in an inverted position, tilted slightly to
-the right. It is held at the rim by the left hand, which rests upon the
-left thigh. The polishing is begun on the right-hand side of the base
-near the body, and proceeds diagonally across the base to the far
-left-hand side. The vessel is then tipped up with the mouth to the left
-and the rim nearly vertical. The polishing is begun at the shoulder and
-continued down to within a very short distance of the centre of the base
-(<a href="#plt_21">pl. 21</a>, b). At this stage some potters polish from the base to the
-shoulder. As the work continues, the upper part of the bowl is turned
-counterclockwise away from the body. Usually the stroke is parallel to
-the rim, but occasionally a diagonal motion develops. The strokes across
-the bottom are then made at right angles to the previous series. A
-constricted-mouthed bowl is then turned so that the mouth, still
-vertical, is to the right, and the section from the lip to the shoulder
-is polished; the bowl is now turned clockwise, that is, the top still
-turns away from the body. Small ollas may be held either in this
-position or with the mouth tilted at an angle of about forty-five
-degrees to the left and away from the body, in which case the polishing
-is done from the shoulder to the lip (see <a href="#plt_30">pl. 30</a>, b, which shows a Zuñi
-potter using the polishing stone).</p>
-
-<p>After the surface has been completely covered in this manner once, and
-none too carefully, the rim is coated with the slip, applied by the
-forefinger of the right hand, and gone over with the stone. The vessel
-is then wiped with a cloth upon</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_21"  style="width: 458px;">
-<a href="images/ill_026.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_026.jpg" width="458" height="548" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 21</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Applying orange-red slip with a cloth mop; the beginning of the
-stroke may be seen just above the lap of the potter. b. Polishing a bowl
-with a small stone after red slip has been applied. The marks of the
-stone are visible at first, but quickly disappear as the slip dries. c.
-Women working with the polishing stone. Note the light line about the
-shoulder of the large olla, where a space is always temporarily left
-unpolished.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61">{61}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">which a little lard has been rubbed. The lard may be kept near the
-potter in any convenient receptacle, like a sauce-dish or the bowl of a
-spoon. A clean cloth is then immediately used to distribute the lard
-evenly upon the surface, and to remove any surplus. Some potters do not
-use this second cloth at all; others apply the lard to the vessels with
-their fingers, wiping it immediately afterwards with a cloth. In some
-cases, the application of the lard is withheld until the polishing is
-entirely completed.</p>
-
-<p>The polishing is then continued in exactly the manner just described.
-The surface is covered more carefully and more slowly, the areas worked
-upon often overlapping considerably. A cloth, sometimes a part of the
-potter’s apron, is now between the left hand and the vessel in order to
-protect the smooth surface. A considerable pressure is exerted. Some
-women use a short, very quick stroke; others a somewhat longer, slower
-stroke, hence taking more time for the work. In this way the surface is
-covered several times. Finally the routine treatment is dropped, and
-finishing touches are given by polishing small areas here and there
-which do not show the required amount of lustre. The strokes used at the
-end are usually slightly longer than the previous ones. Finally, after
-the stone has been laid aside, the surface is wiped once with a clean
-cloth before the vessel is set aside; it is usually placed upon a mat or
-cloth in order that the base may not be scratched by contact with the
-earthen floor. When the polishing of several vessels has been completed,
-they are gathered in a corner of a room on a mat or rug, and covered
-with a cloth to keep the flies and dust away, for it is said that
-fly-specks leave a black mark upon the burned vessel.</p>
-
-<p>In the case of large ollas one half of the vessel is doubtless coated
-with slip and polished before the other half is slipped. This is the
-process employed in polishing large ollas slipped with dark-red (see p.
-63). No opportunity presented itself to see a large polished olla being
-made.</p>
-
-<p>In polishing the interior of a shallow bowl, the vessel is held in its
-normal position, tilted slightly to the right, and resting upon the
-right knee and the palm of the left hand, which in turn, rests upon the
-left knee. The polishing is done from the lip to the centre of the
-vessel. As the work advances, the bowl is turned counterclockwise.</p>
-
-<p>The degree of polish obtained by different potters varies considerably,
-and yet in even the very finest examples of polishing the marks left by
-the stone may be faintly seen in certain lights in the form of
-exceedingly low ridges, generally running roughly parallel to the rim
-and too low to be felt with the fingers. The surface has a lustre almost
-equal to that of burnished metal. In pieces which are not as well
-polished, the ridges are higher and may be felt with the fingers; indeed
-they are often prominent enough to make the lustre uneven. Maria
-Martinez, who does the best polishing, is also the swiftest worker in
-the village. From the moment the vessel is picked up to apply the slip
-until the completion of the polishing, it is not laid down for an
-instant. Her strokes are quicker than those of the other potters; she
-covers the surface in much less time and therefore polishes a given area
-more often before the slip dries. Continued polishing tires the wrist
-and hand very quickly and is apt to produce cramps. Other potters are
-inclined to rest for a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">{62}</a></span> minutes from time to time, especially after
-the application of the slip and again after the lard has been put on.
-One woman complained of the humid weather, because it did not allow the
-slip to dry quickly enough. The potters themselves say that streaky
-polish is due to lack of persistence on the part of the polisher. Maria
-attributes her success to the fact that she uses a faster stroke and
-puts on a little more lard than the others. Large vessels usually have a
-poorer polish than small ones. The secret of good polishing seems to lie
-in the ability of the potter to go over her work as many times as
-possible after the slip has been applied and before it becomes too dry.</p>
-
-<p>The time during which the vessel being polished is actually in the hands
-of the potter is given in Table VII. The first column (A) represents a
-constricted-mouthed bowl, about eight inches in diameter at the shoulder
-and four inches high, which was polished by Maria. In one hour and
-fifteen minutes elapsed time three such bowls were done, an average of
-twenty-five minutes for each. The second column (B) represents the
-polishing by another potter of the interior of a shallow wide-mouthed
-bowl. The actual time from the moment the bowl was picked up for the
-application of the slip until the polishing was done was forty-one
-minutes. A rest of one minute was taken after the slip had been applied,
-another of thirteen minutes after the application of the lard, in order
-to let the bowl “dry”, and a third of one minute when the final
-polishing was about half done. The interior of this bowl was a very fine
-example of polishing.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE VII</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td>&#160;</td><td><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td>
-<td><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr><td>First application of the slip</td><td align="left">00.00</td><td align="left">00.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First polishing begun</td><td align="left">02.50</td><td align="left">03.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Slipping of rim begun</td><td align="left">04.45</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Polishing of rim begun</td><td align="left">05.30</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Application of lard begun</td><td align="left">06.05</td><td align="left">10.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Wiping with dry cloth begun&#160; &#160; </td><td align="left">06.40</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Final polishing begun</td><td align="left">07.05</td><td align="left">11.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Polishing finished</td><td align="left">24.05</td><td align="left">26.00</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Dark-red Slip</span></h3>
-
-<p>The dark-red slip is a mixture of red slip, native white slip, and
-tempering material. It is applied to vessels which are later to receive
-a black design (see <a href="#plt_7">pl. 7</a>, a, b). It is mopped on with a cloth in
-exactly the same manner as the red, and is also polished with a stone
-but never acquires as high a lustre as does the red. There seems to be a
-tendency for the first coat of this slip to dry more readily than the
-first coat of the red slip.</p>
-
-<p>While applying the slip to small ollas about six inches in diameter, the
-vessel is held by the rim with the left hand. Either the entire exterior
-may be slipped, or the base may remain uncoated, to be covered later
-with the orange-red slip. The slip is first applied to the rim, the
-forefinger being used instead of a mop. During this process the vessel
-is right-side up either in the lap or on the floor. The body is then
-slipped with the cloth mop, and the polishing done in two parts, with
-the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63">{63}</a></span> shoulder as the dividing line. In polishing the lower part the
-strokes begin at the base, or at the lower edge of the slip in case the
-base has not been coated, and proceed upward to the shoulder. The
-direction of the strokes is practically parallel to the rim. The upper
-part is polished from the shoulder to the lip. On the base, if it has
-been slipped, the strokes are first made in one direction, then at right
-angles to that direction. From time to time, as the polishing proceeds,
-the vessels are set aside in order to allow the slip to dry somewhat.
-They may even be placed in the sun or near a fire on the hearth. The
-potters explain that if the work is completed while the slipped surface
-is very damp, the resulting polish will not be as high as when the slip
-is just drying. Apparently, the work done just before the surface
-becomes dry plays an important part in securing a high lustre. One of
-the potters working on this ware applied a little lard to the surface
-after the polishing had been completed. Another potter used no lard
-whatever for this class of ware.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> When the polishing has been
-completed the vessel is placed in the sun or near a fire to dry
-thoroughly before it is put away to await decoration. While the olla is
-drying it is covered with a cloth to protect it from flies.</p>
-
-<p>In polishing larger ollas one half of the vessel is coated with the
-dark-red slip and polished before the other half is slipped. Either the
-half above the shoulder or the half below the shoulder may be polished
-first. Rather quick strokes, three or four inches long, are made with
-the stone. Sufficient pressure is exerted to cause motion in the entire
-body of the worker. The strokes, as before, are usually parallel to the
-rim. Because of the larger surface to be covered in these vessels, the
-position of the olla on the lap of the potter is changed frequently. It
-is supported with the left hand, which is placed palm down upon the
-exterior surface. While the lip is being polished, the mouth is turned
-toward the body and to the right, making an angle of about sixty degrees
-from the horizontal. In polishing the upper part of the shoulder the
-potter turns the mouth to the left and away from the body (<a href="#plt_21">pl. 21</a>, c).
-Usually the mouth is more nearly horizontal in this position than in the
-former.</p>
-
-<p>Before applying the slip to the lower half of the olla, a faint line is
-drawn with the polishing-stone around the lower part of the body to
-define the lower edge of the body-slip. During the slipping and
-polishing of this portion of the surface, the olla is held with the
-mouth nearly vertical and to the left, directed away from the body. When
-the polishing proper is completed, the finishing touches are given to
-the entire exterior by rubbing small areas here and there which do not
-entirely satisfy the potter.</p>
-
-<p>As in the case of the red slip, the polishing must be completed before
-the slip becomes too dry. When there is a large surface to be polished,
-as in the case of these ollas, it is of course necessary that the work
-upon any given section of the surface be completed as quickly as
-possible. Therefore when two potters are working together, the swifter
-of the two does the polishing on the larger vessel, regardless of which
-of the two applies the slip. After the polishing proper has been
-completed, the olla may be turned over to the slower worker for the
-finishing touches. This necessity for speed in polishing is probably the
-reason for slipping only a part of the surface at one time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">{64}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Now and then, as the polishing proceeds, the potter changes stones. An
-important factor in this change is the desire to rest the fingers
-through the slight alteration in grip afforded by the different shapes
-of the stones. Occasionally the change is due to a wish to obtain a
-stone with just the proper shaped surface for the section of the olla
-being worked upon. There is also a tendency to use a larger, rougher
-stone at the beginning of the work, for which is substituted later for
-the final finish a smaller, finer-grained, and therefore smoother,
-stone.</p>
-
-<p>Because of the practice of slipping and polishing only half the surface
-at a time, there develops around the shoulder a narrow line of dried
-slip, which is naturally lighter in color than the worked areas. (This
-line may be seen encircling the olla in pl. 21, c). After the polishing
-of the upper and lower areas has been completed, the potter’s attention
-turns to this line, and since dry slip cannot be polished, the rubbing
-stone is either wet with the tongue or dipped into the liquid in the
-slip-container before being used on the line. The latter method appears
-to give the best results, but in either case, the moistening of the
-stone is done very frequently, and the process of eliminating the
-lighter line is a painfully slow one. Even when the best results have
-been obtained, the line is not entirely obliterated. Occasionally the
-stone is moistened with the tongue while giving final touches to other
-parts of the surface.</p>
-
-<p>When the polishing with the stone has been entirely completed, a little
-lard is rubbed on the surface either with the forefinger or with a
-greasy cloth; the surface is then vigorously rubbed with a chamois.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
-This distributes the lard evenly and very noticeably improves the
-lustre. Then the vessel, after being covered with a cloth, is put in the
-sun to dry thoroughly.</p>
-
-<p>The great difference in the time required for polishing large and small
-ollas requires two tables to present the details. Table VIII gives the
-time during which a large olla, about fourteen inches in diameter at the
-shoulder, was under the hands of the potters. The time devoted to
-obliterating the light junction-line, about fifteen to twenty minutes,
-was considerably longer than usual. Table IX gives the time required for
-three small globular ollas, about six inches in diameter at the
-shoulder. The surface of each of these was approximately the same as
-that of the polished black constricted-mouthed bowl recorded in Table
-VII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">{65}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3>TABLE VIII</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td><small><i>Hrs.</i>&#160;<i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">00.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Drawing of line about lower part of body begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">01.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Slipping of lower half of olla begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">08.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Slipping finished, polishing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">23.30</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Vessel transferred to a slower worker</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">40.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Set aside</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">04.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; <i>Time out</i></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">40.00</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Polishing by slower worker continued</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">47.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; First application of lard begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">48.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Polishing with chamois begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">50.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Lower part finished</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="c">&#160; ?</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; <i>Time out</i></td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">50.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Slipping of upper half begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">55.15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Slipping of body done, slipping of rim begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">56.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Polishing begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1.00.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Vessel transferred to the swifter worker</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1.20.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Vessel transferred to the slower worker, obliteration of junction-line</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1.53.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; First application of lard begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1.55.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Polishing with chamois begun</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1.59.45</td><td class="pdd">&mdash; Polishing of vessel completed</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3>TABLE IX</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td>&#160;</td>
-<td class="c"><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td>
-<td class="c"><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td>
-<td class="c"><small><i>Min.</i>&#160;<i>Sec.</i></small></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Slipping begun</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td><td class="c">00.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Slipping completed</td><td class="c">03.00</td><td class="c">&#160;</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">01.00</td><td class="c" colspan="2">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Polishing begun</td><td class="c">03.00</td><td class="c">04.00</td><td class="c">04.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Set aside (second one beside fire)</td><td class="c">27.30</td><td class="c">31.30</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd"><i>Time out</i></td><td class="c">03.00</td><td class="c">34.30</td><td class="c">omitted</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Polishing continued</td><td class="c">27.30</td><td class="c">omitted</td><td class="c">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Lard first applied, chamois used later&#160; &#160; </td><td class="c">30.30</td><td class="c">31.30</td><td class="c">32.00</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="pdd">Work on vessel completed</td><td class="c">31.45</td><td class="c">33.00</td><td class="c">36.00</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66">{66}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="PAINTING" id="PAINTING"></a>PAINTING</h2>
-
-<p>Three varieties of paint are employed in making the designs&mdash;the black,
-or guaco, which is used on red and polychrome wares, the orange-red
-(also used as a slip), which serves as a paint in filling certain spaces
-in the designs upon polychrome ware, and the black ware paint which
-produces the designs upon polished black ware.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
-
-<p>The consistency of the guaco, when dissolved in water and ready for use,
-varies from that of water to that of thick cream. The solution is sticky
-and has a characteristic odor. A thin solution when applied to the
-surface of a vessel is yellowish-green, and has much the same appearance
-as a fresh coat of the orange-red paint. After drying the two are easily
-distinguishable. A thick solution of guaco is dark brownish-green when
-applied to the vessel, and on drying has a noticeable “body”, so that
-the lines appear slightly raised and glossy. It is not possible to draw
-as fine a line with the thick solution as with the thin one.</p>
-
-<p>The orange-red is never used in painting lines, but only for filling
-areas, and is therefore always applied with a medium or heavy brush.</p>
-
-<p>In preparing the black ware paint, a slight amount of guaco is added as
-an adhesive, and the solution is often stirred with the fingers in order
-to insure complete dissolving of the coloring matter. When first applied
-to the vessel, this paint is almost transparent; as it dries it becomes
-yellowish.</p>
-
-<p>The principal precaution taken when painting is begun is to guard
-against flies. They eat the moist guaco, causing blank spaces in the
-lines, and also make fly-specks on the slip which turn black in the
-firing. The room is therefore cleared of flies as far as possible, and
-great care then exercised to keep the door shut. The painter watches the
-pot constantly, and often interrupts her work in order to brush a fly
-from the design. If it is necessary to do the painting out of doors, the
-services of an assistant are required to wave a cloth back and forth
-across the top of the vessel to keep the flies away.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> When the work
-has been completed the vessels are immediately covered with a cloth.</p>
-
-<p>The receptacle for paint may be either a small open-mouthed pottery bowl
-or a china sauce-dish. During the painting it is on the right side of
-the potter within easy reach, either on the floor or on a low stool. In
-it is always a stirring-stick.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_22"  style="width: 429px;">
-<a href="images/ill_027.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_027.jpg" width="429" height="581" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 22</p>
-
-<p>Painting designs on small vessels. The decorator’s right hand does not
-come in contact with the pot, and the tip of the brush is trailed rather
-than stroked across the surface. a. Maria Martinez. b. Maximiliana
-Martinez.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67">{67}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The brushes are usually kept in the paint, or occasionally beside it,
-and sometimes a pencil is also near at hand (<a href="#plt_23">pl. 23</a>, a).</p>
-
-<p>In decorating the exterior of a constricted-mouthed bowl, the vessel is
-held upright and inclined very slightly towards the body; it rests on
-the left knee and is steadied by the pressure of the left hand against
-the interior of the rim (<a href="#plt_22">pl. 22</a>, a). The potter sits in a position which
-allows the light to come over her right shoulder directly upon the
-section of the bowl being painted. As the work proceeds the vessel is
-turned counterclockwise. When the design extends slightly below the
-shoulder, the bowl is inclined to the left and away from the body. If a
-considerable portion of the design is below the shoulder, the vessel is
-inverted and is supported by the fingers of the left hand against the
-interior base of the bowl.</p>
-
-<p>If the interior of an open-mouthed bowl is being painted, the enclosing
-lines near the rim are made first. During this process the bowl is held
-with the mouth vertical and to the right, while the lines are drawn on
-the lower part of the interior rim. The vessel moves counterclockwise.
-The bottom of the interior is painted with the bowl standing in its
-normal position on the left knee, the mouth inclined to the right and
-toward the body.</p>
-
-<p>When a large vessel, such as an olla, is to be painted, it is placed
-upon a box or table of the proper height, which has previously been
-covered with a rug or mat to protect the base (<a href="#plt_23">pl. 23</a>). The painter
-chooses her position so that the light will fall over her shoulder upon
-the vessel. During the painting of the upper part of the vessel it is
-touched with the left hand only when it needs to be turned. In working
-below the shoulder the vessel is tilted slightly to the left, and away
-from the painter.</p>
-
-<p>The paint-brushes are made of slivers of yucca (<a href="#fig_5">fig. 5</a>). They may be
-roughly grouped into three weights&mdash;fine, medium, and heavy.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> The
-fine ones are used in making outlines on the smaller vessels; the medium
-ones either for line work or for the filling of small areas; and the
-heavy ones for filling only. During the painting there are from three to
-six brushes in the paint vessel. These brushes are of such durability
-that the potters have no definite idea of the length of their
-usefulness. Since the fibres are brittle when dry, brushes are
-occasionally broken by accident; to prevent such breakage they are
-soaked in water for a few minutes to soften them before they are used.</p>
-
-<p>The brush is held in the right hand, with the fingers in the position
-used in holding a pencil or pen. The ends of the fingers are two or
-three inches from the tip of the brush (<a href="#plt_22">pl. 22</a>, a, b.; pl. 23, a). The
-fingers of the right hand do not rest upon the surface of the vessel and
-the entire right arm is unsupported (<a href="#plt_23">pl. 23</a>), although at times the
-elbow may be unconsciously steadied against the body. The straightness
-and evenness of the lines drawn under these conditions are remarkable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68">{68}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is a slight personal variation in the method of contact of the
-brush with the vessel. One potter uses only the tip of the brush;
-another first places the tip upon the surface, and then makes the line
-with the body of the brush; a third places the body of the brush upon
-the vessel at the first contact. In making a line a trailing stroke is
-invariably used; its direction is usually toward the body, but
-occasionally away from it. The brush is always moved slowly, and the
-angle at which it is held varies according to the part of the surface
-over which the line is being drawn, and upon the part of the stroke
-which is being made. At the beginning of a stroke the angle is an acute
-one, varying from forty-five to seventy degrees (<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>, a); about the
-middle it approximates ninety degrees (<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>, b); while at the end it
-is often an obtuse angle of as much as one hundred and twenty degrees
-(<a href="#fig_8">fig. 8</a>, c). On small vessels the strokes seldom exceed four inches in
-length; on larger pots they are sometimes as much as six inches long.
-After each stroke the brush is dipped into the paint vessel; it is then
-always drawn across the stirring stick, which is kept</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_8"  style="width: 435px;">
-<a href="images/ill_028.png">
-<img src="images/ill_028.png" width="435" height="190" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Angles at which paint-brush is held during a long
-stroke; a. Beginning. b. Middle of stroke. c. End.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">there, in order to remove excess paint before being applied again to the
-surface. Even after this precaution more paint occasionally remains on
-the brush than is needed; in such a case the excess is removed by
-touching with the tip of the brush various larger areas which will later
-be covered with paint.</p>
-
-<p>The width of the lines drawn is largely dependent upon personal
-variation, although the type of design also governs their width to some
-extent. Exceedingly fine lines, for example, would obviously look out of
-proportion in a bold design upon a large olla. The lines vary in width
-from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch; the great majority are
-between one-fifteenth and one-twentieth. Lines one-eighth or one-quarter
-of an inch wide are in reality double, that is, they actually consist of
-two lines painted so close together that they touch along their entire
-length. Still wider lines are made by two parallel lines, with the space
-between filled up. Some potters simply make the line once, retouching it
-only in small sections which most plainly require such treatment. Others
-go over each line at least twice in order to insure a constant width.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_23"  style="width: 600px;">
-<a href="images/ill_029.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_029.jpg" width="600" height="425" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 23</p>
-
-<p>Decorating large ollas. Note the unsupported arm of the painter and the
-length of the brush. On the bench in front is the paint-cup with
-stirring-stick and extra brushes (Antonita Roybal).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69">{69}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>From the point of view of technique, the lines upon the exteriors of
-small vessels, such as constricted-mouthed bowls, may be divided into
-two groups&mdash;the long enclosing lines and those within panels. In forming
-the enclosing lines, especially the long horizontal ones, the vessel is
-turned while the brush remains almost stationary. There are two methods
-of forming such long horizontal lines, which of necessity are made of a
-series of relatively short strokes. In one case the growth of the line
-is in the same direction as the strokes, that is, each stroke begins at
-the point at which the previous stroke ended. In this method the vessel
-is turned counterclockwise. In the other case the growth of the line is
-opposite to the direction of the stroke, that is, each stroke is begun a
-short distance beyond the end of the line and is drawn to meet the
-beginning of the previous stroke, the vessel being turned clockwise. In
-either case the fingers of the left hand, which hold the pot by the
-interior of the lip, are spread far apart in order to insure the
-constant and regular motion of the vessel. When the lines within a panel
-are being drawn, the procedure is just the reverse. The bowl remains
-stationary while the brush is drawn across it. Occasionally lines which
-are nearly horizontal are drawn first in one direction, then in the
-other. In some cases, when long diagonal or curved lines are being made,
-the vessel is turned very slightly counterclockwise.</p>
-
-<p>Large vessels, such as ollas, remain stationary while the brush is being
-drawn across the surface, and are turned only when a new area is to be
-worked upon. Lines within panels are usually made with a single stroke
-of the brush, for it is seldom that a diagonal or curved line within a
-panel is more than four or five inches long. In large open designs the
-long lines, both straight and curved, are often drawn in two parts.
-Crosshatching is made by two sets of parallel lines crossing each other.
-Dotting is done with the tip of the brush touched lightly to the
-surface. Spaces are filled with a heavier brush by means of many short
-strokes. As a rule the strokes begin at the upper right hand corner of
-the area and proceed downward. In filling spaces, as in drawing lines,
-some women go over their work only once, others apply two or three coats
-in order to insure even distribution of the paint.</p>
-
-<p>Some potters exhibit much sureness of touch and confidence in their own
-ability; their designs are executed without hesitation, but at the same
-time slowly. Others make hard work of the painting, seem uncertain, and
-occasionally stop to rest and inspect the symmetry of the pattern.</p>
-
-<p>There are two general points in the painting of vessels which should be
-emphasized. The first is the remarkable steadiness of the painter’s
-hand. It seems almost incredible that such straight, unwaving, even
-lines can be drawn by a hand which is supported only by a completely
-free arm, and guided merely by the end of the brush. The second is the
-fact that the men often assist in the painting of designs. They may
-either execute a complete design upon a vessel, or relieve the painter
-from time to time during the construction of large patterns. This is the
-only phase of the actual manufacture of pottery in which the men of the
-village take part.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70">{70}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="FIRING" id="FIRING"></a>FIRING</h2>
-
-<p>The firing of the vessels is not only the last major step in the making
-of pottery, but it is also the most critical one. The supreme test of
-the potter’s work is to subject it to the fire, for many forms of
-accident occur during the process, some of them due to careless handling
-of the vessels or of the firing materials, others to defective
-workmanship or to hidden flaws in the paste. It is only natural that the
-potters should exhibit considerable excitement and nervousness during
-the firing. Some women proceed calmly and methodically, and take
-occasional accidents as part of the day’s work; others are exceedingly
-nervous, and show exasperation when things go wrong. The latter, as a
-rule, have more accidents than the former. One potter, in six burnings,
-lost two large ollas through breakage, and had innumerable smoke-clouds,
-several of them rather severe ones.</p>
-
-<p>The firing falls naturally into four distinct phases: the preparation,
-the building of the oven, the burning, and the treatment after burning.
-Each of these phases will be considered separately.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Preparation</span></h3>
-
-<p>The oven is usually situated behind the potter’s house. All that is
-required is a level space free from vegetation; no attention is paid, as
-a rule, to the position of the sun or to the direction of the prevailing
-wind, and the same spot is used time after time. If on the evening
-before the firing there are any signs of rain, or if a heavy dew is
-expected, the area on which the oven is to be built in the morning is
-covered with a thick layer of dead ashes to protect it from moisture. It
-would be a fatal mistake to make the oven on ground which would give off
-steam during the burning.</p>
-
-<p>About six o’clock the next morning a fire is started on the area over
-which the oven is to be built. While this preliminary fire is thoroughly
-drying the ground, the accessories are collected (<a href="#plt_24">pl. 24</a>, a). Slabs of
-dung are brought out from the storage places; some of them are placed
-against the house wall to dry in the sun, others remain in the washtubs
-in which they have been carried. The material for the grate, and other
-iron bars, are placed nearby. Pokers of wood and iron, shovels, and
-sometimes pitchforks, which are to be used later in handling the burning
-fuel and hot vessels, are placed within reach. When a collection of
-small tin cans, pail-tops, and small stones saved for this purpose has
-been added, the workers are ready to begin the burning. Usually a supply
-of cedar kindling has been split, but sometimes this is done as the wood
-is needed.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Building the Oven</span></h3>
-
-<p>When the preliminary fire has died down to a mass of coals, these are
-levelled to form an area of hot ashes about three feet in diameter. On
-this the oven is built. The surface upon which the vessels are placed
-must be raised a few inches</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_24"  style="width: 430px;">
-<a href="images/ill_030.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_030.jpg" width="430" height="561" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 24</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Drying the oven site with a preliminary fire before burning the
-pottery. At the lower right-hand corner are an old iron grate which will
-later support the vessels, two iron rods to hold up the roof of the
-oven, and a wooden poker. Cakes of dung for the oven walls are drying in
-the sun against the house.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. The vessels on the grate, and the oven wall of dung cakes begun.
-Small tin cans support the cakes and keep them from touching the
-vessels. The grate rests on stones, and split cedar kindling is placed
-below it on the embers of the preliminary fire.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">{71}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">above the ground to permit the introduction of fuel below the pottery.
-Such a surface is usually formed of iron rods of one kind or another.
-One potter built up a grate of a varied assortment of iron junk
-supported on tin cans and odd-shaped iron fragments. Another potter used
-a worn-out stove-grate supported on four half-bricks.</p>
-
-<p>The vessels are then placed upon the grate in an inverted position. No
-attempt is made to keep them from touching one another. In fact, they
-are crowded together in order that the greatest possible number may be
-burned at once (<a href="#plt_24">pl. 24</a>, b). In firing red ware and polychrome ware only
-one layer of vessels is placed upon the grate. When polished black ware
-is to be burned, two layers may be made. The vessels in the second layer
-are always placed carefully between those of the bottom layer, in order
-that there may be free circulation of air on both the interior and
-exterior of all the vessels (<a href="#plt_25">pl. 25</a>, a). As a rule the larger bowls are
-placed in the lower layer.</p>
-
-<p>The number of polychrome vessels burned at one time varies from
-half-a-dozen to twenty, according to the area of the grate and the size
-of the vessels. At one burning there were eleven pieces, eight
-medium-sized and three small; in another there were twenty, eight of
-which were medium-sized, and the other twelve very small. It is possible
-to burn as many as thirty-five polished black bowls at once. Some
-potters burn both polychrome and red pottery in the same oven; others
-insist that this should not be done, because red ware requires far less
-time and heat than does polychrome.</p>
-
-<p>After the pots have been placed on the grate, pieces of split cedar six
-to fifteen inches long are inserted underneath it. Piñon is never used,
-but the potters could not explain this, saying they had never tried it.
-A wall-like ring of dung-cakes, placed on edge but not set as snugly
-together as they might be, is then built around the grate (<a href="#plt_25">pl. 25</a>, b).
-Small tin cans, held in place by the weight of the dung, are used to
-prevent the cakes from touching the vessels (pi. 24, b, shows one of
-these cans very clearly). Sometimes small stones and broken bricks are
-used in place of cans. While the ring is being completed more kindling
-may be added. The Zuñi oven differs from that of San Ildefonso in being
-built of smaller pieces of manure which are laid up horizontally instead
-of on edge (see <a href="#plt_31">pl. 31</a>, b, c).</p>
-
-<p>The fire may now be lighted before the oven is finished, but sometimes
-the potters wait until the roof is nearly complete. Cedar-bark shreds
-are generally used to start the fire. The lighting is done through the
-spaces between the dung-cakes, usually at more than one place, sometimes
-in as many as five. No attention is paid to the wind in this process. If
-the fire does not start quickly enough, cloths are used to fan the
-flames.</p>
-
-<p>The roof or vault of the oven is then built. Some potters place iron
-bars across the top of the dung-ring, keeping them from touching the
-vessels by inserting tin cans and stones. On these bars flat cakes of
-dung are laid, and the larger holes are covered with smaller pieces of
-dung. Other potters dispense with the bars and rest a large circular
-cake of dung upon cans and stones set in the centre of the pile of
-pottery. The space between this central cake and the top of the
-dung-ring is bridged by other cakes which rest on the dung alone. In
-this manner a low vault of dung-slabs is formed, roughly square in
-shape, two and a half to three feet on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72">{72}</a></span> side, and about a foot and a
-half high (<a href="#plt_25">pl. 25</a>, c). There are still left numerous spaces, both large
-and small, between the cakes. These are covered with smaller pieces of
-dung, and with old tin tops of lard-pails or discarded tin plates (<a href="#plt_26">pl.
-26</a>, a). Even after this, however, there remain enough small spaces to
-allow free circulation of air, and to prevent the smothering and
-consequent smoking of the vessels. Through these smaller spaces the
-flames and pots may be seen. The building of the oven is now complete;
-by this time the fire has usually been started, and the flames are well
-under way.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule more than one burning is undertaken during a morning. The
-building of the oven for the second burning differs slightly in its
-preliminary stages from that described above. After the previous oven
-has been destroyed, the ashes are smoothed out, and the grate set
-straight and carefully dusted so that no ashes remain (<a href="#plt_26">pl. 26</a>, b). The
-bowls are than placed on it as before. Partly burned cakes of dung,
-which remain from the first burning, are re-used. If, in placing them on
-the oven, ashes drop on the vessels, care is taken to blow them off.</p>
-
-<p>Some potters stand the vessels which are to be burned on the warm cakes
-of dung for a few minutes before placing them on the grate (<a href="#plt_26">pl. 26</a>, b),
-a process which is supposed to heat them slightly and thus prevent
-breakage during firing. Other potters would not think of doing this, for
-vessels treated in this manner always have discolored bases, where the
-warm dung has touched them.</p>
-
-<p>Ollas twelve to fourteen inches in diameter are burned in pairs, with a
-few smaller pieces beside them. The oven is built in the same manner as
-before. Very large ollas are usually fired one at a time; the oven,
-except for its greater size, is said to be of the usual type.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Burning</span></h3>
-
-<p>As was said above, the firing of the pottery is done in the morning. The
-Indians say that they wish to get it over with “before the sun grows
-hot”. Their own personal comfort probably plays a more important part in
-this than does the effect of the sun upon the pottery. As a rule the
-firing is withheld until a sufficient number of finished vessels have
-accumulated to permit three or four burnings in one morning. The entire
-forenoon is spent at this work, and sometimes it drags over until early
-afternoon. The actual burning of the vessels occupies a period of about
-half-an-hour for each oven; it is said that the length of time has not
-been appreciably shortened in the past forty or fifty years. The black
-ware is always saved for the last oven, since the process employed
-completely precludes the possibility of rebuilding the oven at once.</p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of the burning white smoke is apt to be given off, but
-too much smoke is regarded as a bad sign, since it signifies that the
-dung cakes are not sufficiently dried. After fifteen minutes or so, that
-is when the process is about half finished, the amount of smoke has
-greatly diminished (<a href="#plt_26">pl. 26</a>, a). About this time more kindling is added
-through openings made by temporarily removing a piece of tin, and new
-cakes of dung are added where necessary, usually on the top of the oven.</p>
-
-<p>The Indians say that they judge of the condition of the pottery in the
-oven by its color; the paste and slip must be of just the proper shade
-before the vessels are</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_25"  style="width: 375px;">
-<a href="images/ill_031.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_031.jpg" width="375" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 25</p>
-
-<p>The building of an oven. a. A double layer of bowls is on the grate; the
-woman is placing a can between a dung-slab and a bowl. b. The wall of
-dung-cakes completed. c. The oven finished, but the chinks not yet
-filled.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_26"  style="width: 427px;">
-<a href="images/ill_032.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_032.jpg" width="427" height="569" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 26</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. The oven fired. The chinks between the dung-slabs have been partly
-closed by smaller pieces of dung. b. A firing completed and a grate
-prepared for a second firing. Two vessels to be burned are warming on
-hot dung-slabs; the pots that have just been taken from the fire are
-cooling in the shadow of the house.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73">{73}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">thoroughly burned; if they are too dark the burning must continue.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
-Some potters seem to pay little or no attention to the color of the
-vessels in the oven.</p>
-
-<p>When the potter considers that the burning has been completed, the cakes
-of dung on the top of the oven are lifted off with a pair of pokers, and
-those in the ring around the grate are tipped outward. Thus the vessels
-on the grate are exposed, and their removal is begun at once. Some are
-tipped on shovels or hay forks; pokers are inserted under and into
-others. They are then deposited upon tins which have been placed on the
-ground within six or eight feet of the oven, and are left there from ten
-to twenty minutes to cool. The women often complain about the heat from
-the oven during the removal of the vessels. As soon as the grate has
-been cleared, preparations are begun for the next burning (<a href="#plt_26">pl. 26</a>, b).</p>
-
-<p>In one instance a potter decided that a certain vessel which had been
-removed from the grate was not sufficiently burned. Another fire was
-already in progress, but when the third was built the vessel was
-replaced on the grate and burned again. When it came out, however, one
-side was badly overfired.</p>
-
-<p>The time occupied by various burnings is given in the following table.
-The first four columns represent burnings by Maria Martinez; the last
-three by Antonita Roybal. The seventh column records the oven in which
-the partly fired piece was reburned, and in which a cooking vessel was
-also placed.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE X</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td>&#160;</td><td align="left">(1)</td><td align="left">(2)</td><td align="left">(3)</td><td align="left">(4)</td><td align="left">(5)</td><td align="left">(6)</td><td align="left">(7)</td></tr>
-<tr><td>&#160;</td><td class="c" colspan="7"><i><small>Minutes</small></i></td></tr>
-<tr><td>Preparation and building of oven begun&#160; &#160; </td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td><td align="left">00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Fire started</td><td align="left">25</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">06</td><td align="left">12</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="left">09</td></tr>
-<tr><td>More kindling and dung added</td><td align="left">45</td><td align="left">25</td><td align="left">25</td><td align="left">&#160;</td><td align="left">57</td><td align="left">&#160;</td><td align="left">&#160;</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Oven broken up</td><td align="left">52</td><td align="left">37</td><td align="left">36</td><td align="left">41</td><td align="left">72</td><td align="left">40</td><td align="left">27</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Last bowl removed from grate</td><td align="left">58</td><td align="left">41</td><td align="left">42</td><td align="left">47</td><td align="left">77</td><td align="left">45</td><td align="left">30</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The time required for burning the different wares varies only slightly.
-Some potters say that red ware takes less fuel, less heat, and less time
-than polychrome ware; others place both wares in the same oven. The
-difference in the time required for these two wares is probably no
-greater than the chance variations in the length of burning as given in
-Table X. Cooking vessels need to be fired only from one-half to
-two-thirds as long as the two wares just mentioned (cf. Table X, column
-7). The polished black ware will be considered later.</p>
-
-<p>The changes in color before and after firing, and when hot and cool, are
-very noticeable in some pigments and slips. The orange-red paint is
-yellow before firing, firing turns it orange-red, almost the color of
-burnt sienna; cooling produces no noticeable change in this shade.
-Burning has only a fugitive effect on the red and dark-red slips. While
-still hot, upon removal from the oven, these are both a dark chocolate
-shade. As the vessels cool the different reds gradually reappear, until
-when cold they are the same color as before firing. In some cases, these
-pigments seem to be just a shade darker after firing than before. The
-two kinds of white slip are a dead white when applied; after firing they
-take on a slight pinkish-brown tinge, more cream than white. Cooling
-produces no further change.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74">{74}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The most interesting change caused by firing is in the black vegetable
-pigment (guaco). It has already been pointed out (p. 66), that when this
-paint is laid on thickly, the line made is a little raised and glossy,
-like a glaze. This “body” to the paint is probably formed by vegetable
-matter in suspension in the solution. When the vessels with such
-decorations are removed from the oven after burning, these lines are
-seen to be white or grey. The material which formed the body of the
-pigment has been reduced to white ash, which adheres to the surface, but
-can be rubbed off with the finger or a cloth, while the black color
-itself has been burned into the clay. Where a thin layer of the pigment
-was applied, the line, after burning, is light grey, because the black
-under the thin coat of ash shows through. In those vessels on which a
-thick solution of pigment was used, the decorations are dead white, and
-the surface of the ash is often crackled. The thickness of this ash
-seems to have some effect upon the manner in which the black pigment is
-burned into the clay, for in decorations covered with a thick layer of
-ash, the black is of an irregular color with streaks of grey in it. When
-the thin pigment is used, the resulting black on the finished vessel is
-of a uniform shade. The glossiness and raised character of the pigment
-is of course completely destroyed during burning. Guaco lines do not
-change in shade while the vessel is cooling.</p>
-
-<p>The color of the paste is little affected by burning. In both the red
-and the white clays, the change is simply one of tone, that is, the clay
-is lighter after burning than before. The cooking-vessel clay before
-burning is greyish yellow, but after it has been removed from the oven
-it is a rich orange-yellow. These cooking vessels eventually become
-blackened by use over an open fire.</p>
-
-<p>Vessels destined to be polished black ware are treated in quite a
-different manner during the firing stage, for they are to be subjected
-to a smothered fire, which will result in the deposition of carbon, thus
-turning them from red to black. The oven is built in the same way, but
-greater care is taken to fill gaps, so that more of the heat may be
-retained. Enough spaces remain, however, to permit free circulation of
-air. More kindling is used, for a hotter fire is necessary. When the
-fire has reached the stage at which other wares are removed, it is
-smothered with new, pulverized, loose manure. Just before the smothering
-the vessels have the dark chocolate color typical of the red wares while
-hot. The potter always attempts to smother the entire oven at once by
-dumping upon it a whole washtubful of fine loose manure. If there is a
-wind, flames are apt to break out in one or two places. They are,
-however, hurriedly extinguished. When the loose manure is added, the
-arch of the oven is, of course, broken, and both cakes and loose manure
-come in contact with the vessels. For this reason the potter does not
-exercise particular care in building the oven to keep the cakes from
-touching the vessels, as they are to be entirely black in the end and a
-little premature smoking does no harm. After the manure has been added,
-the mound is continually prodded with a poker to redistribute the loose
-manure and make certain that all the pieces are equally covered. An
-extra supply of loose manure is at hand, and this is added in large and
-small quantities from time to time, as occasion demands. Two washtubsful
-are generally used, sometimes three. The mound of manure gives off a
-dense white smoke after the smothering has begun (<a href="#plt_27">pl. 27</a>, a). Great care
-is taken to prevent flames from appearing, since these would remove the
-carbon from the vessel.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_27"  style="width: 421px;">
-<a href="images/ill_033.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_033.jpg" width="421" height="578" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 27</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. A fire smothered with loose manure to produce polished black ware. b.
-Wiping vessels that have become cool enough to handle. One woman wipes
-off the ashes with a dry rag, then passes them to her companion, who
-goes over them with a slightly greasy cloth.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75">{75}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Ten or fifteen minutes after the smothering the first piece is dug out
-of the mound with the poker. It is placed a foot or two from the oven
-and hastily wiped with a dry cloth to remove all manure. The surface of
-the vessel is a beautiful shiny black color, which does not change at
-all on cooling. If black ware paint (see p. 24) has been used, it
-changes from the greenish-yellow color that it had before burning to a
-dead matte black which contrasts very effectively with the polished
-surface of the vessel (see <a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>, a). At first the vessels come from the
-smoking mound slowly, and all holes left in the pile by the removal of
-vessels are carefully filled again, but later they are taken out as
-quickly as possible, and toward the end no attempt is made to keep the
-pieces still in the pile thoroughly covered. If, when a vessel is
-removed, its condition does not quite suit the potter, it is replaced in
-the smoking manure and completely covered.</p>
-
-<p>Certain polished black vessels are further manipulated in such a way as
-to produce an irregular red blotch upon them.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Specimens destined to
-receive this red blotch, which is usually placed near the rim, are
-reburied in the hot manure lying round the edge of the pile with that
-portion which is to have the blotch left uncovered. Against this exposed
-portion is placed a smoking fragment of a dung-slab. The action of the
-heat and air results in the removal of the carbon from the surface, so
-that that part of the vessel which is not covered with manure and ashes
-regains its former color, the red of the pigment. Since the pot is
-pushed about a good deal during this process, the line between the red
-and the black surface is not always very definite, which improves the
-appearance. The Indians themselves cannot tell beforehand just what
-shape the blotch is going to take, and must therefore watch the vessel
-continually. Sometimes burning shreds of cedar bark are placed against
-the exposed surface to hasten the process, but actual flames are not
-necessary in order to obtain the desired result. If the red blotch is
-too large, part of it is simply recovered with hot manure-ashes, and a
-few minutes later will again become jet black. So far as looks are
-concerned the success or failure of this red blotch upon black ware
-depends largely upon the artistic sense of the potter making it. In one
-group of thirty-three polished black vessels fired together, sixteen
-were given a red blotch; eight or ten of these were excellent pieces.</p>
-
-<p>The time consumed in burning polished black ware is shown in Table XI.
-It should be noted that before the loose manure was added, the vessels
-were subjected to the fire about the same length of time as those of
-other wares.</p>
-
-<h3>TABLE XI</h3>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr><td>&#160;</td><td class="c" colspan="3"><i><small>Minutes</small></i></td></tr>
-<tr><td>Preparation and building of oven begun&#160; &#160;  </td>
-<td>00</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>00</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Fire started</td><td>16</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>18</td></tr>
-<tr><td>More fuel added</td><td>41</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>39</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Oven smothered with loose manure</td><td>46</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>45</td></tr>
-<tr><td>First bowl removed</td><td>59</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>59</td></tr>
-<tr><td>Last bowl removed</td><td>74</td><td>&#160; </td>
-<td>99</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">{76}</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Accidents</span></h3>
-
-<p>The accidents which may occur in firing are of two general
-classes&mdash;those which result from faulty treatment during the
-construction of the vessel itself and those which are due to careless
-manipulation in burning. The latter are the more frequent.</p>
-
-<p>A vessel may crack or flake badly in the oven; often the entire base
-breaks off. The fault in this case lies in the original moulding,
-because small stone fragments or air-bubbles were allowed to remain
-embedded in the paste. Since the rate of expansion under heat varies for
-different substances, a great strain develops about such stones or
-air-bubbles during firing, and the natural result is cracking or flaking
-of the clay. In some larger vessels the slip flakes away around the
-shoulder, where the two areas of the surface met when the polishing was
-done (see p. 64). In the potter’s opinion these flakes, which are
-exceedingly small, are probably caused by minute air-bubbles that had
-lodged under the slip while the line about the shoulder was being
-polished. A third type of accident is merely a blemish; it is due to
-flies settling on a vessel before burning; the resulting fly-specks are
-burned into the clay, and the surface of the pot is sprinkled with dots
-quite as black as guaco decorations.</p>
-
-<p>The most common form of blemish caused by careless manipulation during
-firing is the “smoke-cloud” or “fire-cloud”, a circular blackened area,
-the darkest part of which is at the centre. There is no question but
-that this is caused by contact between the vessel and a dung-cake, and
-the result is probably due to moisture in the dung which brings about a
-deposit of carbon on the surface. If, during the burning, a cake of dung
-falls, it will probably come in contact with the surface of some bowl.
-If it is removed at once there is little danger of a smoke-cloud, and
-the potter, when she notices such an accident, immediately tries to
-secure the fallen cake with two pokers. With much skill she carefully
-extricates it from within the oven without disturbing the other cakes
-about the place from which it fell. Fire-clouds may be produced upon the
-bases of vessels by setting them on hot cakes of dung before firing; or
-upon damp, or relatively damp, ground immediately after firing.
-Excessive dampness, such as steam from wet ground under the oven, may in
-addition to discoloration, produce warping of the vessels. Another sort
-of blemish is occasionally caused by rust from a tin can resting upon a
-vessel during firing; such a spot is usually reddish brown in color, and
-covers a very small area.</p>
-
-<p>If light areas appear on polished black ware, it is safe to assume that
-they were brought about by lack of proper ventilation within the oven
-during the preliminary burning, such as would occur if two vessels were
-so close together as to prohibit the free passage of air. If white slip
-is touched just before burning, the oil from the fingers is apt to be
-fired in, thus ruining the uniform appearance of the surface by the
-potter’s indelible fingerprint. To avoid such an accident, polychrome
-vessels are usually handled only by the interior of the rim on the day
-they are burned.</p>
-
-<p>Underfiring and overfiring, with consequent damage to the ware, are
-usually due to gross carelessness on the part of the potter in the
-irregular placing of kindling. The wind also has something to do with
-it. If there is a stiff breeze blowing, the probabilities are that the
-windward surfaces of vessels within the oven will be underfired, while
-those in the lee of the vessels will be overfired.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_28"  style="width: 390px;">
-<a href="images/ill_034.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_034.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 28</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i></p>
-
-<p>ZUÑI. PREPARING CLAY</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Pulverizing dry ingredients on flat stone slab with a <i>mano</i> or hand
-stone.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Wetting, mixing, and kneading clay; water-container in foreground;
-prepared clay in bowl.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_29"  style="width: 382px;">
-<a href="images/ill_035.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_035.jpg" width="382" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 29</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i></p>
-
-<p>ZUÑI. MOULDING</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Lower part of vessel completed; potter forming roll of clay with
-which to continue building.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Applying roll of clay; left hand guides roll; right hand welds it to
-side of vessel.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_30"  style="width: 377px;">
-<a href="images/ill_036.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_036.jpg" width="377" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 30</p>
-
-<p><i>Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i></p>
-
-<p>ZUÑI. SURFACING</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Going over outside of vessel with moulding tool to smooth out
-irregularities.</p>
-
-<p class="nind">b. Vessel has been removed from base-mould and covered with white slip
-from bowl in foreground. Potter now polishing slip with rubbing
-stone.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_31"  style="width: 404px;">
-<a href="images/ill_037.jpg">
-<img src="images/ill_037.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 31</p>
-
-<p>ZUÑI. PAINTING AND FIRING</p>
-
-<p class="nind">a. Applying design with yucca-leaf brush. Black pigment in shallow stone
-mortar, red in small white bowl. b. Building oven of dung cakes&mdash;note
-kindling at feet of figure at right. c. Oven domed over and set afire.</p>
-
-<p>(Photographs from American Museum of Natural History).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77">{77}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In underfired vessels the color of the pigments is not true, being
-usually midway between the unfired color and the fired color; as a rule
-the paste is also dark and friable. Overfiring is more easily detected
-than underfiring. A slight overfiring may be first noticed in the black
-guaco paint, which has a tendency to become bluish and light if burned
-too much. Other bad results follow in quick succession as overfiring is
-increased: at an early stage the white slip becomes smoky; in severe
-overfiring it may turn black, as in a smoke-cloud; the paint of the
-designs is apt to flake off; and finally, in a bad case, the guaco will
-turn nearly white.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Treatment after Burning</span></h3>
-
-<p>Polished black vessels, when removed from the fire, are set directly
-upon the ground within a foot or two of the oven. They are at once wiped
-hastily with a dry cloth to prevent any fragments of the new manure from
-sticking to the surface. When the vessels are sufficiently cooled they
-are again wiped with a clean dry cloth and taken into the house for
-storage. Occasionally the first wiping, while the bowl is still hot, is
-omitted.</p>
-
-<p>When pieces of polychrome ware or red ware are removed from the oven
-they are placed on the ground some six or eight feet from the fire,
-resting on tins in order to prevent possible discoloration from contact
-with the damp soil, as well as to prevent dust and dirt from sticking to
-their bases. The vessels are piled on these tins in any manner, often
-three or four on top of one another. When the pottery first comes from
-the fire, it is still much too hot to touch, and radiates heat
-copiously. Ten or fifteen minutes later, when the vessels are cool
-enough to handle, they are removed from the tins and collected at some
-convenient place to await wiping.</p>
-
-<p>First the pieces are gone over with a clean dry cloth to take off the
-guaco ashes and any dust that may remain from the oven (<a href="#plt_27">pl. 27</a>, b). Each
-vessel is then wiped with a slightly greasy cloth, which gives a faint
-sheen to the surface and removes the blue tinge which is apt to be found
-in the black guaco-covered areas. Some potters have substituted a
-chamois skin for this second cloth. It took the two women shown in pl.
-27, b, just fifteen minutes to wipe with the two kinds of cloths the
-twenty-two vessels figured. When the wiping is done, the pottery is
-carried to the house and stored in one of the rooms. The pieces are
-placed on the floor, usually with a carpet or rug under them, and
-covered with a sheet to keep off dust and flies.</p>
-
-<p>The time occupied in each of the individual stages of pottery making has
-been considered, but the total time, from the beginning of the moulding
-until the finished vessels are placed in the store room under a sheet,
-is far in excess of the mere sum of the separate hours and minutes used
-in each process. Household duties and other tasks are constantly
-interfering with the work. About nine o’clock on a certain morning one
-potter began moulding the first of a group of perhaps forty pieces. The
-scraping was commenced on the morning of the third day, and the
-polishing on the fourth morning. Nothing was done on the fifth day, but
-early on the sixth the painting began. A fiesta interrupted the work for
-two more days, and the burning was done on the morning of the tenth day,
-although it could have taken place on the seventh. Another potter
-finished burning several large ollas at noon on the ninth day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78">{78}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="PAINTING_OF_DESIGNS" id="PAINTING_OF_DESIGNS"></a>PAINTING OF DESIGNS</h2>
-
-<p>By means of the decorations on the vessels the potter expresses her
-personality. The type of design used by any one potter is very constant,
-and is distinctly individual. It is a comparatively easy matter, by an
-inspection of the design alone, to distinguish the vessels made by one
-potter from those of another.</p>
-
-<p>The designs are planned in several different ways. Maria Martinez sits
-with the bowl in her hands for a few minutes doing nothing; apparently
-she is working out in her mind the combination of elements which she
-will use. Designs so conceived are generally simple. Maximiliana
-Martinez begins painting almost at once. While she is working ideas
-occur to her and are incorporated. Occasionally, after the painting has
-been completed and the vessel set aside, she will pick it up again to
-add some detail. This method of working is apt to cause somewhat
-involved figures. Antonita Roybal, in choosing her designs, refers to
-drawings of her own, or to photographs which have come into her hands,
-of old San Ildefonso vessels. This potter uses a pencil to outline very
-sketchily the design upon the vessel, as an aid in obtaining the proper
-symmetry. The figures obtained in this manner are usually very
-elaborate.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
-
-<p>The first lines drawn in a design are almost without exception the
-enclosing lines under the rim. These are followed by the enclosing lines
-near the shoulder (in the case of an olla), or near the bottom of the
-interior (in the case of a bowl). When the design consists of panels,
-the vertical division-lines are then added. If there are to be four
-panels, one division-line is drawn, and then the one on the opposite
-side of the bowl, dividing the surface into halves. Each of these halves
-is then bisected. The next step is to double all the vertical
-division-lines. Occasionally each quadrant is judged by the eye only,
-and the division lines are drawn in sequence about the vessel. When
-there are to be either more or less than four panels, they are outlined
-one after the other. No measuring instrument of any kind is used.</p>
-
-<p>After the skeleton of the design has been completed, the outlines of the
-figure within each panel are drawn. All the lines are first placed in
-one panel, then the second panel is finished, and so on, until all have
-been filled with the outlines. All the areas on the vessel that are to
-be colored black are then filled, followed by the areas which are to be
-red. The strokes taken in outlining are not always made in the same
-order in the various panels. Such variation is entirely natural and
-should be expected in work done without the use of a visible pattern.</p>
-
-<p>When a design is attached to the lower enclosing line of a panel, it
-usually consists of a repetition of some small figure of one or two
-elements. The position of such added figures has absolutely no relation
-in the mind of the potter to the panel-design.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79">{79}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When a design consists of a repetition of figures not enclosed within
-panels, the painter always refers, before adding another figure, to the
-amount of the surface as yet unfilled. The correctness of the painter’s
-judgment is therefore easily determined by the proportions of the last
-figure in the design as compared with the remaining figures. As a rule,
-with the product of the present-day potters of San Ildefonso, it is
-exceedingly difficult to determine in a finished vessel, which of the
-figures was the last one drawn.</p>
-
-<p>In designs which consist of a single figure, or of two or more figures,
-with several complex elements, the development of the design upon the
-vessel is necessarily at variance with that described above. As a
-general rule, each element is completed, including the filling of areas,
-before the next element is outlined. Similarly, each figure is finished
-before the next is begun.</p>
-
-<p>In considering generally the ornamentation of San Ildefonso vessels, a
-distinct group-similarity can be observed. The polychrome vessels are
-painted in black and orange-red upon a white base. The red-ware vessels
-are decorated only in black. The designs usually consist of several
-almost identical figures, each composed of a small number of rather
-simple elements, in which curved lines are common. And yet, in spite of
-this almost indefinable similarity among the vessels, the differences
-between the designs made by different potters of the village are
-clear-cut and distinct.</p>
-
-<p>Maria Martinez specializes in constricted-mouthed and similarly shaped
-bowls of polychrome ware. Her lines are relatively narrow, and the black
-of the design is very uniform in color. She uses panelled designs almost
-exclusively. The elements within the panels are simple, and few in
-number. Her work is easily recognized because of its simplicity and
-pleasing composition (see <a href="#plt_6">pl. 6</a>). Maximiliana Martinez generally
-confines herself to red ware in the form of small ollas and small bowls
-with a slightly constricted lip. Her lines are somewhat wider and more
-uneven than those of Maria, and the black is of varying shades. As a
-result of her custom of developing the design as the work progresses,
-the figures are rather complex and intricate, or, as the Indians
-themselves say, “mixed up”. The outstanding characteristic of her work
-is the use of one or more elements entirely detached from the figure
-proper. Antonita Roybal devotes most of her time to making large ollas
-of red ware. Her lines are relatively broad, often indeed of double
-width. Her blacks are also uneven. The designs upon her vessels are
-usually composed of two or four very large, complex figures, in which
-spiral curves are conspicuous. Dotting, crosshatching, and filling of
-many small areas characterize her work. The products of a man painter,
-Julian Martinez, are easily recognized by the abundant use of very
-narrow lines. The figures, which are usually composed of many intricate
-elements, impress one with the amount of detailed and careful work
-lavished upon them. Julian has obviously been strongly influenced by the
-technique of modern Hopi potters, such as the famous Nampeo, whose work
-he of course often sees in the curio-stores and in the State Museum at
-Santa Fe.</p>
-
-<p>In the following pages typical designs of Maria, Maximiliana, and
-Antonita are discussed in detail, with the aid of figures upon which the
-direction and order of the strokes have been indicated. These drawings
-are given in order to amplify and clarify the general statements made
-above.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80">{80}</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 1</span> (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>); original by Maria Martinez. This design was on a
-constricted-mouthed polychrome bowl, and consisted of four identical
-panels, each four and one-half inches long by two and one-half inches
-wide. The work was divided into four distinct sections, or stages, each
-of which was completed in all four panels, one after the other, before
-the next stage was begun.</p>
-
-<p><i>First stage</i> (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>, a); construction of the framing lines. Lines 1-4
-are drawn completely around the bowl; then lines 5-8. The corresponding
-two pairs of lines are then drawn upon the other half of the bowl, thus
-dividing the space into four sections.</p>
-
-<p><i>Second stage</i> (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>, b); placing of the outlines within each panel.
-The first three lines drawn (9-11) divide the panel into three
-triangles. Then the details are</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_9"  style="width: 439px;">
-<a href="images/ill_038.png">
-<img src="images/ill_038.png" width="439" height="253" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The growth of a polychrome design as painted by
-Maria Martinez (the shading indicates red).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">outlined in each triangle in turn. When the outlining of one panel has
-been completed, each of the other panels is treated in turn in the same
-manner. The work of Maria is noteworthy in that the order and direction
-of the lines and the filling of spaces is hardly ever changed from one
-panel to the next.</p>
-
-<p><i>Third stage</i> (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>, c); filling certain areas with solid black paint.
-The largest area (I) is always filled first. No order is followed in
-filling areas II, III, and IV, and in making the dot (V). In one panel,
-IV is filled before II, in another V precedes the other three. After
-this the dots (VI) are placed below line 21. In the different panels the
-number of these dots varies from six to eight. The last area filled in
-this stage is the triangle VII. When the first panel has been completed
-the other three are treated in like manner before the fourth stage is
-begun.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fourth stage</i> (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a>, d); filling of areas with red paint (shown in
-the reproduction by shading). In some panels area VIII precedes area IX,
-in others the reverse is the</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_32"  style="width: 590px;">
-<a href="images/ill_039.png">
-<img src="images/ill_039.png" width="590" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 32</p>
-
-<p>Design by Maria Martinez</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81">{81}</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="nind">case. With the completion of this fourth stage in all the panels, the
-painting of this comparatively simple design is finished. The time
-consumed was twenty-five minutes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 2</span> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>); original by Maria Martinez. This design may be
-placed upon either a constricted-mouthed bowl or an olla-bowl. It is
-made up of five identical panels. During the painting the bowl is turned
-counterclockwise. There are eleven distinct stages.</p>
-
-<p><i>First stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, a); the enclosing lines of the panels are
-produced. Each panel is four inches long and one and a half inches wide.
-The horizontal lines (1-4) are drawn completely around the bowl before
-the dividing lines (5-8) are drawn.</p>
-
-<p><i>Second stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, b); lines 9 and 10 are drawn, dividing each of
-the five panels into a semicircle and two triangles.</p>
-
-<p><i>Third stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, c); the plumes are outlined in each of the panels
-by means of lines 11 to 20.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fourth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, d); the two triangles (areas I and II) are
-filled with black pigment. Sometimes area I is filled first, sometimes
-area II.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fifth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, e); when the triangles in all five panels have
-been filled, the dots are placed in two of the five plumes in each panel
-(areas III and IV). These dots are sometimes six in number, sometimes
-seven. They are painted from the base of the plume upwards.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sixth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, b); areas V to VII are filled with red pigment,
-thus completing the panel-design.</p>
-
-<p><i>Seventh stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, g); now that the design in the panel has been
-finished, the second half of the figure, that below the bottom enclosing
-line, is begun. A series of small semicircles (lines numbered 21) are
-appended to the lowest enclosing line. The position of the semicircles
-bears no relation whatever to the series of panels. Three and a half to
-four semicircles fall below each panel or a total of from seventeen to
-twenty in the entire extent of the design as it encircles the vessel.</p>
-
-<p><i>Eighth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>. g); by means of lines 22 and 23, a triangle is
-outlined below each of the semicircles.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ninth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, h); a very small semicircle (24) is drawn just
-below the point of each triangle.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tenth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, h); another similar semicircle (line 25) is drawn
-just below line 24.</p>
-
-<p><i>Eleventh stage</i> (<a href="#plt_32">pl. 32</a>, i); the triangles (areas numbered VIII) are
-filled with black pigment.</p>
-
-<p>Although this figure is based upon the panel-design, it differs from
-pure panel-decoration in the use of a series of simple figures appended
-to the bottom enclosing-line of the panel. The time required to paint
-this design was thirty-five minutes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 3</span> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>); original by Maria Martinez. This design is of an
-entirely different type, in that there is no use of a panel. It was
-placed upon a constricted-mouthed bowl.</p>
-
-<p><i>First stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, a); the enclosing lines (1, 2) are drawn around
-the rim of the vessel. These are immediately followed by the three lines
-(3 to 5) which form the outlines of the five spirals composing the
-design. The proportions of the figures were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82">{82}</a></span> determined by constantly
-watching the position of the first spiral as the bowl was turned
-counterclockwise.</p>
-
-<p><i>Second stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, b); the outlines of the details (lines 6 to 17)
-are drawn on each spiral in turn.</p>
-
-<p><i>Third stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, c); the outlining is completed by adding to each
-spiral a horizontal triangle at the base of the curve. It is interesting
-to note that line 18, the first of the group 18 to 21, was the first one
-drawn, although it was entirely detached at that time from the main
-figure.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fourth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, d); the filling of areas is begun by painting
-the four small triangles on the upward curve of the spiral (areas I to
-IV). The order in which they are filled is apt to vary with the
-different spirals.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fifth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, e); the large triangle at the base of the spiral
-(area V) is filled with black pigment.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sixth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, f); the triangle at the bottom (area VI) is
-filled in each unit.</p>
-
-<p><i>Seventh stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, g); this consists in placing a series of dots
-along the median line of the leaf-shaped area in the base of the spiral.
-In the various spirals these dots vary in number from eight to ten.</p>
-
-<p><i>Eighth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_33">pl. 33</a>, h); the design is completed by filling the red
-areas (VIII and IX). In the first spiral so treated, area VIII was
-filled first, but in all the others area IX preceded area VIII.</p>
-
-<p>The base of each spiral is four and one-half inches long. The width of
-the design is three inches.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 4</span> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This rosette
-was placed in the interior bottom of a small constricted-mouthed bowl of
-red ware. A cloud-design which was painted on the rim of the same bowl
-is described and illustrated in fig. 6.</p>
-
-<p><i>First stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, a); the outlines of one set of four leaves are
-drawn (lines 1-8).</p>
-
-<p><i>Second stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, b); the areas within these enclosing lines are
-hatched (areas I-IV). These four areas are filled in clockwise rotation.</p>
-
-<p><i>Third stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, c); the same areas (numbered V-VIII) are
-crosshatched, starting at the tip of each area and working towards the
-centre.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fourth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, d); four more leaves are drawn between the four
-already made. After lines 9 and 10 are drawn, the area between them is
-filled with black pigment, leaving an oblique white bar, before lines 11
-and 12 are placed upon the vessel. Each of the four leaves is entirely
-completed before the next is begun.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fifth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, e); this consists in the placing of four lines
-(17-20) at the end of each of the four longer leaves. These four groups
-of lines are drawn upon the design in clockwise rotation.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sixth stage</i> (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>, f); at this point Maximiliana glanced at the
-drawing which the writer was making in his notes. By accident the ends
-of the shorter leaves had there been made more pointed than the actual
-painting. When she saw this, she pointed the tips of these leaves with
-black to make them correspond in shape to the writer’s drawing.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_33"  style="width: 454px;">
-<a href="images/ill_040.png">
-<img src="images/ill_040.png" width="454" height="512" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 33</p>
-
-<p>Design by Maria Martinez</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_34"  style="width: 450px;">
-<a href="images/ill_041.png">
-<img src="images/ill_041.png" width="450" height="606" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 34</p>
-
-<p>Design by Maximiliana Martinez</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83">{83}</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This is an excellent example of the type of work done by a painter who
-develops her pattern while drawing it. The contrast between this and the
-simple strength of the first three designs (<a href="#fig_9">fig. 9</a> and pls. 32, 33)
-should be noticed.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 5</span> (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This is a
-border decoration that was applied to the edge of the
-constricted-mouthed bowl on which was produced Drawing No. 4.</p>
-
-<p><i>First stage</i> (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>, a); this is the drawing of the two enclosing
-lines (1 and 2) about the lip of the bowl. These are followed at once by
-3 to 5, which outline three small semicircles. Eight of these triple
-semicircles complete the circumference of the bowl.</p>
-
-<p><i>Second stage</i> (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>, b); the three semicircles are filled with dots
-of pigment, two in each of the upper ones, three in the lower.</p>
-
-<p><i>Third stage</i> (<a href="#fig_10">fig. 10</a>, c); the three small lines are added to the
-lowest of the three semicircles.</p>
-
-<p>The painting of the rosette (<a href="#plt_34">pl. 34</a>) and the eight sets of semicircles
-took just sixteen minutes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Drawing No. 6</span> (<a href="#plt_35">pl. 35</a>); original by Antonita Roybal. This elaborate
-decoration was placed upon a large red ware olla. Antonita, it may be
-noted, specializes</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_10"  style="width: 427px;">
-<a href="images/ill_041a.png">
-<img src="images/ill_041a.png" width="427" height="75" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Raincloud design by Maximiliana Martinez</p><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Raincloud design by Maximiliana Martinez</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">in vessels of this sort, and her designs, while not slavishly repeated,
-all have a strong family resemblance, due to her bold use of scrolls and
-step-figures. The small upper drawing illustrates the method by which
-the design under consideration is applied to the vessel. In the larger
-one it is projected flat; the centre circle represents the mouth of the
-olla. The time taken for painting the various parts of the pattern is
-incorporated in the description; the total time at the end of each stage
-being given immediately thereafter.</p>
-
-<p><i>Framework lines.</i> The heavy double-width line forming the middle of the
-central square is drawn first. Then two narrower lines are drawn, one
-inside and one outside, thus completing the square (sixteen minutes;
-00:00-16:00).</p>
-
-<p>The two lines encircling the mouth of the olla are next produced (four
-minutes; 16:00-20:00).</p>
-
-<p><i>Neck-design within the square.</i> Each of the four corners of the square
-is ornamented with a small scroll-ended element. Each element is first
-outlined and then filled with black before the next is begun (twelve and
-one-half minutes; 20:30-32:00).</p>
-
-<p>Small irregularly placed spots are then dotted into the remaining
-surface within the square (six minutes; 33:00-39:00).</p>
-
-<p><i>The medallions.</i> Appended to each of the four corners of the original
-square is a flower-like medallion. The drawing of each is done as
-follows. The outer line is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84">{84}</a></span> first traced, then the inner one. Next the
-inner part is filled with black, except for a narrow band across the
-middle. To the exterior ring are added the outlines of the nine
-radiating elements. As a last step these are filled with black. The olla
-is then turned counterclockwise and the next medallion is begun.</p>
-
-<p>Each medallion is completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1,
-ten minutes (39:00-49:00); No. 2, eight minutes (49:00-57:00); No. 3,
-seven and one-half minutes (57:00-64:30); No. 4, six and one-half
-minutes (64:30-71:00).</p>
-
-<p><i>The side patterns.</i> Each of the four sides of the square bears a design
-composed of two scrolls with a double stepped element and two long
-appendages between them. Each design is completed before the next is
-begun. The drawing proceeds as follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. The outlining of the scrolls and the drawing of the crossbar between
-them.</p>
-
-<p>2. The outlining of the central stepped figures.</p>
-
-<p>3. The filling of the stepped figures with black.</p>
-
-<p>4. The outlining of the two long appendages between the scrolls.</p>
-
-<p>5. The filling of the appendages with black, leaving two narrow
-crossbars in the ground color.</p>
-
-<p>6. The addition of the two small appendages between the stepped figures.</p>
-
-<p>7. The outlining of a central streak ending in a small circle in each of
-the scrolls.</p>
-
-<p>8. The filling of the scrolls with black, leaving the central streak and
-small circle in the ground color.</p>
-
-<p>As in the case of the medallions, each one of the side patterns is
-completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1, twenty-six
-minutes (71:00-97:00); No. 2, twenty-two and a half minutes
-(97:00-119:30); No. 3, twenty-one and a half minutes (119:30-141:00);
-No. 4, fourteen and a half minutes (141:00-155:30). The entire time
-required for painting the design was thus two hours, thirty-five
-minutes, and thirty seconds.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="plt_35"  style="width: 436px;">
-<a href="images/ill_042.png">
-<img src="images/ill_042.png" width="436" height="569" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p>PLATE 35</p>
-
-<p>Black design on red jar by Antonita Roybal (the small drawing above
-shows how this design is applied to the olla).</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85">{85}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="SYMBOLISM52" id="SYMBOLISM52"></a>SYMBOLISM<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></h2>
-
-<p>Symbolism of one kind or another, plays a very important part in the
-existence of the Pueblo Indian. It is generally agreed that even the
-minor acts of everyday life have a certain religious symbolic meaning.
-For example, the gourd spoons, or kajepes, used in moulding pottery,
-must apparently be consecrated before they may be used. Similarly, a new
-technique in pottery making must pass through a period of consecration
-before it becomes completely established. On the other hand, white men
-often overemphasize the importance of symbolism in studying any
-civilization whose customs and philosophy differ radically from their
-own.</p>
-
-<p>In the light of what is known of the mental attitude of the Pueblo
-Indian, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the designs on their
-pottery have some symbolical meaning. Whether this symbolism is in any
-sense religious, or is merely the symbolism of conventionalization of
-design, is an open question.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> It is probable that vessels made before
-the time when pottery became to some extent an article of commerce
-between the Indian and the tourist, bore designs of symbolical meaning.
-It may be that the vessels made today for their own use also have such
-meanings, but there is every reason to believe that much of the ware now
-turned out by the San Ildefonso potters for sale to tourists bears
-designs of no special meaning.</p>
-
-<p>It is true that through bitter experience, the Indians have learned to
-guard carefully their religious and secular philosophy, and it would
-require many years of study, living with them, to gain an intimate
-knowledge of their beliefs. If, however, there are definite meanings
-associated with the designs upon commercial pottery, the inhabitants of
-San Ildefonso have become past masters of the art of concealment.</p>
-
-<p>An attempt to obtain some idea of the general reason why vessels are
-decorated and of what was taking place in the mind of the painter while
-at work, proved wholly fruitless. Inquiries as to the meaning of whole
-designs, figures, and elements met with three kinds of response. One
-family, who have enjoyed considerable contact with investigators of
-Indian customs, were ready and eager with explanations of the meanings
-of various elements. They could not, however, explain the meaning of the
-entire design upon any vessel. Other potters met the inquiry with a
-frank statement of ignorance, such as “I don’t know”, or “Ask the men,
-the women don’t know”. A third group exhibited great uncertainty. These
-people would usually translate the questions into Tewa for the benefit
-of the rest of the Indians present. Then, after much laughter and
-discussion, the potter would<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86">{86}</a></span> sometimes offer a meaning, at other times
-say nothing. One old man explained with great gusto that the design
-which he had just finished upon a small globular olla represented four
-small clouds sailing across the sky, one behind the other, from west to
-east. His manner was very similar to that which one of us might adopt in
-telling an improbable yarn to a particularly guileless listener.</p>
-
-<p>Some potters gave meanings for whole figures. Another potter, however,
-composed her figures as the work advanced, evidently with no clear idea,
-when she began it, of the ultimate form of the figures and therefore
-probably with no idea in regard to their meaning. It has been suggested
-that minor variation in similar figures on the same vessel have some
-meaning. The more probable explanation would seem to be that these
-variations are due to the lack of a visible pattern. At one time a
-potter was distinctly annoyed because she noticed, after completing a
-figure, that she had filled the wrong part of a small detail.</p>
-
-<p>It is equally fallacious to lay too great importance upon alternating
-figures in a panel design. For example, one potter in filling the areas
-in a four-panel decoration filled the same areas in the first and third
-panels, and different areas in the second. When she began to fill the
-areas of the fourth panel in the same way as the first and third, her
-attention was called to the areas in the second, the order of which she
-obviously considered a mistake. The result was that the fourth panel was
-filled as the second had been, thus giving the vessel a panel-design
-with alternating figures.</p>
-
-<p>The fact that in excavations no two vessels have ever been found with
-identical designs has been attributed to something in the Indian’s way
-of thinking. Yet one potter at San Ildefonso placed upon one
-constricted-mouthed bowl out of a group of vessels a design identical
-with that on a bowl of the same shape in the previous group made.</p>
-
-<p>Among older pots the “line-break”, a small space left in the horizontal
-enclosing-line at the lip of the vessel, is a constant element. At San
-Ildefonso its use has become almost obsolete but one of the informants
-did employ it. Careful questioning on the subject with another potter as
-interpreter, brought out the fact that the line-break is called a
-“door”, through which a spirit may enter or depart. Persistent
-questioning in regard to the nature of the spirit caused an animated
-discussion among those present. The potter was clearly puzzled by the
-questions. Then, after a single sentence by her, the Indians all laughed
-heartily. Finally, the interpreter stated that the potter had said, in
-effect, that if the door was going to cause all that trouble she would
-close it. The matter was finally settled by the interpreter, who pointed
-out a passage in the advertising pamphlet of a Santa Fe curio-dealer
-which explained that the line-break was a passage through which the
-spirits of the dead might pass.</p>
-
-<p>The ready answers given by some potters in response to inquiries as to
-the meaning of elements of a design, seem to show that the elements are
-actually conventionalized symbols of definite objects. In one instance
-the potter, on noticing a dance-costume lying on the bed, pointed out
-certain parts of it, and then drew the elements representing those
-parts. Other potters simply deny all knowledge of the meaning of
-elements. Still others by their hesitancy, seem to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">{87}</a></span> grope for a
-plausible meaning and offer the first which occurs to them. Whether the
-elements do represent definite objects or not, it nevertheless remains a
-fact that the meanings given cause apparent contradictions. To elements
-essentially the same widely different meanings are often given and,
-conversely, the same idea or object</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="fig_11"  style="width: 448px;">
-<a href="images/ill_043.png">
-<img src="images/ill_043.png" width="448" height="441" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a>
-<div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> Elements of design commonly used by the potters
-of San Ildefonso.</p></div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="nind">is often represented by entirely different elements. This is also true
-of more complex figures.</p>
-
-<p>The elements illustrated in figure 11, give examples of the type of idea
-or object said to be represented, and incidentally illustrate some of
-the contradictions spoken of above. Numbers 1 and 6 both refer to hills.
-On the other hand, No. 7<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">{88}</a></span> is a mountain, although it bears little
-resemblance to the “hills”. It resembles more closely No. 2 which one
-informant described as a pueblo and another as a kiva. The same regular
-zigzag appears in No. 12, which represents a tablita, or dance mask,
-with small feathers tied to the points of the zigzags. No. 17, in which
-the zigzag also appears, represents kiva-steps. Nos. 11 and 16 represent
-feathers, and No. 21 is a bunch of feathers on the end of a dance-pole.
-But No. 22 represents the poles of the kiva-ladder, and No. 3 is rain,
-which is falling a long way off. No. 10 represents fringed woolen
-armlets, and yet there is as close a resemblance between Nos. 3 and 10,
-as there is between Nos. 14 and 19, both of which represent the tassels
-on a man’s dance-belt. No. 8 is called rain-water, but a single spiral,
-as in No. 25, is a buffalo horn. The dots of No. 13 represent rain-drops
-in dust, but in No. 21 the dots are markings on feathers, and in No. 15
-they represent a procession of bugs on the rib of a leaf. No. 18
-represents water dripping through a hole in the roof and making a small
-cup-like depression in the floor, represented by a semicircle, or a
-whole circle with a dot in the centre of it; but No. 23, which is also a
-triangle, is called a leaf, as is also the case with No. 15. And yet No.
-4 is also a leaf, although if placed horizontally it more closely
-resembles the clouds represented in No. 5. But No. 9 is also a cloud,
-this time a big black cloud with an open space in it through which a
-small cloud may be seen. Nos. 20 and 24 represent respectively the sun
-and a star.</p>
-
-<p>In the light of the small amount of material obtained on the subject of
-symbolism, all that can be said is that the evidence is purely negative.
-If the elements do represent definite ideas and objects, which seems to
-the writer improbable, the meanings are so deeply hidden that only an
-intensive specialized study will result in an acceptable solution.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Meaning of Elements</span></h3>
-
-<p class="c">(M.&mdash;Maria. A.&mdash;Antonita)</p>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">1</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“hillside”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">2</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“pueblo”, M.; “kiva”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">3</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“rain falling far away”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">4</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“leaf”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">5</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“clouds”, M.; A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">6</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“hill”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">7</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“mountain”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">8</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“rainwater”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">9</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“black cloud with open space through which one can see a small cloud”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">10</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“fringed woolen dance armlets”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">11</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“feather”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">12</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“tableta (wooden headdress) with feathers on points”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">13</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“rain-drops on dust”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">14</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“tassel on man’s dance-belt”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">15</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“leaf with bugs on it”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">16</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“feather”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">17</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“kiva-steps, the two small points fireplaces”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">18</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“water dripping through holes in roof and making holes in dirt floor”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">19</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“tassel on man’s dance-belt”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">20</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“sun”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">21</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“feathers on dance-pole, spots are markings on feathers”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">22</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“ladder-poles”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">23</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“leaf”, M.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">24</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“star”, A.</td></tr>
-<tr valign="top"><td class="rt">25</td><td class="pdd">&mdash;“buffalo horn”, A.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89">{89}</a></span></p>
-
-<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
-
-<table cellpadding="0">
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Binns, C. F.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1910.</td><td class="pdd"> The potter’s craft. New York, 1910.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Harrington, J. P.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1916.</td><td class="pdd"> The ethnogeography of the Tewa Indians. <i>Twenty-ninth Report
-of the Bureau of American Ethnology.</i> Washington, 1916.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1916,</td><td class="pdd"> a. Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians (In collaboration with W.
-W. Robbins and B. Friere-Marreco). <i>Bulletin 55, Bureau of American
-Ethnology.</i> Washington, 1916.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Holmes, W. H.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1886.</td><td class="pdd"> Pottery of the ancient Pueblos. <i>Fourth Report of the Bureau
-of Ethnology</i>, pp. 257-360. Washington, 1886.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Kidder, A. V.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1924.</td><td class="pdd"> An introduction to the study of Southwestern archaeology,
-with a preliminary account of the excavations at Pecos. <i>Papers of
-the Phillips Academy Southwestern Expedition</i>, no. 1. New Haven,
-1924.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Kidder</span>, M. A. and A. V.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1917.</td><td class="pdd"> Notes on the pottery of Pecos. <i>American Anthropologist</i>,
-n.s., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 325-360. Lancaster, 1917.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Stevenson, J.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1883.</td><td class="pdd"> Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the
-Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1879. <i>Second Report of the
-Bureau of Ethnology</i>, pp. 307-465. Washington, 1883.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1884.</td><td class="pdd"> Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the
-pueblos of Zuñi, New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in 1881. <i>Third
-Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, pp. 511-594. Washington, 1884.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Stevenson, M. C.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1904.</td><td class="pdd"> The Zuñi Indians, their mythology, esoteric fraternities, and
-ceremonies. <i>Twenty-third Report of the Bureau of American
-Ethnology.</i> Washington, 1904.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1915.</td><td class="pdd"> Ethnobotany of the Zuñi Indians. <i>Thirtieth Report of the
-Bureau of American Ethnology</i>, pp. 31-102. Washington, 1915.</td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Wooton, E. O. and Standley, Paul C.</span></td></tr>
-
-<tr valign="top"><td class="pdd2">1915.</td><td class="pdd"> Flora of New Mexico. <i>Contributions from the United States
-National Herbarium</i>, Vol. 19. Washington 1915.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb"><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> A brief history of Pecos, and a description of the work so
-far done at the site, are contained in “An Introduction to the Study of
-Southwestern Archaeology, with a Preliminary Account of the Excavations
-at Pecos”, by A. V. Kidder; No. 1 of the present series.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Kidder, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Kidder, M. A. and A. V., 1917, p. 330.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A searching study of San Ildefonso decoration has been made
-by K. M. Chapman of Santa Fe. When this is published it will throw much
-light on the morphology of Pueblo design, and upon the relation of San
-Ildefonso symbolism to that of other Rio Grande pueblos.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> A vocabulary of the Tewa terms for clays, paints, and other
-ingredients; articles of paraphernalia; types of pottery; processes of
-pottery making, etc., was recorded by Dr. Guthe, and is available at
-Andover for consultation.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See Harrington, 1916, Map 19, point 63. Under the nearby
-point (60; p. 314) he says: “Clay ... is obtained at this place; just
-where could not be learned.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Stevenson, to whom with Mrs. Stevenson we are indebted for
-practically our only comparative material, wrote in 1879 of Zuñi: “The
-clay mostly used by the Zuñians in the manufacture of pottery is a dark,
-bluish, carbonaceous clayey shale found in layers usually near the tops
-of the mesas” (1883, p. 329). Later, Mrs. Stevenson described at some
-length the ceremony of securing pottery clay (1904, p. 374). Among the
-San Ildefonso Indians of today there is no outward evidence of any such
-ceremony.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> At Zuñi the ingredients are ground and mixed, and the clay
-is kneaded on a stone slab. (See pl. 28, facing p. 76.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Stevenson said, in speaking of Zuñi pottery making: “This
-carbonaceous clay is first mixed with water and kneaded as a baker
-kneads dough until it reaches the proper consistency” (1883, p. 329).
-Mrs. Stevenson describes the preparation of clay at Zuñi as follows:
-“The clay is ground to a powder and mixed with a small quantity of
-pulverized pottery, fragments of the latter being carefully hoarded for
-this purpose. The powder thus compounded is mixed with water enough to
-make a pasty mass, which is kneaded like dough. The more care taken in
-pulverizing the material and the more time spent in working it, the
-finer becomes the paste. When the mass reaches such a state of
-consistency that the fingers can no longer detect the presence of gritty
-particles, it is still more delicately tested with the tongue, and when
-found to be satisfactory it is placed in a vessel and covered with a
-cloth, where it will retain the moisture until wanted for use” (1904, p.
-374-5).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Stevenson (1883, p. 329) says: “With this (clay), crushed
-volcanic lava is sometimes mixed; but the Zuñians more frequently
-pulverize fragments of broken pottery, which have been preserved for
-this purpose. This seems to prevent explosion, cracking, or fracture by
-rendering the paste sufficiently porous to allow the heat to pass
-through without injurious effect.” And again: “The clays used by the
-Santa Clara Indians are of a brick-red color, containing an admixture of
-very fine sand, which, no doubt, prevents cracking in burning, and hence
-dispenses with the necessity of using lava or pottery fragments, as is
-the custom of the Indians of the western pueblos” (1883, p. 331). Binns,
-in “The Potter’s Craft”, describing the preparation of clay, says, “If
-the clay prove very sandy it must be washed, ... but all the sand should
-not be removed. Clay with no sand in it will be apt to crack in drying
-and burning. Clay with too much sand will be short and brittle in
-working. If the clay is very smooth and shows no sand, a little fine
-builder’s sand may be added with advantage, a definite proportion being
-used and recorded” (1910, p. 40).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Stevenson, in his catalogue of Zuñi collections,
-enumerated “<i>Tierra amarilla</i>, or yellow micaceous clay, of which the
-Rio Grande Indians make many varieties of vessels” (1883, p. 368).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Harrington, in speaking of a clay-pit near the village of
-Las Truchas, writes: “It is said that at this place the best red pottery
-clay known to the Tewa is obtained. It is pebbly, but makes very strong
-dishes, and it is used especially for ollas. It is said that Tewa of
-various pueblos visit this place frequently and carry away the clay. The
-clay deposit is a mile or two southeast of Truchas town” (1916, p. 340).
-This may be the claypit referred to by the informant, although the clay,
-while pebbly, is by no means red.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Stevenson, writing of the Zuñi, said of their white slip:
-“A paint or solution is then made, either of a fine white calcareous
-earth, consisting mainly of carbonate of lime, or of a milk-white
-indurated clay, almost wholly insoluble in acids, and apparently derived
-from decomposed feldspar with a small proportion of mica” (1883, p.
-329). Mrs. Stevenson, in a later publication, said: “A white clay is
-dissolved in water and then made into cones which are dried in the sun.
-When required for use these cones are rubbed to powder on a stone, again
-mixed with water, and applied in a liquid state to the object” (1904, p.
-375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Harrington mentions this bed as “a deposit of bright red
-paint situated about two miles east of Santa Fe, the informants think
-north of Santa Fe Creek, in high land a few hundred yards from that
-creek. This paint was used for body painting. It is said that Jicarilla
-Apache still go to the deposit to get this paint and sometimes sell it
-to the Tewa” (1916, p. 354). Stevenson is speaking of the black ware of
-Santa Clara and other Rio Grande pueblos, mentions “a solution of very
-fine ochre-colored clay” (1883, p. 331), which was probably this same
-substance. Mrs. Stevenson also mentions “red ochre” (1904, p. 375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Stevenson, writing of the Zuñis in 1881, said: “The
-material used to produce the red or brown colors is a yellowish impure
-clay, colored from oxide of iron; indeed it is mainly clay, but contains
-some sand and a very small amount of carbonate of lime”; it “is
-generally found in a hard, stony condition, and is ground in a small
-stone mortar ... and mixed with water so as to form a thin solution”
-(1883, p. 330). Mrs. Stevenson added later: “Ferruginous clays which on
-heating burn to yellow, red, or brown are employed for decorating”
-(1904, p. 375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Peritoma serrulatum</i> (Pursh); synonyms: <i>Cleome
-serrulata</i>, and <i>Cleome integrifolia</i>; (Wooton and Standley, 1915, p.
-290). Stevenson wrote: “It is said that among the Cochiti, Santa Clara,
-and some other pueblos a vegetable matter is employed to produce some of
-their decorative designs; this, however, I was unable to verify, though
-some of the Indians assured me of the fact, and furnished me a bunch of
-the plant, which Dr. Vasey, of the Agricultural Department, found to be
-<i>Cleome integrifolia</i>, a plant common throughout the Western
-Territories” (1883, p. 331). Again, “That of the decorated class is
-ornamented with the juice of <i>Cleome integrifolia</i>, which is fixed to
-the ware in the process of burning” (loc. cit., p. 430). Harrington
-writes: “This is a very important plant to the Tewa, inasmuch as black
-paint for pottery decoration is made from it. Large quantities of young
-plants are collected, usually in July. The plants are boiled well in
-water; the woody parts are then removed and the decoction is again
-allowed to boil until it becomes thick and attains a black color. This
-thick fluid is poured on a board to dry and soon becomes hardened. It
-may be kept in hard cakes for an indefinite period. When needed these
-are soaked in hot water until of the consistency needed for paint. Guaco
-is also used as a food. The hardened cakes are soaked in hot water, and
-then fried in grease. The finely ground plants are mixed with water and
-the liquid is drunk as a remedy for stomach disorders; or sometimes
-fresh plants wrapped in a cloth are applied to the abdomen” (1916, a,
-pp. 58, 59). (It should be noted that the accounts obtained by the
-writer from the informants of San Ildefonso do not agree in detail with
-the one given by Harrington.) Mrs. Stevenson wrote of Zuñi: “Water from
-boiled <i>Cleome serrulata</i> (Mexican name waco) is mixed with black
-pigment (a manganiferous clay containing organic matter) in decorating
-pottery” (1904, p. 375); and in more detail: “The entire plant, minus
-the root, is boiled for a considerable time, and the water in which it
-is cooked is allowed to evaporate. The firm paste secured from
-precipitation is used in conjunction with a black mineral paint for
-decorating pottery” (1915, p. 92).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Stevenson, in 1879, saw the Rio Grande Pueblo potters use
-“coarsely broken dried manure obtained from the corrals”, and added that
-for the polished black ware “another application of fuel, finely
-pulverized, is made” (1883, p. 331).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Stevenson, in 1879, observed at Zuñi that “the bottoms of
-old water jars and bowls form stands for the articles while being worked
-by the potter. The bowls are filled with sand when objects of a globular
-form are to be made” (1883, p. 329). At Pojuaque (a Tewa pueblo near San
-Ildefonso, now nearly extinct) he collected two “pottery moulds for
-bottoms of vessels” (loc. cit. p. 439). Mrs. Stevenson also noticed
-these olla bottoms at Zuñi (1904, p. 374).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Harrington writes: “Variously shaped section of gourd are
-used by women to smooth and shape pottery in the making” (1916, a, p.
-102). Stevenson, in 1879, noted at Zuñi “a small trowel fashioned from a
-piece of gourd or fragment of pottery, the only tool employed in the
-manufacture of pottery” (1883, p. 329). Mrs. Stevenson also speaks of
-these trowels (1904, p. 374).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Stevenson, in speaking of the making of pottery at Santa
-Clara, mentions “the process of polishing&mdash;with smooth, fine-grained
-stones”, (1883, p. 331). In his catalogue of stone objects collected at
-Zuñi in 1881, he differentiates between “small stones used in polishing
-pottery”, “small stones used in polishing unburned vessels”, and the
-“small polisher for glazing and smoothing pottery”, giving three
-different Indian names for the three kinds. He does not, however,
-explain the difference (1884, pp. 525, 526). He also catalogues “fifteen
-rubbing or smoothing stones for pottery” obtained at Walpi (1884, p.
-587). Mrs. Stevenson remarked: “Polishing stones are used to finish the
-surface” of vessels at Zuñi (1904, p. 375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Stevenson, in 1879 at Zuñi, noted that the paint was
-applied to pottery “with brushes made of the leaves of the yucca. These
-brushes are made of flat pieces of the leaf, which are stripped off and
-bruised at one end, and are of different sizes adapted to the coarse or
-fine lines the artist may wish to draw” (1883, p. 330). Mrs. Stevenson
-wrote, again of Zuñi: “<i>Yucca glauca</i> Nutt. Soapweed.... The brushes
-employed for decorating pottery are made from the leaves of this plant,
-which, for this purpose, are cut the proper lengths and fringed at one
-end” (1915, p. 82).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Mrs. Stevenson says the Zuñis used a “rabbit skin mop”
-(1904, p. 375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Mrs. Stevenson wrote of Zuñi: “The pieces to be fired are
-placed upon stones to raise them a few inches from the ground”, implying
-the absence of a grate (1904, p. 376).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> I use the words “very skillfully” advisedly. Repeated
-attempts on my part to imitate the process resulted in rolls of
-exceedingly variable diameter. At Zuñi the roll is made by the
-apparently simpler and more efficient method of rolling the clay back
-and forth on a flat stone slab with one hand (see <a href="#plt_29">pl. 29</a>, a).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Zuñi potters apply the roll to the outside instead of the
-inside of the growing vessel wall; otherwise the handling of the roll is
-exactly as at San Ildefonso (see <a href="#plt_29">pl. 29</a>, b).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Throughout this report, the puki is spoken of as moving
-“clockwise” or “counterclockwise” and the sectors worked in are referred
-to the numerals on the face of the clock, as, “the six-to-eight-o’clock
-sector”. The point of view taken is that of the potter with “six
-o’clock” referring to that part of the bowl nearest her.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The “rim” of an unfinished vessel means the upper edge of
-the last roll added to it.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See, however, pl. 29. b; the Zuñi potter in this case has
-not obliterated the preceding rolls.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Stevenson, 1883, p. 331.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> M. C. Stevenson, 1904, p. 375.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Binns, 1910, pp. 69-71.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The process is identical at Zuñi, see <a href="#plt_30">pl. 30</a>, a.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> From the earliest periods Southwestern pottery has been
-made in more or less the manner just described, that is, by the addition
-of successive rings of clay. During prehistoric times, however, there
-was developed a ware usually known as “corrugated”, in the building of
-which the roll was so lengthened as to become a spiral coil. The roll of
-paste forming the coil was very thin, averaging a little over
-one-quarter of an inch in diameter; and it was applied to the outside of
-the temporary rim, as at Zuñi (see <a href="#plt_29">pl. 29</a>, b), instead of to the inside,
-as at San Ildefonso. Furthermore, the junctions between the coils were
-not obliterated on the exterior of the vessel, thus producing a ridged
-or corrugated effect. Corrugated pottery was principally used for
-cooking pots (see Holmes, 1886, p. 273).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> One informant stated that these bowls, both with and
-without the terraces, were formerly, and are still, used to hold sacred
-meal.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The two-mouthed vase is rarely made at San Ildefonso. It
-is a type more commonly produced by the potters of Santa Clara.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Potsherds from pre-Spanish ruins show that handles have
-been applied to vessels in the ways described above for many centuries.
-The lug-type of handle, which is frequently found in ancient pottery, is
-no longer made at San Ildefonso. The probabilities are, however, that
-these lugs were welded to the exterior of the vessel, as in the first
-method described, rather than riveted on as in the second method.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The potter placed the responsibility for this crack upon a
-kitten which had jumped into the olla during the night. In the animal’s
-attempt to climb out, the vessel suffered some rather severe bumps. The
-story of the kitten’s adventure was told before the crack was noticed.
-Later it was used to explain the presence of the imperfection.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The expression “get warm” comes from the fact that while
-the vessel is damp the evaporating moisture causes it to feel cool; when
-thoroughly dry it feels warm.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> The red slips are not used today in the designs, although
-some of the older vessels contain red elements which appear to have been
-made of the dark-red slip.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Stevenson says of the Zuñi: “This solution (of a fine
-white calcareous earth) is applied to the surface of the vessel and
-allowed to dry; it is then ready for the decorations” (1883, pp. 329,
-330). Mrs. Stevenson, writing at a later date, gives more details: “A
-white clay is dissolved in water and then made into cones which are
-dried in the sun. When required for use these cones are rubbed to powder
-on a stone, again mixed with water, and applied in a liquid state to the
-object with a rabbit-skin mop. Polishing-stones are used to finish the
-surface” (1904, p. 375).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> At Santa Clara and San Juan some polished ware is polished
-only from the rim to the shoulder and the lower half is apparently
-unslipped.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Stevenson in speaking of the polished black pottery of the
-Rio Grande pueblos says: “A solution of very fine ochre-colored clay is
-applied to the outside and inside near the top, or to such parts of the
-surface as are to be polished. While this solution thus applied is still
-moist, the process of polishing begins by rubbing the part thus washed
-with smooth, fine-grained stones until quite dry and glossy. The parts
-thus rubbed still retain the original red color of the clay. The vessels
-are again placed in the sun and allowed to become thoroughly dry, when
-they are ready for baking” (1883, p. 331). Mrs. Stevenson also gives an
-account somewhat similar: “In many of the pueblos the pottery is
-undecorated, the surface being finished in plain red or black. The ware
-is made of a yellowish clay, in the manner heretofore described, and the
-vessels are placed in the sun, where they remain for hours. They are
-then washed with a solution of red ochre, and while wet the process of
-polishing begins, the woman with untiring energy going over the surface
-again and again with her polishing-stone, every little while passing a
-wet cloth over the vessel to keep the surface moist. When the polishing
-is completed, the vessel is again placed in the sun for a short time
-before receiving its final baking in the oven” (1904, p. 375.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> This second potter, however, did use lard in polishing
-vessels to which the red slip had been applied.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The substitution of the chamois for a cloth was
-inaugurated by the potter using it.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The use of this paint for producing designs upon polished
-black ware was discovered by Maria Martinez in June, 1921. On inquiring
-why other potters did not copy the process, it was learned that because
-of certain taboo-like restrictions the secret of making this kind of
-ware would not be disclosed until a year after its discovery. Although
-the matter could not be further investigated because of the
-unwillingness of the Indians to discuss such things, it would appear
-that we have in this case a sort of primitive patent-right. At the
-present time (1925) practically all San Ildefonso potters make this
-ware, which has proved extraordinarily popular; Maria, however, still
-produces by far the finest pieces (see <a href="#plt_8">pl. 8</a>, a).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Occasionally such precautions are disregarded, apparently
-through laziness. One potter did her painting in the same room in which
-some meat was being cooked. The combined odors of the cooking meat and
-the guaco attracted all the flies in the neighborhood, but fortunately
-screens kept some of them out of the room.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Stevenson gives no details of the painting at Zuñi; “When
-the pigment is properly reduced, and mixed with water so as to form a
-thin solution, it is applied with brushes made of the leaves of the
-yucca. These brushes are made of flat pieces of the leaf, which are
-stripped off and bruised at one end, and are of different sizes adapted
-to the coarse or fine lines the artist may wish to draw. In this manner
-all the decorations on the pottery are produced” (1883, p. 330). Mrs.
-Stevenson is just as brief: “After a thorough drying of this foundation,
-the slip, the designs are painted with brushes made of yucca needles,
-the pigments having been ground in stone mortars and made into a paste
-with water to which a syrup of yucca fruit is added” (1904, p. 375). The
-stone mortar for pigment grinding may be seen in pl. 31, a.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> On pp. 78 to 84 will be found notes on the actual painting
-of several typical designs.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> One woman tried her best to teach me how to tell these
-shades apart, but it proved utterly impossible for me to distinguish the
-darker from the lighter.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> This variant in polished black ware is a new departure. It
-was discovered, probably accidentally, by one of the San Ildefonso
-potters early in the summer of 1921. The process by which the red blotch
-is made has not as yet been brought completely under control.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> It is interesting to note that in making the preliminary
-pencil draft, she uses entirely different strokes from those made by the
-brush.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> The subject of symbolism is touched upon in this report
-only with the greatest diffidence. No two students of Southwestern
-ceramics seem to entertain the same theory, in all details, upon this
-subject. The statements made here are given for what they may be worth.
-The time devoted to the work did not permit of a careful and exhaustive
-study of the subject.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> One potter, after glancing at a small vessel which was
-undoubtedly old, informed the writer that it had once belonged to the
-“summer people”, a social-religious division of the community.</p></div>
-
-</div>
-<hr class="full" />
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