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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ee6d33 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67223 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67223) diff --git a/old/67223-0.txt b/old/67223-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 444c885..0000000 --- a/old/67223-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11032 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Strangest Things in the World, by -Thomas R. Henry - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Strangest Things in the World - A Book About Extraordinary Manifestations of Nature - -Author: Thomas R. Henry - -Release Date: January 23, 2022 [eBook #67223] -[Last updated: June 5, 2022] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was - produced from images made available by the HathiTrust - Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGEST THINGS IN THE -WORLD *** - - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - - - - THE STRANGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD - - - - - THE STRANGEST THINGS - IN THE WORLD - - _A Book About Extraordinary - Manifestations of Nature_ - - - THOMAS R. HENRY - - - Public Affairs Press, Washington, D. C. - - - - - Copyright, 1958, by Public Affairs Press - 419 New Jersey Avenue, S. E., Washington 3, D. C. - - Printed in the United States of America - Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-10881 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The challenges of Nature’s paradoxes have been sharp spurs to man’s -search for knowledge since the start of science. - -Fortunately the number of these paradoxes is infinite, and so the -quests are endless. Man never will know a wonderless world. In the -phenomena of life especially we have come only to the zone of morning -twilight. The bright day of understanding is ahead. As its hours pass -we can expect a constant succession of new paradoxes, new spurs to -further advances. - -Man would be in a sad situation were it otherwise. For the bright light -of noon and afternoon inevitably precedes sunset and darkness and sleep. - -This book is a compendium of some of Nature’s curiosities and -contradictions in the field of life and as such it well may awaken that -wonder which, as somebody has said, is the beginning of knowledge. - -The author is one of the world’s best-known and most respected science -writers. This book is a personal and unique distillation of the wisdom -he has developed in a lifetime of dealing with man’s effort to resolve -the paradoxes of nature. - - LEONARD CARMICHAEL - - _Secretary of the - Smithsonian Institution_ - - - - -PREFACE - - -Life has invaded nearly every crack and crevasse of the world during -the billion years since it left its first traces on this planet. It -has adjusted itself to all extremes of living, from nearly airless -mountaintops five miles high to lightless floors of oceans five miles -deep. It has found abodes in boiling hot springs and in the everlasting -ice of Antarctic peaks. It very likely has invaded the cold, red -deserts of Mars. Everywhere it has succeeded in altering the garments -it wears to meet the stresses it has experienced. - -It has achieved semi-infinite variety. There are approximately a -quarter million species of plants now known in the world. Most abundant -and varied life is that of the insects who may be on their way to -displace man and his fellow mammals as lords of the earth. A rough -estimate of the number of species identified up to now is 800,000. -Several thousand hitherto unknown are described each year. Of mammals, -including man, there may be as many as 14,000 distinct species and -geographic races extant. About 8,500 species of birds are catalogued. -Sub-species and geographic races increase this number to about 30,000. -Known fishes number 40,000 species and sub-species. - -Still, naturalists say, there are great mansions of life almost unknown -to man. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington -grow at the rate of about a million specimens a year, always including -forms hitherto uncatalogued. Much of the material in the following -pages is based on Smithsonian information, although other sources and -personal observations have been liberally drawn upon. - -The Smithsonian specimens, as well as those in other museums and -collections throughout the world, are types. Once they were individuals -with passions, fears, hungers, perhaps some dim wonderings and -questionings. The type is the eternal reality. The individual is the -brief-lived example of this reality, the flame of a candle fluttering -in a windy moment. - -I have brought together in these pages notes about the most -extraordinary manifestations of nature that have come to my attention -in the course of thirty years as a science reporter. Each example is, -of course, based upon a distinctly individual expression of nature, but -all are very much interrelated in this truly amazing world of ours. - - THOMAS R. HENRY - - _Washington, D. C._ - - - - -_The Invisible Underground Jungle_ - - -There may be as many as twenty-five million invisible plants and -animals in a gram of soil about the size of a grain of sand. It would -take a thousand such grains to make a marble. - -The population of this microscopic jungle is composed chiefly of -single-celled organisms—bacteria, molds, yeasts and protozoa. Total -numbers vary enormously—from time to time and place to place—chiefly -because of variations in the food supply. Although thousands of species -have been identified, the greater part of soil life still remains -unknown. - -This jungle is a place of the hunter and the hunted—of an incessant and -merciless struggle for survival. Invisible plants eat invisible animals -and invisible animals eat invisible plants. Plants devour other plants -and animals devour other animals. - -Giants of this nether world—largely invisible, although the average -size is more than a thousand times that of the bacteria—are thread-like -white worms from a hundredth to a fifth of an inch long. Relatively -they are not very plentiful—less than six million to a cubic foot of -soil in most places. In both size and numbers in the earth population, -they are like elephants compared to mice. Still they probably are -numerically the most abundant of all animals which consist of more than -a single cell. In the entire animal kingdom only the protozoa outnumber -them. - -These creatures are the nematodes, or eel worms. About ten thousand -kinds have been described; there are probably as many more unknown -to zoologists. Less than a hundred of these varieties cost American -farmers and gardeners more than half a billion dollars a year. The rest -of those species living in the soil are, so far as known, harmless -or even slightly beneficial. Seas and fresh waters are full of other -kinds. Still others, some very much larger than the soil organisms, are -among the most dangerous parasites of animals and men. The little soil -worms, in the opinion of Dr. Geoffrey LaPage of Cambridge University, -“must be considered one of the major menaces of our civilization.” - -Although always invisible, the activities of these countless billions -of organisms underfoot can be measured in various ways. For example, -carbon dioxide is constantly escaping from the surface of the ground. -This comes from the breathing of the unseen animals and plants. -Measurement of the gas outflow gives a rough estimate of how many are -present. It shows that the numbers vary greatly from hour to hour. - -The soil organisms are relatively immune to heat and cold, flood and -drought. Even when a grain of soil has been made absolutely dry in the -laboratory and then crushed to a very fine powder, they still remain. -If it is placed in a sterile container filled with some fermentable -material, a seething mass of microörganisms will appear in a few hours. - -Some day this vast, unseen mass of life may be harnessed to the service -of man. Only beginnings have been made to achieve this end. Some of -the microscopic life forms are definitely helpful to plant life, while -others undoubtedly are destructive. One service, without which plant -life would be unable to continue very long, is the fixation in the soil -of nitrogen from the air. One group of bacteria, the azotobacteria, -do this in the laboratory and long have been supposed to be the -effective agents in nature. But actual examination of soil samples, say -Department of Agriculture specialists, fail to show more than a few -thousands of these organisms per gram of soil anywhere, and sometimes -none at all can be found in places where it is known that nitrogen -fixation is in progress. Some still unknown form of microscopic life -must be doing part of the work. - -Another unknown organism is an agent partly responsible for breaking -down the cellulose of dead plants in the soil. The mold, Aspergillus -fumigatus, world-wide in its distribution, does this in the laboratory. -Nowhere, however, is it found in nature in sufficient numbers to -accomplish the titanic job attributed to it. - -The great, invisible jungle, of course, must eat to live. Some -organisms demand fresh food and are responsible for root rot in plants. -The majority, however, find their sustenance in the enormous mass of -dead and dying roots of annual vegetation. Decomposition of annuals is -an explosive process involving the development of countless billions of -bacteria. - - - - -_The Self-Perpetuating Sponge_ - - -Close to primaeval chaos is the sponge—lowliest of animals. It is an -animal without a brain, nervous system, heart, lungs, stomach, muscles -or blood. But it has an _I Am_. - -The sponge is in essence an anarchical horde of numberless cells. -When the conglomeration is split up as can be done by a technique of -squeezing through fine-meshed silk gauze, the cells continue to live as -individuals. They crawl about. They take nourishment. But when a few -thousands of them are thrown together into a tank of sea water they -will conglomerate again, apparently into the same sponge that existed -before the disintegration. If sponge animals of two different species -are mixed in the tank they will combine into two sponges, duplications -of the conglomerations from which they came. If cells of two sponges -of the same species are mixed it may be that they will recombine into -the two original individuals—but this experiment never has been tried -and would be quite difficult to interpret. - -The sponge is the simplest, most primitive of metazoa, or many-celled -animals. It acts as an individual, although there is apparently no -central government, like a brain, controlling the behavior of the -millions of individuals constituting the conglomeration. It ranges -in size from organisms a fraction of an inch long, by far the most -numerous, to masses several feet in diameter. Various species present -about all the colors of the rainbow. There are red, scarlet, green, -yellow, blue and violet sponges, especially in shallow, tropical -waters. Abysmal species tend to be a drab brown. - -The living sponge when taken from the water is a slimy, rather -repulsive mass which has the general appearance of a piece of raw beef -liver perforated with holes and canals. The commercial sponge is merely -the skeleton, the supporting framework of the gelatin-like tissues, -which is composed of a substance similar in chemical and physical -properties to silk, horn and the chitin which forms the shells of -insects and crabs. This material is distributed in a fibrous network -the pattern of which varies for each species. - -The sponge has the most remarkable powers of regeneration of lost parts -known in nature. It can regrow its entire body from a small fragment -of itself. Thus if a sponge were cut into fine parts and each fragment -cemented to a bit of rock each would grow into a complete, normal -animal. Also if a sponge is cut or torn away from the sea bottom in -such a way that some fragment remains attached this fragment will -continue growing. - - - - -_Living “Stars” in Caves_ - - -There is a cathedral-like grotto under the earth whose roof is lit -eternally by living stars. It is an enormous labyrinthine chamber cut -by a slow-flowing river in the base of a limestone mountain. - -Its dome is like the dome of the heavens on a frosty October night. -There shine the Big Dipper, the Southern Cross and the Belt of Orion. -The Clouds of Magellan are on the southern horizon. There are millions -of pale stars grouped in all sorts of astrological configurations. -Some are isolated in space. Some are packed in dense galaxies. There -are black voids between them, like the curtain of star dust that hides -the center of the universe. They are only a few feet overhead. One can -reach up and pluck these stars, one by one, out of the sky. Unlike the -heavenly bodies, they do not twinkle. They shine steadily in complete -motionlessness. Pale and weird, they illumine a realm of eternal night. -It is a domain of absolute silence. Around the walls the strange -starlight falls on carved figures of winged angels, of human faces -laughing and human faces contorted in agony. Each star is a predacious -living animal, a flesh-hungry hunter and killer. From it is suspended -four or five foot-long strings of shining pearls, so delicate that they -shimmer at a human breath. - -This star-lit cave near the little city of Te Awaamutu is New -Zealand’s greatest curiosity and certainly one of the weirdest and -most intriguing spots on earth. The grotto constitutes about a third -of the Waitome caverns in the center of Maoriland in the North Island, -otherwise rather featureless, water-chiseled rooms in the depths of a -mountain with the customary stalagmite and stalactite formations. - -The stars are luminous, slimy, dirty-grey worms. They are rarely found -anywhere else, and never in very great numbers. This is the one spot on -earth ideally adapted to their unbelievably queer life cycle. The worm -is the larva of a dainty, dark-winged fly about twice as large as a -mosquito, which looks like a miniature daddy longlegs. It has no common -name. Scientifically it is classified as Boletophela luminosa, a member -of the sub-order of arachenocampa. It falls somewhere between true -insects and spiders. There is no relationship between it and any other -luminous insect—glow-worm or firefly—anywhere. - -The light is a lure for prey to satisfy a voracious appetite. The -lovely strings of pearls are modifications of the spider’s web. Nature -has provided few other creatures with so intricate and ingenious a -food-gathering mechanism as that which enables this *none* to survive -in its strange environment Here evolution has schemed in an unique way -to ensure the preservation of a species which apparently serves no -purpose in the economy of nature except to procreate a beauty spot - -The floor of the glow worm grotto is a subterranean branch of a river. -The water is warm and almost absolutely motionless, for no breezes -penetrate that far under the mountain. Thus it is an almost ideal spot -for all sorts of insects to lay their eggs. There is a high probability -that the great majority of them will hatch. As the young rise from the -water they are attracted by the star-filled heavens overhead. They -fly toward them as moths to a lamp. The same is true of many of the -small adult insects, some of which are essentially microscopic. Once -such an insect is caught on one of the threads it is lost beyond all -hope. There it sticks, struggle as it may. The vibrations caused by its -struggles attract the attention of the glow worm which quickly winds -up the hanging thread. If it is not hungry at the moment it has been -observed to play with its victim, drawing in and then letting out the -line after the manner of a fisherman. Finally the prey is drawn into -the silken sheath and entirely devoured, chitinous shell and all. It is -not merely sucked, as is the fashion of the spider or the fly. - -The “lamps” apparently are under an extremely delicate nervous -control. The strings of pearls suspended loosely in the air must be -extraordinarily sensitive to sound waves. The instant they pick up any -sound unusual for the cavern the lights automatically go out. Stranger -still is the fact that the darkening of all the stars is nearly -simultaneous. This, of course, is a safety measure. Any disturbance -of the cave routine means danger for the transparent caterpillars. In -order to see the star-lit heavens effect the row boat in which one -enters the glow worm grotto must be handled by skilled oarsmen so that -there is no sound of splashing water. Visitors are warned not even to -whisper, lest some string be disturbed and instantaneously transmit the -warning to all the others. - - - - -_Parenthood Among Penguins_ - - -One of nature’s miracles is the egg-laying and incubating of the -emperor penguin in the darkness of the Antarctic night at temperatures -of from 50 to 80 degrees below zero. - -Dr. Edward Wilson, surgeon of Sir Robert Falcon Scott’s 1901 south -polar expedition, found the first emperor rookery and was able to -observe it for several days. His account became one of the classics of -science. The big birds hatched their eggs, he found, standing on one -foot on the ice and holding them against the breast feathers with the -other foot. The task evidently was shared by both males and females. -The male would take the egg from the female while she trekked to open -water to feed on fish. After a few days, Wilson supposed, she would -return while the male went after fish. - -In 1956 Dr. Bernard Stonehouse of the Falkland Island Dependencies -Administration found another emperor rookery and maintained -observations for about ten weeks. The behavior observed was even more -of a miracle than Dr. Wilson supposed. - -After laying their eggs on the ice, Stonehouse noticed, the females -leave immediately for open water and remain there for sixty days, the -full period of incubation. Presumably they feed constantly during this -period. The males take over entirely at the rookery. For two months -the husband remains standing on one foot and holding an egg against -his breast with the other—presumably shifting his feet now and then. -Through the entire hatching period he eats nothing. When the eggs are -about to hatch the mothers return from the sea, tidy up the nursery, -and get ready to take over rearing the chicks. Then the males, who -have exhausted their reserve of fat, stagger feebly in their own mass -migration to open water to rebuild their reserves on fish. By the time -of the Antarctic sunrise in October the chicks are about ready to fend -for themselves. - -Standing from three to four feet high and looking and acting -deceptively like a human being, the emperor penguin undoubtedly is one -of the most remarkable birds in existence. It presumably is confined to -the Ross Sea side of the Antarctic continent. The bird—actually it is -about two-thirds feathers—remains an evolutionary enigma. Theories have -been advanced that it is the last surviving member of the fauna of the -Antarctic continent about fifty million years ago when the shorelines -were free of ice. It certainly is off any known road of evolution. - - - - -_The Strategy of Warrior Ants_ - - -Total war is the way of life for army ants. The picturesque, -devastating drives of their vast hordes have nothing whatever to do -with exhaustion of food or anything of the sort. The wars come in fixed -cycles, regardless of supplies. - -There are two species of these ants on Barro Colorado Island in the -Panama Canal Zone. Each species has approximately 50 colonies and each -colony consists of from a few hundred thousands to more than a million -individuals. At the head of each colony is a single queen who lays all -the eggs. - -There is a new lot of larvae every 33 days—all workers or incompletely -developed females. Development is restricted by the amount of food -available. Since each brood consists of about 60,000 individuals, a -colony theoretically might reach titanic proportions. However, it does -little more than maintain its population. The death rate of soldier -ants, in constant combat, is very heavy. - -Once each year, at the start of the dry season in the tropics, a colony -queen produces a sexual brood of about 3,000 males and six queens. The -rest of the 60,000 eggs laid at this time are incapable of hatching and -are fed to the new-born sexed individuals. They apparently have some of -the nutritious properties of the royal jelly fed to queen bees. - -This sexual brood is produced in what has been called a statory period -in which the army maintains a fixed bivouac for about three weeks. -During this time the new queens develop and around at least one of them -a new group of workers, about half the whole, tends to congregate. A -strange antagonism seems to develop between the old and new groups. -Eventually the colony divides in two and each half starts moving in -opposite directions. The other new queens are lost in the shuffle. - -Most of the newly developed males are ‘excess baggage.’ During the -winged, or mating, stage they fly into the forest where the great -majority of them are eaten by birds. When the surviving ants light on a -tree, on the ground or on some other object, the wings drop off. Then -they apparently wander about aimlessly until they come to an army ant -trail which they recognize by the odor and follow it until they come to -the colony which has made it. If this happens to be a colony of their -own relatives, they probably are killed by the workers. If it happens -to be an entirely foreign colony, they may be accepted. This apparently -is one of nature’s mechanisms for intruding new genes into a strain. - -The raiding activities of a colony are carried out during the day from -a central headquarters. During the daytime raiding individuals return -to the colony from their forays and by dusk all have returned. At -night the bivouac is changed, the whole colony moving forward along -one of the trails blazed by the raiders. A new headquarters is thus -established. A colony moves from six to seven hours before striking a -new bivouac. Not infrequently, if no promising site is found, it moves -from dusk to dawn. - -This would seem like constant activity, too strenuous even for the -constitution of an army ant. Actually the individual workers probably -get plenty of rest. Each colony is divided into two units—the raiders -and those that constitute the structural unit. The walls of the -“headquarters” are made up of the bodies of the latter. These “living -brick” do nothing throughout the day. They may be asleep. When the -raiders return at dusk the structural unit breaks up and the members -lead the migration to a new bivouac. The erstwhile raiders follow -leisurely in the rear and in turn become the structural unit when a -stopping place is selected. - -When to rest? When to raid? There apparently is an irresistible war -rhythm, like the rhythm of the tides, in the basic constitution of -these ants. Some have postulated the same sort of thing, on a lesser -scale, in man who goes to war every so often but camouflages the war -tide with economic or political explanations. - -These ants are remarkable not only as warriors but as architects. -They build complex, air-conditioned, hanging houses out of thousands -of their own suspended bodies. Within these structures the queen is -sheltered, eggs laid, young hatched and reared. Much of the time the -“houses” are constructed anew each night. - -This home-building behavior is unique in nature, as Dr. T. C. Schneirla -of the American Museum of Natural History has pointed out: - -“Without any active excavating and without any manipulating of fallen -materials, colonies of these species form a domicile with their own -bodies. A typical bivouac is a cylindrical mass hanging from the -underside of some projecting surface to the ground. In addition to the -sides or under-surface of logs, other typical places are the spaces -between gut tressed tree roots, masses of brush, undercut banks of -stream beds, or the overhanging edge of a rock. - -“The characteristic ability to cluster their bodies, as well as -the manner of clustering, depends first of all upon an anatomical -characteristic—the opposed, recurved hooks on the terminal tarsal -segments of the workers’ legs. The first ants to settle in a new place -catch into a rough or soft surface by means of the tarsal hooks, or -rather are pushed into this anchored position as newcomers run upon -them as they stand and stretch them out in a hanging position. In fact, -the hooks are really anchored by the added weight of others that have -crawled down over the body of the first ant, fixing it in place and -soon immobilizing it. - -“In the nomadic phase a new bivouac is formed at the end of each day of -raiding. In the advanced and most complicated stages of raiding in the -afternoon, caches of booty tend to be formed at each busy junction of -raiding trails, increasing in size as more and more ants are knocked -around and forced out of traffic. As darkness comes and raiding ceases -such clusters grow. Several hanging clusters start from elevated -ceilings. As each new cluster begins, the initial slender hanging -threads may become ropes which extend to the ground. As the ropes -continue to grow they are joined together into a single columnar mass. - -“At first this mass is small in diameter, but as more and more ants -pour into it the wall spreads outwards from the center and so a -symmetrical cylinder results.” - -In the tropical environment of the army ants some sort of air -conditioning is necessary for comfortable living—perhaps, with this -particular species, for any living at all. It has been well developed -during the more than 50 million years the insects have been on earth. -Says Dr. Schneirla: - -“The interior of the bivouac, where the brood is sheltered and the -single colony queen rests, offers an impressively stable environment to -these more susceptible members of the community as well as a central -resting place for the worker population. The hanging cluster traps -a cubic area for atmosphere which does not reach the extremes of -temperature and dryness attained by the general forest environment, -but in general is somewhat warmer and more humid at night and somewhat -cooler and dryer during the day. - -“This result is achieved mainly as a result of worker behavior. Workers -cluster more closely together at night in reaction to the lower -temperature of the forest at the time. The bivouac walls become tighter -and thus better conserve heat produced internally by the brood. - -“Conversely, after dawn, when increasing light excites growing numbers -of ants to leave the bivouac, as the raid grows, this wall thins out, -usually develops small apertures, and is undercut at the bottom. The -effect is to increase internal air circulation as well as to cool the -atmosphere of the interior through evaporation, so that the internal -temperature of the bivouac does not rise to the height reached at -midday in the environs. - -“The incubation properties of the bivouac represent an important factor -in echelon life, for with less regular atmospheric conditions in the -nest the stages of brood development could not have their typical -regularity in timing.” - - - - -_Uganda’s Miniature Dinosaur_ - - -A grotesque creature abundant in the Kishasha Valley of Uganda is -the three-horned chameleon. It grows to a length exceeding twelve -inches and the males look like miniature versions of the ancient -dinosaur monster, triceratops. Three curious horns, an inch to an -inch-and-a-half in length, protrude from the nose and between the eyes -of males. - -These are extremely pugnacious animals; they use their horns in fights -to the finish. At times the contests develop into prolonged pushing -matches with the horns interlocked, but a really vigorous fighter can -dispose of an adversary in a few minutes. African natives are terrified -of these demoniacal-looking little animals. - - - - -_The Strange Ways of Spiders_ - - -“With other classes of animals, and even with plants, man feels a -certain kinship—but spiders are not of his world. Their strange -habits, ethics and psychology seem to belong to some other planet -where conditions are more monstrous, more active, more insane, -more atrocious, more infernal than on our own. Frightfulness and -ruthlessness appear a part of their nature and we stand appalled when -it dawns upon us that they are far better armed and equipped for their -life work than we for ours.” - -Thus writes Dr. W. E. Stafford, U. S. Department of Agriculture -naturalist. There probably is quite general agreement with his -sentiments. One chills at the picture of some other planet where -spiders and their kin who have evolved minds equal to that of humans -are the dominant animals. - -Once gigantic spider-like creatures ruled this world. They were as -big as lions or gorillas. Their realm was the earth of the Silurian -geological era of 350,000,000 years ago—a time of warm, quiet seas -which, especially in the northern hemisphere, covered large areas -that now are dry land. These creatures were the euripterids, or sea -scorpions, whose nearest extant relatives are the horseshoe crabs with -sky-blue blood that are common along the Atlantic coast of the United -States, and the venom-fanged land scorpions. They exceeded in size all -living invertebrate animals. - -Many were five to six feet long; one was nine feet long. Presumably -they were free-swimming, predacious creatures with massive, crushing -jaws. Their chief prey, it is believed, were the much smaller, -crab-like trilobites with whom they shared a common ancestry. These -were shelled animals the imprints of whose hard shells in mud (which -later became rock) are among the most ancient records of animal life on -this planet. The trilobites were creatures who crawled on shallow sea -bottom. Their only defense was to roll themselves in balls. They appear -to have been the dominant form of life for at least 100,000,000 years. -They continued a precarious existence after the evolution of the great -pseudo-spiders, but were well on their way to extinction. The massive -jaws of the euripterids could crush their thin shells with ease. The -dominance of these new masters of the sea would be challenged only by -the gigantic mollusks, but for many millenia they appear to have held -their own against these frightful monsters. - -Their decline had started by the end of the Silurian period and -they were extinct in another hundred million years. The reason for -their decline is unknown, but perhaps it was related to some decided -change in temperature and distribution of the waters. Remarkably -well preserved remains of the monsters have been found imbedded in -limestone on Oesel Island, in the Baltic. During the Silurian era -life was just starting to emigrate from the oceans and establish a -precarious foothold on land. Among the earliest land fossils are those -of small scorpions, distantly related to the erstwhile master race. The -euripterids themselves, however, never tried to leave the sea. - - - - -_Worms With a Thousand Eyes_ - - -There are worms with a thousand eyes. They are, for the most part, -animals of the dank, dark floors of tropical rain forests. - -They are narrow, brilliantly colored ribbons of slimy skin which glide -at a speed of about six feet an hour over damp moss and leaves in the -everlasting twilight. When alarmed they can break up instantly into -scores of “blobs of slime” and in a few hours each piece will become a -complete new worm. One of them can eat five-sixths of its own body and -entirely recover. - -These fantastic creatures are the terricola or land planarians—lowliest -of worms and one of the lowliest forms of animal life. Only the -microscopic protozoa, the slime moulds, the sponges, jellyfish, and -corals are more primitive. - -They range from fractions of an inch to nearly a foot in length. They -are hunters and scavengers. Nearly all are creatures of darkness -and dim light—survivors of the haunted dawn of life on earth. They -probably are quite close to the ancestral form of all worms. All are -free-living animals, although related closely to the degenerate flukes -and cestodes, which are internal parasites of man and other animals. - -They belong to an enormous clan. There are several hundred known -species and perhaps as many more still unknown. These worms are found -over most of the world but most abundantly in the damp tropical and -sub-tropical rain forests. They are seldom seen in nature although they -are fairly well-known in experimental biology classes, for which they -are purchased from dealers. Australia has about sixty species. America -may have many more, most of which remain undescribed. One would be -likely to come upon them only by accident. - -Among these land planarians are some of the most fantastic creatures -of the animal kingdom. They have been described as “gliding strips of -skin.” The family includes some of the most brilliantly colored of all -living things. They probably represent the earliest traces of eyes and -brains in the world. - -The “eyes” of the terricola are black dots arranged in two parallel -rows along both sides of the back. Some species are two-eyed. Many -varieties are eyeless. Hundred-eyed worms are quite common. The black -dots are light-sensitive. Presumably they represent the beginning -of vision. By means of them the worms can distinguish between light -and darkness. They also tell the direction from which light comes. -Actually, however, planarians without eyes have the same ability, but -they are slower to react. This is demonstrably true for fresh-water -forms. For most of the land forms at least exposure to strong sunlight -would be fatal. - -Each of the eye dots has a nerve connection with the brain. It is quite -unlikely, however, that the animals actually see anything, in the sense -of discriminating specific objects in their surroundings. In a few -species, however, from two to four of these black dots nearest to the -brain seem somewhat more complicated than the others. As the faculty -of vision evolves among animals these will become actual eyes and all -the other light-sensitive spots will be discarded. In most planarians, -however, the number of eyes increases with the age of the animal. - -Nearly all are predatory meat eaters. They are both hunters and -scavengers. Some pursue, kill, and eat living animals, such as -earthworms and small mollusks, as big as themselves. They apparently -are able to locate their victims at some distances by an already -evolved sense of smell. One blind Brazilian species is said to pursue -earthworms into their burrows several feet underground. - -When the victim is overtaken the planarian first enfolds it in its -sheetlike, slimy body. Then from its mouth, always on the underside -of the body near the middle instead of at the head end, it projects -its pharynx, a muscular tube which is part of the digestive system. -From this is exuded a substance of some sort which slowly liquifies -the flesh. Then the liquid is sucked into the body through the mouth. -Digestion then is completed within the digestive tract by special cells -which engulf minute particles in the same way as they are engulfed -and digested by one-celled animals, the amoeba. The nature of the -dissolving material exuded from the pharynx is unknown. It is believed, -however, to contain a mixture of enzymes such as those found in the -intestinal tracts of higher animals. - -Planarians may attack healthy animals and overpower them in spite of -their violent struggles against being enfolded in the slimy skin. They -are, however, particularly attracted to the sick and injured which they -apparently locate by smell. Most of these worms are devourers of dead -flesh. A common method of capturing fresh-water forms is to leave a -bit of liver or other raw meat exposed in an area they are likely to -frequent. Both water and probably land forms will congregate around it. -Then the collector is likely to have a difficult job. As the naturalist -William Beebe says about one large Venezuelan rain forest species: -“To pry one loose and put it in a bottle is like pouring thick, cold -molasses mixed with thick glue.” - -To their activities as scavengers of the forest floor these ancient -worms owe their place in the economy of nature. They normally feed -several times a week. When kept without food, however, they can -stay alive for months. They gradually shrink in size as they digest -themselves. The internal organs are reduced little by little as they -are absorbed for food. The first to disappear are the reproductive -organs. Most planarians have both male and female reproductive systems. -Then come the muscles of the body wall. Never however, do the worms -eat their own brains or nervous systems, although the brain may be -reduced greatly in size. The I Am of the worm can devour its vestments -of protoplasm; it cannot eat itself. When food is available again -the organs are regenerated and return to normal size. Instances are -recorded where planarians have reduced their length from slightly more -than an inch to less than a seventh of an inch in six months. - -Closely related to this practice of “eating themselves” is the -remarkable ability of the terricolae to break themselves into small -fragments each of which will regenerate into a complete worm. This -capacity probably has been a major factor in their survival through the -aeons since multi-celled life began on earth. What might seem to be -their outstanding weakness in the constant struggle for survival—their -soft bodies and extremely loose organization—has become their major -strength. A planarian can lose at least nine-tenths of its body -and still preserve its individual existence. This self-shattering -phenomenon constitutes the worm’s chief defense in emergencies. It -comes into play when any danger threatens. The regenerating ability, -especially of fresh-water forms, differs considerably in degree from -species to species. Some are unable to regenerate a “brain” out of -fragments of the rear part of the body. Complete in every other -respect, the remade worms seem incapable of the typical gliding -movements of the race. They remain quiet most of the time but can -move forward slowly. A tendency to move in circles has been observed. -Fragments from the head section, however, quickly become complete -animals. - -All planarians actually have heads and a “brain,” of sorts. The latter -consists of two minute bits of nerve tissue just behind the front of -the body, oval-shaped and enclosed in a tough capsule. It serves as -a center for nerve fibers extending throughout the animal. Here are -coordinated the stimuli received from light and heat, and possibly -those from odors and sound. When the worm goes forward, it moves its -head constantly from side to side. Presumably it is exploring the way -ahead for food and danger. - -A terrestrial flat worm’s progress is described as “gliding,” rather -than creeping or crawling. The outer surface of the body has many -glands from which is exuded a mucus over which it slides. This mucus -quickly hardens. From it can be made slender threads by which the worm, -like a spider, can lower itself safely from projections. Because of the -glue-like quality of the secretion it is able to climb perpendicular -surfaces. From the hardened mucous, sometimes mixed with sand, it can -make for itself a shell into which it can retire for months at a time. - - - - -_Queer Fish, But Definitely_ - - -There are more than 40,000 kinds of fish in the world. Their habitats -range from the profoundest depths of the seas to cold lakes and brooks -on mountain timberlines. They show a bewildering diversity in their -ways of life. - -The smallest of fish is a Philippine goby, less than a third of an inch -long and weighing a fraction of an ounce. The largest is the whale -shark, found in all warm seas. Some individuals exceed twenty tons. - -Some fish burrow in the mud, some swim, some walk, some fly, some -breathe air. Some are timid, some bold and bloodthirsty. Some are -placid, some easily irritated. - -Some are highly venomous. One, found in Australian waters, weighs -nearly half a ton and has poison barbs a foot long. Some of the -deadliest are among the most beautifully colored. - -Freshwater fish can sometimes be cut out of cakes of ice in which they -have been frozen for months at a time, and completely revive. Actually -the fish themselves are not frozen. The freezing point of their blood -is slightly lower than that of water. They were merely “hibernating”. -This may happen frequently in nature. - -Some fish seem well on their way to becoming land animals. They can -breathe in air better than in water. - -Surgeon fish are so-called because of a sharp spine on the tail which -can produce a cut like that made by a surgeon’s scalpel. - -Parrot fish have beaks like parrots with which they scour algae from -the coral reefs for food. - -Goat fish have two growths under the mouth which look like the chin -whiskers of goats. - -Porcupine fish, whose skins are covered with sharp spines and which can -fill their sac-like bodies with water or inflate them with air until -they form a ball about twice their normal size. When the bodies are -puffed up the sharp spines are erected to protect the creatures against -their enemies. The inflation is a defense measure which takes place -almost automatically when the fish is alarmed. - -Trigger fish are creatures with rigid spines which “lock” automatically -when the animals are in danger so that they cannot be bent. They can be -unlocked, presumably by a nerve reflex, only by the fish themselves or -by some scientist who knows the precise spinal process to touch. - -Squirrel fish are brilliantly colored little creatures with large -deep-brown eyes which look like the eyes of a squirrel. - -Scorpion fish have bodies covered with venomous spines whose poison is -reputed to be sometimes fatal even to man. - -Flying half-beaks are fish with long, slender upper jaws and -practically no lower jaws. They make long glides over the water and may -represent an ancestral form of flying fish. - -The elephant fish is so-called because of its very rough thick skin -and apparent extreme clumsiness of its body, both characteristics of -the elephant. Elephantichthys might be likened to a thick leather bag -about eight inches long stuffed loosely with vital organs. It has a -cartilaginous rather than a bony skeleton. It flattens out when laid on -a flat surface out of water. It is almost mollusk likee in the softness -of its body. Its skin is approximately a quarter of an inch long. - -The aptocyclus, or “rattling fish”, is a close relative of -Elephantichthys in Arctic waters. It also seems to be a haphazard -conglomeration of vital organs stuffed in a bag. The fish actually -rattle inside when the skin is not filled with water. All fish of this -family live at the bottom of fairly shallow water, firmly attached -to flat stones by disk-like suckers. Although they have the power of -locomotion they seldom use it, remaining stationary on the bottom and -waiting for their food to come to them. - -Most fish have a tail fin, usually forked, with which they propel -themselves, but the rat fish has a body tapering down to a long, -pointed extension that looks like a rodent’s tail. They are dwellers -in deep waters all over the world. Some are quite fantastic. One, -Macruroides inflaticeps, consists essentially of a head and a tail -without any apparent intermediate body; it looks like an enormous -tadpole. - -Pearl fish are minute animals that are sometimes found inside oysters -and clams entirely encrusted with mother-of-pearl. They actually -become large pearls shaped like fish. These small, nearly transparent -creatures sometimes back into the open shell of an oyster or clam that -snaps once the fish are inside. When this happens the creature perishes -but sets up an irritation that leads to the pearl secretion over it. - - - - -_Love Life Among the Spiders_ - - -There is love and courtship among spiders, as among birds and mammals, -but with a unique—and fatal—difference. An observer thus describes a -courtship scene in the _Cambridge Natural History_: - -“When some inches from her he stood still. She eyed him eagerly, -changing her position from time to time. He, raising his whole body -on the other side, leaned so far over he was in danger of losing his -balance which he only maintained by sidling rapidly toward the lower -side. Again and again he circled from side to side, she gazing toward -him in a softer mode and evidently admiring the grace of his antics. -This was repeated until we had counted 107 circles made by the ardent -little male. He approached nearer and nearer and when almost within -reach whirled madly around and around her. She joined him in the giddy -dance. Again he fell back and resumed his semi-circular motion. She, -all excitement, lowered her head and raised her body so that it was -almost vertical. Both drew nearer. She moved slowly under him, he -crawling over her head. Thus the mating was accomplished. - -“A few minutes later, however, the female had eaten her ardent lover.” - - - - -_The Lace Weavers_ - - -For 300,000,000 years tiny animals have been weaving delicate lace. -They weave constantly, rapidly and in lovely, open mesh patterns. They -make a stiff stable lace. Their own limestone entombed bodies are the -threads. Night and day, millenium after millenium, they weave and -weave, for the curse of weaving is forever upon them. Through time -they have covered hundreds of square miles with white and green veils. -For the most part these are fragile and short-lived, but in a few cases -they have been preserved untorn through the ages. - -These lace weavers are the bryozoa, or moss animalcules—one of the -oldest, most abundant and least known forms of animal life. They have -much the same habits as the corals, but the two limestone secreting -creatures are not even remotely related. The weavers are far higher -in the scale of evolution than the island builders. Their family -associations long have been in dispute. They have been associated with -the rotifers and mollusks and even with some unknown ancestral form -leading to the vertebrates. Now, however, it is believed that their -nearest relatives are the nearly extinct brachiopods, or lampshells. - -The two groups started at about the same time in the Cambrian -geological period of half a billion years ago, but they followed -different paths of development. Both might be considered -proto-mollusks—very remotely kin to clams and oysters. For milleniums -the brachiopods flourished in the primaeval seas. During the Permean -period, about 300,000,000 years ago, they constituted one of the most -abundant forms of animal life. Now they seem close to the end of the -road. The weavers are as flourishing, and busy, as ever. - -Like a coral polyp or the larva of a clam, the bryozoan starts life -as an almost invisibly minute, free-swimming creature, usually less -than a thirtieth of an inch long. After a few weeks it settles on some -hard surface, usually a stone, and secretes its limestone shell. New -individuals rise from the body of the founder of the colony at various -angles, depending on the particular design of the tapestry being -produced. Each of the buds, after achieving its coat, sends out new -buds. This is the weaving process. - -The outside of the stone coat often is marked with delicate and bizarre -designs discernable under a microscope. These designs always are the -same for members of a colony and quite similar for an entire species. -They make it possible to identify species in geological formations and -this eventually may be of considerable importance for oil geologists. -After death a colony usually is broken up quickly by wave action. Sea -bottom ooze often is filled with the remains. This ooze, over periods -of milleniums, becomes compacted into rock. - -The weaving process may be very rapid. A colony, starting with a single -free-swimming larva, may cover as much as 100 sq. feet. Such colonies -have been found on a single stone. They often are found on mollusk -shells. At present the bryozoans are economically important chiefly as -a menace to the oyster industry. Once they have covered an abandoned -shell, oystermen believe, no other oyster will make use of it. About -their only other importance to man comes from the fact that some -fresh-water species may clog water pipes by their rapid growth. - -Every bryozoan in a colony remains throughout its life a separate -animal, shut off from its fellows by a wall of limestone and leading an -independent existence. Nevertheless, in the species pattern it assumes, -each colony acts as if it were a single organism. - -Moreover, a phenomenon unique in nature, every individual appears to -be two and in some species three animals in one. Each leads its own -life and dies its own death at its own time. But all make up a single -microscopic whole. - -First is the zooecium, a limestone-encrusted box of tissue. This is -the continuing individual. Inside the box is a little tentacled worm, -the polypide. It contains all the vital organs—the brain and the -nerve, circulatory and digestive systems. It breathes, hunts, eats -and lives quite independently of the zooecium. This polypide usually -is short-lived. It has no excretory system. Poisons pile up. It -degenerates and dies. When it expires the cells of the zooecium wall -assert themselves. From the dead cells of the polypide they extract -what nutritive material is present. The “inside animal” becomes a brown -speck-like body. Then the zooecium cells sprout a bud which becomes a -new polypide. This lives its normal life span and suffers the same fate -as its predecessor. Another brown body is the only evidence that it has -lived. This process may be repeated ten or twelve times. Think of a -man, or any other high animal, which could replace over and over again -its entire internal system with another made out of its own skin which -had eaten its own defunct brain and heart. - -The relation of zooecium and polypide as it exists in one type of -bryozoa, the so-called “sea mats”, was vividly described by the great -British naturalist P. H. Gosse. These are not lace weavers. They form a -colony which looks like a pale, yellow leaf, such as Gosse found in a -microscopic study of a mass of sea weed in which he saw other animals -like “exquisitely crimson leaves thinner than the thinnest tissue -paper, with tall and elegant dark red feathers and purple filaments -each as fine as a silk worm’s thread.” - -“Each individual cell [zooecium] of the sea mat”, Gosse tell us, “is -shaped like a child’s cradle. Suppose a coverlet of transparent skin -were stretched over each cradle, leaving an opening just over the -pillow. Suppose in every cradle there lies a baby with its little knees -bent up to the chin in that zig-zag fashion in which children often lie. - -“But—the child is moving. A slowly pushed open semi-circular slit of -the coverlet and we see him gradually protruding his head and shoulders -in an erect position, straightening his knees at the same time. He is -raised half out of bed. His head bursts open and becomes a bell of -tentacles. This baby is the tenant polypide. - -“The chambers themselves show signs of life. Their front doors -suddenly open, gape widely and shut with a snap. This opening and -shutting is repeated over and over again. The polypide emerges from the -cell slowly and withdraws like lightning at the slightest alarm.” - -As mentioned before, some bryozoans appear to consist of three animals -in one. The third is the so-called avicularium, or bird’s head, also -vividly described by Gosse: “The cells [of this particular species] -are oblong-shaped, and look much like a sack of corn. Just below one -of the spines that crown the summit of the cell on one of the edges -is situated a small lump which bears a remarkable resemblance to the -head of a bird. It has a strongly hooked beak with two well-formed -mandibles, one of which is removable. You observe it deliberately -opening, like the beak of a bird and then closing with a strong, -sudden snap. The birds' heads are not inhabitants of the cells. They -are not even integral parts of them. The cells have their own proper -inhabitants, each leading its own life and each essentially formed on -the same plan as that of the baby in the cradle. There is no visible -connection between its and the bird’s head, which is cut off entirely -from the interior of the cell. This head has a muscular system entirely -its own. It seizes small animals but has no means of passing them into -its mouth”. - -The real function of these avicularia is unknown. They have been -pictured as fierce watchdogs kept by the bryozoa for defense against -approaching enemies. Gosse speculates that they may serve indirectly as -hunters, seizing and killing small animals. The disintegrating bodies -of their prey, attract hordes of smaller sea creatures which can be -gathered up by the tentacles of the polypide. - - - - -_The Ways of Crabs_ - - -Crabs that wear clothes, others that carry arms, and still others -that march like regiments of soldiers are among the curiosities of -Australia’s Great Barrier coral reef. - -One crab forces the coral polyp to build a limestone palace for its -abode. The female of this species lodges on the polyp when it is in the -larval state and causes an irritation which forces the host animal to -build up the walls. The resulting house is just big enough for the crab -to move about in comfortably. There always is a door through which she -obtains her food. - -Another species merely sits on the end of a sprouting coral which, -growing outward, makes a long, circular burrow for the crustacean. -Through this it can move backwards and forwards at will. The forward -part of its body is enclosed in a hard shell the exact color of the -coral so that when the crab sits at the door of its burrow it cannot -be distinguished from the coral. - -Still another crab carries two sea anemones, one in each “hand”, -wherever it goes. In its first few months of life it seizes these -plant-flowers—living animals with stalks and petals like flowers which -ordinarily are attached to rocks under the water—about the centers -of the stalks. Thenceforth it moves about like a person carrying two -umbrellas. - -The most logical explanation of this behavior is that the anemones -serve as weapons, killing or paralyzing small sea animals which come -in contact with them. This species of anemone has stinging cells in -its disk. These curious weapons are carried by the crab continuously -and seem essential to its life. When one of them is taken away, the -crustacean moves automatically to grasp it again. When a crab is killed -slowly in alcohol it clings to its weapons even in its death struggles. - -There are spider crabs which cut and wear clothes. They cut off pieces -of living sponges and place them on their backs. These sponges become -entangled in tiny hairs which protrude through the animal’s shell, and -continue to grow until they protrude several inches over the back. Thin -layers also cover the under part of the body and the legs. Every time -a crab sheds its shell, it must make itself a new suit The practice -probably is beneficial to both animals. The crab, living in a forest -of sponges, looks like a sponge itself and is thus concealed from its -enemies. The sponge benefits by being carried to new food sources. -When the shell is shed the sponge simply attaches itself to a rock and -continues to grow. - -One of the most remarkable cases of commensalism in nature has been -found by Dr. Melbourne Ward, Australian zoologist in a degenerate type -of barnacle which makes its way through the thin shell of one of the -Barrier Reef crabs. It wanders through the blood stream of the crab and -finally comes to the surface where it forms a little sac for itself. -Here it metamorphoses into another form and sends long, thread-like -filaments into every part of its host’s body. In some respects it -is like a cancer among higher animals, except that in this case the -malignant growth is that of an individual animal of another species. -It lives off the food eaten by the crab but never kills nor apparently -seriously injures its host. The one notable effect, for which there is -no adequate explanation, is that it changes a male crab into a female. - -The soldier crabs are beachdwellers, about two inches long. They march -across the hard sand in perfect order, as if they were under the -control of leaders. No “officers”, however, have been observed. When -approached, they burrow rapidly in waves, like a regiment of infantry. -First the front rank disappears in the sand, followed in order by those -behind. The regiment disappears completely in a very short time. - -The soldier crabs can hardly be driven into the water. When Dr. Ward -succeeded in pushing a few of them off the shore they were set upon by -ferocious small fish which rapidly devoured them. Realization of this -danger apparently is instinctive in the animals. - -Some of the land-dwelling crabs of the mud flats dig very intricate -burrows with labyrinthine cross and side galleries. Some species live -in a communal life. Each crab has its own burrow, but from each there -is a passage into a large central hall which seems to be a community -gathering place. Other species are intensely individualistic. Each -excavates an elaborate labyrinth in the mud, considers this its own -home, and vigorously defends it. - -During courtship some of these mud crabs perform dances like the -courtship dances of birds. The male of one variety, after attracting -a mate by his dancing, picks her up bodily in one of his nippers and -carries her away. Another variety of sand crab seems to have perfected -an engineering technique which still evades human skill—that of -building a burrow in soft, dry sand. These burrows are about two inches -in diameter. The crab is able in some mysterious fashion to compress -the soft sand into a solid substance with its nippers. - -In precision of instinctive behavior, Dr. Ward found, these Great -Barrier crabs come quite close to the spiders, their distant relatives. - - - - -_Ticks With Noses in Their Legs_ - - -Ticks, remote spider relatives, smell with their front legs. When these -legs are amputated the tick shows no reaction to odors. It cannot smell -blood but will feed on any sort of liquid sucked through a warm, moist -membrane like the skin. Presumably such a tick in nature recognizes -an animal as a proper source of food by smell, while a combination of -warmth and moisture from the skin gives a stimulus for feeding. - - - - -_The Fourth Realm of Life_ - - -There is a wind-tossed green-grey ocean between earth and sky. It is a -sea on stilts, the world’s fourth realm of life. There are plants and -animals of the land, of the water, and of the air—and there are plants -and animals of the canopy of the rain forest, a thousand-mile-wide -broken belt around the world. It covers several million square -miles—the jungles of South America extending northward into southern -Mexico, the basins of the Niger and the Congo, strips of southern India -and Ceylon, much of New Guinea. Life is rather sparse in the perpetual, -drenched twilight of the jungle floor. It is abundant in the treetops, -the habitat of fantastic, and still largely unknown, plants, mammals, -birds, snakes, toads, frogs and insects. These might be compared to the -flora and fauna of an as yet unexplored continent. - -Rain forest trees are, in general, tall, straight, and branchless until -near their tops, 100 to 150 feet above the ground. There they send out -a rich profusion of branches and foliage. This foliage is like a thick, -rough, continuous green blanket held up by tall posts, like a net below -trapeze performers in a circus tent. The top of the blanket is a place -of intense sunshine. Light grows dimmer and dimmer as it penetrates the -leaves and the branches. Finally, on the jungle floor, there is only -about a fiftieth as much illumination as on the surface of the canopy. - -In the canopy four or five kinds of monkeys take the place of man on -earth as the most intelligent and adaptive animals. Primates from -the beginnings of the race—the weird, squirrel-like animals of the -North American dawn age forests fifty million years ago—have been -semi-arboreal. - -Most abundant in the tree-land are the pretty, playful, -curiosity-driven, humanlike spider monkeys who play tag and throw -sticks at each other in the lower branches. Best known, although less -likely to be seen, are the big, black, Satanic-looking howlers. - -Both of these species, in the long process of adapting themselves to -high jungle life, have made third hands out of the ends of their tails. -With these highly sensitive prehensile organs they not only clutch -branches but sometimes carry out rather delicate manipulations. - -Weirdest are the black-and-white striped, woolly-furred night monkeys. -These little racoon-like creatures live in holes far up in the -treetops. They come out only at night and are seldom seen. They have -enormous eyes which shine like live coals among the leaves when the -light of a flash lamp catches them. - -Probably the most dangerous single animal of the canopy is the -tamandua, or golden anteater. It is exclusively a treetop creature, -about the size of a rabbit, with golden-yellow, soft, silky fur. It -lives almost exclusively on termites which it harvests by sticking -its long tongue, covered with a sticky saliva, into their nests. A -progressive relative of the sloth, it remains motionless apparently for -days at a time and is a slow, clumsy climber. - -But woe to anything—jaguar, ocelot, big howler monkey, even man—that -runs afoul of it. It strikes suddenly and fast with its long, curved -scimitar-sharp claws, and always aims at the stomach which it rips -open. No other creature will venture near a tamandua, except by -accident. Probably it is voiceless, although natives have attributed -to the sinister little anteater a peculiarly weird cry heard in the -moonlit jungle. This now is believed to be the call of a bird. - -Climbing rats are abundant in the jungle top. They feed, for the most -part, on fruits. Here also is the abode of pigmy squirrels which cling, -heads downward, to the tree trunks with their tails curled over their -backs, squirrel fashion. These animals are about five inches long, -including the tail whose length is about equal to that of the rest of -the body. There is a tiny, climbing mouse with short, broad feet and -sharp, curved claws. Bats, mostly small, fruit-eating animals, flutter -about in the darkness. Probably there are few of the big dangerous -vampires in the high treetops. They fare better on the blood of larger, -ground-dwelling creatures such as tapir and peccary. - - - - -_Rubber-Band Worms that Stretch and Stretch_ - - -There is a worm ninety feet long. It is the giant of a family of white, -red, yellow, green, purple, and violet worms whose habitat ranges from -sea bottoms to jungle treetops. The worms shoot poison-tipped harpoons -out of their brains. Most can shrink at will to less than a third of -their ordinary length. They always shrink when they die. Some can break -up into hundreds of fragments, each of which will grow into a complete -new worm. They tie themselves into inextricable knots. They build their -houses from the slime of their own bodies. - -This class is that of the ribbon worms or nemertina. There are about -five hundred known species—perhaps as many more are unknown. Still -near the bottom of animal life, they represent revolutionary advances -from the lowest of worms, the planarians, with which they share many -characteristics. They have evolved integrated brains and nervous -systems. They have, for the most part, taken on a true worm shape. -They have acquired weapons and, in some cases, arsenals of weapons. -They have eyes that see. They have a digestive system, a mouth near -the front of the body, and closed blood system through which flows a -liquid which usually is colorless as water. Perhaps they hear. At the -top of the head in certain species there is a group of cells with hairs -and bristles which may constitute an organ of taste. Along the way of -achieving these advances they have given up a little freedom and a -little immortality for a little more efficiency. - -Those best-known are inhabitants of sea shores, especially the -Atlantic coasts of North America and Europe. They live under rocks, in -abandoned mollusk shells, in windrowed masses of sea weed, in thin, -parchment-like tubes which they secrete from their own skin. Their -general appearance is that of a tangled mass of slimy string, but some -members of the family have among the most brilliant color patterns -known in nature. - -The most conspicuous organ of these primitive worms is the proboscis, -a hollow string which is shot out with great speed and force from the -front end of the usually cylindrical body. At the end of the string, in -several groups, is a sharp-pointed, barbed spear-like stylet with which -the prey, usually some minute water animal, is speared. The victim then -is drawn back into the mouth by the attached hollow thread. Some groups -have no stylets. The thread, upon which is a mucilage-like mucous, is -used like a lassoo and coiled tightly around the prey. - -The proboscis is associated so closely with the brain that, like the -retina of the eye, it has sometimes been considered an extension of -it. The thread often is as long as the worm itself. It is shot out -with such force that is frequently breaks off and continues to lead an -independent life for a few hours. A new proboscis always develops. - -When coiled, the proboscis rests in the center of the two-lobed brain. -It is continuously shot out and pulled in and probes the water around -it. Presumably at first it was an extremely sensitive sensory organ -by which the brain was kept aware of its surroundings. The attached -stylet, an offensive weapon, was a later development. - -In a few cases the thread carries a multitude of unattached barbed -points, a sort of machine-gun arrangement, which can be hurled in all -directions in the hope of hitting something. It also carries tiny hooks -by which it can be attached to some object. By means of the attached -line the worm pulls itself forward over beach or sea bottom, its -ordinary means of locomotion. It is also able, however, to glide like a -planarian and to swim. - -Nemertinea breath through the walls of the oesophagus, or gullet. -When the tide comes in, shore-dwelling species rapidly swallow and -eject mouthfuls of salt water. Oxygen to purify the blood is obtained -from the water. The blood circulates in two or three vessels. It is a -colorless plasma in which float both green and red corpuscles. - -There is little knowledge as to the precise nature of the nemertinean -sensory organs. There are, however, nerve cells in all parts of the -body and the animal is quick to respond to any irritation, especially -to any chemical change in the water. With an intense stimulus the body -is contracted violently, twisted, and even torn apart. Even a headless -specimen will move toward food placed nearby. A severed head may -continue to creep restlessly for several hours. The headless body moves -only when stimulated. With most mud-dwelling species it is difficult to -secure an entire specimen. The slender, fragile body is likely to break -into many fragments when disturbed. Quite commonly, even without any -particular disturbance, a large worm will break up into a dozen or more -pieces. Each becomes a small, new animal. Some regenerating fragments -secrete disks of mucous and form cradles, in which they may remain for -months while new organs are being formed. Eventually the disk ruptures -and the new worm emerges. There is a specific tendency in some species -thus to reproduce during warm weather, with a brief period of sexual -reproduction during the cold months. - -These worms are extremely tenacious of life. Even without food they -may live as long as a year in the proper environment. Ordinarily -they are quite voracious animals. They eat earthworms, other sea -worms, small mollusks—almost anything soft-bodied which the eternally -active proboscis can bring to the mouth. There it is sucked into the -digestive tract. The digestive process is very rapid. Some species -have distensible mouths. Like snakes, they can devour animals bigger -than themselves. Some are cannibals. When times are hard they can, -like planarians, absorb themselves. A case has been known where a -nemertean digested all but a twentieth of its own body in a few months, -apparently without any ill effects. The lost tissues were restored as -soon as food again was available. - - - - -_Frog Versatility_ - - -Animals of many talents are the frogs. Some grunt like pigs, others -cackle like hens. Some chirp like crickets, others caw like crows. -Still others quack like ducks. There are golden frogs, scarlet frogs -that play dead, frogs that build houses. - -All this assembly is found in one small corner of the world, -southeastern Brazil. This particular tropical countryside long has been -known for the abundance and variety of its amphibian life. - -Some of the frogs in this area are particularly notable for their -coloring. Two are almost solid gold in color. Perhaps the most notable -is Brachycephalus ephippium, which not only is brilliant gold in hue -but has armor plates of bone on back and head, and whose tadpoles are -nearly three times the size of the adults. All the adults, less than an -inch long, have the armor plate strongly developed, although the shape -and size shows considerable variation. The general form of the bony -deposition just under the skin, in no way connected with the skeleton, -appears to be typically that of an hour glass across the back with one -or more separate bony islands. Sometimes these islands are fused with -the hour glass. The adults hide under leaves and fallen tree trunks in -high mountain woodlands and come out in large numbers only in rainy -weather. They appear to be rather clumsy creatures. Their gait is a -slow walk. - -The nightly chorus of certain of the frogs sounds like a regiment -beating on tin pans. Others have calls that are like the sounds made -by winding a watch or filing iron. The “tin-pan frog” is one of the -most conspicuous creatures of the region. The chorus of singing males -gives a booming metallic sound which seems at times to be a regular -clanging, like that of a blacksmith hammering on an anvil. - -The “tin-pan” frog builds its own house—a crater-like structure of mud -projecting above shallow water within which its eggs are laid during -the dry season. These nests usually are constructed close to the -water’s edge. Here the eggs hatch and the young tadpoles are swept into -the pond by the next heavy rain. The mud walls apparently protect the -eggs from depredations by fish. Adults stay in trees except at the time -of egg-laying. The male is said to come to the pond first to build the -nest, before the female arrives to lay the eggs. The frog that quacks -like a duck is a closely related species. It has a peculiar habit of -swarming. Hundreds may appear at one time in a single tree. - -One of the golden frogs is about three inches long and almost pure -gold in color. Its voice is like the slow grunting of a pig. It sleeps -during the day in large leaves of bromeliads, trees of the pineapple -family that often hold rainwater in their axils. They sometimes are -described as living “tubs of water.” At night the frogs come down out -of the leaves and go to ponds and streams in the neighborhood in search -of insects. Their leaf sleeping chambers apparently give them complete -protection from their natural enemies. - -One gray and brown Brazilian frog, extremely sluggish by day, when -handled assumes a wooden, dead appearance, with the limbs brought close -to the body and the head bent forward, so that it resembles a patch of -fungus or a chip of wood. Even when left on their backs for a long time -they continue to play dead. - -A notable singer among the Brazilian tree frogs is Hylabypunctata, -whose call is a high, frequently repeated tit-tit-tit. When many sing -together the chorus is so loud it can be heard nearly a mile away. - -One brilliant-red-legged frog, brought to Washington by the Smithsonian -Institution, ate nothing for seven months and did not change its -position for days at a time. Throughout this period it seemed to lose -no weight. At the end of seven months it eagerly ate worms and files. - -A violet frog that lives in the clouds and sings like a bird has been -discovered by Dr. Bertha Lutz of the National Museum of Brazil on the -summit of 10,000-foot-high Mt. Itatiaia in the Mantiquiera mountains. -This frog, hitherto unknown to science, has a purple back spotted with -gold, bronze and deep yellow. Below the purple is a deep violet blue. - -Since the Mantiquiera mountains, the highest in Brazil, are almost -perpetually cloud-veiled, the little animal appears to be entirely a -creature of cloudland. Its curious colors perhaps have been borrowed -as camouflage from the sky. It has a weak voice and its song is very -much like that of a bird. It is found in swift mountain brooks, part of -whose courses are subterranean. - - - - -_The Horned Viper Spears Other Animals_ - - -Best-known Egyptian cobra is the so-called “spitting serpent” or Libyan -asp. It supposedly has the ability to spit in the eyes of its enemies, -such as dogs, and the saliva temporarily blinds the victims. - -The cobra was a sacred animal in ancient Egypt. It was associated with -the sun and with royalty. It formed part of the head dress of solar -deities and was represented in the crowns of kings and queens. Toward -the end of the 20th dynasty, when it became the custom to preserve -sacred animals, it was embalmed at Thebes. - -There is a fair possibility that one of the sixteen varieties of -Egyptian cobras was the “asp” with which Cleopatra took her own life. -It is more probable, however, that she used an even weirder and almost -as deadly snake, the horned viper. This serpent is common on the -fringes of the Egyptian desert. It buries itself in the hot sand, only -its eyes and the top of its head being visible. Its two horns resemble -barley seed and attract birds within its reach. When disturbed it can -throw itself forward. It was called “aculum” (spear) by the Romans -because of this darting motion. - - - - -_The World of Insects_ - - -The Roman naturalist Pliny wrote of ants in the Himalayas “the color -of a cat and as large as an Egyptian wolf.” Pliny naively had accepted -tales of travellers but the actual curiosities of the insect world are -almost as strange as anything he related. There are bugs that live in -ice, bugs that are happy only in near boiling water, snow white bugs -that dwell deep in the earth, bugs that make their homes in petroleum -pools. - -None are as big as wolves, but the insect world has its giants as well -as its dwarfs. The Atlas moth of India has a wing-spread of nearly a -foot. An East Indian walking stick is 15 inches long. The Hercules -beetle of Africa sounds like an airplane in flight. Enormous forelegs, -more than twice the length of the rest of the body are characteristic -of a black wood beetle which covers a space of eight inches with all -its legs extended. A curiosity of the Malay Archipelago is a “fly with -horns.” It has protuberances on its head which suggest the horns of a -deer. - -A South African fly has eyes which extend on stalks from the sides of -its head. The stalks are so long that the measurement from eye to eye -is a third more than the length of the body from head to tail. - -One blood-sucking insect can distend itself with blood to more than -twelve times its original weight. As the huge meal is digested the -abdomen contracts like a deflating balloon. - -The death watch beetle, standby for stories of haunted old castles, -bumps its head on the top of its tunnels in wooden walls to send a kind -of telegraphic message to its mate. - -Some chalcid flies paralyze caterpillars and lay self-multiplying eggs -in their bodies. More than 2,000 larvae may be produced from a single -egg deposited in this way. - -A singular ant lion, dweller near the Egyptian pyramids, has a slender -and elongated neck whose caliper jaws seem to be held at the end of an -outstretched arm. The neck, in many cases is far longer than the rest -of the body. It permits the insects to probe for prey in deep crevasses. - -The goat of the insect world, the drugstore beetle, is known to consume -45 different substances, including the poisons aconite and belladonna. -Other beetles feed on cigarettes, mustard plasters and red pepper. Ants -have shown themselves resistant to cyanide. In the case of some insects -a reduced diet slows down growth. Some wood-boring grubs sometimes -live in house timbers for years after they have been put in place. -In one instance an adult beetle emerged from a porch post that had -been standing for twenty years. The dried timber lacks the nutritive -qualities of the living tree and the growth of the grub is arrested so -that long periods pass before it reaches maturity. - -A carnivorous butterfly larva lives in the nests of an Australian ant -where it feeds on the young. An especially tough outer shell protects -it from attacks by adults ants. - -The rat-tailed maggot inhabits stagnant water. It feeds on the bottom -and breathes air through an extensible tube that forms its tail. Like a -diver obtaining oxygen through an air hose while working on sea bottom, -it is able to remain submerged as long as it desires. - -The little frog hopper produces its own climate. In spring and summer -small masses of froth often appear on grass stems and weeds. Within -such a bubble mass, sheltered from direct rays of the sun and kept -moist by the foam, the immature insect spends its early days. For -millions of years it has been employing its own primitive form of air -conditioning. - - - - -_Gigantic Serpents of the Sky_ - - -Titanic pink serpents coiled and wheeled in the sky. The earth below -was plunged in a chill twilight as they shut out the December sun. -These cosmic reptiles were two or three miles long. They moved about -a mile a minute. They made a noise like a tornado punctuated with the -rat-tat-tat of machine guns. - -Thus the naturalist John Audubon described a mass passenger pigeon -flight over Kentucky which, he estimated, included more than a billion -birds. As they came out of the northeast they looked like a gigantic, -low pink cloud driven by a hurricane. Suddenly they split with almost -military precision into the coiling, snake-like formation as predacious -hawks hovered above them. - -When these hawks came, says Audubon, at once with a noise like thunder -they rushed into compact masses, pressing upon each other towards the -center. In these almost solid masses they darted forward in undulating -lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable -velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, and -when high were seen wheeling and twisting in continuous lines which -resembled the coils of gigantic serpents. - -When the birds reassembled from their emergency snake formations, -they constituted, Audubon estimated, a column one mile broad passing -overhead at the rate of a mile a minute for three hours. Thus the solid -mass of the birds would have covered 80 square miles. Such a monster -would have required, the naturalist calculated, about nine million -bushels of food a day. - -It is more than a century since anybody has witnessed such a -phenomenon. Civilization and nature combined to destroy the almost -incalculably vast hordes of pink-breasted birds which, acting in a -weird unison, seemed to the pioneers like cosmic monsters invading -the earth. Hundreds of millions were slaughtered by hunters. Millions -perished in one great Atlantic storm when, it was reported, the sea -over a radius of three or four miles was covered completely with their -bodies. - -The passenger pigeon long has been extinct. The last survivor of the -tornado-like masses now is mounted and on exhibition at the Smithsonian -Institution. It died in captivity in the Cincinnati Zoological Park at -1 p.m., September 1, 1914. Every year Smithsonian ornithologists get -reports that one of these birds has been seen in some remote forest. -Almost beyond question, however, these reports are due to the wish -fulfillment of amateur bird watchers. - -The extant mourning dove sometimes is mistaken for the passenger -pigeon. In the west the band-tailed pigeon has been similarly mistaken. -Even expert ornithologists might make such errors from casual -observations. Although convinced that the bird is extinct scientists -continue to investigate any plausible clue to its survival. - -According to Smithsonian Institution ornithologists, there is a popular -idea that the passenger pigeon mysteriously disappeared and that, -while still enormously numerous, it suddenly ceased to exist. Its -annihilation has been attributed popularly to various natural phenomena -and it has even been rumored that the bird migrated to South America. -The natural phenomena supposed to have been causative of its extinction -are epidemics, tornadoes, early deep snowstorms, forest fires, strong -winds while the birds were crossing large bodies of water which caused -exhaustion and death by drowning. Circumstantial reports were published -of immense numbers drowned in the Gulf of Mexico, a region well beyond -the usual range of the bird. Destruction of the forests undoubtedly was -a large detrimental factor in the life history of the pigeons, for the -forests supplied their principal food as well as roosting and nesting -places. - -A bird accustomed for ages to living together in large numbers and -close ranks, whether in feeding, migrating, roosting or nesting, might -find it impossible to continue these functions with greatly reduced and -scattered ranks. It is probably more than a figure of speech to say -that under these circumstances such a communist bird would lose heart, -nor is it fanciful to suppose that sterility might in consequence -affect the remnants. Our continent is so well known that accounts of -the presence of living birds must be considered more than doubtful. - -The mass flights came about once every ten years in the early winter. -The normal habitat of the pigeons was in the great forests of Quebec -and Ontario. There they were widely scattered, feeding chiefly on -acorns. When snow covered the ground they moved southward, but -ordinarily not in great masses. But a periodic failure of the acorn -crop, of the extent of which the birds seemed to have some mysterious -awareness, caused them to assemble in one body and start a mass -migration southward, obscuring the sun for hours as they passed beneath -it. - -Like tornadoes, they wrecked forests in their flights. Says the -naturalist Alexander Wilson: “The roosting places sometimes occupy a -large extent of forests. When they have frequented one of these places -for some time the appearance it exhibits is surprising. The ground is -covered to a depth of several inches with their dung. All the tender -grass and under wood is destroyed. The surface is strewn with large -limbs of trees, broken down by the weight of birds collecting one above -the other. The trees themselves for thousands of acres are killed as if -girdled with an axe. The marks of the desolation remain for many years -on the spot. Numerous places could be pointed out where, for several -years after, scarcely a single vegetable made its appearance.” - -After these mass migrations from the north the pigeons scattered -through the forests in search of food but assembled again in the -spring for egg-laying and hatching. Wilson reported: “Not far from -Shelbyville, Kentucky about five years ago, there was one of these -breeding places which stretched through the woods in a north and south -direction several miles in breadth and was said to be more than 40 -miles in length. In this tract almost every tree was furnished with -nests wherever the branches would accommodate them. - -“As soon as the young were fully grown numerous parties of inhabitants -from all parts of the adjacent country came with wagons, axes, beds -and cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater part of -their families, and encamped for several days at this immense nursery. -The noise was so great as to terrify their horses and it was difficult -for one person to hear another speak. The ground was strewn with broken -limbs of trees, eggs and young squab pigeon which had been precipitated -from above and upon which herds of hogs were fattening. The view -through the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and falling -multitudes of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with -the frequent crash of falling timber.” - -The last great nesting was recorded at Petoskey, Michigan, in 1878. The -area covered is said to have been forty miles long and 30 miles broad. - -Systematic commercial hunting of the birds reached its height shortly -after the Civil War. In 1879 dead birds were sold on the Chicago market -at 50 cents a dozen. Pigeon hunters made from $10 to $40 a day. - - - - -_The Limbless Lizard_ - - -A supposedly welcome guest in the underground chambers of leaf cutter -ants is the amphisbaena, a nearly limbless lizard about a foot long -which looks something like a gigantic earth worm. This creature, seldom -seen, ranges from northern Brazil to lower California. When out of its -habitat the amphisbaena is almost helpless and moves along the ground -with feeble wriggles. Some species lay eggs; other give birth to living -young. - - - - -_The Maddening Tarantula_ - - -The tarantula of southern Europe—a large, hairy spider—long was -credited with causing a weird, infectious madness by its bite. - -The first reported effect of its poison—actually quite mild—is said to -have been to put the victim into a deep lethargy from which he could -be roused only by music which set into motion an overpowering impulse -to get up and dance. Once the victim started to dance he could not -stop until he fell to the ground from exhaustion. Then the condition -supposedly was cured for a year. On the anniversary of the bite, -however, the dance was involuntarily repeated. From the tarantula’s -first victim the dancing mania allegedly spread like a contagious -disease through the surrounding countryside. The name still is used -both for an Italian dance and for the music which accompanies it. - -The tarantula is a subterranean creature which hibernates in its -burrow during the winter. Bees and wasps are said to be killed almost -instantly by its bite. The spider always strikes at the junction of the -head and thorax. - - - - -_A Flower That Grows Through Solid Ice_ - - -A plant that drills through several inches of solid ice to bloom in -early spring is the blue moonwort of the Swiss Alps. It belongs to the -primrose family. In autumn it develops thick, leathery leaves. These -lie flat on the ground, expectant of the snow and ice sheet that may -cover them to a depth of several feet. - -When spring arrives and the hot sun melts most of the snow and some of -the ice, water trickles down to the rootlets and arouses growth in the -sleeping plant. Internal combustion ensues with the floral tissues. The -resulting heat melts the ice about the uprising flower buds and the -stem pushes its way upward. More water flows to the roots and finally -the plant tunnels a passage to the air and sunshine. So long as the -heat given off from the growing stem and buds is sufficient to prevent -solid freezing of the parts the plant is indifferent to the surrounding -ice cold temperature. It undergoes the usual transformations, is -fertilized by early bees and forms many hundreds of wonderful blue -flower groups which look as if they were beds over a thick layer of -transparent ice. The leaves are now no longer thick and fleshy, but -thin and papery. They yield up their carbon compounds as fuel to melt a -tunnel through the ice and production of buds and blossoms on a flower -stem above the ice mantle. - - - - -_The Versatile Ant Farmers_ - - -There are microscopic “farmers” whose fields are measured in fractions -of inches. They are ants—the most widespread fungus-growers in the -Western Hemisphere. Their range extends from Florida to Brazil. They -are tiny creatures, seldom noticed, who cultivate a species of yeast -which is their sole food. - -The ways of life of this curious ant with the formidable scientific -name of cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus, have been studied throughout their -habitat by Dr. Neal A. Weber of Swarthmore College. - -“The ant,” says Dr. Weber, “is versatile in the American tropics where -the humidity is high and the temperatures uniform. The most common -sites are in clay soil on the forest floor. An empty snail shell, a -curled dead leaf or a rotted twig may suffice for a colony of these -small ants or they may find requisite conditions among roots or in the -dead wood high in the rain forest canopy. - -“During the rainy season in Panama City there was a nest on a concrete -cylinder above ground which protected a gas meter. The cylinder was 17 -centimeters high (about 6 inches), by 36 centimeters in diameter and -was covered loosely by a concrete cover. In the narrow space on the -rim under the cover a colony had walled off an elliptical area 36 by -17 millimeters (about 4 inches by 3/4 of an inch), in which the entire -nest with a fungus garden was formed. During drier periods the ants -would move down into the soil. - -“The workers usually are slow-moving and become immobile at the -slightest disturbance. Sometimes, however, they run as rapidly as the -average ant when disturbed and seek to escape rather than feign death. -In “feigning death” the ants quickly curl up their legs and fold their -antennae close to the body so that they appear almost invisible bits of -dirt when casually examined. - -“The ants spend much time in grooming the forelimbs, antennae and -other parts of the body. Regardless of how dusty an ant may become -momentarily, it keeps its antenna immaculate by drawing it through its -mouth and licking and cleansing it. They also clean one another. In -grooming each other the ants may carefully go over a large portion of -the body. In one instance a slightly callow worker was watched as it -groomed another of the same age. The one being groomed turned over on -its side, like a dog or a monkey. The grooming of each other and the -cleaning of the brood is a vital part of their activities as it removes -alien bacteria and fungi and also may have a nutritive function so far -as the brood is concerned. - -“The fungus garden consist of masses from a quarter millimeter to a -half millimeter in diameter (from about 100th to a 60th of an inch.)” - -They have their bitter, nearly microscopic enemies. Upon them, as upon -elephants, ride much smaller, bareback riding mites whose acrobatic -stunts would be the envy of any circus performer. - -“Seven out of 16 ants so examined,” Dr. Weber says, “had mites on them. -These mites have no difficulty in moving from one site to another on -the ants. A transfer of a mite from one ant to another was watched. It -had been riding on one ant when another brushed by waving its antennae -over the other as is customary. In a flash the mite grabbed the tip of -the left antenna. The ant did not attempt to dislodge the mite although -it already had two others on its body. The mite had a rough ride, but -was not dislodged.” - -The peculiar type of fungus grown by the ant does not grow naturally -outside the nest. It can be isolated and cultivated but it quickly is -overwhelmed by other fungi in any artificial culture. It is probable -that ant and fungi need each other for survival. Possibly the saliva of -the insect is essential for the growth of the primitive plant. Likewise -the peculiarly developed fungus is essential for the well-being, even -for the survival, of the ants. It is one of nature’s partnerships. - - - - -_Ostracoderms: Ancestors of True Fish_ - - -The race of fish first appeared about 350,000,000 million years ago -in the Silurian geological era. It was made up of grotesque, clumsy, -heavily armored animals who crawled over the ooze of the sea bottoms -with very little, if any, capacity to rise or propel themselves in the -water. The ascent from such an unpropitious beginning to the swift, -graceful swimmers of today is one of the wonder stories of evolution. - -These Silurian animals were the ostracoderms. They belonged to the -general fish complex but were not in the direct ancestral line of any -extant fish. This race continued, in various groupings, for at least -150,000,000 years. The earliest forms were wormlike animals whose -fossils are found in ancient rocks of Esthonia. Their heads and the -forward parts of their bodies were covered with bony plates. They had -no fins to serve for steering and balancing. In appearance they were -close to tadpoles. It is quite obvious that they were bottom-dwelling -forms who swam, if at all, awkwardly and laboriously. The evolution -into more and more efficient swimming animals can be traced through -later and later fossils throughout the life history of the race. -The body became more flexible. There was a gradual reduction in the -thickness of the external armor as the ostracoderms came to depend more -and more on speed and less on invulnerability. At the end they probably -were comparatively good swimmers. - -A little later than the earliest of this long extinct family came -the first representatives of the true fish—probably derived from the -same general ancestral stock. They also were bottom-dwelling animals, -although from the beginning they appear to have been a little better -adapted for swimming. In these also, the head and forward part of the -body were encased in heavy armor. In ostracoderms, however, this had -formed a continuous shell, allowing no anterior freedom of motion in -the water. In the earliest true fish it was divided into two parts, the -head shield and the body shield. For the most part, however, they could -use only the tail and posterior part of the body for propulsion. But -through many generations various diversifications of the race became -more and more fishlike in form, shed their heavy protective plates, -developed paired fins for steering and balance, and continuously -improved as swimmers. - -“We must take it for granted,” explains Prof. Anatol Heintz, Norwegian -paleontologist, “that the ancestral forms of the vertebrates evolved -in water. Most primitive forms lived on the bottom and had not yet -specialized sufficiently to be able to swim. If the oldest vertebrates -were bottom-living or burrowing forms they must have learned to swim, -just as later they learned to crawl, walk, run and finally fly.” - -Among the earliest groups of true fish were the coelacanths, or “hollow -spines.” They left many fossil remains over a period of 200,000,000 -years. Supposedly they became extinct about sixty million years ago, at -the start of the dawn age when most higher life types known at present -first appeared. Through all the vast eons of their existence the -“hollow spines” changed little. - -Three years ago came one of the outstanding events in present day -biology. A living coelacanth was caught by native fishermen off the -northeastern coast of Madagascar. It was quite similar to its fossil -ancestors—armored head and all. Apparently the Madagascan fishermen had -been capturing similar creatures in their nets occasionally for years, -without realizing that they were of any particular significance. - -To biologists the news of this capture was as exciting as would have -been that of finding a living dinosaur. The coelacanths, in fact were -hoary with age when the earliest dinosaurs appeared on earth. This fish -was a survivor from days when animals first were developing spines and -brains. - -The specimen, however, was practically ruined before it came to the -attention of the scientists. Native sailors had sliced it open from -snout to tail. All the brain and other soft parts of the head were -gone. Other parts were so badly mangled that it was impossible to -reconstruct them. - -Since then several others have been caught. An intriguing possibility -is that of obtaining a female with unborn young. A developing embryo -supposedly recapitulates ancestral forms. If one could be found it -would be possible to reconstruct something of the real ancestry of the -first back-boned animals. - -Natives report that the coelacanth is extremely oily. Its flesh drips -oil. When boiled it quickly turns to jelly. This fact may have a -bearing on the origin of some of the earth’s great oil deposits. Man -today may be running his automobiles or heating his homes on the fuel -produced by vast hordes of these head-armored, hollow-spined fish in -the ancient warm seas. - - - - -_The Ever Faithful Hornbills_ - - -Lady hornbills are trusting wives and gentlemen hornbills are -unbelievably faithful husbands. - -The hornbills are birds with enormous beaks. They have the size of -small turkeys and are usually found in pairs in the forests of East -Africa. They are perhaps best known from the curious instinctive -behavior of the female. Before laying her annual quota of two eggs -she walls herself with mud, collected by the male, into a hole near -the top of some high jungle tree. There one of the eggs—apparently -seldom both—is hatched and the chick reared. The female continues this -voluntary imprisonment for two months or more. - -There is always a small aperture in the wall. Through this the foraging -male passes food to his imprisoned mate, once an hour or less. Food -consists mostly of fruits. Sometimes he brings her what apparently are -playthings to relieve the monotony of hatching and chick-rearing. - -A comprehensive report on the behavior of these grotesque birds in the -Mpanga Research Forest of Uganda, by Dr. Lawrence Kilham of Bethesda, -Maryland, is a classic on bird-watching. - -Hornbills mate for life and apparently their conjugal life is a -model of high morality for the whole animal kingdom. Walled into the -tree-holes, the females obviously are helpless to protect themselves -against any infidelity, and, sad to say, there are vampire female -hornbills in the jungle whose only thought is to steal some imprisoned -lady’s spouse. - -In the case observed by Dr. Kilham, however, the male preserved his -virtue to the end. “By November 8,” he records, “the female was walled -in, and a more serious attempt at interference was now made by a -foreign female.... She was following the male and lighted in the next -tree when he lighted above his nest hole. On November 23 the same -course of events took place, except that the male was less tolerant. -He fed his own mate, then drove the intruder away. A week later I saw -her fly in close behind the male and light 25 feet from the nest hole. -The male gave his mate a piece of bark followed by some fruit, and then -bounced from one branch to another toward the foreign female.” - -The poor fellow was falling, falling, but “the female within the nest -screamed a number of times. I wondered whether the interloper could -seduce the male, but from subsequent observations it seemed unlikely -that she would. The male returned again to the nest hole, and a few -minutes later was in the upper part of the tree knocking about on dead -branches until he dislodged a piece of bark. He clamped his bill on -the bark until it was largely fragmented. Then he moved toward the -foreign female. If he presented the bark [a cherished play object among -hornbills] one would suppose that she had some attraction for him. -After a moment, however, he changed his direction, flew down to the big -limb below, bent over the nest hole, and gave the token to his mate, -accompanied by a feeding chuckle. Subsequently he returned to perch -quietly within eight feet of the intruding female. At 7:30 a.m. the two -of them flew away together. As the nesting season progressed, he became -less tolerant of her intrusions...On February 3 I again watched her -fly in behind the male and alight on the nest tree, making considerable -noise. The male stopped feeding his mate, swooped at the interloper -and drove her down toward the ground. However, when he flew away, she -followed a short distance behind.” - -The vampire was hard to discourage. A few days later she was observed -at the entrance to the nest, trying to break the wall with her beak. -Probably there was a sex murder case in the making. But “After five -minutes the male arrived and...drove the foreign female to another -tree, flying at her so hard that he knocked leaves from intervening -branches. He returned to his nest with a small stick held like a cigar. -His mate, who had remained silent, now began her wailing screeches.... -The intruding female, persistent as usual...had followed the male -back to the nest tree. In a few minutes he flew at her again, flying -faster than hornbills usually do as he chased her from one tree to -another.” - -But his ordeal of bachelorhood was nearly over. Five days later mother -and young emerged from the nest: “The pair of hornbills were perched -side by side on their tree. Not long after I heard a great flutter of -wings. I looked back to see both members of the pair pursuing a foreign -female.... When the parents later came to our garden, she did not -follow.” - - - - -_Ants With Tailor Skills_ - - -Ants developed the craft of sewing long before humans. There are -species of tailor ants in Australia, Africa and India that have -distinctly ingenious habits. They make nests of leaves sewed together -with silken threads, secreted by their own larvae, which they use both -as needles and shuttles. - -When the nest is torn in any way certain soldiers and workers, -apparently specialized for this particular job, rush to the scene. The -soldiers arrange themselves to protect the workers. These first try to -pull the two edges of the rent together. If the gap is too wide for a -single insect to reach the other side and secure it with her mandibles -a living chain is formed, sometimes as much as six ants long. One holds -another in front of her with her mandibles, the second similarly holds -a third, and so on until the other side is reached. Hours sometimes are -required before the edges of the tear can be brought together and held -in contact. - -Then several other workers appear, each carrying a larva head upwards. -These little worms are carried back and forth like a shuttle, spinning -the threads which are pushed through needle holes made by the workers -until the rent is securely patched. - - - - -_Fiend Symphonies of the Jungle_ - - -Out of green jungle depths at sunrise rises the choral hymn of the -damned. It is a symphony of earth’s evil, of ancient dinosaurs and -flying reptiles, of vampires and witches. It comes from the throats of -jet-black, long-bearded, fiend-like creatures wearing red shawls. They -are the howler monkeys. - -The world’s loudest-mouthed bluffers and braggarts are these dwellers -in the high treetops. They swear in an ancient tongue evolved over -centuries for the effective cursing of hovering white hawks, black -vultures and lurking wild cats. Now they curse, loudly and most -profanely, airplanes which sweep low over Panama and Costa Rican -jungles. They have not found it necessary to invent any new expressions -to convey their contempt for the new monsters of the skies. - -Their voices are their only weapons. These have proved quite effective -throughout the lifetime of the race. The howlers have been able to -threaten their enemies with perdition so convincingly that these -enemies have believed the threats. Largely as a result, the big black -monkeys have been left alone as the dominant animals of the weird, -perilous green world at the top of the jungle. They never have had to -fight with fists, claws or teeth. All they have done—all it has been -necessary to do—is talk about it. - -The scream of the howler, hurled defiantly at a possible enemy or -raised in a diapason to the sunrise or in a ritual of worship to the -full moon, is the most fearsome sound of the jungle. As one zoologist -has said: “It’s a combination of the bark of a dog and the bray of -a mule magnified a thousand-fold.” It can be heard, and clearly -discriminated, eight or ten miles away. Some say that the howl not only -sounds like the voices of fiends let loose from the pits of Hades, but -that the appearance of the animals themselves is just about what one -would picture for the infernal beings. The loudness and carrying power -is due to the monkey’s peculiar throat structure, which enables the -sound to reverberate. This throat structure is the weapon which nature -has provided for the animal and it has enabled him to more than hold -his own in the endless struggle for survival of the fittest. Even more, -it has made him supremely contemptuous of all lesser-voiced creatures, -such as men on foot or men in airplanes at whom he howls defiantly. - -Of all apes or monkeys, the howler probably looks the least like his -distant cousin, man. He is at very best a grotesque caricature of a -chimpanzee or a gorilla. Attempts have been made to oust him from the -monkey race altogether and to degrade him to the pseudo-monkeys, the -lemurs. But in biology there is nothing to justify this. - -Fortunately for students of animal behavior the howler is a daylight -animal. He usually goes to bed at sundown and stays there until -sunrise, except on occasions when the full moon awakens him and arouses -some uncontrollable frenzy which finds expression in the weird howling. -So about everything he does is open to observation. - -The creatures remain about the least acceptable of the monkey and ape -race in human company. The feeling apparently is reciprocal. The howler -is an almost untamable wild animal. He never will dance at the end of a -hurdy-gurdy grinder’s leash, and seldom will be on exhibit in zoos. He -dies quickly in captivity, but only after becoming such a nuisance with -the howling of a broken heart that zoo keepers are glad to be rid of -him. Only one specimen has been kept in captivity at Barro, Colorado—a -baby rescued by one of the Indian guides after she had fallen out of -a tree. This happens not infrequently to the little howlers before -they have mastered the acrobatics of the forest canopy. They are not -climbers at birth, any more than seals are able to swim. - -In the strange treetop realm among his own the howler is a much more -engaging personality than he appears down below. He is the “man” of the -green canopy 100 feet above the earth. He is the dominant creature, -intellectually if not always physically, and he appears to have evolved -a complex form of social organization. - -From two to three hundred of the big black monkeys inhabit Barro, -Colorado. They are split into groups of from ten to twenty individuals. -These groups are probably extended families, each consisting of two or -three adult males, a few younger males, and the remainder females and -babies. Each clan possesses an area of from 250 to 500 acres. This is -the “home town” and few of the monkeys ever stray across its borders. - -Within such an area are “roads,” path of long branches and heavy vines -by which a troop can pass easily from one treetop to another. These -same ways are maintained year after year. The howler requires solid -footing. Despite his lofty, wind-tossed habitat he is not much of a -gymnast. For one reason, his body is too heavy. He appears quite clumsy -compared with his lighter, more volatile relatives, the spider monkeys -of the same high realm. Howlers, for example, very seldom have been -observed leaping from tree to tree. Occasionally, probably only in -cases of dire necessity, a swinging vine may be used as a trapeze. Any -aerial acrobatics, however, appear far from this monkey’s ideas of good -sport. - -Through its allotted area a group usually moves in single file, the -adult males leading the way and the females with young clinging to -their backs or breasts bringing up the rear. The treetop roads seldom -are wide enough to permit two monkeys to move abreast. When any of the -troop drops behind, the procession is held up to wait for him. If he -does not appear in a few minutes scouts are sent back to find out what -has happened. About the worst to be anticipated is that a mother has -dropped her baby. She immediately will descend to retrieve it from the -ground or, as is more likely, from some of the lower branches which -have broken its fall. - -The animals appear to maintain a communistic family life. A family -never seems to increase or decrease in numbers. Probably new groups -are formed if the birth rate becomes greater than is necessary for -replacements. In the absence of epidemics death rates are not heavy, -for the animal has no very formidable natural enemies. Its hellish howl -is enough to scare away even the strongest, fiercest invaders of its -high country. - -Classes are mutually exclusive. But there are no wars in the treetops. -When one group ventures near the border of a range claimed by another -all the inhabitants get together and set up the most fiendish howling -of which they are capable. The potential invaders stop and howl back, -just as fiendishly. After a more or less prolonged session of this -bloodless warfare both factions call it a day and go their peaceful -ways. Any actual fight between howler gangs has not been reported by -reliable witnesses. - - - - -_Tyrants of the Polychaete Race_ - - -Knight-warriors and Amazons of the worm world are the aphroditids. They -are the aristocrats and tyrants of the polychaete race. - -Like the oriental Aphrodite whose name they bear—she was the mythical -goddess of love and war who rose from the sea foam armed with golden -spears which were the rays of the moon and sun she personified—they -crawl over the beach sands resplendent in a bristling panoply of gold -and green. Heavily armed for both offense and defense, their prey are -all living things remotely their equals in size and strength. - -For their battles they carry on their feet “an armory of harpoons, -bayonets, lances, spears and billing hooks,” says the Rev. George -Johnston in his catalogue of annelid worms in the British Museum. -“Were it desirable to have any additions to man’s weapons of war,” he -comments, “the aphrodite bayonet might furnish a model for a new kind -as formidable as any we possess. It is armed with a kind of pricker -affixed to the end of a musket. This appendage is very sharp, formed -with several cutting surfaces, and with a spine below pointed backwards -which gives it the properties and advantage of a harpoon. Hence, having -been forced to penetrate the flesh, the point cannot be withdrawn, but -is detached at once. - -“This, however, is not the most curious part of the instrument. The -bayonet part of the bristle is, in fact, a sheath which encloses -another weapon that is exposed only when the scabbard is lost. When we -detach the bayonet from the sheath, at the same time we force from its -interior a horny stylette with a needle-like point ready to become a -good defensive weapon.” - -The terror of tidal beaches described by Dr. Johnston is the “sea -mouse,” Aphrodite aculeata, an oval-shaped worm from six to eight -inches long and two or three wide. It has from 30 to 50 large “feet” -on each side of its body, each carrying an immense tuft of silky green -and golden bristles and spines. Many have commented on the malevolent -creature’s beauty and capacity for inspiring terror. - -“The very brilliant iridescent hues,” Dr. Johnston says, “are not -equalled by the colors of the most brilliant butterflies.” “It does not -yield in brilliance to the plumage of humming birds or even to the most -shining gems,” wrote the great French naturalist Baron Cuvier, credited -with the original description of the animal. - -Normally it moves by jet propulsion. As it goes forward, a current of -water is projected with considerable force at short intervals from its -rear end. Progress ordinarily is slow, but the sea mouse is capable of -considerable speed when pursuing a slow-moving prey. It frequently can -be observed motionless, watching a weaker worm or mollusk upon which it -is prepared quickly to pounce at a favorable opportunity. - -Some of these animals, Dr. Johnston observes, “have 500 feet on each -side of the body. Each foot has two branches and each branch at least -one spine and one brush of bristles. Thus an individual has at least -1,000 spines. If we reckon ten bristles to each brush, it has at least -10,000.” - -The bristles, presumably, are almost entirely for defense; the spines -for offense, and admirably fashioned for killing weaker animals. Both -types of weapons can be retracted entirely inside the foot when not in -use, but thrust out again immediately when needed. - -Aphrodite hermione, a close relative of the sea mouse, Dr. Johnston -points out, “has in the dorsal branch of its feet bristles which may -be described as lances. They are so small that a magnifying glass is -needed to discover the workmanship, which excels in finish the finest -instrument of man by the skill of the most expert artificer. A great -number of these bristles garnish the extremity of each foot, and as -they are stiff and serially arranged they form a hedge of spears around -the body of the worm, placing it within a square of pointed pikes -threatening at all points. Other bristles terminate in a knob within -which is a barbed lance.” - -Still others are likened by Dr. Johnston to harpoons, produced from -the body only as required. They are very sharply pointed bristles with -the point attached to a shaft. The harpoon point, like the bayonet -previously described, has a reverted tooth which cannot be withdrawn -once it has been plunged into the body of the enemy. It can, however, -be detached and left to fester in the wound. Some worms lose all their -harpoons in their many fights. - -“There is scarcely a single weapon invented by the murderous genius -of man,” commented the French naturalist Quatrefages concerning -aphroditids on Bay of Biscay coasts, “whose counterpart and model -could not be found among these worms. Here are the curved blades whose -points present a double and prolonged cutting surface, sometimes on the -concave edge as in the yataghan of the Arabs, sometimes on the convex -border as in the oriental scimitar. We meet with weapons of offense -and defense which remind us of the broad sword of our cuirassiers; -the sabre-poignard of the artilleryman; the sabre-baionette of the -chausseurs. We have harpoons, fishhooks, cutting blades in every form -attached to the extremities of sharp handles. Destined to live by -rapine and exposed to a hundred enemies, they need such weapons both -for attacking and defense.” - -Some aphroditids swim with ease. The majority, however, are found -between tide marks where they burrow in wet sand. A few occasionally -trespass in tidal rivers. When placed in fresh water the animals soon -die, in their death throes first ejecting a milky-white fluid which -turns to blackish-green at the moment of death. Despite their heavy -armament, the aphroditids are a favorite food of codfish. They are -distributed generally all over the world. The monster of the race in -the South Pacific sometimes reaches a length of five feet. - - - - -_Eating Habits of Spiders_ - - -Spiders digest most of their food before eating. They must subsist on a -liquid diet. A powerful digestive fluid from the stomach is discharged -on the prey. This completely liquifies the soft tissues. So potent is -this fluid that spiders sometimes can devour small back-boned animals, -such as fish and lizards, which they kill with their poison fangs. One -African species can liquify almost completely a fish two inches long -in less than three hours. Another has been observed in captivity to -dispose of small snakes in the same way. - - - - -_The Suicide Instinct of Iguanas_ - - -Some iguanas seem to have the ability to commit suicide without any -visible means. Some of these lizards, hitherto unknown to science, -captured alive and uninjured in Cuba by Dr. Paul Bartsch of the -Smithsonian Institution, died a few minutes later as if a mere wish to -end their lives were sufficient to achieve death. - -“These iguanas are vegetable feeders,” Dr. Bartsch recorded in his -field notes. “They are fairly tame and persisted in chasing the nooses -on the ends of our sticks, instead of running their heads through them -or letting us place them around their necks. When hard-pressed they -finally dash into holes that look like huge crab burrows. When near the -coast, where there is a hurricane rampart, they seek refuge in crevices -of the rocks. We were surprised when we took those we had captured from -our bag on board ship to find four of them dead. Evidently they have a -way of ending their own lives.” - -On Petite Gonave Island off the coast of Haiti are large iguanas -which—native fishermen say—can be captured safely only by getting them -drunk. Travellers are warned that they are extremely dangerous animals -when sober. The fishermen pour rum into hollows of rocks along the -shore. The big lizards appear to be very fond of this beverage and -drink themselves helpless. - - - - -_Forests That Eat Meat_ - - -Relic groves of the great meat-eating forests of 150,000,000 years ago -still thrive on the floors of deep, warm seas. - -These are made up of plant-animals—predacious trees with red blood -and hearts—the crinoids. There are about 700 extant, compared to more -than a thousand extinct, species. For a hundred million years they -were among the ocean’s dominant life forms. Fossil crinoids, or “stone -lilies,” make up great marble beds in both American and Europe. In 1934 -the Smithsonian Johnson expedition dredged nineteen species, including -two not hitherto known to science, from the bottom of the great Porto -Rico Deep. - -The crinoids are highly developed animals, although they look like -plants. They can by no means be considered as a form of life on the -dividing line of the animal and vegetable worlds. Rather they are -animals which have taken on the superficial appearance of plants. They -are very highly specialized animals—so much so that there are few -places in the world where they can survive in great numbers. - -In life they usually are brilliantly colored. Judging from those that -are found on the sea bottoms today one of the ancient meat-eating -forests must have presented a very colorful spectacle of red, green, -purple and yellow “blossoms.” - -Most of them live in deep water. There are free-moving varieties as -well as those that are fixed to the bottom with stems like plants. -Until recent years few were recovered in good condition because of the -tendency of one of these plant-animals to break itself to pieces when -agitated. When brought up from the bottom to the deck of a ship the -crinoid would proceed to break off the featherlike arms which make up -the blossoms. This was its natural defense reaction in the depths. Its -way of escape when one of its arms was seized by a fish was to break -it off. Then it could grow another quite easily. As a matter of fact, -this is the way the crinoid grows—one of the most wasteful processes of -growth in nature. It breaks off one arm and grows two instead; but it -cannot increase the number of its arms without discarding an old one. - -Another difficulty is that the gorgeous colors of the meat-eating -flowers are fast only in salt water. They fade rapidly in air, fresh -water or alcohol so that there can be only a fleeting impression of the -true coloration. - -These crinoids live, for the most part, on diatoms, small crustaceans, -and other tiny sea creatures which they first paralyze with poison from -the tentacles which line the grooves of the arms through which food is -carried to the mouth. - - - - -_Cave-Dwelling Birds_ - - -True creature of night is the guacharo, or “oil bird”, of northern -South America. It is reddish-brown, about the size of a barnyard hen. -Excessive layers of fat built up about its abdomen formerly were valued -highly by natives for eating purposes, resulting in the slaughter of -countless thousands every year. The guacharo spends its days a half -mile or more deep in the interior of mountain caves. Here it roosts -and builds its nests in crevices high in the rock walls. It leaves in -groups of twenty to thirty shortly after dusk and apparently spends the -whole night foraging for food, sometimes covering as much as 200 miles. - -Like the cave bat, it seems to have no difficulty finding its way -in absolute darkness. An explanation of this ability, acoustic -orientation, has been reported by Dr. Donald R. Griffin of Cornell -University. The birds apparently are guided by echos of specific sharp -“clicking” sounds which they make. - -“The individual click,” Dr. Griffin explains, “consists of a very few -sound waves having a frequency of about 7,000 cycles per second. The -duration of each click is about a millisecond (1,000th of a second). -The clicks were loud enough to be audible easily about 200 yards -inside the cave. Except for their lower frequency, these sounds are -very similar to those used by insectivorous bats for their acoustic -orientation. - -“The external ear canals of three captive birds were plugged with -cotton. They then became disoriented when flying in the dark. They -collided with every object they encountered. Before and immediately -after this treatment they flew about in a small dark room avoiding all -collisions with the walls.” - -Their best known habitat is the guacharo cave in Venezuela’s Humboldt -National Park, where they are rigidly protected. Most of them nest -in a vast subterranean hall more than a half mile long and a hundred -feet high. Here more than a thousand of the birds greet the intruder -instantly with a wave of awesome and deafening shrieks. - -“With the advent of dusk,” reports Dr. Eugenio de Bellard -Pietri—Venezuelan cave explorer, “the birds come out in compact groups -but before the exodus a preliminary flight is held by a few as if -to make sure that night is falling. Soon they return to the depths -of their somber mansion, evidently to give the flock the all clear -signal. Late in the evening there is not a single adult specimen left -in the cave. The flight of these birds is silent and cannot easily be -detected.” - - - - -_Where Snails Become Flowers_ - - -The lowly snail reaches an apotheosis—rivalling flowers and butterflies -as an expression of nature’s artistry—in Cuban forests. Delicate -sunrise tints of pink, blue, violet, green and yellow make the shells -of two or three genera of tree-dwelling mollusks like rare jewels. Most -conspicuous are snails of the genus Polymita, confined to the Oriente -province. Here they cover some trees so completely that the effect is -like that of a tree of flowers. Only upon close observation can one -detect that the blossoms are shells. - -The animals live for the most part on a fungus that grows on the -bark. The colors of the shells are affected by various chemical -constituents of the bark, notably tannic acid, and serve as warning -to other creatures. In taste the snails are very bitter and no bird -will intentionally attack them. The color serves notice that only a -disgusting mouthful is to be had. - -Two of the most beautiful of these shell forms were recently discovered -by Dr. Paul Bartsch, former Smithsonian curator of mollusks. Fragile, -translucent, colored as delicately as the loveliest of orchids, -these particular snails are the fairies of the mollusk world in the -unconscious artistry with which they have constructed their moving -palaces. One, a hitherto unknown species, has a remarkable combination -of pale orange, orange buff, deeper orange and flame color—all shading -delicately into each other. The color effect is such as one might find -rarely in rose petals. Another has a blending of ivory, olive green, -lemon yellow and orange. - - - - -_Termites That Eat Lead_ - - -On Barro Colorado island in the Panama Canal Zone the Smithsonian -Institution maintains an “experimental cemetery.” It consists of rows -of upright posts which look like gravestones, half buried in the soil. -The purpose is to test the propensities of the island’s 42 species of -termites—just about man’s most persistent and expensive enemy in the -tropics—to eat different kinds of wood impregnated with different kinds -of repellants and poisons. To date approximately 35,000 tests have -been made. The longer the work is continued the more Dr. James Zetek, -former director of the station, is impressed with the contrariness and -ingenuity of the blind, ant-like insects which achieve sub-human acmes -of engineering ability, and whose appetites are marvelous. - -Among Barro Colorado’s termites are some extraordinary bugs indeed. -One, for example, eats lead. It gnaws its way through the lead -sheathings on cables. This is not because it likes a lead diet. Lead, -in fact, is indigestible and the insects starve to death. But their -appetites are so insatiable that the little creatures just keep on -gnawing, in the hope that there will be wood on the other side. - -This particular insect is known by the scientific name of coptotermes -niger. It has been known to eat through a concrete floor nearly five -inches thick—again not because of any particular liking for concrete -but because of the expectation of coming eventually to digestible -wood. The feat was made possible because the sand used in making the -concrete contained many fragments of sea shells which were dissolved by -a powerful chemical excreted by the insects. - -It is very difficult to dispose of termites by poison—that is, -permanently. Races have risen here, for example, which seem to thrive -on arsenic. The insect lives on the cellulose in wood. This must be -digested by certain intestinal bacteria in the digestive tract. If -these microörganisms can be poisoned the termite starves. At first at -least 99 percent of the bacteria succumb to heavy doses of arsenic. -This means that 99 percent of the termites are killed. But always there -are a few exceptionally tough bacteria with a high resistance to the -poison. Their descendants in a few generations apparently become almost -entirely resistant. With their help a new race of termites comes into -existence. - -Ordinarily termites attack only dead or dying wood. Some of them, -however, carry fungi around with them to kill their own wood. The -Canal Zone insects can dispose of living trees. Dr. Zetek tells of one -attempt to establish an avocado plantation. He warned against it. When -the trees had reached the fruit-bearing stage and seemed healthy he -was ridiculed for his warnings. Branches were heavy with avocados and -there was promise of a record crop. He shook his head when shown the -flourishing orchard. “The poor trees,” he remarked. “They know they are -going to die. They are just making one last mighty effort to preserve -their species by producing plenty of fruit and seeds.” He secured the -orchard owner’s permission to chop down one tree. The whole inside, he -found, was riddled with termite galleries. This tree and all the others -in the orchard were dead within a year. - - - - -_The Plant That Eats Animals_ - - -There are life-and-death battles in the microscopic world between -tiny shelled animals and flesh-devouring fungi. The phenomenon can be -compared to that of a tree catching and eating big turtles. - -When a culture of diseased plant roots is made, there soon appear great -numbers of microscopic plants and animals—bacteria, fungi, amoebae, -nematodes and other life forms. Immediately the struggle for survival -starts. The animals try to eat the plants and the plants attempt to -devour the animals. - -Among the animal forms which appear are vast numbers of creatures -known as rhizopods. Practically unknown except to specialists, these -microscopic creatures play an important part in the economy of life. -They are probably the best-equipped of all the new arrivals to survive, -since their soft bodies are covered with relatively heavy shells. - -Some years ago Dr. Charles Dreschler of the U.S. Department of -Agriculture reported the existence of predaceous meat-eating -fungi—parasitic forms of plant life—which literally lassoed such -unprotected animals as amoebae and thread-like nematodes and proceeded -to devour them at leisure by the process of infiltrating their bodies. -It would appear that the armored rhizopods are completely protected -from these ferocious plants. - -But the animal has one weak spot in its defense. It must get its mouth -outside its shell in order to eat. Apparently the most inviting forage -at hand is the innocent-appearing fungus. The rhizopod proceeds to -suck at it with movements which Dr. Dreschler describes as similar to -“sucking an egg.” - -The rhizopod mouth is small. Once it has sucked in any of the -fungus its fate is sealed, for, explains Dr. Dreschler, “to such -undiscriminating voracity the fungus responds by rapidly proliferating -from the partly ingested portion a bulbous outgrowth slightly larger -than the mouth, so that the rhizopod is held securely.” - -The unfortunate shelled animal is like a fish caught on a hook. It -struggles vainly to get away. It rushes, but the fungus simply lets -out the line until the rhizopod is brought to an abrupt stop and can -be hauled in. The line is a filament connecting the body of the fungus -with the bulb in the animal’s mouth. - -Once its prey is secure, the fungus proceeds to send out growths from -the bulb through the creature’s flesh, literally eating it alive. Very -rarely, like a hooked fish, a rhizopod is able to break away. - -In the course of its life, a single one of these thread-like fungi -will capture many of the shelled animals, lining them up securely -mouth-to-mouth on both sides of itself. It absorbs their substance at -its leisure. Other predaceous fungi have definite external organs for -capturing their prey. This particular species, however, has no external -appendages and appears completely inert and innocent until it is -stimulated to action by the sucking of the rhizopod. - - - - -_The Ocean’s Sound Barrier_ - - -A densely woven carpet of life covers the floor of the world of light -under the sea—just below the level reached by the most penetrating rays -of the sun. It is a carpet of many colors and of flashing lights, the -strands of its texture rapidly moving, predaceous, warring organisms. -They probably are a mixture of lantern-carrying fish, ten-tentacled -squid with malevolent red eyes, and small, luminous, shrimp-like -creatures known as euphasids. Their nature can only be deduced by the -echoes of sound from their bodies. - -This carpet, about 300 feet thick, is the sea’s “false bottom.” It was -discovered by Navy ships making depth soundings during the war. Such -soundings depend on the time taken for echoes to be reflected to the -surface from the ocean floor. Recorded on a ship’s instruments, they -represent an extremely precise procedure perfected to the point where -a continuous record of depth can be obtained with an accuracy of a few -inches. - -But, using certain wavelengths of sound, echoes were received from -depths between 1,000 and 1,500 feet, whereas the sea itself was known -to be two or three miles deep at these places. The only plausible -explanation was that there were vast multitudes of floating or swimming -objects of some sort, constituting almost a solid surface, at the -depths from which the echoes came. The mystery was increased by the -fact that the false bottom existed only during daylight. The carpet was -laid shortly after sunrise and rolled up at twilight. The indication -was that the echo-producing objects rose to the surface at the -beginning of darkness—a clue which has given rise to much speculation -and argument. - -The carpet is under all the oceans, even the nethermost Antarctic. In -some areas it seems practically continuous over thousands of square -miles. In others it is broken up into smaller areas, like scatter rugs -on a floor. - -The false bottom is almost as much a mystery today as when it first -puzzled the Navy’s navigators. All are agreed that it must be composed -of vast hordes of animals. They are not directly observable by any -known technique. Some indication of their size and abundance, however, -can be deduced from the wave lengths of sound which they echo. There -must be, it has been calculated, from ten to twenty of these organisms -in each cubic meter of water. They echo only long sound waves. High -frequency sound passes through them like light through glass and is -bounced back from the true sea bottom. They have been a mild nuisance, -but never a peril, to modern navigators. - -Whatever the organisms may be, they evidently cannot endure any light. -At dawn they sink immediately from within about 100 feet of the surface -through the zone of moonlight-pale, green illumination which represents -sunshine’s deepest penetration of sea water. - -Chief proponents of the theory that a preponderance of them are squid -are oceanographers of the Navy’s Hydrographic Office. It is well -established that the deep sea abounds in these fantastic mollusks. -They rarely are seen at the surface. They move through the water very -rapidly by a kind of jet propulsion, gulping water in the mouth and -shooting it out explosively from the rear. They are little affected by -changes in hydrostatic pressure, as are fish with air bladders. When -the false bottom rises at sunset it comes to the surface at a rate -of forty to fifty feet a minute. No swimming fish, it is maintained, -could rise so rapidly through the decreasing pressure. It would get the -“bends”, like a human diver brought to the surface in too great a hurry. - -These squid range in length from three or four inches to more than a -foot. They are of about the right size to return some of the echoes -which have been observed. The faintly luminous euphasid shrimps also -are known to be very abundant in the depths. Presumably they provide -most of the squids' food. - -The principal investigations have been carried out by the Navy’s -Electronics Laboratory and the Scripps Institute of Oceanography of San -Diego. An outstanding difficulty hitherto has been that the echoes have -been known only from the false bottom as a whole. They have covered -a wide spectrum of sound wavelengths. A recently developed technique -is to lower a hydrophone connected with a sound-producing mechanism -into the depths in order to record echoes from individual objects at -distances of a few feet. Indications to date are that some of them are -from a foot to eighteen inches long—too large to be squid and far too -large to be shrimp. They can only, it is deduced, be deep water fish. -If a great number of fairly large fish are indicated, this false -bottom might turn out to be the richest pasture in the ocean for the -production of food for man. - -Navy divers have swum through the false bottom at night when it was -within less than 200 feet of the surface. They have observed enormous -numbers of euphasids and other small organisms—but very few fish. This, -however, is only suggestive. There is no good reason to believe the -carpet has the same texture at night as by day. It is quite likely that -the organisms disperse widely over the surface waters. - - - - -_Snakes That Act and Look Like Worms_ - - -There are snakes that look like snarls of six-inch-long pieces of -wrapping twine. These worm snakes are the world’s closest imitators -of worms. Among the most secretive of living things, they rarely come -in contact with man. When they are seen they usually are mistaken for -worms. Only zoologists can put them in their true families. These -living strings live exclusively under the earth, sometimes in tangled -snarls of scores of individuals. - -They are the smallest of snakes. Their closest relatives, however, are -the gigantic boas and pythons. Judging from their wide distribution—on -such isolated spots, for example, as Christmas Island in the Indian -Ocean—they are quite ancient reptiles whose wanderings started about -fifty million years ago. - -They are found most often in termite nests, where they eat the eggs -and possibly the larvae. Small earthworms and other soil creatures add -to their diet. The worm snakes are almost toothless. Eyes are buried -under skin, are only faint spots, and probably only can discriminate -light from darkness. The tail looks somewhat like the head—a likeness -presumably developed as a camouflage. They retain a snake’s scales, but -these are highly polished so they can be of no help in crawling. - -These Typhlopidae and Glauconidae, as the two major groups are known, -are extremely active. When they are exhumed they start at once to -burrow back and have been found as much as two feet underground. -Occasionally they may be found in mole holes or in rotten wood where -they feed on insect larvae and also, it is likely, get some warmth -from the decay process. The snout is used in burrowing. They are hard -to hold in the hand, owing to the high polish of the scales. There are -approximately 100 species scattered over the world, two coming as far -north as the Texas border. They have teeth in only one jaw—the upper -jaw for Typhlopidae, the lower for Glauconidae. - - - - -_A Porcupine of the Sea_ - - -Among the weirdest creatures of the deep is also one of the latest to -become known to science—the sea urchin (closely related to star fish) -astropyga magnifica. It is the largest sea urchin yet found in the -Atlantic. It has approximately 200 bright blue eyes arranged in double -rows. The body is covered with several hundred sharp, barbed black -spines nearly a foot long. - -That so conspicuous an animal, living in such a densely populated -region—one of the most intensively studied in the world by -biologists—should have remained undiscovered so long probably is due to -two reasons. First, if its habits are at all comparable to those of its -nearest relatives, it is strictly nocturnal and comes out to forage on -the coral sands of the shallow sea bottom only after light has ceased -to penetrate the water. During the day the creatures remain secluded, -often congregated in great numbers, in holes and caves of the sea floor -and under the coral. - -Second, it is quite similar in appearance to another smaller member -of the sea urchin race with spines as much as 18 inches long which -is greatly dreaded and is even reputed to have caused the death -of children who have fallen on it. Anybody coming upon a daytime -bed-chamber of these fantastic creatures would be likely to leave them -strictly alone. - -This particular sea urchin is especially interesting in the development -of its eyes. These appear to be true sight organs. If a hand is placed -in the water near one of the animals the long barbs immediately are -pointed in the direction of the intrusion, and as the hand moves the -barbs move. Such a creature is practically impregnable. It never, -however, takes the offensive. It cannot “throw” its barbs, but they -enter the flesh easily and cause painful local irritation. Some species -inject a virulent poison which may even kill a human being. There is no -evidence that this species is toxic. - -Astropyga magnifica, which has more the appearance of a porcupine than -of any other land animal, is a scavenger of the sea bottom. It gathers -and devours the accumulated debris that falls through the water. It -never kills its own food, so far as is known. It has five sharp teeth -in its mouth, located on its under surface, with which it can chew away -the flesh of dead animals. - -This sea porcupine has a peculiar system of locomotion in common with -most of its relatives. It has literally thousands of sucker-like feet, -which are hollow and attached to tubes within its shell. It moves -by forcing water through the tubes and into the particular “feet” -which it wishes to use. When these are out of use they are contracted -by withdrawing the water. Being a radially symmetrical animal, the -creature can move with equal ease in any direction. It has no -head—that is, the development of its nervous system and the direction -of its locomotion are not fixed in a forward direction, as is the case -with vertebrates and insects. - -Some members of the sea urchin family have hoof-like formations on the -ends of some of their spines, with which they are enabled to walk over -the sea bottom without using the suction disks. About the only enemy -of these fearsome nightmares of the deep is man. Some species are used -extensively for human food, notably among the Mediterranean coast and -in the West Indies. The developing eggs are taken from the body and -eaten either raw or cooked. Even if it should prove suitable for human -food, it is unlikely that the sea porcupine ever will be a rival in -this respect of its rival, the “sea rabbit.” It is too secluded in its -habitat. - - - - -_Worms That Are Unkillable_ - - -In nematodes life may have reached its greatest capacity for survival. -The remarkable persistence of these soil worms has been studied by C. -W. McBeth, researcher of the Shell Oil Company. One form, he reports, -has been known to survive after 25 years in a glass bottle in a -laboratory. Another, a pest of wheat kernels, apparently came back to -life after 28 years in laboratory storage. A nematode which had invaded -a rye plant, collected in Kansas in 1906, revived after 39 years of -complete dehydration in a herbarium. - -Those which live as active feeders in the soil, however, are not -particularly long-lived. Each species depends on a certain plant type -and must starve if this is not available. The recently introduced -golden nematode of potatoes, a particularly obnoxious pest, is known, -however, to survive as much as ten years in soils where no potatoes -are planted. A great mass of eggs is produced, but not laid. They are -retained in the body of the mother, who dies. Her skin remains—a bag -filled with eggs. - -This stays in the soil, apparently unharmed by changing conditions, -until potatoes are planted again. Then some mysterious influence, as -yet unexplained, causes the eggs to hatch and the whole nematode cycle -begins once more. - -Due to such a strange tenacity of life this nematode is about the -hardest of pests to control. It refuses to stay dead. Other species -likewise are specialized in one or more ways of survival under adverse -conditions. - -Because of the complexity and minuteness of the nematodes, it has -been very difficult to determine the effects of heat, cold, flooding -and drying on different species. These vary for each. One nematode -species, especially resistant to drying, has a skin consisting of nine -layers. The ability of this skin to hold moisture inside the minute -body undoubtedly is an important defense mechanism. Some species -are entirely marine, others are parasites within the bodies of other -animals. It has been found that both of these varieties possess skins -which are much more permeable to moisture. The original home of the -phylum probably was in the sea, but a moisture-proof cuticle has been -developed by those which have invaded the land. - -The whole body structure of the plant nematode is almost ideally suited -to life in the soil. The typical eel-shaped body is well-adapted for -moving in the moisture surrounding soil particles. Deviations from this -eel-form in certain stages of some species, usually in mature females, -are found only in sedentary stages. The larvae and males retain the -ancestral shapes. Another deviation is found in the so-called “ring -nematodes” which have short, plump bodies incapable of locomotion in -the typical whip-like fashion. Movement is accomplished by alternate -expansion and contraction of the body. - -A majority of nematodes spend a greater part of their lives in the -soil. A few, however, are carried from plant to plant by insects. -Although moisture is necessary if the tiny animals are to remain -active, the soil seldom becomes too dry for them except in the top two -or three inches. Their structure is well-adapted for moving up and down. - - - - -_The Remarkable Brachiopods_ - - -A part of the fantastic living world of 200,000,000 years ago has been -dissolved out of about thirty tons of yellowish-brown limestone by a -Smithsonian paleontologist. - -The rock comes from a low mountain range in southwestern Texas—the -Glass Mountains, about 250 miles east of El Paso. During the Permean -geological period, when some of the earliest known forms of animal -life appeared on land, the site of the Glass Mountains was a muddy -bottom, probably close to the shore of a warm sea. A bewildering array -of animals lived in that sea. They died and eventually were buried in -the mud. In some cases their bodies were covered with silica. In others -silica replaced the shells. When these rocks are placed in hydrochloric -acid the limestone is eaten away but the silica shells remain. Years -of skilled labor would be required to chip out of the rock what is -obtained in a few days in the acid bath. - -Most abundant animals of the ancient Texas sea were the brachiopods -or lampshells—essentially shelled worms. The broad road of life is -strewn with derelicts, stragglers and deserters. Among the most notable -among them are these obscure creatures which, in numbers and apparent -prosperity, seem to have been close to the dominant animals in the -world in the days when giant amphibians, remotely related to present -frogs and toads, and monster scorpions were establishing themselves on -dry land. - -Brachiopods were among the first animals to leave any traces on earth a -half billion years ago. Even at that time they were complex creatures, -with nerves and stomachs, which indicate a long ancestry before they -left any fossil remains. In the tepid Permian seas they reached their -climax in numbers and variety. They survive today, but only in a few -places. For all practical purposes they are now among the most obscure -animals in existence. In the whole world there are about 110 extant -species compared to nearly 500 which Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, Smithsonian -Institution curator of invertebrate paleontology, and his associates -have obtained from one small area of the Glass Mountain limestones. - -The existing brachiopod might be mistaken for a small clam. -Zoologically, it is an intermediate form between mollusks and annelid -worms, and somewhat closer to the latter than the former. Its way of -life actually is nearer to that of an oyster than to that of most -worms. It now is believed to be most closely related, through some -unknown common ancestor, to the bryozoa or lace weavers. In the past -both were classified together. The brachiopod never has become a -colonial animal. - -Its body is enclosed completely in a shell, secreted by the skin or -“mantle”, except for a muscular, stalk-like extension, the peduncle, by -which it attaches itself to the sea bottom. Inside the shell, folded -around the mouth when the animal is at rest, are two arms or tentacles -with which it can probe the water and obtain minute food particles. It -also apparently breathes through these tentacles, which have a rapid -blood circulation. - -Most numerous of the extant brachiopods is a curious animal, the -lingula, which is nearly world-wide in distribution and whose peduncle -is used for food in both Japan and the Philippine Islands. Along the -Atlantic coast it is present from Chesapeake Bay to Florida. It makes -a nearly vertical burrow in mud or sand from two to twelve inches -deep—within which it lives, attached to the bottom by the peduncle. -On this footlike appendage it can lift itself until the front part of -the shell-enclosed portion of the body is above the surface. This is -withdrawn into the burrow instantly on the slightest alarm. The animal -apparently has a quite sensitive, although very primitive, nervous -system. - -The extant brachiopods are usually small animals but in their Permian -heyday some attained a length of more than six inches. For essentially -200,000,000 years they were without much competition in the mud burrows -to which they had resorted. During this time arose clams, sea snails, -and other mollusks which were free to move about and competed with them -for the available food supply. The brachiopod was unable to meet this -vigorous competition and in a few million years the race was well on -its way towards extinction. Most species disappeared. A few, including -the Lingula, survived into the age of the great dinosaurs, and their -descendants constitute the species living today. They are now obscure -creatures and a poverty-stricken group compared to their ancestors. - -In the Permian seas they had surplus energy to expend not only in -variation of form and habit—but in shell artistry. Some of the -specimens obtained by the Smithsonian paleontologists are like -glittering gems surrounded by silvery, hair-like spines. - -These spiny brachiopods constitute about two-thirds of all the fossils -obtained from the Glass Mountain rocks. Although the most abundant they -were far from the dominant animals of the Permian sea. They always were -defenseless little creatures, dependent on their hard, spiny shells -for protection. The sea monsters of the day, creatures related to the -present chambered nautilus and some of which were nearly two feet in -diameter, unquestionably were the lords of this marine creation. But -they were free-swimming predators who had little reason for concern -with the humble mud-dwellers. Next to the brachiopods in numbers and -variety, and probably their chief competitors, were the ancient lace -weavers. Both shared forests of sponges which grew like small trees, -up to heights of four feet and four to six inches across. Clams, some -of which reached the size of giants, were beginning to claim dominion -of the offshore mud and the brachiopods were near the end of their -prosperous days. - -Like the sedentary worms, and most of the mollusks the brachiopod -starts life as a minute, free-swimming, wormlike larva, top-shaped -and extremely active. During this period the mortality of the tiny -unprotected creatures is very great, but once the mud-dwelling phase of -existence has started, the race is secure from most enemies. - - - - -_Feathers on Birds Adapt to the Seasons_ - - -There is a definite seasonal variation in the number of feathers on -most birds. It amounts to a “natural adjustment in dress to the needs -of the season”. This fact has been determined through the laborious -process of actually counting the feathers of birds of the same species -at different seasons. - -The number of feathers declines steadily from early spring until the -end of summer when the so-called “post-nuptial” moult takes place, -after which the bird gets a new coat to last it a year. The bulk of -the new feathers are acquired at the same time, but some are added -progressively as the weather gets colder. An exception to this is -found, however, among those birds which migrate south early. These -apparently get a complete new outfit for their journey, since they will -not be obliged to experience any noteworthy change of climate. - - - - -_Why the Dodo Became Extinct_ - - -Smithsonian ornithologists have “rebuilt” a dodo. The dodo was a large, -pigeon-like, flightless bird which was abundant on Mauritius and -neighboring islands in the Indian ocean during the seventeenth century. -It became a symbol—first of stupidity and later of extinction. - -In its restricted environment it apparently had known no serious -enemies prior to the coming of man. It had grown heavy, taken to a -ground existence, and lost the ability to fly. It showed no fear -of man and, because of its clumsy movements, was easy to catch and -slaughter, but its flesh was tough and tasteless, even for sailors who -had gone for months without fresh meat. Dutch navigators called it “the -nauseating fowl”. - -Dogs brought by the sailors killed great numbers of the stupid birds. -They might have survived despite their slowness and stupidity, however, -had it not been for the pigs and Ceylonese monkeys which came to -Mauritius with the first settlers. The rooting swine destroyed the -bird’s eggs and the monkeys devoured its young. It was entirely extinct -at the start of the eighteenth century. - - - - -_The Shark of the Soil_ - - -There is a protozoan, wormlike monster of the microscopic world, seen -only about forty times in two centuries, which gobbles up its fellow -one-celled creatures a hundred at a time, walks backwards and forwards -at once, and hunts in packs. - -It is fifty times the size of the most familiar of one-celled animals, -the paramecia, which constitute the dominant population (in numbers) -of the invisible creation. It moves among the paramecia like a giant, -flesh-eating dinosaur among humans. It is a cumbersome, slow-moving -mass of protoplasm. Two or three get together and completely surround -a large school of paramecia and these are divided as meals for the -captors. - -The creature was first described by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in -1775. He called it _Chaos chaos_. It consists of a single cell, but -differs from other one-celled animals in having three cell nuclei, -instead of a single one. To reproduce, it splits in three parts, each a -new animal. - -_Chaos chaos_ moves by stretching itself out into a ribbon-like form -and proceeds, by a series of tugs of war, with one end or the other -winning out. The animal supposedly is very rare and has been seen only -about once every ten years. It may be a missing link between single-and -multi-celled animals—or it may be on an entirely different evolutionary -track. - - - - -_The Sleeping Habits of Mammals_ - - -The tiny elephant shrew (its elongated nose gives it the appearance of -a miniature elephant) apparently never closes its eyes. It is a desert -animal, continually exposed to danger, and must “see” even when it is -asleep. - -Soundest sleepers are the burrowing animals, even when they take their -naps above ground. They are conditioned through innumerable generations -of safe slumber in their subterranean chambers. Sleeping pocket mice -and hamsters can be picked up without being awakened. - -Sleep habits appear to be well adjusted to the needs of each species. -Most bats, for example, sleep hanging head downward, suspended by the -nails of the hind feet. This places them in a good position for sudden -flight at any alarm. They have only to let go with their toes and -spread their wings. - -Curious sleepers are the armadillos. They tremble almost continually in -their sleep. - - - - -_The Eerie Eyes of Animals at Night_ - - -Eerie lights shine in the silent blackness of the jungle night. There -are red lights and green lights, orange lights and yellow lights. They -are reflections from the eyes of all sorts of animals. - -This weird phenomenon has been observed closely for some years by -Ernest P. Walker of the National Zoo in Washington. The shining of eyes -is a fairly well-known phenomenon but most of the observations have -been made in the wild. The owner of the eyes is usually unknown, and -it is virtually impossible to observe the animal again. Mr. Walker has -concentrated his observations on caged animals. - -He uses a reflecting headlamp, similar to a hand flashlight, worn on -the forehead and connected with a three-cell battery in his pocket or -attached to his belt. This is necessary because the rays of reflected -light must parallel closely the line of sight of the observer. - -The “shines” range in color from pale silvery through silver, -blue-green, pale gold, gold, reddish gold, brown, and amber to pink, -with a range of intensity from dull to very brilliant. The eyes of -alligators and crocodiles “give one the impression that he is looking -into a brilliantly glowing pinkish opening in a dull-surfaced bed of -coal”. Most eye shines of mammals have the appearance of coming from -highly polished metal surfaces. - -“Sometimes,” explains Mr. Walker, “it is like looking into an -incandescent globe of the color indicated. Often pronounced light -rays seem to emanate from the eyes. With some eyes, such as those of -the smaller rodents, the effect is that of looking into an illuminated -piece of amber. - -“In the case of animals that have eyes that glow, it appears that we -look into the eye through the pupil as if the reflection came from the -front surface of the retina. In those animals that give a reflection as -if from polished metal I gain no impression of looking into the eye. In -most cases the reflection is not obtainable closer than from eight to -twenty feet—a distance which prevents one from observing which surface -reflects. The reflection from alligators and crocodiles can be seen -when the observer is within a foot of the animal.” - -Most animals stare at light, or barely move their heads. There seldom -is any “startle” response when a beam is flashed upon them. There is no -shine in the eyes of higher apes and monkeys. There have been reports -of something of the sort from human eyes, but no definite proof has -been offered. There was a faint suggestion of a reflection from the -ring-tailed lemur, a close relative of the monkey family. On the other -hand, the most brilliant eye-shine of all was from two tiny members of -the lemur tribe, the slow loris and the potto. - -The majority of rodent eyes shine dully in browns, hazel or amber. -Porcupines are an exception. Their eyes are very brilliant, generally -silver and reflecting over a wide angle. Whether snakes have any true -eye reflection is questionable. Light is reflected, however, from the -surface of the scales over the eyes. - - - - -World of the Blind - - -There is a fifth realm of life—the wet, heavy, black darkness of -limestone caves whose chambers, ponds and streams harbor almost a -hundred species of worms, pseudo-worms, fish, insects and salamanders -which have become adapted to life in this cheerless world over millions -of generations. - -Nearly all are white and blind. Blind white fish chase and eat blind -white worms. Blind white spiders spin nets to trap blind, white flies. -All are sluggish creatures. Kentucky’s Mammoth Cave alone contains -approximately 50 species. Latest to be classified scientifically are -small, rather gruesome white worms of the sort one might imagine -feeding on the dead. They live in water, clinging to the bottoms of -rocks. - -Most spectacular of cave animals is the spectral Proteus, found in -limestone caves of Dalmatia, Carinthia and Carnolia in southeastern -Europe. It is a kind of salamander, related to frogs and toads. It -looks and acts like a big white worm. The creature is about a foot -long and pure white except for its gills, which are vivid red. There -are three pairs of these gills, which look like coarse feathers, just -behind the head. - -The Proteus spends its whole life in total darkness, and at an almost -constant temperature of 50 F. The body is slender and decidedly -wormlike, but there are two pairs of very feeble, inconspicuous little -legs, placed quite far apart. - -Nature has made the Proteus a true creature of darkness—perhaps more -so than any land-dwelling worm. As described by the late Dr. Austin H. -Clark, Smithsonian Institution biologist: “The Proteus is almost as -sensitive to light as a photographic plate. The light of a candle at -some distance is strong enough to make it restless. If it is kept in a -place from which light is not entirely excluded its white skin turns -cloudy with the appearance of gray patches, and if it is kept in an -ordinary lighted room it eventually turns jet-black.” - -Proteus is eyeless. It seems feeble and helpless. Yet it is well -adapted for its life in dark caves. Most of the time it lies at the -bottoms of pools, completely motionless. But, says Dr. Clark, “any -small living thing in the water attracts its immediate attention. It -advances toward it, snaps it up and eats it. It seems to be guided -mostly by the movements of its victims in the water, possibly also by -a sense of smell. In the deep caves food naturally is scarce and the -animal often must go for a considerable time without anything to eat. -In captivity individuals have lived for months with no food at all.” - -Ghostly dweller in the everlasting darkness of limestone caves in -the Ozarks is the Typhlotrition, a blind, wormlike white salamander -of the same general family as Proteus. It is a long, slender, nearly -transparent creature, which has evolved a long way towards complete -blindness. The newly hatched young have functioning eyes but these -degenerate in the adult so that it does not seem able to discriminate -light from darkness. It is barely able to stand on its thin, barely -visible legs. It lives on blind crustaceans and apparently spends most -of its life crawling through the small, underground streams which seep -through the limestone rocks of the Ozark foothills. - -A quite similar creature of the same family was discovered in 1896 in -Texas during the boring of an artesian well. A subterranean stream -was struck at a depth of about 200 feet. From it this white, wormlike -creature was shot out, together with some remarkable crab-like -animals. A single specimen of a similar animal since has been found -in Georgia. Both these organisms are more wormlike even than Proteus. -They apparently have lived for milleniums in streams flowing hundreds -of feet below the earth. Both, it has been conjectured, are larval -forms of a well-known salamander of surface waters, which have become -permanent larvae. They have lost the ability to undergo metamorphosis, -like the change of a tadpole into a frog or a caterpillar into a -butterfly. - -Most numerous of American limestone cavern animals are white, blind -grasshoppers—the cave crickets. They are small insects with antennae -about an inch long. With these they feel their way over the dank walls -upon which they swarm. Best known are three species of cave fish, -minnow-like and from two to three inches long. They have not lost their -eyes entirely, although these long since have been sightless. They -have compensated for the loss of sight by an extremely acute sense -of touch. The slightest movement of the water will send a school of -them scurrying for shelter among the rocks. The blind white worms are -supposedly their chief food. - -None of the cave animals are very aggressive. Their chief nutriment -is believed to be organic matter carried by water, which seeps into -the dank chambers from the world above, but how they make use of this -is unknown. All are quite primitive types which have remained very -conservative after their first migration from the world of light into -the world of darkness. They are old both racially and in their behavior -as individuals. Secure in the black depths, some of them are quite -likely to be the last living creatures on earth. - - - - -_The Remarkable Clam Worms_ - - -Fantastic giant of the nemertinean race is Cerebratulus lactus, -commonly known as “the clam worm” along the Atlantic Coast from Florida -to Massachusetts. It is from ten to twelve feet long, can contract to -two feet, and is an inch wide. Its favorite dwelling is a burrow six -to eight inches below the surface, usually in an old mussel bed among -broken shells and stones where it is almost impossible to sink a clam -hoe. - -Outside the burrows it is seldom seen except occasionally at high tide, -gliding among sea weeds or in the shade of rocks in tidal pools. It is -unlikely that any burrow is occupied very long, as the nemertinea is -moving about constantly through mud in search of food. The animal is -highly specialized for burrowing. Ordinarily its “head”, or front end, -is broad and rounded. By a muscular contraction, however the shape of -the head can be made pointed and is thrust forward in the mud, when its -normal contour is resumed. Then again comes the muscular contraction, -the pointed head, and another thrust forward. This occurs over and over -again. The contraction waves follow each other so quickly that the -drilling process appears constant. The proboscis does not seem to be -used in the actual drilling operation, but is kept probing for points -of least resistance and turns aside at the slightest obstacle. - -The favorite food of cerebratulus lactus is said to be another abundant -burrowing worm, the nereid, which is nearly as large in diameter, -belongs to a higher order, and has powerful biting jaws. The victim -always is swallowed tail first. Its burrow is a U-shaped tube in which -it is unable to turn around. The nemertean probes through the mud -for the tail end in such a burrow. The nereid, seized from behind, -cannot bring its fighting apparatus into use. Actually, however, it -never appears to struggle against being swallowed—a remarkable fact -since nereids fight fiercely among themselves. The reason, it has been -postulated, is that the victim’s nervous system is paralyzed by the -poisonous slime excreted by cerebratulus. When a minute drop of this -is placed on the tongue, it parches the whole mouth and the intensely -bitter taste remains a long time. The worm requires about ten minutes -to swallow a nereid, but by that time the prey is half-digested. The -flow of this mucous is quite copious. When several healthy worms are -placed in a pail, the bottom is soon filled with a hardening mass of it -from which the animals must be cut or pulled. When crawling, the worm -exudes a mucous trail, like a snail. - -A comparable Mediterranean species, Nemertes borlasi, was described by -the French naturalist Quatrefages: - -“This gigantic worm is from thirty to forty feet long, brown or violet, -and shining as varnished leather. It lurks under stones and in hollows -of rocks where it may be met with, rolled into a ball and coiled in a -thousand seemingly inextricable knots which it is incessantly loosening -and tightening by contraction of its muscles. The animal is nourished -by sucking a kind of small oyster which attaches itself to various -substances under water. When it has exhausted the food around, it -extends its long, dark-colored, riband-like body, which is terminated -by a head bearing some likeness to the head of a serpent. It pauses -gently, moves from side to side as if endeavoring to investigate the -ground, and finally succeeds in finding a stone to suit its purposes -about fifteen to twenty feet from its former retreat. It then begins to -unwind its coil and arrange itself in a new domicile. In proportion as -one knot is loosened, another forms at the opposite extremity.” - -A report of the Gatty Marine Laboratory of St. Andrews University -in Scotland tells of the species Cerebratulus angulatus, which was -mistaken for a fish. “But when the fisherman stretched out his hand -net to capture it, instantly to his astonishment it shot out to more -than a yard long. In the laboratory it swam with undulatory up-and-down -movements, as an eel swims laterally.” - -The nemertinea are a progressive race. Some have invaded the deep sea -and some the dry land. They have been obtained from depths of more than -6,000 feet. The deep-sea species have undergone peculiar adaptations -for a life of swimming slowly or floating idly at whatever depths -they have chosen for their habitat. They have lost their eyes and -their brains are quite rudimentary compared with those of their land -or shallow-water relatives. All have increased greatly the amount of -gelatinous tissue between the internal organs, so that they have a low -specific gravity. The deep-sea forms thus far collected are broad and -flat. Some have taken on the appearance of small fish with outgrowths -on the sides of the body which resemble fins, and with the rear end -flattened like a fish’s tail. Some have developed tentacles around -their mouths. - -Most of the ribbon worms of the open sea are nearly transparent. Some, -however, are among the most brilliantly colored of the nemertinea race, -with coat patterns of yellow, orange, red, and scarlet. Most of these -creatures are small, measuring only a fraction of an inch in length. -The largest is about six inches long—thus, as one biologist points out, -comparing to the smallest like an ox to a mouse. These pelagic species -are found in all the oceans. They are carried around the world by -deep-sea currents. - -About twelve species have abandoned the shore for dry land where they -lead active lives and seem to have become almost independent of water. -They cannot, however, endure being completely dried out. They do not -make their own burrows, but in periods of drought, it is believed, they -make use of earthworm burrows. Some have been found under the dead, -damp bark of tropical trees. Their chief food consists of earthworms. - - - - -_Winged Reptile_ - - -The largest flying animal the world has known was a winged reptile, -the pterodactyl, of a hundred million years ago. It had a wing spread -of more than twenty feet, supporting in the air a body which would -hardly have weighed more than thirty pounds. Its head was nearly four -feet long with a dagger-like, narrow, pointed toothless beak. It lived -around the ancient sea which once extended northwestward from the -present Gulf of Mexico through most of Kansas. Presumably it lived -entirely on fish and made long, gliding flights over the water. - -The structure of this reptile, insofar as it could be realized from -fragmentary fossil bones, was studied carefully by Dr. Samuel P. -Langley while he was at work on early models of his airplane. Did the -pterodactyl, Dr. Langley asked in a somewhat pessimistic progress -report, represent the best Nature could do in the way of flight? Could -man hope to do better than Nature? - - - - -_Vicious Fire Ants_ - - -One of the most vicious of insects is the fire ant of South America—a -small red ant whose sting burns like the point of a red hot pin pushed -into the skin. Hordes of these creatures have forced the populace -to abandon Brazilian towns. The soil of a village can be completely -undermined by the ants. The ground is thoroughly perforated by the -entrances to their subterranean galleries. - -“The houses are overrun by them,” says Edward Bates in _A Naturalist on -the Amazon_. “They dispute every fragment of food with the inhabitants -and destroy clothing for the sake of the starch. All eatables must -be suspended from rafters in baskets, with the cords well soaked in -balsam, the only known means of preventing the ants from climbing. They -seem to attack persons out of sheer malice. If we stood for a few hours -in the street, even at a distance from their nests, we were sure to be -overrun and severely punished. The moment an ant touched the flesh he -secured himself with his jaws, doubled his tail, and stung with all his -might.” - - - - -_The Architectural Genius of Birds_ - - -Birds rival ants and termites as architects. One species builds nests -as big as small human dwellings—as much as 25 feet long, 15 feet wide -and ten feet high. This is the sociable weaver bird of the desert -western areas of South Africa. Such an apartment house, woven out of -sticks and straw, may contain as many as 95 individual nests. It is the -community product of a flock of from 75 to 100 pairs. The sheer bulk -of the nesting material gathered is striking evidence of the impelling -year-round urge of the building instinct. - -This bird, says Dr. Herbert Friedmann, Curator of Birds at the -Smithsonian Institution, “is about as sociable as any bird could -possibly be. It is always found in flocks, feeds in flocks, and breeds -in the large, many-apartmented compound nests. With this extreme -socialibility and sedentary habit of life the territorial relations -of the species have been modified in a way that is quite remarkable, -perhaps unique, among birds. Instead of each pair having its own -breeding territory, each flock seems to have a definite territory whose -boundaries are seldom crossed by individuals of other flocks. - -“In an area of approximately 1,000 square miles I found only 26 nests. -The flocks ordinarily do not live in very close juxtaposition to each -other. The nests are so large, so conspicuous at great distances, and -the trees so relatively few in number that I am quite certain I found -practically every nest in the area.” - -In spite of the highly developed communal life, Dr. Friedmann notes, -there appears to have been no break-down of the family. Whether each -male has one or several mates, however, is unknown. In the construction -of the apartments there is some evidence that each family builds its -own individual nest, while the whole flock cooperates in constructing -a roof over the whole. The structures often become so heavy eventually -that they crash to the ground and all the work must be done over. - -Woodpeckers that carve “apartment houses” out of hardwood tree trunks -have been observed by Dr. Alexander Wetmore in the dark, rain-drenched -forests of the La Hotte mountains in Haiti. On one occasion he was -astonished to find a dozen pairs going in and out of nests in a single -dead tree trunk standing in an open space, the holes being from three -to ten meters from the ground and in some cases less than a meter -apart. There was no question that the woodpeckers were colonizing, -as the trunk was a veritable apartment house with the birds climbing -actively over its surface and flying back and forth to the nearby -woodland. - -In the same mountains Dr. Wetmore found another apartment builder, the -palm chit-chat. It is a gregarious species that lives in small bands, -each being made up of several pairs having a communal nest as the -center of its activities. The largest bands frequenting a single nest -do not appear to contain more than 20 birds. - -The nests are constructed of twigs about the size of a pencil and from -ten to 17 inches in length. The bird itself is only seven or eight -inches long. Yet it is able to carry these heavy “timbers” 30 or 40 -feet from the ground. One of the nests examined was about the size of -a bushel basket and evidently was occupied by only a few pairs. There -was a roughly defined central tunnel four to five inches in diameter -leading through the mass of sticks and opening to the outside at either -end. Near each end was a slight accumulation of bark that made a little -platform. - -The “apartments” opened from the tunnel on each side. There was a -central chamber, supposedly a community room, about five inches in -diameter, its floor carpeted with fine shreds of bark. Each nest was a -separate unit, with its own door to the outside. There were, however, -roughly defined passages running through the interlacing twigs at the -top of the nests that permitted the birds to creep about under cover. - -One of the most intricate of all bird nests is that of the South -African penuline titmouse, distantly related to the American -chickadees. It is made of a wool-like plant fiber, very intricately -and delicately woven. The form is that of a small bag hanging from a -thorn bush. It has one visible opening, a false one which leads nowhere -and apparently is intended entirely as camouflage. The real entrance -is skillfully hidden, its location known only to the builder. When the -mother bird enters the nest she lifts a concealed flap, slips through, -and closes it behind her. She again closes it just as carefully when -she leaves the nest. There is not the slightest indication on the -surface of the finely woven fiber of the existence of the flap. - -The Ceylon tailor bird, orthotomus sutorius, makes its nest by actually -sewing large leaves together in the shape of a horn, using its bill -as a needle. As described by the British naturalist A. G. Pinto: “The -first thing she did was to make with her sharp little beak a number of -punctures along each edge of the leaf. Having thus prepared the leaf, -she disappeared for a little and returned with a strand of cobweb. One -end of this she wound around the narrow part of the leaf that separated -one of the punctures from the edge. Having done this she carried the -loose end of the strand across the under surface of the leaf to a -puncture on the opposite side where she attached it to the leaf, and -thus drew the two edges a little way together. She then proceeded to -connect most of the other punctures with those opposite them, so that -the leaf took the form of a tunnel converging to a point. The under -surface of the leaf formed the roof and sides of the tunnel. There was -no floor to this, since the edges of the leaf did not meet below, the -gap between them being bridged by strands of cobweb. - -“When lining the nest the bird made a number of punctures in the -body of the leaf, through which she poked the lining with her beak, -the object being to keep it in situ. All this time the margins of -the leaf that formed the nest had been held together by the thinnest -strands of cobweb, and it is a mystery how they could have stood the -strain. However, before the lining was completed the bird proceeded to -strengthen them by connecting the punctures on opposite edges of the -leaf with threads of cotton. She would push one end of a thread through -a puncture. The cotton used is soft and frays easily so that the part -of it forced through a tiny aperture issues as a fluffy knob, which -looks like a knot and usually is taken as such. As a matter of fact, -the bird makes no knots. She merely forces a portion of the cotton -strand through a puncture and the silicon in the leaf catches the -strands and prevents them from slipping. Sometimes the cotton threads -are long enough to admit of their being passed to and fro, in which -case the bird uses the full length.” - -The leaves are not killed by the tailoring process and remain green. -Hence the nest is almost impossible to detect. - - - - -_The Ferocious Leech Worms_ - - -Armies of billions of ferocious worms defended and preserved a fabulous -1,000-year-old Arabian Nights kingdom for three centuries. This kingdom -was templed Kandy in the center of Ceylon, encircled by low, densely -forested mountains. It was the site of one of the most picturesque -ancient civilizations of the Orient which had degenerated into a brutal -despotism when the first European invaders, the Portuguese, came to the -island early in the sixteenth century. - -Armed with arquebuses, the white man established missions and trading -posts on the coast with little difficulty, but the forested mountains -proved impassable. The Portuguese soldiers were hard put to pitch their -camps in deep jungle bush and in bug-filled marshes. Grass and bushes -swarmed with little green worms—extremely nimble creatures about an -inch long which subsisted on the blood of warm-blooded animals. They -seemed to prefer human blood. They attacked the soldiers night and day. -Clothes were no protection. The worms dropped in streams of blood from -eyelids and ears. They swarmed on all sides in ever-increasing numbers -as the invading forces penetrated further into the jungle. With no -defense against this unanticipated enemy, the Europeans were forced to -retreat long before the temples of Kandy were in sight. They made no -further effort to conquer the ancient kingdom. - -The Dutchmen who followed the Portuguese were content to remain in -their barricaded coastal trading posts. A century later came the -British East India Company with a small army of Sepoys commanded -by British officers. The ruler of Kandy, quite secure within his -green-worm defenses, was Raja Sinha, one of the cruelest of Oriental -despots. He spurned all overtures at negotiation with officers of the -trading company. - -Once again his kingdom was invaded. During the march into the mountains -the Sepoy soldiers suffered so badly from the attacks of the worms that -some died and many others deserted. The force was so badly depleted -that further advance became impossible. Only when British regulars -took over the invasion years later was an armed force of white men -able to reach Kandy. Previously only individuals, chiefly Portuguese -Franciscans, had been able to cross the terrible green-worm barrier. - -Sir Emerson Tennent, British historian of Ceylon, describes these worms -as normally about an inch long, slender as needles, and able to stretch -their bodies to double the ordinary length. Ceylonese natives had been -able to protect themselves to some extent by smearing their bodies with -lemon juice and tobacco ashes. - -“On descrying the prey,” says Tennent, “they advance rapidly by -semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the other -forward until by successive advances they can lay hold of the -traveller’s foot, when they disengage from the ground and ascend his -dress in search of an aperture. The wound they make is so skillfully -punctured that the first intimation is the trickling of blood or the -chill feeling of the worm as it begins to land heavily on the skin.” - -These worms, hirudinae or leeches, are remotely related to earthworms -with a quite similar internal structure, but highly specialized for -an exclusive diet of warm blood which they take from any mammal that -comes within reach. The blood-sucking species—not all species are this -type—have triangular mouths with extremely sharp chitinous [of the -same material as the shells of insects] teeth. The bite, so rapidly -and skillfully administered that it seldom is felt, has been described -as resembling the movement of a circular saw. Haemadipoa, the Ceylon -species, described by Tennent, reportedly has five pairs of keen -eyes and as many as 100 body segments. All the blood eaters have two -suckers, one on the front and one on the rear of the body, by means of -which they cling to their victims. All have the ability to contract the -body to a plump, pear-like form and extend it to a wormlike form. - -The green worms are as much of a terror as ever to travelers in Asian -jungles. A species akin to that of the Kandy defense armies guards the -thickly forested approaches to the Himalayas in Nepal It is described -by Dr. George Moore, chief of the United Nations medical mission to -Nepal: - -“These leeches, little segmented worms about two inches long, were -particularly provoking and troublesome until our team reached an -altitude of 14,000 feet. Along the trails, on each ledge leading to -the pass, leeches would lie in the shade and moisture until nearby -footsteps vibrated their sense organs. Then they would inch from rock -to rock at incredible speed, traveling their entire length toward the -sound in about a second and then stopping to perch on the rock with -their front ends sticking in the air. Immediately they touched a human -body they would fasten themselves to it and search for warm skin. -Often they would drop from trees. They could penetrate eyelets of -shoes and pores of socks by lengthening the entire body. Huge clots of -blood would be found on the skin where the greedy worms had fattened -themselves to a fragile bursting point.” - -The leech encountered by Dr. Moore’s mission long has been notorious as -one of the most vicious animals on earth. It has made some areas of the -Himalayan foothills uninhabitable. Travelers and hunters are terrified -by it. It exists in incalculable numbers and attacks at least all -warm-blooded animals. Horses are driven wild. Cattle and dogs sometimes -are blinded and the young and sick killed. It has been known to attack -the deadly cobra, striking at the eyes and blinding the reptiles. -The respect in which it is held in indicated by its zoological name -montivindictus, or “defender of the mountains.” - -Its stronghold is the highly humid zone at the foot of the Himalayas -between altitudes of 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Its period of activity -occurs during the rainy season, when it can move freely without danger -of drying out. At other times it seldom is seen except at night when -grass and bushes are wet with dew. - -The worm lurks at the bases of plants. It is stirred to action by -the slightest movement of stems or vibration caused by footfalls. An -inherent impulse, or geotropism, then impels it to climb any plant or -vertical object with which it happens to be in contact. At the top it -extends its body horizontally and probes the surroundings. - -Once a victim is found, the hungry worm seeks a thin patch of skin -richly supplied with blood capillaries. There it attaches itself by -means of the cup-like sucker at the front end of its body. Immediately -behind this cup are three radiating ridges, or jaws, each provided -with about 70 sharp teeth. With these three rows of teeth it cuts -three duplicate slits on the skin, meeting at a common center. From -the star-shaped wound the warm blood is sucked. Meanwhile from its own -glands the leech secretes hirudin, a substance which prevents blood -coagulation, and also some as yet unknown substance which preserves -blood. The blood is pumped into a storage tank in the leech’s stomach. -At a single feeding the animal can store up as much as three-fold its -own weight. Then it can live as long as three months without another -meal. - - - - -_The Complex Spider’s Web_ - - -A single strand of a spider’s web may consist of several thousand -separate filaments. On the creature’s abdomen are four to six teat-like -organs. Each secretes through several hundred extremely minute tubes a -viscous fluid which hardens immediately when exposed to air. The spider -attaches its abdomen to some solid object and pulls out the threads by -moving its body forward. The hind feet are used to bring the hundreds -of filaments into a single thread. - - - - -_Monsters of the Deep: The Great Squids_ - - -Giants of the mollusk family and about the most loathsomely fantastic -creatures on earth are the great squids. One may weigh as much as half -a ton. The largest known specimen, a replica of which is among the -Smithsonian Institution exhibits, was 55 feet long. It had ten arms, -two of them approximately 35 feet long and two-and-a-half inches in -diameter. Its eye measured seven by nine inches. Many strange sea -serpent stories have been told by persons who merely saw a writhing arm -of one of these creatures on the surface. In recent years, however, -there has been no reliable report of an encounter with such an animal -and it may be close to extinction. Normally it is a denizen of profound -depths and darkness and presumably shuns light. It is associated -chiefly with the North Atlantic, especially around Newfoundland. - -There are not more than a dozen entirely authenticated accounts of -seeing the monster. Just after the middle of the last century, Rev. -Mr. Harvey of St. Johns, Newfoundland, began to gather “sea devil” -reports from fishermen and these constitute a substantial portion of -the literature on the subject. He reported that in 1874 two St. Johns -fishermen in an open boat observed an object floating in the water -which they thought to be wreckage: “When they approached it reared its -parrot-like beak, big as a six-gallon keg with which it struck the -bottom of the boat violently. It then shot out from around its head two -huge, livid arms and began to entwine them around the boat. One of the -men seized an axe and cut off both arms as they lay over the gunwale, -whereupon the creature moved off and ejected an immense quantity of -inky fluid which darkened the water for two or three hundred yards. - -“Early in the morning of November 21, 1877,” Harvey informed Prof. -Addison E. Verrill of Yale, “a big squid was seen on the beach at -Trinity Bay, still alive and struggling desperately to escape. It -had been carried in by the tide and a high inshore wind. In its -struggles to get off it ploughed a trench or furrow 30 feet long and -of considerable depth by the stream of water which it ejected with -great force from its syphon. When the tide receded it died. The body -was eleven feet long, with tentacle arms 33 feet long. The shorter arms -were about eleven feet long.” - -“In 1878,” Harvey reported, “Stephen Sherring, a fisherman residing -in Thimble Tickle, was out in a boat with two other men. Not far from -shore they observed some bulky object and supposing it might be part of -a wreck they moved towards it. To their horror they found themselves -close to a huge fish with large, glassy eyes, which was making -desperate efforts to escape and churning the water into foam by the -motions of its immense arms and tail. It was aground and the tide was -ebbing. - -“Finding the monster partially disabled, the fishermen plucked up -courage and ventured near enough to throw the grapnel of their boat, -the sharp flukes of which, having sharp points, sunk into the soft -body. To the grapnel they had attached a long rope which they carried -ashore and tied to a tree to prevent the fish going out with the tide. -His struggles were terrific as he flung his ten arms about in dying -agony. Ever and anon the long tentacles darted out like great tongues -from the central mass. At length it became exhausted and when the water -receded it expired. The body measured twenty feet from the beak to the -extremity of the tail. The fishermen, knowing no better, proceeded to -convert it to dog meat.” - -At about the same time H. T. Bennett of English Harbor, Newfoundland, -wrote a newspaper account quoted by Prof. Verrill: “A giant cephalopod -was run ashore at Coomb’s Cove whose body measured ten feet in length -and was as big around as a hogshead. One arm 42 feet long and about -the size of a man’s wrist. The other arms were only six feet long but -nine inches in diameter and very stout and strong. The skin and flesh -were 2.25 inches thick and reddish inside as well as out. The suction -cups were all clustered together near the extremity of the long arm and -each cup was surrounded by a serrated edge, almost like the teeth of a -handsaw. I presume it made use of this arm for a cable and the cups for -anchors when it wanted to come to as well as to secure its prey. This -individual, finding a heavy sea was driving it ashore tail first seized -hold of a rock and moored itself quite safely until the men pulled it -ashore. It was probably a female.” - -The monstrous ten-tentacled mollusk fights terrible battles with -whales and sometimes large parts of tentacles are spewed by leviathan -in its death agonies. So far as known only one such battle ever has -been witnessed and described. The British author Frank T. Bullen in -the _Cruise of the Cachelot_ tells of seeing in the South Indian ocean -“a very large sperm whale locked in deadly conflict with a cuttlefish -almost as large as himself whose interminable tentacles seemed to -enlace the whole of his body. The head of the whale seemed a perfect -network of writhing arms. It appeared as if the whale had the tail -part of the mollusk in his jaws and in a businesslike, methodical way -was sawing through it. By the side of the black, columnar head of the -whale appeared the head of the great squid, as awful a sight as one -could well imagine in a feverish dream. I established it to be as large -at least as one of our pipes which contained 350 gallons. The eyes -were very remarkable from their size and blackness contrasted with the -livid whiteness of the head. They were at least a foot in diameter. All -around the combatants were numerous sharks, like jackals round a lion, -apparently assisting in the destruction of the huge cephalopod. - -“The occasions when these big cuttlefish appear on the surface must be -very rare. From their construction they appear fitted only to grope -among rocks at the bottom of the ocean. Their normal position is head -downward, with tentacles spread like ribs of an umbrella. The two long -ones, like the antennae of an insect, rove unceasingly around seeking -prey. In the center of the network of living traps is a chasm-like -mouth with an enormous parrot-like beak.” - -“Insatiable nightmares of the sea,” the French philosopher Michelet -called the creatures. Nothing is known, of course, of their numbers -or of their ways of life in the dark depths. The few seen or captured -probably have been sick or badly injured. It has been estimated that -one female may lay as many 40,000 eggs in a season, but the mortality -of eggs and young must be enormous. It is doubtful if one in a million -ever becomes a mature animal. - -A scarcely less fantastic animal, but more familiar and far less -fearsome, is the eight-tentacled octopus. Some of the largest are found -off the coast of Alaska. The largest known had arms 16 feet long and a -radial spread of 28 feet, but the central body itself was not more than -six inches wide and a foot long. - -Most familiar of the race is the Mediterranean octopus; its tentacles -often are sold for food in Sicilian markets. The largest known was -nine feet long and weighed about 50 pounds. This animal reportedly was -captured by a fisherman with his bare hands. One specimen found dead on -a beach near Nassau had tentacles five feet long and weighed more than -200 pounds. - -It is a rather sluggish, timid animal which seeks shelter in holes and -crevasses among offshore rocks. It feeds mainly on clams and oysters. -When frightened it surrounds itself with a cloud of ink-like fluid. -There is no reliable reason to believe it ever attacks man. - - - - -_The Vanishing Whippoorwill_ - - -Probably not one person in a thousand has ever seen a whippoorwill. -Its melancholy song is one of the most familiar chords in the symphony -of the summer evening but to the majority of listeners it is only a -disembodied voice in the dark. The singer has come about as near to -achieving invisibility as any living creature. - -The whippoorwill is a migrant bird, spending its winters in Florida and -its summers from March to October in the north. It travels entirely -at night, sometimes in large flocks. It builds no nest but lays its -flecked eggs on the ground depending on the flickering shadows of the -woodland over the background of dried leaves to conceal them. - -The bird is masterfully camouflaged by nature and usually selects a -spot for its eggs where the woodland floor is free of underbrush and -the trees are spaced far enough apart to cast an uneven shade. The male -presumably sleeps all day while the female sits on the eggs or broods -the newly hatched young, but at night he stands guard, may take his -turn on the nest, and hunts insects for his mate. - -The chick, almost exactly the color of the dead leaves among which it -lies, remains essentially invisible. Nests are found only by accident. - -Whippoorwills live almost exclusively on night-flying insects, -especially moths and mosquitoes. They have been recorded, however, as -sometimes hunting for worms, beetles and ants under bark, or on the -ground. - -The bird makes no particular effort to conceal itself from humans. -Apparently it does not regard them as dangerous. There are cases where -it actually has lit on the head of a man standing motionless in the -dark. The female has been observed to fly about carrying her young -between her thighs. She also, it has been reported, sometimes carries -them in her bill, but there is no satisfactory evidence of this. - -The whippoorwill is fond of taking dust baths. Sometimes one is caught -by the lights of an approaching auto as it dusts itself in the middle -of a country road. - -The bird is remarkable for the regularity of its song and for the -number of times the melancholy refrain is repeated without a pause. -From 150 to 200 is not unusual. The naturalist John Burroughs claimed -once to have counted 1058 such repetitions. The song is continuous from -dusk until about 9:30 and from about 2 until dawn. It is heard rarely -in the intervening hours. - -The whippoorwill, it is pointed out in a Smithsonian report, has come -to depend almost exclusively on darkness for its protection. For this -reason it has suffered little, as have many other birds, with the -cutting away of the forests and the advances of cities. Its enemies in -the dark are some hawks, owls and foxes, but has exceptional powers of -flight which often enable it to escape even when discovered. - -The birds linger in the north only until the first killing frosts which -destroy or drive into shelter the insects on which they feed. Then they -start their night migrations southward which sometimes carry them as -far as Central America. - - - - -_Ants Can Smell Almost Anything_ - - -The sense of smell is remarkably acute in all ants—at least equalling -that of dogs. - -The outstanding ant odor is that of formic acid, which is somewhat like -that of illuminating gas, exuded from the bodies of all species. But -this is only the smell of the race. It must be subject to an infinite -number of variations to most of which ants alone are sensitive. They -know their comrades, even after a long separation. Famed naturalist -Sir John Lubbock once returned some ants to their old nest after a -separation of 21 months. They were amicably received and evidently -recognized as friends. On the other hand if a strange ant is placed in -a nest of her own species she is at once attacked. - -Dr. William M. Wheeler insists that even the human nose can detect some -different species and even, in a few cases, different castes by their -odors. Thus, over and above the formic acid smell, the smell of one -species suggests ether, of another lemon-geranium, and of still another -rotten coconuts. - -At least one species of ant has three distinct odors: 1. A scent -deposited by the feet, forming an individual trail by which she -retraces her own steps. 2. An inherent odor of the whole body which is -identical for all of the same lineage and a means of recognizing blood -relatives. 3. A nest odor, consisting of the commingled odors of all -members of the colony, used to distinguish their nest from the nests of -aliens. - -Evidently the odor of ants changes with age. It has been pointed out -that “a cause of feud between ants of the same species living in -different communities is a difference of odor arising out of difference -of age in the queen whose progeny constitute the communities.” Ants -apparently not only differentiate the innate odors peculiar to the -species, sex, caste and individual, but also the incurred odor of the -nest and environment. As worker ants advance in age their progressive -odor intensifies or changes to such a degree that they may be said to -attain a new odor every two or three months. - - - - -_Fish That Fish For Fish_ - - -There are fish that fish for fish with worms. That is, they use -wormlike appendages of their own bodies, developed through millenia -of evolution, to catch worm-eating fellow fishes. This curious quirk -of fishing fish is revealed in a bulletin of the International -Oceanographic Foundation. - -The practice is confined to the pediculati, known as angler fishes. -The best known of them lies on the bottom partially concealed in sand -or mud. One of the spines of its dorsal fin is extended in the form -of a jointed fishing rod. At the end there is a fleshy lump, with a -striking resemblance to one of the most tasty marine worms. The fish -lies perfectly still with its enormous mouth closed, while the wormlike -end of its rod waves to and fro. Other fishes approach the lure until -they come within striking range. Then the great mouth opens with -remarkable speed and engulfs the prey, which is prevented from escaping -by backward-directed teeth. - -Some other deep-sea anglers have luminous lures at the tip of the rod, -somewhat like a small, light-emitting fish. In the total darkness of -deep waters this is fatally attractive. Because of the huge size of the -angler’s mouth the prey may be almost as large as the fisherman. Other -deep-sea fishes dispense with the rod but have light-emitting organs on -the sides of the body. These must play some part in attracting other -sea animals. Some of these luminous fishes are able to swallow other -fishes many times their own size because of their ability to distend -their mouths and throats. - -About all the ways man has devised for catching fish have been devised -by fishes themselves long before man came on the scene. Traps—for -example. There is a fish in Florida waters known as the greater sand -eel. It lies buried in the sand, with its great mouth open. A relative, -the lesser sand eel, when frightened dives into what seems like an -opening in the sand. The result is that the greater sand eel is nearly -always found with a lesser sand eel, head down, in its stomach. - -The ways of fish are being studied with the possibility of finding -something human fishermen have not yet thought about. Thus far nothing -strikingly new has developed. There recently has been much interest, -says the report, in “electric fishing—either stunning fish or directing -them into nets by means of electric currents.” But, it is pointed out, -“the fishes themselves have long ago adopted this for their own use.” -The electric ray on each side of its flat, round body has an area in -which numerous cells are modified to produce electricity. This is -not really so amazing when we consider that electrical impulses are -generated normally in small amounts by both nerve and muscle cells. -In these particular fishes, however, the electrical impulses are -considerable and the arrangement of cells, like those of a battery, -builds up a total electric potential sufficient to stun or even kill -smaller animals in the surrounding water. - -In only one case has man been able to use fish to catch fish. This has -been by means of the remora, or sucking fish, which has the habit of -attaching itself by means of suckers to other fishes. In 1494 Columbus -witnessed the use of a captive remora for capturing turtles. It still -is used for this purpose in parts of Australia and China. - -The sucker fish has quite strong powers of adhesion. In the ordinary -course of its life it attaches itself to sharks or other large fishes -and enjoys a free ride until it comes across food. When used for -fishing, it is fastened with a line around its tail and tethered to the -canoe. The native paddles as close as possible to the intended victim -without disturbing it. The remora then is thrown into the water toward -the turtle, to which it automatically attaches itself. Once the remora -is securely fixed to the turtle, the fisherman carefully plays his -light line until the reptile is brought into the boat. This must be -done with care because of the diving habits of turtles. They are likely -to run away with lines, sucker fishes and all. - - - - -_Worms That Are Flowers_ - - -There are carnation worms and chrysanthemum worms. There are fairy -gardens of worm asters and cornflowers at the bottom of the sea. Pink, -red, purple, green, and yellow petals are tentacles of worms whose -tube-encased bodies, stems of the flowers animals, are buried in -inshore bottom ooze or mud-filled rock crevices. - -Among these worms are masons and architects that build the houses in -which they pass their lives brick by brick and pebble by pebble, with -an exquisite craftsmanship hardly rivaled among animals. The blossoms -and architecture have, so far as known, no utilitarian function. -Nature is a painter and a poet. Forever she probes with intellect, -instinct, and emotion to capture fleeting fragments of colors, lights, -and harmonies of the ineffable which can be woven into the material -garments of life. Among her notable successes are the sabellids and -serpulids and terefillids. They are tube-dwellers—thus distinguished -from their free-wandering kin—polychaetes such as the fearsome -Aphrodites. Many of them have been given the names of the golden-haired -nymphs who, mounted on sea horses, formed the retinue of Poseidon -in mythology. Loveliest of these nymphs was Amphitrite, who became -the bride of the sea god and queen of the coral-forested deep. Quite -appropriately, among the fairest of the sabellids is the amphitrite, -essentially world-wide in distribution. - -These worms are especially facile as builders. One, for example, makes -the brick with which it erects the cylindrical house that is its home -for life. Extending from its head are sixteen tentacles, eight on each -side, fringed with petal-like outgrowths. These tentacles are joined by -membranes at the base so that, when extended, they have the appearance -of two fans. When the fans are brought in contact, they form a funnel -with which the animal collects mud. At the bottom of this funnel is “a -singular organ by which the mud, mixed with a cement-like secretion of -the worm itself, is moulded into pellets. These pellets are laid, one -by one, like bricks, to form the walls of a flexible tube from twelve -to fifteen inches long and about as thick as a goose quill.” - -This particular British sea worm, Amphitrite ventilabrum, is almost as -notable for the beauty of its blossom as for its masonry. Each of the -tentacles has about a thousand of the petal-like processes and each of -these, it is claimed, is capable of some degree of independent action. -“It is no exaggeration to affirm,” wrote the eighteenth-century British -biologist Sir John Dalyell, “that the will of this lowly, defenseless -creature is fulfilled by control of at least twenty thousand living -parts.” - -The color of the petals is basically straw-yellow, dotted and banded -with brown, rouge, red, and green. “While dredging in the river Roach,” -Dalyell reported, “I have come upon banks where these worms existed -in hundreds of thousands and appear in masses of large extent growing -erect like standing fields of corn.” - -Of another British tube builder which builds tubes of cemented shells -or pebbles near the roots of large sea weeds, Rev. Richard Johnston -says: “Sabellarid angilica is a timid, lively, active creature whose -most prominent ability is that of constructing a dwelling for itself -from sand grains. It is firm, durable, and capable of great resistance. -They are not easily crushed. Some appear much more brittle. Most of the -dwellings are lined with a soft, silky substance formed of exudations -from the body. The worms have a great preference in building materials. -They always prefer sand or shells. Powdered glass is used reluctantly -and soon rejected. Some tubes are short and confined, others -considerably prolonged so as to afford safe retreats in danger. Some -architects seem to persist in prolonging the fabric as long as material -can be found. They never weary of working. Grains of sand are selected -and adopted for precise spots and gelatinous matter secures them in the -tube walls.” - -Perhaps the most notable of all the worm builders is a five-inch-long -species found in South African waters, pectinaris capensis, described -by Sir John McIntosh: “The beautiful straight tube formed by this -animal was composed of the spicules of sponges in short lengths placed -traversely and fixed by secretion so as to form a perfectly round -tunnel gently tapered from the wide to the narrow end. The spicules -appeared of the same size throughout the tube. The inner surface was -as smoothly formed as the outer. The labor involved in selecting and -fitting with such marvelous skill the sponge spicules composing so -large a tube must have been very arduous. One tube lasts the animal for -life.” - -McIntosh tells of another South African architect worm that “builds out -of grains of sand arranged in a single layer like miniature masonry and -bound together by waterproof cement.” - -There are, however, widely differing degrees of artistry among the -tube-dwelling polychaetes. Some tubes are rough, fragile, long, bent -in various directions, and united in colonies several inches to a -foot across. Sometimes tubes three to four inches long are attached -horizontally to the undersides of rocks. - -A large and singular terebellid is Amphitrite ornata—twelve to fifteen -inches long with orange-brown tentacles capable of being extended eight -to ten inches. These are kept in constant motion gathering food and -material for building. The bodies of these worms are filled with blood, -but there is no circulatory system. The blood, however, apparently -can be forced into any part of the body by muscular contractions. The -tentacles can be turned voluntarily in any direction by forcing blood -into them. - -Tube-building, flowering worms excited the wonder of Quatrefages as he -observed them along the Bay of Biscay in the nineteenth century: - -“On these coasts so violently beaten by waves we often observe small -hillocks of sand pierced by an infinite number of minute openings. -These little hillocks which look very much like thick pieces of -honeycomb are in reality populous cities in which live in modest -seclusion tubiculous annelids, the hermellas—(sabellarids) as curious -as any that fall under the notice of the naturalist. The body, -about two inches in length, is terminated in front by a bifurcated -[two-forked] head bearing a bright double golden crown of strong, -sharp silk threads. These brilliant crowns are not mere ornaments, but -are the two sides of a solid door, or rather true portcullis, which -hermetically closes the entrance to the habitation when, at the least -alarm, the worm darts with the rapidity of lightning within its house -of sand. - -“From the edges of the head of this worm issue fifty to sixty slender, -light-violet filaments which are incessantly moving about like numerous -minute serpents. They are so many arms which can be lengthened or -shortened at will and which, seizing the prey as it passes, bring it to -the hollow, funnel-shaped mouth. On the sides of the body appear little -projections from which issue bundles of sharp and cutting lances. -Finally, the back is covered with cirrhi, recurved like circles, whose -color varies from dark red to deep green.” - -Most conspicuously flowerlike among the worms are the serpulids—“little -snakes.” - -Found the world over, they furnish passable imitations of practically -all the flowers in an old-fashioned Virginia garden. Among them, for -example, are the animals of inshore South African waters, described -by Prof. McIntosh. Their wreaths of branchia “look like pinks, but in -some varieties are purple at the base, with narrow bands of bright red -and pale green. In one variety the blossoms are yellow or orange and -the body is usually greenish-yellow.” “The instant it is disturbed,” -McIntosh says, “this worm withdraws its lovely wreath into its tube and -closes the aperture with a curious plug, funnel-shaped and placed at -the end of a rather long pedicle.” - -The Rev. D. Johnston describes a British flower worm (one of the -sabellids) about an inch long, whose eight-inch-long tubes grow -together, attached at the bottom to a stone or abandoned shell. The -tube has a silk-like lining. - -“Into this tube,” says Johnston, “it can withdraw with lightning-like -rapidity when alarmed. Extending across its back is a row of -microscopic hooks, or 14,000 to 15,000 teeth. These are used to catch -the lining of the tube and draw the worm back.” - -The filaments which form its blossoms, he says, are comb-like, arranged -in two rows, one on each side of the mouth. They form a coronet. Under -low magnification each is seen as a pellucid, cartilaginous stem from -one side of which springs a double series of secondary filaments -through which red blood can be seen flowing. - -Some of the most conspicuous flower worms are found alone: the -Atlantic coast of the United States. On diving into Chesapeake Bay one -encounters tiny, colored clusters of feathers that are really gills -of annelid worms. They flick instantly out of sight as their owners -withdraw into tubes in the rock crevices. The blossoms are bright -orange, each surrounded by a white haze caused by thousands of minute -tentacles straining the water for the tiny organisms upon which they -feed. - -From New Jersey to Cape Cod is to be found a purple-blooming serpulid -with white stems of calcium carbonate three to four inches long and an -eighth of an inch in diameter. - -A widely distributed family related to the serpulids are the -fabricinae, or “feather dusters.” These animals, only a few millimeters -long, live in the upper layers of mud in tidal basins. They are so -thoroughly covered with slime and debris that they are likely to be -completely overlooked. The body is thread-like except for the crown of -tentacles, with from seventy to a hundred featherlike filaments. In -some varieties these are white, in others translucent. - - - - -_The Heavy Toll of Bird Migrations_ - - -A migration that takes a toll of millions of lives takes place every -year between North and South America. - -Dr. Alexander Wetmore of the Smithsonian has had the experience of -standing on a lonely beach on the coast of Venezuela and actually -watching North American birds arrive at the end of their gruelling -journey, exhausted and emaciated. Every day over his camp on the shore -passed familiar birds from home—sandpipers, yellowlegs, bobolinks, barn -swallows and warblers. - -“There was brought to me more definitely than ever before,” Dr. Wetmore -reported, “the tremendous loss of life that this journey entails. The -wastage of modern human battlefields, though terrific beyond words, -is nothing in comparison. On this open shore small feathered migrants -often made a landfall in a state of evident exhaustion. In the early -morning I found little groups of them feeding on the short herbage. -Some obviously had barely made a landfall after an exhausting sea -journey. In some of those that I handled the flight muscles that move -the wings were reduced to thin bands through which the angular ridges -of the breast bones protruded. It was easy to visualize the hundreds of -thousands that had wandered over the water until they fell to drown, -and the hundreds of others that arrived only to succumb to the strains -imposed by their exhausting journey.” - - - - -_Deadly Snakes That Take Life Easy_ - - -Deadliest of serpents are the Pacific sea snakes. A bite almost -certainly would be fatal to a human being. Yet native children of -the Palau Islands in the South Pacific play with these reptiles with -complete impunity. They pick them up and toss them from one to another -just as American children play “catch.” Natives of the Palaus look -upon the reptiles with complete indifference. - -The term “sea snake” is somewhat of a misnomer. Actually the creatures -spend most of their days asleep among rocks on beaches. They are -excellent tree climbers and like to sun themselves in crotches of -branches. At dusk, however, they move out to the reefs where presumably -they spend most of the night pursuing small fishes, their principal -food. They are excellent swimmers and their bodies have been somewhat -modified, with flattened, paddle-like tails, for sea life. - -Fortunately, on land at least, they are sluggish and non-aggressive. -They hardly can be induced to bite and will suffer almost any indignity -without retaliating. About the only way a person would be likely to -be bitten would be by stepping directly on the head of one of these -snakes with bare feet. This is an unlikely event, for the sea snakes do -not spend any time under shallow water where they would be a peril for -bathers. - -Some are quite beautiful, about five feet long and banded with black -and white. Their capture is easy. It is simply a matter of pinning down -the head with a stick and picking up the snake by the neck. - -Throughout the entire sea snake area in the Pacific there are only five -or six instances reported where the serpents have bitten humans. In -every case the victim has died; there is no anti-venom against the sea -snake toxin. - -Some years ago Dr. Herbert Clark, former director of the Gorgas -Memorial Laboratory, dove off a boat in Balboa harbor and swam ashore, -a distance of about 200 yards. As he neared the shore there were -alarmed cries from the deck he had left. Dr. Clark looked around. He -found he had unwittingly swum through a school of several thousand -black and white serpents, each about two feet long. None had touched -him. - - - - -_Weird Plant-Animals_ - - -Near the bottom of life’s pyramid there is a weird race of -plant-animals. They are among the closest of all many-celled living -things to the primaeval protoplasm from which all life arose. - -They are the slime molds found on decaying logs and tree stumps in -damp woods or on piles of rain-soaked dead leaves in shady gardens. -The nightmarish mycetozoa—botanists call them myxomycetes—are timeless -survivals out of living creation’s dank, warm cradle. Some of the -weirdest imaginings of malevolent life on other planets picture it in -the form of gigantic slime mold aggregations—undifferentiated masses of -naked protoplasm endowed with a malign intelligence which has evolved -without the intermediaries of nervous systems or brains. - -These organisms can be considered one of nature’s probing experiments -towards higher forms of life. The experiment was a failure, but unlike -most of nature’s discards these organisms have survived. Even now they -may be engaged in a process of evolution all their own. - -Biologists are not entirely agreed in which kingdom to place the -organisms, although they usually are classified with the plants. They -start life as spores, like the dust of molds or toadstools whose -single-celled particles serve the same reproductive function as seeds -in higher plants. From each spore arises from one to four animal-like -organisms, hardly distinguishable from the one-celled protozoan -animal, the amoeba. Each swims about freely for a time by means of -tentacle-like arms, the flagellae. - -These free-moving living particles are known as “swarm cells”. Each -is an individual with a film-like skin separating it from all other -individuals. That is, the protoplasm of each cell is enclosed within -a boundary and in the center of each is a nucleus. These one-celled -“animals” wander about freely for a few days. During this time they may -mate, as individuals. More commonly each loses its flagellae and splits -into several fragments. Each of these fragments becomes a complete -organism. These mate, with complete fusion of their bodies. The result -is a double plant or animal—depending on whether it is observed by a -botanist or zoologist—known as a zygote. The fragments are extremely -voracious little creatures devouring greedily the one-celled plants, or -bacteria, which they encounter. - -When the fusion is complete the zygote, in turn, starts to split up -into single-celled organisms but after a few divisions hundreds of -these single-celled animals coalesce into a tiny ball, like the seed -pod of a plant. In a few days thousands of these spheroids collect into -a so-called “plasmodium”. The hitherto individual pseudo-protozoans -meanwhile have lost their cell walls. The primaeval substance of -millions is mixed together into a slimy mass full of cell nuclei. This -is an aggregation of “naked protoplasm”. It is hardly to be compared -with the body of any higher plant or animal where each cell retains -something of its individuality, however closely its activities may -be coordinated with those of its fellows in the same community. The -mass proceeds to behave like a voracious animal. It moves and feeds -as a unit and apparently with a purpose. Within the naked protoplasm -there is apparently some incomprehensible sense of fellowship which -eventually evolves into consciousness and intelligence, developing -nerve and brain on the way upwards. It would be hazardous to say that -this evolution could have taken no other path. - -From the central body great numbers of thread-like filaments are sent -out to penetrate the substance of rotting wood or the surface of a dead -leaf. These threads seem to be like an army’s scouting parties, pushed -ahead to locate supplies when advancing troops are living off the -country. When a supply is found they are drawn in and the whole slimy -organism acts once more as a coordinated whole. - -The plasmodium moves forward steadily for about 50 to 60 seconds, -pauses for a few moments, and then reverses itself and creeps backward, -but never quite so far as it previously had gone ahead. Then, after -another pause, it crawls forward again. Thus there is an overall slow -advance and at the bottom of life the slime molds lay down the pattern -of progress recapitulated in human societies and civilizations as well -as in the lives of individual men and women. They merit consideration -in the philosophy of history. - -The advancing mass of raw protoplasm acts like an animal and grows -like an animal as it ingests food, with constant splitting of the cell -nuclei which it contains. There are vacuoles within the protoplasm in -which the food particles are ingested. They then are digested by means -of enzymes (body chemicals), as in higher animals. - -Such a plasmodium can be taken from its damp habitat and dried. Then -it will roll up into a ball and pass into a resting stage from which -it will revive completely in a few hours when supplied with moisture -again. The ball may keep its vitality for several years. - -Some species pass as much as a year in the active plasmodium stage, and -some a few days. At the end of this phase of its existence the mass of -raw protoplasm breaks up into fragments—sometimes as many as a hundred. -Then, as the process is described for one common species “in an hour or -two each of these fragments has risen into a pear-shaped body with a -narrow base, a dark stalk being just apparent through the translucent -white substance.” In about six hours the black, hair-like stalk has -grown to its full length and bears at its top a young “sporangium” -consisting of a globule of viscous plasma with a diameter about a fifth -the length of the stalk. This globe is about the size of a mustard -seed and ranges in color from pure white through golden-yellow, light -crimson, violet, purple and black. - -A pink flush now begins to pervade the sporangium caused by the -formation of branching threads. The nuclei in the plasma still present -the same appearance as those observed in the streaming plasmodium. In -about another hour these nuclei show the beginning of division. As this -process develops the plasma becomes separated in masses of two spores -capacity. An hour later the nuclei have divided and the young spores -are forming. Their color rapidly changes. In about the first twenty -hours after the first concentration of the fragments of the plasmodium -they have matured and present the appearance of minute black pins -standing in regular order on wood. The ripe fruit, or sporangium, then -dries and breaks. - -On placing the spore in water its membranous wall slips off and the -naked contents lie for several hours without apparent change in an -ellipsoid form. Constriction then takes place and the ellipsoid splits -into one to four globular bodies adhering together and exhibiting slow -amoeboid movements. Each globular body now develops a flagellum—a long, -whip-like extension, and the cluster swims away by means of these -flagellae. - -Now the whole life process is ready to be repeated. There are more than -400 species of these slime molds and they are distributed over all the -temperate and tropic zones. If only the spores and the stalked little -ball containing them are considered, the slime mold would be placed -squarely in the kingdom of plants. But when the protoplasm escapes from -the spore and starts moving about ingesting bacteria, the behavior is -that of a one-celled animal. When the cells unite to form a plasmodium -there is a close likeness to a many-celled animal. - - - - -_Weird Ways of Birds_ - - -Among the most fantastic forms of animal behavior is that of the -honey guides, African birds distantly related to the American -woodpeckers. They “guide” men, baboons and ratels to the nests of wild -honeybees—supposedly so that these nests will be broken open. - -Throughout the three centuries since the unusual behavior of the bird -was first reported by a Portuguese missionary it has been the subject -of many fantastic accounts, some of which attribute a far higher degree -of intelligence to the birds than they possibly could possess. - -A long-continued study of this behavior has been made by Dr. Herbert -Friedmann, Smithsonian curator of birds. Dr. Friedmann himself has -observed at least 23 instances of the habit and has collected much -other well authenticated data from African associates. He describes the -behavior from his own observations: - -“When the bird is ready to begin guiding it comes to a person and -starts a repetitive series of churring notes, or it stays where it is -and begins calling these notes and waits for the human to approach it -more closely. These churring notes are very similar to the sound made -by shaking a partly full, small matchbox rapidly sidewise. If the bird -comes to the person it flies 15 or 20 feet from him, calling constantly -and fanning its tail. - -“It usually perches on a fairly conspicuous branch, churring rapidly, -fanning its tail, and ruffing its wings so that at times its yellow -shoulder bands are visible. - -“As the person comes to within 15 to 50 feet the bird flies off with a -conspicuous initial downward dip, and then goes off to another tree, -not necessarily in sight of the follower, in fact more often out of -sight than not. Then it waits there, churring loudly until the follower -again nears it, when the action is repeated. This goes on until the -vicinity of the bees’ nest is reached. It waits there for the follower -to open the hive and usually until the person has departed with his -loot of honeycomb, when it comes down to the plundered bee’s nest and -begins to feed on the bits of comb left strewn about. The time during -which the bird may wait quietly may vary from a few minutes to well -over an hour and a half.” - -African natives regard the bird as an almost infallible guide to -honey. They try to attract it by grunting like a ratel or chopping on -trees to imitate the sound of opening a nest. The habit is apparently -instinctive; it presumably originated before human beings appeared, -perhaps starting with the ratel or some of its honey-eating ancestors. - -Curiously enough, the honey bird does not seem interested in the -honey, per se, or in the grubs of bees found in the nests. It has an -insatiable appetite for the wax, which it will take wherever it can be -found. The first account of the bird was of an individual which fed on -the wax candles of a church. It appears to have a peculiar ability to -digest wax presumably to extract the nutritive elements contained. - - - - -_The Fantastic Sea Horse_ - - -A fish with the head of a Lilliputian horse, the tail of a monkey, -the shell of a beetle and the pouch of a kangaroo...a creature that -reverses the ordinary course of nature in that “child bearing” is -exclusively a function of the male.... Perhaps in no other animal have -been packed so many anomalies as in the little hippocampus, popularly -known as the “sea horse”. - -These weird creatures are almost world-wide in their distribution -through ocean waters where there are growths of sea vegetation. They -have provided the models for some of the monsters of human nightmares. -Actually they are small, feeble, almost defenseless creatures. - -The head unquestionably is similar to that of a miniature horse in -general outline. The neck, however, is not a neck at all. Fishes have -no necks and hippocampus is no exception. What looks like a neck is the -upper part of its abdomen, considerably contracted. - -The body is covered with a jointed, chitinous shell, like many of the -insects. This peculiarity left early naturalists in doubt as to whether -it actually was a fish or some sort of monstrous water bug. It is, -of course, a true fish with no insect affiliations. The hard shell -makes it a feeble, inefficient swimmer. It is able, in fact, to swim -at all only because of a large air bladder so delicately adjusted to -the specific gravity of the animal that if a gas bubble the size of -a pinhead is let out by a puncture the sea horse sinks to the bottom. -There it can only crawl about clumsily until the wound is healed. - -Because it is so poor a swimmer the hippocampus must have other means -of adjustment to its salt water environment. This is afforded by a -prehensile tail which it can wrap around the stems of water plants. -This kind of a tail is found among a few mammals, notably the smaller -monkeys. So far as is known, no other fish has anything of the sort. -The animal is most frequently observed in a state of rest, its tail -wrapped around a plant and its body standing nearly erect in the water. - -Its food consists of tiny crustaceans and other sea organisms of like -size. Because of its poor powers of locomotion, it must wait for those -which come within reach of its jaws which work with lightning-like -speed, or for those which will wait accommodatingly for it to come and -get them. - -Hippocampus can move its eyes independently of each other, thus looking -backward and forward at the same time. It would be rather difficult for -a predaceous organism to take it by surprise, but on the other hand -it would have little ability to fight back or flee if attacked. Some -species, at least, have considerable ability to change color to blend -with the environment. Bright red, pink or yellow specimens when caught -fade rapidly to normal mottled gray. - -Probably the greatest anomaly of the hippocampus family is its way of -reproducing the species. The male actually “gives birth” to living -young. The process, so far as known, is unduplicated in nature. -Unfertilized eggs are laid by the female. She places them, a few at a -time, into a pouch-like organ on the underside of the male’s body. In -some fashion still unknown to biologists they are fertilized in the -transfer. Within this pouch the eggs are incubated and there the young -remain for several days after they are hatched. Then, fully equipped -to take care of themselves, they are expelled into the water. So far -as has been observed, there is no further parental interest in them. -This male pouch might be considered as filling the double function of -the womb of a placental mammal and the pouch of a marsupial like the -kangaroo. - -The sea horse also has the distinction of being one of the species of -fish that “talk”. In recent years “talking fish” have become a matter -of considerable interest to the Navy because of the confusion they -cause in the interpretation of underwater sounds. They give every -indication of talking to each other. They produce loud clicks similar -to the snapping of a finger. These also have been compared to the -clicks of a telegraph. They were especially notable when an animal -was first placed in the tank and apparently was confused by the new -environment. It would cruise back and forth across the container, -standing upright and its prehensile tail curled over its back, -emitting the characteristic sounds at intervals of from a half to three -quarters of an hour. - -When two sea horses were kept in separate jars adjacent to each other -in an experiment it appeared as if they were trying to converse. First -one would emit a series of clicks. Then the other would answer. The -sounds are produced by snapping the jaws together. In nature these -probably are mating calls. - - - - -_The Great Seal Migrations_ - - -The great annual northward migration of the seals is one of the -most remarkable phenomena of animal life. It seems to be without -organization and without leadership, yet toward the end of March each -year the hundreds of thousands of cow seals and pups scattered over -thousands of square miles of water start at about the same time in -three great groups bound for three specific places. It has been the -same for centuries, perhaps millenia. Each animal moves at about the -same rate so that all arrive within a few days of each other. They do -not move in compact masses, like birds. - -The American herd of about 1,500,000 is by far the largest of the -three. It goes straight to the Pribiloff Islands where it goes ashore -on two almost barren islands—St. Paul and St. George. The Japanese -herd, numbering about 40,000, makes for Robben Island, off northern -Japan. The Russian herd, now estimated at about 200,000, goes to a few -rocky islands of the Commander archipelago, off Kamchatka. - -The moving herds consist almost entirely of females and young. The -bulls winter further north, tend to be solitary during the winter, and -precede the cows to the summer homes. The breeding season lasts for -about two months. During this time the bull never eats or touches a -drop of water. He never leaves the land. He arrives sleek and fat from -the ocean pasture and is able to survive entirely on stored energy. -This keeps him alive, even when he fights scores of terrible battles -with younger rivals. Towards the end of summer he naturally is a -sorry-looking creature. - -One day, actuated by some common impulse, cows and calves depart. -Then the bulls, their arduous labors of race propagation over for ten -months, draw back among the rocks and spend two or three days in sound -sleep before returning to the sea to replenish themselves. - -Cows have very little reserve energy and must return to the water every -two or three days, leaving their nursing pups ashore. On her return -from one of these feeding expeditions, a cow goes straight to her own -pup among the thousands on the rocky beach. Presumably she locates it -by the odor. Few animals grow more rapidly than the seal pup. Within -a few weeks after birth it is almost as large as its mother. This is -an essential provision of nature, for it must have sufficient size -and strength to care for itself in the open sea, once the southward -migration starts. It is fully the size of the mother when it comes back -the next year. There is an old idea that seal pups must be taught to -swim. This is denied by government observers at the Pribiloff breeding -grounds. When thrown into the water for the first time they swim ashore -without difficulty. They will not, however, venture into the sea -voluntarily but must be pushed off the rocks by the mothers. - -St. George and St. Paul islands are the only two spots under the -American flag, except for certain atomic energy and military -installations, which are absolutely barred to visitors without special -government permits. These, as a rule, are given only to scientists -studying the behavior of the seals. On each island there is an Aleut -village whose inhabitants attend to the butchering of the animals -each summer. This is confined entirely to three-year-old males who -congregate by themselves. The only other killing permitted is by -Aleuts along the coast for whom sealing is the traditional means of -livelihood, but this now is so restricted that the annual toll is very -small. The sealing must be done from an open boat, use of firearms is -prohibited, and the Aleuts cannot be under contract to furnish skins. - - - - -_Monsters With Buzz Saws_ - - -“But if, retaining sense and sight, we could shrink into living atoms -and plunge under water, of what a world of wonder would we form -part. We would find this fairy kingdom peopled with the strangest -creatures—creatures that swim with their hair, have ruby eyes blazing -deep in their necks, with telescopic limbs that now are withdrawn -wholly into their bodies and now stretched out to many times their own -length. Here are some riding at anchor, moored by delicate threads spun -out from their own toes. There are others flashing in glass armor, -bristling with sharp spikes or ornamented with bosses and flowing -curves; while fastened to a green stem is an animal convulvulus that by -some invisible power draws a never-ceasing stream of victims into its -gaping cup and tears them to death with hooked jaws deep down in its -own body.”—_The Rotifera_ by C. T. Hudson and P. H. Goose, London, 1886. - -The rotifers or wheel animalcules are fantastic creatures. They were -first seen by the Dutchman Antonius van Leeuwenhoek, credited with -being the inventor of the microscope. “On the 25th of August,” he wrote -to the Royal Society of London with which group of savants patronized -by Charles the Second he was in regular correspondence, “I saw in a -leaden gutter on the front of the house for a length of five feet some -rain water had been standing which had a red color. It occurred to me -that this redness might be caused by red animalcules. I took a drop or -two of the water and looked at it under the microscope.” - -He found a confusion of “red-eyed monsters armed with teeth like those -of the balance wheel of a watch, which appear to be projecting forward -towards the head. They seem to whirl around with a very considerable -velocity, by which means a rapid current of water is brought from a -distance to the mouth of the creature who thereby is supplied with many -invisible food particles.” - -This discovery is of considerable significance in scientific history -because, more than any of his previous findings, it caused the -Amsterdam spectacle-maker to question the then widely held belief in -the spontaneous generation of living things. - -“They can,” he wrote the Royal Society in 1774, “continue many months -out of water and be dry as dust, in which condition their shape is -globular, the bigness exceeds not a grain of sand, and no signs of life -appear. Notwithstanding, being put in water, the globule turns itself -about, lengthens by slow degrees, becomes in the form of a lively -maggot, and most commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its -wheels and sweeps the water in search of food. But sometimes it may -remain a long time in the maggot form and not show its wheels at all.” - -Such tiny organisms capable of such long periods of suspended -animation, Leeuwenhoek held, could be blown by the wind for long -distances. Thus the sudden appearance of living animals in supposedly -lifeless water did not indicate they had been born or created there. - -The microscope designer had found, moreover, an hitherto unknown race, -giants of the microscopic world and among the most fantastic of all -animals—the rotifers. - -These usually invisible animals with buzz-saws on their heads—the -largest not more than a quarter-inch long and the majority less than -a twentieth—seem to have gone further beyond life’s normally accepted -frontiers than any other animals. One species lives comfortably in -hot springs where temperatures go above 120 Fahrenheit. Others can be -frozen in solid cakes of ice for weeks and show no ill effects. Sudden -changes in temperature, however, often are fatal. On tops of Antarctic -mountains projecting out of ice two miles thick, the little rotifers -are found among sparse growths of lichens, the only animal life which -approaches closely to the South Pole on land. There is no reason why -they should not thrive in the hardly less hospitable mountains of Mars. -They might have been carried there in light propelled earthdust. - -The majority are fresh-water creatures. A few live in damp moss and -a few species have obtained a foothold in the sea. Some live in -immense colonies, permanently attached to stones. Some are free-living -individualists who crawl like leeches, or swim rapidly. Some are -parasites in the cells of water plants or in the gills of fresh -water crabs. Others cling to floating plants or to water animals, -to be carried from place to place. One highly social group lives in -free-moving communities of forty or more individuals, attached to each -other by their tail ends and radiating from a common center like wheel -spokes. The usual color is reddish and most rotifers have one or more -glittering red eyes. In a few cases these eyes are inside the bodies of -transparent species. - -Despite their minuteness, these predatory giants of the world invisible -are highly developed animals. Each has a body divided, like that of a -mammal, into three major segments—head, trunk, and extremities. In some -the skin is hardened into an armor-like covering. Some have a panoply -of defensive spines and bristles. - -Inside the skin is a cavity full of watery fluid—it contains no -corpuscles like blood—in which float the more important vital organs. -In most animals there is tissue of some sort in which nerves, muscles, -and glands are imbedded. In rotifers, however, there is very little of -this connective tissue. Under a microscope one generally can see with -some clearness each individual cell. These cells can be counted, for at -the most there are only a few thousands, compared to the millions of -millions that make up the bodies of larger animals. The muscles are not -banded together, but consist of isolated strands whose job is to pull -the head inside the armored trunk when faced with any threat, and to -bend the body in various directions. - -All rotifers have two organs unique to their race. First is the “buzz -saw”. This is a crown of tentacles, quite similar in appearance under -low magnification to a circular saw, which is constantly whirling. -Its purpose is to create eddies in the water which will bring food -particles to the mouth, a funnel-shaped opening on top of the head. In -free-living species the saw may have some function as a propeller. - -Second is the mastax, or “chewing stomach”. Every rotifer has two -stomachs, one for masticating and one for digesting. The mouth opens -directly into the first. It is provided with two horny, serrated jaws -which crush toward each other and tear to bits the minute animals -and plants which are the creature’s food. The jaws are provided with -several hard parts, adapted for biting, crushing, holding, and tearing. - -In the permanently anchored rotifers the rear of the body is prolonged -into a stalk from the end of which a cement-like substance is secreted. -This permanently attaches the animal to something, usually a stone. -In some of the free-living forms the “foot” is replaced by one to -twelve “leaping spines” by means of which the owner can spring suddenly -forward several times its own length to capture an unsuspecting victim. -This is most often some floating one-celled creature of the water-drop -jungle, such as a protozoan elephant. - -The male rotifer is usually much smaller than the female—sometimes -nothing more than an appendage she carries about with her. The -fantastic worlds of all sorts of rotifers are predominantly feminine -worlds. For some species, in fact, males never have been found, but -there is little doubt that they exist. - - - - -_Two-Headed Snakes Aren’t Rare_ - - -Two-headed snakes probably are quite common. About 200 cases have been -reported. Dr. Bert Cunningham of Duke University, who has studied -several living specimens, has this to report about such snakes: “The -heads play together, fight over a morsel of food even though it will -go into the same stomach through either mouth, attempt to swallow one -another, and sometimes fight fatal duels. Each head has a brain of its -own. Few grow to any size. In this case two heads are not better than -one, especially when they disagree when a second means escape or death.” - - - - -_Fantastic Sea Creatures_ - - -Coral-forested waters around the Gilbert and Mariana Islands in the -Pacific are yielding some of the most fantastic sea creatures known to -science. - -Extensive collections have been made since the war by Dr. Leonard P. -Schultz, Smithsonian curator of fishes. Notable in the collections -are snake, worm and moray eels, all bottom dwellers in tropical -waters. Snake eels are, as the name indicates, superficially almost -indistinguishable from serpents. On their tails they have hard points -which are used as drills. They burrow straight downward in the bottom -sand, tails first, until only the heads protrude above the surface. The -worm eels belong to the same general group but are much smaller and -slenderer—about the diameter of a lead pencil and reaching lengths up -to two feet. Larger worm eels have been reported. - -Both these groups consist of relatively timid, inoffensive creatures. -Far different are the moray eels, members of a closely related family. -They are as much as ten feet long, have razor-like teeth, and are -described by Dr. Schultz as about the most vicious creatures in the -sea. In disposition they probably are worse than the worst sharks and -easily can bite through a man’s hand. - -Probably the most poisonous creature in the collection is a variety of -sting ray, weighing about 200 pounds, which was speared at the bottom -of 20 feet of water. This animal, like all stingarees, has a tail armed -with long, poisonous barbs. The venom could be lethal to a man. After -it was speared, the ray remained very much alive and the problem of -bringing it to the surface was difficult. This finally was accomplished -by two of Dr. Schultz' collaborators. First one would dive, grasp the -handle of the spear, and lift the creature a few feet, always holding -it far enough away to be clear of the barbs. After the first man became -exhausted, the other would relieve him while he came up for air. Thus -the specimen finally was gotten on board through a series of relays. - -Curiosities of the collection are the cardinal fishes—brilliant red, -very active, and including some of the smallest marine fishes. A few -species attain full growth at about three-fourths of an inch. These are -the most notable of the “mouth breeders.” The female lays the eggs and -the male carries them in his mouth until they hatch. Inch-long males -sometimes carry as many as 400 eggs, nearly all of which hatch. - -Other curiosities are the pipe fishes, hard-shelled animals which look -like bits of small, segmented pipe. They range from two inches to a -foot long and are related to the more familiar sea horses of temperate -waters. They are sluggish burrowers in coral reefs. As among sea -horses, the male gives birth to the young. The eggs are deposited in -pouches on the male’s belly where they are carried until they hatch. - - - - -_The Varieties of Raven Language_ - - -While “nevermore” apparently is not in the vocabulary of the raven this -big black bird of the wilder parts of the country has a considerable -variety of sounds nearly as ominous. - -Raven “language” has been intensively studied by the noted -ornithologist, Dr. Arthur Cleveland Bent. Citing various bird -observers, he lists the following calls: - -A distinct, hollow, sepulchral laugh, haw-haw-haw-haw, which may be -heard at almost any time. - -A series of “crawks” sounded while on the wing, interspersed with a -musical note that sounds like ge-lick-ge-lee. - -A strange call like thing-thung-thung which is similar to the mellow -twang of a tuning fork. - -Another expression has a metallic, liquid-like quality similar to the -song of the red-winged blackbird, although greatly magnified in volume. - -Ravens have a large range of notes from the melancholy croaks with -which they chiefly are associated to striking imitations of other -birds, such as geese and gulls. One of these birds will talk to itself -for hours with a curious gargling sound. He becomes so absorbed in his -own conversation that it often is not difficult to steal up on him -during such a soliloquy. - -“The raven,” Dr. Bent observes, “is one of our most sagacious -birds—crafty, resourceful, adaptable, and quick to profit by -experience. Throughout most of its range it is exceeding shy and wary. -It is almost impossible to get within gunshot of one in the open. Yet -it knows full well where and when it is safe. About northern villages, -where it is appreciated as a scavenger and seldom molested, it is as -tame as any barnyard bird.” This is especially true in Greenland where -ravens infest American air bases. - -Although in the north the raven frequents the seacoast and villages, -from Pennsylvania southward it is entirely a mountain bird, usually -living above 3,000 feet. From these heights the birds sometimes descend -to the valleys, or even the islands along the coast, to forage among -the colonies of sea birds. Most of them prefer to dwell among rocks and -resort to perpendicular cliffs and to escarpments thrust above forests -on the flanks of mountains. - - - - -_Worms With Hypodermic Needles_ - - -Despite their microscopic size, nematodes (soil worms), are highly -organized animals. They have muscles, quite specialized organs for -feeding, a digestive system, a nervous system with a brain, and a -well-developed reproductive system. Sexes are clearly differentiated. -The creatures have evolved a long way from the primeval worm. - -Eggs may be deposited in the soil, or in the plant on which the -nematode feeds. In these eggs the immature forms, the larvae, develop -and eventually hatch. If appropriate plants are available, they may -begin to feed immediately. They develop through several distinct -stages. At the end of each of these cycles a moult occurs. - -Many of the forms which have been studied closely have a minimum life -cycle, from egg to egg-laying female, of several days to several weeks. -The maximum duration of life, however, may be much longer, since sexual -maturity is not reached until the nematode begins to feed on the living -plant. Up to this time it remains in the larval stage and lives on a -reserve food supply originally derived from the egg. The time this -reserve lasts depends on circumstances. In damp, warm soil the nematode -will be very active and use it up in a few weeks. In cool or dry soil -the supply lasts much longer, and can extend to many years. - -The little worm’s life is a perpetual struggle for existence. It -has many enemies in the soil—insects, fungi, and other free-living -nematodes. Certain of the soil fungi have “traps” especially designed -to catch nematodes. Some of these are shaped like loops which are -pulled tight as the worm starts to crawl through. Others are sticky -surfaces on which the victims are captured, like flies on flypaper. In -either case, the fungus grows into the body of the worm and kills it. - -Nevertheless, the nematode population is never in any great danger -of extermination. A single female root knot nematode will produce -about 300 eggs in a couple of weeks. Allowing four weeks for a -generation, and assuming half the offspring are females, this implies -a theoretically possible fifty trillion individuals at the end of the -four generations of a single summer. - -Practically all roots are attacked by some kind of nematode, but many -species appear to specialize on one type of plant and will not touch a -different variety, even if no other food is available. Plants immune -to one species may be highly susceptible to some other. A few kinds -of these worms, however, appear to eat almost anything they can find -underground. - -All the root-eaters have a feeding organ which is much like a -hypodermic needle. This is pushed into the tissue and, it is believed, -a digestive juice of some sort is injected. This liquifies and -partially digests the food. Then the nematode sucks it through the -needle into its mouth. - -The largest of the nematodes, a parasite of whales, can reach a length -of 27 feet. The smallest, a marine form, is a little more than a -three-thousandth of an inch long. - - - - -_The Fatal Black Widow Spider_ - - -The venom of the dreaded Black Widow spider is approximately fifteen -times more potent than that of the rattlesnake. The comparison has been -established by determining the amounts of rattlesnake and spider venom -necessary to kill rats of the same weight. The extreme toxicity of the -spider becomes of considerable significance since it has been reported -from every state in the Union and may be increasing in numbers on the -edges of cities. Probability of being bitten, however, is slight. The -black widow is a timid creature, except towards her natural prey. At -the first molestation of her web she retreats quickly to her central -nest and does not venture out again for hours. She makes no attempt -at defense, to say nothing of aggression. Her reputation is so bad, -however, that in some cases pickers have refused to work in vineyards -which she infested. - - - - -_Plants That are Animated_ - - -Among the curiosities often sold in American stores are so-called -“air plants”—plants that will grow on air alone without sunshine or -water. This is true, after a fashion. The “plants” actually are dried -skeletons of marine animals. They belong to the group which includes -the jellyfish, sea anemones and corals. Their skeletons have a striking -resemblance to plants. - -The species most commonly sold is sea moss or Neptune’s fern, an animal -abundant in the North Atlantic, especially in the English channel and -the Gulf of Maine. A closely related species, the “squirrel’s tail,” is -abundant in the eastern Pacific where its silvery colonies often are -washed ashore by storms. Dry beach material of these colonies is easily -collected, dyed and sold as Christmas decorations. - -“These are colonial forms consisting of thousands of individual -animals,” according to the Chicago Museum of Natural History. “Colonies -of two species of sea squirrel may be twelve inches or more long. -Those of some species may be several feet in length. Usually they are -attached to rocks or other substrata by a rootlike base, from which -spring the delicate branched stems bearing hundreds of minute polyps. - -“Most of these are hydranths (feeding polyps) that capture microscopic -organisms. The reproductive polyps are less common, usually larger, and -different in shape. The common stem is made up of external non-cellular -material, mostly yellowish or brown in color.” - - - - -_The Tomato—Cinderella of Vegetables_ - - -A remarkable chapter in the history of agriculture is the story of -the tomato which now constitutes one of this country’s major crops. -It appears to have first been used as a food by the Aztecs. It was -introduced into Spain early in the 16th century and a century later -was grown widely in England as an ornamental plant. Not until the next -century, however, did it have any standing as a food. It was known as -the “love apple” and was considered mildly poisonous. Folks ate one now -and then on “dares.” - -Then it caught on as a food in Italy and by the start of the 19th -century was being grown on a field scale. So far as known, it was -absent from the gardens of Colonial America, unless as a rare -ornamental plant. Not until the middle of the 19th century was it -reintroduced to its native western hemisphere as a food crop. For a -long time it acquired no great popularity. A few vines in the family -garden were considered enough, since there was no tomato market. - -A U. S. Department of Agriculture report calls the tomato “the prodigy -of the vegetable world.” Its present success is due in large part to -the discovery of vitamins. Although used as a food for little more than -a century it now is almost as widely distributed as wheat, a food plant -which has been cultivated for at least 5,000 years. - -Today the tomato crop covers about a half million acres in the U. S. -alone. This crop consists of more than 20,000,000 bushels of fresh -tomatoes and more than 300,000 tons of canned products. There are now -about 150 known varieties, adapted to all sorts of purposes. - - - - -_The Holiest Place on Earth_ - - -The summit of Adam’s Peak in south-central Ceylon, wrapped perpetually -in priestly robes of grey clouds, is one of the holy places of the -earth. There, through many centuries, the prayers of millions belonging -to warring creeds have worn thin the curtain between the effable and -the ineffable. It is a shrine of four of the world’s great religions. -In the rock is a depression that looks like a giant’s footprint. Hindus -believe it was made by snake-haired Siva, the destroyer. Moslems say -it is the footprint of the first man, Adam, who was exiled to this -mountaintop after he was thrown out of Paradise. Buddhists believe that -it could have been made only by the great Gautama. Nestorian Christians -maintain that it is a relic of the disciple Thomas, who brought the -gospel of Christ into the East. To this spot, braving the road through -leech-infested forests below and the perilous ascent along gale-swept -ledges, have come generation after generation of devout pilgrims -to voice a common prayer in different tongues through different -intermediaries. - -The pilgrim, standing by the footprint of Adam, looks down upon the -forest-covered hills to the eastward. Over all the land spreads the -grey shadow of the supernatural. Below him is one of the most imposing -spectacles on earth—the middle slopes scarlet with the blossoms -of dense forests of gigantic rhododendrons, the deep-blue patches -of mountain lakes, and canyons which no human has entered—their -mysterious depths hidden by wind-tossed fog. Great waterfalls roar over -vine-covered cliffs. Strange sounds arise from jungles of white-stemmed -palms. It is a wild land of ghosts and demons watched over by the holy -mountains. - -In this unearthly country native legend from ancient days has placed, -most appropriately, the death valley of the elephants. There, in a -pleasant hollow beside a lake of clear water—reached only by a narrow -pass with high walled precipices on either side—these animals make -their way from all over the island when they feel the chill drowsiness -of approaching death. It has been an interminable procession of the -doomed since time began. To the stricken old elephant, the coming of -death brings an irresistible nostalgia which draws his faltering -feet homeward to this mist-shrouded valley piled high with the white -bones of his ancestors. It is his haven of rest from the weariness and -disillusion of living. - -The belief has deep roots in the ancient folk-lore of Ceylon. It has -spread all over the East. It is embodied in the Arabian Nights. No man -ever has entered this vale of death since Sinbad the Sailor, who was -carried there in the trunk of a huge elephant after he had been knocked -senseless when the tree in which he was hiding was uprooted by a herd -of the animals. Sinbad at last found himself in this valley piled high -with bones and knew that he was in the long-sought death place of the -elephants. - -Another Ceylon elephant cemetery is concealed in a dense forest near -the ancient sacred city of Anardhupara. It is so well hidden that no -man knows its exact location, although all know that it exists. Unless -there are such cemeteries, the natives ask, what becomes of the remains -of dead elephants? - -The death of the jungle elephant remains a fantastic mystery. No very -serious efforts have been made to provide a solution. Remains of these -creatures that have died natural deaths seldom have been found, either -in Asia or Africa. Yet obviously the great beasts are mortal, subject -to various fatal ailments and to the inevitable decay of age. Evidently -when one of them feels death approaching it retires to a place of the -dead where it quietly breathes its last and adds its bones to those -of the vast multitudes of its race that have gone before it into the -unknown. - -The belief is so strong that there has been a persistent search for -these elephant Golgothas for the past century. Such a discovery, -especially in Africa, probably would mean inestimable wealth in ivory. -But, except for one or two questionable instances cited below, nobody -ever has found such a place. Natives sometimes claim to know an -approximate location from tradition, although they never have seen it. - -Zoologists naturally frown upon the idea because of its very weirdness. -They explain that the remains of very few tropical animals ever are -found and that the elephant, for all its bulk, need be considered no -great exception. Vultures, jackals, hyenas and other carrion eaters -soon would tear the flesh from the bones. Insects would bear away the -fragments they left. Jungle vegetation rapidly would cover and hide the -naked skeleton. - -Some credence is given to the native belief by Lieut. Col. Gordon -Casserly of the British army. A persistent elephant hunter during years -of service in India, he never came upon the carcass or bones of one -of these animals which had met a natural death. “The idea of a vast -death place of these modern mammoths hidden in the remote recesses of -the Himalayas,” he states, “did not seem a far-fetched one to me when -I lived in the shadow of those mighty mountains and heard at night the -great elephant troops pass by the little outpost that I commanded on -the frontier of Bhutan, as they clamber up towards the snow-clad peaks -from the forest below.” - -The British elephant hunter W. D. M. Bell once thought he had found -one of East Africa’s elephant cemeteries in the country north of Lake -Rudolph. He had followed an elephant path to a grassy plateau strewn -with skulls and other elephant bones, some partially buried. None of -the remains, however, were recent. Bell tasted the green water of a -nearby pool and found it bitter with natron. The indications were that -large numbers of elephants had been driven to this pool to drink during -a time of drought and had been poisoned by the water. - -Maj. P. H. G. Powell-Cotton tells of finding another spot strewn -with bones in the same general region which might answer the -specification for an “elephant graveyard.” “Here I was surprised,” -he reported, “to find the whole countryside scattered with remains, -the fitful sun lighting up glistening bones in every direction. In -all my journeyings through elephant country I do not think I have -ever come across before a skeleton of one of these beasts for whose -death the guides could not account. My guide called this place -‘The-place-where-the-elephants-come-to-die’ and assured me that when -the elephants fell sick they would come deliberately for long distances -to lay their bones in this spot. I had heard of these cemeteries from -Swahili traders who told me they had occasionally found more ivory -than they could carry. The place was well known to the Turkana, who -regularly visited it to carry off the tusks.” - - - - -_The Vanishing Golden Carpet_ - - -The rarest plant in North America, found only four times by botanists, -is a ground-hugging desert flower—the gold carpet. The plant appears, -on rare occasions, in California’s Death Valley. Its appearance is -that of a rosette of yellow leaves, sometimes as much as ten inches in -diameter, lying flat on the ground. From this rosette arise innumerable -tiny golden yellow blossoms, so that the whole seems like a patch of -golden carpet in the brown desert. The reason for its rare occurrence -is that its seeds can germinate only after a good rain. Such rains are -rare in its habitat. - -The plants must spring up within a few days. Ordinarily, even then, -they die with the increasing drought before blossoming—thus forming no -seeds. In order for them to produce the seeds for another generation -there must be another rain following shortly upon the first. - -The seeds become buried in the desert soil and, in the course of -evolution, have developed the capacity of suspended animation over a -number of years. In the old days, it is probable, these seeds retained -their fertility only for a single season. Now there may be several -years between rains sufficient to spur them to germination, and even -longer periods between double rains which will enable them to form -seeds. - -The strange little plant first was discovered in 1891. There were only -two specimens and search failed to reveal any more. Two years later, -however, at about the same place another single plant was reported. No -others were revealed by an intensive search through the entire area. - -In 1931 and 1932 Dr. Frederick V. Coville of the U. S. Department of -Agriculture and French Gilman, a California botanist, again made an -intensive search but could not find a single plant. They came to the -erroneous conclusion that the plant might be native to the mountains, -from which occasional seeds were washed down after heavy rains. A -few years later Mr. Gilman again took up the search and succeeded in -locating the plant in four places. He found 14 individuals altogether -and watched their growth carefully. Only three became large enough -to flower and produce seed. The others dried up and died when they -had only a few leaves and no branches. Later, however, Gilman found -many specimens of the gold carpet scattered over low hills in the -neighborhood. - -These little hills all were whitish in color. This led to the idea that -the chemical composition of the soil might have something to do with -the appearance of the plants. Analysis, however, showed there was no -basis for this assumption. - -In the distant past, the gold carpet may have been a very abundant -plant, germinating and flowering annually in a reasonably moist -climate. Probably a few individuals developed the capacity of producing -seed which would remain fertile over a lapse of years. When the climate -changed these had a decided advantage over their fellows. - -Apparently the gold carpet is a plant in the process of extinction. -The continued existence of the species depends on the dormancy of -a sufficient number of seeds to carry it over unfavorable years of -inadequate, or inappropriately timed second rains. If Death Valley -becomes drier and drier and years with suitable double rains become -more and more infrequent the vitality of the seeds in the soil -eventually will be insufficient to span the long periods when no seeds -are produced. - - - - -_Evolution of the Bird_ - - -It’s a long call from the birds with teeth that hovered over the -strange world of the dying dinosaurs 150,000,000 odd years ago to the -chorus of sweet singers whose music opens sleepy eyes on May mornings -of the present. The long and devious road can be traced from the -grotesque archaeopteryx and archaeornis—nightmare-like and long extinct -flying creatures of the dawn—to the living wren and blackbird. But -however complicated, the family tree of birds is simple compared to -that of the reptiles or the mammals, since avian evolution has been -confined within narrower lines. - -Up to the time that the monster reptiles were beginning to disappear, -it seems probable that all birds had teeth. Gradually, they disappeared -as the group advanced into the dawn age of present life forms. First -were the ancestral birds—the archaeornithes. They were essentially -winged reptiles. Following them came the toothed true birds of the New -World, known from very fragmentary fossil records. They included the -hesperornis, the hageria and the ichthyornis. Then, representing a -long advance, came creatures of the ostrich family, probably the most -primitive of living birds. They are true birds but have not reached -the typical modern pattern. At the top of the family tree, the highest -branch of bird evolution, is the great sub-order of song birds. It -includes fifty families ranging from the larks to the finches and -buntings. - - - - -_Speed Ace of the Air_ - - -The swiftest bird flight ever recorded accurately is in the -neighborhood of 175 miles an hour. Ordinary, unhurried flight averages -from twenty to forty miles an hour. - -The fastest flyer, according to official records, is the California -duck hawk whose speed was measured with a stop watch from an airplane. -Eagles apparently are much slower. - -Among the more reliable bird flight speed measurements are those of -herons, hawks, horned larks, ravens and shrikes. Rates range from 22 to -28 miles an hour. Flight in all these cases was normal and unhurried. -Other speeds reported by the Smithsonian are: crows, 31 to 45 miles an -hour; starlings, 38 to 49 miles; geese, 42 to 55 miles; ducks, 44 to 59 -miles; falcons, 40 to 48 miles. - -When frightened, most birds probably can nearly double their normal -rate, but they cannot keep it up very long. When cruising about in -search for food they fly so as not to waste their strength. This is -particularly true on the great annual migrations. - -Considering ten hours as a fair day’s flying time over land, the -measured speeds would carry crows from 310 to 450 miles between sunrise -and sunset and ducks and geese from 420 to 590 miles. Considering -that they fly in straight lines, this means that they make very good -time from point to point. It is highly probable, however, that most -migrating birds proceed in a leisurely manner and that after a flight -of a few hours they pause to feed and rest. - - - - -_The Remarkable Instincts of the Silk Worm_ - - -The silk worm’s brain has an instinct center contained in a speck of -nerve cells with a mass of less than a millionth of an ounce. This -center is a microscopic so-called “mushroom body”, found in both sides, -or hemispheres, of the brain. The discovery, with possible far-reaching -philosophical implications, came out of some of the most delicate -conceivable microsurgery in which the area was destroyed almost cell by -cell by means of an invisibly fine electric needle. - -Doctors Carol Williams and William Van der Kloot of Harvard have made -minute studies of an American silk worm, the cecropia (common along -the Atlantic coast), which spins as strong and delicate threads as the -Japanese or Italian domesticated silk worms. The cocoon is a marvel of -apparent ingenuity, made of a single thread almost a mile long. It is -made in three layers, roughly after the design of a thermos bottle. The -outer layer is a tightly woven, waterproof silk bag. Inside this is a -layer of loosely spun material which serves as an insulating layer. -The third layer, woven around the body of the worm itself, is a bag -of exceedingly fine, soft silk. Through each layer a “hatchway” is -provided directly in front of the creature’s head. These must be placed -one in front of the other with mathematical exactitude. Through them -the self imprisoned animal must escape when the time comes, and the -slightest error probably would make it a prisoner forever in a coffin -of its own creation. - -Inside the cocoon the worm remains, adequately protected from cold and -damp, for nine months. It emerges as a winged moth, whose sole function -in life apparently is to lay eggs to produce more silkworms. - -Spinning such a cocoon with its three quite different layers requires -extreme precision of movement. Nature has not allowed for any possible -variations. Yet the masterpiece obviously is not the result of any -thinking, education or practice. The little worm’s life span, for -one thing, would not allow for any training. Every movement must be -instinctive and presumably unconscious, directed by the same part of -the nervous system into whose structure the pattern has been built by -nature. - -The house building must start at precisely the right time. Until that -time, according to the Harvard physiologists, the responsible area -of the brain is held in restraint by a hormone secreted from two -tiny glands in the head. At the foreordained instant this inhibiting -secretion ceases and the mushroom body can go into action. The spinning -can be started at any time, however, by destroying the glands. - -Williams and Van der Kloot tried effects of two gasses, carbon dioxide -and carbon monoxide. Both acted as potent brain depressants, but in -quite different ways. The first eliminated the spinning behavior -entirely and permanently. The worms wandered about aimlessly, -apparently trying in vain to remember what some overwhelming internal -drive was pushing them to do. The automobile exhaust gas, carbon -monoxide, fatal to humans but without any serious lasting effects on -invertebrates because of the lack of the red cells in the blood with -which it combines in higher animals, caused them to spin a worthless -and meaningless flat layer of silk as long as the effect continued. -When this ended the worm started to spin what remained of the mile-long -thread in the customary pattern, starting from the point it normally -would have reached had it not been gassed. - -The biologists then resorted to their unbelievably delicate surgery. -They proceeded to destroy the silk worm brain a few score cells -at a time. The brain contains hundreds of thousands of cells. The -destruction had no effect on the spinning behavior until they reached -the mushroom body. When a few cells of this area were killed by -the electric current the worm no longer could spin a cocoon but -continued to wind and weave its silken thread into three flat sheets, -corresponding to the three normal capsules. The weaving continued with -the destruction of a few more cells, but only in a single sheet. When -a few more were destroyed the entire cocoon-making behavior came to an -end. - -Thus, Doctors Williams and Van der Kloot concluded, they had located a -physical unit of behavior. Within it was capsuled the whole “memory” of -the silk worm race with respect to spinning. More than a century ago -this mushroom body was discovered by the French physiologist Dujardin, -who called it the “seat of instinct.” At that time this was only a wild -speculation on his part, without any supporting facts whatsoever. - -The instinct center is found in the brains of all insects in whom -group instinctive behavior has manifestation. In the honeybee worker, -intellectual giant of the insect world, it reaches its greatest size. -In drones and queens, who do not display much behavior of any sort, the -area of the brain is quite small. - - - - -_The Strange World of the Sea_ - - -Under the tossing surface of southern seas is an inferno-like realm of -everlasting darkness, inhabited by multitudes of strange animals which -exist almost altogether by the laws of beak and fang. Some of them are -grotesque beyond the reaches of a nightmare. - -Countless generations ago their ancestors, driven by hunger and -competition, abandoned the familiar sun-lit world for the perpetual -night of the abysmal depths. Then with each family, it was a case of -survival of the fittest and variation of form and structure to fit the -environment. - -Here is the stark struggle for survival with the mask of sunlight, -green fields and flowers discarded. It is not different in kind but in -degree from the struggle that goes on continually between living things -at the surface of the ocean and on the land. Down there all must eat -flesh. There is no plant life intermediary between beast and beast. -Plants cannot grow below the light line of the sea depths. - -Out of this fierce war for existence have come creatures mostly -conspicuous for their defensive and offensive equipment. Some of the -fish seem to have become little more than enormous mouths with rows -of long, razor-like teeth with which they seize and kill. The bodies -attached to these mouths are small and slender. Such a creature is -mostly head and the head is mostly mouth. Nearly all the fish carry -light organs of some kind near the mouth with which other animals are -probably attracted within grabbing distance. - -One of the largest collections of deep sea animals was assembled a few -years ago near the Puerto Rico Deep, the deepest part of the Atlantic -Ocean, by a Smithsonian Institution expedition led by Dr. Paul Bartsch. -This collection constituted a fair representation of the sea life at -depths of about 3200 feet, nearly 2500 feet below the farthest reaches -of the sun’s rays. There were shrimps with long, sharp claws which fold -up after the fashion of an old-fashioned straight razor. Any small -creature which came within striking distance of such a razor probably -would be an immediate victim. There were strange mollusks with shells -like corkscrews and eels like darning needles with long, sharp beaks. - -Among the most fantastic was the needle-fish. It jaws are prolonged -into extraordinarily slender points, like fine needles, so that the -head is nearly as long as the rest of the body—that is, about six -inches. This fish was lured to the net by an electric light. - -A group of flat fish, or flounders, was obtained, all of which have two -eyes on one side of the head and none on the other. Instead of right -eye and left eye there is upper eye and lower eye. - -Other strange forms in the collection: - -The hunchback fish, a creature whose strangely shaped body suggests its -name. - -The lance fish with long, backward-reaching spines suggestive of lances -just behind the eyes. - -The forceps fish, one of the most aberrant of all with its greatly -extended, forceps-like jaws. There is apparently but a single genus and -species in existence. - -The family of snout fish with snouts almost as long as the rest of the -body. At the end of the snout is a mouth. - -Another strange creature taken out of the depths by this expedition was -Johnsonia eriomma—the “big eye fish.” Each of its two eyes is about a -fifth as long as the diameter of its body. A man’s eye, in the same -ratio, would be about a foot long and protrude about eight inches from -its socket. It also has two false eyes on its sides, near the tail. -They are of the same size and approximately the same pattern as the -true eyes. They probably are indistinguishable from them by other fish. -They are, however, only color spots and have no visual function. They -constitute a feature hitherto unknown in the fish world. The purpose -of the false eyes is unknown, unless they are intended to deceive -the creature’s enemies. Since it is a slow-moving fish, these color -spots probably create the illusion of fast movement which would fool a -predatory animal of the abysses. - -This fish is the second of its family ever found in the western world. -The other was discovered a half century ago the genus have been found -in Asiatic waters. - -This eye-fish was obtained from a depth of between 150 and 300 -fathoms—just about on the borderline of eternal darkness where -eyes would be of no use. Fish of the depths have evolved in two -directions—toward enormous eyes and toward greatly diminished ones. -The first represents a struggle to see in the strange dusk. The second -trend denotes giving up of a futile struggle on the part of the race. -This trend is noteworthy among fish of the greater depths. - -Another strange denizen of the depths is Peristedion bartschi, named in -honor of Dr. Bartsch. It is an armored gurnard, of the family sometimes -known as “sea robins.” The shell-growing tendency among fish is largely -confined to certain fresh-water catfish of South America. This creature -obviously is a bottom dweller. Its entire body is covered with spiny -plates which probably would make it safe from any enemy. Each plate -bears a very sharp spine, about a quarter inch long. There are nearly -a hundred of these on the body. This fish would probably be about the -most unappetizing morsel any predatory animal ever swallowed. It is -bright red. - -Still another species obtained by the expedition was one of the -“lantern-fish” group. These are small, minnow-like creatures who live -only in the open ocean. While most fish either remain near shore or -have at least an association with the bottom these are found only -in deep water far from land, and never near the sea floor. Most of -the millions of them in the sea doubtless live and die without any -realization that there is either bottom or shore. All have rows of -luminous spots along their sides which probably serve as recognition -marks. - - - - -_The Cannibal Birds of the Pacific_ - - -Hordes of big black birds, about the nearest creatures imaginable to -the harpies of Greek mythology, nest on desert-like South Pacific -Islands. These are the vulture-like frigate birds—the Polynesian “iwas” -or “thieves”—which are found by thousands in branches of the most -prominent shrubs, the eight-foot-high, white flowering scaevola bushes. -They are truly creatures of evil. - -They carry in their feathers as parasites creatures nearly as -malevolent in appearance as themselves—louse flies which look like -giant, flattened black house flies. When these are shaken off they -sometimes fly to small black automobiles which they mistake for their -hosts. - -The nests of the frigate birds are coarse, soil-cemented affairs -constructed haphazardly of twigs and driftwood. During showers, the -cement of this filthy building material dissolves away, allowing eggs -to fall to the ground. Nesting material evidently is rare and highly -prized, giving rise to theft. A bird in flight occasionally filches -a loose piece from a carelessly guarded nest. The iwa will stoop to -murder and cannibalism, flying off with an egg or newly hatched young -to eat on the wing. There usually is one egg to a nest, entirely white -and a little larger than a chicken egg. - -Both sexes take turns sitting on the egg and later brooding the growing -chicks. This is necessary not only to incubate the egg and keep the -chick warm in cool weather, but also as protection against too intense -sunshine. At the incubation time the males are resplendent with blood -red, semi-transparent throat pouches blown out like balloons. These -extend forward to the beak and downward to hide the breast. The color -is due to innumerable blood-filled capillaries in the tissues of the -pouch. - -Not far from the rookeries of the iwas are those of the stupid, -red-footed boobies, or gannets. The name booby is from the Spanish -word “bobo”, meaning “idiot”. At times the rookeries of the aggressive -marauders and the boob-victims overlap at the edges. - -The frigate birds, according to a report of the Pacific Science Board, -“escort the stupid, spoon-billed gannets out to feed on schools of -squid and small fish. When the gannets get craws full and set sail for -home to feed their young, the cruel, curve-billed iwas dive screaming -after them, seize them by the tails, and sling the food out of the -mouths of the smaller birds. This the iwas scoop up on the wing. This -goes on from dawn to dusk. The war cries of the frigates and the -plaintive screams of the fleeing gannets quiver down the trade winds -like the wailings of lost souls.” - -It is commonly reported that frigate birds, lacking webbed feet, never -land on the surface of the water because they cannot take off again. -This is not true; small flocks are frequently seen landing playfully on -the Canton island lagoon, floating, and rising again seemingly without -any effort whatsoever. - -“The birds nesting in the scaevola,” says the report, “are tame or, -depending on the point of view, too innocent or stupid to fly from -their nests when approached. The explanation for this habit is their -nesting from time immemorial in areas where no predatory animals, two -or four legged, ever have existed. (This, by the way, is a notable -characteristic of bird life in the Antarctic. The notorious skuas, with -whom even the frigates could hardly compare for blood-thirstiness, -will not even bother to move when men pass through a flock of them on -the ice.) Tame birds were not killed off but lived to reproduce their -kind. Now, unfortunately, Pacific islanders employed as laborers, -occasionally club the nesting birds at night preparatory to a feast. -Such vandalism and resulting pandemonium in the rookeries should be -stopped by legislation.” - -The ancestors of these and other kinds of sea birds have inhabited the -islands during the nesting seasons for milleniums, catching fish and -other sea life as food for themselves and their nestlings. - - - - -_Eagles as Indian Pets_ - - -The proud eagle was once kept as a “domestic animal.” Memories of this -practice have been obtained from the Shoshoni Indians of the Nevada -desert. As recently as fifty years ago individual Indians owned eagle -aeries in the mountains. These constituted about the only private -property recognized by the tribe and rights were zealously maintained. - -Expert climbers who scaled the cliffs took the young eagles from -their nests. They were subsequently reared in cages or tied to rocks. -The purpose was to harvest their feathers for arrows, decoration, or -magical rites. The birds were fed pocket gophers and young groundhogs. - -When the birds were full grown the feathers were plucked. Then the -captives were taken to the top of a cliff and released. - - - - -_The Giant Insects of the Carolines_ - - -Giant walking sticks seven to nine inches long, titan spiders that walk -on water, little black crickets that dive and swim long distances under -water are some of nature’s curiosities on mountainous, jungle-covered -Kusaie, easternmost of the Caroline Islands. - -Especially unusual are the winged-blue-and-green walking sticks with -their fantastic hand-over-hand way of walking. Among the largest of -all insects is a walking stick found on the nearby island of Truk. It -is reddish-brown and wingless with a body nine inches long. The huge -spider’s usual abode is the foliage of long grasses overhanging jungle -streams. There it lies in wait for the insects which are its usual -prey. When alarmed the big spider drops off the grass into the water -and starts running swiftly over the surface. It is provided with “water -shoes,” bristle arrangements on its feet. Probably it does not even get -its feet wet. - -The submarine crickets are little black insects about an inch long -which live on damp basalt rocks along the sides of, and in, the -streams. They are almost invisible in the dim jungle light but make -themselves known by their continuous chirping. When frightened they -make long, high dives from the rocks and swim for undetermined -distances a few inches under water, where they are invisible. - -By far the most fantastic spectacle found on Kusaie is that of the -ghostly light which marks the banks of rivers. It is due to some -species of ground-growing fungus. A Smithsonian party once was -overtaken by darkness high in the mountains where no trails could be -followed through the dank jungle. They started wading down a stream -which, they knew, eventually must lead to the lowlands and the coast. -They waded, sometimes neck deep, in a tunnel of overhanging branches -through whose thick foliage no light could penetrate. But always, -glowing on both sides of them, were the lines of luminous fungi. - - - - -_The Valley Where Dusk is Death_ - - -A belt of poison night where death strikes with the dusk extends -down the western slope of the Peruvian Andes. This death belt, first -reported by a Spanish physician in 1630, consists of a few narrow -valleys at an elevation of from 3,000 to 8,000 feet in an arid, very -desolate and sparsely inhabited country. Nearly everyone who spends -a night there is afflicted a few days later by a severe anemia which -often proves fatal. This is the “verruga” disease. The red blood cell -count drops very rapidly. It is not known whether the cells actually -are destroyed by the disease, or whether it inhibits the forming of new -ones from the bone marrow. The effect in either case is the same. The -blood loses its capacity to carry oxygen and the victim slowly smothers. - -The malady is known as Carrión’s disease. In 1885 a Peruvian medical -student named Carrión inoculated himself with it to prove its identity. -He succeeded in showing the cause, at the cost of his own life. He -had been inspired to the foolhardy act by extreme patriotism. The -Chile-Peru war was just over. Most work on the disease had been done -by Chileans. Carión desired that the credit for medical research should -come back to Peru. - -If one recovers from the anemia a second stage of the malady sets in. -The body is covered with wart-like growths, presumably due to some -alteration in the blood supply to the skin. One attack gives immunity -for life, but the death rate during the first stage is very high. - -During daylight the death belt is perfectly safe. This has long been -recognized by natives who travel through it freely between sunrise and -sunset. The only permanent inhabitants of the region are persons who -have recovered from the disease. The borders are sharply defined within -a few yards of altitude. - -For some years it has been recognized that the infection comes from -the bite of a single species of sand fly—a vicious pest smaller than -a mosquito. Protection is afforded only by special screens. Ordinary -mosquito netting is worthless. The death belt is a place of bright -sunshine nearly every day. The insects cannot endure light. They remain -secluded and it is difficult to secure specimens, even when the hiding -places are known. As soon as darkness comes they emerge in enormous -numbers. - -Harvard entomologists who investigated the death belt a few years ago -spent the hours between sunset and sunrise in a specially screened -railroad car. A few moments outside might have proved fatal. - -Due to some delicate balance of nature this sand fly seems to be -confined almost exclusively to this locality. It is credited with -causing about 7,000 deaths in the decade before the last war. - - - - -_Enigma of Evolution: the Snake_ - - -Snakes once had legs. There is evidence in their anatomy that they -are descended from four-legged land animals. This evidence is found -especially in certain bones near the base of the tail of one of the -largest of living snakes, the python, which is the most primitive of -the order and presumably nearest to the hypothetical ancestor. - -Although the snake remains an enigma of evolution, there is no doubt -that it got rid of its legs because they were a distinct hindrance to -its peculiar ways of life. - -The serpent is not very ancient, as animal types go. Evidently it first -appeared in the Cretaceous geological period, about 100,000,000 years -ago, when the great dinosaurs were the earth’s dominant animals. There -are, however, no unquestioned fossils of snakes from the dinosaur days. -The first snake-like creature known is represented by fossils from the -Eocene, or “dawn”, age in North America. This was quite lizard-like in -bone structure. It lived about sixty million years ago, when mammals -were developing on earth. Rocks in Germany, laid down about twenty -million years later, yield fossils of true snakes of the generalized -viper type. Sometime later come fossils of snake giants from Egypt. -Some of these probably were sixty feet long. But all these were real -snakes, with no traces of external limbs. The ancestor seems lost -forever because snake skeletons are brittle and delicate and do not -easily fossilize. - -Having discarded legs, serpents evolved means of locomotion suitable -to their ways of life. This has sometimes been described as “walking -on the ribs.” It requires a highly intricate coordination of ribs and -muscles and can be compared best to rowing a boat. - -“The life of a serpent,” according to Dr. Alfred Leutscher of the -British Museum of Natural History, “is a matter of adjustments for -what it has lost. It cannot masticate its food so it swallows it -whole. It can put a healthy human appetite to shame yet it can, if -forced to do so, starve for more than a year. Limbs are missing, so -it walks on its ribs, swims and grips with its tail, and climbs with -its scales. The outer skin does not grow, so from time to time it is -peeled off neatly, even to the scales over the eyes. Taste is poor, -but this is compensated for by a strong sense of smell, in which the -harmless tongue assists by catching the smell particles from the air. -It is proverbially deaf, but may receive ample warning of danger from -vibrations through solid objects, which reach its sensitive skin more -swiftly than sound can travel through air.” - - - - -_The Fastest Growth on Earth_ - - -In the beginning was vestureless life. It was the capacity for self -perpetuation and growth in nature, the property of a single complex -chemical mixture—protoplasm. - -This protoplasm may have come here from another star, a single grain of -cosmic dust blown out of the infinite. It may have been mixed by chance -in the warm seas of the earth at the beginning of time. It may have -been put together according to the design of some cosmic intelligence. -It tended to segregate into billions of trillions of infinitesimally -minute particles, each sufficient unto itself. The particles were -purposeless, voracious, irresistible and immortal. They threatened to -devour space and time and all that was in them. - -A cell culture of elemental, inchoate life stuff whose original -substance increased theoretically 10,000,000,000,000,000,000-fold -in forty weeks has been described by Dr. Phillip R. White of the -Rockefeller Institute. In his experiments he started with a pellet -about the size of a grain of mustard seed cut from a wart-like -excrescence on a tobacco plant. He watched it multiply until, -arithmetically speaking, if no part had been discarded it would have -been an unorganized, purposeless monster spheroid of life 600,000,000 -miles in diameter, comparable in size to the whole solar system inside -the orbit of Pluto. - -It had twelve weeks to complete its first year. At the same rate of -growth it then would have been a lusty infant the size of 400,000 solar -systems. In a few more weeks it could have swallowed the whole Milky -Way galaxy. By the end of its second year it would have filled all the -space in known creation, consumed the substance of all the galaxies, -and perished of starvation as it bulged outward into the emptiness of -infinity. - -Such a nightmare actually happened, in reverse. Dr. White had to do -everything in a few test tubes, but he was able to witness such a -phenomenon of growth as man had not hitherto imagined. First he placed -his pellet in a special nutrient solution. It began to expand by the -continuous process of splitting in two. Two cells become four, four -eight, and so on infinitely. After about two weeks Dr. White cut away a -few pellets from the original mass and discarded the rest. These were -placed in new nutrient solutions. Every two weeks the experimenter -would discard the bulk of each mass which had accumulated and start new -cultures with the few pellets which he saved. Each culture increased in -size about fifty percent a day. At the end of forty weeks he was left -with something not much bigger than he had at the start, but the actual -original pellet constituted only about a ten-quintillionth of the final -mass. - -He happened to have found in the tobacco excrescences an -undifferentiated kind of life. The cells had no specialized function. -In the actual plant they were kept in order by the rest of the plant -cell community, which has no use for cells with no job to do. Once -in the nutrient solution, however, they were free of all inhibiting -influences. They were not, and never became, wood cells, bark cells, -pith cells, leaf cells or any of the other numerous, specialized kinds -of cells which make up the plant world. They were something very close -to the primaeval plant cells from which, in the course of a couple -of billion years, all the others have been derived. Very early these -unit structures of life learned that they must stick together and do -specialized jobs for each other under the actual conditions of nature. -Out of these combinations of specialists has arisen all the magnificent -structure of the living world. - -But the experimental cells at the Rockefeller Institution had nothing -to do except eat and multiply. Each of them was potentially immortal. -It did not die but renewed its youth when it had reached its growth by -becoming two baby cells. That is how life might have developed from -the beginning except for the fact that a cell must eat to live and -ordinarily does not have any accommodating scientist to feed it. - - - - -_Birds That Duel_ - - -Birds that hold fencing tournaments are the big-billed toucans of Barro -Colorado Island, the Smithsonian Institution’s tropical preserve in -Gatun Lake, Panama Canal Zone. - -They fence with their formidable beaks but seem careful not to hurt one -another. One scientist who studied Barro Colorado’s bird life described -the birds as follows: “I saw fourteen toucans scattered about in a big -leafless tree in the center of the jungle. Two appeared to be fencing. -They stood in one spot and fenced with their bills for a half minute -or so, rested, and were at it again. Presently they flew off into the -forest and then I noticed two others that had now begun to fence. Then -one of these flew away, and the remaining one picked a new opponent and -fell to fencing again.... They did not move about much while fencing, -although sometimes one climbed above the other as though to gain an -advantage. They fenced against each other’s beaks and never seemed to -strike at the body. There was a fairly rapid give and take...the -bills clattering loudly against each other.” - -These fencing toucans are among the more conspicuous birds of the -island, particularly because of their call—a shrill, froglike “cree,” -which is repeated over and over again and can be heard half a mile -away. The call is most frequent in the morning and late in the -afternoon, but it stops abruptly at sunset. - - - - -_Brakes on Plant Life_ - - -There is a “brake” on plant development—perhaps one of nature’s most -fundamental controls over surging life. It is a relatively narrow -band of light on the edge of the invisible infrared in the solar -spectrum. Plant life, and through plants all life, is tied intimately -to certain solar wave bands. It has long been recognized that the -cornerstone of all life on earth is the process of photosynthesis -by which plants, through energy provided by sunlight, are able to -synthesize carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide taken from the -air. Animals eat these carbohydrates, the basic food. Other animals eat -the carbohydrate eaters, and thus the chain extends from the simplest -organisms to man. - -But without some other process the carbohydrates might be a formless -mass. The second process is that which shapes a plant and controls -development of stems, leaves, and blossoms. This may be a light effect -second in importance only to photosynthesis itself. It requires -very little solar energy. Smithsonian Institution experiments have -demonstrated that the control is exercised by red light with a maximum -of efficiency at wavelengths around 660 millimicrons—or millionths of -millimeters. It has been demonstrated, however, that this formative -action can be blocked effectively by irradiation with wavelengths in -the far red. The greatest effect is at wavelengths between 710 and 730 -millimicrons. - -The “brake” is not applied immediately. The maximum efficiency of -the far red energy occurs a little more than an hour after the plant -is exposed to the formative wavelengths. The implication is that -the action interferes with the development process by acting on -some product the formation of which is initiated by the shorter red -wavelengths. The experiments have been carried out with seedlings of -beans. In other experiments it has been found that damage to plants -from X-ray exposure—insofar as this results in breaking the bundles of -genes, or units of heredity—can be increased from 30 to 50 percent by -previous exposure to about the same wave band of far red light that -reverses the formative process. On the other hand, the increase in -damage is nullified if the X-ray exposure is followed by exposure to -the red wave band. - -Breaking of the chromosomes, or strings of genes, is one of the first -evidences of damage to living organisms by exposure to ionizing -radiation. This breaking is responsible for some of the adverse -hereditary effects concerning which there has been a great deal of -discussion because of possible effects of the atomic bomb fall-out. - -The experiments were carried out with pollen of flowers and root tips -of beans where results are relatively easy to determine. - - - - -_Snails Are the Flowers of the Sea_ - - -There are more than 80,000 kinds of snails in the world. They swim, -jump, crawl, burrow, live at the bottom of the sea and in the tops of -trees. They range in size from the horse conch of Florida, two feet -long, to animals hardly the size of a grain of sugar. About half of all -species live in the seas. - -Most are bottom dwellers, unable to swim, but several spend their lives -on the surface. One, the purple janthina, floats upside down on a raft -of air bubbles trapped in a special kind of mucous which it secretes. -Others live permanently attached to sea weeds. Most abundant of the -sea snails probably are the pterepods, or sea butterflies, which live -several feet below the surface in daylight but come to the top in -countless hordes at night. In some places the sea bottom is littered -many feet deep with their shells, of which there is almost constant -rain as the animals die. - -Loveliest flowers of the sea are the nudibranchs. Seldom has nature -produced in either plants or animals such elaborate combinations of -brilliant colors and decorative appendages as in the bodies of these -shell-less ocean snails. Although there are more than 2,000 species, -they are among the least known of all sea creatures. One reason for -this is that most of them are quite small, ranging from a fourth to -half an inch in length. Their coloring hardly can be appreciated except -under some magnification. - -Nowhere are they very abundant. Their habitats vary from close inshore -to deep water, but they are most likely to be seen in pools left -among shore rocks by receding tides. Their extremely elaborate color -patterns may be protective, to some extent. It is known that certain -species have the ability to change colors in response to changes in -their environment. They become bright red, for example, when living -in association with a red sponge. Even more decorative than the color -patterns are the appendages, extensions of the skin and sometimes of -the digestive tract, which take the forms of delicately modelled, -almost microscopic plants. - -All these nudibranchs are flesh-eating creatures feeding chiefly on sea -anemones found on the sea bottom. Most of the anemones are equipped -with thousands of so-called nematocysts or stinging organs. These are -microscopic, ball-shaped structures filled with a virulent poison. The -same mechanism is best known in sea nettles. As soon as a nematocyst is -exposed to any tension it explodes, releasing this poison. - -The little sea snails have evolved the ability to swallow the poison -balls without exploding them. They pass into the digestive tract, but -are not digested. In some way the nematocysts find their way through -certain of the appendages growing out of the digestive organs to the -outside of the body. There they are retained, and serve the sea snail -in the same way they served the sea anemone. The little creature -becomes quite dangerous to any of its natural enemies. - -Among the most enthusiastic nudibranch collectors is the Emperor of -Japan, who has discovered and described several new species. Some of -his publications about them have been illustrated by leading Japanese -artists and show the unearthly beauty of the creatures to the best -advantage. - - - - -_The Brutal South Pole Birds_ - - -The southernmost birds on earth—the only higher animal except man and -his dogs that go close to the South Pole—are the Antarctic skuas. -They are fierce, brutal little killers. Dwellers in the earth’s most -inhospitable habitat, they have been able to survive largely because of -their extreme rapaciousness. - -All other Antarctic birds, such as the penguins, stay close to the -shore of the desolate continent. The skua has been seen at least 300 -miles inland, and occasionally may fly across the pole itself. - -These birds arrive on the coast of Antarctica about the middle of -October, the beginning of the southern summer, after spending the -winter north of the circle. Their arrival is timed to coincide with -the egg-laying of the Adelie penguins. The skua’s chief food consists -of penguin eggs and chicks which it devours by the hundreds. Scores -of half-eaten, trampled bodies of young penguins always can be found -during the hatching season near the sites of penguin rookeries. The -skua is hardly a match for the parent birds but is expert in separating -chicks from the brood and killing them when they have no protection. It -is a creature of relatively enormous strength and endurance and flies -long distances carrying chunks of meat bigger than itself. It also is -an extremely noisy, quarrelsome creature—an outstanding example of the -philosophy of every individual for itself. There is no brooding of -chicks nor protecting them from the elements. The parents hardly bother -to feed them. - -Little skuas, it is reported, come out of the eggs fighting. Usually -there are two eggs to a nest. One chick probably is a trifle weaker -than the other. In a short time it is driven from the nest, killed and -eaten by its rapacious brother or sister. It may even become the prey -of its own hungry parents. Skuas also have the habit of eating their -own eggs. This keeps the population within the limits of the food -supply. - - - - -_Silk-Bearded Clams_ - - -Jason’s golden fleece may have been woven from the beard of a -silk-bearded clam. The same sort of cloth, in fact, still is produced on -a small scale in Italy, chiefly for the tourist trade. A silk glove of -modern manufacture now is in the Smithsonian collections. - -The clam is a giant Mediterranean species, the pinna marina. Its shell -reaches a maximum length of about three feet, but the average is less -than half this. From a gland in its “foot” it secretes milk-like -strands with which it attaches itself to the sea bottom. These strands -are as much as a foot long. - -The silk is of exceptionally fine quality—at least it was so regarded -by the Arabs who maintained centers for manufacture of the cloth in -Spain, Italy and North Africa. Says one Arab author: “At a certain time -of the year an animal comes forth from the sea and rubs itself on the -stones of the seashore. A down soft as silk with a golden color falls -off it. It is fine and small and garments are woven from it which take -on different colors during the day. The Umayyad kings (of Spain) used -to put restrictions upon it so that it was only exported secretly. The -price of a garment is more than 100 dinars, on account of its fineness -and beauty.” - -The value of a dinar—the gold coin of the Moslem world—is difficult to -calculate in any present coinage, but it was at least the equivalent of -a dollar. - -Says another Arab writer: “I have seen how it is gathered. Divers dive -into the sea and bring out tubers like onions with a kind of neck which -has hairs on the upper part. The tubers like onions burst and let -forth hairs which are combed and become like wool. They spin it and -make a woof of it so as to pass a warp of silk through it. The most -magnificent royal garments of Tunis are made of it.” - -Gigantic clams, nearly five feet long and weighing more than 400 -pounds, who raise crops of microscopic plants for their own sustenance -are among nature’s fantasies found on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. -These molluscan titans have formed a curious partnership with the -zooxanthellae, a family of microscopic algae. The plants live as -parasites in the blood cells of the inner lobe of the clam’s mantle. -Upon this mantle is a lens-like structure which looks like an eye. -These mollusks, however, are blind as any other clams and the eye-like -protuberances, it has been determined, are only windows by which light -is admitted to the parasitic algae within the blood cells. The surplus -of algae is carried by the blood stream to the clam’s digestive organs -where it serves as food. - -Another giant clam, the tridacna of East Indian seas, may weigh up to -600 pounds. The monsters constitute a peril for divers who unwittingly -step inside the open valves. These snap shut, imprisoning the diver’s -foot and, unless he can get help, he is held in the trap and drowned. - - - - -_Pearls Grow in Brooks_ - - -Excellent pearls occur occasionally in fresh water clams. A pearl of -perfect form and pure color was found in such a clam taken from a brook -near Paterson, New Jersey, in 1857. It sold at Tiffany’s for $1,000 and -shortly afterwards was resold in Paris for $2,200. This started pearl -hunts in brooks all over the country. - -On the arrival of Europeans in Florida, Louisiana and Virginia, -fabulous legends were circulated about the enormous treasures to be -obtained by plundering Indian graves. A contemporary chronicler of the -audacious DeSoto expedition, reported that the conquistadore got 350 -pounds of fine pearls at the Creek town of Cofitachique on the Savannah -River. - -A member of the first Virginia colony “gathered together from among the -savage people about five thousande; of which number he chose so many -as mayd a fayre chain; which for their likenesse and uniformitie in -roundnesse, orietnesse and pidenesse, of many excellente colours with -equalities in greatnesse were verie fayre and rare.” - -The supply, however, was quite limited. Indian pearls were the subject -of a special study by the late Dr. William H. Holmes. “The majority -of those obtained,” he reported, “were ruined as jewels by the heat -employed in opening the shellfish from which they were abstracted. Many -of the larger specimens probably were not real pearls but polished -beads cut from the nacre of sea shells and quite worthless as gems. -It has been found that the real pearls were obtained from bivalve -shells—from the oyster along the sea shore and in tidewater inlets and -from the mussel on the shores of lakes and rivers. - -“But the very general use of pearls by the pre-Columbian natives is -amply attested. More than 60,000, nearly two pecks, were obtained, -drilled and undrilled, from a single burial mound near Madisonville, -Ohio.” - - - - -_Grasshopper-Infested Glaciers_ - - -Among America’s natural curiosities are “grasshopper glaciers.” These -are great masses of glacial ice containing layers of imbedded, frozen -grasshoppers. Such layers are probably remnants of vast migrations -which have taken place at irregular intervals over several centuries. -Great hordes of the insects either flew over the glacier or were -carried there by winds, and while there sudden snow storms or cold air -rising from the ice field caused them to drop. They were imbedded so -quickly in the falling snow, which later became ice, that they have -remained perfectly preserved for centuries. The most notable of these -glaciers is in the Beartooth mountains of Montana. Others have been -reported from the high mountains of Africa. - - - - -_Monster Clams of Polynesia_ - - -Largest of clams and largest of all shellfish is a native of Polynesian -seas. The two halves may weigh as much as 500 pounds. The flesh is -eaten raw by natives. The interior of the shell is like polished -marble. Such shells frequently were used as founts for holy water in -European churches. A particularly large one attracted much attention in -the Church of St. Sulpice in Paris. Such clams are found at depths up -to 17 fathoms. They fasten themselves to rocks by a process so tough -that it can only be severed with an axe. - - - - -_Corals Combine Plants and Animal Life_ - - -A coral reef is a gigantic “plant-animal.” It is a community of -countless billions of plants and countless billions of animals which -act as a single organism, like the countless millions of specialized -cells that make up the body of a man or a mouse. It is probably the -most efficient of all earthly creatures. It is self-sufficient, -creating its own constant food supply. It is essentially immortal. It -is hungry like an animal. It is motionless like a plant. It is both and -combines the attributes of both. It is the largest and most enduring of -all creatures of land or sea. - -The animals are coral polyps. They are tiny, wormlike organisms with -mouths surrounded by constantly probing tentacles. They are rapacious -and insatiable. They are essentially voraciously hungry stomachs, -bloodless, brainless, sightless, heartless. The polyps are close to -the bottom of animal life, vaguely related to the white, stinging -sea nettles which are the scourges of summer beaches. These little -creatures extract lime from sea water and secrete for themselves -limestone “houses,” the “bones” of the superorganism. Out of these they -have built up islands and almost subcontinents. Sharing their limestone -cells are quite unrelated organisms, single-celled plants or algae. -These plants possess the green of grass and forests, whose molecules -create out of carbon dioxide and water through the energy of captured -sunlight starches and sugars which are the fuel of animal life. This -process of photosynthesis is the cornerstone of all life on earth. - -Thus the plants feed their partner animals. The excretion of the -animals, in turn, provides the essential fertilizer of the plants. -Considering the coral reef as a superorganism one might almost say that -it eats itself but loses nothing in the process. A reef, considered as -a superorganism, represents about the last word in nature’s efficiency. -It has been found, for example, that one acre of coral reef produces -about 74,000 pounds of sugar a year, a record barely reached by man on -his most efficiently managed plantations. All this sugar is devoured -by the polyps. Apparently the fertility of the surrounding sea makes -little difference. Coral reefs flourish in parts of the ocean that are -essentially deserts. - -A marine biological laboratory has been established by the U. S. -Atomic Energy Commission, to study effects of the radiation from -nuclear explosions on plant-animal populations. The first requirement -has been to determine the natural condition of the organisms before -being subjected to this radiation. Then whatever changes take place -with subsequent bomb tests can be noted. The work has been undertaken -by biologists of Duke University and the University of Georgia. -Such a life community, both a vast assembly of organisms and a sort -of superorganism, is an almost perfect subject for the required -observations. The first job, according to the commission report, has -been to measure the “basal metabolism” of the reef as a whole. - -Admittedly the conception of a reef as a sort of superorganism is -somewhat mystical. The Duke and University of Georgia biologists do not -maintain that there is any consciousness of constituting a whole on -the part of the individual organisms. It is likely that they have no -consciousness of anything. The outstanding fact is that they behave so -much like a whole. - -A reef is an outstanding example of the two major divisions of -life, plant and animal, working in perfect co-operation. The actual -co-operation of plant and animal in an integrated organism is not -unique for the coral reefs. Something of the sort occurs in certain sea -worms, near the bottom of the worm family, that grow green algae in -their blood streams. These worms make some of the beaches of Normandy -grass-green in summer. The algae are necessary for their existence. -There may be a few other examples throughout the animal kingdom. - - - - -_The First Engineers—Termites_ - - -Termite civilization probably has reached its greatest heights in -architecture and engineering. Australian mounds, built by workers out -of earth particles cemented together by a salivary gland secretion, -are steeple-shaped, as much as twenty feet high, and with bases twelve -feet in diameter. Hundreds of such structures may be scattered over -a few acres. Such an assemblage looks like a large native village, -although architecturally the structures are far beyond the abilities -of primitive man. The common type consists of a solid, hard outer -wall which has the strength of superfine concrete. It is almost -impossible to break through this material. Immediately inside are -numerous thin-walled passages and galleries. Below these, at the ground -level and about in the center, are the quarters of king and queen -and the nursery. From the mound, passages for the food foragers lead -in all directions through the soil. A mound two feet high will house -approximately two million individuals. - -Long before architects, termites developed the art of air conditioning. -Proper humidity inside the nest is essential to the existence of the -soft-bodied workers. The majority of species, however, are found in -latitudes with long, dry seasons. To meet such conditions the insects -achieved humidity control in various ways still not understood. Notable -are the structures of the Australian compass termites who erect -dwellings eight to twelve feet high with flattened sides. The broad -ends always point east and west, the narrow ends north and south. These -nests are strong enough to support the stamping of wild bulls. A group -of them looks like a particularly well-constructed native village, or -the site of some extinct human civilization. Apparently the precise -orientation of the nests is associated with prevailing winds and in -some way contributes to maintaining a constant humidity. - -The blind creatures seem to have developed special sense organs, -unknown to man and probably unique in the animal kingdom. One of these -is reportedly a brain barometer which is extremely sensitive to slight -humidity changes. Both soldiers and workers respond with military -precision to any threat to their neighbors. This believed due to an -extreme sensitivity to vibration. - -Few varieties of termites can endure sunshine. Some construct paperlike -umbrellas which they carry with them when they come above ground. One -species on Barro Colorado island in the Panama Canal Zone which attacks -live trees first builds a thin earth crust around the trunk, seven to -eight feet from the earth. Beneath this crust they seek out weak spots -in wood which enable them to penetrate into the heart of the tree. - -Termite armies, in distinction from those of ants, serve only as -defensive forces. There are two kinds of soldiers. Some are equipped -with enormous jaws with which to rend the enemy. These are so tenacious -that when the body is torn away from the prey the mandibles remain in -place. Others are the bayonet men and chemical warfare troops. These -fighters have a protrusion on the front of the head which looks like a -long nose but which actually has developed from a primitive eye. - -From this protrusion a sticky acid is exuded. In rare instance it may -be spurted a short distance—an inch or less. These soldiers fight -battles to the death with war-like ants which invade their nests. The -termite warrior rams with his nose-like organ the so-called “pedicle” -of the ant, the narrowest part of its body, smearing it with the -liquid. This never has been completely analyzed. It is a powerful acid, -but is not the well-known formic acid exuded by ants. It has strong -corrosive properties when applied to metals. It has a pungent odor -which, however, is characteristic of all termites and the ancestral -cockroaches. - -Between ants and termites there is perpetual war. Army ants, -especially, try to raid termite nests to feed on the young whenever -they can find any crack in the walls through which they can squeeze -their bodies. But when there is any break in the nest the termite -soldiers immediately arrange themselves in a circle around the opening -while workers bring up little slabs of earth from the interior to patch -the wall. - -Most common of the Barro Colorado species are the amitermes which build -hemisphere-shaped red mounds about two feet in diameter. These are made -of tiny particles of earth which have passed through the alimentary -tracts of the insects where they are coated with a cement-like -material. Such a nest is impervious to water. It is so sturdy that a -heavy man can jump up and down on it without breaking the roof. It -cannot be broken open with a machete. - -Another common species build the so-called “niggerhead” nests, about -the size of footballs, on fence posts and trees,—especially dead trees -whose stumps protrude out of Gatun Lake. These nests also are extremely -sturdy. They are made of a mixture of earth grains and finely digested -wood. From such a nest numerous runways traverse the trunk, sometimes -connecting with smaller colonial “niggerheads.” - - - - -_Oyster Oddities_ - - -An oyster can change its sex several times during its life. This has -been determined by Dr. Paul Galtsoff of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife -Service by observing an experimental colony. In the first year 8% of -the males changed to females and 13% of the females became males. In -the second year 11% of the males changed sex and 12% of the females. -One sex change, Dr. Galtsoff found, makes the same individual more -likely to undergo another. - -A single Pacific coast oyster produces approximately 10,000,000,000 -descendants a year. If all survived in five generations they would -constitute a mass eight times the size of the world. - -Clams and oysters appear to be about the most stupid animals in -creation. Actually each has three “brains,” or nerve ganglia. One -controls the feeding apparatus, another the viscera, and a third the -utilization of oxygen. - - - - -_The World’s Biggest Sneeze_ - - -The sneeze of the elephant has been described as “like the bursting of -a boiler of considerable size.” When the elephant feels the onset of -one of these titanic eruptions it appears to realize that a momentous -event is about to take place. It becomes extremely restless and is -seemingly unable to stand still for a moment. The sneeze is preceded by -a tremendous, wall-shaking bellow. - -Although elephants are subject to frequent colds the sneeze is a -rare phenomenon. For this reason it is regarded as a good luck sign, -especially among Moslems of India, who gather around and wait patiently -for the event. When it starts they bow their heads and pray for the -realization of their wishes. - - - - -_The Luminescent Ctenophores_ - - -There are windless nights when Caribbean waters seem like fields of -green fireflies. This is due to vast numbers of luminescent ctenophores -or comb-bearers. One the most abundant and least known forms of animal -life, they are also among the most delicate. Although they are related -to the planarian worm and the jelly fish, they are quite unique. - -Superficially they seem little more than animate bags of water with -skins thinner than the most delicate tissue paper. They abound in -staggering numbers over most of the world. One of the most familiar -types is the American mnemiopsis. On calm summer days the amber green -species sometimes covers completely thousands of square yards of -sea—like a raft formed of millions of individuals floating just below -the surface. A classic ground for this phenomenon is Narragansett Bay. - -Like the rest of its race, this ctenophore is like a fragment of -moonlight on the sea. It is so fragile that the slightest current of -water in its neighborhood is sufficient to tear it to bits. It is about -as elusive as moonlight. When grasped gently the jelly-like substance -slides through the fingers. Taken in a net and placed in salt water -it vanishes completely on the way from boat to laboratory. Intact -specimens are almost unknown in scientific collections. - -Ordinarily they live at considerable depths in the zone of absolute -calm where all wave movement ceases. Great hordes rise to be the -surface only on nights when the surface of the ocean is like a sheet of -glass. - -They are among the loveliest of all sea creatures. The delicacy of -their coloring is that of spring arbutus or anemone. Their presence is -indicated chiefly by the brilliant flashes of rainbow colors as they -pass a few inches below the surface. - -The majority are pear-shaped. Giant of the race is Venus' girdle, best -known in the Mediterranean but found in most sub-tropical seas and -sometimes swept as far north as the coast of New England. It is an -undulating, iridescent ribbon as much as five feet long and two inches -wide. The mnemiopsis of southern New England waters is ball-shaped with -a diameter of about four inches. - -Ctenophores are most varied in the Bay of Naples; there 18 species have -been identified. There are 14 species now known in the Caribbean. In -absolute numbers, however, the fragile creatures are most abundant in -North Atlantic and sub-Arctic waters where, because of ordinarily rough -seas, they seldom are seen. There they constitute one of the major -menaces of the cod fisheries. Despite their fragility they are vicious -little animals, devouring cod eggs and fry in incalculable numbers. - -Each living water bag has a slit-like mouth on top and what apparently -is a sense organ of some kind on the bottom. The minute, struggling -prey are seized in two pincer-like tentacles and pushed into the mouth. -They are digested quickly by the juices in the water sack in which -float about whatever vital organs the Ctenophore possesses. - -The ctenophores are by no means aberrant jellyfish, which they resemble -only in the extreme tenuousness of their bodies. They have no umbrellas -and no stinging cells. Two forms are known which have flattened -bodies like planarian worms and which creep on the sea floor. Because -of various similarities in the development of both creatures some -zoologists believe they are immediate descendants of a unknown common -ancestor. - -The function of their weird green luminescence is unknown. It would -seem of questionable value in attracting prey and it is difficult to -imagine that these most fragile and evanescent of earth’s creatures -have any sort of love life. Nevertheless lightmaking seems to -constitute a purposeful part of their activities. - - - - -_The Forest That Time Forgot_ - - -Knee-high red and pink ferns fill the jungle hollow. Around them are -green leaves covered with parallel white lines in sets of five with -dots on the lines which look like notes of music. These leaves are -known as “music paper.” There is no record that anybody has tried to -play the tunes nature has written on them. - -Mixed with them are “sandpaper leaves” with surfaces so rough that they -are used locally for the same purpose as sheets of sandpaper elsewhere. -Sinister hangman’s ropes swing, as if awaiting their victims, from -branches along the jungle paths. - -Such are a few random notes from a cloudland jungle—in many ways like -a forest of prehistoric days—in Venezuela’s Henry Pittier national -forest. Here flourishes the giant tree fern, most characteristic tree -of the vast ancient forests from which coal deposits were formed. In -the tree fern fronds lurk worms and amphibians not vastly different -from the tree creatures of the Devonian geological area. - -This is a forest of the central tropics. Paradoxically it is also, when -seen from a little distance, a New England forest of late September -with groves of straight, white-trunked palm trees which look like -birches and patches of flame color in the treetops which look like -maple leaves starting to put on their autumn coloring. The temperature, -in fact, is about that of a warm Autumn day in New England, especially -as dusk comes and a white veil of mist rolls over the mountaintops from -the sea. - -The patches of flame color which look like maple leaves are orange -and red blossoms of the gallito or “cock flowers,” so called because -the bloom resembles so much the body of a miniature rooster. The -gallito appears high in the treetops. It is about the most abundant and -conspicuous flower of the cloud jungle. It grows on big, grey-trunked -trees whose bark looks like rough-woven linen. Each blooming tree is -filled with brilliantly colored humming birds and red and green parrots. - -Trees in the high jungle hills wear thick green overcoats of moss and -lichens. There is one dark-green form of moss which grows about an -inch high and looks like a miniature cedar leaf. Many of the older -trees, especially palms, are “rusty” with a species of red lichen which -spreads rapidly over the trunks. Among them is a blossoming tree with -a straight, spined grey trunk from 30 to 40 feet high which is a close -relative of the potato. - -The cloud forest is predominantly the home of the epiphytes, such as -long, dangling masses of red, pink and pearl orchids which grow on the -trees. They require plenty of moisture. In this mountain swamp the -trees always are soaking wet. This is an ideal environment for the -eight or ten varieties of moss which grow so luxuriantly. - -There are green-walled cave openings ten feet high and ten feet wide in -the bottoms of the trunks of giant trees. Exposed roots lie across the -paths, covered with moss in which there are leprous white spots. They -look like enormous, writhing malevolent green serpents. - - - - -_The Versatility of the Elephant’s Trunk_ - - -The elephant’s trunk is a tool surpassed in effectiveness only by the -hand of man. It is a muscular prolongation of combined nose and upper -lip, which have grown together. It is associated closely with the motor -and sensory centers in the brain cortex and is under such delicate -voluntary control that with its enormous strength is combined extreme -fineness of movement. The trunk terminates in one of two fingerlike -projections which seem capable of almost as delicate voluntary -movements as are human fingers. - -The trunk is a supernose. As a sensory organ it is the elephant’s -chief means of securing information about his environment. With it the -animal can detect the direction, and perhaps the distance, of olfactory -stimuli from all sorts of sources. It is as vital in an elephantine -scheme of things as are eyes to a human being. - -The trunk is the elephant’s chief servant Without it the monster is the -equivalent of a blind man. It has approximately 40,000 muscles and a -highly developed sensory and motor nerve supply. The organ has enormous -strength, sufficient to tear up a tree by its roots. - -Here are some of the things the animal is credited with being able to -do with the trunk: pick up a pin from the ground, select and secure -a single tussock of appetizing herbage, uncork a wine bottle, untie -a slip knot, unbolt a gate, throw up and catch a baseball, pull the -trigger to fire a gun, ring a bell. - -A female elephant owned by the Duke of Devonshire in the 1880’s was -allowed almost a free range over the park of his estate. She made -herself useful by sweeping the paths with a broom and by carrying -a garden watering pot. Her most celebrated achievement was that of -opening a tightly corked wine bottle. She would hold it against the -ground at about a 45 degree angle with one of her front feet and -gradually twist out the cork—barely protruding above the neck of the -bottle—with her trunk. After emptying the contents into her mouth she -would hand the empty bottle to her keeper. - - - - -_Fiendish Vampires of the Night_ - - -About the middle of the eighteenth century belief in vampirism spread -like an epidemic across France and England. Dead men hellishly -condemned to live forever came out of their sepulchres at midnight, -took the forms of various animals, and feasted on the blood of -the living (who, in turn, died and became vampires). This was a -superstition which previously had been confined largely to Slavic -countries. Its influence in France and England seems to have started -with tales brought back from the New World by Spanish explorers of -actual vampires—sinister, black-winged, fiend-faced flying mammals who -actually fed on the blood of sleeping humans. Thenceforth the popular -conception of a vampire was that of a large bat, hovering over the -unsuspecting, eternally doomed sleeper. - -The stories doubtless were greatly ornamented and exaggerated. However, -the vampire bat of the American tropics is a gruesome reality. It is -now known to be a carrier of the rabies virus. - -It is a small, brown bat condemned by nature to live exclusively on -blood. Its throat is too small to swallow solid particles. Its stomach -is especially adapted for rapid digestion. It feasts on all sorts of -mammals, including man, and the incisions of its razor-sharp teeth are -so nearly painless that a sleeper seldom is awakened. Supposedly it -always bites man on the bottoms of the toes. - -The loathsome little creature does not actually suck blood, as long -was supposed. Instead, according to observers, it laps up blood with -its tongue. Its saliva is believed to contain an anti-coagulant which -keeps a wound bleeding for hours. From 20 to 25 minutes is required for -a meal, during which the animal gorges itself until its body becomes -spherical. - -“We slept so soundly”, records an Amazon explorer, “it was not until -morning we discovered that we had been raided during the night by -vampire bats and the whole party was covered with blood stains from -the many bites. It may seem unreasonable to the uninitiated that we -could have been thus bitten and not disturbed in our sleep but the fact -remains that there is no pain produced at the time of the bite, nor for -several hours afterwards.” - -It feeds only at night Like most New World tropical bats, it sleeps -during the day in the total darkness of caverns where it hangs in -clusters from the ceilings. Such a bat cave, about as gruesome a place -as could be found on earth, was explored a few years ago by Dr. Raymond -L. Ditmars of the American Museum of Natural History. This cave, which -the bats shared with scorpions who had wing spreads of five inches, was -found in the Chagras Valley of Panama. - -The mammal has a strikingly spider-like appearance. Probably alone -among bats it can walk as a quadruped, using its wings as front feet. -That, of course, is what they were originally before the grotesque -creatures invaded the air. - - - - -_Remarkable Orchids_ - - -A flower that opens only in moonlight is one of Venezuela’s plant -curiosities. It is an ivory white, velvety orchid with a dazzling -blossom. For full fertilization it depends entirely on nocturnal -butterflies which sip nectar while pollenization takes place. - -This curious flower is one of approximately 800 orchid species, some of -them among the most beautiful in the world, which grow in Venezuela. -Among these is probably the prettiest and rarest of all orchids, the -mother-of-pearl flower which can be found, and then only rarely, in the -Gran Sabana country at altitudes of more than 3,000 feet. Only a few -specimens ever have been brought out by collectors. - -Another high mountain variety has square petals with fringed edges. -Found in the jungles of the upper Orinoco is an orchid with blossoms -measuring up to 16 inches in diameter. A completely unique orchid has -been found growing in water. (All other species live as parasites on -trees or rocks—or in the soil like other plants.) - -Throughout the world there are more than 20,000 species of orchids, the -great majority of which are found only in the mountainous regions of -the tropics. A few, however, can be found growing as far north as the -Arctic Circle. - - - - -_Nature’s Insecticide: The Millipede_ - - -Far leas malevolent than the centipede—and probably a somewhat more -primitive form of animal life—is the millipede or “thousand legs”. It -is a strictly vegetarian creature that lives under stones, logs or in -rotting tree trunks and feeds on soft roots, leaves and fruits. - -Millipedes are seldom seen. They shun light, although in the tropics -they sometimes come out of their retreats after heavy rains and crawl -over the ground. The animal has twenty to forty legs, two pair on each -segment of the body—a characteristic in which it differs striking from -the centipedes to whom it is only distantly related. Movement is in -an almost mathematically straight line, with a series of wave-like -undulations in which apparently all the legs on one side of the body -move in unison. All millipedes are essentially blind. Their eyes are -able only to distinguish light from dark, but as they crawl every inch -of their path is explored by their delicately sensitive antennae. - -So secretive is their life that relatively little is known of their -behavior. The female of one European species burrows in the earth, -moistens bits of soil with a sticky fluid from the salivary glands in -her mouth, and thus makes tiny bricks. These she builds into the form -of a hollow sphere, about the size of a walnut, with a hole in the top -through which she lays from 50 to 100 eggs. Others lay their eggs in -bunches in the soil and coil around them until they hatch. Mothers may -even remain with the young for a few days. - -The bite of the millipede, unlike that of the centipede, is not -poisonous. But the animal has “stink glands” from which a foul-smelling -liquid containing the extremely poisonous prussic acid is exuded. This -presumably affords an adequate protection against driver ants and -birds, the natural enemies. The secretion is so powerful that a couple -of millipedes placed in a can kill insects as effectively as a small -dose of potassium cyanide. - -One member of the race, spirobolus marginatus, as much as four inches -long and with a body made up of fifty-seven segments, is fairly common -under logs in the northeastern United States. At certain seasons these -creatures become restless, leave the soil and come into houses. They -may swarm in basements and on ground floors. They crawl up walls and -drop from ceilings. These invasions usually take place in the autumn -and presumably are associated with migrations to find winter quarters. -In some cottages surrounded by trees as many as seven hundred have -been counted in a room in one evening. However embarrassing to hosts, -it must be realized that millipedes never bite and that they do no -damage to furniture. The only accusation yet made against them refers -to one species, the so-called greenhouse millipede, which may cause -considerable damage to potted plants. - -In emergencies the millipede is able to roll itself in a tight -ball like its presumed ancestors, the primaeval trilobites. In one -Madagascan species this ball is as big as a golf ball. Some millipedes -are less than a twentieth of an inch long. - -Gigantic millipedes are known from the tree fern swamps of the -Carboniferous geological period when the great coal deposits were -formed. They were about a foot long and their bodies were covered with -long, sharp spines. This apparently was to make them distasteful to -the giant amphibians, remotely related to present day frogs and toads, -who were the dominant four-footed animals in the world at the time. -Thus the millipede has almost as lengthy a history on earth as the more -insect-like cockroach of those same forests of 250,000,000 years age. - - - - -_Bats Have Built-in Radar_ - - -Bats “see” with their ears. Echoes of sounds inaudible to man enable -the flying mammals to find their way through the almost absolute -darkness of deep cavern or jungle. These creatures might be considered -inventors of the Navy’s sonar device by which underwater obstacles are -located by echoes—or even, in a sense, of radar. - -Almost entirely creatures of night and late twilight, bats have small -and poorly developed eyes. When one is on the wing it emits an almost -constant succession of inaudible “squeaks” at a sound frequency of -between 25,000 and 70,000 vibrations a second. The human hearing range -reaches only to 30,000. Each squeak, according to measurements by Dr. -Donald R. Griffin of Cornell University, lasts about two-hundredths of -a second. In ordinary flight over open country it is repeated about ten -times a second. By means of the echoes it apparently is possible to -detect and avoid any obstacle, even one as small as a strand of silk -thread strung across the path, within a distance of ten or twelve feet. - -The bat does not hear its own squeaks. Each time one is uttered an ear -muscle contracts automatically, thus momentarily shutting off the sound -itself so that only the echo can be heard. It is possible that each -animal has its individual sound pattern and is guided only by its own -echoes. Otherwise, it would seem, there would be complete confusion -from the echoes of several hundred bats moving in a flock. - -Largest of the bats are northern India’s flying foxes. The body is -shaped almost precisely like that of a small fox and is covered with -fine, dark-brown hair. The wing spread is about three feet. These -flying foxes move in flocks of thousands. They are exclusively fruit -eaters and forest dwellers. They are the only bats eaten by man. Their -flesh is said to resemble chicken. - -Insect-eating bats are prisoners of the air. Once on the wing they -must remain in flight all night until they return to the dark caves -where they sleep all day, suspended head downwards. Flying from dusk -to dawn requires an enormous amount of energy for which a lot of food -is required. One of these animals probably must eat about a third of -its own weight in insects each night. Thus it is a good friend of the -farmer and one of the potent factors in keeping the balance of nature. - -If a bat lit on the ground or on any solid object it would be very -difficult, perhaps impossible, to get it on the wing again. This is -accomplished only by falling from its sleeping place. - -The hibernation of temperate zone bats appears very close to complete -lifelessness and is probably the most deathlike sleep experienced by -any mammal. Animals close to a cave entrance have been found completely -coated with ice, as moisture has congealed on the fur. Yet when they -wake in the spring they appear none the worse for the experience. - - - - -_Crabs That Climb Trees_ - - -A fantastic race of small, pale hermit crabs are the most numerous -and conspicuous animal inhabitants of war-wrecked Pacific islands. -The multitudes of these crustaceans may have a considerable role, -beneficial and otherwise, in present efforts to cover these white sand -wastes with grass and trees. - -Of all creatures which start life in the sea, hermit crabs have become -best adapted to continual existence on land. Like others of their race -they are shell-less and soft-bodied. For protection against enemies and -against being dried out by the glaring sun, they live in houses—the -abandoned shells of other sea creatures which have been cast ashore. -They carry their houses on their backs. When a crab outgrows its -shelter it moves to a larger one, changing its dwelling four or five -times during a normal lifetime. There is never any housing shortage -for those in the small stages of growth. However, the sole refuge for -the crab which has reached full size is the “cats-eye,” the shell of -a marine snail as much as three inches in diameter with an opalescent -pink inner lining which glistens like the eye of a cat. Only the -hermits which can find such shells survive. - -In searching for food the crabs climb the trunks and branches of kou -trees which grow all over the Pacific islands. They eat the bark along -the upper side of the branches; most trees show long scars which are -the results of past injuries. - -A common habit, especially of the undersized individuals, is cleverly -to tear off and eat only the ovaries and stamens of blossoming plants. -“These are certainly not isolated acts,” says a Pacific Science Board -report, “but ones perfected by practice and perhaps instinct. The -crabs probably decimate the flora, feeding particularly on tender -seedlings. They largely are responsible for the paucity of different -kinds of plants on some islands. The seeds of any new kinds of -plants washing to its shores are subject to their inspection and, -if palatable, sacrificed to their appetite. The foreign plants now -being introduced as seeds and seedlings must not only surmount the -drastic condition of drought and salinity but also the hurdle of these -voracious animals.” - -In the spring the females carry their numerous maroon colored eggs -attached to their abdomens. When do they return to the ocean to allow -these eggs to hatch their free-swimming larvae that resemble so closely -the shrimp-like ancestor of all hermit crabs? Where do they throw off -the hard, non-expanding shells they have requisitioned as they increase -in size, in burrows on land or in the ocean? How, with gills adapted -for respiration in water, have they perfected respiration on land? -Questions such as these are still unanswered. - - - - -_The Ferocious Centipede_ - - -“Natives of Brazil call the centipede the ambua. These creatures of a -thousand legs, some of which are more than a foot long, bend as they -crawl along and are reckoned very poisonous. In their going it is -observable that on each side of their bodies every leg has its motion, -one regularly after the other; being numerous, their legs have a kind -of undulation and thereby communicate to the body a swifter progression -than one would imagine where so many short feet are to take so many -short steps that follow one another, rolling on like the waves of the -sea.” - -The eighteenth century British naturalist Charles Owen was not alone in -considering the millipedes and centipedes as kinds of snakes; nor in -being confused, as naturalists still are, at their curious, complicated -way of moving. There had been highly exaggerated reports. The Spaniard -Ulloa, Columbus' gold assayer, described some centipedes he saw on the -northern coast of South America as a yard long and six inches wide. -Their bite, he contended, was fatal. - -“In the Kubbo-Kale valley,” reported British naturalist H. S. Wood -in 1935, “I saw a centipede ten inches long. Its general color was -electric blue with bright coral red fangs. It was the most terrible -thing I have seen in my tramps through the forest.” Wood was stung by -one of these Indian centipedes; he described the sensation as “exactly -like that of a third degree burn.” - -These animals are neither snakes, insects nor worms. They constitute an -independent and intermediate order of animal life. They are considered -a little nearer to the spiders than to true insects. They have retained -the ways of life of the ancestral worm. - -Most of the centipedes are active, ferocious, flesh-eating animals. -Their poison fangs are deadly to their normal prey—earthworms and -insects. Some of the larger species do not hesitate to attack lizards -and small mice. A bite, however painful, probably never is fatal to -a human. All are land animals which creep or crawl under logs and -bark. They usually remain in seclusion during the day but come out of -their retreats at night when they wander over the ground and attract -attention to themselves by their phosphorescence. A few have been -described as sea dwellers but these do not actually live in the water. -They crawl along the shore and are submerged by each tide. Some or -completely blind, others have many eyes. - -The centipedes are among the most repulsive of all animals, yet there -are accounts of South American Indian children who drag very large ones -out of the earth and eat them. Religious fanatics among North African -Arabs swallow them alive as proof of their supernatural powers. - -Tropical America has many varieties with varied and curious habits, -like the Nicaraguan species described by Thomas Belt: - -“Among the centipedes was one which had a singular method of securing -prey. It is about three inches long and sluggish in its movements but -from its tubular mouth it is able to discharge a viscid fluid to a -distance of about three inches, which stiffens with exposure to the air -to the consistency of a spider’s web, but stronger. With this it can -envelope and capture its prey, just as a fowler throws his net over a -bird. - -“Some of the other centipedes have phosphorescent spots in the head, -which shine brightly at night, casting a greenish light for a little -distance in front of them. I think these lights may serve to dazzle or -allure the insects on which they prey.” - -Centipedes have been observed attacking earthworms. One may grapple -with its victim for several hours before killing it. Then it sucks the -blood. - -A fairly familiar visitor in the southern United States is a house -centipede which thrives in damp basements and sometimes invades ground -floors. It is a wormlike creature, about an inch long, with fifteen -pairs of long legs. In the female the last pair are twice as long as -the rest of the body. The animal is yellowish grey with white bands on -its legs. It is poisonous, but its jaws are weak and it seldom bites -human beings. Despite the evil reputation of its race, this centipede -should be a welcome guest for it feeds on cockroaches, flies, spiders, -moths, and other domestic pests. It is a fast runner but often stops -suddenly, remains absolutely motionless for a moment, and then darts -for concealment. - - - - -_The Plant That Makes Men Dumb_ - - -A plant now being cultivated in the newly established botanical garden -of the University of Caracas may prove to be nature’s greatest boon to -pestered husbands and harassed mothers. It is described only under the -popular Spanish name of “planta del mudo.” It looks like sugar cane. -According to reliable reports anybody who chews the stem is stricken -dumb for 48 hours. - -Other curiosities of the garden include a plant which allegedly can -stimulate hair growth on bald heads and a bush whose blossoms open -snow-white in the morning and turn red at noon. Here also blooms the -exotic “Queen of Night,” a climbing cactus with a white flower five -inches in diameter which opens at sunset and closes at sunrise. - - - - -_The Scourge of the Earth: Locusts_ - - -From the days of the Hebrews prophets a visitation of locusts has been -considered one of the plagues of God. A migration of millions of these -grasshopper-like insects in clouds obscuring the sun leaves behind a -countryside devastated as though by fire. In flight they sound like a -forest fire being spread by a brisk wind. Whenever they come to earth -areas of hundreds of square yards almost immediately are denuded of -everything green. - -In history their raids have been associated chiefly with the Near East. -Quite similar creatures have caused far-reaching destruction over most -of the world including the United States. - -The last such phenomenon was about 1880. Since then grasshoppers have -hopped, not flown. There have been some great invasions, but the -insects have moved along the ground where it is easier to combat them. - -The reason for the transformation was found a few years ago by -entomologists. Hopping grasshoppers are changed into flying -grasshoppers by heat and hunger. Grown in test cages at high -temperatures and deprived of succulent green food, the insects acquired -longer wings, became slimmer, and took on brighter colors. - -It apparently is a curious provision of nature to preserve the -grasshopper race. When on the edge of perishing, they are supplied with -wings to carry them to green pastures a few hundred miles away. Lately -there has been some indication that those in the western United States -might again enter the flying phase in the near future. During the great -drought of the early thirties there was a stimulus almost sufficient to -make them undergo the complete transformation. - -At present there seems little prospect that there will be another -flying cloud in this part of the world. By planting cultivated crops -on land formerly covered by grass, man provides good egg-laying grounds -and plenty of green food. - -Adequate information still is lacking on what makes grasshoppers -increase and decrease. Also a mystery is the mechanism by which the -harmless solitary phase is transformed into the dangerous gregarious -phase. Several types occur in both phases and each can change itself -into the other, altering their habits so that they attack in mass -rather than as individuals. - -During the late 1870s the flying clouds caused terror all over the -world. In parts of Minnesota where the locusts landed they covered the -ground three inches thick. Crops were destroyed throughout the prairie -states. - -The most remarkable incident was reported from Russia in 1878: - -“A detachment of Gen. Lazeroff’s expedition against the Turcomans met -with a curious misadventure near the Georgian town of Elizavetopol. A -few versts from the town the soldiers encountered an army of locusts -about 20 miles long and broad in proportion. The officer in charge did -not like to turn back, repelled by mere insects. The soldiers soon -were surrounded. The locusts appear to have mistaken them for trees -and swarmed by the thousands around them—crawling over their bodies, -lodging themselves in their helmets, penetrating their clothes and -knapsacks, filling the barrels of their rifles and boring into their -ears and noses. - -“The commander gave the order for the troops to push on the -double-quick for Elizavetopol, but the road was so blocked that the -soldiers became frightened and, after they wavered a few minutes, a -stampede took place. Led by a non-commissioned officer who had espied a -village a short way from the road, the troops dashed across the fields, -slipping about on the crushed and greasy bodies as if on ice. They -were detained prisoners by the insects for 45 hours, and on the way to -Elizavetopol found every blade of grass and green leaf destroyed.” - -That same year a cross-continental train was held up for three hours -near Reno, Nevada, by a host of locusts that covered the rails for -several miles. - - - - -_Trees Can Grow Smaller_ - - -Trees change size from hour to hour. The circumference of a tree trunk -gets bigger and smaller with unpredictable perversity. For light on -this phenomenon the world is indebted to Dr. John A. Small of Rutgers -University. - -About a decade ago tree scientists were provided with an instrument -which could measure continuously the radial growth of a tree with an -accuracy of a thousandth of an inch. With such an instrument it seemed -plausible that it would be possible to tell just how much a tree had -grown in a single day and its rates of growth in different seasons. -A lot of the conclusions reached in this connection must now be -discarded. The circumference of a tree certainly changes but not in a -straight line. It may be bigger one day, smaller the next. - -Dr. Small’s experiments were carried out with the white ash. He found -that circumference changes followed yearly, monthly and even daily -rhythms but the changes in the same tree might vary by as much as -200 percent when measurements were made at different times. Daily -variations have shown a tendency to reach maximum readings about 6:30 -a.m. and sink to minimum in the late afternoon or early evening. -Eccentric jumps and drops can be found almost any time. - - - - -_Underworld Cities_ - - -Seventeen-year locusts build great subterranean “cities” during their -long sojourn in the earth’s depths. The years underground are by no -means a resting period—an episode of being buried alive. All the time -the young locusts, in various metamorphoses, are busy building and -eating. The eggs of the strange insects are laid during a few weeks -late in summer inside twigs. From these eggs come minute nymphs, which -at once make their way into the ground. There they shed their shells -and grow rapidly. Their food is juice sucked from roots. They make -successive mud dwellings attached to these roots. The largest observed -in the eastern United States were eighteen inches below the surface. -Each was a rough ball of earth about two inches long and three-fourths -of an inch wide. The ball is lined on the inside by smooth mud and -contains only one nymph. Every time an individual moults and grows -larger it must make a new house. - -When they emerge from the last of their feeding chambers, the locusts -dig rapidly upward and construct a somewhat different type of dwelling -some inches below the surface. These are two-chambered, with upper and -lower rooms connected by tunnels five to ten inches long. These are -so ingeniously constructed, according to Dr. E. A. Andrews of Johns -Hopkins University, that they provide “the advantage of safety along -with quick access to the surface when the proper time comes. In the -shaft the nymph climbs close to the surface or falls rapidly to the -bottom to escape attacks. The lining of the shaft is smooth mud a few -millimeters thick. The shafts are by no means always straight or of -uniform diameter, but may be sinuous and present swollen regions.” In -one area examined he found at the topsoil was such a mass of small -stones and roots that the insects must actually have cut their way -through roots. Large obstacles often were avoided by a change in -direction. - -“The chief implements used in making cavities in the earth”, according -to Dr. Andrews' report, “are the big first legs. Here, as in other -legs, the end segment is used chiefly in walking and may be folded -down when not needed. The second segment from the tip is used to pick -off particles of earth. The third segment is the largest and, like a -powerful thumb, acts with the opposing second segment as a forceps to -pick up pellets of earth and small stones. The minute particles picked -loose from the earth are raked together by the tip segment to make a -pellet, which the forceps can carry or shove into the walls of the -cavity. However, all parts of the body may come into use, for the hind -legs and the abdomen may help shove earth aside and the head may carry -earth plastered upon it. In vertical tunnels the animal braces its legs -against the sides and, if disturbed, relaxes and drops down.” - -The last dwelling is large enough for the nymph to turn around -inside and usually has a flattened floor. The top comes quite close -to the surface without actually breaking through, leaving only a -few millimeters of earth through which the insect must dig when the -transmutation to an adult locust takes place. Examination of many -of these tubular dwellings shows that there are no interconnections -between them. Each has its own individual exit and along its course -avoids contact with other chambers, although they often are very close -together. This last home of the locust, before it emerges from the -everlasting darkness to the world of light and quick death which is its -pre-ordained destiny, is not necessarily restricted to the earth but -may be contained above the surface. Aerial extensions may, in fact, -be abundant and are in the form of turrets, towers, cones, chimneys, -huts and adobe houses. The walls are of dense mud, not natural soil. -Externally they are made of tiny mud pellets, but lined internally with -the same smooth layer found in the underground dwellings. - - - - -_Plants That Create Mirages_ - - -An explorer in the desolate heights of the Santa Marta mountains in -northeastern Colombia, fog-wrapped and 10,000 feet above sea level, may -see a flock of sheep grazing placidly among rocks ahead of him. Then, -looking the other way, he may see an assembly of cowled, robed priests, -apparently in the midst of some weird ecclesiastical ceremony. But when -he reaches the places where he thought he saw these things there are -neither sheep nor priests. He finds instead two strange varieties of -the aster family, both among the real curiosities of the plant kingdom. - -The vegetable sheep are bushy plants which grow on nearly barren ground -near the mountain tops. The individual plant consists of thickly -branched stems, about the size of a human finger, bearing many layers -of leaves covered with wool-like hairs. Sometimes these leaves are so -thick that the point of a pencil cannot be thrust through them. Some of -the plants may be as large as a living-room sofa. - -The extreme compactness of these plants and their dense covering of -hairs is an adaptation to the hostile conditions under which they must -live. The habitat consists of rocky slopes where the hot, dry winds -of summer and the snows, low temperature and violent gales of winter -expose them to a perpetual alternation of desert and Arctic conditions. - -In the same general region are the monk plants, belonging to a -different family, who have responded in the same way to similar -conditions. Seen from a distance on a mountainside, especially -through a light fog, a patch of these plants looks decidedly like a -congregation of several hundred priests. - -The vegetable sheep also are found in New Zealand, but there are no -known intermediaries between the closely similar species growing on -opposite sides of the earth. - - - - -_The Octopus Worm: Evolution’s Mystery_ - - -Worms that give birth to their own grandchildren, animals that have -no digestive, muscular, nervous, glandular or excretory organs—such -paradoxical creatures are the “dicyemid mosozoans”, tiny worms that -live inside octopuses. These little worms are among the most curious -living things in nature. It is quite uncertain whether they are a step -upward in evolution from the single-celled protozoans or, like some -other worms, a degenerate form of many-celled animals. It might be -maintained that they represent a distinct branch of the animal kingdom. - -The body of a dicyemid consists of a single cell, almost half an inch -long, in the form of a hollow tube, surrounded by a layer of small -cells. The immediate offspring are formed and, in some cases, live -their entire lives and reproduce in turn, inside one of these “skin” -cells. The grandchildren break through the body of the grandparent at -any place they choose, apparently without causing any wound, and live -for a short time as free-swimming animals until they find an octopus -whose kidneys they can enter. Then the whole life cycle starts over -again. - -Apparently the infestation in no way injures the octopus and the worms -are of no practical importance in the world. Each kind of octopus -or squid in coastal areas has its own particular species of these -parasites of which about 35 kinds are known. - -The worm’s body contains no organs, tissues or glands in the usual -sense of the word. - -Before being born the larvae attain their full complement of body -cells, are able to swim about, and have within them the germ cells that -will give rise to the next generation. Birth is very simple. The larvae -just push out, or are squeezed out, through the sides or ends of their -parent at almost any point. The parent continues to develop and bear -more larvae in the same manner. The number developing at any one time -in the cell may range from one or two to 100 or more. - -These larvae remain in the octopus as fully developed worms. But at -certain times the germ cells develop into much smaller individuals, -called infusorigens, hard to distinguish from large protozoa. These -never leave the birth cell inside the parent, but produce germ cells -of their own which develop into free-swimming creatures known as -infusoriforms. These break away from the grandparent worm and from the -octopus and become free-swimming animals. They are microscopic, less -than a 300th of an inch long. They live from three days to a week. Here -may be the borderline between single-celled and multi-celled animals—or -perhaps the greatest degeneration in animal life. - - - - -_The Monster Bear of Kamchatka_ - - -A gigantic black bear, probably the largest of flesh-eating animals, -lives in the dense, hardly explored pine forests of southern Kamchatka. -This creature still is unknown to science. So far as known it never has -been seen by a white man. There is, however, considerable evidence for -its existence presented in a report made several years ago by Dr. Sten -Bergman of the State Museum of Natural History at Stockholm, who spent -two years on the Kamchatka peninsula. - -Photographs have been taken of this animal’s footprints in the snow. -It leaves a track 15 inches long and ten inches wide. Dr. Bergman was -shown a pelt of the giant bear. It was the largest bearskin he ever -had seen, deep black in color, and covered with short hair in striking -contrast to the long hair of other Kamchatkan bears. He also saw a -gigantic bear skull, the teeth of which indicate that it belonged to a -young individual. - -Apparently this Kamchatkan black bear exceeds in size the Kodiak -Island bear, which lives across Bering Strait and is the largest -known flesh-eating mammal. The wildness of the country and its dense -vegetation have protected the giant bear from naturalists and hunters. -The whole land is a veritable paradise for bears who hide away in the -dense thickets along the Kamchatkan rivers and subsist on the abundant -salmon. They are so numerous that a native does not dare venture into -the bush in summer without first shouting to let the bears know he is -coming. They will keep out of a man’s way if they are warned, but are -likely to attack him if surprised. - -The great majority of the Kamchatkan bears are relatively small -animals, comparable to those of northern Europe. Some are black, but -the majority are yellowish-white or light brown. The giant animal may -be an extreme variation of this race, or may represent an entirely -different species. He naturally is the subject of much native -legendary. Some stories have been interpreted as indicating that -mammoths existed within the time of man in the northern wildernesses of -both hemispheres, but such a giant bear would fit the descriptions as -well as would a small elephant-like creature. - -If it were not for the great numbers of smaller bears, man scarcely -could subsist in this country. There are, for example, no roads through -the desolate land between the villages. But all along the rivers and -through the forests are well-marked paths made by the bears who seem to -have an engineering instinct in choosing the most logical places for -crossing morasses and mountains. These paths are about the only means -of human communication and eventually, if the land ever is settled, -will become the roads. In the same way elephant trails in Africa and -India and bison trails in the United States became the hard-surfaced -highways of today. Engineers hardly can improve on the instinct of the -animals. - -The small bears also play an important part in the domestic economy -of the few inhabitants. The thick, warm pelt is used as a bed. Out of -the skin the natives make reins, snowshoes and dog traces. The meat is -much appreciated. In remoter parts of the country the linings of the -intestines are used for windows instead of glass. Many of the native -medicines are derived from the bear. - -Both among the Kamchatka natives and the Ainu of northern Japan the -animal is revered as a god—the concept being that the great celestial -bear out of his benevolence to men provides creatures in his own form -to furnish them food and clothing. - - - - -_Strange Denizens of the Deep_ - - -Most fearsome of all sharks in appearance is Isistius braziliensis, -found in the tropical Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. It is a -wine-brown colored creature with sharp teeth set in 20 rows which glow -at night with an unearthly light. - -“When the specimen, taken at night, was removed into a dark apartment -it afforded a very extraordinary spectacle,” relates naturalist F. D. -Bennett. “The entire inferior surface of the body and head emitted a -vivid, greenish phosphorescent gleam, imparting to the creature, by its -own light, a truly ghastly and terrible appearance. The luminous effect -was constant and not perceptibly increased by agitation or friction. - -“When the shark expired, which was not until it had been out of the -water more than three hours, the luminous appearance faded entirely -from the abdomen and more gradually from other parts, lingering longest -around the jaws and on the fins. The only part of the under surface -of the animal which was free from the luminosity was the black collar -around the throat.” - -One of the sea’s strangest denizens is the bramble shark. It is a shark -of medium size whose body is almost completely covered with short, -sharp spines. This fantastic creature apparently is widely distributed -through the Atlantic and Pacific, but it is not likely to come into the -hands of collectors. Its general flabbiness stamps it as a deep water -animal and the anomalous position of its fins indicates that it is a -weak swimmer. Its spiny armament obviously is designed for protection. - -Entirely harmless, it is probable, are the giant “basking sharks”, -which sometimes reach a length of forty feet. When encountered they -rarely, if ever, try to defend themselves but attempt to escape by -swimming slowly away. Stories that this monster dives when harpooned -and sometimes will drag a small boat with its crew to the bottom now -are discredited. Although it reigns as a monster among sharks it is not -actually as dangerous as the common dogfish shark. - -Perhaps the most dangerous are the so-called “carchaodons”, found in -most warm seas although nowhere in abundance. They are among the most -powerful and voracious of fishes, but still far less frightful than -their fossil ancestors. The latter were the largest of all fishes; they -were probably twice the length of the largest basking or whale sharks. -Some were more than 88 feet long. - - - - -_Communism Among the Bees_ - - -Honey bees have achieved an ideal communistic state. All the 50,000 or -more members of a family—all progeny of a single queen—share and share -alike. A single sample of sugar or nectar brought into the hive by a -forager is participated in by all the bees. Thus all get essentially -the same diet. They all acquire a common odor by which they can -recognize each other. This odor constitutes a “scent language” which is -the basis of the extremely complex bee social life. - -These observations, based on experiments with radioactive sugar, are -reported by Dr. Roland Ribbands of Cambridge University. In one of -these experiments, Dr. Ribbands reports, “a marked bee is trained to -collect sugar solution from a small glass tube, and when radioactive -sugar is substituted the bee continues to collect the radioactive syrup -quite happily. It returns to the hive and what happens to the labeled -sugar can be followed quite easily. Every bee that receives some can -be spotted by means of a Geiger counter. By collecting a sample of -bees from the hive, one can discover what proportion of the colony has -acquired some of the sugar. One stomachful can be shared among almost -all the bees of a large colony. The experiments indicate that this -sharing is a random affair. The sugar is passed on irrespective of the -recipient’s age or occupation.” - -Building up of a colony odor through universal sharing of the food -supply enables members of the colony to recognize each other. This -apparently makes little difference when food is abundant but becomes of -great importance in periods of scarcity. - -“At those times of the year,” Dr. Ribbands points out, “when there are -insufficient flowers to provide all the bees with food, they often -try to steal the honey stored in other colonies. Then the ability to -recognize hive mates and to distinguish them from other honey bees will -enable a colony to defend itself against attempts at robbery. - -“However, the honey bee community does not defend itself by attacking -every invader that does not possess the community odor. Strangers are -attacked only under certain circumstances. In order to investigate -these circumstances two colonies of differently colored bees were -placed close together, with their entrances only two inches apart, -so that bees often went into the wrong colony by mistake. When good -supplies of nectar were available, the intruders were allowed to enter -the strange colony, but when nectar was short the strangers were -attacked and thrown out, often being killed in the process. - -“Production of a common and distinctive odor which enables the colony -to defend itself against members of other communities is a very -important consequence of the habit of food-sharing. Better sharing -means better defense and so a greater likelihood that the community -will be able to survive and perpetuate its kind. The habit plays the -key role in the system of communication which enables the new forager -to learn about suitable crops, in that the new recruit always receives -a sample of the crop the colony is working. The first flight becomes a -search for a crop with a similar scent. The habit enables the worker -bees in a colony to be apprised of the presence of their queen. A -substance derived from her body is conveyed from bee to bee in the -shared food, and in the event of any deficiency in the substance they -take steps to rear another queen. - -“In addition, it probably helps to ensure an effective division of -labor in the colony, which has to be so integrated that a suitable -proportion of the worker population carries out each of the various -tasks necessary for maintenance of the colony.” - - - - -_Candles on Bushes_ - - -In parts of Colombia candles in the form of white, wax-like berries -grow on bushes. These berries produce oil of such excellent quality -that it is used almost exclusively for altar lamps in Catholic churches -throughout the country. - -The berries grow abundantly on a jungle plant with leaves like those -of rhubarb. In only one part of the country is the plant cultivated. -It is a crop of the semi-hostile Paez Indians. Harvesting is somewhat -difficult because the oil-containing white seed is inside a burred -coat. This must be removed and the seeds placed in hot water. The oil -rises to the surface where it can be skimmed off. - -When it is desired to make candles a dozen or more berries are strung -on a stick. Such a candle gives off a beautiful, soft light. - - - - -_The Desert Rat Manufactures Water_ - - -All animals require water in their bodies, but some can get it without -actually drinking. The desert rat which lives among the bare sand -dunes of California’s Death Valley, can get along indefinitely without -water and with only dry barley seeds for food. In spite of this about -65 percent of its body weight is water. Most of the water is actually -made in the animal’s body. The rat’s digestive processes extract the -hydrogen contained in the barley seeds and combine it with oxygen in -the air to create water. - - - - -_The Caste System of the Termite_ - - -The oldest civilization on earth is that of the termites. The -super-organization which these blind white creatures of the dark have -achieved precedes by thousands of millenia those of the ants and the -bees. Termites have a far longer history on earth, being considered -modifications of the ancient cockroaches who were among the first -insects to leave any traces of their existence on land. Cockroaches -swarmed in the club moss forests at least 250,000,000 years ago. The -termite order is at least 30 million years old; some of its most -primitive forms still are alive. - -In most of the approximately 2,000 species of termites which have -been identified all over the world there are five castes, apparently -determined from birth although not so rigidly as among ants. First are -the winged males and females with large brains and eyes and hard, dark -shells. These depart in great swarms from the ancestral nest once or -twice a year, usually in spring and fall. They are feeble flyers and -depend chiefly on transportation by air currents. The majority are -eaten by birds. The few surviving pairs from such a flight excavate -cells in the earth or in wood and start new colonies. There is at least -one king and one queen in each cell. Sometimes there are two or more -pair. They remain partners for life. Both are imprisoned within the -cell. Before entering it they slough off their wings, which henceforth -would be worthless. - -The termite queen becomes an inert, egg-laying machine, sometimes the -size of a small potato. In some species she lays an average of sixty -eggs a minute, or 80,000 a day. She may live as long as ten years. -Thus each queen ideally produces about a half billion new individuals. -Her bulk increases as much as 50-fold in adult life—about the most -phenomenal growth in nature. - -The second termite caste, for which there is no parallel among the -ants, consists of both males and females with only rudiments of wings, -less fully developed reproductive organs, and somewhat smaller eyes and -brains. They presumably serve only as an auxiliary royalty, functioning -in case the true rulers die. Apparently by some subtle alchemy known -only to termites they can be transformed into fully functioning sexual -individuals if an emergency arises. - -A third caste is made up of smaller insects with extremely minute -eyes and brains and barely discernible reproductive organs. Below -them come the entirely unpigmented, soft-bodied workers with still -smaller eyes and brains—usually, in fact, with no eyes at all. These -still are potentially males and females, in distinction to any society -where all workers and soldiers are female. Lowest in the scale are the -big-headed, blind soldiers, also of both sexes, with barely a trace of -brain. - -Relative numbers in these castes differ from species to species. An -analysis of an Australian termite colony accounted for 1,560,500 -workers, 200,000 soldiers, and 44,000 potentially reproductive -individuals. - - - - -_The Shark That Stands Upright_ - - -Monster of Gulf of Mexico waters is a shark which weights from ten to -twelve tons and is from 30 to 50 feet long. Largest of its ancient -family and an entirely inoffensive creature, this strange animal -literally stands upright while feeding. - -On a recent trip a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ship encountered -several large schools of black-finned tuna. In the middle of each -school was a large object which looked like a barrel. This object was -the snout of a whale shark. - -The creature kept opening its enormous mouth two or three inches below -the surface. From 50 to 100 gallons of water would flow into the mouth -and be strained out through the gills. This water was full of larval -crustaceans, or banded shrimps, about a half-inch long. - -In each observed case the body of the shark stood vertically. Why each -shark should select a school of tuna and put itself almost precisely in -the center of the swarming fish is a complete mystery. It does not eat -tuna, except possibly very small ones. Presumably, however, it feeds -on about the same sort of material as the fish. It knows there is food -where the tuna congregate. - -The whale shark is among the most mysterious of the larger sea animals. -It is a solitary creature, seldom seen. Its tiny teeth are only about -one fifteenth of an inch long and it is supposedly entirely a feeder on -plankton, the minute organisms which abound in sea water. - - - - -_The Dead Man’s Vine_ - - -A semi-legendary plant in Colombia is the ayahuasco or dead man’s vine. -From it Indians make a brew which, it is claimed, is quite similar to -the imaginary drug by which Dr. Jekyll split the good and evil elements -of his character. When a medicine man first gulps the brew—this is -an ethnological report which the botanists cannot confirm—he turns -deadly pale, trembles in every limb, and the expression on his face is -one of intense pain and horror. This is followed in about a minute by -a reckless fury in which he seizes whatever lies at hand and starts -beating the trees and ground. In about ten minutes the excitement -leaves him and he falls to the earth, completely exhausted. There are -not as yet any scientific accounts of the plant’s influence. - - - - -_The Insect With Fourteen Lives_ - - -A pinhead-sized wormlike larva of a louse may possess one of life’s -ultimate secrets—an elixir of controlled growth. - -The strange ways of life of hormophis hamamelidid—which goes through -fourteen different life stages in the course of a year’s lifetime—are -being studied by scientists in the hope of isolating a mysterious -something which may open the door of some of the greatest paradoxes of -biology. - -The insect is an aphis which causes galls, growths comparable to -animal cancers, on witch hazel leaves. These growths result when the -aphis injects into the leaf by means of a microscopic apparatus like a -hypodermic needle an infinitesimally minute amount of an unidentified -substance. The gall grows around and over the insect. It becomes the -tiny creature’s home. - -The substance completely changes the nature of the plant cells. They -normally would become leaf cells, highly specialized to fit into -leaf growth. Now they become gall cells. Something similar happens -in cancer, except that the new cell growth, having escaped from the -government of the animal body, is entirely uncontrolled. The gall -cells, however, still remain under some sort of control. They always -form galls and they do not kill the leaf, which is necessary for their -existence. - -Marvelous is the life story of the aphis itself. The sequence starts -with a “stem mother”, a newly hatched female. She injects the substance -into the leaf and the house builds itself around her. Inside this house -she passes through four stages. Her structure changes completely four -times. That is, she becomes in a sense four different animals, one -after another. In the fourth stage she gives birth to from fifty to a -hundred living young. - -Each of these young, in turn, goes through four stages. In the last -of these they have wings. The winged insects crawl out through a hole -in the bottom of the gall. Each produces from ten to twenty young on -the bottom of the leaf. Each of the young, in turn, goes through five -stages. During the last they are both males and females. This is the -only time the male makes its appearance in the life cycle. All the -other births are by parthogenesis. - -Each of the females lays eggs in the winter on the witch hazel. The -buds are destined to become leaves in the early Spring. The eggs -hatch a few days before the leaves appear. Each of the newly hatched -aphids—all females—injects some of the house-building material into the -leaf upon which she finds herself. She becomes a new “stem mother” and -the strange process starts all over again. - -The rapid reproduction rate might well be overwhelming to the witch -hazels, and consequently suicidal for the insects, except for certain -enemies which keep down the numbers of the “lice”. Such tiny forms of -life as larval lacewings are able to crawl through the hole in the -bottom of the gall and feed on the occupants during their various -stages. - -University of Virginia biologists who have been giving particular -attention to the aphis are interested primarily in the substance -injected into the leaves. It must be one of the most potent growth -factors in nature. The amount any one aphid is able to inject is -indescribably minute, even though some of them make as many as 50 -separate injections. The material causes the leaf cells to become -larger and to multiply much more rapidly until a “house” many times the -size of the aphis is complete in a few days. The structure is perfect, -even including a “picket fence” of tiny hairs around its base to keep -out invaders. - -The substance exists in such minute amounts that thus far it has been -impossible to isolate it in anything approaching a pure form. The -Virginia biologists have set themselves a task requiring infinite -patience over many years—tracing the increase of the amount in the -salivary glands of each individual through each of its fourteen lives, -and also through the eggs with which the strange life cycle starts. - -The present clues indicate that the substance is a filterable -virus—tiniest of living things compared with which the pinhead-sized -aphis is like a whale compared to a fly. - - - - -_Shyness Characteristic of Giant Rats_ - - -Biggest of the extant true rats is the giant rat of Liberia. It is two -feet or more in length and is similar in appearance to the Norway rat -which infests houses all over the world. Fortunately this creature -never has invaded the homes of men. It is a shy animal of the cane -brakes. - - - - -_Nocturnal Potto_ - - -One of the weirdest of living mammals is the potto—“ghost monkey”, of -West African jungles. It is about the size of a squirrel, with soft, -yellow fur and protruding yellow eyes which shine like malevolent witch -lights in the darkness of the jungle nights. The potto is a nocturnal -animal of the tree tops. Its weird, whimpering cries are believed by -natives to be the voices of evil spirits. The little creature is an -aberrant member of the family of lemurs, ancient offshoots of the same -family from which sprang the monkeys and great apes. - - - - -_Where Trees are Square_ - - -A few miles north of the Panama Canal Zone is “the valley of square -trees.” This is the only known place in the world where trees have -rectangular trunks. They are members of the cottonwood family. Saplings -of these trees now are being grown at the University of Florida to find -out if they retain their squareness in a different environment. It is -believed, however, that the shape is probably due to some unknown but -purely local condition. That the cause is deep-seated is indicated by -the fact that the tree rings, each representing a year’s growth, also -are square. - - - - -_The Lamp That is a Beetle_ - - -The most brilliant animal luminescence known is that of the carbuncle -beetles of Puerto Rico. They emit a light so brilliant that one or two -inside an inverted tumbler illuminate a room of moderate size so that -one can read a newspaper at night. Fields are illuminated brilliantly -every night by these beetles, flying about a foot above the ground. The -light is not intermittent, and seems nearly continuous. It varies from -yellow to green for different species; occasionally it is yellowish-red. - - - - -_Rainstorms of Worms_ - - -Rains of worms often have been reported. After a summer shower surfaces -of puddles sometimes will be found covered with countless thread worms -or nematodes. These worms have just come out of the bodies of water -beetles and other insects, where they have developed as parasites. -Before the shower the insects were dormant. These little worms in farm -watering troughs led to the long-held belief that horsehairs sometimes -changed into worms. - -This does not, however, explain the following report in the _Levant -Times_, an English newspaper published in Constantinople, of August 6, -1872: - -“A letter from Bucharest reports a curious atmospheric phenomenon which -happened there on the 25th ult. a quarter past nine in the evening. -During the day the heat had been stifling and the sky was cloudless. In -the evening everybody went out walking and the gardens were crowded. -The ladies were mostly dressed in white, low-necked robes. - -“Toward nine o’clock a small cloud appeared on the horizon and a -quarter of an hour afterwards rain began to fall which, to the horror -of everybody was found to consist of black worms the size of ordinary -flies. All the streets of Bucharest were strewn with these curious -animals.” - - - - -_The Icy Arctic Wonderland_ - - -Abundant and fantastic are the creatures of the shallow Arctic sea -bottom. All are invertebrates—worms, sea anemones and a host of other -creatures—most of whom spend their lives buried in the mud. - -Some of the creatures and their curious ways of life: - -Ribbon worms which, when washed ashore, literally tie themselves in -knots, curl up in balls, and secrete bags of mucous around themselves. - -Bright green spoon worms about three inches long. These formerly were -eaten by Eskimos. - -Billions of small, transparent and essentially invisible arrow worms. -One species, about a half inch long, apparently is the kangaroo of the -worm world. - -An important element of the bottom fauna at Point Barrow, Alaska, are -the lace worms. Hardly a stone in the area does not have at least one -lace or moss patch. - -There is a delicately peach-colored sea anemone, a bottom-dwelling -animal remotely related to the coral polyps, which display an amazing -phenomenon, according to a Smithsonian report by Dr. G. E. MacGintie: -“When it was subjected to unfavorable conditions, such as overcrowding -in a pan of water,” he says, “It cast out through the mouth a -translucent, white inner lining with transparent, stubby tentacles. -These tentacles were tiny anemones. If conditions remained adverse more -offspring were cast off, each lot smaller than its predecessor.” That -is, when in trouble the animal spits out babies—presumably an emergency -measure for preservation of the species and a way of reproduction not -hitherto recorded. Apparently the same phenomenon occurs in the sea. -Partly-grown specimens of these offspring dredged from the bottom, at -first were mistaken for new species. Some of these sea anemones are -quite colorful—one purplish red, one lavender, one lemon-yellow, and -one with translucent, peach-colored tentacles. - -Numerically the most abundant animals of the Arctic are the amphipod -fleas which form an important food source for fish and seals. Great -numbers live on the undersides of ice cakes from which the bearded seal -sweeps them with its whiskers. - - - - -_Fish That Live on Land_ - - -Siam and Burma are the lands of queer fish—climbing fish, stone-eating -fish, hunting fish, dry-land fish, singing fish and archer fish. - -In the distant geological past, life on this planet was confined to -the seas. Eventually some creature belonging to the common ancestry of -terrestrial animals and fish emerged from the water and over a period -of countless generations, established itself on land. Something of the -same general sort of development may be taking place in Siamese lakes -and rivers today, with a new kind of land animal in the process of -evolution. Currently, two or three species of fish are learning to live -out of water for considerable periods. At least one of them appears to -have reached the stage where it must breathe air to survive. - -These evolving dry land fish were studied intensively by the late Dr. -Hugh M. Smith, fisheries advisor to the Siamese government for twelve -years. One is a species somewhat like a perch in general appearance. -It belongs to a group which has an accessory respiratory organ, perhaps -the beginning of a lung, situated in a cavity above the gills, by which -oxygen may be taken directly from the atmosphere. The gills themselves -appear inadequate to sustain life. The fish probably would drown, -although the process would be very slow, if kept too long under water. - -A common method of fishing in Siam is with a spade. Some fish spend as -much as four months of each year buried in damp soil. Local fishermen -dig two or three feet deep in the marshes for them. - - - - -_The Special Language of Bees_ - - -Study of bee language now has advanced to differentiation of bee -dialects. Some years ago Dr. Karl von Frisch of the University of -Munich established the fact that bees actually possessed a means -by which they could communicate with each other and without which -the remarkable organization within the swarm would have been nearly -inexplicable. Their language consists primarily of signs, like that of -deaf and dumb persons. Dr. von Frisch reached the point where he could -get some idea of what the bees were talking about and even predict -their behavior from their conversation. - -Recently Dr. von Frisch has found that different varieties have quite -different languages, perhaps as far apart as French and German; one -variety cannot tell what another is discussing. He has gone one step -further—to the discovery that the insects probably talk also in sounds -that are inaudible to the human ear. The audible buzzing is not a means -of communication. - -“There are indications,” he says in a report to the Rockefeller -Foundation, “that sounds, probably in the supersonic range, play a role -in their communications. - -“Physiologically it would be interesting to know how they judge -distance. Their dances indicate with remarkable exactness the distance -between the hive and the feeding place. How do they adjust themselves -to the changing positions of the sun when they use it as a compass? -Apparently they have an excellent memory for time, for they seem to -know that the sun at a certain time will occupy a certain place in the -heavens.” - -Dr. von Frisch and his colleagues at the University of Munich are also -making an intensive study of the insect eye and the physiology of the -insect sense of smell. Previous research has shown that worker bees -have a special scent gland under voluntary control. Only when a good -source of nectar is found is the fragrance, evidently quite powerful -and attractive to other bees, released. Then it permeates the immediate -neighborhood. It is the bee language equivalent for the word “Here.” -When a cruising worker gets a whiff of this odor it knows there is a -plentiful supply of nectar close at hand and starts a search for it. - -Bees cannot distinguish red from black, Dr. von Frisch has found. -This probably is the reason so few red-blossoming plants depend on -these insects for distributing their pollen. Nearly all red-blossoming -species depend on birds and butterflies, both of which are acutely -sensitive to red. One notable exception, however, is the European poppy -whose brilliant red blossoms carpet the landscape in late Spring. The -German experimenter has found that these blossoms are not “red” to the -bee. They possess a color which cannot be described because it cannot -be experienced by the human eye. The poppy blossoms reflect a great -deal of the ultraviolet light in sunshine and to this the bee eye is -extremely sensitive. The color must be quite different from any of the -shades at the blue end of the spectrum which are visible to man. To the -bee it is probably somewhat like violet. - -Even the more or less degenerate human nose can be trained to -discriminate some of the bee odors that apparently have so much meaning -in the life of the hive. After practising for a few months Dr. N. E. -McIndoo of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was able to recognize -the three castes—queens, drones and workers—merely by smelling them. -With more practice he was able to make even finer discriminations, as -he reports: - -“The younger the workers the less pronounced is the odor emitted. To -the human nose the odor from nurse bees and wax generators is much less -pronounced than is that from old workers. Workers just emerged from the -cells have a faint, sweetish odor, but lack the characteristic bee odor -and workers removed from the cells just before they begin cutting their -way out omit a still fainter sweetish odor. - -“Old queens have a strong sweetish odor, while that of queens just -emerged from cells is much pronounced as is the bee odor of the -workers. The majority of old drones have a faint odor while every young -drone has a stronger one. It is slightly different from that of young -workers and is less sweetish. - -“All the offspring of the same queen seem to inherit a peculiar odor -from her, which becomes the family odor. Apparently each worker emits -an individual odor which is different from that of any other worker. - -“Of all odors, that of the hive is most important. It seems to be -the most fundamental factor upon which the social life of the colony -depends, and upon which the social habit perhaps was acquired.” - -Taste discrimination is roughly parallel to that of humans. The bee -certainly can distinguish the primary tastes, sweet, salty, sour -and bitter. It naturally is keenly sensitive to different degrees -of sweetness, yet some sugars which are extremely sweet to man are -tasteless to the insects. The same is true of such sweeteners as -saccharin. The bee’s sense of smell also runs parallel to that of man, -both in the ability to discriminate fine difference in odors and in the -thresholds of sensitivity. This appears to be a very important factor -in the location of nectar-bearing flowers. However, the bee appears -unable to detect an odor from any great distance. It is probably due -to the sense of smell that scout bees are able to locate good feeding -grounds. After marking them with their own peculiar secreted odor they -return immediately to the hive to tell the others about them. The dance -of a returned scout varies in intensity according to the richness of -the find and the workers who witness it become correspondingly excited. -If the scout executes only a feeble dance there is only a small exodus -from the hive. - - - - -_Poisonous Platters of the Sea_ - - -One of the most dreaded of all sea creatures is the venomous sting -ray of which there are several hundred species distributed over the -world, mostly in tropical waters. On the upper side of the tail is a -saw-toothed bone dagger from two to fifteen inches long which can be -driven through a man’s leg. The teeth extrude a venom quite similar to -that of the rattlesnake. - -Largest is the giant sting ray of Australian waters. A full-grown -specimen weighs about 800 pounds. The fearsome and gruesome bat sting -ray of the California coast weighs up to 200 pounds and is quite -abundant. - -All the rays are bottom dwelling animals, leading sedentary lives on -flat, sandy ground. All are carnivorous, devouring smaller fish and -mollusks. Fortunately they are not very aggressive and will flee from -man if given warning. Still, life guard stations along the California -beaches reported nearly 400 injuries from the creatures in the summer -of 1952. - - - - -_Our Un-American Food_ - - -A half dozen vanished civilizations make their contributions to the -American Thanksgiving dinner: onions from ancient Egypt, peas from -Ethiopia, parsnips and turnips from ancient China. - -Aztec, Maya, the skin-wrapped Cro-Magnon all did their part in the -darkness of pre-history to make possible the plates which are loaded so -lavishly. They did better than they knew. Very few new vegetables have -been introduced in historic times. In many cases little improvement has -been made on the products of the ancients. - -The story of potatoes alone contains enough romance and adventure -for a good-sized novel. Its origin is unknown but its wanderings from -America to Europe and back to America again constitute a fascinating -story. - -Cultivated lettuce never has been found wild. It is believed to have -been derived from India or Central Asia. It is one of the oldest -known vegetables. Herodotus, Hippocrates and Aristotle mention it in -references to Greek gardens. Chaucer notes its cultivation in England -in 1340. Sixteen varieties are listed as being grown in American -gardens as early as 1806. - -Celery is a biennial plant native to the marshlands of southern Europe, -North Africa and southwestern Asia. It long was considered poisonous -and was not used as food until modern times. - -The Israelites complained to Moses in the Wilderness because they -couldn’t have onions to which they had become accustomed during the -captivity in Egypt. The cultivated onion probably originated in -Afghanistan. - -Pumpkins and squashes were grown in America long before white men -came on the scene. Evidence of both have been found among ruins of -settlements of the Basket Makers, about the earliest agricultural -people on this continent. They probably came from Mexico. The Hubbard -squash came to light in Marblehead, Mass., in 1855. It had been growing -there for more than 50 years. - -Peas are the oldest known vegetables. They are believed to have -originated in Ethiopia but to have spread over Europe and Asia long -before the dawn of history. They were eaten—perhaps even cultivated -after a fashion—by men of Europe’s Stone Age. Columbus planted some -in the West Indies in 1493. They spread rapidly among the Indians and -became one of the chief crops of the Iroquois. - -The species from which cabbage is derived grows wild in North Africa -and along the European shore of the Mediterranean. It has been -cultivated for 4,000 years. Greeks and Romans grew it in their gardens. -Most of the American varieties, however, originated in North Europe. - -The turnip is a native of central and western China. Seed probably was -brought to America by some of the earliest European settlers. - -The radish is a native of China and India. It was cultivated by both -the Greeks and the Egyptians. The parsnip is another Asiatic root crop. -It first was planted in Virginia in 1690. Only recently has it gotten -away from the home garden to become a commercial crop. - -Popcorn is peculiarly American. In early Spanish writings reference is -made to a ritual of the Aztecs in which “one hour before dawn there -sallied forth all these maidens crowned with garlands of maize, toasted -and popped, the grains of which were like orange blossoms—and on their -necks thick festoons of the same which passed under the left arm.” - - - - -_Worms That Commit Mass Suicide_ - - -An entire generation of worms commits suicide every year. Every -individual casts off its own head. - -These worms are a Himalayan variety of naids, fresh water animals -vaguely related to earthworms. They are reddish-brown and seldom more -than an inch long. The majority of the worms live with their heads -buried in the mud, tail ends waving freely in the air. Upon any alarm -their bodies contract leaving no signs of life. - -Early in the Spring these worms literally lose these heads and die. -Compared with those of most worms, their regenerative powers are quite -feeble. It is believed that the decapitation is due to the fact that -egg-laying is accompanied by such violent contractions of the body that -the front segments are disconnected. - -Every few years there is a report from somewhere in the United States -or Europe of enormous numbers of dead earthworms covering the ground. -A correspondent of the British scientific journal, Nature, reported in -1921: “About the middle of March I saw millions of dead worms morning -after morning on pavements, roads and paths. They were great and small, -young and old, of every known species and genus. They lay prone and -even when they were able to reach a grass plot alive they lacked the -power to burrow.” The phenomenon is unexplained. Examination of the -dead worms shows no unusual parasite or evidence of disease. - - - - -_Fish That Survive Freezing_ - - -There is a realm of “supercooled life.” Its denizens are deep water -fish that live long and happily in temperatures below the freezing -point of their blood. But whenever one of them comes in contact with -even a single crystal of ice it freezes almost instantly. This strange -phenomenon of marine life has been observed by biologists of the Woods -Hole Oceanographic Institute. - -These particular fish live at the bottom of Hebron fjord in northern -Labrador. The temperature there is about 1.7 below zero centigrade. -Some have been caught, brought to the surface, and then plunged into a -bath of sea water cooled to exactly the same temperature. They survived -for several hours. When, however, one of them came in contact with -an ice crystal, it froze stiff in a few seconds. The explanation, it -appears, is that these fish normally live below the depth at which it -is possible for ice crystals to form in water. - -Very careful experiments have shown that water can be carried far -below its normal freezing point if it is kept entirely motionless -and is absolutely free from minute particles of any sort which -are necessary for the formation of ice crystals. This is about -the condition that exists at the fjord bottom. Eventually, if the -temperature is taken lower and lower, such water will solidify, but -into a form far different from ice. It is noncrystalline and can best -be compared with glass. But even if this happened in the Hebron fjord -it would not necessarily bother the fish. Their blood presumably would -turn to glass. There would be no breaking of body cells such as results -from the swelling of ice crystals. After an indefinite period the -animals might be brought out of the solid state, if the thawing could -be accomplished quickly enough, none the worse for their experience. -This has been accomplished with very minute organisms, but any -techniques which might be used with higher plants or animals have not -yet been discovered. - -The extent of life in the supercooled world is unknown. It hardly can -be confined to fish. All sorts of mollusks, echinoderms and worms also -are bottom dwellers in Arctic and Antarctic waters. It’s not cold, but -ice, that kills. - - - - -_Plants That Kill_ - - -The lethal dose Socrates was condemned to swallow by the -stuffed-shirtism of ancient Athens was d-propyl-piperidine. This is the -deadly alkaloid in the spotted hemlock, a common European weed which -now grows extensively over most of the eastern United States. A closely -related European species is the cowbane which cows instinctively will -not nibble. - -The devastating illness which fell upon 10,000 Greeks of the -Anabasis, Xenophon would have been interested to know, was caused -by andromedotoxin. This is a resinous substance common to plants of -the heath family the world over. It is the poisonous constituent of -rhododendron, mountain laurel and some kinds of azalgias. Honey from -the blossoms of plants containing it is extremely poisonous. - -When pioneers first pushed their way over the Appalachians their -settlements were ravaged by epidemics of a fatal disease—milk sickness. -Farms and villages were abandoned as terror-stricken settlers fled -from the scourge. It was due to tremetol, a complex chemical which has -been found in several plants—chiefly white snakeroot which causes the -disease east of the Mississippi. When cows eat the snakeroot the poison -passes into the milk. - -By far the most virulent plant growing in the United States is very -little known although it has caused many fatalities. This is the -water hemlock or cicula—very different from the spotted hemlock whose -extract was forced upon Socrates. It grows in low, swampy places nearly -everywhere. When the ground is soft in the spring its roots can be -pulled easily from the soil and have a pleasant odor that attracts -children. It causes heavy losses of livestock. - -Next in virulence of all American plants is the whorled milkweed which -contains a closely allied resinous material not yet satisfactorily -analyzed. It has caused the death of countless cattle. - - - - -_Caterpillars That Pretend to be Snakes_ - - -There are worm-snakes, snake-worms, and wormlike animals that -instinctively imitate snakes. This is especially true of certain South -American caterpillars—defenseless creatures whose only security is in -mimicry. - -A large, green tree-living caterpillar in British Guiana ordinarily -remains motionless and looks like part of a vine stem. But when the -branch is shaken it rears the front part of its body and stretches -horizontally. At the same time it gives a twist expanding its front -segment into a bulbous enlargement with a big menacing black eyespot -surrounded by a yellow ring. This it remains for a few minutes, looking -very much like a poisonous tree snake that lives among green leaves. - -Serpent caterpillars abound in Brazil. The best example is Leucorhampha -triptolemus, a creature that hangs vertically from stems of plants. -When disturbed it twists and shows a front extremely resembling the -head and back of a snake. The curve of the caterpillar is just like -that of a serpent. It keeps up a swaying, side-to-side movement for -several seconds. The whole effect is to change what seems an innocent -plant stem suddenly into an open-mouthed snake with red jaws and -ferocious eyes. - - - - -_All Plants Are Luminous_ - - -All green foliage gives off an invisible deep red—almost black—light. -This phenomenon is one of the most fundamental processes of life. It is -associated closely with the photosynthesis upon which depends all life -on earth. This important discovery was made recently by biologists at -the Oak Ridge laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission while studying -changes in a chemical known as adenosine triphosphate in plants engaged -in photosynthesis, the formation of starches and sugars out of hydrogen -from the soil and carbon from the atmosphere in the presence of light. -Newly acquired knowledge about the process is paving the way to -improved agricultural methods. - -The biologists used extracts from the bodies of fireflies which give -off a bright light when this chemical—an important source of energy -in muscle—is present. Then they found that chloroplasts, the parts of -plants most closely associated with the photosynthetic process, also -would give off light when mixed with firefly juice and illuminated. -They then made the unexpected discovery that living extracts of green -plants give off a light of their own without any mixing. - -The light given off by the chloroplasts now is believed to be the exact -opposite of the first chemical step in photosynthesis. Light absorbed -by the chloroplasts forms unstable chemical bonds within the plant. -A small fraction of these chemically induced compounds recombine. -The energy liberated by this process is trapped by the chlorophyll -molecule, which in turn gives off the mysterious light. - -It has been established that leaves, if frozen while exposed to -illumination, retain their light-producing ability for several months. -It also has been found that certain extracts prepared from leaves -undergoing exposure to light contain substances which give off a bright -light when certain chemicals are added to them. - - - - -_Worms That Live in the Snow_ - - -There are jet black worms that live in red snow. They come out of their -snow burrows only during the late summer evening, crawl sluggishly on -the surface, and disappear at sunrise the next morning. They have been -observed swimming in shallow pools that form on the surface of the -great Malaspina glacier which flows down the slope of Mount St. Elias -in Alaska. - -Presumably during the long sub-Arctic winter these worms burrow deep -in the snow and remain in a torpid state. They subsist chiefly on the -microscopic red algae which give the glacial snow fields a reddish -tinge. The black worms themselves are innumerable. They have been -photographed covering a trail a quarter-mile long at an elevation of -5200 feet in Oregon. They are enchytraeids, relatives of earthworms. -The common white variety now is raised commercially in vast numbers, -on diets of oat meal and sour milk, as food for fancy varieties of -aquarium fish. Both worms and insects that normally live in snow fields -are black. - -An investigator of the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory once -found a multitude of white enchytraeids in cakes of ice cut from a -Massachusetts pond the previous winter. They were active when the ice -thawed but all died in a few days. The same investigator kept thirty -specimens of another species in a tumbler of water placed on a ledge -outside his laboratory window. On a cold night the water froze solid -with the worms in a tangled mass in the center of the ice cake. All -but three or four were alive and appeared normal when the ice was -thawed. - -About 75 years ago housewives of Salina, Kansas, complained that -the ice delivered from door to door was “wormy.” Cakes were found -honeycombed with tiny white worms, probably enchytraeids. They swam -about actively when the ice thawed and infested food stored in -refrigerators. All died when the temperature reached about 60 F. - -Whether any worm—except possibly the most minute—can survive complete -freezing is doubtful. They live in little holes that form naturally -when water freezes and that are kept open by heat generated by the -bodies of the creatures themselves. - - - - -_The Strange Ways of Snails_ - - -Among earth’s deadliest creatures are cone snails which inject into -their victims a poison as virulent as that of the rattlesnakes. These -snail-like animals have a poison-secreting gland in the head and the -venom is injected through the skin of the victim by tiny, needle-sharp, -harpoon-shaped teeth. It is deadly not only to many kinds of sea -animals but also to man. The poison, acting on the nervous system, may -in some cases kill in several hours. - -Fortunately cone-shells are timid, retiring, slow-moving creatures. -They are among the loveliest of all sea shells. Most valuable is the -“glory-of-the-seas” cone which is worth several hundred dollars. Of -the twenty known specimens in the world, only three are in American -collections. Of the 300 or more known varieties only five or six from -the Indo-Pacific area are definitely known to be venomous. - -The “emperor’s top shell” is among the earth’s most exquisite and, -until recently the rarest of sea shells. This shell, about five -inches in diameter, belongs to a sea snail of a genus fairly abundant -during the Mesozioc geological period about 300,000,000 years ago and -supposedly extinct until about eight years ago when one was found -alive in a Japanese lobster trap. Thereafter the snail was seen very -rarely until the present Emperor of Japan ordered that all specimens -be preserved for his private collection. Fortunately his interest -encouraged Japanese fishermen to keep a special look-out for the -creatures and since then they have been found quite frequently. They -apparently are distributed around the world in semi-tropical waters. -Two species have been located in the West Indies and a new one recently -has been reported in South Africa. The shells are rich golden-orange in -color, highlighted with reds and salmons. - -In the Smithsonian collections are specimens of the “original shell -collector”—the snail that collects shells. This sea snail, widely -distributed in tropical waters, has the habit of gluing to its own -shell fragments of the shells of other animals, bits of coral, and -almost every kind of debris it can pick up. The purpose is not known, -but it may be for protective camouflage. Seen in shallow water, the -creature looks like a little pile of broken shells on the sea bottom. - -There is a “worm snail” that builds great limestone causeways and -bridges. This is the shelled sea-snail of the Mediterranean—Termetus -(wormlike). When the creature is young its shell is a regular spiral -which the owner, free to move about, carries on its back and into -which it can retreat when alarmed. As the snail ages the shell becomes -twisted and contorted, like a tube, and is attached to an offshore -rock. The animal crawls inside and soon dies. There are inestimably -great numbers of these gastropods. They fix their shell tombs close -together. These coil around each other to form solid masses of rock. -Quatrefages, describes them in these words: “In Sicily where calcarous -rocks projected into the sea I found they were surrounded by a kind of -causeway which, without varying much in width, yet followed all the -sinuosities of the shore almost exactly on a level with the surface of -the water, filling up narrow chasms in some places and forming solid -archways in others. Thus it afforded a smooth and easy path to one -who did not object to having his legs washed by the waves. One might -suppose the white and compact cement had been consolidated by man.” - -The love life of some snails is confusing to Freudians. Each animal -is provided with a quiver full of arrows, located in the right side -of the neck. These darts can be discharged with considerable force. -They are straight or curved shafts of carbonate of lime which taper to -exceedingly fine points. During the breeding season the little mollusks -meet in pairs. A couple will station themselves about an inch apart -and start shooting at each other. Several darts are exchanged and each -finds its mark. After this love duel the two embrace and, since each is -both male and female, both lay eggs. The darts presumably were first -developed as defense weapons and, outmoded for service of Mars millions -of generations ago, now have been turned to the service of Eros. - -Showers of snails have been reported intermittently. One of the most -notable took place back in 1892 at the German town of Padeborn. Late in -August a great yellow cloud was seen over the town. In a few minutes -it burst into a torrential rain. Afterwards the pavements were covered -with water snails, all with shells broken after their long fall from -the sky. - -Some snails can bore holes in solid rock. One, found chiefly on the -French channel coast near Boulogne, has bored holes six inches deep and -an inch in diameter with a cup-shaped cavity at the bottom. The cavity -is used for the animal’s hibernation. - -A few snails are natural barometers. They reputedly are extremely -sensitive to changes in humidity. One, generally grey, turns yellow -just before a rain and blue afterwards. - -Snails admittedly are very tenacious of life and can endure extremes of -heat, cold and dessication. Many instances have been cited, some nearly -incredible. In 1846, for example, a desert snail from Egypt was fixed -to a paper tablet in the British Museum in London. Four years later -it was observed that he had discolored the paper in his attempt to -get away. Finding escape impossible he had again retired. This led to -his immersion in tepid water. The creature again came to life. He was -“alive and flourishing” a week later. - -There are snail harpists and even singing snails. The former were -described by Rev. H. G. Barnacle, British missionary-naturalist, in a -scholarly paper written in 1848: “When up in the mountains of Oahu, I -heard the grandest but wildest music as from hundreds of aeolean harps -wafted to me on the breeze and a native told me it came from singing -shells. It was sublime. I could not believe it but a tree close at -hand proved it. Upon it were thousands of the snails. The animals drew -after them their shells which grated against the wood and so caused the -sounds. The multitude of sounds produced the fanciful music.” - -The singing snails in Ceylon’s blackish Lake Batticaloa were described -by the British naturalist Sir Emerson Tennent: “Sounds came up from -the water like gentle thrills of a musical chord or like the faint -vibrations of a wine glass when the rim is rubbed by a moistened -finger. It was not one sustained note but a multitude of tiny sounds, -each clear and distinct in itself. On applying the ear to the woodwork -of the boat the vibrations greatly increased in volume. The natives -said they were made by singing snails.” - - - - -_Vision-Producing Plants_ - - -Among the plants used by California Indians for food, medicine, and -magic is wild tobacco. It is smoked in a hollow elder stick, about -eight inches long, from which the pith has been removed. A few -inhalations of the smoke early in the morning are enough to overcome -the smoker so that he is unable to stand on his feet. He inhales until -extreme dizziness is achieved and then he touches tobacco no more -for the rest of the day. Indians can give no good reason for this -concentrated form of smoking. It is simply the way of their ancestors. - -A mixture of plants, the honey of bumblebees, and the red scum off an -iron spring constitute a popular love charm. The mixture is placed -in a buckskin bag and carried under the arm. When the favor of some -particular maiden is desired it is necessary only to secure something -associated with her and add it to the charm. The easiest to get is -a pinch of soil upon which the lady has spat. This is used not only -by lovers but also by husbands wishing to secure the return of errant -wives. - -Almost equally as important as tobacco in the life of these California -Indians is a vision-producing plant closely related to the common -garden trumpetflower and to the deadly nightshade. The leaves from -the east side of the plant are smoked; this brings about a state of -exaltation in which various animals are seen to come and offer their -help to the dreamer. Leaves from the west side are never smoked. It -would mean certain death; the Indians associate the west with death. - -Much the same effect is obtained by drinking a blue-frothy decoction -of the root. It not only produces visions but acts as a powerful -anesthetic. It is highly poisonous, however, and only those Indians -who know the proper dosage make use of it. The plant is known as -“grandmother,” because of its comfort-bringing qualities. - - - - -_The Abominable Snow Man_ - - -Mysterious beast of the high Himalayas is the “abominable snow man,” -so-called by natives. It is evidently a four-footed, five-toed mammal -that weighs from 150 to 200 pounds and lives in family groups. This -much, at least, can be deduced from its tracks in the snow, according -to Dr. Edouard Wyss-Dunant, leader of the Swiss Mt. Everest expedition -of 1952. He found the footprints in a snow covered frozen lake at an -altitude of about 15,000 feet. - -Although the tracks are bear-like, the animal apparently has a quite -unbearish ability to leap from crag to crag in migrations from one high -valley to another. The snow prints were first reported by Himalayan -explorers to be ape-like, or even almost human, and this led to -speculations that some still unknown type of big ape might have evolved -in the high mountains. - -The tracks, says Dr. Wyss-Dunant in his recent report to the Royal -Geographic Society, are undoubtedly those of a large “plantigrade -animal”—that is, one that walks on the sole of the foot with the heel -touching the ground. This is the way of both bear and man. The sole of -the foot is from four to five inches long by the depth of the tracks, -compared to those made by men of known weights. Some smaller footprints -were found, believed to be those of young animals. Three of the tracks -showed imprints of claws. Small triangular markings on the heels of two -of them were attributed to tufts of hair that grows on the bottom of -the feet. - -Tracks of one animal were followed until they came to a rock several -feet high over which it was necessary for the creature to jump. On the -other side imprints of three feet were found close together. Apparently -the animal had landed on these three feet. The tracks of the fourth -foot were some distance ahead, indicating preparations for another -jump. Beyond, Dr. Wyss-Dunant picked up other trails. Three were coming -out of a deep valley. The fourth came off the side of a glacier. These -paths joined and thenceforward continued as a single set of tracks. The -animals apparently step in each others' footsteps while they proceed in -single file. This is a customary procedure for mountaineers crossing a -glacier where there is danger of falling into crevasses. - -Nepal mountaineers have been familiar with the mysterious tracks for -years but nobody has been found who claims to have seen the animal. -They call it a “yeti.” - -“I could find no trace of meals, nor of excrement,” the Swiss explorer -declared. “This confirms my opinion that the animal only passes through -and does not frequent these heights. We should at least have found a -place of refuge, if not a lair, if the yeti was living and hunting in -the neighborhood. I rather think it passes between adjacent peaks only -when, having scoured one valley, it tries to reach another. This animal -is a wanderer, avoiding zones inhabited by man. It probably is not a -carnivore since there is very little other animal life even in the high -valleys upon which it could feed. It obviously is an animal of quite -superior intelligence to subsist at such high altitudes and to have -kept itself hidden from humans so long.” - - - - -_Fish That Sing in the Moonlight_ - - -There may be a fish that actually sings—that is, utters melodious -sounds with a perceptible rhythm or beat which can be recorded in -simple musical notation. This “singing” fish, which nobody actually has -been able to identify, is one of the curiosities invariably called to -the attention of visitors in the Batticoloa province of eastern Ceylon. -It frequents only one deep lagoon and can be heard when the water is -calm. Moonlight seems to draw the organism closer to the surface. On -dark, calm nights the music still can be heard, but it seems to be -coming from greater depths. - -The “singing” sound at least, is a verifiable fact, according to the -Rev. J. W. Lange, a Jesuit priest in Batticoloa who has tried for -several years to determine what sort of an organism is responsible. - -It is certain, he contends, that the sounds are made by something under -the water. They are heard best when the head is held under the surface. -By lowering a hydrophone attached to an amplifier into the lagoon, he -was able, to record the sounds. From this record a friend familiar with -musical notation was able to put them on paper. - -It has been established that several species of fish in the lagoon make -distinctive sounds. One, a large black fish with a yellow belly and -four whiskers on each side of its face, expresses sounds like a baby’s -fretful crying. A large chocolate-colored fish found among the bottom -rocks makes a sound “like the distant echo of a large firecracker.” -There is a curious little scaleless fish found in schools of 100 or -more; as the school moves through the water it produces a chorus of -tinkling sounds. A phosphorescent light comes from inside the throats -of these animals. Among all his catches Fr. Lange has found nothing -which can be identified with the singing fish, but he is convinced the -music comes from a living organism. - -That fish can and do make sounds now is well-known. This was -demonstrated conclusively by U. S. Navy investigators during the late -war. They determined the characteristic sounds made by a large variety -of sea creatures whose chatter was interfering with underwater sonic -devices. - - - - -_Brazil’s Vicious Glow Worm_ - - -One of the most unusual of all luminous creatures is an insect larva -found by farmers ploughing damp soil in Brazil and Uruguay. It is a -reddish-brown little worm with rows of green lights on both sides and -a vivid red lamp on the front of its head. The red light is actually -red—not white light shining through a reddish skin. Adult females -of the species retain the same luminous pattern. Male adults have -only feeble, yellow lights. The larva are extremely vicious little -creatures, predators on white grubs which infest the soil. - - - - -_Grasshoppers Like Chameleons_ - - -There is a jet-black grasshopper that turns sky-blue at sunrise. The -curious creature is found on the summit of Mount Kosciusco, highest -peak in Australia, where snow lingers into late summer and nights are -bitter cold. - -The insect is of peculiar interest because of a temperature control -mechanism otherwise unknown in nature. Several animals, notably -chameleons and some fish, can change color, usually to match their -environment. The changes are brought about by certain hormones, -released by stimulation of the eyes, which activate different color -cells in the skin. But in this grasshopper every one of the outer layer -of cells of the body is a color cell. On the surface are granules -of black pigment, underneath granules of blue. These change places -in response to temperature changes. At approximately 25 degrees C. -the blue granules rise to the top, displacing the black. At 15 C. -the reverse happens. This displacement can be brought about only by -temperature change. Australian entomologists have in vain tried every -other sort of stimulus, including illumination with various wave -lengths of light. - -The phenomenon probably is protective. Seemingly because it is very -cold at night on the high mountaintop the black pigment absorbs and -retains all the heat available. It is as if the grasshopper carried -a woolen blanket. With sunrise an abrupt change takes place; and the -days often become intensely hot. If the black coat were retained, the -grasshopper would become overheated and probably die. The blue reflects -much of the heat. - -With the first streaks of sunlight grasshoppers which have slept all -night at the foot of grass stalks begin creeping slowly upward. There -apparently is no nervous control of the color change. Each color cell -seems to act independently. The same reaction takes place in dead -grasshoppers when the temperature changes, affecting even fragments of -their bodies. It is possible to get a grasshopper half black and half -blue by heating one end and cooling the other. - - - - -_Beetles That Helped an Army_ - - -During the invasion of Normandy in 1944 Army jeep drivers prohibited -from using headlights of any sort, were able to follow winding country -roads on the blackest nights by rows of millions of flashing green -lights which outlined the roadsides. - -Wingless, wormlike female beetles, (Lampyris hoctiluca, the European -glow worm) were trying to attract their winged, lightless mates. Their -nocturnal lovemaking as they clung to roadside weeds and bushes was a -far from insignificant factor in the Normandy operations. The worms -indicated not only the direction but the width of the roads, thus -forestalling fatal accidents and preventing drivers from going astray -into hostile territory. However, they doubtless proved of equal value -to the enemy. These accommodating creatures, unknown to soldiers from -across the Atlantic, should not be confused with our familiar fireflies. - - - - -_Worms in Medical History_ - - -Earthworms have an important place in folk medicine, especially in the -Near East. Muzhatu-L-qylut of Hamd Allah, an ancient Persian natural -history, states: “Earthworms are red worms living in the damp earth. -Baked and eaten with bread they reduce the size of stones in the -bladder. When dried and eaten they cure the yellowness of jaundice. -In difficult labor they bring on delivery immediately. Their ashes -applied to the head with oil of roses make the hair to grow.” - -Says a seventeenth century English medical treatise: “Earthworms are -hot of nature and of them are a pressious oyntment made to close -woundes; and if they be sodden in goose greece and styned it is a good -oyntment for to drop into a dull hearing ear. Earthworms stamped are -good for payned teeth. The oyle of earthworms be greatly commended for -comforting of sinews, jointes, vaines and goute. They must be washed -in white wine and the oyles of verbascum or cowslopes, of roses, of -lilies, of dil, of chamomill, all sodden together. When it is cold put -in your erthwormes, stoppe your glass, let it stand xl days in the -sunne, then straine it. It will make an excellent oyle against ache, -sciatica, goute, etc.” - - - - -_Toads That Make Poison Gas_ - - -Among the weirdest of American amphibians are certain of the giant -toads of southwestern United States and northern Mexico which, when -frightened or in pain, diffuse a deadly gas which will kill objects -some distance away. - -A very large toad found almost everywhere throughout the Panama Canal -Zone can squirt a poison which may permanently blind a man if it hits -the eyes. Nobody would bother it except that from its skin is made of -the softest and most expensive of all leather. - -Most toads have skin covered with warts which are more closely grouped -on the sides of the neck than elsewhere. These, together with the -paratoid glands situated behind the eyes, secrete a milky, poisonous -fluid whenever the animal is molested. The secretion is an acid -irritant, causing pain in cuts and producing a bitter, astringent -sensation in the mouth. - - - - -_Plants That Thrive on Ice-Bloom_ - - -There are plants that grow in ice and snow. This phenomenon—known to -botanists as cryovegetation—has been the subject of intensive study at -Mt. McKinley National Park in Alaska. - -The plants are responsible for the strange phenomenon of ice-bloom. -Ice fields at various seasons take strange colors. The plants are very -minute members of the almost universal algae family which are among -the most primitive forms of life on earth. They are able to extract -the nourishment they require from the surface of a glacier as it melts -slightly under the glare of the Arctic sun. The phenomenon has been -reported by Arctic explorers for many years but until a few years ago -very little was known of the responsible microorganisms. They are a -striking demonstration of the fact that life has spread to all possible -habitats on earth in some form or other, even to fields of solid ice. - -While nobody is likely to stake out a few thousand acres of glacier for -a farm, an Hungarian botanist, Dr. Ersebet Kol, has made first-hand -studies of the conditions under which the minute plant organism could -live and multiply, including the acidity of the ice. Concerning the -Columbia glacier, one of the largest in the Alaska ice-fields, Dr. -Kol reported to the Smithsonian Institution: “When I stepped on the -ice, I saw for the first time a phenomenon to be seen only on coastal -glaciers. The surface of the ice was covered for miles and miles with -light brownish-purple algal vegetation called ice-bloom. This effect -is produced by immense quantities of minute plants called Ancyclonema, -a characteristic plant of the permanent ice. It can never be found -elsewhere, even on permanent snow. It belongs to the green algae -first found on the coast glaciers of Greenland. Since that time, the -microorganism has been found in several localities in Europe, and I -have found it occasionally on the glaciers of the interior but never in -sufficient quantities to form the ice-bloom of the coastal glaciers. - -“Here I had an opportunity of studying another striking phenomenon of -the permanent snow regions of Alaska—colored snow, especially red snow. -Above Valdez, around the Thompson Pass, the snowfields glitter with a -reddish color in the beginning of August. The snow was red not only -on the surface, but also to a depth of several inches and even in one -place to a depth of two feet, caused by the presence of millions of -tiny plants, Chlamydomonas nivalis. The snow on Thompson Pass looks as -though it has been sprinkled with red pepper, differing in this respect -from the red of other snowfields, which is usually a light raspberry -red.” - - - - -_Poison Arrow Frogs_ - - -There is a green frog, about the size of a half dollar, that is one -of the most virulently poisonous creatures on earth—but only after it -has been roasted alive. It is common at the Smithsonian Institution’s -tropical wild life preserve in the Panama Canal Zone. When living it -is quite harmless, at least to human beings although some believe it -can poison other frogs. When it is roasted over a slow fire, however, a -toxin is exuded from its skin which is a potent nerve and respiratory -poison. It once was used by the Choco Indians to poison the arrows with -which they hunted game and Spaniards. - -The poison arrow frog is a delicate creature which is confined to a -narrow temperature range and probably never has reached the United -States alive. A ground and tree-dwelling animal, it is quite elusive. - -A close relative is a brilliant scarlet frog, a denizen of the treetop -of the dense Panama rain forest. From its skin also is exuded a -virulent poison. One of the two jungle canopy frogs, it is less than -an inch long. Its body has deep scarlet both above and below; its feet -are black and its thighs are flecked with metallic green on the rear -and metallic blue on the front. It is found only on the Atlantic side -of the isthmus near the mouth of a small bay where Columbus once landed -for fresh water. Outside its narrow range the creature has never been -seen in its gorgeous colors. In captivity it probably would die very -quickly. Placed in a preservative, it quickly turns to a drab, uniform -black. - -The animal is a remarkable and peculiar climber. It ascends a tree -trunk by a series of short jumps, catching its toes in rough spots on -the bark. (Other tree frogs have suction disks on their feet by means -of which they can walk up a tree in leisurely fashion.) It makes its -way unerringly from the ground to its treetop home, a pool of water in -the axil of a bromilead or “tank plant,” a tree of the pineapple family. - - - - -_The Seal That Can “Lose” Its Head_ - - -An animal that can pull its head almost completely into its neck has -recently been added to the mammal collections of the Smithsonian -Institution. This is the Ross seal, one of the rarest of all the seal -family in the Antarctic. - -A frozen specimen captured by the Navy’s polar expedition in 1956 -arrived at the U. S. National Museum in Washington in excellent -condition. This seal—about 8 feet long—dwells exclusively on the -drifting ice pack of the Ross Sea. So far as is known it never comes -on land or on the ice shelf. It apparently feeds almost exclusively on -cuttlefish and squid, which are abundant in Antarctic waters. To judge -by the nature of its teeth it undoubtedly is not a fish-eater. It is -yellowish-green on the underside and blackish-brown on the top, the fur -often being marked with pale streaks along the sides. - -On the drifting pack it has fearsome enemies—notably the killer whale -and the writhing, snake-like sea-leopard, most savage of the seal -family—which may account for its relative scarcity. The outstanding -peculiarity of the creature, probably unique among mammals, is the -thick bloated neck into which the head can be withdrawn. This may be a -protective characteristic although it could hardly serve the creature -against its fierce enemies. On the other hand, withdrawal of the head -may be a comfortable habit in a very cold climate. - - - - -_The Delectable Horned Viper_ - - -All along the Nile and the Red Sea coast is found the horned viper -which lives buried wormlike in the sand with only its eyes and the -upper part of its head visible. Its horns are said to look like barley -grains and to entice birds. It is found often in rodent holes. This -horned viper is extremely tenacious of life. It has been kept alive in -a glass jar, without food, for two years. It can hurl itself forward -as much as three feet. A full-grown specimen is about 18 inches long -and quite poisonous but Egyptian magicians have been seen eating the -animals like stalks of celery. - - - - -_Flying Snakes, Frogs and Toads_ - - -There are flying snakes as well as flying frogs and toads. Such -reptiles and amphibians should be considered expert parachutists rather -than actual flyers. - -The tree snakes dendrolaphis and chrysopelea leap from high limbs, -stretched out lengthwise and both flatten and broaden the body so that -it presents a concave surface. They glide to earth slowly, at an angle -to the vertical, and land apparently without injury. - -Frogs of some species have enormous webs between the fingers and toes -which serve as parachutes. A Brazilian tree frog has been observed to -drop from an altitude of 100 feet and land 90 feet away uninjured. -Since other frogs of the same size were killed when dropped vertically, -parachuting must be considered a distinct trait of this particular -species, developed over many generations of life in treetops. - -In the course of experiments a South Carolina lizard, frequenter of -bushes and fences, landed ten to twelve feet away from the place where -it was dropped, at a height of 37 feet, and hopped away unhurt. It took -a rigid posture when dropped, limbs outstretched and stomach taut. It -fell vertically a third of the distance to the ground and then started -to glide. A lizard of another species from the same habit wriggled all -the way down. - - - - -_Eagles Build Log Cabin Nests_ - - -The white-headed eagle became the national bird of the United States -by act of Congress on June 20, 1782. For nearly two centuries it has -remained the American symbol of fearlessness and freedom. The same -bird—Haleoletus leucocephalus and not the more familiar golden eagle -found in the West—had been the supreme totem animal of the Six Nations -of the Iroquois from whom many institutions of the new republic -indirectly may have been derived. - -This eagle still is fairly abundant in the fringes of forest around the -Great Lakes, its fishing grounds. Its nest, almost always at the top of -a tall sycamore or hickory which is dead or dying, is almost literally -a log cabin. The bird sometimes uses sticks six feet long for the outer -walls. It grasps large dead branches in its talons, breaks them off by -sheer force, and flies away with them. A recently observed nest was -nine feet high and six feet in diameter. - - - - -_The Predatory Mantid_ - - -Why does the “praying mantid” pray? The prayerlike pose of this near -relative of the cockroach is its normal position both for seizing its -victims and for defending itself. - -For their size mantids are among the most predatory animals in -existence. They are also among the least known of the insects. There -are more than 1500 species in the world, mostly tropical. Only 19 are -known in the United States which is on the northern fringe of their -normal habitat. One of the most remarkable features of the mantid is -its front legs, which bear sharp spines and fold in a curious hinged -fashion enabling the insect to reach forward, seize a fly or some other -victim, and bring it to its mouth. This is the explanation for the -seeming attitude of prayer. - -Mantids feed entirely on other animals, chiefly insects caught alive. -Instances of small birds, lizards and mice being eaten have been -reported, probably due to mistaken observations. There is no question -that mature individuals of several species can handle any caterpillar, -grasshopper, cockroach or other large insect that comes within its -range. Their appetite is enormous. An adult mantid has been known to -eat ten cockroaches in less than three hours. Bees and wasps usually -have no terrors for the predators, although occasionally a mantid is -stung while trying to catch a wasp and gives evidence of the injury. - -Sometimes the mantid’s front legs are held in a posture of sparring, -rather than of prayer. More than once the sight of one of these insects -“sparring” with an English sparrow or some other small animal has -attracted a crowd on a city street and gotten paragraphs in the local -newspapers. - -The mantid usually waits motionless until its prey comes within reach -but sometimes, supposedly when very hungry, it may stalk another -insect. Sometimes the victim is touched lightly with the antennae -before the front legs flash forward and make the capture. - -These insects have developed considerable camouflage. Some tropical -species look like flowers, their colors blending with those of foliage. -One species varies in color from white to pale pink and has the -practise of crouching among certain blossoms, the petals of which its -legs and other body parts resemble. Others have arranged themselves on -plants so that they look like blue flowers. Presumably bees and other -flower-loving insects thus are lured to their doom. A few tropical -mantids have developed a superficial resemblance to other insects of -the same environment which are distasteful to birds and monkeys. Some -closely resemble large ants. - -There is a widespread belief that the male always is eaten by the -female after mating. Sometimes this happens, but the male never is -a willing victim and quite frequently escapes. The eggs are laid in -groups of from a dozen to about 400. They are deposited in layers in -the midst of a thick frothy liquid which soon hardens and becomes -fibrous. For the most part, each species deposits egg masses of a -distinctive shape. - -On the whole, they probably are beneficial insects because the -greater part of their prey consists of species injurious to gardens. -The possibility of propagating them for the control of injurious -insects, such as Japanese beetles, has been suggested because of their -notoriously big appetites. It would, however, be impossible to restrict -them to a specific pest. They would continue to eat about every living -creature of the right size that came within reach of their claws, -including many beneficial species. - - - - -_Fireflies as Electricians_ - - -The flashing of a field of fireflies is an expensive show. For -two generations one of the ideals of science has been to produce -artificially “cold light”—radiation confined entirely to those -wavelengths to which the retina of the human eye is sensitive without -any energy being wasted in the form of heat or invisible light. Could -the ideal be attained with the same expenditure of fuel and power as -is required for light production at present the world’s bills for -illumination would be decreased enormously. - -Actually the firefly has attained this ideal in one direction. It emits -only visible light. From this point of view the firefly or any other -sort of luminescent animal is very efficient indeed. A good part of the -total radiation from any man-made source of light—or for that matter -from the sun—is invisible infrared, observable only as heat. Possibly -the firefly produces some heat in its light production but it is too -little to be measured. It is safe to say that within a tiny fraction, -100% of the radiation produced is in the visible spectrum—most of it -shorter wave lengths than those which produce the sensation of blue -light. This is by far the highest efficiency known to science. - -Chemists can duplicate the process to a certain extent. Consequently -a great deal of research has been devoted to the light-emitting -mechanism, physical and chemical, of the insects. Firefly luminescence -is due to the oxidation—that is, the burning—of a chemical substance, -luciferin. This reaction, in turn, depends upon a catalyst known as -luciferase. The same phenomenon can be brought out by appropriate -mixtures of luciferin, luciferase, and oxygen in a test-tube at the -proper temperature. - -All these experiments have shown that, considering the amount of oxygen -necessary, it is a very wasteful process. It is far less efficient -than most means of producing artificial light known to man—one percent -compared with the 4.54 percent of the carbon filament; 17.17 percent -of the acetylene flame, or 60 percent of the sodium arc light. To -illuminate houses or streets with firefly light would be a very -expensive procedure indeed. - -Dr. N. D. Maluf of Yale University quotes a calculation that “an area -of firefly light six feet in diameter on the ceiling of a room nine -feet high would give ample illumination for reading or drawing on a -table three feet high.” This would hardly interest an illuminating -engineer. The light can, however, be used in an emergency. During the -Spanish-American War Major General W. C. Gorgas is reputed to have used -the light from a bottle of fireflies to perform an emergency operation. -The average householder would rebel at the monthly bills. - -The actual light from a single firefly is very minute indeed, averaging -little more than 25 thousandths of a candle power. The combined -courtship efforts of a whole field full of the insects would hardly -light a single room enough for sewing or reading. The insect will -sometimes glow steadily with a light as low as two hundred-thousandths -of candle power intensity. - -Among fireflies, flashing is essentially a courtship phenomenon, yet -there is no discernible difference between the quality of the light of -male and female insects. What actually happens is that the flash of the -female in response to the signal of the male is timed almost exactly at -a trifle over two seconds. The male is instinctively aware of this time -interval, so that he does not become confused with the signals of other -males. In a large group of the insects the flashes of the two sexes -tend to become synchronized, producing a field of light. - - - - -_The Mollusk Vampire of Hell_ - - -Black demon of the realm of everlasting dark is Vampyrotouthis -infernalis. Most nightmarish of living animals, this “vampire of hell” -has a midnight-black body about two inches long, red-brown round face -on a head almost as large as the rest of the body, red eyes an inch in -diameter encircled by narrow bands of pinkish-orange, rows of ivory -white teeth, ten wriggling, ever-probing tentacles extending from the -head. On the sides of the neck are two powerful, flashing lights each -of which is a cluster of about 50 tiny phosphorescent nodules. The -entire body is covered with hundreds of tiny lights. - -Fortunately nobody is likely to meet this horror of an -hallucination-damned maniac’s ravings on a lonely road passing a -graveyard at night. It is a mollusk, a close relative of the octopus -and the squid but belonging to neither family, which lives in abysses -of sub-tropical seas all around the world, far below the depths reached -by the most penetrating green rays of the sun. Only its relatively -small size and restricted habitat prevent it from being the most -fearsome, loathsome creature on this planet. - -The “vampire” is a living fossil, survivor out of the demonic seas of -200,000,000 years ago which found shelter from the inexorable scythe -with which time mows down demons by retreating further and further into -the dark. Imprints of quite similar sea animals, probably denizens of -warm, shallow waters, have been found in English rocks. - -Up to now about a hundred individuals have been taken from the deep -sea, mostly by scientific expeditions. Of these, nearly two-thirds -have come from the Atlantic off the Florida coast and near Bermuda. -There are several in the Smithsonian collections. The fantastically -terrible little mollusk was first taken in the Indian Ocean by Dr. Carl -Cuhn of the German Valdavia expedition about 75 years ago. Until quite -recently all specimens obtained have been in poor condition and there -has been considerable difficulty in classifying them. The job has been -complicated by the fact that the vampire apparently undergoes a series -of metamorphoses which have been mistaken for different species. During -the past ten years, however, they have been studied intensively by Dr. -Grace Pickford of the Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory of Yale and -their fearsome reality has been established beyond question. - -Naturally, since the living animal cannot be observed, essentially -little is known of its habits and ways of life. Certainly it is a -voracious carnivore like all others of its race and preys upon every -other creature of the depths in its size range. It seems to be confined -exclusively to a depth of about 1,500 meters. This is the level of the -sea where, for some reason oceanographers are unable to fathom, the -oxygen content of the water is lowest. It goes up immediately both -above and below. The vampire, apparently, cannot stand too much oxygen. -Its eggs sink to about 2,000 meters where they reach their suspension -level. As soon as the little mollusks hatch they rise to their natural -habitat. - -The vampire has powerful tentacles but its fin muscles indicate that -it is a weak swimmer. It probably lurks in the abysmal darkness for -its prey to come within reach of the probing tentacles. Even with its -enormous eyes and its many lights it hardly can distinguish moving -objects very well and presumably is not particular about what living -things it eats. Its usual victims probably are fishes and smaller -mollusks. It is unlikely that the creature has many natural enemies it -need fear. Unlike the octopuses, its nearest relations, it has no ink -sac from which to discharge a black cloud around its body for its own -concealment. - - - - -_Climbing and Flying Frogs_ - - -A family of frogs that climb trees, burrow and are learning to fly are -the tree frogs of Mexican tropical forests. Various members of the -family are at different stages in their physical adaptation to tree -life. They constitute a striking example of evolution at work as a race -struggles to shake itself free from one environment and conquer another -despite considerable odds. - -The ends of the fingers and toes of those frogs are provided with -adhesive disks by means of which the animals are able to obtain a firm -foothold on relatively smooth surfaces. These disks are used mainly -for climbing, or for clinging to foliage and limbs when jumping. One -species is both a climber and burrower. It is an extremely timid little -creature and a poor climber, but it buries itself deeply in tree -mosses. Another species, which seems as much as home on the ground -as in the trees, deposits its eggs on the upper surfaces of leaves -overhanging the water. The tadpoles, which must return to the water -for their metamorphosis into frogs, simply drop off the leaves after -they leave the eggs. Perhaps the most peculiar of the family is the -marsupial frog, Gastrotheca, all of whose young are sheltered in a -pouch on the back of the female. Some of the family lay their eggs in -nests of froth attached to leaves. - -One remarkable species seems to be developing the ability to fly. Its -hind limbs are elongated for jumping and it has been known to leap -and alight without injury from a height of 140 feet. When handled it -exudes a poisonous, milky fluid which coagulates instantly, sticking to -the fingers in a disagreeable way. It has a strong odor, like that of -peaches, which causes the inside of the nose to itch. Experiments are -described in which this animal was dropped from the top of a high water -tower. It immediately spread out its limbs and, instead of dropping -vertically, sailed slowly downward and landed uninjured on the ground -about 90 feet away. Apparently it was able to get the best of gravity -after a drop of about twelve feet. From that point on, there was no -apparent acceleration in the speed of descent. A state of equilibrium -was reached. Whenever one of these frogs was thrown in the air it -invariably managed, after a violent struggle, to establish itself in a -balanced position which it could maintain, apparently without effort, -while it glided to the ground. - -Within certain limits these tree frogs can change their color so -that their bodies will blend more perfectly with their surroundings. -One of the most widely distributed Mexican species seems to have an -exceptional color range. This particular creature also is notable -for its elusiveness. It exists in countless numbers, yet an explorer -may hunt for weeks without encountering a single one. Such was the -experience of the German naturalist, Hans Gadow. While wandering along -the edge of the forest he heard what seemed to be the noise of a -sawmill in the distance. As he came nearer this sound changed into a -roar like that of steam escaping from many boilers, mingled with the -sharp and piercing scream of saws. It came from a meadow containing a -shallow rainwater pool in which were tens of thousands of large, green -tree frogs. Gadow calculated that in this pool, about thirty yards -square, and in the immediate neighborhood, were more than 45,000 of the -creatures. The water of the pool was covered with their spawn—a minimum -of 100,000,000 eggs. The next morning there was not a single frog in -sight. The water had evaporated during the night and the eggs were left -to be cooked by the sun. - -One of the most curious of these creatures is the banana frog, whose -habitat often is the upper side of a banana leaf. It is an extremely -elusive creature whose color undergoes considerable change without -being specifically responsive, so far has been observed, to the -intensity of light. Another curious member of the family wraps its eggs -in foamy lather and suspends the whole mass between leaves or blades of -grass over water in such a manner that the next heavy rain washes the -developing eggs or tadpoles into it. It is necessary that the tadpole -stage be passed in water. Development of means to bring this about was -necessary before the family could conquer a tree environment. - -Another little frog spends its entire life in the leaf-formed cup of -a bromelia, a plant somewhat similar in appearance to a small century -plant, which grows on the branches of trees where its roots get a -precarious foothold. During the rainy season this cup becomes filled -with water. There the frog lays its eggs, which hatch as pollywogs. - -Truly demonic are fantastic horned frogs of Brazil which devour other -amphibians and small mammals. The largest of them do not hesitate to -defy a human being in the mountain rain forests, their chief habitat. -They are six inches long or longer and as broad as long. Some have -horns on their eyelids and the tips of their noses. All have enormous -mouths, so that a mouse can be swallowed quite easily. When excited -they inflate their bodies like balloons and utter bull-like bellows. At -other times they are heard to cry like infants. - -The horns probably serve no other purpose than to add to the ferocious -appearance of the animals. They are just hardened extensions of the -skin, entirely too soft to be of any value in combat. All species of -horned frogs are rare in collections. They seldom are seen because of -their secluded habitat and their clever camouflage. They throw loose -dirt over their damp bodies until they become practically invisible. - -Rarest of the family are the pigmy horned frogs which have horns on -both eyelids and the tip of the nose, as well as a fringe of horns -around the eyes. They are beautifully marked animals. - - - - -_Mad Dog Cycles_ - - -There may be mad dog cycles. Dogs are much more vicious in June than in -the so-called “dog-days” season of July and August. - -The tiny poodle and the pekingese share with the big German police -dog and the Italian bull rank among the 10 most vicious of domestic -canines. These are some of the conclusions reached by Dr. Robert Oleson -of the U. S. Public Health Service on the basis of data about dogs in -the metropolitan New York area for 27 years. - -During this period, Dr. Oleson’s study shows there were two 5-year -peaks in rabies, from 1911 to 1915, inclusive, and from 1926 to 1930. -During the first period the annual average of bites diagnosed as made -by rabies-infected animals was 233, compared with only an average of -78 for the previous three years for which records were available. -There followed a period of 10 years during which the number of rabies -cases diagnosed in biting dogs averaged only 43 a year. Starting with -1926 the curve leaped up again and in the next five years there was an -average of 288 cases a year. Then came another rapid decline. - -Apparently the number of rabies cases has no relation to the number of -bites. These remained practically stationary at an average of about -3,500 from 1908 to 1926. There was a sudden jump to more than 7,000 -cases in 1925, just before the start of the second rabies peak. But -since 1930 the number of bites reported has continued to go up, in the -face of rigid muzzling restrictions, until it has reached the alarming -figure of 20,000. At the same time the number of rabies cases rapidly -has gone down. - -The same tendency toward the mad dog cycle has been noted in several -European countries. It may be due to an inexplicable waxing and -waning of the virulency of the rabies virus. During the peak years -extraordinary efforts were made to impound all unlicensed dogs, and the -decline of the waves may have been due to the lessening of the number -of potential rabies carriers by this means. - -Contrary to general belief, dogs are getting better tempered rapidly -during dog days. The high peak of the year in bites is reached about -the middle of June. Then comes a very sharp drop, which continues -steadily as colder weather comes on. - -No breed of dogs is entirely free from the biting tendency, but some -are much more prone to it than others. The mongrel doesn’t rank among -the really vicious dogs and pedigree counts for nothing. The 10 breeds, -in the order of frequency of their reported bites, are: German police, -chow, poodle, Italian bull, fox terrier, crossed chow, airedale, -pekingese and crossed German police dog. - - - - -_The Amazing Survival of the Opossum_ - - -The opossum, sole survivor in the New World of a primitive and -very ancient family, represents an overlooked principle in -evolution—survival by endurance. - -How this clumsy, persecuted animal has endured through millions of -generations in the midst of savage and hungry foes is the subject of a -revealing study by Dr. J. D. Black of the University of Kansas. - -Dr. Black examined closely the skeletons of 95 opossums in the -university museum—all killed in the immediate vicinity. Thirty-nine -of them gave evidence of broken bones that had completely healed. One -specimen had suffered, and recovered from, breaks of both scapulae, -11 ribs, two broken in three places, and a badly injured spine. Still -another gave evidence of having suffered at the same time fractures of -the jaw, the scapulae, and nine ribs. Many showed evidence of ribs and -scapulae broken in several places. The ability to survive such severe -injuries—they would be fatal in any other animal either in themselves -or because the crippled condition resulting from them would make a -creature an easy prey to its enemies—illustrates the importance of the -opossum’s practice of playing dead. - -The opossum represents an important stage in the evolution of -mammals—that of the marsupials, or pouch bearers. They presumably -were quite widely distributed over the earth at one time, before the -emergence of the placental type of mammals to which the human race -belongs, together with almost all other warm-blooded animals. They may -be the ancestors of the placentals or they may represent a different -line of development from the ancestral reptiles. In any event, they are -considerably nearer the type of those ancient egg-laying reptiles. They -are just a step beyond the egg-laying stage. - -When the placentals arose the marsupials quickly disappeared from most -of the earth. They were not so well adapted for survival in conflict -with the more advanced, efficient type of animal. Only in Australia -did they find a haven. With a single exception, they were the only -mammals there when the continent first was discovered by white men. -This has led to the speculation that Australia was cut off from the -rest of the world before the placental races were evolved, or before -they had attained such efficiency in the ways of life as to enable them -to survive. There the marsupials, without competition, were able to -survive and differentiate into rich fauna of the continent—of which the -kangaroos are considered the most characteristic animals. - -The one exception was in North and South America in the person of the -lowly opossum. All the meat-eating animals which arose around the -creature fed upon it if they could catch it. It was not very efficient -in getting away from a pursuer. It developed no effective armor, like -the shell of the armadillo or the quills of the porcupine, with which -other weak animals managed to survive. It was not even very efficient -at hiding. When man arrived on the scene with his bows and his guns, -its last havens, the treetops, lost their small measure of security. - -All the cards were stacked against the survival of the opossum, but it -developed a means of its own to keep a tenacious hold on life while -far more efficient creatures—beset with new enemies and changing -climates—were forced to give up. The great mammoth herds, lords of -the earth for a million years, disappeared. The ferocious saber-tooth -tiger and the great cave bear expired by the roadside in the race of -evolution. But the poor opossum had discovered the important principle -that the meek shall inherit the earth—or, at least, be allowed to live -in it. It became the great pain endurer and lived by submitting and -gritting its teeth. It didn’t fight nor hide. It merely suffered and -learned how to endure suffering. This supreme ability of the opossum to -recover from injuries goes a long way toward explaining its survival. - -The opossum thus appears to be the prototype of a familiar class of -men and women. They are frequently encountered. As children they have -almost every conceivable disease. Their adolescence is a continuous -succession of broken bones. Their parents despair of raising them. -When they come to adult life the story is much the same. They suffer a -constant stream of misfortunes, physical and otherwise. Physicians are -amazed at their recoveries. And they often survive into the 80s and 90s -of life while the healthy, fortunate individuals with whom they started -out are left behind in the prime of life—victims of pneumonia, heart -disease or accident. When the latter die the news comes as a surprise -to their acquaintances who cannot understand how the strong die and the -weak survive. They ponder over the paradox that strength is weakness -and weakness strength. The ancient opossum might explain that paradox -if it had the means to express itself. - - - - -_Mammal Prototypes of the “Mermaid”_ - - -The prototypes of the “mermaids” of legend are among the least known -of all animals to naturalists because of their underwater habitat and -their secretive habits. They are the manatees of the Caribbean region -and the dugongs of the Indian Ocean. They constitute the only remaining -species of the serenia, or moon creatures, distant relatives of the -elephant. Both have a somewhat human facial appearance. They feed -standing upright in the water, their flippers held out before them like -arms. Sometimes the females hold their calves in these flippers. Seen -from a distance, they have a curiously human appearance, which may -account for the many reports of mermaids and mermen. - -This is especially true of the dugong—a creature of the open sea, -with a white, almost hairless body. It is extremely secretive and has -almost never been captured alive. When one is washed ashore or caught -in a fisher’s net it causes superstitious fear among the natives. The -manatees are not so human in appearance and are much better known. - -The creatures seldom make their appearance above water in daylight. -They prefer to gaze in the moonlight, and this has added to their -humanlike appearance which has given rise to the mermaid legends. - -One of the few persons to study the animal at close range, O. W. -Barrett, an American explorer, tells us the following concerning the -manatee: - -“The animal still is fairly common in most fresh-water bayous, lagoons -and rivers along the east coast of Nicaragua. One of the best-known -herds on the Caribbean Coast inhabits the Indio River, just north of -Greytown, Nicaragua. Estimates of its number vary from a few score to -several hundred. The herd apparently is stationary there and does not -increase or decrease to any notable degree from year to year, although -the natives take a heavy toll.... - -“A manatee can remain under water from 20 to 30 minutes when -frightened. During the daytime the slightest unusual noise, like rain -falling on a tin pail or the spitting of the hunter, is sufficient to -keep the whole herd submerged for hours, yet while they are grazing the -hunter may go up and slap them on the back unnoticed. - -“Families consisting of a bull, a cow, and one or two calves usually -... merge into a herd of from 10 to 50 or more individuals living in a -certain stretch of river, concentrating during the day and scattering -at night. They generally graze at night, although a few individuals may -be seen feeding in broad daylight. The body is held nearly vertical -while grazing. The head is held well out of water, while the armlike -flippers poke the grass toward the mouth. The noise made by the -flapping of the huge upper lip and the crunching of the large teeth -can be heard distinctly 200 yards or more away. The sound is much -like that of horses grazing in a pasture. Adult manatees appear to -average somewhere between 8 and 10 feet in length. Some—old females, -presumably—may reach 12 feet.” - -A much more seclusive animal is the true “mermaid” of legend—the -dugong of the open ocean. Unlike the manatee, it is a creature of -the sea and seldom ventures into the fresh-water rivers and lagoons. -Few naturalists ever have actually seen one of the creatures. Mr. -Barrett’s first acquaintance with the creature came in Mozambique, -Portuguese East Africa, when some native fishermen caught in their net -what they described as a “white porpoise.” They were terrified and -gladly presented their catch to an Italian blacksmith. This man crudely -embalmed the animal, placed it in a rough coffin and freighted it to -Johannesburg, where he rented a show room and made a fortune exhibiting -“the only genuine mermaid—half fish, half human.” - -For many years mariners in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea have told -of seeing objects resembling women standing waist high on the surface. -Zoologists of the Middle Ages described a “bishop fish” which had been -seen standing with outstretched arms, supposedly blessing the waters. -In nearly every case, it seems likely, the objects were strange water -animals—the dugongs. They have a curious resemblance to human beings, -especially naked women, when seen from a distance. - -Nearly all mermaid stories have originated in water where dugongs -are abundant. Spanish and Portuguese sailors, the first Europeans to -encounter the animal, called it the “woman fish.” The creature is best -known to Malagasy fishermen of Madagascar who, while they prize its -flesh highly, attribute to it human qualities and affinities. After -capturing one the fisherman must perform various religious rites and -before he is allowed to sell the flesh at a public market he must take -an oath that there have been no unnatural relations between himself and -his mermaid victim. - -The female’s breasts are roughly in about the position of those of -women. She has the habit of rising about halfway out of the water and -sometimes has been described as holding her baby in her flippers. -Little is known of the life history and habits of the dugong. It is a -creature of the shallow sea which never has survived long in captivity. -It seems to share with the elephant and with man the faculty of -shedding tears when it is in trouble or pain. One which was kept for -several months in the Colombo zoo in Ceylon constantly was weeping. -Malagasy fishermen used to torture the animals in order to collect the -tears, which they sold as love charms. - -Another extant member of the “mermaid” family is the manatee, found -on both sides of the Atlantic in the warm, fresh water rivers of -Africa and South America. Although never mistaken for a human, it is -accorded considerable superstitious regard. The Kalaboi of Nigeria -regard it as a sacred animal and the incarnation of a human soul. If -a fisherman kills one, by accident or otherwise, he must undergo an -elaborate cleansing ceremony which involves offerings before images of -his ancestors and remaining indoors for three days. During this period -he is rubbed from head to foot with a yellow pigment by women of his -family. While the purgative rites are in progress the women sing at -dawn and dusk. On the third day there is a feast on the meat, but a bit -must be given to every household in the village to lay upon the shrines -of ancestors. - -Both manatee and dugong, and formerly the extinct sea cow of Bering -Sea, are probably the closest living relatives of the elephant. They -have similar brain and heart structure. The molar teeth of the mermaid -family are like those of early elephants. The male dugong has tusks. -There also is a great extension of the upper lip which overlaps the -side of the mouth—a start in the direction of a trunk. - -The next nearest relatives of the elephants are the hyraces, or conies, -of Africa and Syria, best known in the form of expensive fur coats. -They look and act like rabbits. A Hebrew prophet made them symbolic of -timidity. Only a taxonomist would suspect these little creatures could -claim any kinship to the largest of land mammals. - - - - -_Limbless Lizards and Glass Snakes_ - - -A supposedly welcome guest in the underground chambers of leaf cutter -ants is the amphisbaena, a nearly limbless lizard about a foot long -which looks somewhat like a gigantic earth worm. These creatures, -seldom seen, can be found from Brazil north to lower California and -there is one isolated species in Florida. - -“Those brought to me,” observed the noted British naturalist and -explorer of Brazil, Henry Walter Bates, “were generally not much more -than a foot in length. They are of cylindrical shape having, properly -speaking, no neck, and the blunt tail which is only about an inch in -length is of the same shape as the head. This peculiar form, added to -their habit of wriggling backwards as well as forwards, has given rise -to the fable that they have two heads, one at each extremity. They are -extremely sluggish in their motions, and are clothed with scales that -have the form of small imbedded plates arranged in rings around the -body. The eye is so small as to be scarcely perceptible. - -“They live habitually in the subterranean chamber of the Sauba ant; -only coming out of their abodes occasionally in the night-time. The -natives call the amphisbaena the “mai das Saubas,” or mother of Saubas, -and believe it to be poisonous, although it is perfectly harmless. -They say the ants treat it with great affection and that if the -“snake” be taken away from the nest the ants also will forsake it. -I believe, however, that they feed on the saubas, for I once found -remains of the ants in the stomach of one of them. - -“Their motions are quite peculiar. The undilatable jaws, small eyes and -curious plated integument distinguish them from other snakes. These -properties evidently have some relation to their residence in the -subterranean abodes.” - -Closely related is the Florida worm lizard, rose-colored and completely -legless and earless. It is about a foot long and looks so much like an -earthworm that expert collectors have been fooled. A peculiarity is -that it always goes down into a burrow tail first. - -The Arizona worm lizard, a somewhat fabulous animal of the same family, -is not, so far as is known, represented in any collection. One veteran -miner told of dragging “a purple snake with two legs on its neck” from -the gravel. A woman claimed to have kept as a pet for three months “a -purple snake with its legs where its ears ought to be.” - -All these animals are in the same general family as the glass snakes -of Europe and the United States. These are long, slender, legless -lizards. They are burrowing animals which occasionally are turned up -by ploughmen, but they often come to the surface voluntarily at night. -Specimens occasionally found in daylight usually are hiding in dark -recesses. - -Each animal consists of apparently quite separate parts, body and tail. -The body is from six inches to a foot long, according to species, -and the tail may be twice as long. The animal can disengage its tail -by a single twist when caught by that organ. The slightest injury or -rough handling causes this tail to fly to pieces. Each piece wriggles -energetically, supposedly to attract attention while the lizard itself -crawls to safety in its burrow. The body does not break up and does -not, as popularly reputed, come back later to gather up fragments -of its tail. Instead it grows a new tail, always smaller than the -original, from the stump. - - - - -_The Only Bug in the Sea_ - - -Only one group of insects has taken to the sea—the small, gray -long-legged water striders. Unlike fresh water relatives of the same -genus, these have permanently lost their wings. They have no further -use for this means of movement in the ocean. - -Great numbers have been found floating and swimming in the open sea -around Pacific islands. Both nymphs and adults sometimes are blown onto -the beaches by strong winds. They are awkward on land, seek shelter -in any depression in the sand, and fall easy prey to birds and the -multitude of ghost crabs which glide over the sands after dark. - -On the surface of shallow water the insects are found in groups of -hundreds of thousands. Apparently they feed on plankton which rises -to the surface at night. They themselves are not eaten by fish. This -is probably due to scent glands which secrete a strong odor which is -repellant to the ever hungry vertebrates. - -In small embayments are found enormous numbers of one type of water -strider, the female of which is less than a twelfth of an inch long. -The male is considerably smaller and rides on the back of his mate to -ensure that the two will not be separated by wind or tide. - -Insects are by far the most abundant of all land animals; the reasons -why only one genus has invaded the sea have been the subject of much -speculation. On the continents, insects are found in salt water lakes -where the saline concentration is much greater than in sea water. -Other types live in torrential streams and waterfalls where they get -much rougher treatment than would come from wave action. There are two -probable reasons for the failure to invade the ocean. One is the fact -that no insect ever has been able to live in very deep water. The “bug” -race has evolved a special breathing mechanism admirably suited to life -on land but rather poorly adapted to life under water. Besides, the -seas have been taken over almost completely by the remote relatives of -the insects, the crustaceans. These include, besides crabs and shrimps, -the superabundant copepods, the “lice of the ocean.” Invaders from the -land never have been able to compete with them. - - - - -_A Crocodile With Life After Death_ - - -There is an animal that can bite—it might even slash off a man’s -arm—after it is dead. Alive it is relatively inoffensive. Being killed -makes it positively mad. - -Its uncanny ability to bite half an hour or more after its neck -has been broken is a major risk for followers of one of the most -adventurous of professions—the jungle crocodile hunters. Their story is -a saga paralleling that of the Antarctic whalers who first told of Moby -Dick. One of the most expert of them is Dr. Fred Medem, Smithsonian -collaborator and professor of zoology at the University of Bogota. He -has twice been bitten painfully by “dead” reptiles. - -The animal is the caiman, smaller than either alligator or crocodile -and probably more closely related to the former. Its hide, like that of -its two fellow crocodillians, is valuable for leather and during the -past few years it has been pursued close to extinction by professional -hunters in Colombian and Brazilian jungles and lagoons. Dr. Medem is -an eminent zoologist. He doesn’t believe, of course, that any animal -that is completely dead can bite off a man’s arm, but he is hard put -to explain what he himself has experienced. He thinks that part of the -caiman’s nervous system which activates its snout and mouth is somehow -disconnected from the rest and does not die at the same time. Thus -the dead reptile has no consciousness when it bites. It is a reflex -action of one small segment of the nervous system that somehow is not -completely dead. - -There is only one way to be safe for an indefinite period after the -caiman is killed. That is to chop a hole in its neck and run a pointed -stick into the medulla oblongata, the reflex action center at the base -of the brain. When this is destroyed the ability to bite is lost. One -can proceed to skin the animal without fear of losing an arm or a -finger. Ordinarily this reptile will not attack a human. It lives on -smaller animals—wild and domestic pigs and the pig-like capybaras—that -venture into the jungle rivers. - -Dr. Medem has recently discovered a curious new sub-species of caimans -confined, so far as known, to the upper reaches of the Apaporis river, -a tributary of the Amazon. It is much more crocodile-like in appearance -than the rest of the family, with a very long, narrow snout. The others -have broad, flat snouts. It retains prominent bony ridges over its -eyes—one of the most striking characteristics that distinguish the -caimans from both crocodiles and alligators. - -A much more dangerous animal is the Orinoco crocodile, a large reptile -which lives only in the Orinoco and its tributaries and has a taste -for human flesh. The creature is especially dangerous to bathers and -to women doing their washing in the rivers. This is one of the two -species of these dreaded reptiles known in South America. The other is -a smaller, less aggressive creature of seashore rivers and lagoons. -The inland species now is quite close to extermination. Until recently -it was pursued by both German and French companies of professional -crocodile hunters. Now they have given up because the profits have -become too small for the risk. - -The technique for hunting caimans and crocodiles is strikingly like -that of the whale hunters and just as dangerous. The hunter goes out -on the river with a boat at night. The boat carries searchlights which -move over the surface of the water. Here and there appear glittering -red and yellow spots. The red spots are the eyes of crocodiles, -the yellow ones eyes of caimans. The boat is propelled by jungle -Indians who have developed the ability to paddle noiselessly. They -row to within about two yards of a pair of glittering eyes. Then the -hunter throws his harpoon, equipped with a special aiming apparatus. -He has developed skill in hitting precisely the right spot, judged -by the position of the eyes. For a crocodile he aims at where the -neck should be, for a caiman at the flank. The neck of the latter -reptile is protected by heavy scales. A gun never is used. The wounded -reptile simply would dive into deep water where its body could not be -recovered. After the harpoon, with a rope attached, finds its mark -there is a terrific struggle as the reptile tries to get into deep -water. The caiman finally is “killed” by chopping through its spinal -cord with a machete. That is, everything is dead except the brain and -the snout. The spine of a crocodile is broken by a blow with a large ax -just behind the shoulders. It stays dead. - -The caimans migrate overland from lagoon to lagoon during the dry -season. When at last they find water they dig holes in the mud and -sleep until the heavy rains return, when they emerge and resume their -normal ways of life. Quite exciting stories are told of persons who -happen to meet migrating bands of these “barbillos”, creatures about -three feet long. Ordinarily they will not attack humans but they will -not hesitate to do so if they feel they are threatened. Once one of -them gets a grip it is almost impossible to break away unless one -happens to have a machete. - - - - -_The Salamander That Lives Like a Worm_ - - -There is an animal related to the salamander and the frog which looks -like a gigantic earthworm and lives an earthworm’s life. It is seen -so rarely that probably not one person in a million is aware of its -existence. - -It is the caecilian, a very ancient creature forming the third branch -of the order of amphibians which were probably the first back-boned -animals to establish themselves on land nearly 300,000,000 years ago. -There are about fifty species. Caecilians are found in most of tropical -America, Africa and Asia. They range in length from a few inches to -nearly a yard. The larger ones might be mistaken either for titanic -earthworms or small snakes. In the physical structure are combined -features of both salamanders and frogs. - -These amphibians spend all their lives burrowing in the soil. They -live chiefly on earthworms and come to the surface only for brief -intervals after heavy rains. They usually are seen only by farmers who -uncover them while ploughing, or digging ditches. Since they are so -easily mistaken for snakes they are avoided, although they are entirely -harmless. They have sharp teeth but make no effort to bite when handled. - -Most of the caecilians are egg-layers, the large eggs being attached to -one another like beads on a string and then wound up in a ball. This -is incubated by the mother who coils herself around it. The burrows -where the eggs are laid are always on a stream bank since the young, -like those of all amphibians, must pass part of their development -stage in water. These amphibians probably are fairly abundant animals. -Owing to the subterranean life they are nearly, perhaps in some cases -completely, blind. - -The amphiuma, a species of salamander, also is often mistaken for a -snake. It spends most of its life in rivers buried in mud, where it -lives on larvae and on fish eggs. Since it is an air-breathing creature -it must come to the surface frequently to breath. - -The amphiuma has rudimentary legs, almost microscopic in size. This -fact alone is enough to differentiate it from the snakes, who always -are legless. - -This curious salamander is seldom encountered and is barely mentioned -in standard textbooks of natural history. Confined to the southeastern -United States, it often is considered a highly poisonous animal. -Actually it is harmless. Very rarely one is caught on a fishhook. It is -so slippery that it is almost impossible to hold in the hand. - -The creature has some relatives which are not so secretive in their -habits and are much better known. One is the giant salamander of China -and Japan, the largest and most active of the race. It makes its home -in crevices under rocks in running streams. Another is the “mud puppy” -or “hell bender” which sometimes gets on the hooks of fishermen in -muddy streams. - -The amphiuma is a degenerate member of the family. It has almost lost -its legs. It still retains its eyes, but these have become very small. -The animal can have very little use for them. - -In India is found a wormlike caecilian, Ichthyopis, which lives under -stones and burrows after the fashion of earthworms. Superficially it -differs from an earthworm by its darker color. Its body is coated with -slime and it leaves a trail of mucous behind it when it crawls. - -The earth snake Silybura is found in the same region. It usually is -mistaken for a worm, especially by birds to their own discomfort and -sometimes disaster. It ties itself in loops around a bird’s feet and -these loops are quite difficult to loosen. Among natives there is a -superstition that if it coils around a child’s finger the only way to -get rid of it is to amputate the member. - - - - -_Three-eyed Lizards of New Zealand_ - - -Among sun-baked rocks on barren islands off the New Zealand coast basks -a solitary survivor of the days before the dinosaurs. It is earth’s -oldest back-boned inhabitant, a fugitive in time from nature’s harsh -law of the survival of the fittest—the tuatera, or three-eyed lizard. -Its big, dreamy hazel eyes have watched the procession of the ages for -300,000,000 years—the beginning and extinction of the dinosaurs to whom -it stood in about the relationship of a great uncle, the coming of -birds and mammals, milleniums of famine and milleniums of plenty, the -shattering and crashing together of continents. It has survived while -all its contemporaries of the earth’s ancient days have died, largely -because it has been willing placidly to watch the parade pass without -bothering to take any part in the tumult and shouting. - -The feature of great interest about the tuatera, both popularly and -scientifically, is its third eye. This third, or pineal, eye is closer -to its original form in the tuatera than in any other living creature. -Just after the little reptile is hatched the organ appears as a dark -spot under a film of thin, semi-transparent skin. In a baby tuatera it -becomes a small knob on top of the head. Thick, opaque skin covers the -eye in the adult reptile and it is difficult to distinguish. Anatomists -doubt whether the animal actually sees with the pineal eye any more. -The fact remains that this organ can be distinguished easily and that -it retains, in degenerated form, the characteristics of a seeing eye -which has nerve connections with the visual cortex at the back of the -brain. Moreover, when the third eye of an infant tuatera is dissected -there is clear evidence that it once was a double organ. - -The tuatera is about two feet long from its snout to the tip of a -crocodile-like tail. It has a scaly skin with a row of spines along its -back. Its large hazel eyes are its most conspicuous feature. They have -a soft, dreamy expression, and they never appear to blink. There are no -external ears, but the sense of hearing is highly developed. One way of -drawing the creature from its burrow is to play a tune on almost any -instrument. - -It does not dig its own holes under the rocks. Usually it shares -the burrow of a black-and-white petrel—known in New Zealand as the -mutton-bird—and it remains there even when the bird incubates its eggs -and feeds its nestlings. Apparently a mutually satisfactory arrangement -has been reached between petrel and lizard. The former usually are -in their nests only at night. The tuatera spends most of the night -away from home, hunting for the insects which are its favorite food. -Occasionally, it has been observed, a host will become tired of his -persistent house guest and try to evict it. In such a case the tuatera -never puts up a fight. It leaves placidly and tries to find some other -petrel with whom it can share quarters. If this search fails it will, -as a last extremity, scoop out its own burrow, although apparently such -labor is against its deeply fixed principles of making no effort which -possibly can be avoided. - -The lizard goes to sleep about the middle of April, the beginning of -winter in New Zealand, and wakes late in August, when spring is well -underway. Then for seven months it grows fat on insects. - -The creature is reportedly capable of living for 500 years and more. -It shares its longevity with its distant relatives, the great turtles. -Its long life, during most of which it continues to breed, doubtless -has been a major factor in its racial survival. - -The ancient reptiles were plentiful when white men first came to New -Zealand early in the last century. The Maoris regarded them with -superstitious awe and avoided them as much as possible. But early -British settlers and their dogs used to kill the inoffensive creatures -for sport. This was the first active enmity the tuateras ever had -known. They saved themselves by withdrawing to the barren islands and -becoming even more seclusive in their ways of life. Thus they clung to -a thin thread of existence until an enlightened government threw the -protection of the law around them. - -Today the three-eyed lizard is probably the world’s most rigidly -protected animal. The New Zealand government has placed all sorts of -legal restrictions on hunting or capturing it, and to kill one would be -a major crime. For that matter, very few persons living ever have seen -a tuatera. It stays in seclusion most of the time. There is a single -specimen in the zoological park at Wellington. When a party from a Byrd -Antarctic expedition visited there they were told that the lizard had -not been seen for several months and that it was highly improbable that -it could be lured out of hiding. One day it would appear of its own -volition, take a philosophical look at the twentieth century, eat a few -flies, and retire to its lair under some rocks again. Here probably is -the secret of the race’s longevity. The little lizard has spent most of -its time sleeping. It has existed with the minimum of effort. It has -been satisfied with its lot and, above all, it never has gotten in the -way. It has been observed, for example, that one of the creatures never -climbs over even the smallest obstacle. It always will walk around. - - - - -_Prodigious Fertility of Insects_ - - -The capacity of insects to reproduce is almost incalculable. A single -over-wintering house fly theoretically might have 5,598,729,000,000 -descendants in a single year. It has been calculated that a single -cabbage aphis, which weighs less than a thirtieth of an ounce, might -give rise in a year to a mass of descendants weighing 822,000,000 tons, -about five times as much as all the people in the world. Fortunately -nearly all insects have an enormous mortality rate. - - - - -_The Lizard That Runs Out of Its Own Skin_ - - -There is an animal that can get out of its own skin. It is a little -brown lizard, a gecko, which lives in native houses on the Palau -Islands in the South Pacific. This creature, about six inches long, -is closely related to the house geckos, which are found throughout the -tropical Pacific islands and as far north as Florida in the New World. -The Palau species is almost impossible to capture by hand. - -Grabbed by the tail, it immediately sheds that organ. This is a rather -common practice among certain lizards and apparently brings little -inconvenience. A new tail can be grown. But as soon as a hand is laid -on this particular species it immediately and literally “runs out of -its skin.” This is done with lightning-like rapidity. The would-be -captor is left holding the animal’s empty skin. All the rest of the -lizard is running away, presumably seeking a hiding place. - -This “running out of the skin” is a far different phenomenon than -that of shedding the skin by various reptiles, which always takes -place after a new skin has been formed underneath. The gecko just -abandons its skin altogether. It flays itself alive. Escape in this way -apparently is suicidal in most cases. That it ever could grow back a -complete skin is highly improbable. - - - - -_High Living in the Himalayas_ - - -The highest land-dwelling animals on earth are small, black attid -spiders. They live in islands of broken rock on Mount Everest at an -altitude of 22,000 feet. This is far above the line of perpetual snow -and nearly a mile above the last vegetation. Since there is no other -living thing near them, they have to eat one another for sustenance. -Presumably their ranks always are being repleted by new arrivals from -below. - -Highest of all living things are red-legged, black-feathered choughs, -birds of the crow family. A lone chough has been seen in the Himalayas -at 27,000 feet. There is an intimate association between these birds -and mountain sheep. The chough sits on the sheep’s back and searches -its hair for insects. The sheep seems to like this attention and stands -still while the exploration is in progress. - -Another bird-animal association at high mountain altitudes is that -between mouse hares, rabbit-like animals about the size of large rats, -and finches. The hares live in burrows and usually are seen feeding at -the entrances or running from hole to hole. Both hares and birds are -seed eaters. - -Wild sheep and mountain goats in the Himalayas struggle up to about -17,000 feet. There are small, wingless grasshoppers at 18,000 feet. A -few bees, moths and butterflies are found at 21,000 feet. - - - - -_Barking Spider Monkeys_ - - -Barking spider monkeys that fight off unwelcome human invaders are -dominant animals in the “green mansions” of Panama jungles. They live -in semi-nomadic troops, each of which occupies a fairly restricted -area of the forest, sometimes overlapping slightly with areas of other -groups. Within their territory members of a troop wander freely, but -their activities tend to center around food and lodge trees. - -In reporting on his observations of their activities Dr. C. R. -Carpenter of Columbia stated: “Almost every night the group slept -within earshot of camp. For eight successive nights they returned to -the same group of trees. Throughout the day the troop travelled, in -general, over the same routes from one food tree to another and from -favorite places in the deep forest where the midday siesta occurred. -Several other groups were regularly located in their own particular -home areas.” - -The monkeys resent intrusion of their territories by anything that -looks like another monkey, such as a man. When approached they start -barking. The usual terrier-like bark of great excitement may change -to a metallic chatter repeated with great frequency. When males, -and sometimes adult females are approached closely they growl in a -strikingly vicious manner. Typically they come to the terminal ends of -branches, often within 40 to 50 feet of the observer, and vigorously -shake these branches. Both hands and feet may be used while the animal -hangs by its tail. - -Throwing of branches is a conspicuous part of the reactions to men. -Quite frequently they break off and drop limbs close to the intruder. -Green branches sometimes, but most often large dead limbs weighing -up to ten pounds may be dropped. “This behavior,” according to Dr. -Carpenter, “cannot be described as throwing although the animal may -cause the object to fall away from the perpendicular by a sharp twist -of its body or a swinging circular movement of its powerful tail. -This dropping of objects from trees may be considered as a defensive -adaptation arising from the more generalized habit of shaking branches. -A significant variation occurs when the animal breaks off a limb and -holds it for a time—from a second to half a minute—before letting it -fall.” - -Normally the monkeys travel along the upper surfaces of limbs, using -all four feet and carrying the tail arched over the back. When crossing -from one tree to another they use their powerful tails to support -themselves from limbs. During such movements hands, arms and tails -are used at the same time to make contacts with supports. The monkeys -have a strong tendency to keep their heads upward. Therefore, when -coming down a perpendicular limb, vine or tree trunk they go backwards -rather than head foremost. They frequently make long jumps outward and -downward, covering at times more than thirty feet - - - - -_The Insect That is Born Pregnant_ - - -Among nature’s weirdest tricks is the strange phenomenon known as -merokinosis, reported for a single family of almost microscopic -insects. The little creatures are fathers and mothers before they are -born. They are a species of mite which infests grass. They belong to a -family which, almost alone among insects, gives birth to living young. - -Nearly all insects are egg layers. The eggs, usually deposited in -enormous numbers, hatch outside the body of the mother. Then the -individuals go through a series of metamorphoses—nymph, larva and the -like—before reaching their own reproductive maturity. - -These grass mites, however, are born fully adult animals. A sack on the -body of the female swells until it is about 500 times the original body -size. It is filled with eggs and a nutritive fluid. Within this sack -the eggs hatch and the new generation passes through all the ordinary -stages of insect metamorphosis. Finally, when they are fully mature, -the mother dies, the sack breaks, and the host of new mites emerges. - -It was long thought that the mites were striking examples of -parthenogenesis, or asexual reproduction. Females isolated as soon as -they were born gave birth to large numbers of young. Parthenogenisis -is not uncommon among the lower animals. Invariably however, except in -this one case, all the offspring are of one sex. The supposedly virgin -birth families of the mites contain both males and females in various -proportions. - - - - -_Bull-dog Animals_ - - -A repressed tendency towards the bulldog face apparently is deep-seated -among mammals. Foxes, cattle and pigs with bulldog appearance have been -reported. In three species of dogs—the bulldog, pug and the pug-nosed -dog of ancient Peru—this characteristic is dominant. It could have been -caused by a pronounced shortening of the rostral portion of the skull -due to the failure of facial bones to develop. - - - - -_Foresight of Kangaroo Rats_ - - -A recent report by Dr. William T. Shaw tells of observations of giant -California kangaroo rats whose food consists largely of the seeds of -pepper grass. The seeds are gathered busily all day and stored in -shallow surface caches where they are dried by the dust and heat of the -sun. During the night, the animals work busily removing the dried seed -to much larger chambers deep underground where it is to be stored for -the winter. In some way the highly intelligent animal has learned the -secret of preventing mildew. Only a few other animals have mastered the -same technique; the beaver and cony dry their twigs in the sun before -storing them. - - - - -_The Primitive Proturans_ - - -The proturans—blind, wingless minute bugs found under bark and in -leaf litter—are earth’s most primitive insects. They are seldom -seen and when they are noticed are likely to be mistaken for larvae -of some other insect. So obscure are the creatures that they were -not discovered until early in the present century. They are about a -twentieth of an inch long, yellowish, and covered with a protective -shell of chitin. Sluggish and slow-moving proturans have three pairs -of legs, only two of which are used for locomotion. The front pair is -held up in front of the insect as it moves. These legs apparently serve -the purpose of the antennae found in all higher insect orders. They are -provided with primitive sense organs of touch. These little creatures -presumably represent one of the earliest stages in insect evolution. - - - - -_Air-Conditioned Homes of Beavers_ - - -Air ventilation of homes appears to be an engineering accomplishment of -beavers. “The beaver hut seen from the outside,” according to Sigvald -Salveson of Aamli, Nowayd, “appears to be so tight that it seems -astonishing that the occupants can get sufficient air. In winter, when -the lodge is covered with snow and ice one would not think it possible -that the animals could live in apparently air-tight dwellings. Near -my home is a small lake where a beaver built a dam and a great lodge. -In the outlet of the lake the water was still open and I noticed the -footprints of beaver on the thin ice just beyond. Twigs and small -trunks were dragged to the open water, where the animals sat on the -edge of the ice and took their meals. A fox had his usual track over -the lodge. - -“More and more snow fell and the hut was more and more hidden under the -white blanket. Sometimes I noticed that the fox had gone to the top of -the dome and evidently sat there for a while. Near where he had sat -was a hole in the snow about half a foot in diameter and with thin ice -around the edge. I found that the hole widened downward and ended on -the roof of the lodge. At the bottom the hole was at least two feet in -diameter and its walls were hard as ice. From this hole or chimney rose -warm steam, and the twigs and mud on the roof felt warm and damp to my -hand.” - - - - -_The Demon of Puerto Rico_ - - -In deep sunless ravines of Puerto Rico’s Pandura mountains dwells the -demon frog. It is a ghostly voice from mountainsides strewn with great, -decomposing granite boulders and so thickly covered with tropical vines -and bushes that it is almost impenetrable to man. Until twenty years -ago it was only a voice, for none of the strange little creatures ever -had been seen. The mere sight of the animal, according to many of the -natives, would be fatal. - -“One might as well try to bribe a mountaineer to catch a ghost as -a guajone. There is a strange quality in the voice which probably -is largely responsible for the superstitious dread of the mountain -people,” according to Smithsonian Institution biologist Gerrit S. -Miller, Jr. - -“It is strange enough when heard from the surface,” Miller reports, -“but it becomes even more strange after one has climbed down into -the irregular and dangerous openings, which prove to be much larger -and more cavernous than the surface appearance, with its dense and -deceptive covering of vegetation, could lead one to expect. With -flashlights the frogs are easily found and caught as they crawl slowly -over the damp, but not slippery surface of the granite. - -“To the natives they are objects of dread. One man said they were about -a foot long and armed with frightful teeth. Another assured me that -anybody who saw one would die shortly afterwards. No offer of money -could induce the boys or men to go into the cavities in search of them.” - -The little creature is fantastic in appearance, chiefly due to its -large protruding eyes. The edge of the eyelid is white, making a thin -white line around the eye. The iris is back and gold. The skin is -light brown above and nearly white underneath, but some specimens have -blotches of yellow which add to the weird appearance. - -Living as they do in the semi-darkness of mountain gullies, little -is known of the life history and habits of these strange creatures. -The most notable characteristic of several specimens kept alive for -observation was the peculiar singing in a liquid note repeated six or -seven times. It can best be imitated by whistling. This singing is -believed to be part of the courtship behavior of males. - -The demon frog has been given the scientific name of Eleutherodactylus -cooki. It appears to have been especially adapted for life among the -boulders of its restricted habitat. - - - - -_Man-Made Plants_ - - -At least a half dozen species of plants are man-made. They are hybrids -which can transmit their basic and unique characters to future -generations. - -The fact that what long was considered an impossibility in the plant -kingdom has been achieved is revealed by Dr. H. Bentley Glass, -professor of biology at Johns Hopkins University. With newly developed -techniques which make possible the doubling of chromosomes, bunches of -genes which are the units of heredity, the creation of species may be -just at its threshold and man may take over control of evolution. - -The definition of species, after all, is the ability to produce -offspring with the major characteristics of the parents. The first -successful attempt, Dr. Glass says, was by a Russian geneticist -about 30 years ago. He crossed a radish and a cabbage and produced a -“rabage.” When two rabages were mated they produced seed which sprouted -into other rabages. - -Unfortunately for the man who had been the first to cross one of the -great barriers in biology, the rabage was a pretty poor specimen. It -had the prickly, uneatable leaves of the radish and the poor root -system of the cabbage. Russian agricultural authorities had been led -to expect great things. They were bitterly disappointed that the new -vegetable did not fit into one of the five-year plans. The geneticist -was not heard of again and it is generally believed that he was -“eliminated” as a reward for one of science’s greatest achievements. - -Creators of new species have fared somewhat better in other countries, -especially the United States, but they have not fared too well -anywhere. In practically every case the new species they have created -have taken over the worst characters of the parent species. They have -been of no commercial value. It is likely that about the same thing has -happened in nature throughout the milleniums. - -But bad may be good. It all depends on the environment into which the -new species is born. Under the right circumstances, the rabage might -have superseded both radish and cabbage. That is, it might have been -adapted to a change in environment in which both parent species would -have become extinct. - -Although no new animal species has yet been man-made there seems no -overwhelming reason why this should not happen with some of the new -chromosome-doubling drugs. However, a new kind of man is not likely. -Among higher animals the mechanism of heredity is very complex indeed. -It isn’t likely to happen in nature, in the face of atomic radiation. -It has been calculated that normally there is one human mutation per -generation for each 50,000 individuals. The high probability is that -this mutation involves a recessive, or hidden, gene. Its effects do -not appear in the population until two persons carrying the same -recessive are mated. About 999 out of 1,000 recessive genes are “bad” -and in due course will cause the extinction of the line in which they -appear. In the long history of the race it is likely that everybody has -fallen heir to one lethal gene, but it may be a long time making its -appearance in family lines. - -Most of the genes in any given population, good or bad, are so hidden -that it is practically impossible to predict what the offspring of any -particular couple will be. - -The recessive genes have vastly increased through the operation of -human “melting pots” all over the world in the last few generations. -One result is that minority races tend to become absorbed in -majorities. Thus the relatively small American Negro population, -without any further inter-marriage but purely through the cropping -out of recessives already received from the white majority, will be -entirely amalgamated in the more numerous race in approximately 2,000 -years. - -Genetics is getting into the hands of scientists tools which can speed -up the natural process of change about 1,000-fold and this may result -in either good or evil. The good side is well illustrated by hybrid -corn—a plant which cannot be considered a new species. This lately has -been carried to the point where corn with much more sugar in its stalks -and only six instead of twelve feet high can be produced. - - - - -_The Great Seal Migration_ - - -The great annual northward migration of the seals is one of the -most remarkable phenomena of animal life. It seems to be without -organization and without leadership. Yet toward the end of March each -year the hundreds of thousands of cow seals and pups scattered over -thousands of square miles of water start at about the same time in -three great groups bound for three specific places. It has been the -same for centuries, perhaps milleniums. Each animal moves at about the -same rate so that all arrive within a few days of each other. Unlike -birds, they do not move in compact masses. Three great herds exist. - -The American herd of about 1,500,000 is by far the largest of the -three. It goes straight to the Pribiloffs, where it goes ashore on -two almost barren islands—St Paul and St George. The Japanese herd, -numbering about 40,000, makes for Robben Island, off northern Japan. -The Russian herd, now estimated at about 200,000, goes to a few rocky -islands of the Commander archipelago off Kamchatka. - -The moving herds consist almost entirely of females and young. The -bulls winter further north, tend to be solitary during the winter, and -precede the cows to the summer homes. The breeding season lasts for -about two months. During this time the bull never eats or touches a -drop of water. He never leaves the land. He arrives sleek and fat from -the ocean pasture and is able to survive entirely on stored energy. -This keeps him alive, even when he fights scores of terrible battles -with younger rivals. Towards the end of summer he naturally is a sorry -looking creature. - -One day, actuated by some common impulse, cows and calves depart. -Then the bulls, their arduous labors of race propagation over for ten -months, draw back among the rocks for a long rest. - - - - -_The Magic Bark of the Cinchona Tree_ - - -The shadow of a pale Spanish lady, dead for almost three centuries, has -returned to the dense rain forests of the western slopes of the Andes. - -The shadow is that of the Countess of Chinchon, wife of the redoubtable -Don Luiz Geronimo de Cabrera Bobadilla y Mendoza, colonial viceroy of -Peru. She was dying of a strange disease in Lima in 1638. Her Jesuit -confessor, the story goes, gave a medicine to her doctor made from the -bark of a common Peruvian tree. It supposedly saved her life and two -years later she returned to Spain, carrying with her some of the magic -bark. Thus she gave to the world one of the supreme medicines of all -times. A century later the Swedish botanist Linnaeus tried to pay a -compliment to the long-dead beauty but misspelled her name—calling her -tree “cinchona”. Out of it came quinine. - -The Andean forests remained for 200 years the only source of the magic -drug—quinine. The cinchona trees grew wild. They were stripped of bark -recklessly and became very scarce. By 1850 the price of quinine was $50 -an ounce and only the rich could afford to have malaria. - -The British tried to transplant the tree in India and failed. Then -Dutch botanists obtained some seed, planted it in the East Indies, -and developed high-yielding species. Soon this region became the sole -source of the world’s supply. The price dropped to 18 cents an ounce -and the lands over which the long-dead Countess had ruled dropped out -of the picture. - -Now South American countries, notably Venezuela and Bolivia, are -reclaiming the crop with improved varieties of the cinchona tree, equal -to the best produced by the Dutch. They are regaining rapidly the dead -lady’s gift. - - - - -_Colombia’s Ant Tree_ - - -In the sparsely inhabited, tropical portion of eastern Colombia is an -ant tree known as the barrasanta. It is a small, slender tree with -showy, red flowers which grows 25 to 30 feet in height. Both trunk and -branches are hollow and filled with masses of vicious, biting ants. As -soon as the tree is disturbed the insects swarm upon the invader. As -a result the tree is generally left alone both by Indians and white -settlers. The ants are protected by the branches and in turn protect -the host with their fighting prowess. - -A curious shrub which grows out of enormous anthills found through the -llanos region of western Colombia furnishes quite a different example -of insect-plant association. The ants are “leaf cutters.” All other -plant life avoids their immediate neighborhood. This particular shrub -exudes a viscous, milky juice which traps any ants which try to climb -toward its leaves. Hence the insects have learned to leave it alone and -it enjoys the rich ant hill soil without competition from any other -plants. - - - - -_The Strange Behavior of Plants_ - - -The behavior characteristics of some American plants are strange indeed. - -The compass plant, a bristly perennial of the aster family which grows -in abundance over the prairies, is a living compass. It turns the edges -of its leaves in a general north-south direction. Another American -plant, the wild lettuce, does the same thing. The result is that when -the intensity of sunlight is weakest in the morning and evening the -flat surfaces of the leaves are in a position to receive the maximum -available amount of light. At noon, when there is more light than the -plant needs, only the edges of the leaves are turned towards the sun. - -Then there is the English ivy which arranges its leaves in a mosaic -pattern so that about the greatest possible area is exposed to the -light. Other plants show equally precise adaptations to their light -requirements. - -It is all associated with the process of photosynthesis—i.e., the -manufacture by the plant of carbohydrates out of carbon dioxide and -water in the presence of light. The strength of light needed for this -process varies somewhat with the particular plant and its conditions. -The phenomenon is one of the most vital in creation, the transformation -of the sun’s energy into the fuel of animal life. Without it life would -be impossible. - -Some plants work under high light intensities, such as those which -must adapt themselves on the desert areas of the southwestern United -States. Others thrive best in the subdued light of a dense forest. One -curious little moss grows in caves where there is almost no light at -all. It is equipped with a plate of cells forming a battery of lenses -capable of focusing the scattered light on the bodies especially -concerned in carbohydrate formation. These are the chloroplasts which -contain the mysterious substance, chlorophyll, which acts as a catalyst -for action of sunlight on carbon dioxide and water. The shape and -arrangement of cells containing the chloroplasts are such that the -amount of chlorophyll exposed to the sunlight can be varied. - -A specially devised apparatus has been constructed in the Smithsonian -laboratory for quantitative studies of the way plants absorb carbon -dioxide under different lighting conditions. Not only is the process -greatly effected by the intensity of the light, the experiments show, -but the wave length also is of paramount importance. The experimental -plants are grown with their roots in a nutrient solution and their -tops extending into a double-walled glass tube. They are furnished -light from surrounding lamps, so that the intensity and wave lengths of -the light can be varied as desired. Through the tube, air containing -different amounts of carbon dioxide can be passed. Thus every element -of the process is under rigid control of the experimenters. - -The experiment already has shown that the correct combination of wave -lengths is of the utmost importance in making up synthetic light. Thus, -regardless of the intensity, the ordinary electric light when used -alone has been demonstrated to be a poor light source. Its maximum -energy occurs in the infrared region, below the limit of visibility, -while that of sunlight falls in the green-blue region. If tomato -plants are grown under high powered Mazda lamps in the Smithsonian’s -special growth chambers, especially when the humidity is high, their -leaves turn pale and almost white. Chlorophyll disappears under these -conditions. - - - - -_Venezuela’s Nocturnal Orchid_ - - -A flower that opens only by moonlight is one of Venezuela’s plant -curiosities. It is an ivory-white, velvety orchid which depends -entirely on nocturnal butterflies to sip its nectar while pollenization -takes place. - -The plant is one of 800 species of Venezuelan orchids. Among these -is probably the prettiest and rarest of the orchid family, the -mother-of-pearl flower, which can sometimes be found in the deep -jungles of the Gran Sabana area at altitudes of more than 3,000 feet. - -Still another high mountain variety has square petals with fringed -edges. Another, found in the jungles of the Upper Orinoco, has blossoms -measuring up to 16 inches in diameter. A unique Venezuelan orchid grows -only in water. - -Throughout the world there are more than 20,000 species of orchids, the -great majority of which are found only in mountainous regions of the -tropics. A few, however, grow as far north as the Arctic Circle. - - - - -_The Plant That Strikes Men Dumb_ - - -A plant cultivated in the gardens of the Venezuelan National University -at Caracas might well be a boon to pestered husbands and harassed -mothers. - -It is described under the popular Spanish name of “planta del mudo.” -It looks like sugarcane. According to the probably exaggerated claims, -anybody who chews the stem is stricken dumb for at least 48 hours, -presumably due to some paralyzing effect on some part of the vocal -apparatus. It is not known whether anybody has tried to extract the -marvelous talk-stopping principle. - -American botanists are unable to identify the plant. They explain, -however, that the northern portion of South America long has been known -as the world’s greatest storehouse of plants with strange physiological -effects. There is one, for example, alleged to grow hair on bald heads, -another which makes everything look red. - - - - -_Combat of Moth and Shrew_ - - -A strange fight between a grey shrew, smallest of North American -mammals, and a black “witch moth” has been described by Laurence M. -Huey of the San Diego Society of Natural History. - -The moth, with a wing spread of about four inches and a body size -almost equal to that of the shrew, was placed in a cage with the -mammal. The shrew proved too much for the insect after the odds had -been equalized by clipping a great part of the latter’s wings. - -“Even with this severe handicap”, reports Mr. Huey, “the moth still was -very strong and, as its body was so large, the shrew attacked it by -grasping one of its wing stubs, tugging with main strength, and hanging -on like a bulldog. Once, in a burst of spirited action, the shrew was -pitched half way across the cage. This only caused a more determined -attack and the moth finally was killed and eaten. - -“Another moth, with a body about three-quarters of an inch long, was -placed in the cage. It had lost many of the scales from its wings and -was partially disabled. It could fly feebly, however, from one side of -the cage to the other. The shrew, apparently by its sense of hearing, -kept following the course of the moth until its flight carried it about -two inches above the little mammal. Then, with an almost invisible -quickness, the animal sprang and seized the moth in the air, much as -a basketball player leaps to catch a ball high over his head. A few -crunches with the sharp-toothed jaws dispatched the moth.” - - - - -_The Ferocious Snake Weasel_ - - -From South Africa comes a report from Dr. Raymond B. Cowles of a fight -between a deadly reptile and a little known mammal, the inyengelizi, or -snake weasel. - -The habitat of the snake weasel, unknown in any zoo, is the Umzumbe -Valley in Natal Province, where it is one of the rarest of carnivores. -Natives either refuse to bring in inyengelizis or demand exorbitant -prices for their skins. All parts of the body are used in the native -pharmacopoeia and elders wear a narrow strip of the fur to ward off -evil and bring good luck. - -Little is known concerning the habits of the animal except that it -apparently frequents burrows of subterranean animals in gardens, -sometimes is ploughed up, and will attack and kill large snakes. - -A reliable Zulu described to Dr. Cowles a fight between one of them and -a deadly mamba about seven feet long. He said he had been watching the -snake, basking in the sun in a coiled position. After a few moments a -movement in the bushes caught his attention and he saw an inyengelizi -cautiously stealing towards the snake. When within a foot or two the -animal suddenly leaped upon the reptile and fastened its teeth just -behind the head where it clung during the ensuing wild struggle. -After a few minutes it succeeded in killing the snake, whereupon it -relinquished its hold, performed its toilet, and left without eating -any of its prey. - - - - -_The Rabbit That Swims_ - - -Life history and habits of a swimming rabbit are the subject of a -report to the American Society of Mammologists. The animal is the -little known marsh rabbit of the South Carolina coast. It spends most -of its life on the tidal marshes and hence, alone of the rabbit family, -has become a partially aquarian animal. Almost strictly nocturnal in -its habits, its ways of life hitherto have eluded naturalists. - -By far the best known trait of the species is its liking for water. -Individuals sometimes are encountered in day time far out in one of -the coastal rivers. In summer when the water is warm they take to it -readily. They seldom are observed, however, swimming in cold water. - -In fall and winter the little animal leads a precarious existence. It -is the favorite food of the great marsh hawks, continuously circling -over the swamps. When Spring comes the birds leave for the North, the -sedges grow tall so as to conceal completely the timid little animals, -and they are left in peace until the frosts of Autumn. - -Generally the marsh rabbit is a home-loving creature but floods in the -fresh water area of its habitat sometimes force a migration. It is a -natural swimmer. On land it walks with a swimming motion. Other rabbits -are practically helpless in the water and try to swim with the hopping -motions they use on land. The rare special type appears to be holding -its own in spite of its many enemies. - - - - -_Gorilla Warriors of the Belgian Congo_ - - -A study of mountain gorillas in a part of the world which they have all -to themselves has been reported by Captain C. S. R. Pitman, British -zoologist. - -The only humans who ever penetrate the dense forests on the Uganda -border of the Belgian Congo, where these animals are found, are -pigmies, with whom the great apes live on the best of terms. Captain -Pitman is one of the few white men ever to have entered the area. - -The mountain gorilla is probably the highest of all the gorillas, next -to man. One of the two or three ever in captivity was an infant kept -at the National Zoological Park in Washington, D. C. Its brain was the -largest ever found in an infra-human creature; it almost matched the -smallest normal human brains. - -Capt. Pitman found the gorilla quite a likeable and peaceful animal. He -says: - -“Around the male gorilla, on account of its enormous size and strength, -coupled in recent years with frequent lapses from grace provoked -by unnecessary and undue interference, there has been woven and -unfortunately published a fantasy of inaccuracy and exaggeration—so -much so that the very homely old male is visualized as an object of -dread. The male gorilla, as the family head, is most solicitous for the -welfare of his wives and children—a very human trait. On the threat -of danger, he accepts full responsibility for the well-being of his -charges. - -“If the danger is real the females and young are sent off, while the -father waits to take on all comers until satisfied that the remainder -of the band are out of harm’s way. Sometimes, when the danger is sudden -and overwhelming, the youngsters are sent up trees to hide until the -trouble is over. It is strangely reminiscent of the records of some -of the early African explorers relative to tribal customs. When the -womenfolk were to be seen busily engaged in their usual vocations in -the precincts of a village all was well and no hostility contemplated -on the part of the local inhabitants. - -“But an absence of women and children was interpreted as unfavorable, -signifying that they had been removed to a safe place to enable the -warriors to fight unhampered. And so it is with the old male gorilla, -for as soon as he bids his family seek safety he is out for mischief, -although without direct provocation he is unlikely to attack. There are -black sheep in every fold and solitary examples both male and female, -which probably have been outlaws for a very good reason, have been -known to be abnormally aggressive.” - - - - -_The Biggest “Rat” in the World_ - - -Close relative of the porcupine, but without quills, is the aquatic -coypu, or nutria, of South America. It has become quite valuable in -recent years because of its soft fur. Weighing about 20 pounds, it -often is referred to as the “biggest rat in the world”. It shares with -the porcupine large, orange-colored incisor teeth which give it a -frightful appearance. Like its barbed northern cousin it is a strict -vegetarian, living exclusively on water weeds in its native habitat. -Before the last war coypu farms were being established through much -of Europe. However some apprehension was felt that it might cause -considerable damage to crops if it escaped from its enclosures. - - - - -_The Suicide Marches of Lemmings_ - - -Mass death marches of lemmings long have intrigued biologists and -psychologists. - -The Lapland lemming is a short-tailed animal, related to the meadow -mouse, that looks like a miniature rabbit. Through the sub-Arctic -winter it lives completely buried under snow through which it burrows -in search of mosses and lichens. - -It is extremely prolific; females produce two litters of from four to -six offspring every year. The numbers soon become far too great to -subsist on the sparse supply available in the Scandinavian mountains. - -Then, irregularly in periods of from five to ten years, occurs one of -the weirdest phenomena of animal life. Acting apparently on a common, -sub-conscious, simultaneous impulse, the entire lemming population -starts a mass migration out of the mountains to the lowlands. The -animals proceed in a straight line, a few feet apart, each usually -tracing a shallow furrow in the soil. They are a devouring scourge, -stripping the earth of all vegetation in their path. Their progress -seems irresistible. No obstacle stops them. If they come across a -man they glide between his legs. If they meet with a haystack they -gnaw through it. If a rock stands in their way they go around it in a -semi-circle and then resume the straight line of their march. When they -come to a lake, river or arm of the sea they swim directly across, vast -numbers being drowned on the way. If they encounter a boat they climb -over it, so as not to be diverted from a straight line. Curiously, -they seem to avoid human habitations. They resist fiercely all efforts -to stop them. They will bite a stick or hand, crying and barking like -little dogs. Multitudes are destroyed every mile of the way. When the -migrating horde reaches the sea it moves straight on—to inevitable -destruction. - -A few linger behind and eventually make their way back to the mountain -habitat. Numbers are so reduced that they are seldom observed. Then a -new generation starts and builds up for the next migration. - - - - -_The Ferocity of the Tiger_ - - -Symbol of ferocity in the animal world is the tiger. When troops of the -American 101st Division entered the German city of Halle in 1945 it -probably was considered effective psychological warfare tactics on the -part of the Nazis to open the zoo cages and let loose the tigers. So -far as known, however, the animals did not attack any Americans. - -Whether the reputation of the tiger is entirely justified is debatable. -“The tiger”, says Dr. William M. Mann, long-time director of the -National Zoological Park in Washington, “is one of the finest animals -that lives. In the cage he is the most snobbish of all aristocrats, his -contempt for those who jostle in front of his bars being nothing less -than magnificent. He is dignity itself. He condescends to no boyish -antics to attract attention as does the chimpanzee, to no begging -for sweets as do the bear and elephant, to no pacific, philosophic -acceptance of fate such as that of the hippopotamus. You cannot win his -favor by a stick of candy. He is above rage or gratitude.” - -Sometimes adult tigers are captured in traps and sold to circuses. One -American circus some years ago had a cage of ten. Their keeper made -them perform as another man might spaniels. In the arena they appeared -to be a ferocious group. In the menagerie tent, confined in small cages -like so many kittens, the keeper could put his hand in their months and -rub their teeth. Once he complained bitterly about the tranquility of -his charges. “I cannot make a show with ten tame tigers,” he argued. “I -must have five mean ones to add to the act.” - -The tiger had a prominent part in the menageries of Indian and Chinese -monarchs before the Christian era. It first appeared in Europe about -the time of the eastern conquests of Alexander. Well known to the -Romans, the animal was one of the most dreaded of all the beasts that -appeared in the arena. - -Despite its supposed ferocity, no great harm has been done in the few -cases in which tigers have escaped from zoos. Often they have returned -of their own accord. - - - - -_The Fearsome Porcupine_ - - -There are more than 1,000 minute barbs on each of a porcupine’s many -quills. This is the reason why such a quill is very difficult to -withdraw from the flesh. The armament of quills, from a half inch to -three inches long and developed from hairs of the underfur, renders the -“spiny pig” of northern woodlands almost immune to attack. About its -only enemy in nature is the giant weasel, the fisher, which has learned -the trick of quickly turning the porcupine on its back. - -The quills are very lightly attached to the porcupine’s body and become -detached almost automatically when the creature is attacked. That they -can be “shot”, however, is almost certainly a fallacy. A victim must -actually be in contact with the animal. - - - - -_The Plant That Stimulates Visions_ - - -In 1560 a Franciscan monk wrote of Aztecs eating a plant called peyotl -“which gives them terrible and ludicrous visions, alleviates hunger and -thirst, gives strength and incites to battle.” It was used, he reported -“to bring about a state of ecstasy in which one had prophetic visions.” - -This was the first known reference in literature to the mescal cactus, -_Lopophora williamsii_, whose remarkable effects on the human mind -ever since have aroused wonderment. Many have experimented with eating -the so-called “buttons” of this cactus and have reported all sorts of -terrible and ludicrous visions. But no two experimenters apparently -have the same experience. After nearly 400 years the supposed active -principle, mescaline, has been extracted and the same effects produced -either by swallowing or injection of as little as a half gram. - -First comes a decided nausea which lasts about two hours. This -passes and is followed by weird hallucinations. One’s own body seems -distorted, with some parts exceedingly small and some very large. A -common experience is the feeling that only one’s head is the self. The -rest of the body is away somewhere in space. The time sense is badly -distorted. Minutes stretch out into hours and days, days and hours are -contracted into minutes. There are strange optical delusions—lights -flashing before the eyes and floating patches of color. Seldom, -however, are actual hallucinatory objects seen. - -The consumer has the impression that he thinks more clearly than at -other times but it has been found that this thought is based more on -the sounds than meaning of words. There is a tendency, for example, to -argue in puns. An invisible barrier seems to separate one from the rest -of the world. This condition lasts for two or three hours, and then -passes away, leaving no after affects. The condition has been likened -to schizophrenia. - -Large doses produce catatonic conditions. A person may sit motionless -for a long time in an apparently quite uncomfortable position and -refuse to move. Dogs and cats given mescaline injections crouch -motionless in corners of their cages, only rousing themselves from time -to time to attack invisible assailants. - -It recently has been found that only one chemical constituent of -mescaline, beta-phenylethylamine, is responsible for the delusions. -This is quite similar in chemical structure to the body hormone -adrenaline. There have been conjectures that adrenaline may be changed -into the mescaline constituent by some as yet unknown process of body -chemistry and that this change may be the physiological cause of -schizophrenia. - -About 40 years ago a peyotl church was set up by Indians in New Mexico. -It followed essentially the Catholic ritual, but with mescal buttons -substituted for bread in communion. The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs -did not interfere with the rites when its investigations indicated that -the mysterious drug was not habit-forming and apparently caused no -physical injury. - - - - -_The Puzzling Platypus_ - - -Fantastic combination of mammal, bird and reptile is the egg-laying, -toothless water animal of New South Wales and Tasmania, Australia, -the duck-billed platypus. It is clearly a mammal but, with a single -exception, it stands quite alone among these warm-blooded animals. The -creatures from which it is a survivor probably have been extinct for -fifty million years. - -It is an animal about twenty inches long from the tip of its horny beak -to the end of its broad, flattened tail. It is covered with soft brown -fur. Its four legs are short and five-toed. These toes on the front -foot are joined by webs like those of aquatic birds which extend beyond -the long, sharp, curved toe-nails. On the hind legs of the male are -inch-long, sharp spurs through which run minute canals connected with -a large gland at the back of the thigh—very much like the poison fangs -of a serpent. Yet, so far as can be determined, the gland secretes no -poison and the spurs apparently are seldom used in self defense. - -The female lays two eggs at a time, each about three-fourths of an inch -long and a half inch wide, with strong, flexible white shells. These -eggs are not incubated but hatch buried shallowly in sand and straw. -The platypus lives on the banks of ponds and quiet streams where it -digs burrows as much as 20 feet long with two entrances, one below and -the other above the water level. The rear, or land, end of a burrow is -enlarged into a small chamber in which the young are reared. - -The creatures pass most of the daylight hours asleep in these burrows, -curled in rather tight balls. The entrances are concealed in grass and -reeds so that the occupants of the burrows are seldom seen. At night -the platypus takes to the water. It swims and dives easily and its -major food consists of worms and other aquatic animals found in the mud -or gravel at the bottom. It has cheek pouches like a squirrel. When it -comes up from a dive these pouches are stuffed with the food it has -gathered, which is extracted and eaten at leisure. - -Adult animals are toothless but in each jaw there is a horny ridge. -The young, however, have rootless teeth—a possible clue to their very -remote ancestry. Like a bird the platypus has a very small head. There -is no division of its brain into two hemispheres, as in all other -mammals and most birds. This is a characteristic of the reptile brain. - -The creatures can climb with apparent ease. Small groups sometimes are -seen sunning themselves on broad tree trunks overhanging the water. -They are extremely timid but, when captured, soon become quite tame. In -captivity, however, they seldom live long. - -The only other member of this animal group is the echidna, or spiny ant -eater, of the same part of the world. It is, however, an inhabitant -of rocky districts where it digs shallow burrows in sand or hides in -rock crevices. The back is covered with sharp, backward-directed spines -which give it the appearance of a small porcupine. It has a long, -tubular snout from which projects the long, slender tongue covered with -some sticky substance. With this it laps up ants and other insects. - -Like the platypus, it has short, strong legs with large claws with -which it burrows with considerable speed. Burrowing, where possible, is -its usual method of flight. Its other defense is to roll itself in a -ball, when its sharp spines give it considerable protection. “The only -way of carrying the creature”, says George Bennett (_Gatherings of a -Naturalist in Australasia_) “is by one of its hind legs. Its powerful -resistance and the sharpness of the spines will soon oblige the captor, -attempting to seize it by any other part of the body, to be relinquish -his hold.” - - - - -INDEX - - - Abominable Snow Man, 155 - - Ants, 6, 31, 36, 62, 71 - - Aphroditids, 39 - - Asp, 26 - - - Bats, 121, 124 - - Bear, 133 - - Beavers, 185 - - Bees, 135, 144 - - Beetles, 142, 158 - - Birds, 27, 34, 43, 54, 55, 62, 70, 77, 81, 89, 96, 97, 102, 110 - - Brachiopods, 52 - - Bryozoa, 15 - - - Caterpillars, 150 - - Caves, 3, 43, 57 - - Centipedes, 126 - - Chameleon, 9 - - Clams, 111, 113 - - Corals, 114 - - Crabs, 18, 125 - - Crocodile, 176 - - Ctenophores, 118 - - - Dodo, 55 - - Dogs, 169 - - Duck Hawk, 97 - - Dugongs, 172 - - - Eagle, 103, 162 - - Elephant, 93, 117, 120, 194 - - - Fireflies, 164 - - Fish, 13, 33, 72, 89, 99, 143, 148, 156 - - Flowers, 31 - - Forests, 20, 42, 119 - - Frogs, 24, 160, 162, 167, 186 - - - Gorilla, 194 - - Grasshopper, 113, 128, 130, 157 - - Guacharo, 43 - - - Hornbills, 34 - - Horned Viper, 26, 162 - - - Iguanas, 41 - - Insects, 26, 139, 181, 184 - - - Lemmings, 196 - - Lizards, 30, 41, 174, 179, 180 - - Locusts, 128, 130 - - - Manatees, 172 - - Mantid, 163 - - Mermaids, 172 - - Millipedes, 123 - - Mollusk, 165 - - Monkeys, 21, 37, 141, 183 - - Moth, 191 - - - Ocean, 47 - - Octracoderms, 33 - - Opossum, 170 - - Orchids, 122, 191 - - Oysters, 117 - - - Pearls, 112 - - Penguins, 5 - - Pigeons, 27 - - Plants, 46, 78, 108, 131, 137, 139, 149, 150, 154, 159, 187, 190, 192 - - Platypus, 199 - - Porcupine, 197 - - Proteus, 57 - - Proturans, 185 - - - Rabbit, 192 - - Rats, 137, 141, 184, 195 - - Raven, 89 - - Reptiles, 61 - - Rotifers, 85 - - - Salamander, 178 - - Sea Horse, 82 - - Sea Urchin, 50 - - Seals, 84, 161, 188 - - Shark, 134, 138 - - Shrew, 181 - - Silk Worm, 98 - - Skuas, 110 - - Snails, 44, 109, 152 - - Snakes, 26, 49, 77, 88, 105, 162, 174 - - Spiders, 9, 15, 30, 41, 67, 91 - - Sponge, 2 - - Squids, 67 - - Sting Rays, 89, 146 - - - Tamandua, 21 - - Tarantula, 30 - - Termites, 45, 115, 137 - - Ticks, 20 - - Tiger, 196 - - Toads, 159, 162 - - Tomato, 92 - - Toucan, 108 - - Trees, 129, 141, 189, 190 - - - Viper, 26, 162 - - - Weasel, 193 - - Whippoorwill, 70 - - Worms, 10, 22, 51, 64, 73, 90, 98, 132, 142, 151, 157, 158 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGEST THINGS IN THE -WORLD *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Henry. - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1 -{ - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; -} - - h2,h3{ - text-align: center; - clear: both; - } - -.half-title { - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; - } - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.content {font-size: 1.2em; - margin-top: 2em; - text-align: left; - page-break-before: avoid; - } - -/* Paragraphs */ - -p {text-indent: 1em; - margin-top: .75em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; - } - -.pnind {text-indent: 0em;} -.psig {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} - -.spaced {margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} - - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -hr.small {width: 25%; margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -ul {font-size: .9em; list-style-type: none; } -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.small {font-size: small;} - - -/* Transcriber's notes */ - -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; - } - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Strangest Things in the World, by Thomas R. Henry</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Strangest Things in the World</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>A Book About Extraordinary Manifestations of Nature</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Thomas R. Henry</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 23, 2022 [eBook #67223]<br /> -[Last updated: June 5, 2022]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD ***</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="transnote"> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other -spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>A linked list of the 190 section headings has been prepared by the -transcriber and placed at the end of the book. -</p> -<p>The cover was prepared by the transcriber and is placed in the public -domain. -</p></div> - - -<p class="half-title">THE STRANGEST THINGS -IN THE WORLD</p> - -<p><a href="#Topic_list">Topic list</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<h1> -THE STRANGEST THINGS<br /> -IN THE WORLD</h1> - -<p class="center"> -<i>A Book About Extraordinary<br /> -Manifestations of Nature</i> -</p> -<p class="center spaced"> -THOMAS R. HENRY</p> - -<p class="center"> -Public Affairs Press, Washington, D. C.</p> - - - - -<p class="center small"> -Copyright, 1958, by Public Affairs Press<br /> -419 New Jersey Avenue, S. E., Washington 3, D. C.<br /> -<br /> -Printed in the United States of America<br /> -Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-10881</p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The challenges of Nature’s paradoxes have been sharp -spurs to man’s search for knowledge since the start of -science.</p> - -<p>Fortunately the number of these paradoxes is infinite, -and so the quests are endless. Man never will know a -wonderless world. In the phenomena of life especially -we have come only to the zone of morning twilight. The -bright day of understanding is ahead. As its hours -pass we can expect a constant succession of new paradoxes, -new spurs to further advances.</p> - -<p>Man would be in a sad situation were it otherwise. -For the bright light of noon and afternoon inevitably -precedes sunset and darkness and sleep.</p> - -<p>This book is a compendium of some of Nature’s curiosities -and contradictions in the field of life and as -such it well may awaken that wonder which, as somebody -has said, is the beginning of knowledge.</p> - -<p>The author is one of the world’s best-known and most -respected science writers. This book is a personal and -unique distillation of the wisdom he has developed in a -lifetime of dealing with man’s effort to resolve the paradoxes -of nature.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -<span class="smcap">Leonard Carmichael</span><br /> -<br /> -<i>Secretary of the<br /> -Smithsonian Institution</i><br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Life has invaded nearly every crack and crevasse of the world during -the billion years since it left its first traces on this planet. It has adjusted -itself to all extremes of living, from nearly airless mountaintops -five miles high to lightless floors of oceans five miles deep. It has found -abodes in boiling hot springs and in the everlasting ice of Antarctic peaks. -It very likely has invaded the cold, red deserts of Mars. Everywhere it -has succeeded in altering the garments it wears to meet the stresses it -has experienced.</p> - -<p>It has achieved semi-infinite variety. There are approximately a -quarter million species of plants now known in the world. Most abundant -and varied life is that of the insects who may be on their way to -displace man and his fellow mammals as lords of the earth. A rough -estimate of the number of species identified up to now is 800,000. Several -thousand hitherto unknown are described each year. Of mammals, including -man, there may be as many as 14,000 distinct species and geographic -races extant. About 8,500 species of birds are catalogued. Sub-species -and geographic races increase this number to about 30,000. Known -fishes number 40,000 species and sub-species.</p> - -<p>Still, naturalists say, there are great mansions of life almost unknown -to man. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington -grow at the rate of about a million specimens a year, always including -forms hitherto uncatalogued. Much of the material in the following -pages is based on Smithsonian information, although other sources and -personal observations have been liberally drawn upon.</p> - -<p>The Smithsonian specimens, as well as those in other museums and -collections throughout the world, are types. Once they were individuals -with passions, fears, hungers, perhaps some dim wonderings and questionings. -The type is the eternal reality. The individual is the brief-lived -example of this reality, the flame of a candle fluttering in a windy moment.</p> - -<p>I have brought together in these pages notes about the most extraordinary -manifestations of nature that have come to my attention in the -course of thirty years as a science reporter. Each example is, of course, -based upon a distinctly individual expression of nature, but all are very -much interrelated in this truly amazing world of ours.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -<span class="smcap">Thomas R. Henry</span> -</p> - -<p class="pnind"><i>Washington, D. C.</i></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -<h2 class="content" id="The_Invisible_Underground_Jungle"><i>The Invisible Underground Jungle</i></h2> - - - -<p>There may be as many as twenty-five million invisible plants and animals -in a gram of soil about the size of a grain of sand. It would take a -thousand such grains to make a marble.</p> - -<p>The population of this microscopic jungle is composed chiefly of single-celled -organisms—bacteria, molds, yeasts and protozoa. Total numbers -vary enormously—from time to time and place to place—chiefly because -of variations in the food supply. Although thousands of species have been -identified, the greater part of soil life still remains unknown.</p> - -<p>This jungle is a place of the hunter and the hunted—of an incessant -and merciless struggle for survival. Invisible plants eat invisible animals -and invisible animals eat invisible plants. Plants devour other plants and -animals devour other animals.</p> - -<p>Giants of this nether world—largely invisible, although the average size -is more than a thousand times that of the bacteria—are thread-like white -worms from a hundredth to a fifth of an inch long. Relatively they are not -very plentiful—less than six million to a cubic foot of soil in most places. -In both size and numbers in the earth population, they are like elephants -compared to mice. Still they probably are numerically the most abundant -of all animals which consist of more than a single cell. In the entire -animal kingdom only the protozoa outnumber them.</p> - -<p>These creatures are the nematodes, or eel worms. About ten thousand -kinds have been described; there are probably as many more unknown to -zoologists. Less than a hundred of these varieties cost American farmers -and gardeners more than half a billion dollars a year. The rest of those -species living in the soil are, so far as known, harmless or even slightly -beneficial. Seas and fresh waters are full of other kinds. Still others, -some very much larger than the soil organisms, are among the most dangerous -parasites of animals and men. The little soil worms, in the opinion -of Dr. Geoffrey LaPage of Cambridge University, “must be considered one -of the major menaces of our civilization.”</p> - -<p>Although always invisible, the activities of these countless billions of -organisms underfoot can be measured in various ways. For example, -carbon dioxide is constantly escaping from the surface of the ground. -This comes from the breathing of the unseen animals and plants. Measurement -of the gas outflow gives a rough estimate of how many are present. -It shows that the numbers vary greatly from hour to hour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<p>The soil organisms are relatively immune to heat and cold, flood and -drought. Even when a grain of soil has been made absolutely dry in the -laboratory and then crushed to a very fine powder, they still remain. -If it is placed in a sterile container filled with some fermentable material, -a seething mass of microörganisms will appear in a few hours.</p> - -<p>Some day this vast, unseen mass of life may be harnessed to the service -of man. Only beginnings have been made to achieve this end. Some of -the microscopic life forms are definitely helpful to plant life, while others -undoubtedly are destructive. One service, without which plant life would -be unable to continue very long, is the fixation in the soil of nitrogen -from the air. One group of bacteria, the azotobacteria, do this in the -laboratory and long have been supposed to be the effective agents in -nature. But actual examination of soil samples, say Department of Agriculture -specialists, fail to show more than a few thousands of these organisms -per gram of soil anywhere, and sometimes none at all can be -found in places where it is known that nitrogen fixation is in progress. -Some still unknown form of microscopic life must be doing part of -the work.</p> - -<p>Another unknown organism is an agent partly responsible for breaking -down the cellulose of dead plants in the soil. The mold, Aspergillus fumigatus, -world-wide in its distribution, does this in the laboratory. Nowhere, -however, is it found in nature in sufficient numbers to accomplish -the titanic job attributed to it.</p> - -<p>The great, invisible jungle, of course, must eat to live. Some organisms -demand fresh food and are responsible for root rot in plants. The majority, -however, find their sustenance in the enormous mass of dead and -dying roots of annual vegetation. Decomposition of annuals is an explosive -process involving the development of countless billions of bacteria.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Self-Perpetuating_Sponge"><i>The Self-Perpetuating Sponge</i></h2> - - - -<p>Close to primaeval chaos is the sponge—lowliest of animals. It is an -animal without a brain, nervous system, heart, lungs, stomach, muscles or -blood. But it has an <i>I Am</i>.</p> - -<p>The sponge is in essence an anarchical horde of numberless cells. When -the conglomeration is split up as can be done by a technique of squeezing -through fine-meshed silk gauze, the cells continue to live as individuals. -They crawl about. They take nourishment. But when a few thousands of -them are thrown together into a tank of sea water they will conglomerate -again, apparently into the same sponge that existed before the disintegration. -If sponge animals of two different species are mixed in the tank -they will combine into two sponges, duplications of the conglomerations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -from which they came. If cells of two sponges of the same species are -mixed it may be that they will recombine into the two original individuals—but -this experiment never has been tried and would be quite difficult to -interpret.</p> - -<p>The sponge is the simplest, most primitive of metazoa, or many-celled -animals. It acts as an individual, although there is apparently no central -government, like a brain, controlling the behavior of the millions of individuals -constituting the conglomeration. It ranges in size from organisms -a fraction of an inch long, by far the most numerous, to masses several -feet in diameter. Various species present about all the colors of the rainbow. -There are red, scarlet, green, yellow, blue and violet sponges, especially -in shallow, tropical waters. Abysmal species tend to be a drab -brown.</p> - -<p>The living sponge when taken from the water is a slimy, rather repulsive -mass which has the general appearance of a piece of raw beef liver -perforated with holes and canals. The commercial sponge is merely the -skeleton, the supporting framework of the gelatin-like tissues, which is -composed of a substance similar in chemical and physical properties to -silk, horn and the chitin which forms the shells of insects and crabs. This -material is distributed in a fibrous network the pattern of which varies for -each species.</p> - -<p>The sponge has the most remarkable powers of regeneration of -lost parts known in nature. It can regrow its entire body from a small -fragment of itself. Thus if a sponge were cut into fine parts and each -fragment cemented to a bit of rock each would grow into a complete, -normal animal. Also if a sponge is cut or torn away from the sea bottom -in such a way that some fragment remains attached this fragment will -continue growing.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Living_Stars_in_Caves"><i>Living “Stars” in Caves</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a cathedral-like grotto under the earth whose roof is lit eternally -by living stars. It is an enormous labyrinthine chamber cut by a slow-flowing -river in the base of a limestone mountain.</p> - -<p>Its dome is like the dome of the heavens on a frosty October night. -There shine the Big Dipper, the Southern Cross and the Belt of Orion. The -Clouds of Magellan are on the southern horizon. There are millions of -pale stars grouped in all sorts of astrological configurations. Some are -isolated in space. Some are packed in dense galaxies. There are black -voids between them, like the curtain of star dust that hides the center of -the universe. They are only a few feet overhead. One can reach up and -pluck these stars, one by one, out of the sky.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -Unlike the heavenly bodies, they do not twinkle. They shine steadily in -complete motionlessness. Pale and weird, they illumine a realm of -eternal night. It is a domain of absolute silence. Around the walls the -strange starlight falls on carved figures of winged angels, of human faces -laughing and human faces contorted in agony. Each star is a predacious -living animal, a flesh-hungry hunter and killer. From it is suspended four -or five foot-long strings of shining pearls, so delicate that they shimmer -at a human breath.</p> - -<p>This star-lit cave near the little city of Te Awaamutu is New Zealand’s -greatest curiosity and certainly one of the weirdest and most intriguing -spots on earth. The grotto constitutes about a third of the Waitome caverns -in the center of Maoriland in the North Island, otherwise rather -featureless, water-chiseled rooms in the depths of a mountain with the -customary stalagmite and stalactite formations.</p> - -<p>The stars are luminous, slimy, dirty-grey worms. They are rarely found -anywhere else, and never in very great numbers. This is the one spot on -earth ideally adapted to their unbelievably queer life cycle. The worm -is the larva of a dainty, dark-winged fly about twice as large as a mosquito, -which looks like a miniature daddy longlegs. It has no common name. -Scientifically it is classified as Boletophela luminosa, a member of the sub-order -of arachenocampa. It falls somewhere between true insects and -spiders. There is no relationship between it and any other luminous insect—glow-worm -or firefly—anywhere.</p> - -<p>The light is a lure for prey to satisfy a voracious appetite. The lovely -strings of pearls are modifications of the spider’s web. Nature has provided -few other creatures with so intricate and ingenious a food-gathering -mechanism as that which enables this *none* to survive in its -strange environment Here evolution has schemed in an unique way to -ensure the preservation of a species which apparently serves no purpose in -the economy of nature except to procreate a beauty spot</p> - -<p>The floor of the glow worm grotto is a subterranean branch of a river. -The water is warm and almost absolutely motionless, for no breezes penetrate -that far under the mountain. Thus it is an almost ideal spot for all -sorts of insects to lay their eggs. There is a high probability that the -great majority of them will hatch. As the young rise from the water they -are attracted by the star-filled heavens overhead. They fly toward them -as moths to a lamp. The same is true of many of the small adult insects, -some of which are essentially microscopic. Once such an insect is -caught on one of the threads it is lost beyond all hope. There it sticks, -struggle as it may. The vibrations caused by its struggles attract the attention -of the glow worm which quickly winds up the hanging thread. If it -is not hungry at the moment it has been observed to play with its victim,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -drawing in and then letting out the line after the manner of a fisherman. -Finally the prey is drawn into the silken sheath and entirely devoured, -chitinous shell and all. It is not merely sucked, as is the fashion of the -spider or the fly.</p> - -<p>The “lamps” apparently are under an extremely delicate nervous control. -The strings of pearls suspended loosely in the air must be extraordinarily -sensitive to sound waves. The instant they pick up any sound unusual for -the cavern the lights automatically go out. Stranger still is the fact that -the darkening of all the stars is nearly simultaneous. This, of course, is -a safety measure. Any disturbance of the cave routine means danger for -the transparent caterpillars. In order to see the star-lit heavens effect the -row boat in which one enters the glow worm grotto must be handled by -skilled oarsmen so that there is no sound of splashing water. Visitors are -warned not even to whisper, lest some string be disturbed and instantaneously -transmit the warning to all the others.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Parenthood_Among_Penguins"><i>Parenthood Among Penguins</i></h2> - - -<p>One of nature’s miracles is the egg-laying and incubating of the emperor -penguin in the darkness of the Antarctic night at temperatures of from 50 -to 80 degrees below zero.</p> - -<p>Dr. Edward Wilson, surgeon of Sir Robert Falcon Scott’s 1901 south -polar expedition, found the first emperor rookery and was able to observe -it for several days. His account became one of the classics of science. The -big birds hatched their eggs, he found, standing on one foot on the ice -and holding them against the breast feathers with the other foot. The task -evidently was shared by both males and females. The male would take -the egg from the female while she trekked to open water to feed on fish. -After a few days, Wilson supposed, she would return while the male went -after fish.</p> - -<p>In 1956 Dr. Bernard Stonehouse of the Falkland Island Dependencies -Administration found another emperor rookery and maintained observations -for about ten weeks. The behavior observed was even more of a -miracle than Dr. Wilson supposed.</p> - -<p>After laying their eggs on the ice, Stonehouse noticed, the females leave -immediately for open water and remain there for sixty days, the full -period of incubation. Presumably they feed constantly during this period. -The males take over entirely at the rookery. For two months the husband -remains standing on one foot and holding an egg against his breast with -the other—presumably shifting his feet now and then. Through the entire -hatching period he eats nothing. When the eggs are about to hatch the -mothers return from the sea, tidy up the nursery, and get ready to take over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -rearing the chicks. Then the males, who have exhausted their reserve of -fat, stagger feebly in their own mass migration to open water to rebuild -their reserves on fish. By the time of the Antarctic sunrise in October -the chicks are about ready to fend for themselves.</p> - -<p>Standing from three to four feet high and looking and acting deceptively -like a human being, the emperor penguin undoubtedly is one of the most -remarkable birds in existence. It presumably is confined to the Ross Sea -side of the Antarctic continent. The bird—actually it is about two-thirds -feathers—remains an evolutionary enigma. Theories have been advanced -that it is the last surviving member of the fauna of the Antarctic continent -about fifty million years ago when the shorelines were free of ice. It certainly -is off any known road of evolution.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Strategy_of_Warrior_Ants"><i>The Strategy of Warrior Ants</i></h2> - - -<p>Total war is the way of life for army ants. The picturesque, devastating -drives of their vast hordes have nothing whatever to do with exhaustion -of food or anything of the sort. The wars come in fixed cycles, -regardless of supplies.</p> - -<p>There are two species of these ants on Barro Colorado Island in the -Panama Canal Zone. Each species has approximately 50 colonies and -each colony consists of from a few hundred thousands to more than a million -individuals. At the head of each colony is a single queen who lays -all the eggs.</p> - -<p>There is a new lot of larvae every 33 days—all workers or incompletely -developed females. Development is restricted by the amount of -food available. Since each brood consists of about 60,000 individuals, -a colony theoretically might reach titanic proportions. However, it does -little more than maintain its population. The death rate of soldier ants, -in constant combat, is very heavy.</p> - -<p>Once each year, at the start of the dry season in the tropics, a colony -queen produces a sexual brood of about 3,000 males and six queens. The -rest of the 60,000 eggs laid at this time are incapable of hatching and are -fed to the new-born sexed individuals. They apparently have some of the -nutritious properties of the royal jelly fed to queen bees.</p> - -<p>This sexual brood is produced in what has been called a statory period -in which the army maintains a fixed bivouac for about three weeks. During -this time the new queens develop and around at least one of them a -new group of workers, about half the whole, tends to congregate. A -strange antagonism seems to develop between the old and new groups. -Eventually the colony divides in two and each half starts moving in -opposite directions. The other new queens are lost in the shuffle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> - -<p>Most of the newly developed males are ‘excess baggage.’ During the -winged, or mating, stage they fly into the forest where the great majority -of them are eaten by birds. When the surviving ants light on a tree, on -the ground or on some other object, the wings drop off. Then they apparently -wander about aimlessly until they come to an army ant trail -which they recognize by the odor and follow it until they come to the colony -which has made it. If this happens to be a colony of their own relatives, -they probably are killed by the workers. If it happens to be an entirely -foreign colony, they may be accepted. This apparently is one of nature’s -mechanisms for intruding new genes into a strain.</p> - -<p>The raiding activities of a colony are carried out during the day from a -central headquarters. During the daytime raiding individuals return to -the colony from their forays and by dusk all have returned. At night the -bivouac is changed, the whole colony moving forward along one of the -trails blazed by the raiders. A new headquarters is thus established. A -colony moves from six to seven hours before striking a new bivouac. Not -infrequently, if no promising site is found, it moves from dusk to dawn.</p> - -<p>This would seem like constant activity, too strenuous even for the constitution -of an army ant. Actually the individual workers probably get -plenty of rest. Each colony is divided into two units—the raiders and -those that constitute the structural unit. The walls of the “headquarters” -are made up of the bodies of the latter. These “living brick” do nothing -throughout the day. They may be asleep. When the raiders return at -dusk the structural unit breaks up and the members lead the migration to -a new bivouac. The erstwhile raiders follow leisurely in the rear and -in turn become the structural unit when a stopping place is selected.</p> - -<p>When to rest? When to raid? There apparently is an irresistible war -rhythm, like the rhythm of the tides, in the basic constitution of these -ants. Some have postulated the same sort of thing, on a lesser scale, in man -who goes to war every so often but camouflages the war tide with economic -or political explanations.</p> - -<p>These ants are remarkable not only as warriors but as architects. They -build complex, air-conditioned, hanging houses out of thousands of their -own suspended bodies. Within these structures the queen is sheltered, -eggs laid, young hatched and reared. Much of the time the “houses” are -constructed anew each night.</p> - -<p>This home-building behavior is unique in nature, as Dr. T. C. Schneirla -of the American Museum of Natural History has pointed out:</p> - -<p>“Without any active excavating and without any manipulating of -fallen materials, colonies of these species form a domicile with their own -bodies. A typical bivouac is a cylindrical mass hanging from the underside -of some projecting surface to the ground. In addition to the sides or -under-surface of logs, other typical places are the spaces between gut tres<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span>sed -tree roots, masses of brush, undercut banks of stream beds, or the -overhanging edge of a rock.</p> - -<p>“The characteristic ability to cluster their bodies, as well as the manner -of clustering, depends first of all upon an anatomical characteristic—the -opposed, recurved hooks on the terminal tarsal segments of the workers’ -legs. The first ants to settle in a new place catch into a rough or soft -surface by means of the tarsal hooks, or rather are pushed into this -anchored position as newcomers run upon them as they stand and stretch -them out in a hanging position. In fact, the hooks are really anchored by -the added weight of others that have crawled down over the body of -the first ant, fixing it in place and soon immobilizing it.</p> - -<p>“In the nomadic phase a new bivouac is formed at the end of each day -of raiding. In the advanced and most complicated stages of raiding in -the afternoon, caches of booty tend to be formed at each busy junction of -raiding trails, increasing in size as more and more ants are knocked -around and forced out of traffic. As darkness comes and raiding ceases -such clusters grow. Several hanging clusters start from elevated ceilings. -As each new cluster begins, the initial slender hanging threads may become -ropes which extend to the ground. As the ropes continue to grow -they are joined together into a single columnar mass.</p> - -<p>“At first this mass is small in diameter, but as more and more ants pour -into it the wall spreads outwards from the center and so a symmetrical -cylinder results.”</p> - -<p>In the tropical environment of the army ants some sort of air conditioning -is necessary for comfortable living—perhaps, with this particular -species, for any living at all. It has been well developed during the more -than 50 million years the insects have been on earth. Says Dr. Schneirla:</p> - -<p>“The interior of the bivouac, where the brood is sheltered and the -single colony queen rests, offers an impressively stable environment to -these more susceptible members of the community as well as a central resting -place for the worker population. The hanging cluster traps a cubic -area for atmosphere which does not reach the extremes of temperature and -dryness attained by the general forest environment, but in general is somewhat -warmer and more humid at night and somewhat cooler and dryer -during the day.</p> - -<p>“This result is achieved mainly as a result of worker behavior. Workers -cluster more closely together at night in reaction to the lower temperature -of the forest at the time. The bivouac walls become tighter and -thus better conserve heat produced internally by the brood.</p> - -<p>“Conversely, after dawn, when increasing light excites growing numbers -of ants to leave the bivouac, as the raid grows, this wall thins out, usually -develops small apertures, and is undercut at the bottom. The effect is to -increase internal air circulation as well as to cool the atmosphere of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -interior through evaporation, so that the internal temperature of the -bivouac does not rise to the height reached at midday in the environs.</p> - -<p>“The incubation properties of the bivouac represent an important -factor in echelon life, for with less regular atmospheric conditions in the -nest the stages of brood development could not have their typical regularity -in timing.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Ugandas_Miniature_Dinosaur"><i>Uganda’s Miniature Dinosaur</i></h2> - - -<p>A grotesque creature abundant in the Kishasha Valley of Uganda is the -three-horned chameleon. It grows to a length exceeding twelve inches and -the males look like miniature versions of the ancient dinosaur monster, -triceratops. Three curious horns, an inch to an inch-and-a-half in length, -protrude from the nose and between the eyes of males.</p> - -<p>These are extremely pugnacious animals; they use their horns in fights -to the finish. At times the contests develop into prolonged pushing -matches with the horns interlocked, but a really vigorous fighter can dispose -of an adversary in a few minutes. African natives are terrified of -these demoniacal-looking little animals.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Strange_Ways_of_Spiders"><i>The Strange Ways of Spiders</i></h2> - - -<p>“With other classes of animals, and even with plants, man feels a certain -kinship—but spiders are not of his world. Their strange habits, -ethics and psychology seem to belong to some other planet where conditions -are more monstrous, more active, more insane, more atrocious, more -infernal than on our own. Frightfulness and ruthlessness appear a part -of their nature and we stand appalled when it dawns upon us that they are -far better armed and equipped for their life work than we for ours.”</p> - -<p>Thus writes Dr. W. E. Stafford, U. S. Department of Agriculture naturalist. -There probably is quite general agreement with his sentiments. -One chills at the picture of some other planet where spiders and their kin -who have evolved minds equal to that of humans are the dominant animals.</p> - -<p>Once gigantic spider-like creatures ruled this world. They were as big -as lions or gorillas. Their realm was the earth of the Silurian geological -era of 350,000,000 years ago—a time of warm, quiet seas which, especially -in the northern hemisphere, covered large areas that now are dry land. -These creatures were the euripterids, or sea scorpions, whose nearest extant -relatives are the horseshoe crabs with sky-blue blood that are common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -along the Atlantic coast of the United States, and the venom-fanged land -scorpions. They exceeded in size all living invertebrate animals.</p> - -<p>Many were five to six feet long; one was nine feet long. Presumably -they were free-swimming, predacious creatures with massive, crushing -jaws. Their chief prey, it is believed, were the much smaller, crab-like -trilobites with whom they shared a common ancestry. These were shelled -animals the imprints of whose hard shells in mud (which later became -rock) are among the most ancient records of animal life on this planet. -The trilobites were creatures who crawled on shallow sea bottom. Their -only defense was to roll themselves in balls. They appear to have been the -dominant form of life for at least 100,000,000 years. They continued -a precarious existence after the evolution of the great pseudo-spiders, -but were well on their way to extinction. The massive jaws of the euripterids -could crush their thin shells with ease. The dominance of these -new masters of the sea would be challenged only by the gigantic mollusks, -but for many millenia they appear to have held their own against these -frightful monsters.</p> - -<p>Their decline had started by the end of the Silurian period and they -were extinct in another hundred million years. The reason for their -decline is unknown, but perhaps it was related to some decided change in -temperature and distribution of the waters. Remarkably well preserved -remains of the monsters have been found imbedded in limestone on -Oesel Island, in the Baltic. During the Silurian era life was just starting -to emigrate from the oceans and establish a precarious foothold on land. -Among the earliest land fossils are those of small scorpions, distantly related -to the erstwhile master race. The euripterids themselves, however, -never tried to leave the sea.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_With_a_Thousand_Eyes"><i>Worms With a Thousand Eyes</i></h2> - - -<p>There are worms with a thousand eyes. They are, for the most part, -animals of the dank, dark floors of tropical rain forests.</p> - -<p>They are narrow, brilliantly colored ribbons of slimy skin which glide -at a speed of about six feet an hour over damp moss and leaves in the -everlasting twilight. When alarmed they can break up instantly into -scores of “blobs of slime” and in a few hours each piece will become a -complete new worm. One of them can eat five-sixths of its own body and -entirely recover.</p> - -<p>These fantastic creatures are the terricola or land planarians—lowliest -of worms and one of the lowliest forms of animal life. Only the microscopic -protozoa, the slime moulds, the sponges, jellyfish, and corals are -more primitive.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - -<p>They range from fractions of an inch to nearly a foot in length. They -are hunters and scavengers. Nearly all are creatures of darkness and dim -light—survivors of the haunted dawn of life on earth. They probably are -quite close to the ancestral form of all worms. All are free-living animals, -although related closely to the degenerate flukes and cestodes, which -are internal parasites of man and other animals.</p> - -<p>They belong to an enormous clan. There are several hundred known -species and perhaps as many more still unknown. These worms are found -over most of the world but most abundantly in the damp tropical and -sub-tropical rain forests. They are seldom seen in nature although -they are fairly well-known in experimental biology classes, for which -they are purchased from dealers. Australia has about sixty species. -America may have many more, most of which remain undescribed. One -would be likely to come upon them only by accident.</p> - -<p>Among these land planarians are some of the most fantastic creatures -of the animal kingdom. They have been described as “gliding strips of -skin.” The family includes some of the most brilliantly colored of all -living things. They probably represent the earliest traces of eyes and -brains in the world.</p> - -<p>The “eyes” of the terricola are black dots arranged in two parallel -rows along both sides of the back. Some species are two-eyed. Many -varieties are eyeless. Hundred-eyed worms are quite common. The black -dots are light-sensitive. Presumably they represent the beginning of -vision. By means of them the worms can distinguish between light and -darkness. They also tell the direction from which light comes. Actually, -however, planarians without eyes have the same ability, but they are -slower to react. This is demonstrably true for fresh-water forms. For -most of the land forms at least exposure to strong sunlight would be fatal.</p> - -<p>Each of the eye dots has a nerve connection with the brain. It is -quite unlikely, however, that the animals actually see anything, in the -sense of discriminating specific objects in their surroundings. In a few -species, however, from two to four of these black dots nearest to the -brain seem somewhat more complicated than the others. As the faculty -of vision evolves among animals these will become actual eyes and all the -other light-sensitive spots will be discarded. In most planarians, however, -the number of eyes increases with the age of the animal.</p> - -<p>Nearly all are predatory meat eaters. They are both hunters and -scavengers. Some pursue, kill, and eat living animals, such as earthworms -and small mollusks, as big as themselves. They apparently are able to -locate their victims at some distances by an already evolved sense of -smell. One blind Brazilian species is said to pursue earthworms into -their burrows several feet underground.</p> - -<p>When the victim is overtaken the planarian first enfolds it in its sheet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>like, -slimy body. Then from its mouth, always on the underside of the -body near the middle instead of at the head end, it projects its pharynx, -a muscular tube which is part of the digestive system. From this is -exuded a substance of some sort which slowly liquifies the flesh. Then -the liquid is sucked into the body through the mouth. Digestion then -is completed within the digestive tract by special cells which engulf minute -particles in the same way as they are engulfed and digested by one-celled -animals, the amoeba. The nature of the dissolving material exuded from -the pharynx is unknown. It is believed, however, to contain a mixture -of enzymes such as those found in the intestinal tracts of higher animals.</p> - -<p>Planarians may attack healthy animals and overpower them in spite -of their violent struggles against being enfolded in the slimy skin. -They are, however, particularly attracted to the sick and injured which -they apparently locate by smell. Most of these worms are devourers -of dead flesh. A common method of capturing fresh-water forms is to -leave a bit of liver or other raw meat exposed in an area they are likely -to frequent. Both water and probably land forms will congregate around -it. Then the collector is likely to have a difficult job. As the naturalist -William Beebe says about one large Venezuelan rain forest species: “To -pry one loose and put it in a bottle is like pouring thick, cold molasses -mixed with thick glue.”</p> - -<p>To their activities as scavengers of the forest floor these ancient worms -owe their place in the economy of nature. They normally feed several -times a week. When kept without food, however, they can stay alive for -months. They gradually shrink in size as they digest themselves. The -internal organs are reduced little by little as they are absorbed for -food. The first to disappear are the reproductive organs. Most planarians -have both male and female reproductive systems. Then come the muscles -of the body wall. Never however, do the worms eat their own brains or -nervous systems, although the brain may be reduced greatly in size. The -I Am of the worm can devour its vestments of protoplasm; it cannot -eat itself. When food is available again the organs are regenerated and -return to normal size. Instances are recorded where planarians have -reduced their length from slightly more than an inch to less than a seventh -of an inch in six months.</p> - -<p>Closely related to this practice of “eating themselves” is the remarkable -ability of the terricolae to break themselves into small fragments each -of which will regenerate into a complete worm. This capacity probably -has been a major factor in their survival through the aeons since multi-celled -life began on earth. What might seem to be their outstanding -weakness in the constant struggle for survival—their soft bodies and -extremely loose organization—has become their major strength. A -planarian can lose at least nine-tenths of its body and still preserve its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -individual existence. This self-shattering phenomenon constitutes the -worm’s chief defense in emergencies. It comes into play when any danger -threatens. The regenerating ability, especially of fresh-water forms, differs -considerably in degree from species to species. Some are unable to -regenerate a “brain” out of fragments of the rear part of the body. -Complete in every other respect, the remade worms seem incapable of -the typical gliding movements of the race. They remain quiet most of the -time but can move forward slowly. A tendency to move in circles has -been observed. Fragments from the head section, however, quickly become -complete animals.</p> - -<p>All planarians actually have heads and a “brain,” of sorts. The latter -consists of two minute bits of nerve tissue just behind the front of the -body, oval-shaped and enclosed in a tough capsule. It serves as a center -for nerve fibers extending throughout the animal. Here are coordinated -the stimuli received from light and heat, and possibly those from odors -and sound. When the worm goes forward, it moves its head constantly -from side to side. Presumably it is exploring the way ahead for food -and danger.</p> - -<p>A terrestrial flat worm’s progress is described as “gliding,” rather -than creeping or crawling. The outer surface of the body has many glands -from which is exuded a mucus over which it slides. This mucus quickly -hardens. From it can be made slender threads by which the worm, like a -spider, can lower itself safely from projections. Because of the glue-like -quality of the secretion it is able to climb perpendicular surfaces. From -the hardened mucous, sometimes mixed with sand, it can make for itself a -shell into which it can retire for months at a time.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Queer_Fish_But_Definitely"><i>Queer Fish, But Definitely</i></h2> - - -<p>There are more than 40,000 kinds of fish in the world. Their habitats -range from the profoundest depths of the seas to cold lakes and brooks -on mountain timberlines. They show a bewildering diversity in their -ways of life.</p> - -<p>The smallest of fish is a Philippine goby, less than a third of an inch -long and weighing a fraction of an ounce. The largest is the whale shark, -found in all warm seas. Some individuals exceed twenty tons.</p> - -<p>Some fish burrow in the mud, some swim, some walk, some fly, some -breathe air. Some are timid, some bold and bloodthirsty. Some are -placid, some easily irritated.</p> - -<p>Some are highly venomous. One, found in Australian waters, weighs -nearly half a ton and has poison barbs a foot long. Some of the deadliest -are among the most beautifully colored.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> - -<p>Freshwater fish can sometimes be cut out of cakes of ice in which they -have been frozen for months at a time, and completely revive. Actually -the fish themselves are not frozen. The freezing point of their blood is -slightly lower than that of water. They were merely “hibernating”. This -may happen frequently in nature.</p> - -<p>Some fish seem well on their way to becoming land animals. They -can breathe in air better than in water.</p> - -<p>Surgeon fish are so-called because of a sharp spine on the tail which -can produce a cut like that made by a surgeon’s scalpel.</p> - -<p>Parrot fish have beaks like parrots with which they scour algae from -the coral reefs for food.</p> - -<p>Goat fish have two growths under the mouth which look like the chin -whiskers of goats.</p> - -<p>Porcupine fish, whose skins are covered with sharp spines and which -can fill their sac-like bodies with water or inflate them with air until they -form a ball about twice their normal size. When the bodies are puffed up -the sharp spines are erected to protect the creatures against their enemies. -The inflation is a defense measure which takes place almost automatically -when the fish is alarmed.</p> - -<p>Trigger fish are creatures with rigid spines which “lock” automatically -when the animals are in danger so that they cannot be bent. They can be -unlocked, presumably by a nerve reflex, only by the fish themselves or by -some scientist who knows the precise spinal process to touch.</p> - -<p>Squirrel fish are brilliantly colored little creatures with large deep-brown -eyes which look like the eyes of a squirrel.</p> - -<p>Scorpion fish have bodies covered with venomous spines whose poison -is reputed to be sometimes fatal even to man.</p> - -<p>Flying half-beaks are fish with long, slender upper jaws and practically -no lower jaws. They make long glides over the water and may represent -an ancestral form of flying fish.</p> - -<p>The elephant fish is so-called because of its very rough thick skin and -apparent extreme clumsiness of its body, both characteristics of the -elephant. Elephantichthys might be likened to a thick leather bag about -eight inches long stuffed loosely with vital organs. It has a cartilaginous -rather than a bony skeleton. It flattens out when laid on a flat surface out -of water. It is almost mollusk likee in the softness of its body. Its skin is -approximately a quarter of an inch long.</p> - -<p>The aptocyclus, or “rattling fish”, is a close relative of Elephantichthys -in Arctic waters. It also seems to be a haphazard conglomeration of vital -organs stuffed in a bag. The fish actually rattle inside when the skin is -not filled with water. All fish of this family live at the bottom of fairly -shallow water, firmly attached to flat stones by disk-like suckers. Although -they have the power of locomotion they seldom use it, remaining sta<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>tionary -on the bottom and waiting for their food to come to them.</p> - -<p>Most fish have a tail fin, usually forked, with which they propel themselves, -but the rat fish has a body tapering down to a long, pointed extension -that looks like a rodent’s tail. They are dwellers in deep waters all -over the world. Some are quite fantastic. One, Macruroides inflaticeps, -consists essentially of a head and a tail without any apparent intermediate -body; it looks like an enormous tadpole.</p> - -<p>Pearl fish are minute animals that are sometimes found inside oysters -and clams entirely encrusted with mother-of-pearl. They actually become -large pearls shaped like fish. These small, nearly transparent creatures -sometimes back into the open shell of an oyster or clam that snaps once -the fish are inside. When this happens the creature perishes but sets up -an irritation that leads to the pearl secretion over it.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Love_Life_Among_the_Spiders"><i>Love Life Among the Spiders</i></h2> - - -<p>There is love and courtship among spiders, as among birds and mammals, -but with a unique—and fatal—difference. An observer thus describes -a courtship scene in the <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>:</p> - -<p>“When some inches from her he stood still. She eyed him eagerly, -changing her position from time to time. He, raising his whole body on -the other side, leaned so far over he was in danger of losing his balance -which he only maintained by sidling rapidly toward the lower side. -Again and again he circled from side to side, she gazing toward him in a -softer mode and evidently admiring the grace of his antics. This was -repeated until we had counted 107 circles made by the ardent little male. -He approached nearer and nearer and when almost within reach whirled -madly around and around her. She joined him in the giddy dance. Again -he fell back and resumed his semi-circular motion. She, all excitement, -lowered her head and raised her body so that it was almost vertical. Both -drew nearer. She moved slowly under him, he crawling over her head. -Thus the mating was accomplished.</p> - -<p>“A few minutes later, however, the female had eaten her ardent lover.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Lace_Weavers"><i>The Lace Weavers</i></h2> - - -<p>For 300,000,000 years tiny animals have been weaving delicate lace. -They weave constantly, rapidly and in lovely, open mesh patterns. They -make a stiff stable lace. Their own limestone entombed bodies are the -threads. Night and day, millenium after millenium, they weave and -weave, for the curse of weaving is forever upon them. Through time they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> -have covered hundreds of square miles with white and green veils. For the -most part these are fragile and short-lived, but in a few cases they have -been preserved untorn through the ages.</p> - -<p>These lace weavers are the bryozoa, or moss animalcules—one of the -oldest, most abundant and least known forms of animal life. They have -much the same habits as the corals, but the two limestone secreting creatures -are not even remotely related. The weavers are far higher in the -scale of evolution than the island builders. Their family associations long -have been in dispute. They have been associated with the rotifers and -mollusks and even with some unknown ancestral form leading to the vertebrates. -Now, however, it is believed that their nearest relatives are the -nearly extinct brachiopods, or lampshells.</p> - -<p>The two groups started at about the same time in the Cambrian geological -period of half a billion years ago, but they followed different paths -of development. Both might be considered proto-mollusks—very remotely -kin to clams and oysters. For milleniums the brachiopods flourished in -the primaeval seas. During the Permean period, about 300,000,000 years -ago, they constituted one of the most abundant forms of animal life. Now -they seem close to the end of the road. The weavers are as flourishing, -and busy, as ever.</p> - -<p>Like a coral polyp or the larva of a clam, the bryozoan starts life as an -almost invisibly minute, free-swimming creature, usually less than a thirtieth -of an inch long. After a few weeks it settles on some hard surface, -usually a stone, and secretes its limestone shell. New individuals rise -from the body of the founder of the colony at various angles, depending -on the particular design of the tapestry being produced. Each of the buds, -after achieving its coat, sends out new buds. This is the weaving process.</p> - -<p>The outside of the stone coat often is marked with delicate and bizarre -designs discernable under a microscope. These designs always are the -same for members of a colony and quite similar for an entire species. They -make it possible to identify species in geological formations and this -eventually may be of considerable importance for oil geologists. After -death a colony usually is broken up quickly by wave action. Sea bottom -ooze often is filled with the remains. This ooze, over periods of milleniums, -becomes compacted into rock.</p> - -<p>The weaving process may be very rapid. A colony, starting with a -single free-swimming larva, may cover as much as 100 sq. feet. Such colonies -have been found on a single stone. They often are found on mollusk -shells. At present the bryozoans are economically important chiefly -as a menace to the oyster industry. Once they have covered an abandoned -shell, oystermen believe, no other oyster will make use of it. About their -only other importance to man comes from the fact that some fresh-water -species may clog water pipes by their rapid growth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p>Every bryozoan in a colony remains throughout its life a separate animal, -shut off from its fellows by a wall of limestone and leading an independent -existence. Nevertheless, in the species pattern it assumes, each -colony acts as if it were a single organism.</p> - -<p>Moreover, a phenomenon unique in nature, every individual appears -to be two and in some species three animals in one. Each leads its own -life and dies its own death at its own time. But all make up a single -microscopic whole.</p> - -<p>First is the zooecium, a limestone-encrusted box of tissue. This is the -continuing individual. Inside the box is a little tentacled worm, the polypide. -It contains all the vital organs—the brain and the nerve, circulatory -and digestive systems. It breathes, hunts, eats and lives quite -independently of the zooecium. This polypide usually is short-lived. It -has no excretory system. Poisons pile up. It degenerates and dies. When -it expires the cells of the zooecium wall assert themselves. From the -dead cells of the polypide they extract what nutritive material is present. -The “inside animal” becomes a brown speck-like body. Then the zooecium -cells sprout a bud which becomes a new polypide. This lives its -normal life span and suffers the same fate as its predecessor. Another -brown body is the only evidence that it has lived. This process may be -repeated ten or twelve times. Think of a man, or any other high animal, -which could replace over and over again its entire internal system with -another made out of its own skin which had eaten its own defunct brain -and heart.</p> - -<p>The relation of zooecium and polypide as it exists in one type of bryozoa, -the so-called “sea mats”, was vividly described by the great British -naturalist P. H. Gosse. These are not lace weavers. They form a colony -which looks like a pale, yellow leaf, such as Gosse found in a microscopic -study of a mass of sea weed in which he saw other animals like “exquisitely -crimson leaves thinner than the thinnest tissue paper, with tall and -elegant dark red feathers and purple filaments each as fine as a silk worm’s -thread.”</p> - -<p>“Each individual cell [zooecium] of the sea mat”, Gosse tell us, “is -shaped like a child’s cradle. Suppose a coverlet of transparent skin -were stretched over each cradle, leaving an opening just over the pillow. -Suppose in every cradle there lies a baby with its little knees bent up to the -chin in that zig-zag fashion in which children often lie.</p> - -<p>“But—the child is moving. A slowly pushed open semi-circular slit of -the coverlet and we see him gradually protruding his head and shoulders -in an erect position, straightening his knees at the same time. He is -raised half out of bed. His head bursts open and becomes a bell of tentacles. -This baby is the tenant polypide.</p> - -<p>“The chambers themselves show signs of life. Their front doors sud<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>denly -open, gape widely and shut with a snap. This opening and shutting -is repeated over and over again. The polypide emerges from the -cell slowly and withdraws like lightning at the slightest alarm.”</p> - -<p>As mentioned before, some bryozoans appear to consist of three animals -in one. The third is the so-called avicularium, or bird’s head, also vividly -described by Gosse: “The cells [of this particular species] are oblong-shaped, -and look much like a sack of corn. Just below one of the spines -that crown the summit of the cell on one of the edges is situated a small -lump which bears a remarkable resemblance to the head of a bird. It -has a strongly hooked beak with two well-formed mandibles, one of which -is removable. You observe it deliberately opening, like the beak of a -bird and then closing with a strong, sudden snap. The birds' heads are -not inhabitants of the cells. They are not even integral parts of them. -The cells have their own proper inhabitants, each leading its own life -and each essentially formed on the same plan as that of the baby in the -cradle. There is no visible connection between its and the bird’s head, -which is cut off entirely from the interior of the cell. This head has a -muscular system entirely its own. It seizes small animals but has no -means of passing them into its mouth”.</p> - -<p>The real function of these avicularia is unknown. They have been -pictured as fierce watchdogs kept by the bryozoa for defense against approaching -enemies. Gosse speculates that they may serve indirectly as -hunters, seizing and killing small animals. The disintegrating bodies of -their prey, attract hordes of smaller sea creatures which can be gathered -up by the tentacles of the polypide.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ways_of_Crabs"><i>The Ways of Crabs</i></h2> - - -<p>Crabs that wear clothes, others that carry arms, and still others that -march like regiments of soldiers are among the curiosities of Australia’s -Great Barrier coral reef.</p> - -<p>One crab forces the coral polyp to build a limestone palace for its -abode. The female of this species lodges on the polyp when it is in the -larval state and causes an irritation which forces the host animal to build -up the walls. The resulting house is just big enough for the crab to -move about in comfortably. There always is a door through which she -obtains her food.</p> - -<p>Another species merely sits on the end of a sprouting coral which, -growing outward, makes a long, circular burrow for the crustacean. -Through this it can move backwards and forwards at will. The forward -part of its body is enclosed in a hard shell the exact color of the coral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -so that when the crab sits at the door of its burrow it cannot be distinguished -from the coral.</p> - -<p>Still another crab carries two sea anemones, one in each “hand”, -wherever it goes. In its first few months of life it seizes these plant-flowers—living -animals with stalks and petals like flowers which ordinarily -are attached to rocks under the water—about the centers of the stalks. -Thenceforth it moves about like a person carrying two umbrellas.</p> - -<p>The most logical explanation of this behavior is that the anemones -serve as weapons, killing or paralyzing small sea animals which come in -contact with them. This species of anemone has stinging cells in its disk. -These curious weapons are carried by the crab continuously and seem -essential to its life. When one of them is taken away, the crustacean moves -automatically to grasp it again. When a crab is killed slowly in alcohol -it clings to its weapons even in its death struggles.</p> - -<p>There are spider crabs which cut and wear clothes. They cut off pieces -of living sponges and place them on their backs. These sponges become -entangled in tiny hairs which protrude through the animal’s shell, and -continue to grow until they protrude several inches over the back. Thin -layers also cover the under part of the body and the legs. Every time a -crab sheds its shell, it must make itself a new suit The practice probably -is beneficial to both animals. The crab, living in a forest of sponges, -looks like a sponge itself and is thus concealed from its enemies. The -sponge benefits by being carried to new food sources. When the shell is -shed the sponge simply attaches itself to a rock and continues to grow.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable cases of commensalism in nature has been -found by Dr. Melbourne Ward, Australian zoologist in a degenerate type -of barnacle which makes its way through the thin shell of one of the Barrier -Reef crabs. It wanders through the blood stream of the crab and -finally comes to the surface where it forms a little sac for itself. Here it -metamorphoses into another form and sends long, thread-like filaments -into every part of its host’s body. In some respects it is like a cancer -among higher animals, except that in this case the malignant growth is -that of an individual animal of another species. It lives off the food eaten -by the crab but never kills nor apparently seriously injures its host. The -one notable effect, for which there is no adequate explanation, is that it -changes a male crab into a female.</p> - -<p>The soldier crabs are beachdwellers, about two inches long. They march -across the hard sand in perfect order, as if they were under the control of -leaders. No “officers”, however, have been observed. When approached, -they burrow rapidly in waves, like a regiment of infantry. First the front -rank disappears in the sand, followed in order by those behind. The -regiment disappears completely in a very short time.</p> - -<p>The soldier crabs can hardly be driven into the water. When Dr. Ward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -succeeded in pushing a few of them off the shore they were set upon by -ferocious small fish which rapidly devoured them. Realization of this -danger apparently is instinctive in the animals.</p> - -<p>Some of the land-dwelling crabs of the mud flats dig very intricate burrows -with labyrinthine cross and side galleries. Some species live in a -communal life. Each crab has its own burrow, but from each there is a -passage into a large central hall which seems to be a community gathering -place. Other species are intensely individualistic. Each excavates an -elaborate labyrinth in the mud, considers this its own home, and vigorously -defends it.</p> - -<p>During courtship some of these mud crabs perform dances like the -courtship dances of birds. The male of one variety, after attracting a mate -by his dancing, picks her up bodily in one of his nippers and carries her -away. Another variety of sand crab seems to have perfected an engineering -technique which still evades human skill—that of building a burrow -in soft, dry sand. These burrows are about two inches in diameter. -The crab is able in some mysterious fashion to compress the soft sand -into a solid substance with its nippers.</p> - -<p>In precision of instinctive behavior, Dr. Ward found, these Great Barrier -crabs come quite close to the spiders, their distant relatives.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Ticks_With_Noses_in_Their_Legs"><i>Ticks With Noses in Their Legs</i></h2> - - -<p>Ticks, remote spider relatives, smell with their front legs. When these -legs are amputated the tick shows no reaction to odors. It cannot smell -blood but will feed on any sort of liquid sucked through a warm, moist -membrane like the skin. Presumably such a tick in nature recognizes an -animal as a proper source of food by smell, while a combination of warmth -and moisture from the skin gives a stimulus for feeding.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Fourth_Realm_of_Life"><i>The Fourth Realm of Life</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a wind-tossed green-grey ocean between earth and sky. It is a -sea on stilts, the world’s fourth realm of life. There are plants and animals -of the land, of the water, and of the air—and there are plants and -animals of the canopy of the rain forest, a thousand-mile-wide broken -belt around the world. It covers several million square miles—the jungles -of South America extending northward into southern Mexico, the basins -of the Niger and the Congo, strips of southern India and Ceylon, much of -New Guinea. Life is rather sparse in the perpetual, drenched twilight of -the jungle floor. It is abundant in the treetops, the habitat of fantastic,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -and still largely unknown, plants, mammals, birds, snakes, toads, frogs -and insects. These might be compared to the flora and fauna of an as yet -unexplored continent.</p> - -<p>Rain forest trees are, in general, tall, straight, and branchless until near -their tops, 100 to 150 feet above the ground. There they send out a rich -profusion of branches and foliage. This foliage is like a thick, rough, -continuous green blanket held up by tall posts, like a net below trapeze -performers in a circus tent. The top of the blanket is a place of intense -sunshine. Light grows dimmer and dimmer as it penetrates the leaves and -the branches. Finally, on the jungle floor, there is only about a fiftieth as -much illumination as on the surface of the canopy.</p> - -<p>In the canopy four or five kinds of monkeys take the place of man on -earth as the most intelligent and adaptive animals. Primates from the -beginnings of the race—the weird, squirrel-like animals of the North -American dawn age forests fifty million years ago—have been semi-arboreal.</p> - -<p>Most abundant in the tree-land are the pretty, playful, curiosity-driven, -humanlike spider monkeys who play tag and throw sticks at each other in -the lower branches. Best known, although less likely to be seen, are the -big, black, Satanic-looking howlers.</p> - -<p>Both of these species, in the long process of adapting themselves to high -jungle life, have made third hands out of the ends of their tails. With -these highly sensitive prehensile organs they not only clutch branches -but sometimes carry out rather delicate manipulations.</p> - -<p>Weirdest are the black-and-white striped, woolly-furred night monkeys. -These little racoon-like creatures live in holes far up in the treetops. -They come out only at night and are seldom seen. They have enormous -eyes which shine like live coals among the leaves when the light of a -flash lamp catches them.</p> - -<p>Probably the most dangerous single animal of the canopy is the tamandua, -or golden anteater. It is exclusively a treetop creature, about the -size of a rabbit, with golden-yellow, soft, silky fur. It lives almost exclusively -on termites which it harvests by sticking its long tongue, covered -with a sticky saliva, into their nests. A progressive relative of the sloth, -it remains motionless apparently for days at a time and is a slow, clumsy -climber.</p> - -<p>But woe to anything—jaguar, ocelot, big howler monkey, even man—that -runs afoul of it. It strikes suddenly and fast with its long, curved -scimitar-sharp claws, and always aims at the stomach which it rips open. -No other creature will venture near a tamandua, except by accident. Probably -it is voiceless, although natives have attributed to the sinister little -anteater a peculiarly weird cry heard in the moonlit jungle. This now is -believed to be the call of a bird.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p>Climbing rats are abundant in the jungle top. They feed, for the most -part, on fruits. Here also is the abode of pigmy squirrels which cling, -heads downward, to the tree trunks with their tails curled over their backs, -squirrel fashion. These animals are about five inches long, including the -tail whose length is about equal to that of the rest of the body. There is -a tiny, climbing mouse with short, broad feet and sharp, curved claws. -Bats, mostly small, fruit-eating animals, flutter about in the darkness. -Probably there are few of the big dangerous vampires in the high treetops. -They fare better on the blood of larger, ground-dwelling creatures such as -tapir and peccary.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Rubber-Band_Worms_that_Stretch_and_Stretch"><i>Rubber-Band Worms that Stretch and Stretch</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a worm ninety feet long. It is the giant of a family of white, -red, yellow, green, purple, and violet worms whose habitat ranges from -sea bottoms to jungle treetops. The worms shoot poison-tipped harpoons -out of their brains. Most can shrink at will to less than a third of their -ordinary length. They always shrink when they die. Some can break up -into hundreds of fragments, each of which will grow into a complete new -worm. They tie themselves into inextricable knots. They build their -houses from the slime of their own bodies.</p> - -<p>This class is that of the ribbon worms or nemertina. There are about -five hundred known species—perhaps as many more are unknown. Still -near the bottom of animal life, they represent revolutionary advances -from the lowest of worms, the planarians, with which they share many -characteristics. They have evolved integrated brains and nervous systems. -They have, for the most part, taken on a true worm shape. They have -acquired weapons and, in some cases, arsenals of weapons. They have -eyes that see. They have a digestive system, a mouth near the front of -the body, and closed blood system through which flows a liquid which -usually is colorless as water. Perhaps they hear. At the top of the head -in certain species there is a group of cells with hairs and bristles which -may constitute an organ of taste. Along the way of achieving these advances -they have given up a little freedom and a little immortality for a -little more efficiency.</p> - -<p>Those best-known are inhabitants of sea shores, especially the Atlantic -coasts of North America and Europe. They live under rocks, in abandoned -mollusk shells, in windrowed masses of sea weed, in thin, parchment-like -tubes which they secrete from their own skin. Their general appearance -is that of a tangled mass of slimy string, but some members of the family -have among the most brilliant color patterns known in nature.</p> - -<p>The most conspicuous organ of these primitive worms is the proboscis,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -a hollow string which is shot out with great speed and force from the front -end of the usually cylindrical body. At the end of the string, in several -groups, is a sharp-pointed, barbed spear-like stylet with which the -prey, usually some minute water animal, is speared. The victim then is -drawn back into the mouth by the attached hollow thread. Some groups -have no stylets. The thread, upon which is a mucilage-like mucous, is -used like a lassoo and coiled tightly around the prey.</p> - -<p>The proboscis is associated so closely with the brain that, like the retina -of the eye, it has sometimes been considered an extension of it. The -thread often is as long as the worm itself. It is shot out with such force -that is frequently breaks off and continues to lead an independent life for -a few hours. A new proboscis always develops.</p> - -<p>When coiled, the proboscis rests in the center of the two-lobed brain. -It is continuously shot out and pulled in and probes the water around it. -Presumably at first it was an extremely sensitive sensory organ by which -the brain was kept aware of its surroundings. The attached stylet, an -offensive weapon, was a later development.</p> - -<p>In a few cases the thread carries a multitude of unattached barbed -points, a sort of machine-gun arrangement, which can be hurled in all -directions in the hope of hitting something. It also carries tiny hooks -by which it can be attached to some object. By means of the attached -line the worm pulls itself forward over beach or sea bottom, its ordinary -means of locomotion. It is also able, however, to glide like a planarian -and to swim.</p> - -<p>Nemertinea breath through the walls of the oesophagus, or gullet. -When the tide comes in, shore-dwelling species rapidly swallow and eject -mouthfuls of salt water. Oxygen to purify the blood is obtained from -the water. The blood circulates in two or three vessels. It is a colorless -plasma in which float both green and red corpuscles.</p> - -<p>There is little knowledge as to the precise nature of the nemertinean -sensory organs. There are, however, nerve cells in all parts of the body and -the animal is quick to respond to any irritation, especially to any chemical -change in the water. With an intense stimulus the body is contracted -violently, twisted, and even torn apart. Even a headless specimen will -move toward food placed nearby. A severed head may continue to creep -restlessly for several hours. The headless body moves only when stimulated. -With most mud-dwelling species it is difficult to secure an entire -specimen. The slender, fragile body is likely to break into many fragments -when disturbed. Quite commonly, even without any particular -disturbance, a large worm will break up into a dozen or more pieces. -Each becomes a small, new animal. Some regenerating fragments secrete -disks of mucous and form cradles, in which they may remain for months -while new organs are being formed. Eventually the disk ruptures and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -new worm emerges. There is a specific tendency in some species thus to -reproduce during warm weather, with a brief period of sexual reproduction -during the cold months.</p> - -<p>These worms are extremely tenacious of life. Even without food they -may live as long as a year in the proper environment. Ordinarily they -are quite voracious animals. They eat earthworms, other sea worms, small -mollusks—almost anything soft-bodied which the eternally active proboscis -can bring to the mouth. There it is sucked into the digestive tract. The -digestive process is very rapid. Some species have distensible mouths. -Like snakes, they can devour animals bigger than themselves. Some are -cannibals. When times are hard they can, like planarians, absorb themselves. -A case has been known where a nemertean digested all but a -twentieth of its own body in a few months, apparently without any ill -effects. The lost tissues were restored as soon as food again was available.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Frog_Versatility"><i>Frog Versatility</i></h2> - - -<p>Animals of many talents are the frogs. Some grunt like pigs, others -cackle like hens. Some chirp like crickets, others caw like crows. Still -others quack like ducks. There are golden frogs, scarlet frogs that play -dead, frogs that build houses.</p> - -<p>All this assembly is found in one small corner of the world, southeastern -Brazil. This particular tropical countryside long has been known for -the abundance and variety of its amphibian life.</p> - -<p>Some of the frogs in this area are particularly notable for their coloring. -Two are almost solid gold in color. Perhaps the most notable is Brachycephalus -ephippium, which not only is brilliant gold in hue but has armor -plates of bone on back and head, and whose tadpoles are nearly three -times the size of the adults. All the adults, less than an inch long, have the -armor plate strongly developed, although the shape and size shows considerable -variation. The general form of the bony deposition just under -the skin, in no way connected with the skeleton, appears to be typically -that of an hour glass across the back with one or more separate bony islands. -Sometimes these islands are fused with the hour glass. The -adults hide under leaves and fallen tree trunks in high mountain woodlands -and come out in large numbers only in rainy weather. They appear -to be rather clumsy creatures. Their gait is a slow walk.</p> - -<p>The nightly chorus of certain of the frogs sounds like a regiment beating -on tin pans. Others have calls that are like the sounds made by winding -a watch or filing iron. The “tin-pan frog” is one of the most conspicuous -creatures of the region. The chorus of singing males gives a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -booming metallic sound which seems at times to be a regular clanging, -like that of a blacksmith hammering on an anvil.</p> - -<p>The “tin-pan” frog builds its own house—a crater-like structure of mud -projecting above shallow water within which its eggs are laid during the -dry season. These nests usually are constructed close to the water’s edge. -Here the eggs hatch and the young tadpoles are swept into the pond by -the next heavy rain. The mud walls apparently protect the eggs from -depredations by fish. Adults stay in trees except at the time of egg-laying. -The male is said to come to the pond first to build the nest, before the -female arrives to lay the eggs. The frog that quacks like a duck is a closely -related species. It has a peculiar habit of swarming. Hundreds may appear -at one time in a single tree.</p> - -<p>One of the golden frogs is about three inches long and almost pure gold -in color. Its voice is like the slow grunting of a pig. It sleeps during -the day in large leaves of bromeliads, trees of the pineapple family that -often hold rainwater in their axils. They sometimes are described as -living “tubs of water.” At night the frogs come down out of the leaves -and go to ponds and streams in the neighborhood in search of insects. -Their leaf sleeping chambers apparently give them complete protection -from their natural enemies.</p> - -<p>One gray and brown Brazilian frog, extremely sluggish by day, when -handled assumes a wooden, dead appearance, with the limbs brought close -to the body and the head bent forward, so that it resembles a patch of -fungus or a chip of wood. Even when left on their backs for a long time -they continue to play dead.</p> - -<p>A notable singer among the Brazilian tree frogs is Hylabypunctata, -whose call is a high, frequently repeated tit-tit-tit. When many sing -together the chorus is so loud it can be heard nearly a mile away.</p> - -<p>One brilliant-red-legged frog, brought to Washington by the Smithsonian -Institution, ate nothing for seven months and did not change its position -for days at a time. Throughout this period it seemed to lose no -weight. At the end of seven months it eagerly ate worms and files.</p> - -<p>A violet frog that lives in the clouds and sings like a bird has been -discovered by Dr. Bertha Lutz of the National Museum of Brazil on the -summit of 10,000-foot-high Mt. Itatiaia in the Mantiquiera mountains. -This frog, hitherto unknown to science, has a purple back spotted with -gold, bronze and deep yellow. Below the purple is a deep violet blue.</p> - -<p>Since the Mantiquiera mountains, the highest in Brazil, are almost -perpetually cloud-veiled, the little animal appears to be entirely a creature -of cloudland. Its curious colors perhaps have been borrowed as camouflage -from the sky. It has a weak voice and its song is very much like -that of a bird. It is found in swift mountain brooks, part of whose courses -are subterranean.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Horned_Viper_Spears_Other_Animals"><i>The Horned Viper Spears Other Animals</i></h2> - - -<p>Best-known Egyptian cobra is the so-called “spitting serpent” or Libyan -asp. It supposedly has the ability to spit in the eyes of its enemies, such -as dogs, and the saliva temporarily blinds the victims.</p> - -<p>The cobra was a sacred animal in ancient Egypt. It was associated with -the sun and with royalty. It formed part of the head dress of solar deities -and was represented in the crowns of kings and queens. Toward the -end of the 20th dynasty, when it became the custom to preserve sacred -animals, it was embalmed at Thebes.</p> - -<p>There is a fair possibility that one of the sixteen varieties of Egyptian -cobras was the “asp” with which Cleopatra took her own life. It is more -probable, however, that she used an even weirder and almost as deadly -snake, the horned viper. This serpent is common on the fringes of the -Egyptian desert. It buries itself in the hot sand, only its eyes and the top -of its head being visible. Its two horns resemble barley seed and attract -birds within its reach. When disturbed it can throw itself forward. -It was called “aculum” (spear) by the Romans because of this darting -motion.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_World_of_Insects"><i>The World of Insects</i></h2> - - -<p>The Roman naturalist Pliny wrote of ants in the Himalayas “the color -of a cat and as large as an Egyptian wolf.” Pliny naively had accepted tales -of travellers but the actual curiosities of the insect world are almost as -strange as anything he related. There are bugs that live in ice, bugs -that are happy only in near boiling water, snow white bugs that dwell -deep in the earth, bugs that make their homes in petroleum pools.</p> - -<p>None are as big as wolves, but the insect world has its giants as well as -its dwarfs. The Atlas moth of India has a wing-spread of nearly a foot. -An East Indian walking stick is 15 inches long. The Hercules beetle -of Africa sounds like an airplane in flight. Enormous forelegs, more than -twice the length of the rest of the body are characteristic of a black wood -beetle which covers a space of eight inches with all its legs extended. -A curiosity of the Malay Archipelago is a “fly with horns.” It has protuberances -on its head which suggest the horns of a deer.</p> - -<p>A South African fly has eyes which extend on stalks from the sides of -its head. The stalks are so long that the measurement from eye to eye -is a third more than the length of the body from head to tail.</p> - -<p>One blood-sucking insect can distend itself with blood to more than -twelve times its original weight. As the huge meal is digested the abdomen -contracts like a deflating balloon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<p>The death watch beetle, standby for stories of haunted old castles, -bumps its head on the top of its tunnels in wooden walls to send a kind of -telegraphic message to its mate.</p> - -<p>Some chalcid flies paralyze caterpillars and lay self-multiplying eggs -in their bodies. More than 2,000 larvae may be produced from a single -egg deposited in this way.</p> - -<p>A singular ant lion, dweller near the Egyptian pyramids, has a slender -and elongated neck whose caliper jaws seem to be held at the end of -an outstretched arm. The neck, in many cases is far longer than the rest -of the body. It permits the insects to probe for prey in deep crevasses.</p> - -<p>The goat of the insect world, the drugstore beetle, is known to consume -45 different substances, including the poisons aconite and belladonna. -Other beetles feed on cigarettes, mustard plasters and red pepper. Ants -have shown themselves resistant to cyanide. In the case of some insects -a reduced diet slows down growth. Some wood-boring grubs sometimes -live in house timbers for years after they have been put in place. -In one instance an adult beetle emerged from a porch post that -had been standing for twenty years. The dried timber lacks the nutritive -qualities of the living tree and the growth of the grub is arrested so that -long periods pass before it reaches maturity.</p> - -<p>A carnivorous butterfly larva lives in the nests of an Australian ant -where it feeds on the young. An especially tough outer shell protects it -from attacks by adults ants.</p> - -<p>The rat-tailed maggot inhabits stagnant water. It feeds on the bottom -and breathes air through an extensible tube that forms its tail. Like a -diver obtaining oxygen through an air hose while working on sea bottom, -it is able to remain submerged as long as it desires.</p> - -<p>The little frog hopper produces its own climate. In spring and summer -small masses of froth often appear on grass stems and weeds. Within -such a bubble mass, sheltered from direct rays of the sun and kept moist -by the foam, the immature insect spends its early days. For millions of -years it has been employing its own primitive form of air conditioning.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Gigantic_Serpents_of_the_Sky"><i>Gigantic Serpents of the Sky</i></h2> - - -<p>Titanic pink serpents coiled and wheeled in the sky. The earth below -was plunged in a chill twilight as they shut out the December sun. These -cosmic reptiles were two or three miles long. They moved about a mile -a minute. They made a noise like a tornado punctuated with the rat-tat-tat -of machine guns.</p> - -<p>Thus the naturalist John Audubon described a mass passenger pigeon -flight over Kentucky which, he estimated, included more than a billion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -birds. As they came out of the northeast they looked like a gigantic, -low pink cloud driven by a hurricane. Suddenly they split with almost -military precision into the coiling, snake-like formation as predacious -hawks hovered above them.</p> - -<p>When these hawks came, says Audubon, at once with a noise like -thunder they rushed into compact masses, pressing upon each other towards -the center. In these almost solid masses they darted forward in -undulating lines, descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable -velocity, mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column, -and when high were seen wheeling and twisting in continuous lines which -resembled the coils of gigantic serpents.</p> - -<p>When the birds reassembled from their emergency snake formations, -they constituted, Audubon estimated, a column one mile broad passing -overhead at the rate of a mile a minute for three hours. Thus the solid -mass of the birds would have covered 80 square miles. Such a monster -would have required, the naturalist calculated, about nine million bushels of -food a day.</p> - -<p>It is more than a century since anybody has witnessed such a phenomenon. -Civilization and nature combined to destroy the almost incalculably -vast hordes of pink-breasted birds which, acting in a weird unison, seemed -to the pioneers like cosmic monsters invading the earth. Hundreds of -millions were slaughtered by hunters. Millions perished in one great Atlantic -storm when, it was reported, the sea over a radius of three or four -miles was covered completely with their bodies.</p> - -<p>The passenger pigeon long has been extinct. The last survivor of the -tornado-like masses now is mounted and on exhibition at the Smithsonian -Institution. It died in captivity in the Cincinnati Zoological Park at 1 -p.m., September 1, 1914. Every year Smithsonian ornithologists get -reports that one of these birds has been seen in some remote forest. Almost -beyond question, however, these reports are due to the wish fulfillment -of amateur bird watchers.</p> - -<p>The extant mourning dove sometimes is mistaken for the passenger -pigeon. In the west the band-tailed pigeon has been similarly mistaken. -Even expert ornithologists might make such errors from casual observations. -Although convinced that the bird is extinct scientists continue to -investigate any plausible clue to its survival.</p> - -<p>According to Smithsonian Institution ornithologists, there is a popular -idea that the passenger pigeon mysteriously disappeared and that, while -still enormously numerous, it suddenly ceased to exist. Its annihilation -has been attributed popularly to various natural phenomena and it has -even been rumored that the bird migrated to South America. The natural -phenomena supposed to have been causative of its extinction are -epidemics, tornadoes, early deep snowstorms, forest fires, strong winds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -while the birds were crossing large bodies of water which caused exhaustion -and death by drowning. Circumstantial reports were published of immense -numbers drowned in the Gulf of Mexico, a region well beyond the -usual range of the bird. Destruction of the forests undoubtedly was -a large detrimental factor in the life history of the pigeons, for the forests -supplied their principal food as well as roosting and nesting places.</p> - -<p>A bird accustomed for ages to living together in large numbers and -close ranks, whether in feeding, migrating, roosting or nesting, might -find it impossible to continue these functions with greatly reduced and -scattered ranks. It is probably more than a figure of speech to say that -under these circumstances such a communist bird would lose heart, nor -is it fanciful to suppose that sterility might in consequence affect the -remnants. Our continent is so well known that accounts of the presence -of living birds must be considered more than doubtful.</p> - -<p>The mass flights came about once every ten years in the early winter. -The normal habitat of the pigeons was in the great forests of Quebec and -Ontario. There they were widely scattered, feeding chiefly on acorns. -When snow covered the ground they moved southward, but ordinarily not -in great masses. But a periodic failure of the acorn crop, of the extent -of which the birds seemed to have some mysterious awareness, caused -them to assemble in one body and start a mass migration southward, -obscuring the sun for hours as they passed beneath it.</p> - -<p>Like tornadoes, they wrecked forests in their flights. Says the naturalist -Alexander Wilson: “The roosting places sometimes occupy a large extent -of forests. When they have frequented one of these places for some time -the appearance it exhibits is surprising. The ground is covered to a depth -of several inches with their dung. All the tender grass and under wood is -destroyed. The surface is strewn with large limbs of trees, broken down by -the weight of birds collecting one above the other. The trees themselves -for thousands of acres are killed as if girdled with an axe. The -marks of the desolation remain for many years on the spot. Numerous -places could be pointed out where, for several years after, scarcely a -single vegetable made its appearance.”</p> - -<p>After these mass migrations from the north the pigeons scattered -through the forests in search of food but assembled again in the spring for -egg-laying and hatching. Wilson reported: “Not far from Shelbyville, -Kentucky about five years ago, there was one of these breeding -places which stretched through the woods in a north and south direction -several miles in breadth and was said to be more than 40 miles in length. -In this tract almost every tree was furnished with nests wherever the -branches would accommodate them.</p> - -<p>“As soon as the young were fully grown numerous parties of inhabitants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -from all parts of the adjacent country came with wagons, axes, beds and -cooking utensils, many of them accompanied by the greater part of their -families, and encamped for several days at this immense nursery. The -noise was so great as to terrify their horses and it was difficult for one -person to hear another speak. The ground was strewn with broken limbs -of trees, eggs and young squab pigeon which had been precipitated from -above and upon which herds of hogs were fattening. The view through -the woods presented a perpetual tumult of crowding and falling multitudes -of pigeons, their wings roaring like thunder, mingled with the frequent -crash of falling timber.”</p> - -<p>The last great nesting was recorded at Petoskey, Michigan, in 1878. -The area covered is said to have been forty miles long and 30 miles broad.</p> - -<p>Systematic commercial hunting of the birds reached its height shortly -after the Civil War. In 1879 dead birds were sold on the Chicago market -at 50 cents a dozen. Pigeon hunters made from $10 to $40 a day.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Limbless_Lizard"><i>The Limbless Lizard</i></h2> - - -<p>A supposedly welcome guest in the underground chambers of leaf -cutter ants is the amphisbaena, a nearly limbless lizard about a foot long -which looks something like a gigantic earth worm. This creature, seldom -seen, ranges from northern Brazil to lower California. When out of its -habitat the amphisbaena is almost helpless and moves along the ground -with feeble wriggles. Some species lay eggs; other give birth to living -young.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Maddening_Tarantula"><i>The Maddening Tarantula</i></h2> - - -<p>The tarantula of southern Europe—a large, hairy spider—long was -credited with causing a weird, infectious madness by its bite.</p> - -<p>The first reported effect of its poison—actually quite mild—is said to -have been to put the victim into a deep lethargy from which he could be -roused only by music which set into motion an overpowering impulse to get -up and dance. Once the victim started to dance he could not stop until he -fell to the ground from exhaustion. Then the condition supposedly was -cured for a year. On the anniversary of the bite, however, the dance was -involuntarily repeated. From the tarantula’s first victim the dancing mania -allegedly spread like a contagious disease through the surrounding countryside. -The name still is used both for an Italian dance and for the music -which accompanies it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<p>The tarantula is a subterranean creature which hibernates in its burrow -during the winter. Bees and wasps are said to be killed almost instantly -by its bite. The spider always strikes at the junction of the head and -thorax.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="A_Flower_That_Grows_Through_Solid_Ice"><i>A Flower That Grows Through Solid Ice</i></h2> - - -<p>A plant that drills through several inches of solid ice to bloom in -early spring is the blue moonwort of the Swiss Alps. It belongs to the -primrose family. In autumn it develops thick, leathery leaves. These lie -flat on the ground, expectant of the snow and ice sheet that may cover them -to a depth of several feet.</p> - -<p>When spring arrives and the hot sun melts most of the snow and some of -the ice, water trickles down to the rootlets and arouses growth in the sleeping -plant. Internal combustion ensues with the floral tissues. The resulting -heat melts the ice about the uprising flower buds and the stem pushes -its way upward. More water flows to the roots and finally the plant tunnels -a passage to the air and sunshine. So long as the heat given off from -the growing stem and buds is sufficient to prevent solid freezing of the -parts the plant is indifferent to the surrounding ice cold temperature. It -undergoes the usual transformations, is fertilized by early bees and forms -many hundreds of wonderful blue flower groups which look as if they were -beds over a thick layer of transparent ice. The leaves are now no longer -thick and fleshy, but thin and papery. They yield up their carbon compounds -as fuel to melt a tunnel through the ice and production of buds and -blossoms on a flower stem above the ice mantle.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Versatile_Ant_Farmers"><i>The Versatile Ant Farmers</i></h2> - - -<p>There are microscopic “farmers” whose fields are measured in fractions -of inches. They are ants—the most widespread fungus-growers in the -Western Hemisphere. Their range extends from Florida to Brazil. They -are tiny creatures, seldom noticed, who cultivate a species of yeast which -is their sole food.</p> - -<p>The ways of life of this curious ant with the formidable scientific name -of cyphomyrmex rimosus minutus, have been studied throughout their -habitat by Dr. Neal A. Weber of Swarthmore College.</p> - -<p>“The ant,” says Dr. Weber, “is versatile in the American tropics where -the humidity is high and the temperatures uniform. The most common -sites are in clay soil on the forest floor. An empty snail shell, a curled dead<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -leaf or a rotted twig may suffice for a colony of these small ants or they -may find requisite conditions among roots or in the dead wood high in the -rain forest canopy.</p> - -<p>“During the rainy season in Panama City there was a nest on a concrete -cylinder above ground which protected a gas meter. The cylinder -was 17 centimeters high (about 6 inches), by 36 centimeters in diameter -and was covered loosely by a concrete cover. In the narrow space on the -rim under the cover a colony had walled off an elliptical area 36 by 17 -millimeters (about 4 inches by 3/4 of an inch), in which the entire nest -with a fungus garden was formed. During drier periods the ants would -move down into the soil.</p> - -<p>“The workers usually are slow-moving and become immobile at the -slightest disturbance. Sometimes, however, they run as rapidly as the -average ant when disturbed and seek to escape rather than feign death. -In “feigning death” the ants quickly curl up their legs and fold their -antennae close to the body so that they appear almost invisible bits of dirt -when casually examined.</p> - -<p>“The ants spend much time in grooming the forelimbs, antennae and -other parts of the body. Regardless of how dusty an ant may become -momentarily, it keeps its antenna immaculate by drawing it through its -mouth and licking and cleansing it. They also clean one another. In -grooming each other the ants may carefully go over a large portion of the -body. In one instance a slightly callow worker was watched as it groomed -another of the same age. The one being groomed turned over on its side, -like a dog or a monkey. The grooming of each other and the cleaning of -the brood is a vital part of their activities as it removes alien bacteria and -fungi and also may have a nutritive function so far as the brood is concerned.</p> - -<p>“The fungus garden consist of masses from a quarter millimeter to a -half millimeter in diameter (from about 100th to a 60th of an inch.)”</p> - -<p>They have their bitter, nearly microscopic enemies. Upon them, as upon -elephants, ride much smaller, bareback riding mites whose acrobatic stunts -would be the envy of any circus performer.</p> - -<p>“Seven out of 16 ants so examined,” Dr. Weber says, “had mites on -them. These mites have no difficulty in moving from one site to another -on the ants. A transfer of a mite from one ant to another was watched. -It had been riding on one ant when another brushed by waving its antennae -over the other as is customary. In a flash the mite grabbed the tip of the -left antenna. The ant did not attempt to dislodge the mite although it -already had two others on its body. The mite had a rough ride, but was -not dislodged.”</p> - -<p>The peculiar type of fungus grown by the ant does not grow naturally -outside the nest. It can be isolated and cultivated but it quickly is over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>whelmed -by other fungi in any artificial culture. It is probable that ant -and fungi need each other for survival. Possibly the saliva of the insect -is essential for the growth of the primitive plant. Likewise the peculiarly -developed fungus is essential for the well-being, even for the survival, of -the ants. It is one of nature’s partnerships.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Ostracoderms_Ancestors_of_True_Fish"><i>Ostracoderms: Ancestors of True Fish</i></h2> - - -<p>The race of fish first appeared about 350,000,000 million years ago in -the Silurian geological era. It was made up of grotesque, clumsy, heavily -armored animals who crawled over the ooze of the sea bottoms with very -little, if any, capacity to rise or propel themselves in the water. The ascent -from such an unpropitious beginning to the swift, graceful swimmers of -today is one of the wonder stories of evolution.</p> - -<p>These Silurian animals were the ostracoderms. They belonged to the -general fish complex but were not in the direct ancestral line of any extant -fish. This race continued, in various groupings, for at least 150,000,000 -years. The earliest forms were wormlike animals whose fossils are found -in ancient rocks of Esthonia. Their heads and the forward parts of their -bodies were covered with bony plates. They had no fins to serve for steering -and balancing. In appearance they were close to tadpoles. It is quite -obvious that they were bottom-dwelling forms who swam, if at all, awkwardly -and laboriously. The evolution into more and more efficient swimming -animals can be traced through later and later fossils throughout the -life history of the race. The body became more flexible. There was a -gradual reduction in the thickness of the external armor as the ostracoderms -came to depend more and more on speed and less on invulnerability. -At the end they probably were comparatively good swimmers.</p> - -<p>A little later than the earliest of this long extinct family came the first -representatives of the true fish—probably derived from the same general -ancestral stock. They also were bottom-dwelling animals, although -from the beginning they appear to have been a little better adapted for -swimming. In these also, the head and forward part of the body were -encased in heavy armor. In ostracoderms, however, this had formed -a continuous shell, allowing no anterior freedom of motion in the water. -In the earliest true fish it was divided into two parts, the head shield and -the body shield. For the most part, however, they could use only the tail -and posterior part of the body for propulsion. But through many generations -various diversifications of the race became more and more fishlike -in form, shed their heavy protective plates, developed paired fins for -steering and balance, and continuously improved as swimmers.</p> - -<p>“We must take it for granted,” explains Prof. Anatol Heintz, Norwegian -paleontologist, “that the ancestral forms of the vertebrates evolved in water.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -Most primitive forms lived on the bottom and had not yet specialized sufficiently -to be able to swim. If the oldest vertebrates were bottom-living or -burrowing forms they must have learned to swim, just as later they learned -to crawl, walk, run and finally fly.”</p> - -<p>Among the earliest groups of true fish were the coelacanths, or “hollow -spines.” They left many fossil remains over a period of 200,000,000 -years. Supposedly they became extinct about sixty million years ago, at -the start of the dawn age when most higher life types known at present -first appeared. Through all the vast eons of their existence the “hollow -spines” changed little.</p> - -<p>Three years ago came one of the outstanding events in present day biology. -A living coelacanth was caught by native fishermen off the northeastern -coast of Madagascar. It was quite similar to its fossil ancestors—armored -head and all. Apparently the Madagascan fishermen had been -capturing similar creatures in their nets occasionally for years, without -realizing that they were of any particular significance.</p> - -<p>To biologists the news of this capture was as exciting as would have -been that of finding a living dinosaur. The coelacanths, in fact were -hoary with age when the earliest dinosaurs appeared on earth. This fish -was a survivor from days when animals first were developing spines and -brains.</p> - -<p>The specimen, however, was practically ruined before it came to the attention -of the scientists. Native sailors had sliced it open from snout to -tail. All the brain and other soft parts of the head were gone. Other -parts were so badly mangled that it was impossible to reconstruct them.</p> - -<p>Since then several others have been caught. An intriguing possibility is -that of obtaining a female with unborn young. A developing embryo supposedly -recapitulates ancestral forms. If one could be found it would be -possible to reconstruct something of the real ancestry of the first back-boned -animals.</p> - -<p>Natives report that the coelacanth is extremely oily. Its flesh drips -oil. When boiled it quickly turns to jelly. This fact may have a bearing -on the origin of some of the earth’s great oil deposits. Man today may be -running his automobiles or heating his homes on the fuel produced by -vast hordes of these head-armored, hollow-spined fish in the ancient warm -seas.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ever_Faithful_Hornbills"><i>The Ever Faithful Hornbills</i></h2> - - -<p>Lady hornbills are trusting wives and gentlemen hornbills are unbelievably -faithful husbands.</p> - -<p>The hornbills are birds with enormous beaks. They have the size of -small turkeys and are usually found in pairs in the forests of East Africa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -They are perhaps best known from the curious instinctive behavior of the -female. Before laying her annual quota of two eggs she walls herself with -mud, collected by the male, into a hole near the top of some high jungle -tree. There one of the eggs—apparently seldom both—is hatched and -the chick reared. The female continues this voluntary imprisonment for -two months or more.</p> - -<p>There is always a small aperture in the wall. Through this the foraging -male passes food to his imprisoned mate, once an hour or less. Food consists -mostly of fruits. Sometimes he brings her what apparently are playthings -to relieve the monotony of hatching and chick-rearing.</p> - -<p>A comprehensive report on the behavior of these grotesque birds in the -Mpanga Research Forest of Uganda, by Dr. Lawrence Kilham of Bethesda, -Maryland, is a classic on bird-watching.</p> - -<p>Hornbills mate for life and apparently their conjugal life is a model of -high morality for the whole animal kingdom. Walled into the tree-holes, -the females obviously are helpless to protect themselves against any infidelity, -and, sad to say, there are vampire female hornbills in the jungle whose -only thought is to steal some imprisoned lady’s spouse.</p> - -<p>In the case observed by Dr. Kilham, however, the male preserved his -virtue to the end. “By November 8,” he records, “the female was walled -in, and a more serious attempt at interference was now made by a foreign -female.... She was following the male and lighted in the next tree when he -lighted above his nest hole. On November 23 the same course of events -took place, except that the male was less tolerant. He fed his own mate, -then drove the intruder away. A week later I saw her fly in close behind -the male and light 25 feet from the nest hole. The male gave his mate a -piece of bark followed by some fruit, and then bounced from one branch -to another toward the foreign female.”</p> - -<p>The poor fellow was falling, falling, but “the female within the nest -screamed a number of times. I wondered whether the interloper could -seduce the male, but from subsequent observations it seemed unlikely that -she would. The male returned again to the nest hole, and a few minutes -later was in the upper part of the tree knocking about on dead branches -until he dislodged a piece of bark. He clamped his bill on the bark until -it was largely fragmented. Then he moved toward the foreign female. If -he presented the bark [a cherished play object among hornbills] one -would suppose that she had some attraction for him. After a moment, however, -he changed his direction, flew down to the big limb below, bent over -the nest hole, and gave the token to his mate, accompanied by a feeding -chuckle. Subsequently he returned to perch quietly within eight feet of -the intruding female. At 7:30 a.m. the two of them flew away together. -As the nesting season progressed, he became less tolerant of her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -intrusions...On February 3 I again watched her fly in behind the male and alight -on the nest tree, making considerable noise. The male stopped feeding -his mate, swooped at the interloper and drove her down toward the ground. -However, when he flew away, she followed a short distance behind.”</p> - -<p>The vampire was hard to discourage. A few days later she was observed -at the entrance to the nest, trying to break the wall with her beak. Probably -there was a sex murder case in the making. But “After five minutes -the male arrived and...drove the foreign female to another tree, flying -at her so hard that he knocked leaves from intervening branches. He -returned to his nest with a small stick held like a cigar. His mate, who -had remained silent, now began her wailing screeches....The intruding -female, persistent as usual...had followed the male back to the nest -tree. In a few minutes he flew at her again, flying faster than hornbills -usually do as he chased her from one tree to another.”</p> - -<p>But his ordeal of bachelorhood was nearly over. Five days later -mother and young emerged from the nest: “The pair of hornbills were -perched side by side on their tree. Not long after I heard a great -flutter of wings. I looked back to see both members of the pair -pursuing a foreign female....When the parents later came to our garden, -she did not follow.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Ants_With_Tailor_Skills"><i>Ants With Tailor Skills</i></h2> - - -<p>Ants developed the craft of sewing long before humans. There are -species of tailor ants in Australia, Africa and India that have distinctly -ingenious habits. They make nests of leaves sewed together with silken -threads, secreted by their own larvae, which they use both as needles and -shuttles.</p> - -<p>When the nest is torn in any way certain soldiers and workers, apparently -specialized for this particular job, rush to the scene. The soldiers -arrange themselves to protect the workers. These first try to pull the -two edges of the rent together. If the gap is too wide for a single insect -to reach the other side and secure it with her mandibles a living chain -is formed, sometimes as much as six ants long. One holds another in front -of her with her mandibles, the second similarly holds a third, and so on -until the other side is reached. Hours sometimes are required before the -edges of the tear can be brought together and held in contact.</p> - -<p>Then several other workers appear, each carrying a larva head upwards. -These little worms are carried back and forth like a shuttle, spinning the -threads which are pushed through needle holes made by the workers until -the rent is securely patched.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Fiend_Symphonies_of_the_Jungle"><i>Fiend Symphonies of the Jungle</i></h2> - - -<p>Out of green jungle depths at sunrise rises the choral hymn of the -damned. It is a symphony of earth’s evil, of ancient dinosaurs and flying -reptiles, of vampires and witches. It comes from the throats of jet-black, -long-bearded, fiend-like creatures wearing red shawls. They are the -howler monkeys.</p> - -<p>The world’s loudest-mouthed bluffers and braggarts are these dwellers -in the high treetops. They swear in an ancient tongue evolved over -centuries for the effective cursing of hovering white hawks, black vultures -and lurking wild cats. Now they curse, loudly and most profanely, airplanes -which sweep low over Panama and Costa Rican jungles. They have -not found it necessary to invent any new expressions to convey their -contempt for the new monsters of the skies.</p> - -<p>Their voices are their only weapons. These have proved quite effective -throughout the lifetime of the race. The howlers have been able to threaten -their enemies with perdition so convincingly that these enemies have -believed the threats. Largely as a result, the big black monkeys have -been left alone as the dominant animals of the weird, perilous green world -at the top of the jungle. They never have had to fight with fists, claws -or teeth. All they have done—all it has been necessary to do—is talk -about it.</p> - -<p>The scream of the howler, hurled defiantly at a possible enemy or -raised in a diapason to the sunrise or in a ritual of worship to the full -moon, is the most fearsome sound of the jungle. As one zoologist has -said: “It’s a combination of the bark of a dog and the bray of a mule -magnified a thousand-fold.” It can be heard, and clearly discriminated, -eight or ten miles away. Some say that the howl not only sounds like -the voices of fiends let loose from the pits of Hades, but that the appearance -of the animals themselves is just about what one would picture -for the infernal beings. The loudness and carrying power is due to the -monkey’s peculiar throat structure, which enables the sound to reverberate. -This throat structure is the weapon which nature has provided for the -animal and it has enabled him to more than hold his own in the endless -struggle for survival of the fittest. Even more, it has made him supremely -contemptuous of all lesser-voiced creatures, such as men on foot or men -in airplanes at whom he howls defiantly.</p> - -<p>Of all apes or monkeys, the howler probably looks the least like his -distant cousin, man. He is at very best a grotesque caricature of a chimpanzee -or a gorilla. Attempts have been made to oust him from the monkey -race altogether and to degrade him to the pseudo-monkeys, the lemurs. -But in biology there is nothing to justify this.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> - -<p>Fortunately for students of animal behavior the howler is a daylight -animal. He usually goes to bed at sundown and stays there until sunrise, -except on occasions when the full moon awakens him and arouses some -uncontrollable frenzy which finds expression in the weird howling. So -about everything he does is open to observation.</p> - -<p>The creatures remain about the least acceptable of the monkey and -ape race in human company. The feeling apparently is reciprocal. The -howler is an almost untamable wild animal. He never will dance at the -end of a hurdy-gurdy grinder’s leash, and seldom will be on exhibit in -zoos. He dies quickly in captivity, but only after becoming such a nuisance -with the howling of a broken heart that zoo keepers are glad to be -rid of him. Only one specimen has been kept in captivity at Barro, -Colorado—a baby rescued by one of the Indian guides after she had fallen -out of a tree. This happens not infrequently to the little howlers before -they have mastered the acrobatics of the forest canopy. They are not -climbers at birth, any more than seals are able to swim.</p> - -<p>In the strange treetop realm among his own the howler is a much more -engaging personality than he appears down below. He is the “man” of -the green canopy 100 feet above the earth. He is the dominant creature, -intellectually if not always physically, and he appears to have evolved a -complex form of social organization.</p> - -<p>From two to three hundred of the big black monkeys inhabit Barro, -Colorado. They are split into groups of from ten to twenty individuals. -These groups are probably extended families, each consisting of two -or three adult males, a few younger males, and the remainder females -and babies. Each clan possesses an area of from 250 to 500 acres. This -is the “home town” and few of the monkeys ever stray across its borders.</p> - -<p>Within such an area are “roads,” path of long branches and heavy -vines by which a troop can pass easily from one treetop to another. These -same ways are maintained year after year. The howler requires solid -footing. Despite his lofty, wind-tossed habitat he is not much of a gymnast. -For one reason, his body is too heavy. He appears quite clumsy -compared with his lighter, more volatile relatives, the spider monkeys of -the same high realm. Howlers, for example, very seldom have been -observed leaping from tree to tree. Occasionally, probably only in -cases of dire necessity, a swinging vine may be used as a trapeze. Any -aerial acrobatics, however, appear far from this monkey’s ideas of good -sport.</p> - -<p>Through its allotted area a group usually moves in single file, the adult -males leading the way and the females with young clinging to their backs -or breasts bringing up the rear. The treetop roads seldom are wide -enough to permit two monkeys to move abreast. When any of the troop -drops behind, the procession is held up to wait for him. If he does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -appear in a few minutes scouts are sent back to find out what has happened. -About the worst to be anticipated is that a mother has dropped -her baby. She immediately will descend to retrieve it from the ground -or, as is more likely, from some of the lower branches which have -broken its fall.</p> - -<p>The animals appear to maintain a communistic family life. A family -never seems to increase or decrease in numbers. Probably new groups are -formed if the birth rate becomes greater than is necessary for replacements. -In the absence of epidemics death rates are not heavy, for the -animal has no very formidable natural enemies. Its hellish howl is enough -to scare away even the strongest, fiercest invaders of its high country.</p> - -<p>Classes are mutually exclusive. But there are no wars in the treetops. -When one group ventures near the border of a range claimed by -another all the inhabitants get together and set up the most fiendish -howling of which they are capable. The potential invaders stop and howl -back, just as fiendishly. After a more or less prolonged session of this -bloodless warfare both factions call it a day and go their peaceful ways. -Any actual fight between howler gangs has not been reported by reliable -witnesses.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Tyrants_of_the_Polychaete_Race"><i>Tyrants of the Polychaete Race</i></h2> - - -<p>Knight-warriors and Amazons of the worm world are the aphroditids. -They are the aristocrats and tyrants of the polychaete race.</p> - -<p>Like the oriental Aphrodite whose name they bear—she was the mythical -goddess of love and war who rose from the sea foam armed with golden -spears which were the rays of the moon and sun she personified—they -crawl over the beach sands resplendent in a bristling panoply of gold and -green. Heavily armed for both offense and defense, their prey are all -living things remotely their equals in size and strength.</p> - -<p>For their battles they carry on their feet “an armory of harpoons, -bayonets, lances, spears and billing hooks,” says the Rev. George Johnston -in his catalogue of annelid worms in the British Museum. “Were it -desirable to have any additions to man’s weapons of war,” he comments, -“the aphrodite bayonet might furnish a model for a new kind as formidable -as any we possess. It is armed with a kind of pricker affixed to -the end of a musket. This appendage is very sharp, formed with several -cutting surfaces, and with a spine below pointed backwards which gives -it the properties and advantage of a harpoon. Hence, having been forced -to penetrate the flesh, the point cannot be withdrawn, but is detached at -once.</p> - -<p>“This, however, is not the most curious part of the instrument. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> -bayonet part of the bristle is, in fact, a sheath which encloses another -weapon that is exposed only when the scabbard is lost. When we detach -the bayonet from the sheath, at the same time we force from its interior a -horny stylette with a needle-like point ready to become a good defensive -weapon.”</p> - -<p>The terror of tidal beaches described by Dr. Johnston is the “sea mouse,” -Aphrodite aculeata, an oval-shaped worm from six to eight inches long and -two or three wide. It has from 30 to 50 large “feet” on each side of its -body, each carrying an immense tuft of silky green and golden bristles and -spines. Many have commented on the malevolent creature’s beauty and -capacity for inspiring terror.</p> - -<p>“The very brilliant iridescent hues,” Dr. Johnston says, “are not equalled -by the colors of the most brilliant butterflies.” “It does not yield in brilliance -to the plumage of humming birds or even to the most shining -gems,” wrote the great French naturalist Baron Cuvier, credited with -the original description of the animal.</p> - -<p>Normally it moves by jet propulsion. As it goes forward, a current of -water is projected with considerable force at short intervals from its rear -end. Progress ordinarily is slow, but the sea mouse is capable of considerable -speed when pursuing a slow-moving prey. It frequently can be -observed motionless, watching a weaker worm or mollusk upon which it -is prepared quickly to pounce at a favorable opportunity.</p> - -<p>Some of these animals, Dr. Johnston observes, “have 500 feet on each -side of the body. Each foot has two branches and each branch at least -one spine and one brush of bristles. Thus an individual has at least -1,000 spines. If we reckon ten bristles to each brush, it has at least -10,000.”</p> - -<p>The bristles, presumably, are almost entirely for defense; the spines -for offense, and admirably fashioned for killing weaker animals. Both types -of weapons can be retracted entirely inside the foot when not in use, but -thrust out again immediately when needed.</p> - -<p>Aphrodite hermione, a close relative of the sea mouse, Dr. Johnston -points out, “has in the dorsal branch of its feet bristles which may be -described as lances. They are so small that a magnifying glass is needed -to discover the workmanship, which excels in finish the finest instrument -of man by the skill of the most expert artificer. A great number of these -bristles garnish the extremity of each foot, and as they are stiff and serially -arranged they form a hedge of spears around the body of the worm, placing -it within a square of pointed pikes threatening at all points. Other -bristles terminate in a knob within which is a barbed lance.”</p> - -<p>Still others are likened by Dr. Johnston to harpoons, produced from the -body only as required. They are very sharply pointed bristles with the -point attached to a shaft. The harpoon point, like the bayonet previously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -described, has a reverted tooth which cannot be withdrawn once it has -been plunged into the body of the enemy. It can, however, be detached -and left to fester in the wound. Some worms lose all their harpoons in -their many fights.</p> - -<p>“There is scarcely a single weapon invented by the murderous genius of -man,” commented the French naturalist Quatrefages concerning aphroditids -on Bay of Biscay coasts, “whose counterpart and model could not be found -among these worms. Here are the curved blades whose points present a -double and prolonged cutting surface, sometimes on the concave edge as in -the yataghan of the Arabs, sometimes on the convex border as in the -oriental scimitar. We meet with weapons of offense and defense which -remind us of the broad sword of our cuirassiers; the sabre-poignard of the -artilleryman; the sabre-baionette of the chausseurs. We have harpoons, -fishhooks, cutting blades in every form attached to the extremities of sharp -handles. Destined to live by rapine and exposed to a hundred enemies, -they need such weapons both for attacking and defense.”</p> - -<p>Some aphroditids swim with ease. The majority, however, are found -between tide marks where they burrow in wet sand. A few occasionally -trespass in tidal rivers. When placed in fresh water the animals soon -die, in their death throes first ejecting a milky-white fluid which turns -to blackish-green at the moment of death. Despite their heavy armament, -the aphroditids are a favorite food of codfish. They are distributed generally -all over the world. The monster of the race in the South Pacific -sometimes reaches a length of five feet.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Eating_Habits_of_Spiders"><i>Eating Habits of Spiders</i></h2> - - -<p>Spiders digest most of their food before eating. They must subsist on -a liquid diet. A powerful digestive fluid from the stomach is discharged -on the prey. This completely liquifies the soft tissues. So potent is this -fluid that spiders sometimes can devour small back-boned animals, such as -fish and lizards, which they kill with their poison fangs. One African -species can liquify almost completely a fish two inches long in less than -three hours. Another has been observed in captivity to dispose of small -snakes in the same way.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Suicide_Instinct_of_Iguanas"><i>The Suicide Instinct of Iguanas</i></h2> - - -<p>Some iguanas seem to have the ability to commit suicide without any -visible means. Some of these lizards, hitherto unknown to science, -captured alive and uninjured in Cuba by Dr. Paul Bartsch of the Smith<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>sonian -Institution, died a few minutes later as if a mere wish to end their -lives were sufficient to achieve death.</p> - -<p>“These iguanas are vegetable feeders,” Dr. Bartsch recorded in his field -notes. “They are fairly tame and persisted in chasing the nooses on the -ends of our sticks, instead of running their heads through them or letting -us place them around their necks. When hard-pressed they finally dash -into holes that look like huge crab burrows. When near the coast, where -there is a hurricane rampart, they seek refuge in crevices of the rocks. -We were surprised when we took those we had captured from our bag -on board ship to find four of them dead. Evidently they have a way of -ending their own lives.”</p> - -<p>On Petite Gonave Island off the coast of Haiti are large iguanas which—native -fishermen say—can be captured safely only by getting them -drunk. Travellers are warned that they are extremely dangerous animals -when sober. The fishermen pour rum into hollows of rocks along the -shore. The big lizards appear to be very fond of this beverage and drink -themselves helpless.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Forests_That_Eat_Meat"><i>Forests That Eat Meat</i></h2> - - -<p>Relic groves of the great meat-eating forests of 150,000,000 years ago -still thrive on the floors of deep, warm seas.</p> - -<p>These are made up of plant-animals—predacious trees with red blood -and hearts—the crinoids. There are about 700 extant, compared to more -than a thousand extinct, species. For a hundred million years they were -among the ocean’s dominant life forms. Fossil crinoids, or “stone lilies,” -make up great marble beds in both American and Europe. In 1934 the -Smithsonian Johnson expedition dredged nineteen species, including two -not hitherto known to science, from the bottom of the great Porto Rico -Deep.</p> - -<p>The crinoids are highly developed animals, although they look like -plants. They can by no means be considered as a form of life on the -dividing line of the animal and vegetable worlds. Rather they are animals -which have taken on the superficial appearance of plants. They are -very highly specialized animals—so much so that there are few places -in the world where they can survive in great numbers.</p> - -<p>In life they usually are brilliantly colored. Judging from those that are -found on the sea bottoms today one of the ancient meat-eating forests -must have presented a very colorful spectacle of red, green, purple and -yellow “blossoms.”</p> - -<p>Most of them live in deep water. There are free-moving varieties as -well as those that are fixed to the bottom with stems like plants. Until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -recent years few were recovered in good condition because of the tendency -of one of these plant-animals to break itself to pieces when agitated. When -brought up from the bottom to the deck of a ship the crinoid would -proceed to break off the featherlike arms which make up the blossoms. -This was its natural defense reaction in the depths. Its way of escape when -one of its arms was seized by a fish was to break it off. Then it could -grow another quite easily. As a matter of fact, this is the way the crinoid -grows—one of the most wasteful processes of growth in nature. It breaks -off one arm and grows two instead; but it cannot increase the number of -its arms without discarding an old one.</p> - -<p>Another difficulty is that the gorgeous colors of the meat-eating flowers -are fast only in salt water. They fade rapidly in air, fresh water or alcohol -so that there can be only a fleeting impression of the true coloration.</p> - -<p>These crinoids live, for the most part, on diatoms, small crustaceans, -and other tiny sea creatures which they first paralyze with poison from -the tentacles which line the grooves of the arms through which food is -carried to the mouth.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Cave-Dwelling_Birds"><i>Cave-Dwelling Birds</i></h2> - - -<p>True creature of night is the guacharo, or “oil bird”, of northern South -America. It is reddish-brown, about the size of a barnyard hen. Excessive -layers of fat built up about its abdomen formerly were valued highly -by natives for eating purposes, resulting in the slaughter of countless -thousands every year. The guacharo spends its days a half mile or more -deep in the interior of mountain caves. Here it roosts and builds its -nests in crevices high in the rock walls. It leaves in groups of twenty to -thirty shortly after dusk and apparently spends the whole night foraging -for food, sometimes covering as much as 200 miles.</p> - -<p>Like the cave bat, it seems to have no difficulty finding its way in absolute -darkness. An explanation of this ability, acoustic orientation, has -been reported by Dr. Donald R. Griffin of Cornell University. The birds -apparently are guided by echos of specific sharp “clicking” sounds which -they make.</p> - -<p>“The individual click,” Dr. Griffin explains, “consists of a very few -sound waves having a frequency of about 7,000 cycles per second. The -duration of each click is about a millisecond (1,000th of a second). The -clicks were loud enough to be audible easily about 200 yards inside the -cave. Except for their lower frequency, these sounds are very similar to -those used by insectivorous bats for their acoustic orientation.</p> - -<p>“The external ear canals of three captive birds were plugged with cotton. -They then became disoriented when flying in the dark. They collided<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -with every object they encountered. Before and immediately after this -treatment they flew about in a small dark room avoiding all collisions -with the walls.”</p> - -<p>Their best known habitat is the guacharo cave in Venezuela’s Humboldt -National Park, where they are rigidly protected. Most of them nest in a -vast subterranean hall more than a half mile long and a hundred feet -high. Here more than a thousand of the birds greet the intruder instantly -with a wave of awesome and deafening shrieks.</p> - -<p>“With the advent of dusk,” reports Dr. Eugenio de Bellard Pietri—Venezuelan -cave explorer, “the birds come out in compact groups but -before the exodus a preliminary flight is held by a few as if to make sure -that night is falling. Soon they return to the depths of their somber -mansion, evidently to give the flock the all clear signal. Late in the evening -there is not a single adult specimen left in the cave. The flight of -these birds is silent and cannot easily be detected.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Where_Snails_Become_Flowers"><i>Where Snails Become Flowers</i></h2> - - -<p>The lowly snail reaches an apotheosis—rivalling flowers and butterflies -as an expression of nature’s artistry—in Cuban forests. Delicate sunrise -tints of pink, blue, violet, green and yellow make the shells of two or three -genera of tree-dwelling mollusks like rare jewels. Most conspicuous are -snails of the genus Polymita, confined to the Oriente province. Here -they cover some trees so completely that the effect is like that of a tree -of flowers. Only upon close observation can one detect that the blossoms -are shells.</p> - -<p>The animals live for the most part on a fungus that grows on the bark. -The colors of the shells are affected by various chemical constituents of -the bark, notably tannic acid, and serve as warning to other creatures. -In taste the snails are very bitter and no bird will intentionally attack them. -The color serves notice that only a disgusting mouthful is to be had.</p> - -<p>Two of the most beautiful of these shell forms were recently discovered -by Dr. Paul Bartsch, former Smithsonian curator of mollusks. Fragile, -translucent, colored as delicately as the loveliest of orchids, these particular -snails are the fairies of the mollusk world in the unconscious artistry -with which they have constructed their moving palaces. One, a hitherto -unknown species, has a remarkable combination of pale orange, orange -buff, deeper orange and flame color—all shading delicately into each other. -The color effect is such as one might find rarely in rose petals. Another -has a blending of ivory, olive green, lemon yellow and orange.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Termites_That_Eat_Lead"><i>Termites That Eat Lead</i></h2> - - -<p>On Barro Colorado island in the Panama Canal Zone the Smithsonian -Institution maintains an “experimental cemetery.” It consists of rows of -upright posts which look like gravestones, half buried in the soil. The -purpose is to test the propensities of the island’s 42 species of termites—just -about man’s most persistent and expensive enemy in the tropics—to -eat different kinds of wood impregnated with different kinds of repellants -and poisons. To date approximately 35,000 tests have been made. The -longer the work is continued the more Dr. James Zetek, former director of -the station, is impressed with the contrariness and ingenuity of the blind, -ant-like insects which achieve sub-human acmes of engineering ability, -and whose appetites are marvelous.</p> - -<p>Among Barro Colorado’s termites are some extraordinary bugs indeed. -One, for example, eats lead. It gnaws its way through the lead sheathings -on cables. This is not because it likes a lead diet. Lead, in fact, is indigestible -and the insects starve to death. But their appetites are so insatiable -that the little creatures just keep on gnawing, in the hope that -there will be wood on the other side.</p> - -<p>This particular insect is known by the scientific name of coptotermes -niger. It has been known to eat through a concrete floor nearly five inches -thick—again not because of any particular liking for concrete but because -of the expectation of coming eventually to digestible wood. The feat was -made possible because the sand used in making the concrete contained -many fragments of sea shells which were dissolved by a powerful chemical -excreted by the insects.</p> - -<p>It is very difficult to dispose of termites by poison—that is, permanently. -Races have risen here, for example, which seem to thrive on arsenic. The -insect lives on the cellulose in wood. This must be digested by certain -intestinal bacteria in the digestive tract. If these microörganisms can -be poisoned the termite starves. At first at least 99 percent of the bacteria -succumb to heavy doses of arsenic. This means that 99 percent of the -termites are killed. But always there are a few exceptionally tough bacteria -with a high resistance to the poison. Their descendants in a few generations -apparently become almost entirely resistant. With their help a -new race of termites comes into existence.</p> - -<p>Ordinarily termites attack only dead or dying wood. Some of them, -however, carry fungi around with them to kill their own wood. The -Canal Zone insects can dispose of living trees. Dr. Zetek tells of one -attempt to establish an avocado plantation. He warned against it. When -the trees had reached the fruit-bearing stage and seemed healthy he was -ridiculed for his warnings. Branches were heavy with avocados and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -there was promise of a record crop. He shook his head when shown the -flourishing orchard. “The poor trees,” he remarked. “They know they -are going to die. They are just making one last mighty effort to preserve -their species by producing plenty of fruit and seeds.” He secured the -orchard owner’s permission to chop down one tree. The whole inside, he -found, was riddled with termite galleries. This tree and all the others -in the orchard were dead within a year.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Plant_That_Eats_Animals"><i>The Plant That Eats Animals</i></h2> - - -<p>There are life-and-death battles in the microscopic world between tiny -shelled animals and flesh-devouring fungi. The phenomenon can be compared -to that of a tree catching and eating big turtles.</p> - -<p>When a culture of diseased plant roots is made, there soon appear great -numbers of microscopic plants and animals—bacteria, fungi, amoebae, -nematodes and other life forms. Immediately the struggle for survival -starts. The animals try to eat the plants and the plants attempt to -devour the animals.</p> - -<p>Among the animal forms which appear are vast numbers of creatures -known as rhizopods. Practically unknown except to specialists, these -microscopic creatures play an important part in the economy of life. They -are probably the best-equipped of all the new arrivals to survive, since -their soft bodies are covered with relatively heavy shells.</p> - -<p>Some years ago Dr. Charles Dreschler of the U.S. Department of Agriculture -reported the existence of predaceous meat-eating fungi—parasitic -forms of plant life—which literally lassoed such unprotected animals as -amoebae and thread-like nematodes and proceeded to devour them at -leisure by the process of infiltrating their bodies. It would appear that -the armored rhizopods are completely protected from these ferocious -plants.</p> - -<p>But the animal has one weak spot in its defense. It must get its mouth -outside its shell in order to eat. Apparently the most inviting forage at -hand is the innocent-appearing fungus. The rhizopod proceeds to suck -at it with movements which Dr. Dreschler describes as similar to “sucking -an egg.”</p> - -<p>The rhizopod mouth is small. Once it has sucked in any of the fungus -its fate is sealed, for, explains Dr. Dreschler, “to such undiscriminating -voracity the fungus responds by rapidly proliferating from the partly -ingested portion a bulbous outgrowth slightly larger than the mouth, so -that the rhizopod is held securely.”</p> - -<p>The unfortunate shelled animal is like a fish caught on a hook. It -struggles vainly to get away. It rushes, but the fungus simply lets out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -the line until the rhizopod is brought to an abrupt stop and can be hauled -in. The line is a filament connecting the body of the fungus with the -bulb in the animal’s mouth.</p> - -<p>Once its prey is secure, the fungus proceeds to send out growths from -the bulb through the creature’s flesh, literally eating it alive. Very rarely, -like a hooked fish, a rhizopod is able to break away.</p> - -<p>In the course of its life, a single one of these thread-like fungi will capture -many of the shelled animals, lining them up securely mouth-to-mouth -on both sides of itself. It absorbs their substance at its leisure. Other -predaceous fungi have definite external organs for capturing their prey. -This particular species, however, has no external appendages and appears -completely inert and innocent until it is stimulated to action by the sucking -of the rhizopod.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Oceans_Sound_Barrier"><i>The Ocean’s Sound Barrier</i></h2> - - -<p>A densely woven carpet of life covers the floor of the world of light -under the sea—just below the level reached by the most penetrating rays -of the sun. It is a carpet of many colors and of flashing lights, the strands -of its texture rapidly moving, predaceous, warring organisms. They probably -are a mixture of lantern-carrying fish, ten-tentacled squid with -malevolent red eyes, and small, luminous, shrimp-like creatures known as -euphasids. Their nature can only be deduced by the echoes of sound from -their bodies.</p> - -<p>This carpet, about 300 feet thick, is the sea’s “false bottom.” It was -discovered by Navy ships making depth soundings during the war. Such -soundings depend on the time taken for echoes to be reflected to the surface -from the ocean floor. Recorded on a ship’s instruments, they represent -an extremely precise procedure perfected to the point where a -continuous record of depth can be obtained with an accuracy of a few -inches.</p> - -<p>But, using certain wavelengths of sound, echoes were received from -depths between 1,000 and 1,500 feet, whereas the sea itself was known to -be two or three miles deep at these places. The only plausible explanation -was that there were vast multitudes of floating or swimming objects -of some sort, constituting almost a solid surface, at the depths from which -the echoes came. The mystery was increased by the fact that the false -bottom existed only during daylight. The carpet was laid shortly after -sunrise and rolled up at twilight. The indication was that the echo-producing -objects rose to the surface at the beginning of darkness—a clue -which has given rise to much speculation and argument.</p> - -<p>The carpet is under all the oceans, even the nethermost Antarctic. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -some areas it seems practically continuous over thousands of square miles. -In others it is broken up into smaller areas, like scatter rugs on a floor.</p> - -<p>The false bottom is almost as much a mystery today as when it first -puzzled the Navy’s navigators. All are agreed that it must be composed -of vast hordes of animals. They are not directly observable by any known -technique. Some indication of their size and abundance, however, can be -deduced from the wave lengths of sound which they echo. There must be, -it has been calculated, from ten to twenty of these organisms in each cubic -meter of water. They echo only long sound waves. High frequency sound -passes through them like light through glass and is bounced back from -the true sea bottom. They have been a mild nuisance, but never a peril, -to modern navigators.</p> - -<p>Whatever the organisms may be, they evidently cannot endure any light. -At dawn they sink immediately from within about 100 feet of the surface -through the zone of moonlight-pale, green illumination which represents -sunshine’s deepest penetration of sea water.</p> - -<p>Chief proponents of the theory that a preponderance of them are squid -are oceanographers of the Navy’s Hydrographic Office. It is well established -that the deep sea abounds in these fantastic mollusks. They rarely -are seen at the surface. They move through the water very rapidly by a -kind of jet propulsion, gulping water in the mouth and shooting it out explosively -from the rear. They are little affected by changes in hydrostatic -pressure, as are fish with air bladders. When the false bottom rises -at sunset it comes to the surface at a rate of forty to fifty feet a minute. -No swimming fish, it is maintained, could rise so rapidly through the -decreasing pressure. It would get the “bends”, like a human diver -brought to the surface in too great a hurry.</p> - -<p>These squid range in length from three or four inches to more than a -foot. They are of about the right size to return some of the echoes which -have been observed. The faintly luminous euphasid shrimps also are -known to be very abundant in the depths. Presumably they provide most -of the squids' food.</p> - -<p>The principal investigations have been carried out by the Navy’s Electronics -Laboratory and the Scripps Institute of Oceanography of San -Diego. An outstanding difficulty hitherto has been that the echoes -have been known only from the false bottom as a whole. They have -covered a wide spectrum of sound wavelengths. A recently developed -technique is to lower a hydrophone connected with a sound-producing -mechanism into the depths in order to record echoes from individual objects -at distances of a few feet. Indications to date are that some of them -are from a foot to eighteen inches long—too large to be squid and far too -large to be shrimp. They can only, it is deduced, be deep water fish. If a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -great number of fairly large fish are indicated, this false bottom might -turn out to be the richest pasture in the ocean for the production of food -for man.</p> - -<p>Navy divers have swum through the false bottom at night when it was -within less than 200 feet of the surface. They have observed enormous -numbers of euphasids and other small organisms—but very few fish. This, -however, is only suggestive. There is no good reason to believe the -carpet has the same texture at night as by day. It is quite likely that the -organisms disperse widely over the surface waters.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Snakes_That_Act_and_Look_Like_Worms"><i>Snakes That Act and Look Like Worms</i></h2> - - -<p>There are snakes that look like snarls of six-inch-long pieces of wrapping -twine. These worm snakes are the world’s closest imitators of worms. -Among the most secretive of living things, they rarely come in contact -with man. When they are seen they usually are mistaken for worms. -Only zoologists can put them in their true families. These living strings -live exclusively under the earth, sometimes in tangled snarls of scores of -individuals.</p> - -<p>They are the smallest of snakes. Their closest relatives, however, are -the gigantic boas and pythons. Judging from their wide distribution—on -such isolated spots, for example, as Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean—they -are quite ancient reptiles whose wanderings started about fifty -million years ago.</p> - -<p>They are found most often in termite nests, where they eat the eggs -and possibly the larvae. Small earthworms and other soil creatures add -to their diet. The worm snakes are almost toothless. Eyes are buried -under skin, are only faint spots, and probably only can discriminate light -from darkness. The tail looks somewhat like the head—a likeness presumably -developed as a camouflage. They retain a snake’s scales, but these -are highly polished so they can be of no help in crawling.</p> - -<p>These Typhlopidae and Glauconidae, as the two major groups are -known, are extremely active. When they are exhumed they start at -once to burrow back and have been found as much as two feet underground. -Occasionally they may be found in mole holes or in rotten wood where -they feed on insect larvae and also, it is likely, get some warmth from -the decay process. The snout is used in burrowing. They are hard -to hold in the hand, owing to the high polish of the scales. There are -approximately 100 species scattered over the world, two coming as far -north as the Texas border. They have teeth in only one jaw—the upper -jaw for Typhlopidae, the lower for Glauconidae.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="A_Porcupine_of_the_Sea"><i>A Porcupine of the Sea</i></h2> - - -<p>Among the weirdest creatures of the deep is also one of the latest to -become known to science—the sea urchin (closely related to star fish) -astropyga magnifica. It is the largest sea urchin yet found in the Atlantic. -It has approximately 200 bright blue eyes arranged in double rows. The -body is covered with several hundred sharp, barbed black spines nearly -a foot long.</p> - -<p>That so conspicuous an animal, living in such a densely populated region—one -of the most intensively studied in the world by biologists—should -have remained undiscovered so long probably is due to two reasons. -First, if its habits are at all comparable to those of its nearest relatives, it is -strictly nocturnal and comes out to forage on the coral sands of the -shallow sea bottom only after light has ceased to penetrate the water. -During the day the creatures remain secluded, often congregated in great -numbers, in holes and caves of the sea floor and under the coral.</p> - -<p>Second, it is quite similar in appearance to another smaller member -of the sea urchin race with spines as much as 18 inches long which is -greatly dreaded and is even reputed to have caused the death of children -who have fallen on it. Anybody coming upon a daytime bed-chamber of -these fantastic creatures would be likely to leave them strictly alone.</p> - -<p>This particular sea urchin is especially interesting in the development -of its eyes. These appear to be true sight organs. If a hand is placed -in the water near one of the animals the long barbs immediately are -pointed in the direction of the intrusion, and as the hand moves the -barbs move. Such a creature is practically impregnable. It never, however, -takes the offensive. It cannot “throw” its barbs, but they enter the -flesh easily and cause painful local irritation. Some species inject a virulent -poison which may even kill a human being. There is no evidence -that this species is toxic.</p> - -<p>Astropyga magnifica, which has more the appearance of a porcupine -than of any other land animal, is a scavenger of the sea bottom. It -gathers and devours the accumulated debris that falls through the water. -It never kills its own food, so far as is known. It has five sharp teeth in -its mouth, located on its under surface, with which it can chew away the -flesh of dead animals.</p> - -<p>This sea porcupine has a peculiar system of locomotion in common with -most of its relatives. It has literally thousands of sucker-like feet, which -are hollow and attached to tubes within its shell. It moves by forcing -water through the tubes and into the particular “feet” which it wishes to -use. When these are out of use they are contracted by withdrawing the -water. Being a radially symmetrical animal, the creature can move with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -equal ease in any direction. It has no head—that is, the development of -its nervous system and the direction of its locomotion are not fixed in a -forward direction, as is the case with vertebrates and insects.</p> - -<p>Some members of the sea urchin family have hoof-like formations on -the ends of some of their spines, with which they are enabled to walk -over the sea bottom without using the suction disks. About the only -enemy of these fearsome nightmares of the deep is man. Some species -are used extensively for human food, notably among the Mediterranean -coast and in the West Indies. The developing eggs are taken from the -body and eaten either raw or cooked. Even if it should prove suitable for -human food, it is unlikely that the sea porcupine ever will be a rival in -this respect of its rival, the “sea rabbit.” It is too secluded in its habitat.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_That_Are_Unkillable"><i>Worms That Are Unkillable</i></h2> - - -<p>In nematodes life may have reached its greatest capacity for survival. -The remarkable persistence of these soil worms has been studied by -C. W. McBeth, researcher of the Shell Oil Company. One form, he reports, -has been known to survive after 25 years in a glass bottle in a laboratory. -Another, a pest of wheat kernels, apparently came back to life after 28 -years in laboratory storage. A nematode which had invaded a rye plant, -collected in Kansas in 1906, revived after 39 years of complete dehydration -in a herbarium.</p> - -<p>Those which live as active feeders in the soil, however, are not particularly -long-lived. Each species depends on a certain plant type and -must starve if this is not available. The recently introduced golden nematode -of potatoes, a particularly obnoxious pest, is known, however, to -survive as much as ten years in soils where no potatoes are planted. A -great mass of eggs is produced, but not laid. They are retained in the -body of the mother, who dies. Her skin remains—a bag filled with eggs.</p> - -<p>This stays in the soil, apparently unharmed by changing conditions, -until potatoes are planted again. Then some mysterious influence, as yet -unexplained, causes the eggs to hatch and the whole nematode cycle -begins once more.</p> - -<p>Due to such a strange tenacity of life this nematode is about the hardest -of pests to control. It refuses to stay dead. Other species likewise are -specialized in one or more ways of survival under adverse conditions.</p> - -<p>Because of the complexity and minuteness of the nematodes, it has been -very difficult to determine the effects of heat, cold, flooding and drying -on different species. These vary for each. One nematode species, especially -resistant to drying, has a skin consisting of nine layers. The ability -of this skin to hold moisture inside the minute body undoubtedly is an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -important defense mechanism. Some species are entirely marine, others -are parasites within the bodies of other animals. It has been found that -both of these varieties possess skins which are much more permeable to -moisture. The original home of the phylum probably was in the sea, -but a moisture-proof cuticle has been developed by those which have invaded -the land.</p> - -<p>The whole body structure of the plant nematode is almost ideally suited -to life in the soil. The typical eel-shaped body is well-adapted for moving -in the moisture surrounding soil particles. Deviations from this eel-form -in certain stages of some species, usually in mature females, are found -only in sedentary stages. The larvae and males retain the ancestral -shapes. Another deviation is found in the so-called “ring nematodes” -which have short, plump bodies incapable of locomotion in the typical -whip-like fashion. Movement is accomplished by alternate expansion -and contraction of the body.</p> - -<p>A majority of nematodes spend a greater part of their lives in the soil. -A few, however, are carried from plant to plant by insects. Although -moisture is necessary if the tiny animals are to remain active, the soil -seldom becomes too dry for them except in the top two or three inches. -Their structure is well-adapted for moving up and down.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Remarkable_Brachiopods"><i>The Remarkable Brachiopods</i></h2> - - -<p>A part of the fantastic living world of 200,000,000 years ago has been -dissolved out of about thirty tons of yellowish-brown limestone by a -Smithsonian paleontologist.</p> - -<p>The rock comes from a low mountain range in southwestern Texas—the -Glass Mountains, about 250 miles east of El Paso. During the Permean -geological period, when some of the earliest known forms of animal life -appeared on land, the site of the Glass Mountains was a muddy bottom, -probably close to the shore of a warm sea. A bewildering array of animals -lived in that sea. They died and eventually were buried in the mud. -In some cases their bodies were covered with silica. In others silica replaced -the shells. When these rocks are placed in hydrochloric acid the -limestone is eaten away but the silica shells remain. Years of skilled labor -would be required to chip out of the rock what is obtained in a few days -in the acid bath.</p> - -<p>Most abundant animals of the ancient Texas sea were the brachiopods -or lampshells—essentially shelled worms. The broad road of life is strewn -with derelicts, stragglers and deserters. Among the most notable among -them are these obscure creatures which, in numbers and apparent prosperity, -seem to have been close to the dominant animals in the world in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -the days when giant amphibians, remotely related to present frogs and -toads, and monster scorpions were establishing themselves on dry land.</p> - -<p>Brachiopods were among the first animals to leave any traces on earth -a half billion years ago. Even at that time they were complex creatures, -with nerves and stomachs, which indicate a long ancestry before they left -any fossil remains. In the tepid Permian seas they reached their climax -in numbers and variety. They survive today, but only in a few places. -For all practical purposes they are now among the most obscure animals in -existence. In the whole world there are about 110 extant species compared -to nearly 500 which Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, Smithsonian Institution -curator of invertebrate paleontology, and his associates have obtained -from one small area of the Glass Mountain limestones.</p> - -<p>The existing brachiopod might be mistaken for a small clam. Zoologically, -it is an intermediate form between mollusks and annelid worms, and -somewhat closer to the latter than the former. Its way of life actually is -nearer to that of an oyster than to that of most worms. It now is believed -to be most closely related, through some unknown common ancestor, to -the bryozoa or lace weavers. In the past both were classified together. -The brachiopod never has become a colonial animal.</p> - -<p>Its body is enclosed completely in a shell, secreted by the skin or -“mantle”, except for a muscular, stalk-like extension, the peduncle, by -which it attaches itself to the sea bottom. Inside the shell, folded around -the mouth when the animal is at rest, are two arms or tentacles with which -it can probe the water and obtain minute food particles. It also apparently -breathes through these tentacles, which have a rapid blood circulation.</p> - -<p>Most numerous of the extant brachiopods is a curious animal, the -lingula, which is nearly world-wide in distribution and whose peduncle is -used for food in both Japan and the Philippine Islands. Along the Atlantic -coast it is present from Chesapeake Bay to Florida. It makes a nearly -vertical burrow in mud or sand from two to twelve inches deep—within -which it lives, attached to the bottom by the peduncle. On this footlike -appendage it can lift itself until the front part of the shell-enclosed portion -of the body is above the surface. This is withdrawn into the burrow instantly -on the slightest alarm. The animal apparently has a quite sensitive, -although very primitive, nervous system.</p> - -<p>The extant brachiopods are usually small animals but in their Permian -heyday some attained a length of more than six inches. For essentially -200,000,000 years they were without much competition in the mud burrows -to which they had resorted. During this time arose clams, sea snails, -and other mollusks which were free to move about and competed with -them for the available food supply. The brachiopod was unable to meet -this vigorous competition and in a few million years the race was well<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -on its way towards extinction. Most species disappeared. A few, including -the Lingula, survived into the age of the great dinosaurs, and their -descendants constitute the species living today. They are now obscure -creatures and a poverty-stricken group compared to their ancestors.</p> - -<p>In the Permian seas they had surplus energy to expend not only in -variation of form and habit—but in shell artistry. Some of the specimens -obtained by the Smithsonian paleontologists are like glittering gems surrounded -by silvery, hair-like spines.</p> - -<p>These spiny brachiopods constitute about two-thirds of all the fossils -obtained from the Glass Mountain rocks. Although the most abundant -they were far from the dominant animals of the Permian sea. They always -were defenseless little creatures, dependent on their hard, spiny shells for -protection. The sea monsters of the day, creatures related to the present -chambered nautilus and some of which were nearly two feet in diameter, -unquestionably were the lords of this marine creation. But they were -free-swimming predators who had little reason for concern with the -humble mud-dwellers. Next to the brachiopods in numbers and variety, -and probably their chief competitors, were the ancient lace weavers. Both -shared forests of sponges which grew like small trees, up to heights of four -feet and four to six inches across. Clams, some of which reached the size -of giants, were beginning to claim dominion of the offshore mud and the -brachiopods were near the end of their prosperous days.</p> - -<p>Like the sedentary worms, and most of the mollusks the brachiopod -starts life as a minute, free-swimming, wormlike larva, top-shaped and -extremely active. During this period the mortality of the tiny unprotected -creatures is very great, but once the mud-dwelling phase of existence has -started, the race is secure from most enemies.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Feathers_on_Birds_Adapt_to_the_Seasons"><i>Feathers on Birds Adapt to the Seasons</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a definite seasonal variation in the number of feathers on most -birds. It amounts to a “natural adjustment in dress to the needs of the -season”. This fact has been determined through the laborious process of -actually counting the feathers of birds of the same species at different -seasons.</p> - -<p>The number of feathers declines steadily from early spring until the end -of summer when the so-called “post-nuptial” moult takes place, after which -the bird gets a new coat to last it a year. The bulk of the new feathers are -acquired at the same time, but some are added progressively as the -weather gets colder. An exception to this is found, however, among those -birds which migrate south early. These apparently get a complete new -outfit for their journey, since they will not be obliged to experience any -noteworthy change of climate.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Why_the_Dodo_Became_Extinct"><i>Why the Dodo Became Extinct</i></h2> - - -<p>Smithsonian ornithologists have “rebuilt” a dodo. The dodo was a -large, pigeon-like, flightless bird which was abundant on Mauritius and -neighboring islands in the Indian ocean during the seventeenth century. -It became a symbol—first of stupidity and later of extinction.</p> - -<p>In its restricted environment it apparently had known no serious enemies -prior to the coming of man. It had grown heavy, taken to a -ground existence, and lost the ability to fly. It showed no fear of man -and, because of its clumsy movements, was easy to catch and slaughter, -but its flesh was tough and tasteless, even for sailors who had gone for -months without fresh meat. Dutch navigators called it “the nauseating -fowl”.</p> - -<p>Dogs brought by the sailors killed great numbers of the stupid birds. -They might have survived despite their slowness and stupidity, however, -had it not been for the pigs and Ceylonese monkeys which came to -Mauritius with the first settlers. The rooting swine destroyed the bird’s -eggs and the monkeys devoured its young. It was entirely extinct at the -start of the eighteenth century.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Shark_of_the_Soil"><i>The Shark of the Soil</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a protozoan, wormlike monster of the microscopic world, seen -only about forty times in two centuries, which gobbles up its fellow one-celled -creatures a hundred at a time, walks backwards and forwards at -once, and hunts in packs.</p> - -<p>It is fifty times the size of the most familiar of one-celled animals, the -paramecia, which constitute the dominant population (in numbers) of -the invisible creation. It moves among the paramecia like a giant, -flesh-eating dinosaur among humans. It is a cumbersome, slow-moving -mass of protoplasm. Two or three get together and completely surround -a large school of paramecia and these are divided as meals for the -captors.</p> - -<p>The creature was first described by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in -1775. He called it <i>Chaos chaos</i>. It consists of a single cell, but differs -from other one-celled animals in having three cell nuclei, instead of a -single one. To reproduce, it splits in three parts, each a new animal.</p> - -<p><i>Chaos chaos</i> moves by stretching itself out into a ribbon-like form and -proceeds, by a series of tugs of war, with one end or the other winning -out. The animal supposedly is very rare and has been seen only about -once every ten years. It may be a missing link between single-and multi-celled -animals—or it may be on an entirely different evolutionary track.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Sleeping_Habits_of_Mammals"><i>The Sleeping Habits of Mammals</i></h2> - - -<p>The tiny elephant shrew (its elongated nose gives it the appearance of -a miniature elephant) apparently never closes its eyes. It is a desert -animal, continually exposed to danger, and must “see” even when it is -asleep.</p> - -<p>Soundest sleepers are the burrowing animals, even when they take -their naps above ground. They are conditioned through innumerable -generations of safe slumber in their subterranean chambers. Sleeping -pocket mice and hamsters can be picked up without being awakened.</p> - -<p>Sleep habits appear to be well adjusted to the needs of each species. -Most bats, for example, sleep hanging head downward, suspended by -the nails of the hind feet. This places them in a good position for sudden -flight at any alarm. They have only to let go with their toes and spread -their wings.</p> - -<p>Curious sleepers are the armadillos. They tremble almost continually -in their sleep.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Eerie_Eyes_of_Animals_at_Night"><i>The Eerie Eyes of Animals at Night</i></h2> - - -<p>Eerie lights shine in the silent blackness of the jungle night. There -are red lights and green lights, orange lights and yellow lights. They are -reflections from the eyes of all sorts of animals.</p> - -<p>This weird phenomenon has been observed closely for some years by -Ernest P. Walker of the National Zoo in Washington. The shining of -eyes is a fairly well-known phenomenon but most of the observations have -been made in the wild. The owner of the eyes is usually unknown, and -it is virtually impossible to observe the animal again. Mr. Walker has -concentrated his observations on caged animals.</p> - -<p>He uses a reflecting headlamp, similar to a hand flashlight, worn on the -forehead and connected with a three-cell battery in his pocket or attached -to his belt. This is necessary because the rays of reflected light must -parallel closely the line of sight of the observer.</p> - -<p>The “shines” range in color from pale silvery through silver, blue-green, -pale gold, gold, reddish gold, brown, and amber to pink, with a -range of intensity from dull to very brilliant. The eyes of alligators and -crocodiles “give one the impression that he is looking into a brilliantly -glowing pinkish opening in a dull-surfaced bed of coal”. Most eye shines -of mammals have the appearance of coming from highly polished metal -surfaces.</p> - -<p>“Sometimes,” explains Mr. Walker, “it is like looking into an incandes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>cent -globe of the color indicated. Often pronounced light rays seem to -emanate from the eyes. With some eyes, such as those of the smaller -rodents, the effect is that of looking into an illuminated piece of amber.</p> - -<p>“In the case of animals that have eyes that glow, it appears that we -look into the eye through the pupil as if the reflection came from the -front surface of the retina. In those animals that give a reflection as if -from polished metal I gain no impression of looking into the eye. In -most cases the reflection is not obtainable closer than from eight to twenty -feet—a distance which prevents one from observing which surface reflects. -The reflection from alligators and crocodiles can be seen when the observer -is within a foot of the animal.”</p> - -<p>Most animals stare at light, or barely move their heads. There seldom -is any “startle” response when a beam is flashed upon them. There is no -shine in the eyes of higher apes and monkeys. There have been reports -of something of the sort from human eyes, but no definite proof has been -offered. There was a faint suggestion of a reflection from the ring-tailed -lemur, a close relative of the monkey family. On the other hand, the most -brilliant eye-shine of all was from two tiny members of the lemur tribe, -the slow loris and the potto.</p> - -<p>The majority of rodent eyes shine dully in browns, hazel or amber. -Porcupines are an exception. Their eyes are very brilliant, generally silver -and reflecting over a wide angle. Whether snakes have any true eye -reflection is questionable. Light is reflected, however, from the surface -of the scales over the eyes.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="World_of_the_Blind">World of the Blind</h2> -</div> - - -<p>There is a fifth realm of life—the wet, heavy, black darkness of limestone -caves whose chambers, ponds and streams harbor almost a hundred -species of worms, pseudo-worms, fish, insects and salamanders which -have become adapted to life in this cheerless world over millions of -generations.</p> - -<p>Nearly all are white and blind. Blind white fish chase and eat blind -white worms. Blind white spiders spin nets to trap blind, white flies. All -are sluggish creatures. Kentucky’s Mammoth Cave alone contains approximately -50 species. Latest to be classified scientifically are small, -rather gruesome white worms of the sort one might imagine feeding on the -dead. They live in water, clinging to the bottoms of rocks.</p> - -<p>Most spectacular of cave animals is the spectral Proteus, found in limestone -caves of Dalmatia, Carinthia and Carnolia in southeastern Europe. -It is a kind of salamander, related to frogs and toads. It looks and acts -like a big white worm. The creature is about a foot long and pure white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -except for its gills, which are vivid red. There are three pairs of these -gills, which look like coarse feathers, just behind the head.</p> - -<p>The Proteus spends its whole life in total darkness, and at an almost -constant temperature of 50 F. The body is slender and decidedly wormlike, -but there are two pairs of very feeble, inconspicuous little legs, placed -quite far apart.</p> - -<p>Nature has made the Proteus a true creature of darkness—perhaps more -so than any land-dwelling worm. As described by the late Dr. Austin H. -Clark, Smithsonian Institution biologist: “The Proteus is almost as sensitive -to light as a photographic plate. The light of a candle at some distance -is strong enough to make it restless. If it is kept in a place from -which light is not entirely excluded its white skin turns cloudy with the -appearance of gray patches, and if it is kept in an ordinary lighted room -it eventually turns jet-black.”</p> - -<p>Proteus is eyeless. It seems feeble and helpless. Yet it is well adapted -for its life in dark caves. Most of the time it lies at the bottoms of pools, -completely motionless. But, says Dr. Clark, “any small living thing in the -water attracts its immediate attention. It advances toward it, snaps it up -and eats it. It seems to be guided mostly by the movements of its victims -in the water, possibly also by a sense of smell. In the deep caves food -naturally is scarce and the animal often must go for a considerable time -without anything to eat. In captivity individuals have lived for months -with no food at all.”</p> - -<p>Ghostly dweller in the everlasting darkness of limestone caves in the -Ozarks is the Typhlotrition, a blind, wormlike white salamander of the -same general family as Proteus. It is a long, slender, nearly transparent -creature, which has evolved a long way towards complete blindness. The -newly hatched young have functioning eyes but these degenerate in the -adult so that it does not seem able to discriminate light from darkness. -It is barely able to stand on its thin, barely visible legs. It lives on blind -crustaceans and apparently spends most of its life crawling through the -small, underground streams which seep through the limestone rocks of the -Ozark foothills.</p> - -<p>A quite similar creature of the same family was discovered in 1896 in -Texas during the boring of an artesian well. A subterranean stream was -struck at a depth of about 200 feet. From it this white, wormlike creature -was shot out, together with some remarkable crab-like animals. A single -specimen of a similar animal since has been found in Georgia. Both -these organisms are more wormlike even than Proteus. They apparently -have lived for milleniums in streams flowing hundreds of feet below the -earth. Both, it has been conjectured, are larval forms of a well-known -salamander of surface waters, which have become permanent larvae. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -have lost the ability to undergo metamorphosis, like the change of a tadpole -into a frog or a caterpillar into a butterfly.</p> - -<p>Most numerous of American limestone cavern animals are white, blind -grasshoppers—the cave crickets. They are small insects with antennae about -an inch long. With these they feel their way over the dank walls upon -which they swarm. Best known are three species of cave fish, minnow-like -and from two to three inches long. They have not lost their eyes -entirely, although these long since have been sightless. They have compensated -for the loss of sight by an extremely acute sense of touch. The -slightest movement of the water will send a school of them scurrying for -shelter among the rocks. The blind white worms are supposedly -their chief food.</p> - -<p>None of the cave animals are very aggressive. Their chief nutriment is -believed to be organic matter carried by water, which seeps into the dank -chambers from the world above, but how they make use of this is -unknown. All are quite primitive types which have remained very conservative -after their first migration from the world of light into the world -of darkness. They are old both racially and in their behavior as individuals. -Secure in the black depths, some of them are quite likely to be -the last living creatures on earth.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Remarkable_Clam_Worms"><i>The Remarkable Clam Worms</i></h2> - - -<p>Fantastic giant of the nemertinean race is Cerebratulus lactus, commonly -known as “the clam worm” along the Atlantic Coast from Florida to -Massachusetts. It is from ten to twelve feet long, can contract to two -feet, and is an inch wide. Its favorite dwelling is a burrow six to eight -inches below the surface, usually in an old mussel bed among broken -shells and stones where it is almost impossible to sink a clam hoe.</p> - -<p>Outside the burrows it is seldom seen except occasionally at high tide, -gliding among sea weeds or in the shade of rocks in tidal pools. It is -unlikely that any burrow is occupied very long, as the nemertinea is moving -about constantly through mud in search of food. The animal is highly -specialized for burrowing. Ordinarily its “head”, or front end, is broad -and rounded. By a muscular contraction, however the shape of the head -can be made pointed and is thrust forward in the mud, when its normal -contour is resumed. Then again comes the muscular contraction, the -pointed head, and another thrust forward. This occurs over and over -again. The contraction waves follow each other so quickly that the -drilling process appears constant. The proboscis does not seem to be used -in the actual drilling operation, but is kept probing for points of least -resistance and turns aside at the slightest obstacle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>The favorite food of cerebratulus lactus is said to be another abundant -burrowing worm, the nereid, which is nearly as large in diameter, belongs -to a higher order, and has powerful biting jaws. The victim always is -swallowed tail first. Its burrow is a U-shaped tube in which it is unable -to turn around. The nemertean probes through the mud for the tail end -in such a burrow. The nereid, seized from behind, cannot bring its -fighting apparatus into use. Actually, however, it never appears to -struggle against being swallowed—a remarkable fact since nereids fight -fiercely among themselves. The reason, it has been postulated, is that -the victim’s nervous system is paralyzed by the poisonous slime excreted -by cerebratulus. When a minute drop of this is placed on the tongue, -it parches the whole mouth and the intensely bitter taste remains a long -time. The worm requires about ten minutes to swallow a nereid, but by -that time the prey is half-digested. The flow of this mucous is quite -copious. When several healthy worms are placed in a pail, the bottom is -soon filled with a hardening mass of it from which the animals must be -cut or pulled. When crawling, the worm exudes a mucous trail, like -a snail.</p> - -<p>A comparable Mediterranean species, Nemertes borlasi, was described -by the French naturalist Quatrefages:</p> - -<p>“This gigantic worm is from thirty to forty feet long, brown or violet, -and shining as varnished leather. It lurks under stones and in hollows -of rocks where it may be met with, rolled into a ball and coiled in a -thousand seemingly inextricable knots which it is incessantly loosening -and tightening by contraction of its muscles. The animal is nourished -by sucking a kind of small oyster which attaches itself to various substances -under water. When it has exhausted the food around, it extends -its long, dark-colored, riband-like body, which is terminated by a -head bearing some likeness to the head of a serpent. It pauses gently, -moves from side to side as if endeavoring to investigate the ground, and -finally succeeds in finding a stone to suit its purposes about fifteen to -twenty feet from its former retreat. It then begins to unwind its coil -and arrange itself in a new domicile. In proportion as one knot is -loosened, another forms at the opposite extremity.”</p> - -<p>A report of the Gatty Marine Laboratory of St. Andrews University in -Scotland tells of the species Cerebratulus angulatus, which was mistaken -for a fish. “But when the fisherman stretched out his hand net to capture -it, instantly to his astonishment it shot out to more than a yard long. -In the laboratory it swam with undulatory up-and-down movements, as an -eel swims laterally.”</p> - -<p>The nemertinea are a progressive race. Some have invaded the deep -sea and some the dry land. They have been obtained from depths of -more than 6,000 feet. The deep-sea species have undergone peculiar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -adaptations for a life of swimming slowly or floating idly at whatever -depths they have chosen for their habitat. They have lost their eyes and -their brains are quite rudimentary compared with those of their land or -shallow-water relatives. All have increased greatly the amount of -gelatinous tissue between the internal organs, so that they have a low -specific gravity. The deep-sea forms thus far collected are broad and -flat. Some have taken on the appearance of small fish with outgrowths on -the sides of the body which resemble fins, and with the rear end flattened -like a fish’s tail. Some have developed tentacles around their mouths.</p> - -<p>Most of the ribbon worms of the open sea are nearly transparent. -Some, however, are among the most brilliantly colored of the nemertinea -race, with coat patterns of yellow, orange, red, and scarlet. Most of these -creatures are small, measuring only a fraction of an inch in length. The -largest is about six inches long—thus, as one biologist points out, comparing -to the smallest like an ox to a mouse. These pelagic species are found -in all the oceans. They are carried around the world by deep-sea currents.</p> - -<p>About twelve species have abandoned the shore for dry land where -they lead active lives and seem to have become almost independent of -water. They cannot, however, endure being completely dried out. They -do not make their own burrows, but in periods of drought, it is believed, -they make use of earthworm burrows. Some have been found under the -dead, damp bark of tropical trees. Their chief food consists of earthworms.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Winged_Reptile"><i>Winged Reptile</i></h2> - - -<p>The largest flying animal the world has known was a winged reptile, -the pterodactyl, of a hundred million years ago. It had a wing spread -of more than twenty feet, supporting in the air a body which would -hardly have weighed more than thirty pounds. Its head was nearly four -feet long with a dagger-like, narrow, pointed toothless beak. It lived -around the ancient sea which once extended northwestward from the -present Gulf of Mexico through most of Kansas. Presumably it lived -entirely on fish and made long, gliding flights over the water.</p> - -<p>The structure of this reptile, insofar as it could be realized from fragmentary -fossil bones, was studied carefully by Dr. Samuel P. Langley while -he was at work on early models of his airplane. Did the pterodactyl, Dr. -Langley asked in a somewhat pessimistic progress report, represent the -best Nature could do in the way of flight? Could man hope to do better -than Nature?</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Vicious_Fire_Ants"><i>Vicious Fire Ants</i></h2> - - -<p>One of the most vicious of insects is the fire ant of South America—a -small red ant whose sting burns like the point of a red hot pin pushed into -the skin. Hordes of these creatures have forced the populace to abandon -Brazilian towns. The soil of a village can be completely undermined by -the ants. The ground is thoroughly perforated by the entrances to their -subterranean galleries.</p> - -<p>“The houses are overrun by them,” says Edward Bates in <i>A Naturalist -on the Amazon</i>. “They dispute every fragment of food with the inhabitants -and destroy clothing for the sake of the starch. All eatables must be suspended -from rafters in baskets, with the cords well soaked in balsam, the -only known means of preventing the ants from climbing. They seem to -attack persons out of sheer malice. If we stood for a few hours in the -street, even at a distance from their nests, we were sure to be overrun -and severely punished. The moment an ant touched the flesh he secured -himself with his jaws, doubled his tail, and stung with all his might.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Architectural_Genius_of_Birds"><i>The Architectural Genius of Birds</i></h2> - - -<p>Birds rival ants and termites as architects. One species builds nests as -big as small human dwellings—as much as 25 feet long, 15 feet wide and -ten feet high. This is the sociable weaver bird of the desert western areas -of South Africa. Such an apartment house, woven out of sticks and straw, -may contain as many as 95 individual nests. It is the community product -of a flock of from 75 to 100 pairs. The sheer bulk of the nesting material -gathered is striking evidence of the impelling year-round urge of the -building instinct.</p> - -<p>This bird, says Dr. Herbert Friedmann, Curator of Birds at the Smithsonian -Institution, “is about as sociable as any bird could possibly be. It -is always found in flocks, feeds in flocks, and breeds in the large, many-apartmented -compound nests. With this extreme socialibility and sedentary -habit of life the territorial relations of the species have been modified -in a way that is quite remarkable, perhaps unique, among birds. Instead -of each pair having its own breeding territory, each flock seems to have -a definite territory whose boundaries are seldom crossed by individuals of -other flocks.</p> - -<p>“In an area of approximately 1,000 square miles I found only 26 nests. -The flocks ordinarily do not live in very close juxtaposition to each other. -The nests are so large, so conspicuous at great distances, and the trees so -relatively few in number that I am quite certain I found practically every -nest in the area.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<p>In spite of the highly developed communal life, Dr. Friedmann notes, -there appears to have been no break-down of the family. Whether each -male has one or several mates, however, is unknown. In the construction -of the apartments there is some evidence that each family builds its own -individual nest, while the whole flock cooperates in constructing a roof -over the whole. The structures often become so heavy eventually that they -crash to the ground and all the work must be done over.</p> - -<p>Woodpeckers that carve “apartment houses” out of hardwood tree trunks -have been observed by Dr. Alexander Wetmore in the dark, rain-drenched -forests of the La Hotte mountains in Haiti. On one occasion he was -astonished to find a dozen pairs going in and out of nests in a single dead -tree trunk standing in an open space, the holes being from three to ten -meters from the ground and in some cases less than a meter apart. There -was no question that the woodpeckers were colonizing, as the trunk was -a veritable apartment house with the birds climbing actively over its surface -and flying back and forth to the nearby woodland.</p> - -<p>In the same mountains Dr. Wetmore found another apartment builder, -the palm chit-chat. It is a gregarious species that lives in small bands, -each being made up of several pairs having a communal nest as the center -of its activities. The largest bands frequenting a single nest do not appear -to contain more than 20 birds.</p> - -<p>The nests are constructed of twigs about the size of a pencil and from -ten to 17 inches in length. The bird itself is only seven or eight inches -long. Yet it is able to carry these heavy “timbers” 30 or 40 feet from the -ground. One of the nests examined was about the size of a bushel basket -and evidently was occupied by only a few pairs. There was a roughly -defined central tunnel four to five inches in diameter leading through the -mass of sticks and opening to the outside at either end. Near each end was -a slight accumulation of bark that made a little platform.</p> - -<p>The “apartments” opened from the tunnel on each side. There was a -central chamber, supposedly a community room, about five inches in -diameter, its floor carpeted with fine shreds of bark. Each nest was a -separate unit, with its own door to the outside. There were, however, -roughly defined passages running through the interlacing twigs at the top -of the nests that permitted the birds to creep about under cover.</p> - -<p>One of the most intricate of all bird nests is that of the South African -penuline titmouse, distantly related to the American chickadees. It is made -of a wool-like plant fiber, very intricately and delicately woven. The form -is that of a small bag hanging from a thorn bush. It has one visible opening, -a false one which leads nowhere and apparently is intended entirely as -camouflage. The real entrance is skillfully hidden, its location known only -to the builder. When the mother bird enters the nest she lifts a concealed -flap, slips through, and closes it behind her. She again closes it just as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -carefully when she leaves the nest. There is not the slightest indication on -the surface of the finely woven fiber of the existence of the flap.</p> - -<p>The Ceylon tailor bird, orthotomus sutorius, makes its nest by actually -sewing large leaves together in the shape of a horn, using its bill as a -needle. As described by the British naturalist A. G. Pinto: “The first -thing she did was to make with her sharp little beak a number of punctures -along each edge of the leaf. Having thus prepared the leaf, she disappeared -for a little and returned with a strand of cobweb. One end of this -she wound around the narrow part of the leaf that separated one of the -punctures from the edge. Having done this she carried the loose end of the -strand across the under surface of the leaf to a puncture on the opposite -side where she attached it to the leaf, and thus drew the two edges a little -way together. She then proceeded to connect most of the other punctures -with those opposite them, so that the leaf took the form of a tunnel converging -to a point. The under surface of the leaf formed the roof and -sides of the tunnel. There was no floor to this, since the edges of the leaf -did not meet below, the gap between them being bridged by strands of -cobweb.</p> - -<p>“When lining the nest the bird made a number of punctures in the -body of the leaf, through which she poked the lining with her beak, the -object being to keep it in situ. All this time the margins of the leaf -that formed the nest had been held together by the thinnest strands of -cobweb, and it is a mystery how they could have stood the strain. However, -before the lining was completed the bird proceeded to strengthen -them by connecting the punctures on opposite edges of the leaf with threads -of cotton. She would push one end of a thread through a puncture. The -cotton used is soft and frays easily so that the part of it forced through a -tiny aperture issues as a fluffy knob, which looks like a knot and usually -is taken as such. As a matter of fact, the bird makes no knots. She -merely forces a portion of the cotton strand through a puncture and the -silicon in the leaf catches the strands and prevents them from slipping. -Sometimes the cotton threads are long enough to admit of their being -passed to and fro, in which case the bird uses the full length.”</p> - -<p>The leaves are not killed by the tailoring process and remain green. -Hence the nest is almost impossible to detect.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ferocious_Leech_Worms"><i>The Ferocious Leech Worms</i></h2> - - -<p>Armies of billions of ferocious worms defended and preserved a fabulous -1,000-year-old Arabian Nights kingdom for three centuries. This -kingdom was templed Kandy in the center of Ceylon, encircled by low, -densely forested mountains. It was the site of one of the most picturesque<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -ancient civilizations of the Orient which had degenerated into a brutal -despotism when the first European invaders, the Portuguese, came to the -island early in the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>Armed with arquebuses, the white man established missions and trading -posts on the coast with little difficulty, but the forested mountains proved -impassable. The Portuguese soldiers were hard put to pitch their camps -in deep jungle bush and in bug-filled marshes. Grass and bushes swarmed -with little green worms—extremely nimble creatures about an inch long -which subsisted on the blood of warm-blooded animals. They seemed to -prefer human blood. They attacked the soldiers night and day. Clothes -were no protection. The worms dropped in streams of blood from eyelids -and ears. They swarmed on all sides in ever-increasing numbers as the -invading forces penetrated further into the jungle. With no defense -against this unanticipated enemy, the Europeans were forced to retreat -long before the temples of Kandy were in sight. They made no further -effort to conquer the ancient kingdom.</p> - -<p>The Dutchmen who followed the Portuguese were content to remain in -their barricaded coastal trading posts. A century later came the British -East India Company with a small army of Sepoys commanded by British -officers. The ruler of Kandy, quite secure within his green-worm defenses, -was Raja Sinha, one of the cruelest of Oriental despots. He spurned all -overtures at negotiation with officers of the trading company.</p> - -<p>Once again his kingdom was invaded. During the march into the -mountains the Sepoy soldiers suffered so badly from the attacks of the -worms that some died and many others deserted. The force was so badly -depleted that further advance became impossible. Only when British -regulars took over the invasion years later was an armed force of white -men able to reach Kandy. Previously only individuals, chiefly Portuguese -Franciscans, had been able to cross the terrible green-worm barrier.</p> - -<p>Sir Emerson Tennent, British historian of Ceylon, describes these worms -as normally about an inch long, slender as needles, and able to stretch -their bodies to double the ordinary length. Ceylonese natives had been -able to protect themselves to some extent by smearing their bodies with -lemon juice and tobacco ashes.</p> - -<p>“On descrying the prey,” says Tennent, “they advance rapidly by semi-circular -strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the other forward until -by successive advances they can lay hold of the traveller’s foot, when they -disengage from the ground and ascend his dress in search of an aperture. -The wound they make is so skillfully punctured that the first intimation is -the trickling of blood or the chill feeling of the worm as it begins to land -heavily on the skin.”</p> - -<p>These worms, hirudinae or leeches, are remotely related to earthworms -with a quite similar internal structure, but highly specialized for an ex<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>clusive -diet of warm blood which they take from any mammal that comes -within reach. The blood-sucking species—not all species are this type—have -triangular mouths with extremely sharp chitinous [of the same material -as the shells of insects] teeth. The bite, so rapidly and skillfully administered -that it seldom is felt, has been described as resembling the -movement of a circular saw. Haemadipoa, the Ceylon species, described -by Tennent, reportedly has five pairs of keen eyes and as many as 100 -body segments. All the blood eaters have two suckers, one on the front -and one on the rear of the body, by means of which they cling to their -victims. All have the ability to contract the body to a plump, pear-like -form and extend it to a wormlike form.</p> - -<p>The green worms are as much of a terror as ever to travelers in Asian -jungles. A species akin to that of the Kandy defense armies guards the -thickly forested approaches to the Himalayas in Nepal It is described -by Dr. George Moore, chief of the United Nations medical mission to -Nepal:</p> - -<p>“These leeches, little segmented worms about two inches long, were -particularly provoking and troublesome until our team reached an altitude -of 14,000 feet. Along the trails, on each ledge leading to the pass, leeches -would lie in the shade and moisture until nearby footsteps vibrated their -sense organs. Then they would inch from rock to rock at incredible -speed, traveling their entire length toward the sound in about a second -and then stopping to perch on the rock with their front ends sticking in -the air. Immediately they touched a human body they would fasten themselves -to it and search for warm skin. Often they would drop from trees. -They could penetrate eyelets of shoes and pores of socks by lengthening -the entire body. Huge clots of blood would be found on the skin where -the greedy worms had fattened themselves to a fragile bursting point.”</p> - -<p>The leech encountered by Dr. Moore’s mission long has been notorious -as one of the most vicious animals on earth. It has made some areas of -the Himalayan foothills uninhabitable. Travelers and hunters are terrified -by it. It exists in incalculable numbers and attacks at least all warm-blooded -animals. Horses are driven wild. Cattle and dogs sometimes are -blinded and the young and sick killed. It has been known to attack the -deadly cobra, striking at the eyes and blinding the reptiles. The respect -in which it is held in indicated by its zoological name montivindictus, or -“defender of the mountains.”</p> - -<p>Its stronghold is the highly humid zone at the foot of the Himalayas between -altitudes of 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Its period of activity occurs during -the rainy season, when it can move freely without danger of drying out. -At other times it seldom is seen except at night when grass and bushes -are wet with dew.</p> - -<p>The worm lurks at the bases of plants. It is stirred to action by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -slightest movement of stems or vibration caused by footfalls. An inherent -impulse, or geotropism, then impels it to climb any plant or vertical object -with which it happens to be in contact. At the top it extends its body -horizontally and probes the surroundings.</p> - -<p>Once a victim is found, the hungry worm seeks a thin patch of skin -richly supplied with blood capillaries. There it attaches itself by means of -the cup-like sucker at the front end of its body. Immediately behind this -cup are three radiating ridges, or jaws, each provided with about 70 sharp -teeth. With these three rows of teeth it cuts three duplicate slits on the -skin, meeting at a common center. From the star-shaped wound the -warm blood is sucked. Meanwhile from its own glands the leech secretes -hirudin, a substance which prevents blood coagulation, and also some as -yet unknown substance which preserves blood. The blood is pumped into -a storage tank in the leech’s stomach. At a single feeding the animal can -store up as much as three-fold its own weight. Then it can live as long -as three months without another meal.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Complex_Spiders_Web"><i>The Complex Spider’s Web</i></h2> - - -<p>A single strand of a spider’s web may consist of several thousand separate -filaments. On the creature’s abdomen are four to six teat-like organs. -Each secretes through several hundred extremely minute tubes a viscous -fluid which hardens immediately when exposed to air. The spider attaches -its abdomen to some solid object and pulls out the threads by moving its -body forward. The hind feet are used to bring the hundreds of filaments -into a single thread.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Monsters_of_the_Deep_The_Great_Squids"><i>Monsters of the Deep: The Great Squids</i></h2> - - -<p>Giants of the mollusk family and about the most loathsomely fantastic -creatures on earth are the great squids. One may weigh as much as half -a ton. The largest known specimen, a replica of which is among the -Smithsonian Institution exhibits, was 55 feet long. It had ten arms, two -of them approximately 35 feet long and two-and-a-half inches in diameter. -Its eye measured seven by nine inches. Many strange sea serpent stories -have been told by persons who merely saw a writhing arm of one of these -creatures on the surface. In recent years, however, there has been no -reliable report of an encounter with such an animal and it may be close -to extinction. Normally it is a denizen of profound depths and darkness -and presumably shuns light. It is associated chiefly with the North -Atlantic, especially around Newfoundland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span></p> - -<p>There are not more than a dozen entirely authenticated accounts of seeing -the monster. Just after the middle of the last century, Rev. Mr. Harvey -of St. Johns, Newfoundland, began to gather “sea devil” reports from -fishermen and these constitute a substantial portion of the literature on -the subject. He reported that in 1874 two St. Johns fishermen in an open -boat observed an object floating in the water which they thought to be -wreckage: “When they approached it reared its parrot-like beak, big as a -six-gallon keg with which it struck the bottom of the boat violently. It -then shot out from around its head two huge, livid arms and began to entwine -them around the boat. One of the men seized an axe and cut off -both arms as they lay over the gunwale, whereupon the creature moved -off and ejected an immense quantity of inky fluid which darkened the -water for two or three hundred yards.</p> - -<p>“Early in the morning of November 21, 1877,” Harvey informed Prof. -Addison E. Verrill of Yale, “a big squid was seen on the beach at Trinity -Bay, still alive and struggling desperately to escape. It had been carried -in by the tide and a high inshore wind. In its struggles to get off it -ploughed a trench or furrow 30 feet long and of considerable depth by the -stream of water which it ejected with great force from its syphon. When -the tide receded it died. The body was eleven feet long, with tentacle arms -33 feet long. The shorter arms were about eleven feet long.”</p> - -<p>“In 1878,” Harvey reported, “Stephen Sherring, a fisherman residing in -Thimble Tickle, was out in a boat with two other men. Not far from -shore they observed some bulky object and supposing it might be part of a -wreck they moved towards it. To their horror they found themselves -close to a huge fish with large, glassy eyes, which was making desperate -efforts to escape and churning the water into foam by the motions of its -immense arms and tail. It was aground and the tide was ebbing.</p> - -<p>“Finding the monster partially disabled, the fishermen plucked up -courage and ventured near enough to throw the grapnel of their boat, the -sharp flukes of which, having sharp points, sunk into the soft body. To the -grapnel they had attached a long rope which they carried ashore and tied -to a tree to prevent the fish going out with the tide. His struggles were -terrific as he flung his ten arms about in dying agony. Ever and anon -the long tentacles darted out like great tongues from the central mass. At -length it became exhausted and when the water receded it expired. The -body measured twenty feet from the beak to the extremity of the tail. The -fishermen, knowing no better, proceeded to convert it to dog meat.”</p> - -<p>At about the same time H. T. Bennett of English Harbor, Newfoundland, -wrote a newspaper account quoted by Prof. Verrill: “A giant cephalopod -was run ashore at Coomb’s Cove whose body measured ten feet -in length and was as big around as a hogshead. One arm 42 feet long -and about the size of a man’s wrist. The other arms were only six feet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -long but nine inches in diameter and very stout and strong. The skin and -flesh were 2.25 inches thick and reddish inside as well as out. The suction -cups were all clustered together near the extremity of the long arm -and each cup was surrounded by a serrated edge, almost like the teeth of a -handsaw. I presume it made use of this arm for a cable and the cups for -anchors when it wanted to come to as well as to secure its prey. This -individual, finding a heavy sea was driving it ashore tail first seized hold -of a rock and moored itself quite safely until the men pulled it ashore. -It was probably a female.”</p> - -<p>The monstrous ten-tentacled mollusk fights terrible battles with whales -and sometimes large parts of tentacles are spewed by leviathan in its -death agonies. So far as known only one such battle ever has been witnessed -and described. The British author Frank T. Bullen in the <i>Cruise of -the Cachelot</i> tells of seeing in the South Indian ocean “a very large sperm -whale locked in deadly conflict with a cuttlefish almost as large as himself -whose interminable tentacles seemed to enlace the whole of his body. -The head of the whale seemed a perfect network of writhing arms. It -appeared as if the whale had the tail part of the mollusk in his jaws and -in a businesslike, methodical way was sawing through it. By the side of -the black, columnar head of the whale appeared the head of the great -squid, as awful a sight as one could well imagine in a feverish dream. -I established it to be as large at least as one of our pipes which contained -350 gallons. The eyes were very remarkable from their size and blackness -contrasted with the livid whiteness of the head. They were at least -a foot in diameter. All around the combatants were numerous sharks, -like jackals round a lion, apparently assisting in the destruction of the -huge cephalopod.</p> - -<p>“The occasions when these big cuttlefish appear on the surface must be -very rare. From their construction they appear fitted only to grope among -rocks at the bottom of the ocean. Their normal position is head downward, -with tentacles spread like ribs of an umbrella. The two long ones, -like the antennae of an insect, rove unceasingly around seeking prey. -In the center of the network of living traps is a chasm-like mouth with -an enormous parrot-like beak.”</p> - -<p>“Insatiable nightmares of the sea,” the French philosopher Michelet -called the creatures. Nothing is known, of course, of their numbers or of -their ways of life in the dark depths. The few seen or captured probably -have been sick or badly injured. It has been estimated that one female -may lay as many 40,000 eggs in a season, but the mortality of eggs and -young must be enormous. It is doubtful if one in a million ever becomes -a mature animal.</p> - -<p>A scarcely less fantastic animal, but more familiar and far less fearsome, -is the eight-tentacled octopus. Some of the largest are found off<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -the coast of Alaska. The largest known had arms 16 feet long and a -radial spread of 28 feet, but the central body itself was not more than six -inches wide and a foot long.</p> - -<p>Most familiar of the race is the Mediterranean octopus; its tentacles -often are sold for food in Sicilian markets. The largest known was nine -feet long and weighed about 50 pounds. This animal reportedly was -captured by a fisherman with his bare hands. One specimen found dead -on a beach near Nassau had tentacles five feet long and weighed more -than 200 pounds.</p> - -<p>It is a rather sluggish, timid animal which seeks shelter in holes and -crevasses among offshore rocks. It feeds mainly on clams and oysters. -When frightened it surrounds itself with a cloud of ink-like fluid. There -is no reliable reason to believe it ever attacks man.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Vanishing_Whippoorwill"><i>The Vanishing Whippoorwill</i></h2> - - -<p>Probably not one person in a thousand has ever seen a whippoorwill. -Its melancholy song is one of the most familiar chords in the symphony -of the summer evening but to the majority of listeners it is only a disembodied -voice in the dark. The singer has come about as near to achieving -invisibility as any living creature.</p> - -<p>The whippoorwill is a migrant bird, spending its winters in Florida and -its summers from March to October in the north. It travels entirely at -night, sometimes in large flocks. It builds no nest but lays its flecked -eggs on the ground depending on the flickering shadows of the woodland -over the background of dried leaves to conceal them.</p> - -<p>The bird is masterfully camouflaged by nature and usually selects a -spot for its eggs where the woodland floor is free of underbrush and the -trees are spaced far enough apart to cast an uneven shade. The male -presumably sleeps all day while the female sits on the eggs or broods -the newly hatched young, but at night he stands guard, may take his -turn on the nest, and hunts insects for his mate.</p> - -<p>The chick, almost exactly the color of the dead leaves among which -it lies, remains essentially invisible. Nests are found only by accident.</p> - -<p>Whippoorwills live almost exclusively on night-flying insects, especially -moths and mosquitoes. They have been recorded, however, as sometimes -hunting for worms, beetles and ants under bark, or on the ground.</p> - -<p>The bird makes no particular effort to conceal itself from humans. -Apparently it does not regard them as dangerous. There are cases where -it actually has lit on the head of a man standing motionless in the dark. -The female has been observed to fly about carrying her young between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -her thighs. She also, it has been reported, sometimes carries them in -her bill, but there is no satisfactory evidence of this.</p> - -<p>The whippoorwill is fond of taking dust baths. Sometimes one is caught -by the lights of an approaching auto as it dusts itself in the middle of -a country road.</p> - -<p>The bird is remarkable for the regularity of its song and for the number -of times the melancholy refrain is repeated without a pause. From 150 -to 200 is not unusual. The naturalist John Burroughs claimed once to -have counted 1058 such repetitions. The song is continuous from dusk -until about 9:30 and from about 2 until dawn. It is heard rarely in the -intervening hours.</p> - -<p>The whippoorwill, it is pointed out in a Smithsonian report, has come to -depend almost exclusively on darkness for its protection. For this reason -it has suffered little, as have many other birds, with the cutting away of -the forests and the advances of cities. Its enemies in the dark are some -hawks, owls and foxes, but has exceptional powers of flight which often -enable it to escape even when discovered.</p> - -<p>The birds linger in the north only until the first killing frosts which -destroy or drive into shelter the insects on which they feed. Then they -start their night migrations southward which sometimes carry them as -far as Central America.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Ants_Can_Smell_Almost_Anything"><i>Ants Can Smell Almost Anything</i></h2> - - -<p>The sense of smell is remarkably acute in all ants—at least equalling -that of dogs.</p> - -<p>The outstanding ant odor is that of formic acid, which is somewhat -like that of illuminating gas, exuded from the bodies of all species. But -this is only the smell of the race. It must be subject to an infinite number -of variations to most of which ants alone are sensitive. They know -their comrades, even after a long separation. Famed naturalist Sir John -Lubbock once returned some ants to their old nest after a separation of -21 months. They were amicably received and evidently recognized as -friends. On the other hand if a strange ant is placed in a nest of her own -species she is at once attacked.</p> - -<p>Dr. William M. Wheeler insists that even the human nose can detect -some different species and even, in a few cases, different castes by their -odors. Thus, over and above the formic acid smell, the smell of one -species suggests ether, of another lemon-geranium, and of still another -rotten coconuts.</p> - -<p>At least one species of ant has three distinct odors: 1. A scent deposited -by the feet, forming an individual trail by which she retraces her own<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -steps. 2. An inherent odor of the whole body which is identical for all -of the same lineage and a means of recognizing blood relatives. 3. A -nest odor, consisting of the commingled odors of all members of the -colony, used to distinguish their nest from the nests of aliens.</p> - -<p>Evidently the odor of ants changes with age. It has been pointed out -that “a cause of feud between ants of the same species living in different -communities is a difference of odor arising out of difference of age in -the queen whose progeny constitute the communities.” Ants apparently -not only differentiate the innate odors peculiar to the species, sex, caste -and individual, but also the incurred odor of the nest and environment. -As worker ants advance in age their progressive odor intensifies or changes -to such a degree that they may be said to attain a new odor every two or -three months.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fish_That_Fish_For_Fish"><i>Fish That Fish For Fish</i></h2> - - -<p>There are fish that fish for fish with worms. That is, they use wormlike -appendages of their own bodies, developed through millenia of evolution, -to catch worm-eating fellow fishes. This curious quirk of fishing fish -is revealed in a bulletin of the International Oceanographic Foundation.</p> - -<p>The practice is confined to the pediculati, known as angler fishes. The -best known of them lies on the bottom partially concealed in sand or mud. -One of the spines of its dorsal fin is extended in the form of a jointed fishing -rod. At the end there is a fleshy lump, with a striking resemblance -to one of the most tasty marine worms. The fish lies perfectly still with its -enormous mouth closed, while the wormlike end of its rod waves to and -fro. Other fishes approach the lure until they come within striking range. -Then the great mouth opens with remarkable speed and engulfs the prey, -which is prevented from escaping by backward-directed teeth.</p> - -<p>Some other deep-sea anglers have luminous lures at the tip of the rod, -somewhat like a small, light-emitting fish. In the total darkness of deep -waters this is fatally attractive. Because of the huge size of the angler’s -mouth the prey may be almost as large as the fisherman. Other deep-sea -fishes dispense with the rod but have light-emitting organs on the sides -of the body. These must play some part in attracting other sea animals. -Some of these luminous fishes are able to swallow other fishes many times -their own size because of their ability to distend their mouths and throats.</p> - -<p>About all the ways man has devised for catching fish have been devised -by fishes themselves long before man came on the scene. Traps—for example. -There is a fish in Florida waters known as the greater sand eel. -It lies buried in the sand, with its great mouth open. A relative, the -lesser sand eel, when frightened dives into what seems like an opening in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -the sand. The result is that the greater sand eel is nearly always found -with a lesser sand eel, head down, in its stomach.</p> - -<p>The ways of fish are being studied with the possibility of finding something -human fishermen have not yet thought about. Thus far nothing -strikingly new has developed. There recently has been much interest, says -the report, in “electric fishing—either stunning fish or directing them into -nets by means of electric currents.” But, it is pointed out, “the fishes -themselves have long ago adopted this for their own use.” The electric ray -on each side of its flat, round body has an area in which numerous cells -are modified to produce electricity. This is not really so amazing when -we consider that electrical impulses are generated normally in small -amounts by both nerve and muscle cells. In these particular fishes, however, -the electrical impulses are considerable and the arrangement of cells, -like those of a battery, builds up a total electric potential sufficient to stun -or even kill smaller animals in the surrounding water.</p> - -<p>In only one case has man been able to use fish to catch fish. This has -been by means of the remora, or sucking fish, which has the habit of -attaching itself by means of suckers to other fishes. In 1494 Columbus -witnessed the use of a captive remora for capturing turtles. It still is used -for this purpose in parts of Australia and China.</p> - -<p>The sucker fish has quite strong powers of adhesion. In the ordinary -course of its life it attaches itself to sharks or other large fishes and enjoys -a free ride until it comes across food. When used for fishing, it is fastened -with a line around its tail and tethered to the canoe. The native paddles -as close as possible to the intended victim without disturbing it. The -remora then is thrown into the water toward the turtle, to which it automatically -attaches itself. Once the remora is securely fixed to the turtle, -the fisherman carefully plays his light line until the reptile is brought into -the boat. This must be done with care because of the diving habits of -turtles. They are likely to run away with lines, sucker fishes and all.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_That_Are_Flowers"><i>Worms That Are Flowers</i></h2> - - -<p>There are carnation worms and chrysanthemum worms. There are -fairy gardens of worm asters and cornflowers at the bottom of the sea. -Pink, red, purple, green, and yellow petals are tentacles of worms whose -tube-encased bodies, stems of the flowers animals, are buried in inshore -bottom ooze or mud-filled rock crevices.</p> - -<p>Among these worms are masons and architects that build the houses -in which they pass their lives brick by brick and pebble by pebble, with -an exquisite craftsmanship hardly rivaled among animals. The blossoms -and architecture have, so far as known, no utilitarian function. Nature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -is a painter and a poet. Forever she probes with intellect, instinct, and -emotion to capture fleeting fragments of colors, lights, and harmonies -of the ineffable which can be woven into the material garments of life. -Among her notable successes are the sabellids and serpulids and terefillids. -They are tube-dwellers—thus distinguished from their free-wandering -kin—polychaetes such as the fearsome Aphrodites. Many of them have -been given the names of the golden-haired nymphs who, mounted on sea -horses, formed the retinue of Poseidon in mythology. Loveliest of these -nymphs was Amphitrite, who became the bride of the sea god and queen -of the coral-forested deep. Quite appropriately, among the fairest of the -sabellids is the amphitrite, essentially world-wide in distribution.</p> - -<p>These worms are especially facile as builders. One, for example, makes -the brick with which it erects the cylindrical house that is its home for life. -Extending from its head are sixteen tentacles, eight on each side, fringed -with petal-like outgrowths. These tentacles are joined by membranes -at the base so that, when extended, they have the appearance of two fans. -When the fans are brought in contact, they form a funnel with which the -animal collects mud. At the bottom of this funnel is “a singular organ -by which the mud, mixed with a cement-like secretion of the worm itself, -is moulded into pellets. These pellets are laid, one by one, like bricks, to -form the walls of a flexible tube from twelve to fifteen inches long and -about as thick as a goose quill.”</p> - -<p>This particular British sea worm, Amphitrite ventilabrum, is almost as -notable for the beauty of its blossom as for its masonry. Each of the -tentacles has about a thousand of the petal-like processes and each of these, -it is claimed, is capable of some degree of independent action. “It is -no exaggeration to affirm,” wrote the eighteenth-century British biologist -Sir John Dalyell, “that the will of this lowly, defenseless creature is fulfilled -by control of at least twenty thousand living parts.”</p> - -<p>The color of the petals is basically straw-yellow, dotted and banded -with brown, rouge, red, and green. “While dredging in the river Roach,” -Dalyell reported, “I have come upon banks where these worms existed in -hundreds of thousands and appear in masses of large extent growing -erect like standing fields of corn.”</p> - -<p>Of another British tube builder which builds tubes of cemented shells -or pebbles near the roots of large sea weeds, Rev. Richard Johnston says: -“Sabellarid angilica is a timid, lively, active creature whose most prominent -ability is that of constructing a dwelling for itself from sand grains. It is -firm, durable, and capable of great resistance. They are not easily -crushed. Some appear much more brittle. Most of the dwellings are -lined with a soft, silky substance formed of exudations from the body. -The worms have a great preference in building materials. They always -prefer sand or shells. Powdered glass is used reluctantly and soon rejected.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -Some tubes are short and confined, others considerably prolonged so as -to afford safe retreats in danger. Some architects seem to persist in -prolonging the fabric as long as material can be found. They never -weary of working. Grains of sand are selected and adopted for precise -spots and gelatinous matter secures them in the tube walls.”</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most notable of all the worm builders is a five-inch-long -species found in South African waters, pectinaris capensis, described by -Sir John McIntosh: “The beautiful straight tube formed by this animal -was composed of the spicules of sponges in short lengths placed traversely -and fixed by secretion so as to form a perfectly round tunnel gently tapered -from the wide to the narrow end. The spicules appeared of the same size -throughout the tube. The inner surface was as smoothly formed as the -outer. The labor involved in selecting and fitting with such marvelous -skill the sponge spicules composing so large a tube must have been very -arduous. One tube lasts the animal for life.”</p> - -<p>McIntosh tells of another South African architect worm that “builds out -of grains of sand arranged in a single layer like miniature masonry and -bound together by waterproof cement.”</p> - -<p>There are, however, widely differing degrees of artistry among the tube-dwelling -polychaetes. Some tubes are rough, fragile, long, bent in various -directions, and united in colonies several inches to a foot across. Sometimes -tubes three to four inches long are attached horizontally to the undersides -of rocks.</p> - -<p>A large and singular terebellid is Amphitrite ornata—twelve to fifteen -inches long with orange-brown tentacles capable of being extended eight -to ten inches. These are kept in constant motion gathering food and material -for building. The bodies of these worms are filled with blood, but -there is no circulatory system. The blood, however, apparently can be -forced into any part of the body by muscular contractions. The tentacles -can be turned voluntarily in any direction by forcing blood into -them.</p> - -<p>Tube-building, flowering worms excited the wonder of Quatrefages as -he observed them along the Bay of Biscay in the nineteenth century:</p> - -<p>“On these coasts so violently beaten by waves we often observe small -hillocks of sand pierced by an infinite number of minute openings. These -little hillocks which look very much like thick pieces of honeycomb are -in reality populous cities in which live in modest seclusion tubiculous annelids, -the hermellas—(sabellarids) as curious as any that fall under -the notice of the naturalist. The body, about two inches in length, is -terminated in front by a bifurcated [two-forked] head bearing a bright -double golden crown of strong, sharp silk threads. These brilliant crowns -are not mere ornaments, but are the two sides of a solid door, or rather -true portcullis, which hermetically closes the entrance to the habitation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -when, at the least alarm, the worm darts with the rapidity of lightning -within its house of sand.</p> - -<p>“From the edges of the head of this worm issue fifty to sixty slender, -light-violet filaments which are incessantly moving about like numerous -minute serpents. They are so many arms which can be lengthened or shortened -at will and which, seizing the prey as it passes, bring it to the hollow, -funnel-shaped mouth. On the sides of the body appear little projections -from which issue bundles of sharp and cutting lances. Finally, the back is -covered with cirrhi, recurved like circles, whose color varies from dark -red to deep green.”</p> - -<p>Most conspicuously flowerlike among the worms are the serpulids—“little -snakes.”</p> - -<p>Found the world over, they furnish passable imitations of practically -all the flowers in an old-fashioned Virginia garden. Among them, for example, -are the animals of inshore South African waters, described by Prof. -McIntosh. Their wreaths of branchia “look like pinks, but in some -varieties are purple at the base, with narrow bands of bright red and -pale green. In one variety the blossoms are yellow or orange and the -body is usually greenish-yellow.” “The instant it is disturbed,” McIntosh -says, “this worm withdraws its lovely wreath into its tube and closes the -aperture with a curious plug, funnel-shaped and placed at the end of a -rather long pedicle.”</p> - -<p>The Rev. D. Johnston describes a British flower worm (one of the sabellids) -about an inch long, whose eight-inch-long tubes grow together, -attached at the bottom to a stone or abandoned shell. The tube has a silk-like -lining.</p> - -<p>“Into this tube,” says Johnston, “it can withdraw with lightning-like -rapidity when alarmed. Extending across its back is a row of microscopic -hooks, or 14,000 to 15,000 teeth. These are used to catch the lining of -the tube and draw the worm back.”</p> - -<p>The filaments which form its blossoms, he says, are comb-like, arranged -in two rows, one on each side of the mouth. They form a coronet. -Under low magnification each is seen as a pellucid, cartilaginous stem -from one side of which springs a double series of secondary filaments -through which red blood can be seen flowing.</p> - -<p>Some of the most conspicuous flower worms are found alone: the -Atlantic coast of the United States. On diving into Chesapeake Bay one -encounters tiny, colored clusters of feathers that are really gills of annelid -worms. They flick instantly out of sight as their owners withdraw into -tubes in the rock crevices. The blossoms are bright orange, each surrounded -by a white haze caused by thousands of minute tentacles straining -the water for the tiny organisms upon which they feed.</p> - -<p>From New Jersey to Cape Cod is to be found a purple-blooming serpulid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -with white stems of calcium carbonate three to four inches long and an -eighth of an inch in diameter.</p> - -<p>A widely distributed family related to the serpulids are the fabricinae, or -“feather dusters.” These animals, only a few millimeters long, live in the -upper layers of mud in tidal basins. They are so thoroughly covered with -slime and debris that they are likely to be completely overlooked. The -body is thread-like except for the crown of tentacles, with from seventy to -a hundred featherlike filaments. In some varieties these are white, in -others translucent.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Heavy_Toll_of_Bird_Migrations"><i>The Heavy Toll of Bird Migrations</i></h2> - - -<p>A migration that takes a toll of millions of lives takes place every year -between North and South America.</p> - -<p>Dr. Alexander Wetmore of the Smithsonian has had the experience of -standing on a lonely beach on the coast of Venezuela and actually watching -North American birds arrive at the end of their gruelling journey, exhausted -and emaciated. Every day over his camp on the shore passed -familiar birds from home—sandpipers, yellowlegs, bobolinks, barn swallows -and warblers.</p> - -<p>“There was brought to me more definitely than ever before,” Dr. -Wetmore reported, “the tremendous loss of life that this journey entails. -The wastage of modern human battlefields, though terrific beyond words, -is nothing in comparison. On this open shore small feathered migrants -often made a landfall in a state of evident exhaustion. In the early morning -I found little groups of them feeding on the short herbage. Some -obviously had barely made a landfall after an exhausting sea journey. In -some of those that I handled the flight muscles that move the wings were -reduced to thin bands through which the angular ridges of the breast -bones protruded. It was easy to visualize the hundreds of thousands that -had wandered over the water until they fell to drown, and the hundreds of -others that arrived only to succumb to the strains imposed by their exhausting -journey.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Deadly_Snakes_That_Take_Life_Easy"><i>Deadly Snakes That Take Life Easy</i></h2> - - -<p>Deadliest of serpents are the Pacific sea snakes. A bite almost certainly -would be fatal to a human being. Yet native children of the Palau Islands -in the South Pacific play with these reptiles with complete impunity. They -pick them up and toss them from one to another just as American children<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -play “catch.” Natives of the Palaus look upon the reptiles with complete -indifference.</p> - -<p>The term “sea snake” is somewhat of a misnomer. Actually the creatures -spend most of their days asleep among rocks on beaches. They are -excellent tree climbers and like to sun themselves in crotches of branches. -At dusk, however, they move out to the reefs where presumably they -spend most of the night pursuing small fishes, their principal food. They -are excellent swimmers and their bodies have been somewhat modified, with -flattened, paddle-like tails, for sea life.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, on land at least, they are sluggish and non-aggressive. They -hardly can be induced to bite and will suffer almost any indignity without -retaliating. About the only way a person would be likely to be bitten -would be by stepping directly on the head of one of these snakes with -bare feet. This is an unlikely event, for the sea snakes do not spend any -time under shallow water where they would be a peril for bathers.</p> - -<p>Some are quite beautiful, about five feet long and banded with black -and white. Their capture is easy. It is simply a matter of pinning down -the head with a stick and picking up the snake by the neck.</p> - -<p>Throughout the entire sea snake area in the Pacific there are only five -or six instances reported where the serpents have bitten humans. In -every case the victim has died; there is no anti-venom against the sea -snake toxin.</p> - -<p>Some years ago Dr. Herbert Clark, former director of the Gorgas -Memorial Laboratory, dove off a boat in Balboa harbor and swam -ashore, a distance of about 200 yards. As he neared the shore there -were alarmed cries from the deck he had left. Dr. Clark looked around. -He found he had unwittingly swum through a school of several thousand -black and white serpents, each about two feet long. None had touched him.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Weird_Plant-Animals"><i>Weird Plant-Animals</i></h2> - - -<p>Near the bottom of life’s pyramid there is a weird race of plant-animals. -They are among the closest of all many-celled living things to the primaeval -protoplasm from which all life arose.</p> - -<p>They are the slime molds found on decaying logs and tree stumps in -damp woods or on piles of rain-soaked dead leaves in shady gardens. -The nightmarish mycetozoa—botanists call them myxomycetes—are timeless -survivals out of living creation’s dank, warm cradle. Some of the -weirdest imaginings of malevolent life on other planets picture it in the -form of gigantic slime mold aggregations—undifferentiated masses of -naked protoplasm endowed with a malign intelligence which has evolved -without the intermediaries of nervous systems or brains.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></p> - -<p>These organisms can be considered one of nature’s probing experiments -towards higher forms of life. The experiment was a failure, but -unlike most of nature’s discards these organisms have survived. Even -now they may be engaged in a process of evolution all their own.</p> - -<p>Biologists are not entirely agreed in which kingdom to place the organisms, -although they usually are classified with the plants. They start life -as spores, like the dust of molds or toadstools whose single-celled particles -serve the same reproductive function as seeds in higher plants. From -each spore arises from one to four animal-like organisms, hardly distinguishable -from the one-celled protozoan animal, the amoeba. Each swims -about freely for a time by means of tentacle-like arms, the flagellae.</p> - -<p>These free-moving living particles are known as “swarm cells”. Each is -an individual with a film-like skin separating it from all other individuals. -That is, the protoplasm of each cell is enclosed within a boundary and in -the center of each is a nucleus. These one-celled “animals” wander about -freely for a few days. During this time they may mate, as individuals. -More commonly each loses its flagellae and splits into several fragments. -Each of these fragments becomes a complete organism. These mate, with -complete fusion of their bodies. The result is a double plant or animal—depending -on whether it is observed by a botanist or zoologist—known as -a zygote. The fragments are extremely voracious little creatures devouring -greedily the one-celled plants, or bacteria, which they encounter.</p> - -<p>When the fusion is complete the zygote, in turn, starts to split up into -single-celled organisms but after a few divisions hundreds of these single-celled -animals coalesce into a tiny ball, like the seed pod of a plant. In a -few days thousands of these spheroids collect into a so-called “plasmodium”. -The hitherto individual pseudo-protozoans meanwhile have -lost their cell walls. The primaeval substance of millions is mixed together -into a slimy mass full of cell nuclei. This is an aggregation of “naked -protoplasm”. It is hardly to be compared with the body of any higher -plant or animal where each cell retains something of its individuality, however -closely its activities may be coordinated with those of its fellows in -the same community. The mass proceeds to behave like a voracious -animal. It moves and feeds as a unit and apparently with a purpose. -Within the naked protoplasm there is apparently some incomprehensible -sense of fellowship which eventually evolves into consciousness and intelligence, -developing nerve and brain on the way upwards. It would be -hazardous to say that this evolution could have taken no other path.</p> - -<p>From the central body great numbers of thread-like filaments are sent -out to penetrate the substance of rotting wood or the surface of a dead -leaf. These threads seem to be like an army’s scouting parties, pushed -ahead to locate supplies when advancing troops are living off the country.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -When a supply is found they are drawn in and the whole slimy organism -acts once more as a coordinated whole.</p> - -<p>The plasmodium moves forward steadily for about 50 to 60 seconds, -pauses for a few moments, and then reverses itself and creeps backward, but -never quite so far as it previously had gone ahead. Then, after another -pause, it crawls forward again. Thus there is an overall slow advance -and at the bottom of life the slime molds lay down the pattern of progress -recapitulated in human societies and civilizations as well as in the lives of -individual men and women. They merit consideration in the philosophy -of history.</p> - -<p>The advancing mass of raw protoplasm acts like an animal and grows -like an animal as it ingests food, with constant splitting of the cell nuclei -which it contains. There are vacuoles within the protoplasm in which the -food particles are ingested. They then are digested by means of enzymes -(body chemicals), as in higher animals.</p> - -<p>Such a plasmodium can be taken from its damp habitat and dried. Then -it will roll up into a ball and pass into a resting stage from which it will -revive completely in a few hours when supplied with moisture again. -The ball may keep its vitality for several years.</p> - -<p>Some species pass as much as a year in the active plasmodium stage, -and some a few days. At the end of this phase of its existence the mass of -raw protoplasm breaks up into fragments—sometimes as many as a -hundred. Then, as the process is described for one common species “in -an hour or two each of these fragments has risen into a pear-shaped body -with a narrow base, a dark stalk being just apparent through the translucent -white substance.” In about six hours the black, hair-like stalk has -grown to its full length and bears at its top a young “sporangium” consisting -of a globule of viscous plasma with a diameter about a fifth the length -of the stalk. This globe is about the size of a mustard seed and ranges in -color from pure white through golden-yellow, light crimson, violet, purple -and black.</p> - -<p>A pink flush now begins to pervade the sporangium caused by the -formation of branching threads. The nuclei in the plasma still present the -same appearance as those observed in the streaming plasmodium. In -about another hour these nuclei show the beginning of division. As this -process develops the plasma becomes separated in masses of two spores -capacity. An hour later the nuclei have divided and the young spores are -forming. Their color rapidly changes. In about the first twenty hours -after the first concentration of the fragments of the plasmodium they -have matured and present the appearance of minute black pins standing in -regular order on wood. The ripe fruit, or sporangium, then dries and -breaks.</p> - -<p>On placing the spore in water its membranous wall slips off and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -naked contents lie for several hours without apparent change in an -ellipsoid form. Constriction then takes place and the ellipsoid splits into -one to four globular bodies adhering together and exhibiting slow amoeboid -movements. Each globular body now develops a flagellum—a long, -whip-like extension, and the cluster swims away by means of these -flagellae.</p> - -<p>Now the whole life process is ready to be repeated. There are more -than 400 species of these slime molds and they are distributed over all the -temperate and tropic zones. If only the spores and the stalked little ball -containing them are considered, the slime mold would be placed squarely -in the kingdom of plants. But when the protoplasm escapes from the -spore and starts moving about ingesting bacteria, the behavior is that of -a one-celled animal. When the cells unite to form a plasmodium there is -a close likeness to a many-celled animal.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Weird_Ways_of_Birds"><i>Weird Ways of Birds</i></h2> - - -<p>Among the most fantastic forms of animal behavior is that of the honey -guides, African birds distantly related to the American woodpeckers. -They “guide” men, baboons and ratels to the nests of wild honeybees—supposedly -so that these nests will be broken open.</p> - -<p>Throughout the three centuries since the unusual behavior of the bird -was first reported by a Portuguese missionary it has been the subject of -many fantastic accounts, some of which attribute a far higher degree of -intelligence to the birds than they possibly could possess.</p> - -<p>A long-continued study of this behavior has been made by Dr. Herbert -Friedmann, Smithsonian curator of birds. Dr. Friedmann himself has -observed at least 23 instances of the habit and has collected much other -well authenticated data from African associates. He describes the behavior -from his own observations:</p> - -<p>“When the bird is ready to begin guiding it comes to a person and -starts a repetitive series of churring notes, or it stays where it is and -begins calling these notes and waits for the human to approach it more -closely. These churring notes are very similar to the sound made by -shaking a partly full, small matchbox rapidly sidewise. If the bird comes -to the person it flies 15 or 20 feet from him, calling constantly and -fanning its tail.</p> - -<p>“It usually perches on a fairly conspicuous branch, churring rapidly, -fanning its tail, and ruffing its wings so that at times its yellow shoulder -bands are visible.</p> - -<p>“As the person comes to within 15 to 50 feet the bird flies off with a -conspicuous initial downward dip, and then goes off to another tree, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -necessarily in sight of the follower, in fact more often out of sight than -not. Then it waits there, churring loudly until the follower again nears -it, when the action is repeated. This goes on until the vicinity of the bees’ -nest is reached. It waits there for the follower to open the hive and -usually until the person has departed with his loot of honeycomb, when -it comes down to the plundered bee’s nest and begins to feed on the bits -of comb left strewn about. The time during which the bird may wait -quietly may vary from a few minutes to well over an hour and a half.”</p> - -<p>African natives regard the bird as an almost infallible guide to honey. -They try to attract it by grunting like a ratel or chopping on trees to -imitate the sound of opening a nest. The habit is apparently instinctive; -it presumably originated before human beings appeared, perhaps starting -with the ratel or some of its honey-eating ancestors.</p> - -<p>Curiously enough, the honey bird does not seem interested in the honey, -per se, or in the grubs of bees found in the nests. It has an insatiable -appetite for the wax, which it will take wherever it can be found. The -first account of the bird was of an individual which fed on the wax candles -of a church. It appears to have a peculiar ability to digest wax presumably -to extract the nutritive elements contained.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Fantastic_Sea_Horse"><i>The Fantastic Sea Horse</i></h2> - - -<p>A fish with the head of a Lilliputian horse, the tail of a monkey, the -shell of a beetle and the pouch of a kangaroo...a creature that reverses -the ordinary course of nature in that “child bearing” is exclusively a -function of the male....Perhaps in no other animal have been packed so -many anomalies as in the little hippocampus, popularly known as the -“sea horse”.</p> - -<p>These weird creatures are almost world-wide in their distribution -through ocean waters where there are growths of sea vegetation. They -have provided the models for some of the monsters of human nightmares. -Actually they are small, feeble, almost defenseless creatures.</p> - -<p>The head unquestionably is similar to that of a miniature horse in -general outline. The neck, however, is not a neck at all. Fishes have -no necks and hippocampus is no exception. What looks like a neck is the -upper part of its abdomen, considerably contracted.</p> - -<p>The body is covered with a jointed, chitinous shell, like many of the -insects. This peculiarity left early naturalists in doubt as to whether it -actually was a fish or some sort of monstrous water bug. It is, of course, -a true fish with no insect affiliations. The hard shell makes it a feeble, -inefficient swimmer. It is able, in fact, to swim at all only because of a -large air bladder so delicately adjusted to the specific gravity of the animal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -that if a gas bubble the size of a pinhead is let out by a puncture the sea -horse sinks to the bottom. There it can only crawl about clumsily until -the wound is healed.</p> - -<p>Because it is so poor a swimmer the hippocampus must have other -means of adjustment to its salt water environment. This is afforded by a -prehensile tail which it can wrap around the stems of water plants. This -kind of a tail is found among a few mammals, notably the smaller monkeys. -So far as is known, no other fish has anything of the sort. The animal is -most frequently observed in a state of rest, its tail wrapped around a -plant and its body standing nearly erect in the water.</p> - -<p>Its food consists of tiny crustaceans and other sea organisms of like -size. Because of its poor powers of locomotion, it must wait for those -which come within reach of its jaws which work with lightning-like speed, -or for those which will wait accommodatingly for it to come and get them.</p> - -<p>Hippocampus can move its eyes independently of each other, thus looking -backward and forward at the same time. It would be rather difficult -for a predaceous organism to take it by surprise, but on the other hand -it would have little ability to fight back or flee if attacked. Some species, -at least, have considerable ability to change color to blend with the environment. -Bright red, pink or yellow specimens when caught fade -rapidly to normal mottled gray.</p> - -<p>Probably the greatest anomaly of the hippocampus family is its way of -reproducing the species. The male actually “gives birth” to living young. -The process, so far as known, is unduplicated in nature. Unfertilized eggs -are laid by the female. She places them, a few at a time, into a pouch-like -organ on the underside of the male’s body. In some fashion still unknown -to biologists they are fertilized in the transfer. Within this pouch -the eggs are incubated and there the young remain for several days after -they are hatched. Then, fully equipped to take care of themselves, they -are expelled into the water. So far as has been observed, there is no -further parental interest in them. This male pouch might be considered -as filling the double function of the womb of a placental mammal and -the pouch of a marsupial like the kangaroo.</p> - -<p>The sea horse also has the distinction of being one of the species of -fish that “talk”. In recent years “talking fish” have become a matter of -considerable interest to the Navy because of the confusion they cause in -the interpretation of underwater sounds. They give every indication of -talking to each other. They produce loud clicks similar to the snapping -of a finger. These also have been compared to the clicks of a telegraph. -They were especially notable when an animal was first placed in the tank -and apparently was confused by the new environment. It would cruise -back and forth across the container, standing upright and its prehensile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -tail curled over its back, emitting the characteristic sounds at intervals -of from a half to three quarters of an hour.</p> - -<p>When two sea horses were kept in separate jars adjacent to each other -in an experiment it appeared as if they were trying to converse. First -one would emit a series of clicks. Then the other would answer. The -sounds are produced by snapping the jaws together. In nature these -probably are mating calls.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Great_Seal_Migrations"><i>The Great Seal Migrations</i></h2> - - -<p>The great annual northward migration of the seals is one of the most -remarkable phenomena of animal life. It seems to be without organization -and without leadership, yet toward the end of March each year the -hundreds of thousands of cow seals and pups scattered over thousands of -square miles of water start at about the same time in three great groups -bound for three specific places. It has been the same for centuries, perhaps -millenia. Each animal moves at about the same rate so that all -arrive within a few days of each other. They do not move in compact -masses, like birds.</p> - -<p>The American herd of about 1,500,000 is by far the largest of the three. -It goes straight to the Pribiloff Islands where it goes ashore on two almost -barren islands—St. Paul and St. George. The Japanese herd, numbering -about 40,000, makes for Robben Island, off northern Japan. The Russian -herd, now estimated at about 200,000, goes to a few rocky islands of the -Commander archipelago, off Kamchatka.</p> - -<p>The moving herds consist almost entirely of females and young. The -bulls winter further north, tend to be solitary during the winter, and -precede the cows to the summer homes. The breeding season lasts for -about two months. During this time the bull never eats or touches a -drop of water. He never leaves the land. He arrives sleek and fat from -the ocean pasture and is able to survive entirely on stored energy. This -keeps him alive, even when he fights scores of terrible battles with younger -rivals. Towards the end of summer he naturally is a sorry-looking -creature.</p> - -<p>One day, actuated by some common impulse, cows and calves depart. -Then the bulls, their arduous labors of race propagation over for ten -months, draw back among the rocks and spend two or three days in -sound sleep before returning to the sea to replenish themselves.</p> - -<p>Cows have very little reserve energy and must return to the water -every two or three days, leaving their nursing pups ashore. On her return -from one of these feeding expeditions, a cow goes straight to her own -pup among the thousands on the rocky beach. Presumably she locates it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -by the odor. Few animals grow more rapidly than the seal pup. Within -a few weeks after birth it is almost as large as its mother. This is an -essential provision of nature, for it must have sufficient size and strength -to care for itself in the open sea, once the southward migration starts. It -is fully the size of the mother when it comes back the next year. There -is an old idea that seal pups must be taught to swim. This is denied by -government observers at the Pribiloff breeding grounds. When thrown -into the water for the first time they swim ashore without difficulty. They -will not, however, venture into the sea voluntarily but must be pushed off -the rocks by the mothers.</p> - -<p>St. George and St. Paul islands are the only two spots under the -American flag, except for certain atomic energy and military installations, -which are absolutely barred to visitors without special government -permits. These, as a rule, are given only to scientists studying the behavior -of the seals. On each island there is an Aleut village whose inhabitants -attend to the butchering of the animals each summer. This is -confined entirely to three-year-old males who congregate by themselves. -The only other killing permitted is by Aleuts along the coast for whom -sealing is the traditional means of livelihood, but this now is so restricted -that the annual toll is very small. The sealing must be done from an open -boat, use of firearms is prohibited, and the Aleuts cannot be under contract -to furnish skins.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Monsters_With_Buzz_Saws"><i>Monsters With Buzz Saws</i></h2> - - -<p>“But if, retaining sense and sight, we could shrink into living atoms -and plunge under water, of what a world of wonder would we form part. -We would find this fairy kingdom peopled with the strangest creatures—creatures -that swim with their hair, have ruby eyes blazing deep in their -necks, with telescopic limbs that now are withdrawn wholly into their -bodies and now stretched out to many times their own length. Here are -some riding at anchor, moored by delicate threads spun out from their -own toes. There are others flashing in glass armor, bristling with sharp -spikes or ornamented with bosses and flowing curves; while fastened to a -green stem is an animal convulvulus that by some invisible power draws -a never-ceasing stream of victims into its gaping cup and tears them to -death with hooked jaws deep down in its own body.”—<i>The Rotifera</i> by -C. T. Hudson and P. H. Goose, London, 1886.</p> - -<p>The rotifers or wheel animalcules are fantastic creatures. They were -first seen by the Dutchman Antonius van Leeuwenhoek, credited with being -the inventor of the microscope. “On the 25th of August,” he wrote -to the Royal Society of London with which group of savants patronized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -by Charles the Second he was in regular correspondence, “I saw in a -leaden gutter on the front of the house for a length of five feet some -rain water had been standing which had a red color. It occurred to me -that this redness might be caused by red animalcules. I took a drop or -two of the water and looked at it under the microscope.”</p> - -<p>He found a confusion of “red-eyed monsters armed with teeth like those -of the balance wheel of a watch, which appear to be projecting forward -towards the head. They seem to whirl around with a very considerable -velocity, by which means a rapid current of water is brought from a -distance to the mouth of the creature who thereby is supplied with many -invisible food particles.”</p> - -<p>This discovery is of considerable significance in scientific history because, -more than any of his previous findings, it caused the Amsterdam -spectacle-maker to question the then widely held belief in the spontaneous -generation of living things.</p> - -<p>“They can,” he wrote the Royal Society in 1774, “continue many -months out of water and be dry as dust, in which condition their shape -is globular, the bigness exceeds not a grain of sand, and no signs of life -appear. Notwithstanding, being put in water, the globule turns itself -about, lengthens by slow degrees, becomes in the form of a lively maggot, -and most commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its wheels -and sweeps the water in search of food. But sometimes it may remain a -long time in the maggot form and not show its wheels at all.”</p> - -<p>Such tiny organisms capable of such long periods of suspended animation, -Leeuwenhoek held, could be blown by the wind for long distances. -Thus the sudden appearance of living animals in supposedly lifeless water -did not indicate they had been born or created there.</p> - -<p>The microscope designer had found, moreover, an hitherto unknown -race, giants of the microscopic world and among the most fantastic of all -animals—the rotifers.</p> - -<p>These usually invisible animals with buzz-saws on their heads—the -largest not more than a quarter-inch long and the majority less than a -twentieth—seem to have gone further beyond life’s normally accepted -frontiers than any other animals. One species lives comfortably in hot -springs where temperatures go above 120 Fahrenheit. Others can be -frozen in solid cakes of ice for weeks and show no ill effects. Sudden -changes in temperature, however, often are fatal. On tops of Antarctic -mountains projecting out of ice two miles thick, the little rotifers are -found among sparse growths of lichens, the only animal life which approaches -closely to the South Pole on land. There is no reason why -they should not thrive in the hardly less hospitable mountains of Mars. -They might have been carried there in light propelled earthdust.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> - -<p>The majority are fresh-water creatures. A few live in damp moss and -a few species have obtained a foothold in the sea. Some live in immense -colonies, permanently attached to stones. Some are free-living individualists -who crawl like leeches, or swim rapidly. Some are parasites in the -cells of water plants or in the gills of fresh water crabs. Others cling to -floating plants or to water animals, to be carried from place to place. One -highly social group lives in free-moving communities of forty or more -individuals, attached to each other by their tail ends and radiating from a -common center like wheel spokes. The usual color is reddish and most -rotifers have one or more glittering red eyes. In a few cases these eyes -are inside the bodies of transparent species.</p> - -<p>Despite their minuteness, these predatory giants of the world invisible -are highly developed animals. Each has a body divided, like that of a -mammal, into three major segments—head, trunk, and extremities. In -some the skin is hardened into an armor-like covering. Some have a -panoply of defensive spines and bristles.</p> - -<p>Inside the skin is a cavity full of watery fluid—it contains no corpuscles -like blood—in which float the more important vital organs. In most animals -there is tissue of some sort in which nerves, muscles, and glands are -imbedded. In rotifers, however, there is very little of this connective -tissue. Under a microscope one generally can see with some clearness -each individual cell. These cells can be counted, for at the most there are -only a few thousands, compared to the millions of millions that make up -the bodies of larger animals. The muscles are not banded together, but -consist of isolated strands whose job is to pull the head inside the armored -trunk when faced with any threat, and to bend the body in various -directions.</p> - -<p>All rotifers have two organs unique to their race. First is the “buzz -saw”. This is a crown of tentacles, quite similar in appearance under -low magnification to a circular saw, which is constantly whirling. Its purpose -is to create eddies in the water which will bring food particles to the -mouth, a funnel-shaped opening on top of the head. In free-living species -the saw may have some function as a propeller.</p> - -<p>Second is the mastax, or “chewing stomach”. Every rotifer has two -stomachs, one for masticating and one for digesting. The mouth opens -directly into the first. It is provided with two horny, serrated jaws which -crush toward each other and tear to bits the minute animals and plants -which are the creature’s food. The jaws are provided with several hard -parts, adapted for biting, crushing, holding, and tearing.</p> - -<p>In the permanently anchored rotifers the rear of the body is prolonged -into a stalk from the end of which a cement-like substance is secreted. -This permanently attaches the animal to something, usually a stone. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -some of the free-living forms the “foot” is replaced by one to twelve -“leaping spines” by means of which the owner can spring suddenly forward -several times its own length to capture an unsuspecting victim. This -is most often some floating one-celled creature of the water-drop jungle, -such as a protozoan elephant.</p> - -<p>The male rotifer is usually much smaller than the female—sometimes -nothing more than an appendage she carries about with her. The fantastic -worlds of all sorts of rotifers are predominantly feminine worlds. -For some species, in fact, males never have been found, but there is little -doubt that they exist.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Two-Headed_Snakes_Arent_Rare"><i>Two-Headed Snakes Aren’t Rare</i></h2> - - -<p>Two-headed snakes probably are quite common. About 200 cases have -been reported. Dr. Bert Cunningham of Duke University, who has studied -several living specimens, has this to report about such snakes: “The -heads play together, fight over a morsel of food even though it will go -into the same stomach through either mouth, attempt to swallow one another, -and sometimes fight fatal duels. Each head has a brain of its own. -Few grow to any size. In this case two heads are not better than one, -especially when they disagree when a second means escape or death.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fantastic_Sea_Creatures"><i>Fantastic Sea Creatures</i></h2> - - -<p>Coral-forested waters around the Gilbert and Mariana Islands in the -Pacific are yielding some of the most fantastic sea creatures known to -science.</p> - -<p>Extensive collections have been made since the war by Dr. Leonard P. -Schultz, Smithsonian curator of fishes. Notable in the collections are -snake, worm and moray eels, all bottom dwellers in tropical waters. -Snake eels are, as the name indicates, superficially almost indistinguishable -from serpents. On their tails they have hard points which are used -as drills. They burrow straight downward in the bottom sand, tails first, -until only the heads protrude above the surface. The worm eels belong -to the same general group but are much smaller and slenderer—about the -diameter of a lead pencil and reaching lengths up to two feet. Larger -worm eels have been reported.</p> - -<p>Both these groups consist of relatively timid, inoffensive creatures. Far -different are the moray eels, members of a closely related family. They -are as much as ten feet long, have razor-like teeth, and are described by -Dr. Schultz as about the most vicious creatures in the sea. In disposition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -they probably are worse than the worst sharks and easily can bite -through a man’s hand.</p> - -<p>Probably the most poisonous creature in the collection is a variety of -sting ray, weighing about 200 pounds, which was speared at the bottom of -20 feet of water. This animal, like all stingarees, has a tail armed with -long, poisonous barbs. The venom could be lethal to a man. After it -was speared, the ray remained very much alive and the problem of -bringing it to the surface was difficult. This finally was accomplished by -two of Dr. Schultz' collaborators. First one would dive, grasp the handle -of the spear, and lift the creature a few feet, always holding it far enough -away to be clear of the barbs. After the first man became exhausted, -the other would relieve him while he came up for air. Thus the specimen -finally was gotten on board through a series of relays.</p> - -<p>Curiosities of the collection are the cardinal fishes—brilliant red, very -active, and including some of the smallest marine fishes. A few species -attain full growth at about three-fourths of an inch. These are the most -notable of the “mouth breeders.” The female lays the eggs and the male -carries them in his mouth until they hatch. Inch-long males sometimes -carry as many as 400 eggs, nearly all of which hatch.</p> - -<p>Other curiosities are the pipe fishes, hard-shelled animals which look -like bits of small, segmented pipe. They range from two inches to a foot -long and are related to the more familiar sea horses of temperate waters. -They are sluggish burrowers in coral reefs. As among sea horses, the -male gives birth to the young. The eggs are deposited in pouches on the -male’s belly where they are carried until they hatch.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Varieties_of_Raven_Language"><i>The Varieties of Raven Language</i></h2> - - -<p>While “nevermore” apparently is not in the vocabulary of the raven -this big black bird of the wilder parts of the country has a considerable -variety of sounds nearly as ominous.</p> - -<p>Raven “language” has been intensively studied by the noted ornithologist, -Dr. Arthur Cleveland Bent. Citing various bird observers, he lists -the following calls:</p> - -<p>A distinct, hollow, sepulchral laugh, haw-haw-haw-haw, which may be -heard at almost any time.</p> - -<p>A series of “crawks” sounded while on the wing, interspersed with a -musical note that sounds like ge-lick-ge-lee.</p> - -<p>A strange call like thing-thung-thung which is similar to the mellow -twang of a tuning fork.</p> - -<p>Another expression has a metallic, liquid-like quality similar to the -song of the red-winged blackbird, although greatly magnified in volume.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p> - -<p>Ravens have a large range of notes from the melancholy croaks with -which they chiefly are associated to striking imitations of other birds, -such as geese and gulls. One of these birds will talk to itself for hours -with a curious gargling sound. He becomes so absorbed in his own conversation -that it often is not difficult to steal up on him during such a -soliloquy.</p> - -<p>“The raven,” Dr. Bent observes, “is one of our most sagacious birds—crafty, -resourceful, adaptable, and quick to profit by experience. Throughout -most of its range it is exceeding shy and wary. It is almost impossible -to get within gunshot of one in the open. Yet it knows full well where -and when it is safe. About northern villages, where it is appreciated as a -scavenger and seldom molested, it is as tame as any barnyard bird.” This -is especially true in Greenland where ravens infest American air bases.</p> - -<p>Although in the north the raven frequents the seacoast and villages, -from Pennsylvania southward it is entirely a mountain bird, usually living -above 3,000 feet. From these heights the birds sometimes descend to the -valleys, or even the islands along the coast, to forage among the colonies -of sea birds. Most of them prefer to dwell among rocks and resort to -perpendicular cliffs and to escarpments thrust above forests on the flanks -of mountains.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_With_Hypodermic_Needles"><i>Worms With Hypodermic Needles</i></h2> - - -<p>Despite their microscopic size, nematodes (soil worms), are highly organized -animals. They have muscles, quite specialized organs for feeding, -a digestive system, a nervous system with a brain, and a well-developed reproductive -system. Sexes are clearly differentiated. The creatures have -evolved a long way from the primeval worm.</p> - -<p>Eggs may be deposited in the soil, or in the plant on which the nematode -feeds. In these eggs the immature forms, the larvae, develop and eventually -hatch. If appropriate plants are available, they may begin to feed -immediately. They develop through several distinct stages. At the end of -each of these cycles a moult occurs.</p> - -<p>Many of the forms which have been studied closely have a minimum life -cycle, from egg to egg-laying female, of several days to several weeks. -The maximum duration of life, however, may be much longer, since sexual -maturity is not reached until the nematode begins to feed on the living -plant. Up to this time it remains in the larval stage and lives on a reserve -food supply originally derived from the egg. The time this reserve lasts -depends on circumstances. In damp, warm soil the nematode will be very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> -active and use it up in a few weeks. In cool or dry soil the supply lasts -much longer, and can extend to many years.</p> - -<p>The little worm’s life is a perpetual struggle for existence. It has many -enemies in the soil—insects, fungi, and other free-living nematodes. Certain -of the soil fungi have “traps” especially designed to catch nematodes. -Some of these are shaped like loops which are pulled tight as the worm -starts to crawl through. Others are sticky surfaces on which the victims -are captured, like flies on flypaper. In either case, the fungus grows into -the body of the worm and kills it.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the nematode population is never in any great danger of -extermination. A single female root knot nematode will produce about 300 -eggs in a couple of weeks. Allowing four weeks for a generation, and -assuming half the offspring are females, this implies a theoretically possible -fifty trillion individuals at the end of the four generations of a single -summer.</p> - -<p>Practically all roots are attacked by some kind of nematode, but many -species appear to specialize on one type of plant and will not touch a -different variety, even if no other food is available. Plants immune to one -species may be highly susceptible to some other. A few kinds of these -worms, however, appear to eat almost anything they can find underground.</p> - -<p>All the root-eaters have a feeding organ which is much like a hypodermic -needle. This is pushed into the tissue and, it is believed, a digestive juice -of some sort is injected. This liquifies and partially digests the food. Then -the nematode sucks it through the needle into its mouth.</p> - -<p>The largest of the nematodes, a parasite of whales, can reach a length -of 27 feet. The smallest, a marine form, is a little more than a three-thousandth -of an inch long.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Fatal_Black_Widow_Spider"><i>The Fatal Black Widow Spider</i></h2> - - -<p>The venom of the dreaded Black Widow spider is approximately fifteen -times more potent than that of the rattlesnake. The comparison has been -established by determining the amounts of rattlesnake and spider venom -necessary to kill rats of the same weight. The extreme toxicity of the -spider becomes of considerable significance since it has been reported -from every state in the Union and may be increasing in numbers on the -edges of cities. Probability of being bitten, however, is slight. The -black widow is a timid creature, except towards her natural prey. At the -first molestation of her web she retreats quickly to her central nest and -does not venture out again for hours. She makes no attempt at defense, -to say nothing of aggression. Her reputation is so bad, however, that in -some cases pickers have refused to work in vineyards which she infested.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Plants_That_are_Animated"><i>Plants That are Animated</i></h2> - - -<p>Among the curiosities often sold in American stores are so-called “air -plants”—plants that will grow on air alone without sunshine or water. -This is true, after a fashion. The “plants” actually are dried skeletons of -marine animals. They belong to the group which includes the jellyfish, -sea anemones and corals. Their skeletons have a striking resemblance -to plants.</p> - -<p>The species most commonly sold is sea moss or Neptune’s fern, an -animal abundant in the North Atlantic, especially in the English channel -and the Gulf of Maine. A closely related species, the “squirrel’s tail,” is -abundant in the eastern Pacific where its silvery colonies often are washed -ashore by storms. Dry beach material of these colonies is easily collected, -dyed and sold as Christmas decorations.</p> - -<p>“These are colonial forms consisting of thousands of individual animals,” -according to the Chicago Museum of Natural History. “Colonies -of two species of sea squirrel may be twelve inches or more long. Those -of some species may be several feet in length. Usually they are attached -to rocks or other substrata by a rootlike base, from which spring the -delicate branched stems bearing hundreds of minute polyps.</p> - -<p>“Most of these are hydranths (feeding polyps) that capture microscopic -organisms. The reproductive polyps are less common, usually larger, and -different in shape. The common stem is made up of external non-cellular -material, mostly yellowish or brown in color.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_TomatoCinderella_of_Vegetables"><i>The Tomato—Cinderella of Vegetables</i></h2> - - -<p>A remarkable chapter in the history of agriculture is the story of the -tomato which now constitutes one of this country’s major crops. It appears -to have first been used as a food by the Aztecs. It was introduced -into Spain early in the 16th century and a century later was grown widely -in England as an ornamental plant. Not until the next century, however, -did it have any standing as a food. It was known as the “love apple” -and was considered mildly poisonous. Folks ate one now and then on -“dares.”</p> - -<p>Then it caught on as a food in Italy and by the start of the 19th century -was being grown on a field scale. So far as known, it was absent from -the gardens of Colonial America, unless as a rare ornamental plant. Not -until the middle of the 19th century was it reintroduced to its native -western hemisphere as a food crop. For a long time it acquired no great -popularity. A few vines in the family garden were considered enough, -since there was no tomato market.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span></p> - -<p>A U. S. Department of Agriculture report calls the tomato “the prodigy -of the vegetable world.” Its present success is due in large part to the -discovery of vitamins. Although used as a food for little more than a -century it now is almost as widely distributed as wheat, a food plant -which has been cultivated for at least 5,000 years.</p> - -<p>Today the tomato crop covers about a half million acres in the U. S. -alone. This crop consists of more than 20,000,000 bushels of fresh -tomatoes and more than 300,000 tons of canned products. There are now -about 150 known varieties, adapted to all sorts of purposes.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Holiest_Place_on_Earth"><i>The Holiest Place on Earth</i></h2> - - -<p>The summit of Adam’s Peak in south-central Ceylon, wrapped perpetually -in priestly robes of grey clouds, is one of the holy places of the -earth. There, through many centuries, the prayers of millions belonging -to warring creeds have worn thin the curtain between the effable and the -ineffable. It is a shrine of four of the world’s great religions. In the rock -is a depression that looks like a giant’s footprint. Hindus believe it was -made by snake-haired Siva, the destroyer. Moslems say it is the footprint -of the first man, Adam, who was exiled to this mountaintop after -he was thrown out of Paradise. Buddhists believe that it could have been -made only by the great Gautama. Nestorian Christians maintain that it is -a relic of the disciple Thomas, who brought the gospel of Christ into the -East. To this spot, braving the road through leech-infested forests below -and the perilous ascent along gale-swept ledges, have come generation -after generation of devout pilgrims to voice a common prayer in different -tongues through different intermediaries.</p> - -<p>The pilgrim, standing by the footprint of Adam, looks down upon the -forest-covered hills to the eastward. Over all the land spreads the grey -shadow of the supernatural. Below him is one of the most imposing -spectacles on earth—the middle slopes scarlet with the blossoms of dense -forests of gigantic rhododendrons, the deep-blue patches of mountain -lakes, and canyons which no human has entered—their mysterious depths -hidden by wind-tossed fog. Great waterfalls roar over vine-covered -cliffs. Strange sounds arise from jungles of white-stemmed palms. It -is a wild land of ghosts and demons watched over by the holy mountains.</p> - -<p>In this unearthly country native legend from ancient days has placed, -most appropriately, the death valley of the elephants. There, in a pleasant -hollow beside a lake of clear water—reached only by a narrow pass with -high walled precipices on either side—these animals make their way from -all over the island when they feel the chill drowsiness of approaching death. -It has been an interminable procession of the doomed since time began. -To the stricken old elephant, the coming of death brings an irresistible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -nostalgia which draws his faltering feet homeward to this mist-shrouded -valley piled high with the white bones of his ancestors. It is his haven of -rest from the weariness and disillusion of living.</p> - -<p>The belief has deep roots in the ancient folk-lore of Ceylon. It has -spread all over the East. It is embodied in the Arabian Nights. No man -ever has entered this vale of death since Sinbad the Sailor, who was -carried there in the trunk of a huge elephant after he had been knocked -senseless when the tree in which he was hiding was uprooted by a herd -of the animals. Sinbad at last found himself in this valley piled high with -bones and knew that he was in the long-sought death place of the elephants.</p> - -<p>Another Ceylon elephant cemetery is concealed in a dense forest near -the ancient sacred city of Anardhupara. It is so well hidden that no man -knows its exact location, although all know that it exists. Unless there -are such cemeteries, the natives ask, what becomes of the remains of dead -elephants?</p> - -<p>The death of the jungle elephant remains a fantastic mystery. No very -serious efforts have been made to provide a solution. Remains of these -creatures that have died natural deaths seldom have been found, either -in Asia or Africa. Yet obviously the great beasts are mortal, subject to -various fatal ailments and to the inevitable decay of age. Evidently when -one of them feels death approaching it retires to a place of the dead where -it quietly breathes its last and adds its bones to those of the vast multitudes -of its race that have gone before it into the unknown.</p> - -<p>The belief is so strong that there has been a persistent search for these -elephant Golgothas for the past century. Such a discovery, especially in -Africa, probably would mean inestimable wealth in ivory. But, except for -one or two questionable instances cited below, nobody ever has found such -a place. Natives sometimes claim to know an approximate location from -tradition, although they never have seen it.</p> - -<p>Zoologists naturally frown upon the idea because of its very weirdness. -They explain that the remains of very few tropical animals ever are found -and that the elephant, for all its bulk, need be considered no great exception. -Vultures, jackals, hyenas and other carrion eaters soon would tear -the flesh from the bones. Insects would bear away the fragments they -left. Jungle vegetation rapidly would cover and hide the naked skeleton.</p> - -<p>Some credence is given to the native belief by Lieut. Col. Gordon -Casserly of the British army. A persistent elephant hunter during years -of service in India, he never came upon the carcass or bones of one of -these animals which had met a natural death. “The idea of a vast death -place of these modern mammoths hidden in the remote recesses of the -Himalayas,” he states, “did not seem a far-fetched one to me when I -lived in the shadow of those mighty mountains and heard at night the -great elephant troops pass by the little outpost that I commanded on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -frontier of Bhutan, as they clamber up towards the snow-clad peaks from -the forest below.”</p> - -<p>The British elephant hunter W. D. M. Bell once thought he had found -one of East Africa’s elephant cemeteries in the country north of Lake -Rudolph. He had followed an elephant path to a grassy plateau strewn -with skulls and other elephant bones, some partially buried. None of -the remains, however, were recent. Bell tasted the green water of a nearby -pool and found it bitter with natron. The indications were that large -numbers of elephants had been driven to this pool to drink during a time -of drought and had been poisoned by the water.</p> - -<p>Maj. P. H. G. Powell-Cotton tells of finding another spot strewn with -bones in the same general region which might answer the specification for -an “elephant graveyard.” “Here I was surprised,” he reported, “to find -the whole countryside scattered with remains, the fitful sun lighting up -glistening bones in every direction. In all my journeyings through elephant -country I do not think I have ever come across before a skeleton of -one of these beasts for whose death the guides could not account. My -guide called this place ‘The-place-where-the-elephants-come-to-die’ and -assured me that when the elephants fell sick they would come deliberately -for long distances to lay their bones in this spot. I had heard of these -cemeteries from Swahili traders who told me they had occasionally found -more ivory than they could carry. The place was well known to the -Turkana, who regularly visited it to carry off the tusks.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Vanishing_Golden_Carpet"><i>The Vanishing Golden Carpet</i></h2> - - -<p>The rarest plant in North America, found only four times by botanists, is -a ground-hugging desert flower—the gold carpet. The plant appears, on -rare occasions, in California’s Death Valley. Its appearance is that of a -rosette of yellow leaves, sometimes as much as ten inches in diameter, lying -flat on the ground. From this rosette arise innumerable tiny golden yellow -blossoms, so that the whole seems like a patch of golden carpet in the -brown desert. The reason for its rare occurrence is that its seeds can -germinate only after a good rain. Such rains are rare in its habitat.</p> - -<p>The plants must spring up within a few days. Ordinarily, even then, -they die with the increasing drought before blossoming—thus forming no -seeds. In order for them to produce the seeds for another generation there -must be another rain following shortly upon the first.</p> - -<p>The seeds become buried in the desert soil and, in the course of evolution, -have developed the capacity of suspended animation over a number -of years. In the old days, it is probable, these seeds retained their fertility -only for a single season. Now there may be several years between rains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -sufficient to spur them to germination, and even longer periods between -double rains which will enable them to form seeds.</p> - -<p>The strange little plant first was discovered in 1891. There were only -two specimens and search failed to reveal any more. Two years later, however, -at about the same place another single plant was reported. No others -were revealed by an intensive search through the entire area.</p> - -<p>In 1931 and 1932 Dr. Frederick V. Coville of the U. S. Department of -Agriculture and French Gilman, a California botanist, again made an intensive -search but could not find a single plant. They came to the erroneous -conclusion that the plant might be native to the mountains, from -which occasional seeds were washed down after heavy rains. A few years -later Mr. Gilman again took up the search and succeeded in locating the -plant in four places. He found 14 individuals altogether and watched their -growth carefully. Only three became large enough to flower and produce -seed. The others dried up and died when they had only a few leaves and -no branches. Later, however, Gilman found many specimens of the gold -carpet scattered over low hills in the neighborhood.</p> - -<p>These little hills all were whitish in color. This led to the idea that the -chemical composition of the soil might have something to do with the -appearance of the plants. Analysis, however, showed there was no basis -for this assumption.</p> - -<p>In the distant past, the gold carpet may have been a very abundant -plant, germinating and flowering annually in a reasonably moist climate. -Probably a few individuals developed the capacity of producing seed which -would remain fertile over a lapse of years. When the climate changed -these had a decided advantage over their fellows.</p> - -<p>Apparently the gold carpet is a plant in the process of extinction. The -continued existence of the species depends on the dormancy of a sufficient -number of seeds to carry it over unfavorable years of inadequate, or -inappropriately timed second rains. If Death Valley becomes drier and -drier and years with suitable double rains become more and more infrequent -the vitality of the seeds in the soil eventually will be insufficient -to span the long periods when no seeds are produced.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Evolution_of_the_Bird"><i>Evolution of the Bird</i></h2> - - -<p>It’s a long call from the birds with teeth that hovered over the -strange world of the dying dinosaurs 150,000,000 odd years ago to the -chorus of sweet singers whose music opens sleepy eyes on May mornings -of the present. The long and devious road can be traced from the -grotesque archaeopteryx and archaeornis—nightmare-like and long extinct -flying creatures of the dawn—to the living wren and blackbird. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -however complicated, the family tree of birds is simple compared to that -of the reptiles or the mammals, since avian evolution has been confined -within narrower lines.</p> - -<p>Up to the time that the monster reptiles were beginning to disappear, it -seems probable that all birds had teeth. Gradually, they disappeared as the -group advanced into the dawn age of present life forms. First were the ancestral -birds—the archaeornithes. They were essentially winged reptiles. Following -them came the toothed true birds of the New World, known from -very fragmentary fossil records. They included the hesperornis, the -hageria and the ichthyornis. Then, representing a long advance, came -creatures of the ostrich family, probably the most primitive of living birds. -They are true birds but have not reached the typical modern pattern. At -the top of the family tree, the highest branch of bird evolution, is the -great sub-order of song birds. It includes fifty families ranging from the -larks to the finches and buntings.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Speed_Ace_of_the_Air"><i>Speed Ace of the Air</i></h2> - - -<p>The swiftest bird flight ever recorded accurately is in the neighborhood -of 175 miles an hour. Ordinary, unhurried flight averages from twenty to -forty miles an hour.</p> - -<p>The fastest flyer, according to official records, is the California duck -hawk whose speed was measured with a stop watch from an airplane. -Eagles apparently are much slower.</p> - -<p>Among the more reliable bird flight speed measurements are those -of herons, hawks, horned larks, ravens and shrikes. Rates range from 22 to -28 miles an hour. Flight in all these cases was normal and unhurried. -Other speeds reported by the Smithsonian are: crows, 31 to 45 miles an -hour; starlings, 38 to 49 miles; geese, 42 to 55 miles; ducks, 44 to 59 -miles; falcons, 40 to 48 miles.</p> - -<p>When frightened, most birds probably can nearly double their normal -rate, but they cannot keep it up very long. When cruising about in search -for food they fly so as not to waste their strength. This is particularly -true on the great annual migrations.</p> - -<p>Considering ten hours as a fair day’s flying time over land, the measured -speeds would carry crows from 310 to 450 miles between sunrise and sunset -and ducks and geese from 420 to 590 miles. Considering that they fly in -straight lines, this means that they make very good time from point to -point. It is highly probable, however, that most migrating birds proceed -in a leisurely manner and that after a flight of a few hours they pause -to feed and rest.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Remarkable_Instincts_of_the_Silk_Worm"><i>The Remarkable Instincts of the Silk Worm</i></h2> - - -<p>The silk worm’s brain has an instinct center contained in a speck of -nerve cells with a mass of less than a millionth of an ounce. This center -is a microscopic so-called “mushroom body”, found in both sides, or -hemispheres, of the brain. The discovery, with possible far-reaching -philosophical implications, came out of some of the most delicate conceivable -microsurgery in which the area was destroyed almost cell by -cell by means of an invisibly fine electric needle.</p> - -<p>Doctors Carol Williams and William Van der Kloot of Harvard have -made minute studies of an American silk worm, the cecropia (common -along the Atlantic coast), which spins as strong and delicate threads as -the Japanese or Italian domesticated silk worms. The cocoon is a marvel -of apparent ingenuity, made of a single thread almost a mile long. It is -made in three layers, roughly after the design of a thermos bottle. The -outer layer is a tightly woven, waterproof silk bag. Inside this is a layer -of loosely spun material which serves as an insulating layer. The third -layer, woven around the body of the worm itself, is a bag of exceedingly -fine, soft silk. Through each layer a “hatchway” is provided directly in -front of the creature’s head. These must be placed one in front of the -other with mathematical exactitude. Through them the self imprisoned -animal must escape when the time comes, and the slightest error probably -would make it a prisoner forever in a coffin of its own creation.</p> - -<p>Inside the cocoon the worm remains, adequately protected from cold -and damp, for nine months. It emerges as a winged moth, whose sole -function in life apparently is to lay eggs to produce more silkworms.</p> - -<p>Spinning such a cocoon with its three quite different layers requires -extreme precision of movement. Nature has not allowed for any possible -variations. Yet the masterpiece obviously is not the result of any thinking, -education or practice. The little worm’s life span, for one thing, -would not allow for any training. Every movement must be instinctive -and presumably unconscious, directed by the same part of the nervous -system into whose structure the pattern has been built by nature.</p> - -<p>The house building must start at precisely the right time. Until that -time, according to the Harvard physiologists, the responsible area of the -brain is held in restraint by a hormone secreted from two tiny glands in -the head. At the foreordained instant this inhibiting secretion ceases -and the mushroom body can go into action. The spinning can be started -at any time, however, by destroying the glands.</p> - -<p>Williams and Van der Kloot tried effects of two gasses, carbon dioxide -and carbon monoxide. Both acted as potent brain depressants, but in quite -different ways. The first eliminated the spinning behavior entirely and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -permanently. The worms wandered about aimlessly, apparently trying in -vain to remember what some overwhelming internal drive was pushing -them to do. The automobile exhaust gas, carbon monoxide, fatal to -humans but without any serious lasting effects on invertebrates because -of the lack of the red cells in the blood with which it combines in higher -animals, caused them to spin a worthless and meaningless flat layer of -silk as long as the effect continued. When this ended the worm started -to spin what remained of the mile-long thread in the customary pattern, -starting from the point it normally would have reached had it not been -gassed.</p> - -<p>The biologists then resorted to their unbelievably delicate surgery. They -proceeded to destroy the silk worm brain a few score cells at a time. The -brain contains hundreds of thousands of cells. The destruction had no -effect on the spinning behavior until they reached the mushroom body. -When a few cells of this area were killed by the electric current the worm -no longer could spin a cocoon but continued to wind and weave its silken -thread into three flat sheets, corresponding to the three normal capsules. -The weaving continued with the destruction of a few more cells, but only -in a single sheet. When a few more were destroyed the entire cocoon-making -behavior came to an end.</p> - -<p>Thus, Doctors Williams and Van der Kloot concluded, they had -located a physical unit of behavior. Within it was capsuled the whole -“memory” of the silk worm race with respect to spinning. More than a -century ago this mushroom body was discovered by the French physiologist -Dujardin, who called it the “seat of instinct.” At that time this was -only a wild speculation on his part, without any supporting facts whatsoever.</p> - -<p>The instinct center is found in the brains of all insects in whom group -instinctive behavior has manifestation. In the honeybee worker, intellectual -giant of the insect world, it reaches its greatest size. In drones and -queens, who do not display much behavior of any sort, the area of the -brain is quite small.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Strange_World_of_the_Sea"><i>The Strange World of the Sea</i></h2> - - -<p>Under the tossing surface of southern seas is an inferno-like realm of -everlasting darkness, inhabited by multitudes of strange animals which -exist almost altogether by the laws of beak and fang. Some of them are -grotesque beyond the reaches of a nightmare.</p> - -<p>Countless generations ago their ancestors, driven by hunger and competition, -abandoned the familiar sun-lit world for the perpetual night<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -of the abysmal depths. Then with each family, it was a case of survival -of the fittest and variation of form and structure to fit the environment.</p> - -<p>Here is the stark struggle for survival with the mask of sunlight, -green fields and flowers discarded. It is not different in kind but in degree -from the struggle that goes on continually between living things at -the surface of the ocean and on the land. Down there all must eat flesh. -There is no plant life intermediary between beast and beast. Plants cannot -grow below the light line of the sea depths.</p> - -<p>Out of this fierce war for existence have come creatures mostly conspicuous -for their defensive and offensive equipment. Some of the fish -seem to have become little more than enormous mouths with rows of long, -razor-like teeth with which they seize and kill. The bodies attached to -these mouths are small and slender. Such a creature is mostly head and -the head is mostly mouth. Nearly all the fish carry light organs of some -kind near the mouth with which other animals are probably attracted -within grabbing distance.</p> - -<p>One of the largest collections of deep sea animals was assembled a few -years ago near the Puerto Rico Deep, the deepest part of the Atlantic -Ocean, by a Smithsonian Institution expedition led by Dr. Paul Bartsch. -This collection constituted a fair representation of the sea life at depths of -about 3200 feet, nearly 2500 feet below the farthest reaches of the sun’s -rays. There were shrimps with long, sharp claws which fold up after -the fashion of an old-fashioned straight razor. Any small creature which -came within striking distance of such a razor probably would be an immediate -victim. There were strange mollusks with shells like corkscrews -and eels like darning needles with long, sharp beaks.</p> - -<p>Among the most fantastic was the needle-fish. It jaws are prolonged -into extraordinarily slender points, like fine needles, so that the -head is nearly as long as the rest of the body—that is, about six inches. -This fish was lured to the net by an electric light.</p> - -<p>A group of flat fish, or flounders, was obtained, all of which have two -eyes on one side of the head and none on the other. Instead of right eye -and left eye there is upper eye and lower eye.</p> - -<p>Other strange forms in the collection:</p> - -<p>The hunchback fish, a creature whose strangely shaped body suggests its -name.</p> - -<p>The lance fish with long, backward-reaching spines suggestive of lances -just behind the eyes.</p> - -<p>The forceps fish, one of the most aberrant of all with its greatly extended, -forceps-like jaws. There is apparently but a single genus and -species in existence.</p> - -<p>The family of snout fish with snouts almost as long as the rest of the -body. At the end of the snout is a mouth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p> - -<p>Another strange creature taken out of the depths by this expedition -was Johnsonia eriomma—the “big eye fish.” Each of its two eyes is about -a fifth as long as the diameter of its body. A man’s eye, in the same -ratio, would be about a foot long and protrude about eight inches from -its socket. It also has two false eyes on its sides, near the tail. They -are of the same size and approximately the same pattern as the true eyes. -They probably are indistinguishable from them by other fish. They -are, however, only color spots and have no visual function. They constitute -a feature hitherto unknown in the fish world. The purpose of the -false eyes is unknown, unless they are intended to deceive the creature’s -enemies. Since it is a slow-moving fish, these color spots probably create -the illusion of fast movement which would fool a predatory animal of -the abysses.</p> - -<p>This fish is the second of its family ever found in the western world. -The other was discovered a half century ago the genus have been found -in Asiatic waters.</p> - -<p>This eye-fish was obtained from a depth of between 150 and 300 -fathoms—just about on the borderline of eternal darkness where eyes -would be of no use. Fish of the depths have evolved in two directions—toward -enormous eyes and toward greatly diminished ones. The first -represents a struggle to see in the strange dusk. The second trend denotes -giving up of a futile struggle on the part of the race. This trend -is noteworthy among fish of the greater depths.</p> - -<p>Another strange denizen of the depths is Peristedion bartschi, named -in honor of Dr. Bartsch. It is an armored gurnard, of the family sometimes -known as “sea robins.” The shell-growing tendency among fish is -largely confined to certain fresh-water catfish of South America. This -creature obviously is a bottom dweller. Its entire body is covered with -spiny plates which probably would make it safe from any enemy. Each -plate bears a very sharp spine, about a quarter inch long. There are -nearly a hundred of these on the body. This fish would probably be about -the most unappetizing morsel any predatory animal ever swallowed. It -is bright red.</p> - -<p>Still another species obtained by the expedition was one of the “lantern-fish” -group. These are small, minnow-like creatures who live only in -the open ocean. While most fish either remain near shore or have at least -an association with the bottom these are found only in deep water far -from land, and never near the sea floor. Most of the millions of them -in the sea doubtless live and die without any realization that there is -either bottom or shore. All have rows of luminous spots along their sides -which probably serve as recognition marks.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Cannibal_Birds_of_the_Pacific"><i>The Cannibal Birds of the Pacific</i></h2> - - -<p>Hordes of big black birds, about the nearest creatures imaginable to the -harpies of Greek mythology, nest on desert-like South Pacific Islands. -These are the vulture-like frigate birds—the Polynesian “iwas” or -“thieves”—which are found by thousands in branches of the most prominent -shrubs, the eight-foot-high, white flowering scaevola bushes. They -are truly creatures of evil.</p> - -<p>They carry in their feathers as parasites creatures nearly as malevolent -in appearance as themselves—louse flies which look like giant, flattened -black house flies. When these are shaken off they sometimes fly to small -black automobiles which they mistake for their hosts.</p> - -<p>The nests of the frigate birds are coarse, soil-cemented affairs constructed -haphazardly of twigs and driftwood. During showers, the -cement of this filthy building material dissolves away, allowing eggs to -fall to the ground. Nesting material evidently is rare and highly prized, -giving rise to theft. A bird in flight occasionally filches a loose piece -from a carelessly guarded nest. The iwa will stoop to murder and cannibalism, -flying off with an egg or newly hatched young to eat on the wing. -There usually is one egg to a nest, entirely white and a little larger than -a chicken egg.</p> - -<p>Both sexes take turns sitting on the egg and later brooding the growing -chicks. This is necessary not only to incubate the egg and keep the chick -warm in cool weather, but also as protection against too intense sunshine. -At the incubation time the males are resplendent with blood red, semi-transparent -throat pouches blown out like balloons. These extend forward -to the beak and downward to hide the breast. The color is due to -innumerable blood-filled capillaries in the tissues of the pouch.</p> - -<p>Not far from the rookeries of the iwas are those of the stupid, red-footed -boobies, or gannets. The name booby is from the Spanish word -“bobo”, meaning “idiot”. At times the rookeries of the aggressive -marauders and the boob-victims overlap at the edges.</p> - -<p>The frigate birds, according to a report of the Pacific Science Board, -“escort the stupid, spoon-billed gannets out to feed on schools of squid -and small fish. When the gannets get craws full and set sail for home to -feed their young, the cruel, curve-billed iwas dive screaming after them, -seize them by the tails, and sling the food out of the mouths of the -smaller birds. This the iwas scoop up on the wing. This goes on from -dawn to dusk. The war cries of the frigates and the plaintive screams of -the fleeing gannets quiver down the trade winds like the wailings of -lost souls.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> - -<p>It is commonly reported that frigate birds, lacking webbed feet, never -land on the surface of the water because they cannot take off again. This -is not true; small flocks are frequently seen landing playfully on the -Canton island lagoon, floating, and rising again seemingly without any -effort whatsoever.</p> - -<p>“The birds nesting in the scaevola,” says the report, “are tame or, depending -on the point of view, too innocent or stupid to fly from their -nests when approached. The explanation for this habit is their nesting -from time immemorial in areas where no predatory animals, two or four -legged, ever have existed. (This, by the way, is a notable characteristic -of bird life in the Antarctic. The notorious skuas, with whom even the -frigates could hardly compare for blood-thirstiness, will not even bother -to move when men pass through a flock of them on the ice.) Tame birds -were not killed off but lived to reproduce their kind. Now, unfortunately, -Pacific islanders employed as laborers, occasionally club the nesting birds -at night preparatory to a feast. Such vandalism and resulting pandemonium -in the rookeries should be stopped by legislation.”</p> - -<p>The ancestors of these and other kinds of sea birds have inhabited the -islands during the nesting seasons for milleniums, catching fish and other -sea life as food for themselves and their nestlings.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Eagles_as_Indian_Pets"><i>Eagles as Indian Pets</i></h2> - - -<p>The proud eagle was once kept as a “domestic animal.” Memories -of this practice have been obtained from the Shoshoni Indians of the -Nevada desert. As recently as fifty years ago individual Indians owned -eagle aeries in the mountains. These constituted about the only private -property recognized by the tribe and rights were zealously maintained.</p> - -<p>Expert climbers who scaled the cliffs took the young eagles from their -nests. They were subsequently reared in cages or tied to rocks. The -purpose was to harvest their feathers for arrows, decoration, or magical -rites. The birds were fed pocket gophers and young groundhogs.</p> - -<p>When the birds were full grown the feathers were plucked. Then the -captives were taken to the top of a cliff and released.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Giant_Insects_of_the_Carolines"><i>The Giant Insects of the Carolines</i></h2> - - -<p>Giant walking sticks seven to nine inches long, titan spiders that walk -on water, little black crickets that dive and swim long distances under -water are some of nature’s curiosities on mountainous, jungle-covered -Kusaie, easternmost of the Caroline Islands.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span></p> - -<p>Especially unusual are the winged-blue-and-green walking sticks with -their fantastic hand-over-hand way of walking. Among the largest of -all insects is a walking stick found on the nearby island of Truk. It is -reddish-brown and wingless with a body nine inches long. The huge -spider’s usual abode is the foliage of long grasses overhanging jungle -streams. There it lies in wait for the insects which are its usual prey. -When alarmed the big spider drops off the grass into the water and starts -running swiftly over the surface. It is provided with “water shoes,” -bristle arrangements on its feet. Probably it does not even get its feet wet.</p> - -<p>The submarine crickets are little black insects about an inch long which -live on damp basalt rocks along the sides of, and in, the streams. They -are almost invisible in the dim jungle light but make themselves known -by their continuous chirping. When frightened they make long, high -dives from the rocks and swim for undetermined distances a few inches -under water, where they are invisible.</p> - -<p>By far the most fantastic spectacle found on Kusaie is that of the ghostly -light which marks the banks of rivers. It is due to some species of ground-growing -fungus. A Smithsonian party once was overtaken by darkness -high in the mountains where no trails could be followed through the dank -jungle. They started wading down a stream which, they knew, eventually -must lead to the lowlands and the coast. They waded, sometimes neck -deep, in a tunnel of overhanging branches through whose thick foliage -no light could penetrate. But always, glowing on both sides of them, were -the lines of luminous fungi.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Valley_Where_Dusk_is_Death"><i>The Valley Where Dusk is Death</i></h2> - - -<p>A belt of poison night where death strikes with the dusk extends down -the western slope of the Peruvian Andes. This death belt, first reported -by a Spanish physician in 1630, consists of a few narrow valleys at an -elevation of from 3,000 to 8,000 feet in an arid, very desolate and sparsely -inhabited country. Nearly everyone who spends a night there is afflicted -a few days later by a severe anemia which often proves fatal. This is the -“verruga” disease. The red blood cell count drops very rapidly. It is -not known whether the cells actually are destroyed by the disease, or -whether it inhibits the forming of new ones from the bone marrow. The -effect in either case is the same. The blood loses its capacity to carry -oxygen and the victim slowly smothers.</p> - -<p>The malady is known as Carrión’s disease. In 1885 a Peruvian medical -student named Carrión inoculated himself with it to prove its identity. -He succeeded in showing the cause, at the cost of his own life. He had -been inspired to the foolhardy act by extreme patriotism. The Chile-Peru<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -war was just over. Most work on the disease had been done by Chileans. -Carión desired that the credit for medical research should come back -to Peru.</p> - -<p>If one recovers from the anemia a second stage of the malady sets in. -The body is covered with wart-like growths, presumably due to some -alteration in the blood supply to the skin. One attack gives immunity for -life, but the death rate during the first stage is very high.</p> - -<p>During daylight the death belt is perfectly safe. This has long been -recognized by natives who travel through it freely between sunrise and -sunset. The only permanent inhabitants of the region are persons who -have recovered from the disease. The borders are sharply defined within -a few yards of altitude.</p> - -<p>For some years it has been recognized that the infection comes from the -bite of a single species of sand fly—a vicious pest smaller than a mosquito. -Protection is afforded only by special screens. Ordinary mosquito netting -is worthless. The death belt is a place of bright sunshine nearly every -day. The insects cannot endure light. They remain secluded and it is -difficult to secure specimens, even when the hiding places are known. As -soon as darkness comes they emerge in enormous numbers.</p> - -<p>Harvard entomologists who investigated the death belt a few years ago -spent the hours between sunset and sunrise in a specially screened railroad -car. A few moments outside might have proved fatal.</p> - -<p>Due to some delicate balance of nature this sand fly seems to be confined -almost exclusively to this locality. It is credited with causing about -7,000 deaths in the decade before the last war.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Enigma_of_Evolution_the_Snake"><i>Enigma of Evolution: the Snake</i></h2> - - -<p>Snakes once had legs. There is evidence in their anatomy that they -are descended from four-legged land animals. This evidence is found -especially in certain bones near the base of the tail of one of the largest -of living snakes, the python, which is the most primitive of the order and -presumably nearest to the hypothetical ancestor.</p> - -<p>Although the snake remains an enigma of evolution, there is no doubt -that it got rid of its legs because they were a distinct hindrance to its -peculiar ways of life.</p> - -<p>The serpent is not very ancient, as animal types go. Evidently it first -appeared in the Cretaceous geological period, about 100,000,000 years -ago, when the great dinosaurs were the earth’s dominant animals. There -are, however, no unquestioned fossils of snakes from the dinosaur days. -The first snake-like creature known is represented by fossils from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -Eocene, or “dawn”, age in North America. This was quite lizard-like in -bone structure. It lived about sixty million years ago, when mammals -were developing on earth. Rocks in Germany, laid down about twenty -million years later, yield fossils of true snakes of the generalized viper -type. Sometime later come fossils of snake giants from Egypt. Some -of these probably were sixty feet long. But all these were real snakes, -with no traces of external limbs. The ancestor seems lost forever because -snake skeletons are brittle and delicate and do not easily fossilize.</p> - -<p>Having discarded legs, serpents evolved means of locomotion suitable -to their ways of life. This has sometimes been described as “walking on -the ribs.” It requires a highly intricate coordination of ribs and muscles -and can be compared best to rowing a boat.</p> - -<p>“The life of a serpent,” according to Dr. Alfred Leutscher of the -British Museum of Natural History, “is a matter of adjustments for what -it has lost. It cannot masticate its food so it swallows it whole. It can -put a healthy human appetite to shame yet it can, if forced to do so, -starve for more than a year. Limbs are missing, so it walks on its ribs, -swims and grips with its tail, and climbs with its scales. The outer skin -does not grow, so from time to time it is peeled off neatly, even to the -scales over the eyes. Taste is poor, but this is compensated for by a -strong sense of smell, in which the harmless tongue assists by catching -the smell particles from the air. It is proverbially deaf, but may receive -ample warning of danger from vibrations through solid objects, which -reach its sensitive skin more swiftly than sound can travel through air.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Fastest_Growth_on_Earth"><i>The Fastest Growth on Earth</i></h2> - - -<p>In the beginning was vestureless life. It was the capacity for self perpetuation -and growth in nature, the property of a single complex chemical -mixture—protoplasm.</p> - -<p>This protoplasm may have come here from another star, a single grain -of cosmic dust blown out of the infinite. It may have been mixed by -chance in the warm seas of the earth at the beginning of time. It may -have been put together according to the design of some cosmic intelligence. -It tended to segregate into billions of trillions of infinitesimally minute -particles, each sufficient unto itself. The particles were purposeless, -voracious, irresistible and immortal. They threatened to devour space and -time and all that was in them.</p> - -<p>A cell culture of elemental, inchoate life stuff whose original substance -increased theoretically 10,000,000,000,000,000,000-fold in forty weeks -has been described by Dr. Phillip R. White of the Rockefeller Institute. -In his experiments he started with a pellet about the size of a grain of mus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span>tard -seed cut from a wart-like excrescence on a tobacco plant. He watched -it multiply until, arithmetically speaking, if no part had been discarded it -would have been an unorganized, purposeless monster spheroid of life -600,000,000 miles in diameter, comparable in size to the whole solar system -inside the orbit of Pluto.</p> - -<p>It had twelve weeks to complete its first year. At the same rate of growth -it then would have been a lusty infant the size of 400,000 solar systems. -In a few more weeks it could have swallowed the whole Milky Way galaxy. -By the end of its second year it would have filled all the space in known -creation, consumed the substance of all the galaxies, and perished of -starvation as it bulged outward into the emptiness of infinity.</p> - -<p>Such a nightmare actually happened, in reverse. Dr. White had to do -everything in a few test tubes, but he was able to witness such a phenomenon -of growth as man had not hitherto imagined. First he placed his pellet -in a special nutrient solution. It began to expand by the continuous -process of splitting in two. Two cells become four, four eight, and so on -infinitely. After about two weeks Dr. White cut away a few pellets from -the original mass and discarded the rest. These were placed in new -nutrient solutions. Every two weeks the experimenter would discard the -bulk of each mass which had accumulated and start new cultures with the -few pellets which he saved. Each culture increased in size about fifty -percent a day. At the end of forty weeks he was left with something not -much bigger than he had at the start, but the actual original pellet constituted -only about a ten-quintillionth of the final mass.</p> - -<p>He happened to have found in the tobacco excrescences an undifferentiated -kind of life. The cells had no specialized function. In the actual -plant they were kept in order by the rest of the plant cell community, -which has no use for cells with no job to do. Once in the nutrient solution, -however, they were free of all inhibiting influences. They were not, -and never became, wood cells, bark cells, pith cells, leaf cells or any of -the other numerous, specialized kinds of cells which make up the plant -world. They were something very close to the primaeval plant cells from -which, in the course of a couple of billion years, all the others have been -derived. Very early these unit structures of life learned that they must -stick together and do specialized jobs for each other under the actual -conditions of nature. Out of these combinations of specialists has arisen -all the magnificent structure of the living world.</p> - -<p>But the experimental cells at the Rockefeller Institution had nothing to -do except eat and multiply. Each of them was potentially immortal. It -did not die but renewed its youth when it had reached its growth by becoming -two baby cells. That is how life might have developed from the -beginning except for the fact that a cell must eat to live and ordinarily does -not have any accommodating scientist to feed it.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Birds_That_Duel"><i>Birds That Duel</i></h2> - - -<p>Birds that hold fencing tournaments are the big-billed toucans of Barro -Colorado Island, the Smithsonian Institution’s tropical preserve in Gatun -Lake, Panama Canal Zone.</p> - -<p>They fence with their formidable beaks but seem careful not to hurt -one another. One scientist who studied Barro Colorado’s bird life described -the birds as follows: “I saw fourteen toucans scattered about in a -big leafless tree in the center of the jungle. Two appeared to be fencing. -They stood in one spot and fenced with their bills for a half minute -or so, rested, and were at it again. Presently they flew off into the forest -and then I noticed two others that had now begun to fence. Then one of -these flew away, and the remaining one picked a new opponent and fell -to fencing again....They did not move about much while fencing, -although sometimes one climbed above the other as though to gain an -advantage. They fenced against each other’s beaks and never seemed to -strike at the body. There was a fairly rapid give and take...the bills -clattering loudly against each other.”</p> - -<p>These fencing toucans are among the more conspicuous birds of the -island, particularly because of their call—a shrill, froglike “cree,” which -is repeated over and over again and can be heard half a mile away. The -call is most frequent in the morning and late in the afternoon, but it stops -abruptly at sunset.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Brakes_on_Plant_Life"><i>Brakes on Plant Life</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a “brake” on plant development—perhaps one of nature’s most -fundamental controls over surging life. It is a relatively narrow band of -light on the edge of the invisible infrared in the solar spectrum. Plant -life, and through plants all life, is tied intimately to certain solar wave -bands. It has long been recognized that the cornerstone of all life on -earth is the process of photosynthesis by which plants, through energy -provided by sunlight, are able to synthesize carbohydrates from water -and carbon dioxide taken from the air. Animals eat these carbohydrates, -the basic food. Other animals eat the carbohydrate eaters, and thus -the chain extends from the simplest organisms to man.</p> - -<p>But without some other process the carbohydrates might be a formless -mass. The second process is that which shapes a plant and controls -development of stems, leaves, and blossoms. This may be a light effect -second in importance only to photosynthesis itself. It requires very little -solar energy. Smithsonian Institution experiments have demonstrated that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -the control is exercised by red light with a maximum of efficiency at wavelengths -around 660 millimicrons—or millionths of millimeters. It has been -demonstrated, however, that this formative action can be blocked effectively -by irradiation with wavelengths in the far red. The greatest effect is at -wavelengths between 710 and 730 millimicrons.</p> - -<p>The “brake” is not applied immediately. The maximum efficiency of -the far red energy occurs a little more than an hour after the plant is -exposed to the formative wavelengths. The implication is that the action -interferes with the development process by acting on some product the -formation of which is initiated by the shorter red wavelengths. The experiments -have been carried out with seedlings of beans. In other experiments -it has been found that damage to plants from X-ray exposure—insofar -as this results in breaking the bundles of genes, or units of -heredity—can be increased from 30 to 50 percent by previous exposure to -about the same wave band of far red light that reverses the formative -process. On the other hand, the increase in damage is nullified if the -X-ray exposure is followed by exposure to the red wave band.</p> - -<p>Breaking of the chromosomes, or strings of genes, is one of the first -evidences of damage to living organisms by exposure to ionizing radiation. -This breaking is responsible for some of the adverse hereditary effects -concerning which there has been a great deal of discussion because of -possible effects of the atomic bomb fall-out.</p> - -<p>The experiments were carried out with pollen of flowers and root tips -of beans where results are relatively easy to determine.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Snails_Are_the_Flowers_of_the_Sea"><i>Snails Are the Flowers of the Sea</i></h2> - - -<p>There are more than 80,000 kinds of snails in the world. They swim, -jump, crawl, burrow, live at the bottom of the sea and in the tops of -trees. They range in size from the horse conch of Florida, two feet long, -to animals hardly the size of a grain of sugar. About half of all species -live in the seas.</p> - -<p>Most are bottom dwellers, unable to swim, but several spend their lives -on the surface. One, the purple janthina, floats upside down on a raft of -air bubbles trapped in a special kind of mucous which it secretes. Others -live permanently attached to sea weeds. Most abundant of the sea snails -probably are the pterepods, or sea butterflies, which live several feet below -the surface in daylight but come to the top in countless hordes at night. -In some places the sea bottom is littered many feet deep with their shells, -of which there is almost constant rain as the animals die.</p> - -<p>Loveliest flowers of the sea are the nudibranchs. Seldom has nature -produced in either plants or animals such elaborate combinations of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -brilliant colors and decorative appendages as in the bodies of these shell-less -ocean snails. Although there are more than 2,000 species, they are -among the least known of all sea creatures. One reason for this is that -most of them are quite small, ranging from a fourth to half an inch in -length. Their coloring hardly can be appreciated except under some -magnification.</p> - -<p>Nowhere are they very abundant. Their habitats vary from close inshore -to deep water, but they are most likely to be seen in pools left -among shore rocks by receding tides. Their extremely elaborate color -patterns may be protective, to some extent. It is known that certain species -have the ability to change colors in response to changes in their environment. -They become bright red, for example, when living in association -with a red sponge. Even more decorative than the color patterns are the -appendages, extensions of the skin and sometimes of the digestive tract, -which take the forms of delicately modelled, almost microscopic plants.</p> - -<p>All these nudibranchs are flesh-eating creatures feeding chiefly on sea -anemones found on the sea bottom. Most of the anemones are equipped -with thousands of so-called nematocysts or stinging organs. These are -microscopic, ball-shaped structures filled with a virulent poison. The -same mechanism is best known in sea nettles. As soon as a nematocyst is -exposed to any tension it explodes, releasing this poison.</p> - -<p>The little sea snails have evolved the ability to swallow the poison balls -without exploding them. They pass into the digestive tract, but are not -digested. In some way the nematocysts find their way through certain -of the appendages growing out of the digestive organs to the outside of -the body. There they are retained, and serve the sea snail in the same -way they served the sea anemone. The little creature becomes quite -dangerous to any of its natural enemies.</p> - -<p>Among the most enthusiastic nudibranch collectors is the Emperor -of Japan, who has discovered and described several new species. Some -of his publications about them have been illustrated by leading Japanese -artists and show the unearthly beauty of the creatures to the best -advantage.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Brutal_South_Pole_Birds"><i>The Brutal South Pole Birds</i></h2> - - -<p>The southernmost birds on earth—the only higher animal except man -and his dogs that go close to the South Pole—are the Antarctic skuas. -They are fierce, brutal little killers. Dwellers in the earth’s most inhospitable -habitat, they have been able to survive largely because of their -extreme rapaciousness.</p> - -<p>All other Antarctic birds, such as the penguins, stay close to the shore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -of the desolate continent. The skua has been seen at least 300 miles inland, -and occasionally may fly across the pole itself.</p> - -<p>These birds arrive on the coast of Antarctica about the middle of -October, the beginning of the southern summer, after spending the winter -north of the circle. Their arrival is timed to coincide with the egg-laying -of the Adelie penguins. The skua’s chief food consists of penguin eggs -and chicks which it devours by the hundreds. Scores of half-eaten, -trampled bodies of young penguins always can be found during the -hatching season near the sites of penguin rookeries. The skua is hardly -a match for the parent birds but is expert in separating chicks from the -brood and killing them when they have no protection. It is a creature -of relatively enormous strength and endurance and flies long distances -carrying chunks of meat bigger than itself. It also is an extremely noisy, -quarrelsome creature—an outstanding example of the philosophy of every -individual for itself. There is no brooding of chicks nor protecting them -from the elements. The parents hardly bother to feed them.</p> - -<p>Little skuas, it is reported, come out of the eggs fighting. Usually there -are two eggs to a nest. One chick probably is a trifle weaker than the -other. In a short time it is driven from the nest, killed and eaten by its -rapacious brother or sister. It may even become the prey of its own -hungry parents. Skuas also have the habit of eating their own eggs. -This keeps the population within the limits of the food supply.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Silk-Bearded_Clams"><i>Silk-Bearded Clams</i></h2> - - -<p>Jason’s golden fleece may have been woven from the beard of a silk-bearded -clam. The same sort of cloth, in fact, still is produced on a -small scale in Italy, chiefly for the tourist trade. A silk glove of modern -manufacture now is in the Smithsonian collections.</p> - -<p>The clam is a giant Mediterranean species, the pinna marina. Its shell -reaches a maximum length of about three feet, but the average is less -than half this. From a gland in its “foot” it secretes milk-like strands -with which it attaches itself to the sea bottom. These strands are as much -as a foot long.</p> - -<p>The silk is of exceptionally fine quality—at least it was so regarded by -the Arabs who maintained centers for manufacture of the cloth in Spain, -Italy and North Africa. Says one Arab author: “At a certain time of the -year an animal comes forth from the sea and rubs itself on the stones of -the seashore. A down soft as silk with a golden color falls off it. It is -fine and small and garments are woven from it which take on different -colors during the day. The Umayyad kings (of Spain) used to put restrictions -upon it so that it was only exported secretly. The price of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> -garment is more than 100 dinars, on account of its fineness and beauty.”</p> - -<p>The value of a dinar—the gold coin of the Moslem world—is difficult to -calculate in any present coinage, but it was at least the equivalent of -a dollar.</p> - -<p>Says another Arab writer: “I have seen how it is gathered. Divers dive -into the sea and bring out tubers like onions with a kind of neck which -has hairs on the upper part. The tubers like onions burst and let forth -hairs which are combed and become like wool. They spin it and make -a woof of it so as to pass a warp of silk through it. The most magnificent -royal garments of Tunis are made of it.”</p> - -<p>Gigantic clams, nearly five feet long and weighing more than 400 -pounds, who raise crops of microscopic plants for their own sustenance -are among nature’s fantasies found on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. -These molluscan titans have formed a curious partnership with the -zooxanthellae, a family of microscopic algae. The plants live as parasites -in the blood cells of the inner lobe of the clam’s mantle. Upon this mantle -is a lens-like structure which looks like an eye. These mollusks, however, -are blind as any other clams and the eye-like protuberances, it has been -determined, are only windows by which light is admitted to the parasitic -algae within the blood cells. The surplus of algae is carried by the -blood stream to the clam’s digestive organs where it serves as food.</p> - -<p>Another giant clam, the tridacna of East Indian seas, may weigh up to -600 pounds. The monsters constitute a peril for divers who unwittingly -step inside the open valves. These snap shut, imprisoning the diver’s -foot and, unless he can get help, he is held in the trap and drowned.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Pearls_Grow_in_Brooks"><i>Pearls Grow in Brooks</i></h2> - - -<p>Excellent pearls occur occasionally in fresh water clams. A pearl of -perfect form and pure color was found in such a clam taken from a brook -near Paterson, New Jersey, in 1857. It sold at Tiffany’s for $1,000 and -shortly afterwards was resold in Paris for $2,200. This started pearl hunts -in brooks all over the country.</p> - -<p>On the arrival of Europeans in Florida, Louisiana and Virginia, fabulous -legends were circulated about the enormous treasures to be obtained -by plundering Indian graves. A contemporary chronicler of the audacious -DeSoto expedition, reported that the conquistadore got 350 pounds of -fine pearls at the Creek town of Cofitachique on the Savannah River.</p> - -<p>A member of the first Virginia colony “gathered together from among -the savage people about five thousande; of which number he chose so -many as mayd a fayre chain; which for their likenesse and uniformitie in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -roundnesse, orietnesse and pidenesse, of many excellente colours with -equalities in greatnesse were verie fayre and rare.”</p> - -<p>The supply, however, was quite limited. Indian pearls were the subject -of a special study by the late Dr. William H. Holmes. “The majority of -those obtained,” he reported, “were ruined as jewels by the heat employed -in opening the shellfish from which they were abstracted. Many of the -larger specimens probably were not real pearls but polished beads cut -from the nacre of sea shells and quite worthless as gems. It has been -found that the real pearls were obtained from bivalve shells—from the -oyster along the sea shore and in tidewater inlets and from the mussel -on the shores of lakes and rivers.</p> - -<p>“But the very general use of pearls by the pre-Columbian natives is -amply attested. More than 60,000, nearly two pecks, were obtained, -drilled and undrilled, from a single burial mound near Madisonville, -Ohio.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Grasshopper-Infested_Glaciers"><i>Grasshopper-Infested Glaciers</i></h2> - - -<p>Among America’s natural curiosities are “grasshopper glaciers.” These -are great masses of glacial ice containing layers of imbedded, frozen -grasshoppers. Such layers are probably remnants of vast migrations -which have taken place at irregular intervals over several centuries. Great -hordes of the insects either flew over the glacier or were carried there by -winds, and while there sudden snow storms or cold air rising from the -ice field caused them to drop. They were imbedded so quickly in the -falling snow, which later became ice, that they have remained perfectly -preserved for centuries. The most notable of these glaciers is in the -Beartooth mountains of Montana. Others have been reported from the -high mountains of Africa.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Monster_Clams_of_Polynesia"><i>Monster Clams of Polynesia</i></h2> - - -<p>Largest of clams and largest of all shellfish is a native of Polynesian -seas. The two halves may weigh as much as 500 pounds. The flesh is -eaten raw by natives. The interior of the shell is like polished marble. -Such shells frequently were used as founts for holy water in European -churches. A particularly large one attracted much attention in the -Church of St. Sulpice in Paris. Such clams are found at depths up to -17 fathoms. They fasten themselves to rocks by a process so tough that -it can only be severed with an axe.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Corals_Combine_Plants_and_Animal_Life"><i>Corals Combine Plants and Animal Life</i></h2> - - -<p>A coral reef is a gigantic “plant-animal.” It is a community of countless -billions of plants and countless billions of animals which act as a -single organism, like the countless millions of specialized cells that make -up the body of a man or a mouse. It is probably the most efficient of all -earthly creatures. It is self-sufficient, creating its own constant food supply. -It is essentially immortal. It is hungry like an animal. It is motionless -like a plant. It is both and combines the attributes of both. It is the -largest and most enduring of all creatures of land or sea.</p> - -<p>The animals are coral polyps. They are tiny, wormlike organisms with -mouths surrounded by constantly probing tentacles. They are rapacious and -insatiable. They are essentially voraciously hungry stomachs, bloodless, -brainless, sightless, heartless. The polyps are close to the bottom of animal -life, vaguely related to the white, stinging sea nettles which are the -scourges of summer beaches. These little creatures extract lime from -sea water and secrete for themselves limestone “houses,” the “bones” of the -superorganism. Out of these they have built up islands and almost subcontinents. -Sharing their limestone cells are quite unrelated organisms, -single-celled plants or algae. These plants possess the green of grass and -forests, whose molecules create out of carbon dioxide and water through -the energy of captured sunlight starches and sugars which are the fuel -of animal life. This process of photosynthesis is the cornerstone of all -life on earth.</p> - -<p>Thus the plants feed their partner animals. The excretion of the animals, -in turn, provides the essential fertilizer of the plants. Considering -the coral reef as a superorganism one might almost say that it eats itself -but loses nothing in the process. A reef, considered as a superorganism, -represents about the last word in nature’s efficiency. It has been found, for -example, that one acre of coral reef produces about 74,000 pounds of -sugar a year, a record barely reached by man on his most efficiently -managed plantations. All this sugar is devoured by the polyps. Apparently -the fertility of the surrounding sea makes little difference. Coral -reefs flourish in parts of the ocean that are essentially deserts.</p> - -<p>A marine biological laboratory has been established by the U. S. -Atomic Energy Commission, to study effects of the radiation from -nuclear explosions on plant-animal populations. The first requirement -has been to determine the natural condition of the organisms before being -subjected to this radiation. Then whatever changes take place with subsequent -bomb tests can be noted. The work has been undertaken by -biologists of Duke University and the University of Georgia. Such a life -community, both a vast assembly of organisms and a sort of superorganism,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -is an almost perfect subject for the required observations. The first job, -according to the commission report, has been to measure the “basal -metabolism” of the reef as a whole.</p> - -<p>Admittedly the conception of a reef as a sort of superorganism is -somewhat mystical. The Duke and University of Georgia biologists do not -maintain that there is any consciousness of constituting a whole on the -part of the individual organisms. It is likely that they have no consciousness -of anything. The outstanding fact is that they behave so -much like a whole.</p> - -<p>A reef is an outstanding example of the two major divisions of life, -plant and animal, working in perfect co-operation. The actual co-operation -of plant and animal in an integrated organism is not unique for the -coral reefs. Something of the sort occurs in certain sea worms, near the -bottom of the worm family, that grow green algae in their blood streams. -These worms make some of the beaches of Normandy grass-green in summer. -The algae are necessary for their existence. There may be a few -other examples throughout the animal kingdom.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_First_EngineersTermites"><i>The First Engineers—Termites</i></h2> - - -<p>Termite civilization probably has reached its greatest heights in architecture -and engineering. Australian mounds, built by workers out of -earth particles cemented together by a salivary gland secretion, are steeple-shaped, -as much as twenty feet high, and with bases twelve feet in diameter. -Hundreds of such structures may be scattered over a few acres. -Such an assemblage looks like a large native village, although architecturally -the structures are far beyond the abilities of primitive man. -The common type consists of a solid, hard outer wall which has the -strength of superfine concrete. It is almost impossible to break through -this material. Immediately inside are numerous thin-walled passages -and galleries. Below these, at the ground level and about in the center, -are the quarters of king and queen and the nursery. From the mound, -passages for the food foragers lead in all directions through the soil. A -mound two feet high will house approximately two million individuals.</p> - -<p>Long before architects, termites developed the art of air conditioning. -Proper humidity inside the nest is essential to the existence of the soft-bodied -workers. The majority of species, however, are found in latitudes -with long, dry seasons. To meet such conditions the insects achieved -humidity control in various ways still not understood. Notable are the -structures of the Australian compass termites who erect dwellings eight -to twelve feet high with flattened sides. The broad ends always point east -and west, the narrow ends north and south. These nests are strong enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -to support the stamping of wild bulls. A group of them looks like a particularly -well-constructed native village, or the site of some extinct human -civilization. Apparently the precise orientation of the nests is associated -with prevailing winds and in some way contributes to maintaining -a constant humidity.</p> - -<p>The blind creatures seem to have developed special sense organs, unknown -to man and probably unique in the animal kingdom. One of these -is reportedly a brain barometer which is extremely sensitive to slight -humidity changes. Both soldiers and workers respond with military -precision to any threat to their neighbors. This believed due to an -extreme sensitivity to vibration.</p> - -<p>Few varieties of termites can endure sunshine. Some construct paperlike -umbrellas which they carry with them when they come above ground. -One species on Barro Colorado island in the Panama Canal Zone which -attacks live trees first builds a thin earth crust around the trunk, seven to -eight feet from the earth. Beneath this crust they seek out weak spots in -wood which enable them to penetrate into the heart of the tree.</p> - -<p>Termite armies, in distinction from those of ants, serve only as defensive -forces. There are two kinds of soldiers. Some are equipped with enormous -jaws with which to rend the enemy. These are so tenacious that -when the body is torn away from the prey the mandibles remain in -place. Others are the bayonet men and chemical warfare troops. These -fighters have a protrusion on the front of the head which looks like a long -nose but which actually has developed from a primitive eye.</p> - -<p>From this protrusion a sticky acid is exuded. In rare instance it may -be spurted a short distance—an inch or less. These soldiers fight battles -to the death with war-like ants which invade their nests. The termite -warrior rams with his nose-like organ the so-called “pedicle” of the ant, -the narrowest part of its body, smearing it with the liquid. This never -has been completely analyzed. It is a powerful acid, but is not the well-known -formic acid exuded by ants. It has strong corrosive properties -when applied to metals. It has a pungent odor which, however, is -characteristic of all termites and the ancestral cockroaches.</p> - -<p>Between ants and termites there is perpetual war. Army ants, especially, -try to raid termite nests to feed on the young whenever they can -find any crack in the walls through which they can squeeze their bodies. -But when there is any break in the nest the termite soldiers immediately -arrange themselves in a circle around the opening while workers bring -up little slabs of earth from the interior to patch the wall.</p> - -<p>Most common of the Barro Colorado species are the amitermes which -build hemisphere-shaped red mounds about two feet in diameter. These -are made of tiny particles of earth which have passed through the ali<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span>mentary -tracts of the insects where they are coated with a cement-like -material. Such a nest is impervious to water. It is so sturdy that a heavy -man can jump up and down on it without breaking the roof. It cannot -be broken open with a machete.</p> - -<p>Another common species build the so-called “niggerhead” nests, about -the size of footballs, on fence posts and trees,—especially dead trees whose -stumps protrude out of Gatun Lake. These nests also are extremely sturdy. -They are made of a mixture of earth grains and finely digested wood. -From such a nest numerous runways traverse the trunk, sometimes connecting -with smaller colonial “niggerheads.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Oyster_Oddities"><i>Oyster Oddities</i></h2> - - -<p>An oyster can change its sex several times during its life. This has been -determined by Dr. Paul Galtsoff of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service -by observing an experimental colony. In the first year 8% of the -males changed to females and 13% of the females became males. In the -second year 11% of the males changed sex and 12% of the females. -One sex change, Dr. Galtsoff found, makes the same individual more likely -to undergo another.</p> - -<p>A single Pacific coast oyster produces approximately 10,000,000,000 -descendants a year. If all survived in five generations they would constitute -a mass eight times the size of the world.</p> - -<p>Clams and oysters appear to be about the most stupid animals in -creation. Actually each has three “brains,” or nerve ganglia. One -controls the feeding apparatus, another the viscera, and a third the -utilization of oxygen.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Worlds_Biggest_Sneeze"><i>The World’s Biggest Sneeze</i></h2> - - -<p>The sneeze of the elephant has been described as “like the bursting of a -boiler of considerable size.” When the elephant feels the onset of one of -these titanic eruptions it appears to realize that a momentous event is -about to take place. It becomes extremely restless and is seemingly unable -to stand still for a moment. The sneeze is preceded by a tremendous, wall-shaking -bellow.</p> - -<p>Although elephants are subject to frequent colds the sneeze is a rare -phenomenon. For this reason it is regarded as a good luck sign, especially -among Moslems of India, who gather around and wait patiently for the -event. When it starts they bow their heads and pray for the realization -of their wishes.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Luminescent_Ctenophores"><i>The Luminescent Ctenophores</i></h2> - - -<p>There are windless nights when Caribbean waters seem like fields of -green fireflies. This is due to vast numbers of luminescent ctenophores -or comb-bearers. One the most abundant and least known forms of animal -life, they are also among the most delicate. Although they are related -to the planarian worm and the jelly fish, they are quite unique.</p> - -<p>Superficially they seem little more than animate bags of water with -skins thinner than the most delicate tissue paper. They abound in staggering -numbers over most of the world. One of the most familiar types -is the American mnemiopsis. On calm summer days the amber green -species sometimes covers completely thousands of square yards of sea—like -a raft formed of millions of individuals floating just below the surface. -A classic ground for this phenomenon is Narragansett Bay.</p> - -<p>Like the rest of its race, this ctenophore is like a fragment of moonlight -on the sea. It is so fragile that the slightest current of water in its neighborhood -is sufficient to tear it to bits. It is about as elusive as moonlight. -When grasped gently the jelly-like substance slides through the fingers. -Taken in a net and placed in salt water it vanishes completely on the way -from boat to laboratory. Intact specimens are almost unknown in scientific -collections.</p> - -<p>Ordinarily they live at considerable depths in the zone of absolute calm -where all wave movement ceases. Great hordes rise to be the surface only -on nights when the surface of the ocean is like a sheet of glass.</p> - -<p>They are among the loveliest of all sea creatures. The delicacy of their -coloring is that of spring arbutus or anemone. Their presence is indicated -chiefly by the brilliant flashes of rainbow colors as they pass a few -inches below the surface.</p> - -<p>The majority are pear-shaped. Giant of the race is Venus' girdle, best -known in the Mediterranean but found in most sub-tropical seas and -sometimes swept as far north as the coast of New England. It is an -undulating, iridescent ribbon as much as five feet long and two inches -wide. The mnemiopsis of southern New England waters is ball-shaped -with a diameter of about four inches.</p> - -<p>Ctenophores are most varied in the Bay of Naples; there 18 species have -been identified. There are 14 species now known in the Caribbean. In -absolute numbers, however, the fragile creatures are most abundant in -North Atlantic and sub-Arctic waters where, because of ordinarily rough -seas, they seldom are seen. There they constitute one of the major -menaces of the cod fisheries. Despite their fragility they are vicious little -animals, devouring cod eggs and fry in incalculable numbers.</p> - -<p>Each living water bag has a slit-like mouth on top and what apparently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -is a sense organ of some kind on the bottom. The minute, struggling prey -are seized in two pincer-like tentacles and pushed into the mouth. They -are digested quickly by the juices in the water sack in which float about -whatever vital organs the Ctenophore possesses.</p> - -<p>The ctenophores are by no means aberrant jellyfish, which they resemble -only in the extreme tenuousness of their bodies. They have no umbrellas -and no stinging cells. Two forms are known which have flattened bodies -like planarian worms and which creep on the sea floor. Because of -various similarities in the development of both creatures some zoologists -believe they are immediate descendants of a unknown common ancestor.</p> - -<p>The function of their weird green luminescence is unknown. It would -seem of questionable value in attracting prey and it is difficult to imagine -that these most fragile and evanescent of earth’s creatures have any sort of -love life. Nevertheless lightmaking seems to constitute a purposeful part -of their activities.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Forest_That_Time_Forgot"><i>The Forest That Time Forgot</i></h2> - - -<p>Knee-high red and pink ferns fill the jungle hollow. Around them are -green leaves covered with parallel white lines in sets of five with dots -on the lines which look like notes of music. These leaves are known as -“music paper.” There is no record that anybody has tried to play the -tunes nature has written on them.</p> - -<p>Mixed with them are “sandpaper leaves” with surfaces so rough that -they are used locally for the same purpose as sheets of sandpaper elsewhere. -Sinister hangman’s ropes swing, as if awaiting their victims, -from branches along the jungle paths.</p> - -<p>Such are a few random notes from a cloudland jungle—in many ways -like a forest of prehistoric days—in Venezuela’s Henry Pittier national -forest. Here flourishes the giant tree fern, most characteristic tree of -the vast ancient forests from which coal deposits were formed. In the -tree fern fronds lurk worms and amphibians not vastly different from -the tree creatures of the Devonian geological area.</p> - -<p>This is a forest of the central tropics. Paradoxically it is also, when -seen from a little distance, a New England forest of late September with -groves of straight, white-trunked palm trees which look like birches and -patches of flame color in the treetops which look like maple leaves starting -to put on their autumn coloring. The temperature, in fact, is about that -of a warm Autumn day in New England, especially as dusk comes and a -white veil of mist rolls over the mountaintops from the sea.</p> - -<p>The patches of flame color which look like maple leaves are orange -and red blossoms of the gallito or “cock flowers,” so called because the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -bloom resembles so much the body of a miniature rooster. The gallito -appears high in the treetops. It is about the most abundant and conspicuous -flower of the cloud jungle. It grows on big, grey-trunked trees -whose bark looks like rough-woven linen. Each blooming tree is filled with -brilliantly colored humming birds and red and green parrots.</p> - -<p>Trees in the high jungle hills wear thick green overcoats of moss and -lichens. There is one dark-green form of moss which grows about an inch -high and looks like a miniature cedar leaf. Many of the older trees, -especially palms, are “rusty” with a species of red lichen which spreads -rapidly over the trunks. Among them is a blossoming tree with a straight, -spined grey trunk from 30 to 40 feet high which is a close relative of the -potato.</p> - -<p>The cloud forest is predominantly the home of the epiphytes, such as -long, dangling masses of red, pink and pearl orchids which grow on the -trees. They require plenty of moisture. In this mountain swamp the -trees always are soaking wet. This is an ideal environment for the eight -or ten varieties of moss which grow so luxuriantly.</p> - -<p>There are green-walled cave openings ten feet high and ten feet wide -in the bottoms of the trunks of giant trees. Exposed roots lie across the -paths, covered with moss in which there are leprous white spots. They -look like enormous, writhing malevolent green serpents.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Versatility_of_the_Elephants_Trunk"><i>The Versatility of the Elephant’s Trunk</i></h2> - - -<p>The elephant’s trunk is a tool surpassed in effectiveness only by the hand -of man. It is a muscular prolongation of combined nose and upper lip, -which have grown together. It is associated closely with the motor and -sensory centers in the brain cortex and is under such delicate voluntary -control that with its enormous strength is combined extreme fineness of -movement. The trunk terminates in one of two fingerlike projections -which seem capable of almost as delicate voluntary movements as are -human fingers.</p> - -<p>The trunk is a supernose. As a sensory organ it is the elephant’s chief -means of securing information about his environment. With it the animal -can detect the direction, and perhaps the distance, of olfactory stimuli -from all sorts of sources. It is as vital in an elephantine scheme of things -as are eyes to a human being.</p> - -<p>The trunk is the elephant’s chief servant Without it the monster is the -equivalent of a blind man. It has approximately 40,000 muscles and a -highly developed sensory and motor nerve supply. The organ has enormous -strength, sufficient to tear up a tree by its roots.</p> - -<p>Here are some of the things the animal is credited with being able to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -do with the trunk: pick up a pin from the ground, select and secure a single -tussock of appetizing herbage, uncork a wine bottle, untie a slip knot, unbolt -a gate, throw up and catch a baseball, pull the trigger to fire a gun, -ring a bell.</p> - -<p>A female elephant owned by the Duke of Devonshire in the 1880’s was -allowed almost a free range over the park of his estate. She made herself -useful by sweeping the paths with a broom and by carrying a garden -watering pot. Her most celebrated achievement was that of opening a -tightly corked wine bottle. She would hold it against the ground at about -a 45 degree angle with one of her front feet and gradually twist out the -cork—barely protruding above the neck of the bottle—with her trunk. -After emptying the contents into her mouth she would hand the empty -bottle to her keeper.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fiendish_Vampires_of_the_Night"><i>Fiendish Vampires of the Night</i></h2> - - -<p>About the middle of the eighteenth century belief in vampirism spread -like an epidemic across France and England. Dead men hellishly condemned -to live forever came out of their sepulchres at midnight, took the -forms of various animals, and feasted on the blood of the living (who, in -turn, died and became vampires). This was a superstition which previously -had been confined largely to Slavic countries. Its influence in France -and England seems to have started with tales brought back from the New -World by Spanish explorers of actual vampires—sinister, black-winged, -fiend-faced flying mammals who actually fed on the blood of sleeping -humans. Thenceforth the popular conception of a vampire was that of a -large bat, hovering over the unsuspecting, eternally doomed sleeper.</p> - -<p>The stories doubtless were greatly ornamented and exaggerated. However, -the vampire bat of the American tropics is a gruesome reality. It -is now known to be a carrier of the rabies virus.</p> - -<p>It is a small, brown bat condemned by nature to live exclusively on -blood. Its throat is too small to swallow solid particles. Its stomach is -especially adapted for rapid digestion. It feasts on all sorts of mammals, -including man, and the incisions of its razor-sharp teeth are so nearly -painless that a sleeper seldom is awakened. Supposedly it always bites man -on the bottoms of the toes.</p> - -<p>The loathsome little creature does not actually suck blood, as long was -supposed. Instead, according to observers, it laps up blood with its -tongue. Its saliva is believed to contain an anti-coagulant which keeps -a wound bleeding for hours. From 20 to 25 minutes is required for a -meal, during which the animal gorges itself until its body becomes -spherical.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span></p> - -<p>“We slept so soundly”, records an Amazon explorer, “it was not until -morning we discovered that we had been raided during the night by vampire -bats and the whole party was covered with blood stains from the many -bites. It may seem unreasonable to the uninitiated that we could have -been thus bitten and not disturbed in our sleep but the fact remains that -there is no pain produced at the time of the bite, nor for several hours -afterwards.”</p> - -<p>It feeds only at night Like most New World tropical bats, it sleeps -during the day in the total darkness of caverns where it hangs in clusters -from the ceilings. Such a bat cave, about as gruesome a place as could -be found on earth, was explored a few years ago by Dr. Raymond L. Ditmars -of the American Museum of Natural History. This cave, which the -bats shared with scorpions who had wing spreads of five inches, was found -in the Chagras Valley of Panama.</p> - -<p>The mammal has a strikingly spider-like appearance. Probably alone -among bats it can walk as a quadruped, using its wings as front feet. That, -of course, is what they were originally before the grotesque creatures -invaded the air.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Remarkable_Orchids"><i>Remarkable Orchids</i></h2> - - -<p>A flower that opens only in moonlight is one of Venezuela’s plant -curiosities. It is an ivory white, velvety orchid with a dazzling blossom. -For full fertilization it depends entirely on nocturnal butterflies which sip -nectar while pollenization takes place.</p> - -<p>This curious flower is one of approximately 800 orchid species, some of -them among the most beautiful in the world, which grow in Venezuela. -Among these is probably the prettiest and rarest of all orchids, the mother-of-pearl -flower which can be found, and then only rarely, in the Gran -Sabana country at altitudes of more than 3,000 feet. Only a few specimens -ever have been brought out by collectors.</p> - -<p>Another high mountain variety has square petals with fringed edges. -Found in the jungles of the upper Orinoco is an orchid with blossoms -measuring up to 16 inches in diameter. A completely unique orchid has -been found growing in water. (All other species live as parasites on trees -or rocks—or in the soil like other plants.)</p> - -<p>Throughout the world there are more than 20,000 species of orchids, the -great majority of which are found only in the mountainous regions of the -tropics. A few, however, can be found growing as far north as the Arctic -Circle.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Natures_Insecticide_The_Millipede"><i>Nature’s Insecticide: The Millipede</i></h2> - - -<p>Far leas malevolent than the centipede—and probably a somewhat more -primitive form of animal life—is the millipede or “thousand legs”. It is -a strictly vegetarian creature that lives under stones, logs or in rotting -tree trunks and feeds on soft roots, leaves and fruits.</p> - -<p>Millipedes are seldom seen. They shun light, although in the tropics -they sometimes come out of their retreats after heavy rains and crawl over -the ground. The animal has twenty to forty legs, two pair on each segment -of the body—a characteristic in which it differs striking from the -centipedes to whom it is only distantly related. Movement is in an almost -mathematically straight line, with a series of wave-like undulations in -which apparently all the legs on one side of the body move in unison. All -millipedes are essentially blind. Their eyes are able only to distinguish -light from dark, but as they crawl every inch of their path is explored by -their delicately sensitive antennae.</p> - -<p>So secretive is their life that relatively little is known of their behavior. -The female of one European species burrows in the earth, moistens bits of -soil with a sticky fluid from the salivary glands in her mouth, and thus -makes tiny bricks. These she builds into the form of a hollow sphere, -about the size of a walnut, with a hole in the top through which she lays -from 50 to 100 eggs. Others lay their eggs in bunches in the soil and coil -around them until they hatch. Mothers may even remain with the young -for a few days.</p> - -<p>The bite of the millipede, unlike that of the centipede, is not poisonous. -But the animal has “stink glands” from which a foul-smelling liquid containing -the extremely poisonous prussic acid is exuded. This presumably -affords an adequate protection against driver ants and birds, the natural -enemies. The secretion is so powerful that a couple of millipedes placed -in a can kill insects as effectively as a small dose of potassium cyanide.</p> - -<p>One member of the race, spirobolus marginatus, as much as four inches -long and with a body made up of fifty-seven segments, is fairly common -under logs in the northeastern United States. At certain seasons these -creatures become restless, leave the soil and come into houses. They may -swarm in basements and on ground floors. They crawl up walls and drop -from ceilings. These invasions usually take place in the autumn and presumably -are associated with migrations to find winter quarters. In some -cottages surrounded by trees as many as seven hundred have been counted -in a room in one evening. However embarrassing to hosts, it must be -realized that millipedes never bite and that they do no damage to furniture. -The only accusation yet made against them refers to one species, the so-called -greenhouse millipede, which may cause considerable damage to -potted plants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span></p> - -<p>In emergencies the millipede is able to roll itself in a tight ball like -its presumed ancestors, the primaeval trilobites. In one Madagascan -species this ball is as big as a golf ball. Some millipedes are less than -a twentieth of an inch long.</p> - -<p>Gigantic millipedes are known from the tree fern swamps of the Carboniferous -geological period when the great coal deposits were formed. -They were about a foot long and their bodies were covered with long, -sharp spines. This apparently was to make them distasteful to the -giant amphibians, remotely related to present day frogs and toads, who -were the dominant four-footed animals in the world at the time. Thus -the millipede has almost as lengthy a history on earth as the more insect-like -cockroach of those same forests of 250,000,000 years age.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Bats_Have_Built-in_Radar"><i>Bats Have Built-in Radar</i></h2> - - -<p>Bats “see” with their ears. Echoes of sounds inaudible to man enable -the flying mammals to find their way through the almost absolute -darkness of deep cavern or jungle. These creatures might be considered -inventors of the Navy’s sonar device by which underwater obstacles are -located by echoes—or even, in a sense, of radar.</p> - -<p>Almost entirely creatures of night and late twilight, bats have small and -poorly developed eyes. When one is on the wing it emits an almost -constant succession of inaudible “squeaks” at a sound frequency of between -25,000 and 70,000 vibrations a second. The human hearing range -reaches only to 30,000. Each squeak, according to measurements by Dr. -Donald R. Griffin of Cornell University, lasts about two-hundredths of -a second. In ordinary flight over open country it is repeated about ten -times a second. By means of the echoes it apparently is possible to detect -and avoid any obstacle, even one as small as a strand of silk thread strung -across the path, within a distance of ten or twelve feet.</p> - -<p>The bat does not hear its own squeaks. Each time one is uttered an -ear muscle contracts automatically, thus momentarily shutting off the -sound itself so that only the echo can be heard. It is possible that each -animal has its individual sound pattern and is guided only by its own -echoes. Otherwise, it would seem, there would be complete confusion from -the echoes of several hundred bats moving in a flock.</p> - -<p>Largest of the bats are northern India’s flying foxes. The body is -shaped almost precisely like that of a small fox and is covered with fine, -dark-brown hair. The wing spread is about three feet. These flying foxes -move in flocks of thousands. They are exclusively fruit eaters and forest -dwellers. They are the only bats eaten by man. Their flesh is said to -resemble chicken.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p> - -<p>Insect-eating bats are prisoners of the air. Once on the wing they must -remain in flight all night until they return to the dark caves where they -sleep all day, suspended head downwards. Flying from dusk to dawn requires -an enormous amount of energy for which a lot of food is required. -One of these animals probably must eat about a third of its own weight in -insects each night. Thus it is a good friend of the farmer and one of the -potent factors in keeping the balance of nature.</p> - -<p>If a bat lit on the ground or on any solid object it would be very -difficult, perhaps impossible, to get it on the wing again. This is accomplished -only by falling from its sleeping place.</p> - -<p>The hibernation of temperate zone bats appears very close to complete -lifelessness and is probably the most deathlike sleep experienced by any -mammal. Animals close to a cave entrance have been found completely -coated with ice, as moisture has congealed on the fur. Yet when they -wake in the spring they appear none the worse for the experience.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Crabs_That_Climb_Trees"><i>Crabs That Climb Trees</i></h2> - - -<p>A fantastic race of small, pale hermit crabs are the most numerous -and conspicuous animal inhabitants of war-wrecked Pacific islands. The -multitudes of these crustaceans may have a considerable role, beneficial -and otherwise, in present efforts to cover these white sand wastes with -grass and trees.</p> - -<p>Of all creatures which start life in the sea, hermit crabs have become best -adapted to continual existence on land. Like others of their race they are -shell-less and soft-bodied. For protection against enemies and against being -dried out by the glaring sun, they live in houses—the abandoned shells -of other sea creatures which have been cast ashore. They carry their -houses on their backs. When a crab outgrows its shelter it moves to a -larger one, changing its dwelling four or five times during a normal lifetime. -There is never any housing shortage for those in the small stages -of growth. However, the sole refuge for the crab which has reached -full size is the “cats-eye,” the shell of a marine snail as much as three -inches in diameter with an opalescent pink inner lining which glistens like -the eye of a cat. Only the hermits which can find such shells survive.</p> - -<p>In searching for food the crabs climb the trunks and branches of -kou trees which grow all over the Pacific islands. They eat the bark along -the upper side of the branches; most trees show long scars which are the -results of past injuries.</p> - -<p>A common habit, especially of the undersized individuals, is cleverly -to tear off and eat only the ovaries and stamens of blossoming plants. -“These are certainly not isolated acts,” says a Pacific Science Board report,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> -“but ones perfected by practice and perhaps instinct. The crabs probably -decimate the flora, feeding particularly on tender seedlings. They largely -are responsible for the paucity of different kinds of plants on some -islands. The seeds of any new kinds of plants washing to its shores are -subject to their inspection and, if palatable, sacrificed to their appetite. -The foreign plants now being introduced as seeds and seedlings must not -only surmount the drastic condition of drought and salinity but also the -hurdle of these voracious animals.”</p> - -<p>In the spring the females carry their numerous maroon colored eggs -attached to their abdomens. When do they return to the ocean to allow -these eggs to hatch their free-swimming larvae that resemble so closely the -shrimp-like ancestor of all hermit crabs? Where do they throw off the -hard, non-expanding shells they have requisitioned as they increase in -size, in burrows on land or in the ocean? How, with gills adapted for -respiration in water, have they perfected respiration on land? Questions -such as these are still unanswered.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ferocious_Centipede"><i>The Ferocious Centipede</i></h2> - - -<p>“Natives of Brazil call the centipede the ambua. These creatures -of a thousand legs, some of which are more than a foot long, bend -as they crawl along and are reckoned very poisonous. In their going it is -observable that on each side of their bodies every leg has its motion, one -regularly after the other; being numerous, their legs have a kind of undulation -and thereby communicate to the body a swifter progression than one -would imagine where so many short feet are to take so many short steps -that follow one another, rolling on like the waves of the sea.”</p> - -<p>The eighteenth century British naturalist Charles Owen was not alone in -considering the millipedes and centipedes as kinds of snakes; nor in being -confused, as naturalists still are, at their curious, complicated way of moving. -There had been highly exaggerated reports. The Spaniard Ulloa, -Columbus' gold assayer, described some centipedes he saw on the northern -coast of South America as a yard long and six inches wide. Their bite, he -contended, was fatal.</p> - -<p>“In the Kubbo-Kale valley,” reported British naturalist H. S. Wood -in 1935, “I saw a centipede ten inches long. Its general color was electric -blue with bright coral red fangs. It was the most terrible thing I have -seen in my tramps through the forest.” Wood was stung by one of these -Indian centipedes; he described the sensation as “exactly like that of a third -degree burn.”</p> - -<p>These animals are neither snakes, insects nor worms. They constitute an -independent and intermediate order of animal life. They are considered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -a little nearer to the spiders than to true insects. They have retained the -ways of life of the ancestral worm.</p> - -<p>Most of the centipedes are active, ferocious, flesh-eating animals. Their -poison fangs are deadly to their normal prey—earthworms and insects. -Some of the larger species do not hesitate to attack lizards and small -mice. A bite, however painful, probably never is fatal to a human. All are -land animals which creep or crawl under logs and bark. They usually -remain in seclusion during the day but come out of their retreats at -night when they wander over the ground and attract attention to themselves -by their phosphorescence. A few have been described as sea dwellers -but these do not actually live in the water. They crawl along the shore -and are submerged by each tide. Some or completely blind, others have -many eyes.</p> - -<p>The centipedes are among the most repulsive of all animals, yet there -are accounts of South American Indian children who drag very large -ones out of the earth and eat them. Religious fanatics among North -African Arabs swallow them alive as proof of their supernatural powers.</p> - -<p>Tropical America has many varieties with varied and curious habits, -like the Nicaraguan species described by Thomas Belt:</p> - -<p>“Among the centipedes was one which had a singular method of securing -prey. It is about three inches long and sluggish in its movements but -from its tubular mouth it is able to discharge a viscid fluid to a distance of -about three inches, which stiffens with exposure to the air to the consistency -of a spider’s web, but stronger. With this it can envelope and capture -its prey, just as a fowler throws his net over a bird.</p> - -<p>“Some of the other centipedes have phosphorescent spots in the head, -which shine brightly at night, casting a greenish light for a little distance -in front of them. I think these lights may serve to dazzle or allure the -insects on which they prey.”</p> - -<p>Centipedes have been observed attacking earthworms. One may grapple -with its victim for several hours before killing it. Then it sucks the blood.</p> - -<p>A fairly familiar visitor in the southern United States is a house centipede -which thrives in damp basements and sometimes invades ground floors. -It is a wormlike creature, about an inch long, with fifteen pairs -of long legs. In the female the last pair are twice as long as the -rest of the body. The animal is yellowish grey with white bands on -its legs. It is poisonous, but its jaws are weak and it seldom bites human -beings. Despite the evil reputation of its race, this centipede should be -a welcome guest for it feeds on cockroaches, flies, spiders, moths, and -other domestic pests. It is a fast runner but often stops suddenly, remains -absolutely motionless for a moment, and then darts for concealment.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Plant_That_Makes_Men_Dumb"><i>The Plant That Makes Men Dumb</i></h2> - - -<p>A plant now being cultivated in the newly established botanical garden -of the University of Caracas may prove to be nature’s greatest boon to -pestered husbands and harassed mothers. It is described only under the -popular Spanish name of “planta del mudo.” It looks like sugar cane. -According to reliable reports anybody who chews the stem is stricken -dumb for 48 hours.</p> - -<p>Other curiosities of the garden include a plant which allegedly -can stimulate hair growth on bald heads and a bush whose blossoms -open snow-white in the morning and turn red at noon. Here also blooms -the exotic “Queen of Night,” a climbing cactus with a white flower five -inches in diameter which opens at sunset and closes at sunrise.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Scourge_of_the_Earth_Locusts"><i>The Scourge of the Earth: Locusts</i></h2> - - -<p>From the days of the Hebrews prophets a visitation of locusts has been -considered one of the plagues of God. A migration of millions of these -grasshopper-like insects in clouds obscuring the sun leaves behind a -countryside devastated as though by fire. In flight they sound like a -forest fire being spread by a brisk wind. Whenever they come to earth -areas of hundreds of square yards almost immediately are denuded of -everything green.</p> - -<p>In history their raids have been associated chiefly with the Near East. -Quite similar creatures have caused far-reaching destruction over most of -the world including the United States.</p> - -<p>The last such phenomenon was about 1880. Since then grasshoppers -have hopped, not flown. There have been some great invasions, but the -insects have moved along the ground where it is easier to combat them.</p> - -<p>The reason for the transformation was found a few years ago by -entomologists. Hopping grasshoppers are changed into flying grasshoppers -by heat and hunger. Grown in test cages at high temperatures and deprived -of succulent green food, the insects acquired longer wings, became -slimmer, and took on brighter colors.</p> - -<p>It apparently is a curious provision of nature to preserve the grasshopper -race. When on the edge of perishing, they are supplied with wings to -carry them to green pastures a few hundred miles away. Lately there has -been some indication that those in the western United States might again -enter the flying phase in the near future. During the great drought of the -early thirties there was a stimulus almost sufficient to make them undergo -the complete transformation.</p> - -<p>At present there seems little prospect that there will be another flying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -cloud in this part of the world. By planting cultivated crops on land -formerly covered by grass, man provides good egg-laying grounds and -plenty of green food.</p> - -<p>Adequate information still is lacking on what makes grasshoppers increase -and decrease. Also a mystery is the mechanism by which the harmless -solitary phase is transformed into the dangerous gregarious phase. -Several types occur in both phases and each can change itself into the other, -altering their habits so that they attack in mass rather than as individuals.</p> - -<p>During the late 1870s the flying clouds caused terror all over the world. -In parts of Minnesota where the locusts landed they covered the ground -three inches thick. Crops were destroyed throughout the prairie states.</p> - -<p>The most remarkable incident was reported from Russia in 1878:</p> - -<p>“A detachment of Gen. Lazeroff’s expedition against the Turcomans met -with a curious misadventure near the Georgian town of Elizavetopol. A -few versts from the town the soldiers encountered an army of locusts about -20 miles long and broad in proportion. The officer in charge did not like -to turn back, repelled by mere insects. The soldiers soon were surrounded. -The locusts appear to have mistaken them for trees and swarmed by the -thousands around them—crawling over their bodies, lodging themselves -in their helmets, penetrating their clothes and knapsacks, filling the barrels -of their rifles and boring into their ears and noses.</p> - -<p>“The commander gave the order for the troops to push on the double-quick -for Elizavetopol, but the road was so blocked that the soldiers became -frightened and, after they wavered a few minutes, a stampede took -place. Led by a non-commissioned officer who had espied a village a short -way from the road, the troops dashed across the fields, slipping about on -the crushed and greasy bodies as if on ice. They were detained prisoners -by the insects for 45 hours, and on the way to Elizavetopol found every -blade of grass and green leaf destroyed.”</p> - -<p>That same year a cross-continental train was held up for three hours -near Reno, Nevada, by a host of locusts that covered the rails for several -miles.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Trees_Can_Grow_Smaller"><i>Trees Can Grow Smaller</i></h2> - - -<p>Trees change size from hour to hour. The circumference of a tree -trunk gets bigger and smaller with unpredictable perversity. For light -on this phenomenon the world is indebted to Dr. John A. Small of Rutgers -University.</p> - -<p>About a decade ago tree scientists were provided with an instrument -which could measure continuously the radial growth of a tree with an -accuracy of a thousandth of an inch. With such an instrument it seemed -plausible that it would be possible to tell just how much a tree had grown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -in a single day and its rates of growth in different seasons. A lot of the -conclusions reached in this connection must now be discarded. The -circumference of a tree certainly changes but not in a straight line. It -may be bigger one day, smaller the next.</p> - -<p>Dr. Small’s experiments were carried out with the white ash. He -found that circumference changes followed yearly, monthly and even daily -rhythms but the changes in the same tree might vary by as much as 200 -percent when measurements were made at different times. Daily variations -have shown a tendency to reach maximum readings about 6:30 a.m. and -sink to minimum in the late afternoon or early evening. Eccentric jumps -and drops can be found almost any time.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Underworld_Cities"><i>Underworld Cities</i></h2> - - -<p>Seventeen-year locusts build great subterranean “cities” during their -long sojourn in the earth’s depths. The years underground are by no -means a resting period—an episode of being buried alive. All the time -the young locusts, in various metamorphoses, are busy building and -eating. The eggs of the strange insects are laid during a few weeks late in -summer inside twigs. From these eggs come minute nymphs, which at -once make their way into the ground. There they shed their shells and -grow rapidly. Their food is juice sucked from roots. They make successive -mud dwellings attached to these roots. The largest observed in the -eastern United States were eighteen inches below the surface. Each was -a rough ball of earth about two inches long and three-fourths of an inch -wide. The ball is lined on the inside by smooth mud and contains only one -nymph. Every time an individual moults and grows larger it must make -a new house.</p> - -<p>When they emerge from the last of their feeding chambers, the locusts -dig rapidly upward and construct a somewhat different type of dwelling -some inches below the surface. These are two-chambered, with upper and -lower rooms connected by tunnels five to ten inches long. These are so -ingeniously constructed, according to Dr. E. A. Andrews of Johns Hopkins -University, that they provide “the advantage of safety along with quick -access to the surface when the proper time comes. In the shaft the nymph -climbs close to the surface or falls rapidly to the bottom to escape attacks. -The lining of the shaft is smooth mud a few millimeters thick. The shafts -are by no means always straight or of uniform diameter, but may be -sinuous and present swollen regions.” In one area examined he found -at the topsoil was such a mass of small stones and roots that the insects -must actually have cut their way through roots. Large obstacles often -were avoided by a change in direction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span></p> - -<p>“The chief implements used in making cavities in the earth”, according -to Dr. Andrews' report, “are the big first legs. Here, as in other legs, the -end segment is used chiefly in walking and may be folded down when not -needed. The second segment from the tip is used to pick off particles of -earth. The third segment is the largest and, like a powerful thumb, acts -with the opposing second segment as a forceps to pick up pellets of earth -and small stones. The minute particles picked loose from the earth are -raked together by the tip segment to make a pellet, which the forceps can -carry or shove into the walls of the cavity. However, all parts of the -body may come into use, for the hind legs and the abdomen may help -shove earth aside and the head may carry earth plastered upon it. In vertical -tunnels the animal braces its legs against the sides and, if disturbed, -relaxes and drops down.”</p> - -<p>The last dwelling is large enough for the nymph to turn around inside -and usually has a flattened floor. The top comes quite close to the surface -without actually breaking through, leaving only a few millimeters of earth -through which the insect must dig when the transmutation to an adult locust -takes place. Examination of many of these tubular dwellings shows that -there are no interconnections between them. Each has its own individual -exit and along its course avoids contact with other chambers, although they -often are very close together. This last home of the locust, before it -emerges from the everlasting darkness to the world of light and quick -death which is its pre-ordained destiny, is not necessarily restricted to the -earth but may be contained above the surface. Aerial extensions may, in -fact, be abundant and are in the form of turrets, towers, cones, chimneys, -huts and adobe houses. The walls are of dense mud, not natural soil. -Externally they are made of tiny mud pellets, but lined internally with the -same smooth layer found in the underground dwellings.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Plants_That_Create_Mirages"><i>Plants That Create Mirages</i></h2> - - -<p>An explorer in the desolate heights of the Santa Marta mountains in -northeastern Colombia, fog-wrapped and 10,000 feet above sea level, may -see a flock of sheep grazing placidly among rocks ahead of him. Then, -looking the other way, he may see an assembly of cowled, robed priests, -apparently in the midst of some weird ecclesiastical ceremony. But when -he reaches the places where he thought he saw these things there are neither -sheep nor priests. He finds instead two strange varieties of the aster -family, both among the real curiosities of the plant kingdom.</p> - -<p>The vegetable sheep are bushy plants which grow on nearly barren -ground near the mountain tops. The individual plant consists of thickly -branched stems, about the size of a human finger, bearing many layers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> -leaves covered with wool-like hairs. Sometimes these leaves are so thick -that the point of a pencil cannot be thrust through them. Some of the -plants may be as large as a living-room sofa.</p> - -<p>The extreme compactness of these plants and their dense covering of -hairs is an adaptation to the hostile conditions under which they must live. -The habitat consists of rocky slopes where the hot, dry winds of summer -and the snows, low temperature and violent gales of winter expose them to -a perpetual alternation of desert and Arctic conditions.</p> - -<p>In the same general region are the monk plants, belonging to a different -family, who have responded in the same way to similar conditions. -Seen from a distance on a mountainside, especially through a light fog, a -patch of these plants looks decidedly like a congregation of several -hundred priests.</p> - -<p>The vegetable sheep also are found in New Zealand, but there are no -known intermediaries between the closely similar species growing on opposite -sides of the earth.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Octopus_Worm_Evolutions_Mystery"><i>The Octopus Worm: Evolution’s Mystery</i></h2> - - -<p>Worms that give birth to their own grandchildren, animals that have no -digestive, muscular, nervous, glandular or excretory organs—such paradoxical -creatures are the “dicyemid mosozoans”, tiny worms that live inside -octopuses. These little worms are among the most curious living -things in nature. It is quite uncertain whether they are a step upward in -evolution from the single-celled protozoans or, like some other worms, a -degenerate form of many-celled animals. It might be maintained that they -represent a distinct branch of the animal kingdom.</p> - -<p>The body of a dicyemid consists of a single cell, almost half an inch -long, in the form of a hollow tube, surrounded by a layer of small cells. -The immediate offspring are formed and, in some cases, live their entire -lives and reproduce in turn, inside one of these “skin” cells. The grandchildren -break through the body of the grandparent at any place they -choose, apparently without causing any wound, and live for a short time -as free-swimming animals until they find an octopus whose kidneys they -can enter. Then the whole life cycle starts over again.</p> - -<p>Apparently the infestation in no way injures the octopus and the worms -are of no practical importance in the world. Each kind of octopus or -squid in coastal areas has its own particular species of these parasites -of which about 35 kinds are known.</p> - -<p>The worm’s body contains no organs, tissues or glands in the usual -sense of the word.</p> - -<p>Before being born the larvae attain their full complement of body<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -cells, are able to swim about, and have within them the germ cells that -will give rise to the next generation. Birth is very simple. The larvae -just push out, or are squeezed out, through the sides or ends of their -parent at almost any point. The parent continues to develop and bear -more larvae in the same manner. The number developing at any one -time in the cell may range from one or two to 100 or more.</p> - -<p>These larvae remain in the octopus as fully developed worms. But at -certain times the germ cells develop into much smaller individuals, called -infusorigens, hard to distinguish from large protozoa. These never leave -the birth cell inside the parent, but produce germ cells of their own which -develop into free-swimming creatures known as infusoriforms. These -break away from the grandparent worm and from the octopus and become -free-swimming animals. They are microscopic, less than a 300th of an -inch long. They live from three days to a week. Here may be the -borderline between single-celled and multi-celled animals—or perhaps the -greatest degeneration in animal life.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Monster_Bear_of_Kamchatka"><i>The Monster Bear of Kamchatka</i></h2> - - -<p>A gigantic black bear, probably the largest of flesh-eating animals, lives -in the dense, hardly explored pine forests of southern Kamchatka. This -creature still is unknown to science. So far as known it never has been -seen by a white man. There is, however, considerable evidence for its -existence presented in a report made several years ago by Dr. Sten Bergman -of the State Museum of Natural History at Stockholm, who spent two -years on the Kamchatka peninsula.</p> - -<p>Photographs have been taken of this animal’s footprints in the snow. -It leaves a track 15 inches long and ten inches wide. Dr. Bergman was -shown a pelt of the giant bear. It was the largest bearskin he ever had -seen, deep black in color, and covered with short hair in striking contrast -to the long hair of other Kamchatkan bears. He also saw a gigantic -bear skull, the teeth of which indicate that it belonged to a young -individual.</p> - -<p>Apparently this Kamchatkan black bear exceeds in size the Kodiak -Island bear, which lives across Bering Strait and is the largest known -flesh-eating mammal. The wildness of the country and its dense vegetation -have protected the giant bear from naturalists and hunters. The -whole land is a veritable paradise for bears who hide away in the dense -thickets along the Kamchatkan rivers and subsist on the abundant salmon. -They are so numerous that a native does not dare venture into the bush -in summer without first shouting to let the bears know he is coming. -They will keep out of a man’s way if they are warned, but are likely to -attack him if surprised.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<p>The great majority of the Kamchatkan bears are relatively small animals, -comparable to those of northern Europe. Some are black, but the -majority are yellowish-white or light brown. The giant animal may be -an extreme variation of this race, or may represent an entirely different -species. He naturally is the subject of much native legendary. Some -stories have been interpreted as indicating that mammoths existed -within the time of man in the northern wildernesses of both hemispheres, -but such a giant bear would fit the descriptions as well as would a small -elephant-like creature.</p> - -<p>If it were not for the great numbers of smaller bears, man scarcely could -subsist in this country. There are, for example, no roads through the desolate -land between the villages. But all along the rivers and through the -forests are well-marked paths made by the bears who seem to have an -engineering instinct in choosing the most logical places for crossing -morasses and mountains. These paths are about the only means of -human communication and eventually, if the land ever is settled, will become -the roads. In the same way elephant trails in Africa and India and -bison trails in the United States became the hard-surfaced highways of -today. Engineers hardly can improve on the instinct of the animals.</p> - -<p>The small bears also play an important part in the domestic economy -of the few inhabitants. The thick, warm pelt is used as a bed. Out of the -skin the natives make reins, snowshoes and dog traces. The meat is -much appreciated. In remoter parts of the country the linings of the intestines -are used for windows instead of glass. Many of the native medicines -are derived from the bear.</p> - -<p>Both among the Kamchatka natives and the Ainu of northern Japan the -animal is revered as a god—the concept being that the great celestial bear -out of his benevolence to men provides creatures in his own form to -furnish them food and clothing.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Strange_Denizens_of_the_Deep"><i>Strange Denizens of the Deep</i></h2> - - -<p>Most fearsome of all sharks in appearance is Isistius braziliensis, found -in the tropical Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. It is a wine-brown -colored creature with sharp teeth set in 20 rows which glow at night with -an unearthly light.</p> - -<p>“When the specimen, taken at night, was removed into a dark apartment -it afforded a very extraordinary spectacle,” relates naturalist -F. D. Bennett. “The entire inferior surface of the body and head emitted -a vivid, greenish phosphorescent gleam, imparting to the creature, by its -own light, a truly ghastly and terrible appearance. The luminous effect -was constant and not perceptibly increased by agitation or friction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span></p> - -<p>“When the shark expired, which was not until it had been out of the -water more than three hours, the luminous appearance faded entirely from -the abdomen and more gradually from other parts, lingering longest -around the jaws and on the fins. The only part of the under surface of -the animal which was free from the luminosity was the black collar -around the throat.”</p> - -<p>One of the sea’s strangest denizens is the bramble shark. It is a shark -of medium size whose body is almost completely covered with short, -sharp spines. This fantastic creature apparently is widely distributed -through the Atlantic and Pacific, but it is not likely to come into the -hands of collectors. Its general flabbiness stamps it as a deep water animal -and the anomalous position of its fins indicates that it is a weak swimmer. -Its spiny armament obviously is designed for protection.</p> - -<p>Entirely harmless, it is probable, are the giant “basking sharks”, which -sometimes reach a length of forty feet. When encountered they rarely, if -ever, try to defend themselves but attempt to escape by swimming slowly -away. Stories that this monster dives when harpooned and sometimes -will drag a small boat with its crew to the bottom now are discredited. -Although it reigns as a monster among sharks it is not actually as dangerous -as the common dogfish shark.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most dangerous are the so-called “carchaodons”, found in -most warm seas although nowhere in abundance. They are among the -most powerful and voracious of fishes, but still far less frightful than -their fossil ancestors. The latter were the largest of all fishes; they were -probably twice the length of the largest basking or whale sharks. Some -were more than 88 feet long.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Communism_Among_the_Bees"><i>Communism Among the Bees</i></h2> - - -<p>Honey bees have achieved an ideal communistic state. All the 50,000 -or more members of a family—all progeny of a single queen—share and -share alike. A single sample of sugar or nectar brought into the hive by -a forager is participated in by all the bees. Thus all get essentially the -same diet. They all acquire a common odor by which they can recognize -each other. This odor constitutes a “scent language” which is the basis -of the extremely complex bee social life.</p> - -<p>These observations, based on experiments with radioactive sugar, are -reported by Dr. Roland Ribbands of Cambridge University. In one of -these experiments, Dr. Ribbands reports, “a marked bee is trained to -collect sugar solution from a small glass tube, and when radioactive sugar -is substituted the bee continues to collect the radioactive syrup quite -happily. It returns to the hive and what happens to the labeled sugar can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -be followed quite easily. Every bee that receives some can be spotted -by means of a Geiger counter. By collecting a sample of bees from the -hive, one can discover what proportion of the colony has acquired some -of the sugar. One stomachful can be shared among almost all the bees of -a large colony. The experiments indicate that this sharing is a random -affair. The sugar is passed on irrespective of the recipient’s age or occupation.”</p> - -<p>Building up of a colony odor through universal sharing of the food -supply enables members of the colony to recognize each other. This apparently -makes little difference when food is abundant but becomes of -great importance in periods of scarcity.</p> - -<p>“At those times of the year,” Dr. Ribbands points out, “when there are -insufficient flowers to provide all the bees with food, they often try to -steal the honey stored in other colonies. Then the ability to recognize -hive mates and to distinguish them from other honey bees will enable a -colony to defend itself against attempts at robbery.</p> - -<p>“However, the honey bee community does not defend itself by attacking -every invader that does not possess the community odor. Strangers are -attacked only under certain circumstances. In order to investigate these -circumstances two colonies of differently colored bees were placed close -together, with their entrances only two inches apart, so that bees often -went into the wrong colony by mistake. When good supplies of nectar -were available, the intruders were allowed to enter the strange colony, but -when nectar was short the strangers were attacked and thrown out, often -being killed in the process.</p> - -<p>“Production of a common and distinctive odor which enables the -colony to defend itself against members of other communities is a very -important consequence of the habit of food-sharing. Better sharing means -better defense and so a greater likelihood that the community will be -able to survive and perpetuate its kind. The habit plays the key role in -the system of communication which enables the new forager to learn -about suitable crops, in that the new recruit always receives a sample of -the crop the colony is working. The first flight becomes a search for a -crop with a similar scent. The habit enables the worker bees in a colony -to be apprised of the presence of their queen. A substance derived from -her body is conveyed from bee to bee in the shared food, and in the -event of any deficiency in the substance they take steps to rear another -queen.</p> - -<p>“In addition, it probably helps to ensure an effective division of labor in -the colony, which has to be so integrated that a suitable proportion of the -worker population carries out each of the various tasks necessary for -maintenance of the colony.”</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Candles_on_Bushes"><i>Candles on Bushes</i></h2> - - -<p>In parts of Colombia candles in the form of white, wax-like berries -grow on bushes. These berries produce oil of such excellent quality -that it is used almost exclusively for altar lamps in Catholic churches -throughout the country.</p> - -<p>The berries grow abundantly on a jungle plant with leaves like those of -rhubarb. In only one part of the country is the plant cultivated. It is a -crop of the semi-hostile Paez Indians. Harvesting is somewhat difficult -because the oil-containing white seed is inside a burred coat. This must -be removed and the seeds placed in hot water. The oil rises to the surface -where it can be skimmed off.</p> - -<p>When it is desired to make candles a dozen or more berries are strung -on a stick. Such a candle gives off a beautiful, soft light.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Desert_Rat_Manufactures_Water"><i>The Desert Rat Manufactures Water</i></h2> - - -<p>All animals require water in their bodies, but some can get it without -actually drinking. The desert rat which lives among the bare sand dunes -of California’s Death Valley, can get along indefinitely without water and -with only dry barley seeds for food. In spite of this about 65 percent -of its body weight is water. Most of the water is actually made in the -animal’s body. The rat’s digestive processes extract the hydrogen contained -in the barley seeds and combine it with oxygen in the air to -create water.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Caste_System_of_the_Termite"><i>The Caste System of the Termite</i></h2> - - -<p>The oldest civilization on earth is that of the termites. The super-organization -which these blind white creatures of the dark have achieved -precedes by thousands of millenia those of the ants and the bees. Termites -have a far longer history on earth, being considered modifications of the -ancient cockroaches who were among the first insects to leave any traces of -their existence on land. Cockroaches swarmed in the club moss forests -at least 250,000,000 years ago. The termite order is at least 30 million -years old; some of its most primitive forms still are alive.</p> - -<p>In most of the approximately 2,000 species of termites which have -been identified all over the world there are five castes, apparently determined -from birth although not so rigidly as among ants. First are the -winged males and females with large brains and eyes and hard, dark -shells. These depart in great swarms from the ancestral nest once or twice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -a year, usually in spring and fall. They are feeble flyers and depend -chiefly on transportation by air currents. The majority are eaten by birds. -The few surviving pairs from such a flight excavate cells in the earth or in -wood and start new colonies. There is at least one king and one queen -in each cell. Sometimes there are two or more pair. They remain partners -for life. Both are imprisoned within the cell. Before entering it -they slough off their wings, which henceforth would be worthless.</p> - -<p>The termite queen becomes an inert, egg-laying machine, sometimes -the size of a small potato. In some species she lays an average of sixty -eggs a minute, or 80,000 a day. She may live as long as ten years. Thus -each queen ideally produces about a half billion new individuals. Her -bulk increases as much as 50-fold in adult life—about the most phenomenal -growth in nature.</p> - -<p>The second termite caste, for which there is no parallel among the ants, -consists of both males and females with only rudiments of wings, less -fully developed reproductive organs, and somewhat smaller eyes and -brains. They presumably serve only as an auxiliary royalty, functioning -in case the true rulers die. Apparently by some subtle alchemy known -only to termites they can be transformed into fully functioning sexual -individuals if an emergency arises.</p> - -<p>A third caste is made up of smaller insects with extremely minute eyes -and brains and barely discernible reproductive organs. Below them come -the entirely unpigmented, soft-bodied workers with still smaller eyes and -brains—usually, in fact, with no eyes at all. These still are potentially -males and females, in distinction to any society where all workers and -soldiers are female. Lowest in the scale are the big-headed, blind soldiers, -also of both sexes, with barely a trace of brain.</p> - -<p>Relative numbers in these castes differ from species to species. An -analysis of an Australian termite colony accounted for 1,560,500 workers, -200,000 soldiers, and 44,000 potentially reproductive individuals.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Shark_That_Stands_Upright"><i>The Shark That Stands Upright</i></h2> - - -<p>Monster of Gulf of Mexico waters is a shark which weights from ten to -twelve tons and is from 30 to 50 feet long. Largest of its ancient family -and an entirely inoffensive creature, this strange animal literally stands -upright while feeding.</p> - -<p>On a recent trip a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ship encountered -several large schools of black-finned tuna. In the middle of each school was -a large object which looked like a barrel. This object was the snout of a -whale shark.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span></p> - -<p>The creature kept opening its enormous mouth two or three inches below -the surface. From 50 to 100 gallons of water would flow into the mouth -and be strained out through the gills. This water was full of larval crustaceans, -or banded shrimps, about a half-inch long.</p> - -<p>In each observed case the body of the shark stood vertically. Why each -shark should select a school of tuna and put itself almost precisely in the -center of the swarming fish is a complete mystery. It does not eat tuna, -except possibly very small ones. Presumably, however, it feeds on about -the same sort of material as the fish. It knows there is food where the tuna -congregate.</p> - -<p>The whale shark is among the most mysterious of the larger sea animals. -It is a solitary creature, seldom seen. Its tiny teeth are only about one -fifteenth of an inch long and it is supposedly entirely a feeder on plankton, -the minute organisms which abound in sea water.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Dead_Mans_Vine"><i>The Dead Man’s Vine</i></h2> - - -<p>A semi-legendary plant in Colombia is the ayahuasco or dead man’s -vine. From it Indians make a brew which, it is claimed, is quite similar -to the imaginary drug by which Dr. Jekyll split the good and evil elements -of his character. When a medicine man first gulps the brew—this is an -ethnological report which the botanists cannot confirm—he turns deadly -pale, trembles in every limb, and the expression on his face is one of -intense pain and horror. This is followed in about a minute by a reckless -fury in which he seizes whatever lies at hand and starts beating the -trees and ground. In about ten minutes the excitement leaves him and he -falls to the earth, completely exhausted. There are not as yet any scientific -accounts of the plant’s influence.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Insect_With_Fourteen_Lives"><i>The Insect With Fourteen Lives</i></h2> - - -<p>A pinhead-sized wormlike larva of a louse may possess one of life’s -ultimate secrets—an elixir of controlled growth.</p> - -<p>The strange ways of life of hormophis hamamelidid—which goes -through fourteen different life stages in the course of a year’s lifetime—are -being studied by scientists in the hope of isolating a mysterious something -which may open the door of some of the greatest paradoxes of -biology.</p> - -<p>The insect is an aphis which causes galls, growths comparable to animal -cancers, on witch hazel leaves. These growths result when the aphis -injects into the leaf by means of a microscopic apparatus like a hypodermic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -needle an infinitesimally minute amount of an unidentified substance. -The gall grows around and over the insect. It becomes the tiny creature’s -home.</p> - -<p>The substance completely changes the nature of the plant cells. They -normally would become leaf cells, highly specialized to fit into leaf growth. -Now they become gall cells. Something similar happens in cancer, except -that the new cell growth, having escaped from the government of the -animal body, is entirely uncontrolled. The gall cells, however, still remain -under some sort of control. They always form galls and they do -not kill the leaf, which is necessary for their existence.</p> - -<p>Marvelous is the life story of the aphis itself. The sequence starts -with a “stem mother”, a newly hatched female. She injects the substance -into the leaf and the house builds itself around her. Inside this house -she passes through four stages. Her structure changes completely four -times. That is, she becomes in a sense four different animals, one after -another. In the fourth stage she gives birth to from fifty to a hundred -living young.</p> - -<p>Each of these young, in turn, goes through four stages. In the last of -these they have wings. The winged insects crawl out through a hole in -the bottom of the gall. Each produces from ten to twenty young on the -bottom of the leaf. Each of the young, in turn, goes through five stages. -During the last they are both males and females. This is the only time -the male makes its appearance in the life cycle. All the other births are -by parthogenesis.</p> - -<p>Each of the females lays eggs in the winter on the witch hazel. The -buds are destined to become leaves in the early Spring. The eggs hatch -a few days before the leaves appear. Each of the newly hatched aphids—all -females—injects some of the house-building material into the leaf upon -which she finds herself. She becomes a new “stem mother” and the -strange process starts all over again.</p> - -<p>The rapid reproduction rate might well be overwhelming to the witch -hazels, and consequently suicidal for the insects, except for certain enemies -which keep down the numbers of the “lice”. Such tiny forms of life -as larval lacewings are able to crawl through the hole in the bottom of the -gall and feed on the occupants during their various stages.</p> - -<p>University of Virginia biologists who have been giving particular attention -to the aphis are interested primarily in the substance injected into -the leaves. It must be one of the most potent growth factors in nature. -The amount any one aphid is able to inject is indescribably minute, even -though some of them make as many as 50 separate injections. The material -causes the leaf cells to become larger and to multiply much more -rapidly until a “house” many times the size of the aphis is complete in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> -a few days. The structure is perfect, even including a “picket fence” -of tiny hairs around its base to keep out invaders.</p> - -<p>The substance exists in such minute amounts that thus far it has been -impossible to isolate it in anything approaching a pure form. The Virginia -biologists have set themselves a task requiring infinite patience over -many years—tracing the increase of the amount in the salivary glands of -each individual through each of its fourteen lives, and also through the -eggs with which the strange life cycle starts.</p> - -<p>The present clues indicate that the substance is a filterable virus—tiniest -of living things compared with which the pinhead-sized aphis is like a -whale compared to a fly.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Shyness_Characteristic_of_Giant_Rats"><i>Shyness Characteristic of Giant Rats</i></h2> - - -<p>Biggest of the extant true rats is the giant rat of Liberia. It is two -feet or more in length and is similar in appearance to the Norway rat -which infests houses all over the world. Fortunately this creature never -has invaded the homes of men. It is a shy animal of the cane brakes.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Nocturnal_Potto"><i>Nocturnal Potto</i></h2> - - -<p>One of the weirdest of living mammals is the potto—“ghost monkey”, -of West African jungles. It is about the size of a squirrel, with soft, -yellow fur and protruding yellow eyes which shine like malevolent witch -lights in the darkness of the jungle nights. The potto is a nocturnal -animal of the tree tops. Its weird, whimpering cries are believed by natives -to be the voices of evil spirits. The little creature is an aberrant -member of the family of lemurs, ancient offshoots of the same family from -which sprang the monkeys and great apes.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Where_Trees_are_Square"><i>Where Trees are Square</i></h2> - - -<p>A few miles north of the Panama Canal Zone is “the valley of square -trees.” This is the only known place in the world where trees have rectangular -trunks. They are members of the cottonwood family. Saplings -of these trees now are being grown at the University of Florida to find out -if they retain their squareness in a different environment. It is believed, -however, that the shape is probably due to some unknown but purely -local condition. That the cause is deep-seated is indicated by the fact that -the tree rings, each representing a year’s growth, also are square.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Lamp_That_is_a_Beetle"><i>The Lamp That is a Beetle</i></h2> - - -<p>The most brilliant animal luminescence known is that of the carbuncle -beetles of Puerto Rico. They emit a light so brilliant that one or two inside -an inverted tumbler illuminate a room of moderate size so that one can -read a newspaper at night. Fields are illuminated brilliantly every night -by these beetles, flying about a foot above the ground. The light is not -intermittent, and seems nearly continuous. It varies from yellow to green -for different species; occasionally it is yellowish-red.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Rainstorms_of_Worms"><i>Rainstorms of Worms</i></h2> - - -<p>Rains of worms often have been reported. After a summer shower -surfaces of puddles sometimes will be found covered with countless thread -worms or nematodes. These worms have just come out of the bodies of -water beetles and other insects, where they have developed as parasites. -Before the shower the insects were dormant. These little worms in farm -watering troughs led to the long-held belief that horsehairs sometimes -changed into worms.</p> - -<p>This does not, however, explain the following report in the <i>Levant -Times</i>, an English newspaper published in Constantinople, of August 6, -1872:</p> - -<p>“A letter from Bucharest reports a curious atmospheric phenomenon -which happened there on the 25th ult. a quarter past nine in the evening. -During the day the heat had been stifling and the sky was cloudless. In -the evening everybody went out walking and the gardens were crowded. -The ladies were mostly dressed in white, low-necked robes.</p> - -<p>“Toward nine o’clock a small cloud appeared on the horizon and a -quarter of an hour afterwards rain began to fall which, to the horror of -everybody was found to consist of black worms the size of ordinary flies. -All the streets of Bucharest were strewn with these curious animals.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Icy_Arctic_Wonderland"><i>The Icy Arctic Wonderland</i></h2> - - -<p>Abundant and fantastic are the creatures of the shallow Arctic sea -bottom. All are invertebrates—worms, sea anemones and a host of other -creatures—most of whom spend their lives buried in the mud.</p> - -<p>Some of the creatures and their curious ways of life:</p> - -<p>Ribbon worms which, when washed ashore, literally tie themselves in -knots, curl up in balls, and secrete bags of mucous around themselves.</p> - -<p>Bright green spoon worms about three inches long. These formerly -were eaten by Eskimos.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> - -<p>Billions of small, transparent and essentially invisible arrow worms. One -species, about a half inch long, apparently is the kangaroo of the worm -world.</p> - -<p>An important element of the bottom fauna at Point Barrow, Alaska, -are the lace worms. Hardly a stone in the area does not have at least one -lace or moss patch.</p> - -<p>There is a delicately peach-colored sea anemone, a bottom-dwelling -animal remotely related to the coral polyps, which display an amazing -phenomenon, according to a Smithsonian report by Dr. G. E. MacGintie: -“When it was subjected to unfavorable conditions, such as overcrowding -in a pan of water,” he says, “It cast out through the mouth a translucent, -white inner lining with transparent, stubby tentacles. These tentacles were -tiny anemones. If conditions remained adverse more offspring were cast -off, each lot smaller than its predecessor.” That is, when in trouble the -animal spits out babies—presumably an emergency measure for preservation -of the species and a way of reproduction not hitherto recorded. Apparently -the same phenomenon occurs in the sea. Partly-grown specimens -of these offspring dredged from the bottom, at first were mistaken for new -species. Some of these sea anemones are quite colorful—one purplish red, -one lavender, one lemon-yellow, and one with translucent, peach-colored -tentacles.</p> - -<p>Numerically the most abundant animals of the Arctic are the amphipod -fleas which form an important food source for fish and seals. Great numbers -live on the undersides of ice cakes from which the bearded seal sweeps -them with its whiskers.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fish_That_Live_on_Land"><i>Fish That Live on Land</i></h2> - - -<p>Siam and Burma are the lands of queer fish—climbing fish, stone-eating -fish, hunting fish, dry-land fish, singing fish and archer fish.</p> - -<p>In the distant geological past, life on this planet was confined to the -seas. Eventually some creature belonging to the common ancestry of -terrestrial animals and fish emerged from the water and over a period of -countless generations, established itself on land. Something of the same -general sort of development may be taking place in Siamese lakes and rivers -today, with a new kind of land animal in the process of evolution. Currently, -two or three species of fish are learning to live out of water for -considerable periods. At least one of them appears to have reached the -stage where it must breathe air to survive.</p> - -<p>These evolving dry land fish were studied intensively by the late Dr. -Hugh M. Smith, fisheries advisor to the Siamese government for twelve -years. One is a species somewhat like a perch in general appearance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> -It belongs to a group which has an accessory respiratory organ, perhaps -the beginning of a lung, situated in a cavity above the gills, by which -oxygen may be taken directly from the atmosphere. The gills themselves -appear inadequate to sustain life. The fish probably would drown, although -the process would be very slow, if kept too long under water.</p> - -<p>A common method of fishing in Siam is with a spade. Some fish spend -as much as four months of each year buried in damp soil. Local fishermen -dig two or three feet deep in the marshes for them.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Special_Language_of_Bees"><i>The Special Language of Bees</i></h2> - - -<p>Study of bee language now has advanced to differentiation of bee -dialects. Some years ago Dr. Karl von Frisch of the University of Munich -established the fact that bees actually possessed a means by which they -could communicate with each other and without which the remarkable -organization within the swarm would have been nearly inexplicable. Their -language consists primarily of signs, like that of deaf and dumb persons. -Dr. von Frisch reached the point where he could get some idea of what the -bees were talking about and even predict their behavior from their conversation.</p> - -<p>Recently Dr. von Frisch has found that different varieties have quite -different languages, perhaps as far apart as French and German; one -variety cannot tell what another is discussing. He has gone one step -further—to the discovery that the insects probably talk also in sounds that -are inaudible to the human ear. The audible buzzing is not a means of -communication.</p> - -<p>“There are indications,” he says in a report to the Rockefeller Foundation, -“that sounds, probably in the supersonic range, play a role in their -communications.</p> - -<p>“Physiologically it would be interesting to know how they judge distance. -Their dances indicate with remarkable exactness the distance between the -hive and the feeding place. How do they adjust themselves to the changing -positions of the sun when they use it as a compass? Apparently they -have an excellent memory for time, for they seem to know that the sun -at a certain time will occupy a certain place in the heavens.”</p> - -<p>Dr. von Frisch and his colleagues at the University of Munich are also -making an intensive study of the insect eye and the physiology of the -insect sense of smell. Previous research has shown that worker bees have -a special scent gland under voluntary control. Only when a good source -of nectar is found is the fragrance, evidently quite powerful and attractive -to other bees, released. Then it permeates the immediate neighborhood. It -is the bee language equivalent for the word “Here.” When a cruising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -worker gets a whiff of this odor it knows there is a plentiful supply of -nectar close at hand and starts a search for it.</p> - -<p>Bees cannot distinguish red from black, Dr. von Frisch has found. -This probably is the reason so few red-blossoming plants depend on these -insects for distributing their pollen. Nearly all red-blossoming species -depend on birds and butterflies, both of which are acutely sensitive to red. -One notable exception, however, is the European poppy whose brilliant red -blossoms carpet the landscape in late Spring. The German experimenter -has found that these blossoms are not “red” to the bee. They possess a -color which cannot be described because it cannot be experienced by the -human eye. The poppy blossoms reflect a great deal of the ultraviolet light -in sunshine and to this the bee eye is extremely sensitive. The color must -be quite different from any of the shades at the blue end of the spectrum -which are visible to man. To the bee it is probably somewhat like violet.</p> - -<p>Even the more or less degenerate human nose can be trained to discriminate -some of the bee odors that apparently have so much meaning -in the life of the hive. After practising for a few months Dr. N. E. -McIndoo of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was able to recognize the -three castes—queens, drones and workers—merely by smelling them. With -more practice he was able to make even finer discriminations, as he reports:</p> - -<p>“The younger the workers the less pronounced is the odor emitted. -To the human nose the odor from nurse bees and wax generators is much -less pronounced than is that from old workers. Workers just emerged -from the cells have a faint, sweetish odor, but lack the characteristic bee -odor and workers removed from the cells just before they begin cutting -their way out omit a still fainter sweetish odor.</p> - -<p>“Old queens have a strong sweetish odor, while that of queens just -emerged from cells is much pronounced as is the bee odor of the workers. -The majority of old drones have a faint odor while every young -drone has a stronger one. It is slightly different from that of young -workers and is less sweetish.</p> - -<p>“All the offspring of the same queen seem to inherit a peculiar odor -from her, which becomes the family odor. Apparently each worker -emits an individual odor which is different from that of any other worker.</p> - -<p>“Of all odors, that of the hive is most important. It seems to be the most -fundamental factor upon which the social life of the colony depends, and -upon which the social habit perhaps was acquired.”</p> - -<p>Taste discrimination is roughly parallel to that of humans. The bee -certainly can distinguish the primary tastes, sweet, salty, sour and bitter. -It naturally is keenly sensitive to different degrees of sweetness, yet -some sugars which are extremely sweet to man are tasteless to the insects. -The same is true of such sweeteners as saccharin.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -The bee’s sense of smell also runs parallel to that of man, both in the -ability to discriminate fine difference in odors and in the thresholds of -sensitivity. This appears to be a very important factor in the location of -nectar-bearing flowers. However, the bee appears unable to detect an -odor from any great distance. It is probably due to the sense of smell that -scout bees are able to locate good feeding grounds. After marking them -with their own peculiar secreted odor they return immediately to the hive -to tell the others about them. The dance of a returned scout varies in -intensity according to the richness of the find and the workers who witness -it become correspondingly excited. If the scout executes only a feeble -dance there is only a small exodus from the hive.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Poisonous_Platters_of_the_Sea"><i>Poisonous Platters of the Sea</i></h2> - - -<p>One of the most dreaded of all sea creatures is the venomous sting ray -of which there are several hundred species distributed over the world, -mostly in tropical waters. On the upper side of the tail is a saw-toothed -bone dagger from two to fifteen inches long which can be driven through -a man’s leg. The teeth extrude a venom quite similar to that of the rattlesnake.</p> - -<p>Largest is the giant sting ray of Australian waters. A full-grown specimen -weighs about 800 pounds. The fearsome and gruesome bat sting ray -of the California coast weighs up to 200 pounds and is quite abundant.</p> - -<p>All the rays are bottom dwelling animals, leading sedentary lives on -flat, sandy ground. All are carnivorous, devouring smaller fish and -mollusks. Fortunately they are not very aggressive and will flee from -man if given warning. Still, life guard stations along the California -beaches reported nearly 400 injuries from the creatures in the summer of -1952.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Our_Un-American_Food"><i>Our Un-American Food</i></h2> - - -<p>A half dozen vanished civilizations make their contributions to the -American Thanksgiving dinner: onions from ancient Egypt, peas from -Ethiopia, parsnips and turnips from ancient China.</p> - -<p>Aztec, Maya, the skin-wrapped Cro-Magnon all did their part in the -darkness of pre-history to make possible the plates which are loaded so -lavishly. They did better than they knew. Very few new vegetables have -been introduced in historic times. In many cases little improvement has -been made on the products of the ancients.</p> - -<p>The story of potatoes alone contains enough romance and adventure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> -for a good-sized novel. Its origin is unknown but its wanderings from -America to Europe and back to America again constitute a fascinating -story.</p> - -<p>Cultivated lettuce never has been found wild. It is believed to have -been derived from India or Central Asia. It is one of the oldest known -vegetables. Herodotus, Hippocrates and Aristotle mention it in references -to Greek gardens. Chaucer notes its cultivation in England in 1340. -Sixteen varieties are listed as being grown in American gardens as early -as 1806.</p> - -<p>Celery is a biennial plant native to the marshlands of southern Europe, -North Africa and southwestern Asia. It long was considered poisonous -and was not used as food until modern times.</p> - -<p>The Israelites complained to Moses in the Wilderness because they -couldn’t have onions to which they had become accustomed during the -captivity in Egypt. The cultivated onion probably originated in Afghanistan.</p> - -<p>Pumpkins and squashes were grown in America long before white men -came on the scene. Evidence of both have been found among ruins of settlements -of the Basket Makers, about the earliest agricultural people on -this continent. They probably came from Mexico. The Hubbard squash -came to light in Marblehead, Mass., in 1855. It had been growing there -for more than 50 years.</p> - -<p>Peas are the oldest known vegetables. They are believed to have -originated in Ethiopia but to have spread over Europe and Asia long before -the dawn of history. They were eaten—perhaps even cultivated after a -fashion—by men of Europe’s Stone Age. Columbus planted some in the -West Indies in 1493. They spread rapidly among the Indians and became -one of the chief crops of the Iroquois.</p> - -<p>The species from which cabbage is derived grows wild in North Africa -and along the European shore of the Mediterranean. It has been cultivated -for 4,000 years. Greeks and Romans grew it in their gardens. Most -of the American varieties, however, originated in North Europe.</p> - -<p>The turnip is a native of central and western China. Seed probably was -brought to America by some of the earliest European settlers.</p> - -<p>The radish is a native of China and India. It was cultivated by both -the Greeks and the Egyptians. The parsnip is another Asiatic root crop. -It first was planted in Virginia in 1690. Only recently has it gotten away -from the home garden to become a commercial crop.</p> - -<p>Popcorn is peculiarly American. In early Spanish writings reference -is made to a ritual of the Aztecs in which “one hour before dawn there -sallied forth all these maidens crowned with garlands of maize, toasted -and popped, the grains of which were like orange blossoms—and on their -necks thick festoons of the same which passed under the left arm.”</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_That_Commit_Mass_Suicide"><i>Worms That Commit Mass Suicide</i></h2> - - -<p>An entire generation of worms commits suicide every year. Every -individual casts off its own head.</p> - -<p>These worms are a Himalayan variety of naids, fresh water animals -vaguely related to earthworms. They are reddish-brown and seldom more -than an inch long. The majority of the worms live with their heads -buried in the mud, tail ends waving freely in the air. Upon any alarm -their bodies contract leaving no signs of life.</p> - -<p>Early in the Spring these worms literally lose these heads and die. -Compared with those of most worms, their regenerative powers are quite -feeble. It is believed that the decapitation is due to the fact that egg-laying -is accompanied by such violent contractions of the body that the front -segments are disconnected.</p> - -<p>Every few years there is a report from somewhere in the United States -or Europe of enormous numbers of dead earthworms covering the ground. -A correspondent of the British scientific journal, Nature, reported in 1921: -“About the middle of March I saw millions of dead worms morning after -morning on pavements, roads and paths. They were great and small, -young and old, of every known species and genus. They lay prone and -even when they were able to reach a grass plot alive they lacked the power -to burrow.” The phenomenon is unexplained. Examination of the dead -worms shows no unusual parasite or evidence of disease.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fish_That_Survive_Freezing"><i>Fish That Survive Freezing</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a realm of “supercooled life.” Its denizens are deep water -fish that live long and happily in temperatures below the freezing point -of their blood. But whenever one of them comes in contact with even a -single crystal of ice it freezes almost instantly. This strange phenomenon -of marine life has been observed by biologists of the Woods Hole Oceanographic -Institute.</p> - -<p>These particular fish live at the bottom of Hebron fjord in northern -Labrador. The temperature there is about 1.7 below zero centigrade. -Some have been caught, brought to the surface, and then plunged into a -bath of sea water cooled to exactly the same temperature. They survived -for several hours. When, however, one of them came in contact with an -ice crystal, it froze stiff in a few seconds. The explanation, it appears, -is that these fish normally live below the depth at which it is possible for -ice crystals to form in water.</p> - -<p>Very careful experiments have shown that water can be carried far below<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -its normal freezing point if it is kept entirely motionless and is absolutely -free from minute particles of any sort which are necessary for the formation -of ice crystals. This is about the condition that exists at the fjord -bottom. Eventually, if the temperature is taken lower and lower, such -water will solidify, but into a form far different from ice. It is noncrystalline -and can best be compared with glass. But even if this happened -in the Hebron fjord it would not necessarily bother the fish. Their blood -presumably would turn to glass. There would be no breaking of body -cells such as results from the swelling of ice crystals. After an indefinite -period the animals might be brought out of the solid state, if the thawing -could be accomplished quickly enough, none the worse for their experience. -This has been accomplished with very minute organisms, but any techniques -which might be used with higher plants or animals have not yet -been discovered.</p> - -<p>The extent of life in the supercooled world is unknown. It hardly can -be confined to fish. All sorts of mollusks, echinoderms and worms also -are bottom dwellers in Arctic and Antarctic waters. It’s not cold, but ice, -that kills.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Plants_That_Kill"><i>Plants That Kill</i></h2> - - -<p>The lethal dose Socrates was condemned to swallow by the stuffed-shirtism -of ancient Athens was d-propyl-piperidine. This is the deadly -alkaloid in the spotted hemlock, a common European weed which now -grows extensively over most of the eastern United States. A closely related -European species is the cowbane which cows instinctively will not nibble.</p> - -<p>The devastating illness which fell upon 10,000 Greeks of the Anabasis, -Xenophon would have been interested to know, was caused by andromedotoxin. -This is a resinous substance common to plants of the heath -family the world over. It is the poisonous constituent of rhododendron, -mountain laurel and some kinds of azalgias. Honey from the blossoms -of plants containing it is extremely poisonous.</p> - -<p>When pioneers first pushed their way over the Appalachians their settlements -were ravaged by epidemics of a fatal disease—milk sickness. -Farms and villages were abandoned as terror-stricken settlers fled from -the scourge. It was due to tremetol, a complex chemical which has been -found in several plants—chiefly white snakeroot which causes the disease -east of the Mississippi. When cows eat the snakeroot the poison passes into -the milk.</p> - -<p>By far the most virulent plant growing in the United States is very -little known although it has caused many fatalities. This is the water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -hemlock or cicula—very different from the spotted hemlock whose extract -was forced upon Socrates. It grows in low, swampy places nearly everywhere. -When the ground is soft in the spring its roots can be pulled -easily from the soil and have a pleasant odor that attracts children. It -causes heavy losses of livestock.</p> - -<p>Next in virulence of all American plants is the whorled milkweed which -contains a closely allied resinous material not yet satisfactorily analyzed. -It has caused the death of countless cattle.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Caterpillars_That_Pretend_to_be_Snakes"><i>Caterpillars That Pretend to be Snakes</i></h2> - - -<p>There are worm-snakes, snake-worms, and wormlike animals that -instinctively imitate snakes. This is especially true of certain South -American caterpillars—defenseless creatures whose only security is in -mimicry.</p> - -<p>A large, green tree-living caterpillar in British Guiana ordinarily remains -motionless and looks like part of a vine stem. But when the branch -is shaken it rears the front part of its body and stretches horizontally. -At the same time it gives a twist expanding its front segment into a bulbous -enlargement with a big menacing black eyespot surrounded by a yellow -ring. This it remains for a few minutes, looking very much like a poisonous -tree snake that lives among green leaves.</p> - -<p>Serpent caterpillars abound in Brazil. The best example is Leucorhampha -triptolemus, a creature that hangs vertically from stems of plants. -When disturbed it twists and shows a front extremely resembling the head -and back of a snake. The curve of the caterpillar is just like that of a -serpent. It keeps up a swaying, side-to-side movement for several seconds. -The whole effect is to change what seems an innocent plant stem suddenly -into an open-mouthed snake with red jaws and ferocious eyes.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="All_Plants_Are_Luminous"><i>All Plants Are Luminous</i></h2> - - -<p>All green foliage gives off an invisible deep red—almost black—light. -This phenomenon is one of the most fundamental processes of life. It is -associated closely with the photosynthesis upon which depends all life on -earth. This important discovery was made recently by biologists at the -Oak Ridge laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission while studying -changes in a chemical known as adenosine triphosphate in plants engaged -in photosynthesis, the formation of starches and sugars out of hydrogen -from the soil and carbon from the atmosphere in the presence of light. -Newly acquired knowledge about the process is paving the way to improved -agricultural methods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p> - -<p>The biologists used extracts from the bodies of fireflies which give off -a bright light when this chemical—an important source of energy in -muscle—is present. Then they found that chloroplasts, the parts of plants -most closely associated with the photosynthetic process, also would give -off light when mixed with firefly juice and illuminated. They then made -the unexpected discovery that living extracts of green plants give off a -light of their own without any mixing.</p> - -<p>The light given off by the chloroplasts now is believed to be the exact -opposite of the first chemical step in photosynthesis. Light absorbed by -the chloroplasts forms unstable chemical bonds within the plant. A small -fraction of these chemically induced compounds recombine. The energy -liberated by this process is trapped by the chlorophyll molecule, which in -turn gives off the mysterious light.</p> - -<p>It has been established that leaves, if frozen while exposed to illumination, -retain their light-producing ability for several months. It also has -been found that certain extracts prepared from leaves undergoing exposure -to light contain substances which give off a bright light when certain -chemicals are added to them.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_That_Live_in_the_Snow"><i>Worms That Live in the Snow</i></h2> - - -<p>There are jet black worms that live in red snow. They come out of -their snow burrows only during the late summer evening, crawl sluggishly -on the surface, and disappear at sunrise the next morning. They have -been observed swimming in shallow pools that form on the surface of the -great Malaspina glacier which flows down the slope of Mount St. Elias in -Alaska.</p> - -<p>Presumably during the long sub-Arctic winter these worms burrow deep -in the snow and remain in a torpid state. They subsist chiefly on the -microscopic red algae which give the glacial snow fields a reddish tinge. -The black worms themselves are innumerable. They have been photographed -covering a trail a quarter-mile long at an elevation of 5200 feet -in Oregon. They are enchytraeids, relatives of earthworms. The common -white variety now is raised commercially in vast numbers, on diets of -oat meal and sour milk, as food for fancy varieties of aquarium fish. -Both worms and insects that normally live in snow fields are black.</p> - -<p>An investigator of the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory once -found a multitude of white enchytraeids in cakes of ice cut from a Massachusetts -pond the previous winter. They were active when the ice thawed -but all died in a few days. The same investigator kept thirty specimens -of another species in a tumbler of water placed on a ledge outside his -laboratory window. On a cold night the water froze solid with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -worms in a tangled mass in the center of the ice cake. All but three or -four were alive and appeared normal when the ice was thawed.</p> - -<p>About 75 years ago housewives of Salina, Kansas, complained that the -ice delivered from door to door was “wormy.” Cakes were found honeycombed -with tiny white worms, probably enchytraeids. They swam -about actively when the ice thawed and infested food stored in refrigerators. -All died when the temperature reached about 60 F.</p> - -<p>Whether any worm—except possibly the most minute—can survive -complete freezing is doubtful. They live in little holes that form naturally -when water freezes and that are kept open by heat generated by the bodies -of the creatures themselves.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Strange_Ways_of_Snails"><i>The Strange Ways of Snails</i></h2> - - -<p>Among earth’s deadliest creatures are cone snails which inject into their -victims a poison as virulent as that of the rattlesnakes. These snail-like -animals have a poison-secreting gland in the head and the venom is injected -through the skin of the victim by tiny, needle-sharp, harpoon-shaped teeth. -It is deadly not only to many kinds of sea animals but also to man. The -poison, acting on the nervous system, may in some cases kill in several -hours.</p> - -<p>Fortunately cone-shells are timid, retiring, slow-moving creatures. They -are among the loveliest of all sea shells. Most valuable is the “glory-of-the-seas” -cone which is worth several hundred dollars. Of the twenty -known specimens in the world, only three are in American collections. -Of the 300 or more known varieties only five or six from the Indo-Pacific -area are definitely known to be venomous.</p> - -<p>The “emperor’s top shell” is among the earth’s most exquisite and, -until recently the rarest of sea shells. This shell, about five inches in diameter, -belongs to a sea snail of a genus fairly abundant during the -Mesozioc geological period about 300,000,000 years ago and supposedly -extinct until about eight years ago when one was found alive in a Japanese -lobster trap. Thereafter the snail was seen very rarely until the present -Emperor of Japan ordered that all specimens be preserved for his private -collection. Fortunately his interest encouraged Japanese fishermen to -keep a special look-out for the creatures and since then they have been -found quite frequently. They apparently are distributed around the world -in semi-tropical waters. Two species have been located in the West Indies -and a new one recently has been reported in South Africa. The shells -are rich golden-orange in color, highlighted with reds and salmons.</p> - -<p>In the Smithsonian collections are specimens of the “original shell collector”—the -snail that collects shells. This sea snail, widely distributed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -tropical waters, has the habit of gluing to its own shell fragments of the -shells of other animals, bits of coral, and almost every kind of debris it -can pick up. The purpose is not known, but it may be for protective -camouflage. Seen in shallow water, the creature looks like a little pile of -broken shells on the sea bottom.</p> - -<p>There is a “worm snail” that builds great limestone causeways and -bridges. This is the shelled sea-snail of the Mediterranean—Termetus -(wormlike). When the creature is young its shell is a regular spiral which -the owner, free to move about, carries on its back and into which it can -retreat when alarmed. As the snail ages the shell becomes twisted and -contorted, like a tube, and is attached to an offshore rock. The animal -crawls inside and soon dies. There are inestimably great numbers of -these gastropods. They fix their shell tombs close together. These coil -around each other to form solid masses of rock. Quatrefages, describes -them in these words: “In Sicily where calcarous rocks projected into the -sea I found they were surrounded by a kind of causeway which, without -varying much in width, yet followed all the sinuosities of the shore almost -exactly on a level with the surface of the water, filling up narrow chasms in -some places and forming solid archways in others. Thus it afforded a -smooth and easy path to one who did not object to having his legs washed -by the waves. One might suppose the white and compact cement had been -consolidated by man.”</p> - -<p>The love life of some snails is confusing to Freudians. Each animal is -provided with a quiver full of arrows, located in the right side of the neck. -These darts can be discharged with considerable force. They are straight -or curved shafts of carbonate of lime which taper to exceedingly fine -points. During the breeding season the little mollusks meet in pairs. -A couple will station themselves about an inch apart and start shooting -at each other. Several darts are exchanged and each finds its mark. After -this love duel the two embrace and, since each is both male and female, -both lay eggs. The darts presumably were first developed as defense weapons -and, outmoded for service of Mars millions of generations ago, -now have been turned to the service of Eros.</p> - -<p>Showers of snails have been reported intermittently. One of the most -notable took place back in 1892 at the German town of Padeborn. Late in -August a great yellow cloud was seen over the town. In a few minutes it -burst into a torrential rain. Afterwards the pavements were covered with -water snails, all with shells broken after their long fall from the sky.</p> - -<p>Some snails can bore holes in solid rock. One, found chiefly on the -French channel coast near Boulogne, has bored holes six inches deep -and an inch in diameter with a cup-shaped cavity at the bottom. The -cavity is used for the animal’s hibernation.</p> - -<p>A few snails are natural barometers. They reputedly are extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> -sensitive to changes in humidity. One, generally grey, turns yellow just -before a rain and blue afterwards.</p> - -<p>Snails admittedly are very tenacious of life and can endure extremes -of heat, cold and dessication. Many instances have been cited, some nearly -incredible. In 1846, for example, a desert snail from Egypt was fixed to -a paper tablet in the British Museum in London. Four years later it was -observed that he had discolored the paper in his attempt to get away. -Finding escape impossible he had again retired. This led to his immersion -in tepid water. The creature again came to life. He was “alive and flourishing” -a week later.</p> - -<p>There are snail harpists and even singing snails. The former were -described by Rev. H. G. Barnacle, British missionary-naturalist, in a -scholarly paper written in 1848: “When up in the mountains of Oahu, I -heard the grandest but wildest music as from hundreds of aeolean harps -wafted to me on the breeze and a native told me it came from singing -shells. It was sublime. I could not believe it but a tree close at hand -proved it. Upon it were thousands of the snails. The animals drew after -them their shells which grated against the wood and so caused the sounds. -The multitude of sounds produced the fanciful music.”</p> - -<p>The singing snails in Ceylon’s blackish Lake Batticaloa were described -by the British naturalist Sir Emerson Tennent: “Sounds came up from -the water like gentle thrills of a musical chord or like the faint vibrations -of a wine glass when the rim is rubbed by a moistened finger. It was not -one sustained note but a multitude of tiny sounds, each clear and distinct -in itself. On applying the ear to the woodwork of the boat the vibrations -greatly increased in volume. The natives said they were made by singing -snails.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Vision-Producing_Plants"><i>Vision-Producing Plants</i></h2> - - -<p>Among the plants used by California Indians for food, medicine, and -magic is wild tobacco. It is smoked in a hollow elder stick, about eight -inches long, from which the pith has been removed. A few inhalations -of the smoke early in the morning are enough to overcome the smoker so -that he is unable to stand on his feet. He inhales until extreme dizziness -is achieved and then he touches tobacco no more for the rest of the day. -Indians can give no good reason for this concentrated form of smoking. -It is simply the way of their ancestors.</p> - -<p>A mixture of plants, the honey of bumblebees, and the red scum off an -iron spring constitute a popular love charm. The mixture is placed in -a buckskin bag and carried under the arm. When the favor of some particular -maiden is desired it is necessary only to secure something associ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span>ated -with her and add it to the charm. The easiest to get is a pinch of soil -upon which the lady has spat. This is used not only by lovers but also -by husbands wishing to secure the return of errant wives.</p> - -<p>Almost equally as important as tobacco in the life of these California -Indians is a vision-producing plant closely related to the common garden -trumpetflower and to the deadly nightshade. The leaves from the east side -of the plant are smoked; this brings about a state of exaltation in which -various animals are seen to come and offer their help to the dreamer. -Leaves from the west side are never smoked. It would mean certain death; -the Indians associate the west with death.</p> - -<p>Much the same effect is obtained by drinking a blue-frothy decoction -of the root. It not only produces visions but acts as a powerful anesthetic. -It is highly poisonous, however, and only those Indians who know the -proper dosage make use of it. The plant is known as “grandmother,” because -of its comfort-bringing qualities.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Abominable_Snow_Man"><i>The Abominable Snow Man</i></h2> - - -<p>Mysterious beast of the high Himalayas is the “abominable snow man,” -so-called by natives. It is evidently a four-footed, five-toed mammal -that weighs from 150 to 200 pounds and lives in family groups. This -much, at least, can be deduced from its tracks in the snow, according to -Dr. Edouard Wyss-Dunant, leader of the Swiss Mt. Everest expedition of -1952. He found the footprints in a snow covered frozen lake at an altitude -of about 15,000 feet.</p> - -<p>Although the tracks are bear-like, the animal apparently has a quite -unbearish ability to leap from crag to crag in migrations from one high -valley to another. The snow prints were first reported by Himalayan explorers -to be ape-like, or even almost human, and this led to speculations -that some still unknown type of big ape might have evolved in the high -mountains.</p> - -<p>The tracks, says Dr. Wyss-Dunant in his recent report to the Royal -Geographic Society, are undoubtedly those of a large “plantigrade animal”—that -is, one that walks on the sole of the foot with the heel touching -the ground. This is the way of both bear and man. The sole of the -foot is from four to five inches long by the depth of the tracks, compared to -those made by men of known weights. Some smaller footprints were -found, believed to be those of young animals. Three of the tracks showed -imprints of claws. Small triangular markings on the heels of two of -them were attributed to tufts of hair that grows on the bottom of the feet.</p> - -<p>Tracks of one animal were followed until they came to a rock several -feet high over which it was necessary for the creature to jump. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> -the other side imprints of three feet were found close together. Apparently -the animal had landed on these three feet. The tracks of the -fourth foot were some distance ahead, indicating preparations for another -jump. Beyond, Dr. Wyss-Dunant picked up other trails. Three were -coming out of a deep valley. The fourth came off the side of a glacier. -These paths joined and thenceforward continued as a single set of tracks. -The animals apparently step in each others' footsteps while they proceed in -single file. This is a customary procedure for mountaineers crossing a -glacier where there is danger of falling into crevasses.</p> - -<p>Nepal mountaineers have been familiar with the mysterious tracks -for years but nobody has been found who claims to have seen the animal. -They call it a “yeti.”</p> - -<p>“I could find no trace of meals, nor of excrement,” the Swiss explorer -declared. “This confirms my opinion that the animal only passes through -and does not frequent these heights. We should at least have found a place -of refuge, if not a lair, if the yeti was living and hunting in the neighborhood. -I rather think it passes between adjacent peaks only when, having -scoured one valley, it tries to reach another. This animal is a wanderer, -avoiding zones inhabited by man. It probably is not a carnivore since -there is very little other animal life even in the high valleys upon which -it could feed. It obviously is an animal of quite superior intelligence to -subsist at such high altitudes and to have kept itself hidden from humans -so long.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fish_That_Sing_in_the_Moonlight"><i>Fish That Sing in the Moonlight</i></h2> - - -<p>There may be a fish that actually sings—that is, utters melodious sounds -with a perceptible rhythm or beat which can be recorded in simple musical -notation. This “singing” fish, which nobody actually has been able to -identify, is one of the curiosities invariably called to the attention of -visitors in the Batticoloa province of eastern Ceylon. It frequents only one -deep lagoon and can be heard when the water is calm. Moonlight seems -to draw the organism closer to the surface. On dark, calm nights the -music still can be heard, but it seems to be coming from greater depths.</p> - -<p>The “singing” sound at least, is a verifiable fact, according to the Rev. -J. W. Lange, a Jesuit priest in Batticoloa who has tried for several years -to determine what sort of an organism is responsible.</p> - -<p>It is certain, he contends, that the sounds are made by something under -the water. They are heard best when the head is held under the surface. -By lowering a hydrophone attached to an amplifier into the lagoon, he was -able, to record the sounds. From this record a friend familiar with -musical notation was able to put them on paper.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p> - -<p>It has been established that several species of fish in the lagoon make -distinctive sounds. One, a large black fish with a yellow belly and four -whiskers on each side of its face, expresses sounds like a baby’s fretful crying. -A large chocolate-colored fish found among the bottom rocks makes -a sound “like the distant echo of a large firecracker.” There is a curious -little scaleless fish found in schools of 100 or more; as the school moves -through the water it produces a chorus of tinkling sounds. A phosphorescent -light comes from inside the throats of these animals. Among all his -catches Fr. Lange has found nothing which can be identified with the -singing fish, but he is convinced the music comes from a living organism.</p> - -<p>That fish can and do make sounds now is well-known. This was -demonstrated conclusively by U. S. Navy investigators during the late -war. They determined the characteristic sounds made by a large variety -of sea creatures whose chatter was interfering with underwater sonic -devices.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Brazils_Vicious_Glow_Worm"><i>Brazil’s Vicious Glow Worm</i></h2> - - -<p>One of the most unusual of all luminous creatures is an insect larva -found by farmers ploughing damp soil in Brazil and Uruguay. It is a -reddish-brown little worm with rows of green lights on both sides and a -vivid red lamp on the front of its head. The red light is actually red—not -white light shining through a reddish skin. Adult females of the -species retain the same luminous pattern. Male adults have only feeble, -yellow lights. The larva are extremely vicious little creatures, predators -on white grubs which infest the soil.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Grasshoppers_Like_Chameleons"><i>Grasshoppers Like Chameleons</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a jet-black grasshopper that turns sky-blue at sunrise. The -curious creature is found on the summit of Mount Kosciusco, highest -peak in Australia, where snow lingers into late summer and nights are -bitter cold.</p> - -<p>The insect is of peculiar interest because of a temperature control mechanism -otherwise unknown in nature. Several animals, notably chameleons -and some fish, can change color, usually to match their environment. The -changes are brought about by certain hormones, released by stimulation of -the eyes, which activate different color cells in the skin. But in this grasshopper -every one of the outer layer of cells of the body is a color cell. -On the surface are granules of black pigment, underneath granules of blue. -These change places in response to temperature changes. At approximately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -25 degrees C. the blue granules rise to the top, displacing the black. At -15 C. the reverse happens. This displacement can be brought about only -by temperature change. Australian entomologists have in vain tried every -other sort of stimulus, including illumination with various wave lengths -of light.</p> - -<p>The phenomenon probably is protective. Seemingly because it is very -cold at night on the high mountaintop the black pigment absorbs and -retains all the heat available. It is as if the grasshopper carried a woolen -blanket. With sunrise an abrupt change takes place; and the days often become -intensely hot. If the black coat were retained, the grasshopper would -become overheated and probably die. The blue reflects much of the heat.</p> - -<p>With the first streaks of sunlight grasshoppers which have slept all -night at the foot of grass stalks begin creeping slowly upward. There apparently -is no nervous control of the color change. Each color cell seems -to act independently. The same reaction takes place in dead grasshoppers -when the temperature changes, affecting even fragments of their bodies. It -is possible to get a grasshopper half black and half blue by heating one end -and cooling the other.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Beetles_That_Helped_an_Army"><i>Beetles That Helped an Army</i></h2> - - -<p>During the invasion of Normandy in 1944 Army jeep drivers prohibited -from using headlights of any sort, were able to follow winding country -roads on the blackest nights by rows of millions of flashing green lights -which outlined the roadsides.</p> - -<p>Wingless, wormlike female beetles, (Lampyris hoctiluca, the European -glow worm) were trying to attract their winged, lightless mates. Their -nocturnal lovemaking as they clung to roadside weeds and bushes was a -far from insignificant factor in the Normandy operations. The worms -indicated not only the direction but the width of the roads, thus forestalling -fatal accidents and preventing drivers from going astray into -hostile territory. However, they doubtless proved of equal value to the -enemy. These accommodating creatures, unknown to soldiers from -across the Atlantic, should not be confused with our familiar fireflies.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Worms_in_Medical_History"><i>Worms in Medical History</i></h2> - - -<p>Earthworms have an important place in folk medicine, especially in -the Near East. Muzhatu-L-qylut of Hamd Allah, an ancient Persian natural -history, states: “Earthworms are red worms living in the damp earth. -Baked and eaten with bread they reduce the size of stones in the bladder. -When dried and eaten they cure the yellowness of jaundice. In difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -labor they bring on delivery immediately. Their ashes applied to the head -with oil of roses make the hair to grow.”</p> - -<p>Says a seventeenth century English medical treatise: “Earthworms are -hot of nature and of them are a pressious oyntment made to close woundes; -and if they be sodden in goose greece and styned it is a good oyntment -for to drop into a dull hearing ear. Earthworms stamped are good for -payned teeth. The oyle of earthworms be greatly commended for comforting -of sinews, jointes, vaines and goute. They must be washed in white -wine and the oyles of verbascum or cowslopes, of roses, of lilies, of dil, of -chamomill, all sodden together. When it is cold put in your erthwormes, -stoppe your glass, let it stand xl days in the sunne, then straine it. It will -make an excellent oyle against ache, sciatica, goute, etc.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Toads_That_Make_Poison_Gas"><i>Toads That Make Poison Gas</i></h2> - - -<p>Among the weirdest of American amphibians are certain of the giant -toads of southwestern United States and northern Mexico which, when -frightened or in pain, diffuse a deadly gas which will kill objects some -distance away.</p> - -<p>A very large toad found almost everywhere throughout the Panama Canal -Zone can squirt a poison which may permanently blind a man if it hits the -eyes. Nobody would bother it except that from its skin is made of the -softest and most expensive of all leather.</p> - -<p>Most toads have skin covered with warts which are more closely -grouped on the sides of the neck than elsewhere. These, together with -the paratoid glands situated behind the eyes, secrete a milky, poisonous -fluid whenever the animal is molested. The secretion is an acid irritant, -causing pain in cuts and producing a bitter, astringent sensation in the -mouth.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Plants_That_Thrive_on_Ice-Bloom"><i>Plants That Thrive on Ice-Bloom</i></h2> - - -<p>There are plants that grow in ice and snow. This phenomenon—known -to botanists as cryovegetation—has been the subject of intensive study at -Mt. McKinley National Park in Alaska.</p> - -<p>The plants are responsible for the strange phenomenon of ice-bloom. Ice -fields at various seasons take strange colors. The plants are very minute -members of the almost universal algae family which are among the most -primitive forms of life on earth. They are able to extract the nourishment -they require from the surface of a glacier as it melts slightly under -the glare of the Arctic sun. The phenomenon has been reported by Arctic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -explorers for many years but until a few years ago very little was known -of the responsible microorganisms. They are a striking demonstration of -the fact that life has spread to all possible habitats on earth in some form or -other, even to fields of solid ice.</p> - -<p>While nobody is likely to stake out a few thousand acres of glacier -for a farm, an Hungarian botanist, Dr. Ersebet Kol, has made first-hand -studies of the conditions under which the minute plant organism could live -and multiply, including the acidity of the ice. Concerning the Columbia -glacier, one of the largest in the Alaska ice-fields, Dr. Kol reported to -the Smithsonian Institution: “When I stepped on the ice, I saw for the -first time a phenomenon to be seen only on coastal glaciers. The surface -of the ice was covered for miles and miles with light brownish-purple algal -vegetation called ice-bloom. This effect is produced by immense quantities -of minute plants called Ancyclonema, a characteristic plant of the permanent -ice. It can never be found elsewhere, even on permanent snow. -It belongs to the green algae first found on the coast glaciers of Greenland. -Since that time, the microorganism has been found in several localities -in Europe, and I have found it occasionally on the glaciers of the -interior but never in sufficient quantities to form the ice-bloom of the -coastal glaciers.</p> - -<p>“Here I had an opportunity of studying another striking phenomenon of -the permanent snow regions of Alaska—colored snow, especially red snow. -Above Valdez, around the Thompson Pass, the snowfields glitter with a -reddish color in the beginning of August. The snow was red not only on -the surface, but also to a depth of several inches and even in one place to -a depth of two feet, caused by the presence of millions of tiny plants, -Chlamydomonas nivalis. The snow on Thompson Pass looks as though it -has been sprinkled with red pepper, differing in this respect from the red -of other snowfields, which is usually a light raspberry red.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Poison_Arrow_Frogs"><i>Poison Arrow Frogs</i></h2> - - -<p>There is a green frog, about the size of a half dollar, that is one of the -most virulently poisonous creatures on earth—but only after it has been -roasted alive. It is common at the Smithsonian Institution’s tropical -wild life preserve in the Panama Canal Zone. When living it is quite -harmless, at least to human beings although some believe it can poison -other frogs. When it is roasted over a slow fire, however, a toxin is -exuded from its skin which is a potent nerve and respiratory poison. It -once was used by the Choco Indians to poison the arrows with which they -hunted game and Spaniards.</p> - -<p>The poison arrow frog is a delicate creature which is confined to a nar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span>row -temperature range and probably never has reached the United States -alive. A ground and tree-dwelling animal, it is quite elusive.</p> - -<p>A close relative is a brilliant scarlet frog, a denizen of the treetop of the -dense Panama rain forest. From its skin also is exuded a virulent poison. -One of the two jungle canopy frogs, it is less than an inch long. Its body -has deep scarlet both above and below; its feet are black and its thighs are -flecked with metallic green on the rear and metallic blue on the front. It -is found only on the Atlantic side of the isthmus near the mouth of a -small bay where Columbus once landed for fresh water. Outside its narrow -range the creature has never been seen in its gorgeous colors. In -captivity it probably would die very quickly. Placed in a preservative, it -quickly turns to a drab, uniform black.</p> - -<p>The animal is a remarkable and peculiar climber. It ascends a tree -trunk by a series of short jumps, catching its toes in rough spots on the -bark. (Other tree frogs have suction disks on their feet by means of which -they can walk up a tree in leisurely fashion.) It makes its way unerringly -from the ground to its treetop home, a pool of water in the axil of a -bromilead or “tank plant,” a tree of the pineapple family.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Seal_That_Can_Lose_Its_Head"><i>The Seal That Can “Lose” Its Head</i></h2> - - -<p>An animal that can pull its head almost completely into its neck has -recently been added to the mammal collections of the Smithsonian Institution. -This is the Ross seal, one of the rarest of all the seal family in the -Antarctic.</p> - -<p>A frozen specimen captured by the Navy’s polar expedition in 1956 -arrived at the U. S. National Museum in Washington in excellent condition. -This seal—about 8 feet long—dwells exclusively on the drifting -ice pack of the Ross Sea. So far as is known it never comes on land or -on the ice shelf. It apparently feeds almost exclusively on cuttlefish -and squid, which are abundant in Antarctic waters. To judge by the -nature of its teeth it undoubtedly is not a fish-eater. It is yellowish-green -on the underside and blackish-brown on the top, the fur often being -marked with pale streaks along the sides.</p> - -<p>On the drifting pack it has fearsome enemies—notably the killer whale -and the writhing, snake-like sea-leopard, most savage of the seal family—which -may account for its relative scarcity. The outstanding peculiarity -of the creature, probably unique among mammals, is the thick bloated -neck into which the head can be withdrawn. This may be a protective -characteristic although it could hardly serve the creature against its fierce -enemies. On the other hand, withdrawal of the head may be a comfortable -habit in a very cold climate.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Delectable_Horned_Viper"><i>The Delectable Horned Viper</i></h2> - - -<p>All along the Nile and the Red Sea coast is found the horned viper which -lives buried wormlike in the sand with only its eyes and the upper part -of its head visible. Its horns are said to look like barley grains and to -entice birds. It is found often in rodent holes. This horned viper is -extremely tenacious of life. It has been kept alive in a glass jar, without -food, for two years. It can hurl itself forward as much as three feet. A -full-grown specimen is about 18 inches long and quite poisonous but -Egyptian magicians have been seen eating the animals like stalks of celery.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Flying_Snakes_Frogs_and_Toads"><i>Flying Snakes, Frogs and Toads</i></h2> - - -<p>There are flying snakes as well as flying frogs and toads. Such reptiles -and amphibians should be considered expert parachutists rather than -actual flyers.</p> - -<p>The tree snakes dendrolaphis and chrysopelea leap from high limbs, -stretched out lengthwise and both flatten and broaden the body so that it -presents a concave surface. They glide to earth slowly, at an angle to -the vertical, and land apparently without injury.</p> - -<p>Frogs of some species have enormous webs between the fingers and toes -which serve as parachutes. A Brazilian tree frog has been observed to -drop from an altitude of 100 feet and land 90 feet away uninjured. Since -other frogs of the same size were killed when dropped vertically, parachuting -must be considered a distinct trait of this particular species, developed -over many generations of life in treetops.</p> - -<p>In the course of experiments a South Carolina lizard, frequenter of -bushes and fences, landed ten to twelve feet away from the place where it -was dropped, at a height of 37 feet, and hopped away unhurt. It took a -rigid posture when dropped, limbs outstretched and stomach taut. It fell -vertically a third of the distance to the ground and then started to glide. -A lizard of another species from the same habit wriggled all the way down.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Eagles_Build_Log_Cabin_Nests"><i>Eagles Build Log Cabin Nests</i></h2> - - -<p>The white-headed eagle became the national bird of the United States -by act of Congress on June 20, 1782. For nearly two centuries it has -remained the American symbol of fearlessness and freedom. The same -bird—Haleoletus leucocephalus and not the more familiar golden eagle -found in the West—had been the supreme totem animal of the Six -Nations of the Iroquois from whom many institutions of the new republic -indirectly may have been derived.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span></p> - -<p>This eagle still is fairly abundant in the fringes of forest around the -Great Lakes, its fishing grounds. Its nest, almost always at the top of -a tall sycamore or hickory which is dead or dying, is almost literally a -log cabin. The bird sometimes uses sticks six feet long for the outer -walls. It grasps large dead branches in its talons, breaks them off by -sheer force, and flies away with them. A recently observed nest was nine -feet high and six feet in diameter.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Predatory_Mantid"><i>The Predatory Mantid</i></h2> - - -<p>Why does the “praying mantid” pray? The prayerlike pose of this -near relative of the cockroach is its normal position both for seizing its -victims and for defending itself.</p> - -<p>For their size mantids are among the most predatory animals in existence. -They are also among the least known of the insects. There are -more than 1500 species in the world, mostly tropical. Only 19 are known -in the United States which is on the northern fringe of their normal -habitat. One of the most remarkable features of the mantid is its front -legs, which bear sharp spines and fold in a curious hinged fashion enabling -the insect to reach forward, seize a fly or some other victim, and -bring it to its mouth. This is the explanation for the seeming attitude of -prayer.</p> - -<p>Mantids feed entirely on other animals, chiefly insects caught alive. -Instances of small birds, lizards and mice being eaten have been reported, -probably due to mistaken observations. There is no question that mature -individuals of several species can handle any caterpillar, grasshopper, cockroach -or other large insect that comes within its range. Their appetite -is enormous. An adult mantid has been known to eat ten cockroaches -in less than three hours. Bees and wasps usually have no terrors for the -predators, although occasionally a mantid is stung while trying to catch -a wasp and gives evidence of the injury.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the mantid’s front legs are held in a posture of sparring, -rather than of prayer. More than once the sight of one of these insects -“sparring” with an English sparrow or some other small animal has attracted -a crowd on a city street and gotten paragraphs in the local newspapers.</p> - -<p>The mantid usually waits motionless until its prey comes within reach -but sometimes, supposedly when very hungry, it may stalk another insect. -Sometimes the victim is touched lightly with the antennae before the front -legs flash forward and make the capture.</p> - -<p>These insects have developed considerable camouflage. Some tropical -species look like flowers, their colors blending with those of foliage. One<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -species varies in color from white to pale pink and has the practise of -crouching among certain blossoms, the petals of which its legs and other -body parts resemble. Others have arranged themselves on plants so that -they look like blue flowers. Presumably bees and other flower-loving insects -thus are lured to their doom. A few tropical mantids have developed -a superficial resemblance to other insects of the same environment -which are distasteful to birds and monkeys. Some closely resemble large -ants.</p> - -<p>There is a widespread belief that the male always is eaten by the female -after mating. Sometimes this happens, but the male never is a willing -victim and quite frequently escapes. The eggs are laid in groups of from -a dozen to about 400. They are deposited in layers in the midst of a thick -frothy liquid which soon hardens and becomes fibrous. For the most part, -each species deposits egg masses of a distinctive shape.</p> - -<p>On the whole, they probably are beneficial insects because the greater -part of their prey consists of species injurious to gardens. The possibility -of propagating them for the control of injurious insects, such as -Japanese beetles, has been suggested because of their notoriously big -appetites. It would, however, be impossible to restrict them to a specific -pest. They would continue to eat about every living creature of the right -size that came within reach of their claws, including many beneficial -species.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Fireflies_as_Electricians"><i>Fireflies as Electricians</i></h2> - - -<p>The flashing of a field of fireflies is an expensive show. For two generations -one of the ideals of science has been to produce artificially “cold -light”—radiation confined entirely to those wavelengths to which the retina -of the human eye is sensitive without any energy being wasted in the form -of heat or invisible light. Could the ideal be attained with the same expenditure -of fuel and power as is required for light production at present -the world’s bills for illumination would be decreased enormously.</p> - -<p>Actually the firefly has attained this ideal in one direction. It emits -only visible light. From this point of view the firefly or any other sort of -luminescent animal is very efficient indeed. A good part of the total -radiation from any man-made source of light—or for that matter -from the sun—is invisible infrared, observable only as heat. Possibly -the firefly produces some heat in its light production but it is too little -to be measured. It is safe to say that within a tiny fraction, 100% of -the radiation produced is in the visible spectrum—most of it shorter wave -lengths than those which produce the sensation of blue light. This is by far -the highest efficiency known to science.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p> - -<p>Chemists can duplicate the process to a certain extent. Consequently -a great deal of research has been devoted to the light-emitting mechanism, -physical and chemical, of the insects. Firefly luminescence is due to the -oxidation—that is, the burning—of a chemical substance, luciferin. This -reaction, in turn, depends upon a catalyst known as luciferase. The same -phenomenon can be brought out by appropriate mixtures of luciferin, -luciferase, and oxygen in a test-tube at the proper temperature.</p> - -<p>All these experiments have shown that, considering the amount of oxygen -necessary, it is a very wasteful process. It is far less efficient than most -means of producing artificial light known to man—one percent compared -with the 4.54 percent of the carbon filament; 17.17 percent of the acetylene -flame, or 60 percent of the sodium arc light. To illuminate houses or -streets with firefly light would be a very expensive procedure indeed.</p> - -<p>Dr. N. D. Maluf of Yale University quotes a calculation that “an area -of firefly light six feet in diameter on the ceiling of a room nine feet high -would give ample illumination for reading or drawing on a table three feet -high.” This would hardly interest an illuminating engineer. The light -can, however, be used in an emergency. During the Spanish-American -War Major General W. C. Gorgas is reputed to have used the light from -a bottle of fireflies to perform an emergency operation. The average -householder would rebel at the monthly bills.</p> - -<p>The actual light from a single firefly is very minute indeed, averaging -little more than 25 thousandths of a candle power. The combined courtship -efforts of a whole field full of the insects would hardly light a single -room enough for sewing or reading. The insect will sometimes glow -steadily with a light as low as two hundred-thousandths of candle power -intensity.</p> - -<p>Among fireflies, flashing is essentially a courtship phenomenon, yet -there is no discernible difference between the quality of the light of male -and female insects. What actually happens is that the flash of the female in -response to the signal of the male is timed almost exactly at a trifle -over two seconds. The male is instinctively aware of this time interval, so -that he does not become confused with the signals of other males. In -a large group of the insects the flashes of the two sexes tend to become -synchronized, producing a field of light.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Mollusk_Vampire_of_Hell"><i>The Mollusk Vampire of Hell</i></h2> - - -<p>Black demon of the realm of everlasting dark is Vampyrotouthis infernalis. -Most nightmarish of living animals, this “vampire of hell” has a -midnight-black body about two inches long, red-brown round face on a -head almost as large as the rest of the body, red eyes an inch in diameter -encircled by narrow bands of pinkish-orange, rows of ivory white teeth,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> -ten wriggling, ever-probing tentacles extending from the head. On the -sides of the neck are two powerful, flashing lights each of which is a -cluster of about 50 tiny phosphorescent nodules. The entire body is -covered with hundreds of tiny lights.</p> - -<p>Fortunately nobody is likely to meet this horror of an hallucination-damned -maniac’s ravings on a lonely road passing a graveyard at night. -It is a mollusk, a close relative of the octopus and the squid but belonging -to neither family, which lives in abysses of sub-tropical seas all -around the world, far below the depths reached by the most penetrating -green rays of the sun. Only its relatively small size and restricted habitat -prevent it from being the most fearsome, loathsome creature on this -planet.</p> - -<p>The “vampire” is a living fossil, survivor out of the demonic seas of -200,000,000 years ago which found shelter from the inexorable scythe -with which time mows down demons by retreating further and further -into the dark. Imprints of quite similar sea animals, probably denizens -of warm, shallow waters, have been found in English rocks.</p> - -<p>Up to now about a hundred individuals have been taken from the deep -sea, mostly by scientific expeditions. Of these, nearly two-thirds have -come from the Atlantic off the Florida coast and near Bermuda. There -are several in the Smithsonian collections. The fantastically terrible little -mollusk was first taken in the Indian Ocean by Dr. Carl Cuhn of the -German Valdavia expedition about 75 years ago. Until quite recently all -specimens obtained have been in poor condition and there has been considerable -difficulty in classifying them. The job has been complicated by -the fact that the vampire apparently undergoes a series of metamorphoses -which have been mistaken for different species. During the past ten -years, however, they have been studied intensively by Dr. Grace Pickford -of the Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory of Yale and their fearsome -reality has been established beyond question.</p> - -<p>Naturally, since the living animal cannot be observed, essentially little -is known of its habits and ways of life. Certainly it is a voracious carnivore -like all others of its race and preys upon every other creature of -the depths in its size range. It seems to be confined exclusively to a depth -of about 1,500 meters. This is the level of the sea where, for some reason -oceanographers are unable to fathom, the oxygen content of the water is -lowest. It goes up immediately both above and below. The vampire, -apparently, cannot stand too much oxygen. Its eggs sink to about 2,000 -meters where they reach their suspension level. As soon as the little -mollusks hatch they rise to their natural habitat.</p> - -<p>The vampire has powerful tentacles but its fin muscles indicate that it -is a weak swimmer. It probably lurks in the abysmal darkness for its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -prey to come within reach of the probing tentacles. Even with its enormous -eyes and its many lights it hardly can distinguish moving objects -very well and presumably is not particular about what living things it -eats. Its usual victims probably are fishes and smaller mollusks. It is -unlikely that the creature has many natural enemies it need fear. Unlike -the octopuses, its nearest relations, it has no ink sac from which to discharge -a black cloud around its body for its own concealment.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Climbing_and_Flying_Frogs"><i>Climbing and Flying Frogs</i></h2> - - -<p>A family of frogs that climb trees, burrow and are learning to fly are -the tree frogs of Mexican tropical forests. Various members of the -family are at different stages in their physical adaptation to tree life. -They constitute a striking example of evolution at work as a race struggles -to shake itself free from one environment and conquer another despite -considerable odds.</p> - -<p>The ends of the fingers and toes of those frogs are provided with adhesive -disks by means of which the animals are able to obtain a firm foothold on -relatively smooth surfaces. These disks are used mainly for climbing, or -for clinging to foliage and limbs when jumping. One species is both a -climber and burrower. It is an extremely timid little creature and a poor -climber, but it buries itself deeply in tree mosses. Another species, which -seems as much as home on the ground as in the trees, deposits its eggs -on the upper surfaces of leaves overhanging the water. The tadpoles, -which must return to the water for their metamorphosis into frogs, simply -drop off the leaves after they leave the eggs. Perhaps the most peculiar -of the family is the marsupial frog, Gastrotheca, all of whose young are -sheltered in a pouch on the back of the female. Some of the family lay -their eggs in nests of froth attached to leaves.</p> - -<p>One remarkable species seems to be developing the ability to fly. Its -hind limbs are elongated for jumping and it has been known to leap and -alight without injury from a height of 140 feet. When handled it exudes a -poisonous, milky fluid which coagulates instantly, sticking to the fingers in -a disagreeable way. It has a strong odor, like that of peaches, which causes -the inside of the nose to itch. Experiments are described in which this -animal was dropped from the top of a high water tower. It immediately -spread out its limbs and, instead of dropping vertically, sailed slowly -downward and landed uninjured on the ground about 90 feet away. Apparently -it was able to get the best of gravity after a drop of about twelve -feet. From that point on, there was no apparent acceleration in the -speed of descent. A state of equilibrium was reached. Whenever -one of these frogs was thrown in the air it invariably managed, after a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -violent struggle, to establish itself in a balanced position which it could -maintain, apparently without effort, while it glided to the ground.</p> - -<p>Within certain limits these tree frogs can change their color so that -their bodies will blend more perfectly with their surroundings. One of -the most widely distributed Mexican species seems to have an exceptional -color range. This particular creature also is notable for its elusiveness. -It exists in countless numbers, yet an explorer may hunt for weeks without -encountering a single one. Such was the experience of the German naturalist, -Hans Gadow. While wandering along the edge of the forest he -heard what seemed to be the noise of a sawmill in the distance. As he came -nearer this sound changed into a roar like that of steam escaping from many -boilers, mingled with the sharp and piercing scream of saws. It came from -a meadow containing a shallow rainwater pool in which were tens of -thousands of large, green tree frogs. Gadow calculated that in this pool, -about thirty yards square, and in the immediate neighborhood, were more -than 45,000 of the creatures. The water of the pool was covered with their -spawn—a minimum of 100,000,000 eggs. The next morning there was not -a single frog in sight. The water had evaporated during the night and the -eggs were left to be cooked by the sun.</p> - -<p>One of the most curious of these creatures is the banana frog, whose -habitat often is the upper side of a banana leaf. It is an extremely elusive -creature whose color undergoes considerable change without being specifically -responsive, so far has been observed, to the intensity of light. Another -curious member of the family wraps its eggs in foamy lather and -suspends the whole mass between leaves or blades of grass over water in -such a manner that the next heavy rain washes the developing eggs or -tadpoles into it. It is necessary that the tadpole stage be passed in water. -Development of means to bring this about was necessary before the family -could conquer a tree environment.</p> - -<p>Another little frog spends its entire life in the leaf-formed cup of a -bromelia, a plant somewhat similar in appearance to a small century -plant, which grows on the branches of trees where its roots get a precarious -foothold. During the rainy season this cup becomes filled with -water. There the frog lays its eggs, which hatch as pollywogs.</p> - -<p>Truly demonic are fantastic horned frogs of Brazil which devour other -amphibians and small mammals. The largest of them do not hesitate -to defy a human being in the mountain rain forests, their chief habitat. -They are six inches long or longer and as broad as long. Some have horns -on their eyelids and the tips of their noses. All have enormous mouths, so -that a mouse can be swallowed quite easily. When excited they inflate -their bodies like balloons and utter bull-like bellows. At other times they -are heard to cry like infants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span></p> - -<p>The horns probably serve no other purpose than to add to the ferocious -appearance of the animals. They are just hardened extensions of the -skin, entirely too soft to be of any value in combat. All species of horned -frogs are rare in collections. They seldom are seen because of their -secluded habitat and their clever camouflage. They throw loose dirt over -their damp bodies until they become practically invisible.</p> - -<p>Rarest of the family are the pigmy horned frogs which have horns on -both eyelids and the tip of the nose, as well as a fringe of horns around -the eyes. They are beautifully marked animals.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Mad_Dog_Cycles"><i>Mad Dog Cycles</i></h2> - - -<p>There may be mad dog cycles. Dogs are much more vicious in June -than in the so-called “dog-days” season of July and August.</p> - -<p>The tiny poodle and the pekingese share with the big German police -dog and the Italian bull rank among the 10 most vicious of domestic -canines. These are some of the conclusions reached by Dr. Robert Oleson -of the U. S. Public Health Service on the basis of data about dogs in the -metropolitan New York area for 27 years.</p> - -<p>During this period, Dr. Oleson’s study shows there were two 5-year -peaks in rabies, from 1911 to 1915, inclusive, and from 1926 to 1930. -During the first period the annual average of bites diagnosed as made by -rabies-infected animals was 233, compared with only an average of 78 for -the previous three years for which records were available. There followed -a period of 10 years during which the number of rabies cases diagnosed in -biting dogs averaged only 43 a year. Starting with 1926 the curve leaped -up again and in the next five years there was an average of 288 cases a -year. Then came another rapid decline.</p> - -<p>Apparently the number of rabies cases has no relation to the number of -bites. These remained practically stationary at an average of about 3,500 -from 1908 to 1926. There was a sudden jump to more than 7,000 cases -in 1925, just before the start of the second rabies peak. But since 1930 -the number of bites reported has continued to go up, in the face of rigid -muzzling restrictions, until it has reached the alarming figure of 20,000. -At the same time the number of rabies cases rapidly has gone down.</p> - -<p>The same tendency toward the mad dog cycle has been noted in several -European countries. It may be due to an inexplicable waxing and waning -of the virulency of the rabies virus. During the peak years extraordinary -efforts were made to impound all unlicensed dogs, and the decline of the -waves may have been due to the lessening of the number of potential -rabies carriers by this means.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span></p> - -<p>Contrary to general belief, dogs are getting better tempered rapidly -during dog days. The high peak of the year in bites is reached about the -middle of June. Then comes a very sharp drop, which continues steadily -as colder weather comes on.</p> - -<p>No breed of dogs is entirely free from the biting tendency, but some are -much more prone to it than others. The mongrel doesn’t rank among the -really vicious dogs and pedigree counts for nothing. The 10 breeds, in the -order of frequency of their reported bites, are: German police, chow, -poodle, Italian bull, fox terrier, crossed chow, airedale, pekingese and -crossed German police dog.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Amazing_Survival_of_the_Opossum"><i>The Amazing Survival of the Opossum</i></h2> - - -<p>The opossum, sole survivor in the New World of a primitive and very -ancient family, represents an overlooked principle in evolution—survival -by endurance.</p> - -<p>How this clumsy, persecuted animal has endured through millions of -generations in the midst of savage and hungry foes is the subject of a -revealing study by Dr. J. D. Black of the University of Kansas.</p> - -<p>Dr. Black examined closely the skeletons of 95 opossums in the university -museum—all killed in the immediate vicinity. Thirty-nine of them -gave evidence of broken bones that had completely healed. One specimen -had suffered, and recovered from, breaks of both scapulae, 11 ribs, two -broken in three places, and a badly injured spine. Still another gave evidence -of having suffered at the same time fractures of the jaw, the scapulae, -and nine ribs. Many showed evidence of ribs and scapulae broken in -several places. The ability to survive such severe injuries—they would be -fatal in any other animal either in themselves or because the crippled condition -resulting from them would make a creature an easy prey to its enemies—illustrates -the importance of the opossum’s practice of playing dead.</p> - -<p>The opossum represents an important stage in the evolution of mammals—that -of the marsupials, or pouch bearers. They presumably were quite -widely distributed over the earth at one time, before the emergence of the -placental type of mammals to which the human race belongs, together with -almost all other warm-blooded animals. They may be the ancestors of the -placentals or they may represent a different line of development from the -ancestral reptiles. In any event, they are considerably nearer the type of -those ancient egg-laying reptiles. They are just a step beyond the egg-laying -stage.</p> - -<p>When the placentals arose the marsupials quickly disappeared from most -of the earth. They were not so well adapted for survival in conflict with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> -the more advanced, efficient type of animal. Only in Australia did they -find a haven. With a single exception, they were the only mammals there -when the continent first was discovered by white men. This has led to the -speculation that Australia was cut off from the rest of the world before the -placental races were evolved, or before they had attained such efficiency in -the ways of life as to enable them to survive. There the marsupials, without -competition, were able to survive and differentiate into rich fauna of -the continent—of which the kangaroos are considered the most characteristic -animals.</p> - -<p>The one exception was in North and South America in the person of the -lowly opossum. All the meat-eating animals which arose around the -creature fed upon it if they could catch it. It was not very efficient -in getting away from a pursuer. It developed no effective armor, like the -shell of the armadillo or the quills of the porcupine, with which other weak -animals managed to survive. It was not even very efficient at hiding. -When man arrived on the scene with his bows and his guns, its last havens, -the treetops, lost their small measure of security.</p> - -<p>All the cards were stacked against the survival of the opossum, but it developed -a means of its own to keep a tenacious hold on life while far more -efficient creatures—beset with new enemies and changing climates—were -forced to give up. The great mammoth herds, lords of the earth for a -million years, disappeared. The ferocious saber-tooth tiger and the great -cave bear expired by the roadside in the race of evolution. But the poor -opossum had discovered the important principle that the meek shall inherit -the earth—or, at least, be allowed to live in it. It became the great pain -endurer and lived by submitting and gritting its teeth. It didn’t fight nor -hide. It merely suffered and learned how to endure suffering. This -supreme ability of the opossum to recover from injuries goes a long way -toward explaining its survival.</p> - -<p>The opossum thus appears to be the prototype of a familiar class of men -and women. They are frequently encountered. As children they have almost -every conceivable disease. Their adolescence is a continuous succession -of broken bones. Their parents despair of raising them. When they -come to adult life the story is much the same. They suffer a constant -stream of misfortunes, physical and otherwise. Physicians are amazed at -their recoveries. And they often survive into the 80s and 90s of life while -the healthy, fortunate individuals with whom they started out are left behind -in the prime of life—victims of pneumonia, heart disease or accident. -When the latter die the news comes as a surprise to their acquaintances -who cannot understand how the strong die and the weak survive. They -ponder over the paradox that strength is weakness and weakness strength. -The ancient opossum might explain that paradox if it had the means to -express itself.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Mammal_Prototypes_of_the_Mermaid"><i>Mammal Prototypes of the “Mermaid”</i></h2> - - -<p>The prototypes of the “mermaids” of legend are among the least known -of all animals to naturalists because of their underwater habitat and their -secretive habits. They are the manatees of the Caribbean region and the -dugongs of the Indian Ocean. They constitute the only remaining species -of the serenia, or moon creatures, distant relatives of the elephant. Both -have a somewhat human facial appearance. They feed standing upright in -the water, their flippers held out before them like arms. Sometimes the -females hold their calves in these flippers. Seen from a distance, they -have a curiously human appearance, which may account for the many reports -of mermaids and mermen.</p> - -<p>This is especially true of the dugong—a creature of the open sea, with a -white, almost hairless body. It is extremely secretive and has almost -never been captured alive. When one is washed ashore or caught in a -fisher’s net it causes superstitious fear among the natives. The manatees -are not so human in appearance and are much better known.</p> - -<p>The creatures seldom make their appearance above water in daylight. -They prefer to gaze in the moonlight, and this has added to their humanlike -appearance which has given rise to the mermaid legends.</p> - -<p>One of the few persons to study the animal at close range, O. W. Barrett, -an American explorer, tells us the following concerning the manatee:</p> - -<p>“The animal still is fairly common in most fresh-water bayous, lagoons -and rivers along the east coast of Nicaragua. One of the best-known -herds on the Caribbean Coast inhabits the Indio River, just north of Greytown, -Nicaragua. Estimates of its number vary from a few score to -several hundred. The herd apparently is stationary there and does not increase -or decrease to any notable degree from year to year, although the -natives take a heavy toll....</p> - -<p>“A manatee can remain under water from 20 to 30 minutes when frightened. -During the daytime the slightest unusual noise, like rain falling on a -tin pail or the spitting of the hunter, is sufficient to keep the whole herd -submerged for hours, yet while they are grazing the hunter may go up and -slap them on the back unnoticed.</p> - -<p>“Families consisting of a bull, a cow, and one or two calves usually...merge -into a herd of from 10 to 50 or more individuals living in a certain -stretch of river, concentrating during the day and scattering at night. -They generally graze at night, although a few individuals may be seen -feeding in broad daylight. The body is held nearly vertical while grazing. -The head is held well out of water, while the armlike flippers poke the grass -toward the mouth. The noise made by the flapping of the huge upper lip -and the crunching of the large teeth can be heard distinctly 200 yards or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -more away. The sound is much like that of horses grazing in a pasture. -Adult manatees appear to average somewhere between 8 and 10 feet in -length. Some—old females, presumably—may reach 12 feet.”</p> - -<p>A much more seclusive animal is the true “mermaid” of legend—the -dugong of the open ocean. Unlike the manatee, it is a creature of the -sea and seldom ventures into the fresh-water rivers and lagoons. Few -naturalists ever have actually seen one of the creatures. Mr. Barrett’s -first acquaintance with the creature came in Mozambique, Portuguese East -Africa, when some native fishermen caught in their net what they described -as a “white porpoise.” They were terrified and gladly presented their -catch to an Italian blacksmith. This man crudely embalmed the animal, -placed it in a rough coffin and freighted it to Johannesburg, where he -rented a show room and made a fortune exhibiting “the only genuine mermaid—half -fish, half human.”</p> - -<p>For many years mariners in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea have -told of seeing objects resembling women standing waist high on the surface. -Zoologists of the Middle Ages described a “bishop fish” which had -been seen standing with outstretched arms, supposedly blessing the waters. -In nearly every case, it seems likely, the objects were strange water -animals—the dugongs. They have a curious resemblance to human beings, -especially naked women, when seen from a distance.</p> - -<p>Nearly all mermaid stories have originated in water where dugongs are -abundant. Spanish and Portuguese sailors, the first Europeans to encounter -the animal, called it the “woman fish.” The creature is best known to -Malagasy fishermen of Madagascar who, while they prize its flesh highly, -attribute to it human qualities and affinities. After capturing one the -fisherman must perform various religious rites and before he is allowed to -sell the flesh at a public market he must take an oath that there have been -no unnatural relations between himself and his mermaid victim.</p> - -<p>The female’s breasts are roughly in about the position of those of -women. She has the habit of rising about halfway out of the water and -sometimes has been described as holding her baby in her flippers. Little -is known of the life history and habits of the dugong. It is a creature of -the shallow sea which never has survived long in captivity. It seems to -share with the elephant and with man the faculty of shedding tears when -it is in trouble or pain. One which was kept for several months in the -Colombo zoo in Ceylon constantly was weeping. Malagasy fishermen -used to torture the animals in order to collect the tears, which they sold -as love charms.</p> - -<p>Another extant member of the “mermaid” family is the manatee, found -on both sides of the Atlantic in the warm, fresh water rivers of Africa -and South America. Although never mistaken for a human, it is accorded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> -considerable superstitious regard. The Kalaboi of Nigeria regard it as a -sacred animal and the incarnation of a human soul. If a fisherman kills -one, by accident or otherwise, he must undergo an elaborate cleansing ceremony -which involves offerings before images of his ancestors and remaining -indoors for three days. During this period he is rubbed from -head to foot with a yellow pigment by women of his family. While the -purgative rites are in progress the women sing at dawn and dusk. On -the third day there is a feast on the meat, but a bit must be given to every -household in the village to lay upon the shrines of ancestors.</p> - -<p>Both manatee and dugong, and formerly the extinct sea cow of Bering -Sea, are probably the closest living relatives of the elephant. They have -similar brain and heart structure. The molar teeth of the mermaid family -are like those of early elephants. The male dugong has tusks. There -also is a great extension of the upper lip which overlaps the side of the -mouth—a start in the direction of a trunk.</p> - -<p>The next nearest relatives of the elephants are the hyraces, or conies, of -Africa and Syria, best known in the form of expensive fur coats. They -look and act like rabbits. A Hebrew prophet made them symbolic of -timidity. Only a taxonomist would suspect these little creatures could -claim any kinship to the largest of land mammals.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Limbless_Lizards_and_Glass_Snakes"><i>Limbless Lizards and Glass Snakes</i></h2> - - -<p>A supposedly welcome guest in the underground chambers of leaf cutter -ants is the amphisbaena, a nearly limbless lizard about a foot long which -looks somewhat like a gigantic earth worm. These creatures, seldom seen, -can be found from Brazil north to lower California and there is one isolated -species in Florida.</p> - -<p>“Those brought to me,” observed the noted British naturalist and explorer -of Brazil, Henry Walter Bates, “were generally not much more than -a foot in length. They are of cylindrical shape having, properly speaking, -no neck, and the blunt tail which is only about an inch in length is of the -same shape as the head. This peculiar form, added to their habit of -wriggling backwards as well as forwards, has given rise to the fable that -they have two heads, one at each extremity. They are extremely sluggish -in their motions, and are clothed with scales that have the form of small -imbedded plates arranged in rings around the body. The eye is so small -as to be scarcely perceptible.</p> - -<p>“They live habitually in the subterranean chamber of the Sauba ant; -only coming out of their abodes occasionally in the night-time. The -natives call the amphisbaena the “mai das Saubas,” or mother of Saubas, -and believe it to be poisonous, although it is perfectly harmless. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> -say the ants treat it with great affection and that if the “snake” be taken -away from the nest the ants also will forsake it. I believe, however, that -they feed on the saubas, for I once found remains of the ants in the -stomach of one of them.</p> - -<p>“Their motions are quite peculiar. The undilatable jaws, small eyes and -curious plated integument distinguish them from other snakes. These -properties evidently have some relation to their residence in the subterranean -abodes.”</p> - -<p>Closely related is the Florida worm lizard, rose-colored and completely -legless and earless. It is about a foot long and looks so much like an -earthworm that expert collectors have been fooled. A peculiarity is that -it always goes down into a burrow tail first.</p> - -<p>The Arizona worm lizard, a somewhat fabulous animal of the same -family, is not, so far as is known, represented in any collection. One -veteran miner told of dragging “a purple snake with two legs on its neck” -from the gravel. A woman claimed to have kept as a pet for three -months “a purple snake with its legs where its ears ought to be.”</p> - -<p>All these animals are in the same general family as the glass snakes of -Europe and the United States. These are long, slender, legless lizards. -They are burrowing animals which occasionally are turned up by ploughmen, -but they often come to the surface voluntarily at night. Specimens -occasionally found in daylight usually are hiding in dark recesses.</p> - -<p>Each animal consists of apparently quite separate parts, body and tail. -The body is from six inches to a foot long, according to species, and the -tail may be twice as long. The animal can disengage its tail by a single -twist when caught by that organ. The slightest injury or rough handling -causes this tail to fly to pieces. Each piece wriggles energetically, supposedly -to attract attention while the lizard itself crawls to safety in its -burrow. The body does not break up and does not, as popularly reputed, -come back later to gather up fragments of its tail. Instead it grows a new -tail, always smaller than the original, from the stump.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Only_Bug_in_the_Sea"><i>The Only Bug in the Sea</i></h2> - - -<p>Only one group of insects has taken to the sea—the small, gray long-legged -water striders. Unlike fresh water relatives of the same genus, -these have permanently lost their wings. They have no further use for -this means of movement in the ocean.</p> - -<p>Great numbers have been found floating and swimming in the open sea -around Pacific islands. Both nymphs and adults sometimes are blown -onto the beaches by strong winds. They are awkward on land, seek shelter -in any depression in the sand, and fall easy prey to birds and the multi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span>tude -of ghost crabs which glide over the sands after dark.</p> - -<p>On the surface of shallow water the insects are found in groups of -hundreds of thousands. Apparently they feed on plankton which rises to -the surface at night. They themselves are not eaten by fish. This is -probably due to scent glands which secrete a strong odor which is repellant -to the ever hungry vertebrates.</p> - -<p>In small embayments are found enormous numbers of one type of water -strider, the female of which is less than a twelfth of an inch long. The -male is considerably smaller and rides on the back of his mate to ensure -that the two will not be separated by wind or tide.</p> - -<p>Insects are by far the most abundant of all land animals; the reasons -why only one genus has invaded the sea have been the subject of much -speculation. On the continents, insects are found in salt water lakes where -the saline concentration is much greater than in sea water. Other types -live in torrential streams and waterfalls where they get much rougher -treatment than would come from wave action. There are two probable -reasons for the failure to invade the ocean. One is the fact that no insect -ever has been able to live in very deep water. The “bug” race has -evolved a special breathing mechanism admirably suited to life on land -but rather poorly adapted to life under water. Besides, the seas have been -taken over almost completely by the remote relatives of the insects, the -crustaceans. These include, besides crabs and shrimps, the superabundant -copepods, the “lice of the ocean.” Invaders from the land never have been -able to compete with them.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="A_Crocodile_With_Life_After_Death"><i>A Crocodile With Life After Death</i></h2> - - -<p>There is an animal that can bite—it might even slash off a man’s arm—after -it is dead. Alive it is relatively inoffensive. Being killed makes it -positively mad.</p> - -<p>Its uncanny ability to bite half an hour or more after its neck has been -broken is a major risk for followers of one of the most adventurous of -professions—the jungle crocodile hunters. Their story is a saga paralleling -that of the Antarctic whalers who first told of Moby Dick. One of -the most expert of them is Dr. Fred Medem, Smithsonian collaborator and -professor of zoology at the University of Bogota. He has twice been -bitten painfully by “dead” reptiles.</p> - -<p>The animal is the caiman, smaller than either alligator or crocodile and -probably more closely related to the former. Its hide, like that of its two -fellow crocodillians, is valuable for leather and during the past few years -it has been pursued close to extinction by professional hunters in Colombian -and Brazilian jungles and lagoons. Dr. Medem is an eminent zoolo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span>gist. -He doesn’t believe, of course, that any animal that is completely -dead can bite off a man’s arm, but he is hard put to explain what he himself -has experienced. He thinks that part of the caiman’s nervous system -which activates its snout and mouth is somehow disconnected from the rest -and does not die at the same time. Thus the dead reptile has no consciousness -when it bites. It is a reflex action of one small segment of the nervous -system that somehow is not completely dead.</p> - -<p>There is only one way to be safe for an indefinite period after the -caiman is killed. That is to chop a hole in its neck and run a pointed -stick into the medulla oblongata, the reflex action center at the base of -the brain. When this is destroyed the ability to bite is lost. One can -proceed to skin the animal without fear of losing an arm or a finger. -Ordinarily this reptile will not attack a human. It lives on smaller animals—wild -and domestic pigs and the pig-like capybaras—that venture into -the jungle rivers.</p> - -<p>Dr. Medem has recently discovered a curious new sub-species of caimans -confined, so far as known, to the upper reaches of the Apaporis river, a -tributary of the Amazon. It is much more crocodile-like in appearance -than the rest of the family, with a very long, narrow snout. The others -have broad, flat snouts. It retains prominent bony ridges over its eyes—one -of the most striking characteristics that distinguish the caimans from -both crocodiles and alligators.</p> - -<p>A much more dangerous animal is the Orinoco crocodile, a large reptile -which lives only in the Orinoco and its tributaries and has a taste for -human flesh. The creature is especially dangerous to bathers and to -women doing their washing in the rivers. This is one of the two species -of these dreaded reptiles known in South America. The other is a smaller, -less aggressive creature of seashore rivers and lagoons. The inland species -now is quite close to extermination. Until recently it was pursued by both -German and French companies of professional crocodile hunters. Now -they have given up because the profits have become too small for the risk.</p> - -<p>The technique for hunting caimans and crocodiles is strikingly like that -of the whale hunters and just as dangerous. The hunter goes out on the -river with a boat at night. The boat carries searchlights which move over -the surface of the water. Here and there appear glittering red and yellow -spots. The red spots are the eyes of crocodiles, the yellow ones eyes of -caimans. The boat is propelled by jungle Indians who have developed the -ability to paddle noiselessly. They row to within about two yards of a -pair of glittering eyes. Then the hunter throws his harpoon, equipped -with a special aiming apparatus. He has developed skill in hitting precisely -the right spot, judged by the position of the eyes. For a crocodile -he aims at where the neck should be, for a caiman at the flank. The neck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> -of the latter reptile is protected by heavy scales. A gun never is used. -The wounded reptile simply would dive into deep water where its body -could not be recovered. After the harpoon, with a rope attached, finds its -mark there is a terrific struggle as the reptile tries to get into deep water. -The caiman finally is “killed” by chopping through its spinal cord with a -machete. That is, everything is dead except the brain and the snout. The -spine of a crocodile is broken by a blow with a large ax just behind the -shoulders. It stays dead.</p> - -<p>The caimans migrate overland from lagoon to lagoon during the dry -season. When at last they find water they dig holes in the mud and sleep -until the heavy rains return, when they emerge and resume their normal -ways of life. Quite exciting stories are told of persons who happen to -meet migrating bands of these “barbillos”, creatures about three feet long. -Ordinarily they will not attack humans but they will not hesitate to do so -if they feel they are threatened. Once one of them gets a grip it is almost -impossible to break away unless one happens to have a machete.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Salamander_That_Lives_Like_a_Worm"><i>The Salamander That Lives Like a Worm</i></h2> - - -<p>There is an animal related to the salamander and the frog which looks -like a gigantic earthworm and lives an earthworm’s life. It is seen so -rarely that probably not one person in a million is aware of its existence.</p> - -<p>It is the caecilian, a very ancient creature forming the third branch of -the order of amphibians which were probably the first back-boned animals -to establish themselves on land nearly 300,000,000 years ago. There are -about fifty species. Caecilians are found in most of tropical America, -Africa and Asia. They range in length from a few inches to nearly a -yard. The larger ones might be mistaken either for titanic earthworms or -small snakes. In the physical structure are combined features of both -salamanders and frogs.</p> - -<p>These amphibians spend all their lives burrowing in the soil. They live -chiefly on earthworms and come to the surface only for brief intervals -after heavy rains. They usually are seen only by farmers who uncover -them while ploughing, or digging ditches. Since they are so easily mistaken -for snakes they are avoided, although they are entirely harmless. -They have sharp teeth but make no effort to bite when handled.</p> - -<p>Most of the caecilians are egg-layers, the large eggs being attached to -one another like beads on a string and then wound up in a ball. This is -incubated by the mother who coils herself around it. The burrows where -the eggs are laid are always on a stream bank since the young, like those -of all amphibians, must pass part of their development stage in water. -These amphibians probably are fairly abundant animals. Owing to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> -subterranean life they are nearly, perhaps in some cases completely, -blind.</p> - -<p>The amphiuma, a species of salamander, also is often mistaken for a -snake. It spends most of its life in rivers buried in mud, where it lives on -larvae and on fish eggs. Since it is an air-breathing creature it must come -to the surface frequently to breath.</p> - -<p>The amphiuma has rudimentary legs, almost microscopic in size. This -fact alone is enough to differentiate it from the snakes, who always are -legless.</p> - -<p>This curious salamander is seldom encountered and is barely mentioned -in standard textbooks of natural history. Confined to the southeastern -United States, it often is considered a highly poisonous animal. Actually -it is harmless. Very rarely one is caught on a fishhook. It is so slippery -that it is almost impossible to hold in the hand.</p> - -<p>The creature has some relatives which are not so secretive in their habits -and are much better known. One is the giant salamander of China and -Japan, the largest and most active of the race. It makes its home in -crevices under rocks in running streams. Another is the “mud puppy” or -“hell bender” which sometimes gets on the hooks of fishermen in muddy -streams.</p> - -<p>The amphiuma is a degenerate member of the family. It has almost lost -its legs. It still retains its eyes, but these have become very small. The -animal can have very little use for them.</p> - -<p>In India is found a wormlike caecilian, Ichthyopis, which lives under -stones and burrows after the fashion of earthworms. Superficially it -differs from an earthworm by its darker color. Its body is coated with -slime and it leaves a trail of mucous behind it when it crawls.</p> - -<p>The earth snake Silybura is found in the same region. It usually is -mistaken for a worm, especially by birds to their own discomfort and -sometimes disaster. It ties itself in loops around a bird’s feet and these -loops are quite difficult to loosen. Among natives there is a superstition -that if it coils around a child’s finger the only way to get rid of it is to -amputate the member.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Three-eyed_Lizards_of_New_Zealand"><i>Three-eyed Lizards of New Zealand</i></h2> - - -<p>Among sun-baked rocks on barren islands off the New Zealand coast -basks a solitary survivor of the days before the dinosaurs. It is earth’s -oldest back-boned inhabitant, a fugitive in time from nature’s harsh law of -the survival of the fittest—the tuatera, or three-eyed lizard. Its big, dreamy -hazel eyes have watched the procession of the ages for 300,000,000 years—the -beginning and extinction of the dinosaurs to whom it stood in about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> -the relationship of a great uncle, the coming of birds and mammals, -milleniums of famine and milleniums of plenty, the shattering and crashing -together of continents. It has survived while all its contemporaries -of the earth’s ancient days have died, largely because it has been willing -placidly to watch the parade pass without bothering to take any part in -the tumult and shouting.</p> - -<p>The feature of great interest about the tuatera, both popularly and -scientifically, is its third eye. This third, or pineal, eye is closer to its -original form in the tuatera than in any other living creature. Just after -the little reptile is hatched the organ appears as a dark spot under a film -of thin, semi-transparent skin. In a baby tuatera it becomes a small knob -on top of the head. Thick, opaque skin covers the eye in the adult reptile -and it is difficult to distinguish. Anatomists doubt whether the animal actually -sees with the pineal eye any more. The fact remains that this organ -can be distinguished easily and that it retains, in degenerated form, the -characteristics of a seeing eye which has nerve connections with the visual -cortex at the back of the brain. Moreover, when the third eye of an -infant tuatera is dissected there is clear evidence that it once was a double -organ.</p> - -<p>The tuatera is about two feet long from its snout to the tip of a crocodile-like -tail. It has a scaly skin with a row of spines along its back. Its large -hazel eyes are its most conspicuous feature. They have a soft, dreamy -expression, and they never appear to blink. There are no external ears, -but the sense of hearing is highly developed. One way of drawing the -creature from its burrow is to play a tune on almost any instrument.</p> - -<p>It does not dig its own holes under the rocks. Usually it shares the burrow -of a black-and-white petrel—known in New Zealand as the mutton-bird—and -it remains there even when the bird incubates its eggs and feeds -its nestlings. Apparently a mutually satisfactory arrangement has been -reached between petrel and lizard. The former usually are in their nests -only at night. The tuatera spends most of the night away from home, -hunting for the insects which are its favorite food. Occasionally, it has -been observed, a host will become tired of his persistent house guest and -try to evict it. In such a case the tuatera never puts up a fight. It leaves -placidly and tries to find some other petrel with whom it can share quarters. -If this search fails it will, as a last extremity, scoop out its own -burrow, although apparently such labor is against its deeply fixed principles -of making no effort which possibly can be avoided.</p> - -<p>The lizard goes to sleep about the middle of April, the beginning of -winter in New Zealand, and wakes late in August, when spring is well -underway. Then for seven months it grows fat on insects.</p> - -<p>The creature is reportedly capable of living for 500 years and more.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -It shares its longevity with its distant relatives, the great turtles. Its long -life, during most of which it continues to breed, doubtless has been a -major factor in its racial survival.</p> - -<p>The ancient reptiles were plentiful when white men first came to New -Zealand early in the last century. The Maoris regarded them with superstitious -awe and avoided them as much as possible. But early British -settlers and their dogs used to kill the inoffensive creatures for sport. -This was the first active enmity the tuateras ever had known. They saved -themselves by withdrawing to the barren islands and becoming even more -seclusive in their ways of life. Thus they clung to a thin thread of existence -until an enlightened government threw the protection of the law -around them.</p> - -<p>Today the three-eyed lizard is probably the world’s most rigidly protected -animal. The New Zealand government has placed all sorts of legal -restrictions on hunting or capturing it, and to kill one would be a major -crime. For that matter, very few persons living ever have seen a tuatera. -It stays in seclusion most of the time. There is a single specimen in the -zoological park at Wellington. When a party from a Byrd Antarctic -expedition visited there they were told that the lizard had not been seen for -several months and that it was highly improbable that it could be lured -out of hiding. One day it would appear of its own volition, take a philosophical -look at the twentieth century, eat a few flies, and retire to its -lair under some rocks again. Here probably is the secret of the race’s -longevity. The little lizard has spent most of its time sleeping. It has -existed with the minimum of effort. It has been satisfied with its lot and, -above all, it never has gotten in the way. It has been observed, for example, -that one of the creatures never climbs over even the smallest obstacle. -It always will walk around.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Prodigious_Fertility_of_Insects"><i>Prodigious Fertility of Insects</i></h2> - - -<p>The capacity of insects to reproduce is almost incalculable. A single -over-wintering house fly theoretically might have 5,598,729,000,000 descendants -in a single year. It has been calculated that a single cabbage -aphis, which weighs less than a thirtieth of an ounce, might give rise in a -year to a mass of descendants weighing 822,000,000 tons, about five times -as much as all the people in the world. Fortunately nearly all insects have -an enormous mortality rate.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Lizard_That_Runs_Out_of_Its_Own_Skin"><i>The Lizard That Runs Out of Its Own Skin</i></h2> - - -<p>There is an animal that can get out of its own skin. It is a little brown -lizard, a gecko, which lives in native houses on the Palau Islands in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> -South Pacific. This creature, about six inches long, is closely related to -the house geckos, which are found throughout the tropical Pacific islands -and as far north as Florida in the New World. The Palau species is -almost impossible to capture by hand.</p> - -<p>Grabbed by the tail, it immediately sheds that organ. This is a rather -common practice among certain lizards and apparently brings little inconvenience. -A new tail can be grown. But as soon as a hand is laid on this -particular species it immediately and literally “runs out of its skin.” This -is done with lightning-like rapidity. The would-be captor is left holding -the animal’s empty skin. All the rest of the lizard is running away, presumably -seeking a hiding place.</p> - -<p>This “running out of the skin” is a far different phenomenon than that -of shedding the skin by various reptiles, which always takes place after -a new skin has been formed underneath. The gecko just abandons its skin -altogether. It flays itself alive. Escape in this way apparently is suicidal -in most cases. That it ever could grow back a complete skin is highly improbable.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="High_Living_in_the_Himalayas"><i>High Living in the Himalayas</i></h2> - - -<p>The highest land-dwelling animals on earth are small, black attid spiders. -They live in islands of broken rock on Mount Everest at an altitude of -22,000 feet. This is far above the line of perpetual snow and nearly a mile -above the last vegetation. Since there is no other living thing near them, -they have to eat one another for sustenance. Presumably their ranks -always are being repleted by new arrivals from below.</p> - -<p>Highest of all living things are red-legged, black-feathered choughs, -birds of the crow family. A lone chough has been seen in the Himalayas -at 27,000 feet. There is an intimate association between these birds and -mountain sheep. The chough sits on the sheep’s back and searches its -hair for insects. The sheep seems to like this attention and stands still -while the exploration is in progress.</p> - -<p>Another bird-animal association at high mountain altitudes is that between -mouse hares, rabbit-like animals about the size of large rats, and -finches. The hares live in burrows and usually are seen feeding at the -entrances or running from hole to hole. Both hares and birds are seed -eaters.</p> - -<p>Wild sheep and mountain goats in the Himalayas struggle up to about -17,000 feet. There are small, wingless grasshoppers at 18,000 feet. A few -bees, moths and butterflies are found at 21,000 feet.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Barking_Spider_Monkeys"><i>Barking Spider Monkeys</i></h2> - - -<p>Barking spider monkeys that fight off unwelcome human invaders are -dominant animals in the “green mansions” of Panama jungles. They -live in semi-nomadic troops, each of which occupies a fairly restricted area -of the forest, sometimes overlapping slightly with areas of other groups. -Within their territory members of a troop wander freely, but their activities -tend to center around food and lodge trees.</p> - -<p>In reporting on his observations of their activities Dr. C. R. Carpenter -of Columbia stated: “Almost every night the group slept within earshot of -camp. For eight successive nights they returned to the same group of -trees. Throughout the day the troop travelled, in general, over the same -routes from one food tree to another and from favorite places in the deep -forest where the midday siesta occurred. Several other groups were regularly -located in their own particular home areas.”</p> - -<p>The monkeys resent intrusion of their territories by anything that looks -like another monkey, such as a man. When approached they start barking. -The usual terrier-like bark of great excitement may change to a -metallic chatter repeated with great frequency. When males, and sometimes -adult females are approached closely they growl in a strikingly -vicious manner. Typically they come to the terminal ends of branches, -often within 40 to 50 feet of the observer, and vigorously shake these -branches. Both hands and feet may be used while the animal hangs by -its tail.</p> - -<p>Throwing of branches is a conspicuous part of the reactions to men. -Quite frequently they break off and drop limbs close to the intruder. -Green branches sometimes, but most often large dead limbs weighing up -to ten pounds may be dropped. “This behavior,” according to Dr. Carpenter, -“cannot be described as throwing although the animal may cause -the object to fall away from the perpendicular by a sharp twist of its -body or a swinging circular movement of its powerful tail. This dropping -of objects from trees may be considered as a defensive adaptation arising -from the more generalized habit of shaking branches. A significant variation -occurs when the animal breaks off a limb and holds it for a time—from -a second to half a minute—before letting it fall.”</p> - -<p>Normally the monkeys travel along the upper surfaces of limbs, using -all four feet and carrying the tail arched over the back. When crossing -from one tree to another they use their powerful tails to support themselves -from limbs. During such movements hands, arms and tails are used at the -same time to make contacts with supports. The monkeys have a strong -tendency to keep their heads upward. Therefore, when coming down a -perpendicular limb, vine or tree trunk they go backwards rather than head<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> -foremost. They frequently make long jumps outward and downward, -covering at times more than thirty feet</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Insect_That_is_Born_Pregnant"><i>The Insect That is Born Pregnant</i></h2> - - -<p>Among nature’s weirdest tricks is the strange phenomenon known as -merokinosis, reported for a single family of almost microscopic insects. -The little creatures are fathers and mothers before they are born. They -are a species of mite which infests grass. They belong to a family which, -almost alone among insects, gives birth to living young.</p> - -<p>Nearly all insects are egg layers. The eggs, usually deposited in enormous -numbers, hatch outside the body of the mother. Then the individuals -go through a series of metamorphoses—nymph, larva and the like—before -reaching their own reproductive maturity.</p> - -<p>These grass mites, however, are born fully adult animals. A sack on -the body of the female swells until it is about 500 times the original body -size. It is filled with eggs and a nutritive fluid. Within this sack the -eggs hatch and the new generation passes through all the ordinary stages -of insect metamorphosis. Finally, when they are fully mature, the mother -dies, the sack breaks, and the host of new mites emerges.</p> - -<p>It was long thought that the mites were striking examples of parthenogenesis, -or asexual reproduction. Females isolated as soon as they were -born gave birth to large numbers of young. Parthenogenisis is not uncommon -among the lower animals. Invariably however, except in this one -case, all the offspring are of one sex. The supposedly virgin birth families -of the mites contain both males and females in various proportions.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Bull-dog_Animals"><i>Bull-dog Animals</i></h2> - - -<p>A repressed tendency towards the bulldog face apparently is deep-seated -among mammals. Foxes, cattle and pigs with bulldog appearance -have been reported. In three species of dogs—the bulldog, pug and the -pug-nosed dog of ancient Peru—this characteristic is dominant. It could -have been caused by a pronounced shortening of the rostral portion of the -skull due to the failure of facial bones to develop.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Foresight_of_Kangaroo_Rats"><i>Foresight of Kangaroo Rats</i></h2> - - -<p>A recent report by Dr. William T. Shaw tells of observations of giant -California kangaroo rats whose food consists largely of the seeds of pepper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> -grass. The seeds are gathered busily all day and stored in shallow surface -caches where they are dried by the dust and heat of the sun. During the -night, the animals work busily removing the dried seed to much larger -chambers deep underground where it is to be stored for the winter. -In some way the highly intelligent animal has learned the secret of preventing -mildew. Only a few other animals have mastered the same technique; -the beaver and cony dry their twigs in the sun before storing them.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Primitive_Proturans"><i>The Primitive Proturans</i></h2> - - -<p>The proturans—blind, wingless minute bugs found under bark and in -leaf litter—are earth’s most primitive insects. They are seldom seen and -when they are noticed are likely to be mistaken for larvae of some other -insect. So obscure are the creatures that they were not discovered until -early in the present century. They are about a twentieth of an inch long, -yellowish, and covered with a protective shell of chitin. Sluggish and slow-moving -proturans have three pairs of legs, only two of which are used for -locomotion. The front pair is held up in front of the insect as it moves. -These legs apparently serve the purpose of the antennae found in all higher -insect orders. They are provided with primitive sense organs of touch. -These little creatures presumably represent one of the earliest stages in -insect evolution.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Air-Conditioned_Homes_of_Beavers"><i>Air-Conditioned Homes of Beavers</i></h2> - - -<p>Air ventilation of homes appears to be an engineering accomplishment -of beavers. “The beaver hut seen from the outside,” according to Sigvald -Salveson of Aamli, Nowayd, “appears to be so tight that it seems astonishing -that the occupants can get sufficient air. In winter, when the lodge is -covered with snow and ice one would not think it possible that the animals -could live in apparently air-tight dwellings. Near my home is a -small lake where a beaver built a dam and a great lodge. In the outlet of -the lake the water was still open and I noticed the footprints of beaver -on the thin ice just beyond. Twigs and small trunks were dragged to the -open water, where the animals sat on the edge of the ice and took their -meals. A fox had his usual track over the lodge.</p> - -<p>“More and more snow fell and the hut was more and more hidden -under the white blanket. Sometimes I noticed that the fox had gone to the -top of the dome and evidently sat there for a while. Near where he had -sat was a hole in the snow about half a foot in diameter and with thin ice -around the edge. I found that the hole widened downward and ended on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -the roof of the lodge. At the bottom the hole was at least two feet in -diameter and its walls were hard as ice. From this hole or chimney rose -warm steam, and the twigs and mud on the roof felt warm and damp to -my hand.”</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Demon_of_Puerto_Rico"><i>The Demon of Puerto Rico</i></h2> - - -<p>In deep sunless ravines of Puerto Rico’s Pandura mountains dwells the -demon frog. It is a ghostly voice from mountainsides strewn with great, -decomposing granite boulders and so thickly covered with tropical vines -and bushes that it is almost impenetrable to man. Until twenty years ago -it was only a voice, for none of the strange little creatures ever had been -seen. The mere sight of the animal, according to many of the natives, -would be fatal.</p> - -<p>“One might as well try to bribe a mountaineer to catch a ghost as a -guajone. There is a strange quality in the voice which probably is largely -responsible for the superstitious dread of the mountain people,” according -to Smithsonian Institution biologist Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.</p> - -<p>“It is strange enough when heard from the surface,” Miller reports, -“but it becomes even more strange after one has climbed down into the -irregular and dangerous openings, which prove to be much larger and more -cavernous than the surface appearance, with its dense and deceptive covering -of vegetation, could lead one to expect. With flashlights the frogs are -easily found and caught as they crawl slowly over the damp, but not -slippery surface of the granite.</p> - -<p>“To the natives they are objects of dread. One man said they were -about a foot long and armed with frightful teeth. Another assured me -that anybody who saw one would die shortly afterwards. No offer of -money could induce the boys or men to go into the cavities in search -of them.”</p> - -<p>The little creature is fantastic in appearance, chiefly due to its large -protruding eyes. The edge of the eyelid is white, making a thin white -line around the eye. The iris is back and gold. The skin is light brown -above and nearly white underneath, but some specimens have blotches of -yellow which add to the weird appearance.</p> - -<p>Living as they do in the semi-darkness of mountain gullies, little is -known of the life history and habits of these strange creatures. The most -notable characteristic of several specimens kept alive for observation was -the peculiar singing in a liquid note repeated six or seven times. It can -best be imitated by whistling. This singing is believed to be part of the -courtship behavior of males.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span></p> - -<p>The demon frog has been given the scientific name of Eleutherodactylus -cooki. It appears to have been especially adapted for life among the -boulders of its restricted habitat.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Man-Made_Plants"><i>Man-Made Plants</i></h2> - - -<p>At least a half dozen species of plants are man-made. They are hybrids -which can transmit their basic and unique characters to future generations.</p> - -<p>The fact that what long was considered an impossibility in the plant -kingdom has been achieved is revealed by Dr. H. Bentley Glass, professor -of biology at Johns Hopkins University. With newly developed techniques -which make possible the doubling of chromosomes, bunches of genes which -are the units of heredity, the creation of species may be just at its threshold -and man may take over control of evolution.</p> - -<p>The definition of species, after all, is the ability to produce offspring -with the major characteristics of the parents. The first successful attempt, -Dr. Glass says, was by a Russian geneticist about 30 years ago. He -crossed a radish and a cabbage and produced a “rabage.” When two -rabages were mated they produced seed which sprouted into other rabages.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately for the man who had been the first to cross one of the -great barriers in biology, the rabage was a pretty poor specimen. It had -the prickly, uneatable leaves of the radish and the poor root system of the -cabbage. Russian agricultural authorities had been led to expect great -things. They were bitterly disappointed that the new vegetable did not -fit into one of the five-year plans. The geneticist was not heard of again -and it is generally believed that he was “eliminated” as a reward for one -of science’s greatest achievements.</p> - -<p>Creators of new species have fared somewhat better in other countries, -especially the United States, but they have not fared too well anywhere. In -practically every case the new species they have created have taken over -the worst characters of the parent species. They have been of no commercial -value. It is likely that about the same thing has happened in -nature throughout the milleniums.</p> - -<p>But bad may be good. It all depends on the environment into which -the new species is born. Under the right circumstances, the rabage might -have superseded both radish and cabbage. That is, it might have been -adapted to a change in environment in which both parent species would -have become extinct.</p> - -<p>Although no new animal species has yet been man-made there seems -no overwhelming reason why this should not happen with some of the -new chromosome-doubling drugs. However, a new kind of man is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -likely. Among higher animals the mechanism of heredity is very complex -indeed. It isn’t likely to happen in nature, in the face of atomic radiation. -It has been calculated that normally there is one human mutation per -generation for each 50,000 individuals. The high probability is that this -mutation involves a recessive, or hidden, gene. Its effects do not appear -in the population until two persons carrying the same recessive are mated. -About 999 out of 1,000 recessive genes are “bad” and in due course will -cause the extinction of the line in which they appear. In the long history -of the race it is likely that everybody has fallen heir to one lethal gene, -but it may be a long time making its appearance in family lines.</p> - -<p>Most of the genes in any given population, good or bad, are so hidden -that it is practically impossible to predict what the offspring of any particular -couple will be.</p> - -<p>The recessive genes have vastly increased through the operation of -human “melting pots” all over the world in the last few generations. One -result is that minority races tend to become absorbed in majorities. Thus -the relatively small American Negro population, without any further -inter-marriage but purely through the cropping out of recessives already -received from the white majority, will be entirely amalgamated in the -more numerous race in approximately 2,000 years.</p> - -<p>Genetics is getting into the hands of scientists tools which can speed up -the natural process of change about 1,000-fold and this may result in -either good or evil. The good side is well illustrated by hybrid corn—a -plant which cannot be considered a new species. This lately has been -carried to the point where corn with much more sugar in its stalks and -only six instead of twelve feet high can be produced.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Great_Seal_Migration"><i>The Great Seal Migration</i></h2> - - -<p>The great annual northward migration of the seals is one of the most -remarkable phenomena of animal life. It seems to be without organization -and without leadership. Yet toward the end of March each year the -hundreds of thousands of cow seals and pups scattered over thousands of -square miles of water start at about the same time in three great groups -bound for three specific places. It has been the same for centuries, perhaps -milleniums. Each animal moves at about the same rate so that all -arrive within a few days of each other. Unlike birds, they do not move -in compact masses. Three great herds exist.</p> - -<p>The American herd of about 1,500,000 is by far the largest of the three. -It goes straight to the Pribiloffs, where it goes ashore on two almost barren -islands—St Paul and St George. The Japanese herd, numbering about -40,000, makes for Robben Island, off northern Japan. The Russian herd,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -now estimated at about 200,000, goes to a few rocky islands of the Commander -archipelago off Kamchatka.</p> - -<p>The moving herds consist almost entirely of females and young. The -bulls winter further north, tend to be solitary during the winter, and precede -the cows to the summer homes. The breeding season lasts for about -two months. During this time the bull never eats or touches a drop of -water. He never leaves the land. He arrives sleek and fat from the -ocean pasture and is able to survive entirely on stored energy. This -keeps him alive, even when he fights scores of terrible battles with younger -rivals. Towards the end of summer he naturally is a sorry looking -creature.</p> - -<p>One day, actuated by some common impulse, cows and calves depart. -Then the bulls, their arduous labors of race propagation over for ten -months, draw back among the rocks for a long rest.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Magic_Bark_of_the_Cinchona_Tree"><i>The Magic Bark of the Cinchona Tree</i></h2> - - -<p>The shadow of a pale Spanish lady, dead for almost three centuries, has -returned to the dense rain forests of the western slopes of the Andes.</p> - -<p>The shadow is that of the Countess of Chinchon, wife of the redoubtable -Don Luiz Geronimo de Cabrera Bobadilla y Mendoza, colonial viceroy of -Peru. She was dying of a strange disease in Lima in 1638. Her Jesuit -confessor, the story goes, gave a medicine to her doctor made from the -bark of a common Peruvian tree. It supposedly saved her life and two -years later she returned to Spain, carrying with her some of the magic -bark. Thus she gave to the world one of the supreme medicines of all -times. A century later the Swedish botanist Linnaeus tried to pay a compliment -to the long-dead beauty but misspelled her name—calling her tree -“cinchona”. Out of it came quinine.</p> - -<p>The Andean forests remained for 200 years the only source of the magic -drug—quinine. The cinchona trees grew wild. They were stripped of -bark recklessly and became very scarce. By 1850 the price of quinine was -$50 an ounce and only the rich could afford to have malaria.</p> - -<p>The British tried to transplant the tree in India and failed. Then Dutch -botanists obtained some seed, planted it in the East Indies, and developed -high-yielding species. Soon this region became the sole source of the -world’s supply. The price dropped to 18 cents an ounce and the lands -over which the long-dead Countess had ruled dropped out of the picture.</p> - -<p>Now South American countries, notably Venezuela and Bolivia, are -reclaiming the crop with improved varieties of the cinchona tree, equal -to the best produced by the Dutch. They are regaining rapidly the dead -lady’s gift.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span></p> - -<h2 class="content" id="Colombias_Ant_Tree"><i>Colombia’s Ant Tree</i></h2> - - -<p>In the sparsely inhabited, tropical portion of eastern Colombia is an -ant tree known as the barrasanta. It is a small, slender tree with showy, -red flowers which grows 25 to 30 feet in height. Both trunk and branches -are hollow and filled with masses of vicious, biting ants. As soon as the -tree is disturbed the insects swarm upon the invader. As a result the -tree is generally left alone both by Indians and white settlers. The ants -are protected by the branches and in turn protect the host with their -fighting prowess.</p> - -<p>A curious shrub which grows out of enormous anthills found through -the llanos region of western Colombia furnishes quite a different example -of insect-plant association. The ants are “leaf cutters.” All other plant -life avoids their immediate neighborhood. This particular shrub exudes -a viscous, milky juice which traps any ants which try to climb toward its -leaves. Hence the insects have learned to leave it alone and it enjoys the -rich ant hill soil without competition from any other plants.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Strange_Behavior_of_Plants"><i>The Strange Behavior of Plants</i></h2> - - -<p>The behavior characteristics of some American plants are strange -indeed.</p> - -<p>The compass plant, a bristly perennial of the aster family which grows -in abundance over the prairies, is a living compass. It turns the edges of -its leaves in a general north-south direction. Another American plant, -the wild lettuce, does the same thing. The result is that when the intensity -of sunlight is weakest in the morning and evening the flat surfaces of the -leaves are in a position to receive the maximum available amount of light. -At noon, when there is more light than the plant needs, only the edges of -the leaves are turned towards the sun.</p> - -<p>Then there is the English ivy which arranges its leaves in a mosaic pattern -so that about the greatest possible area is exposed to the light. Other -plants show equally precise adaptations to their light requirements.</p> - -<p>It is all associated with the process of photosynthesis—i.e., the manufacture -by the plant of carbohydrates out of carbon dioxide and water in -the presence of light. The strength of light needed for this process varies -somewhat with the particular plant and its conditions. The phenomenon -is one of the most vital in creation, the transformation of the sun’s energy -into the fuel of animal life. Without it life would be impossible.</p> - -<p>Some plants work under high light intensities, such as those which -must adapt themselves on the desert areas of the southwestern United<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -States. Others thrive best in the subdued light of a dense forest. One -curious little moss grows in caves where there is almost no light at all. It -is equipped with a plate of cells forming a battery of lenses capable of -focusing the scattered light on the bodies especially concerned in carbohydrate -formation. These are the chloroplasts which contain the mysterious -substance, chlorophyll, which acts as a catalyst for action of sunlight -on carbon dioxide and water. The shape and arrangement of cells containing -the chloroplasts are such that the amount of chlorophyll exposed to -the sunlight can be varied.</p> - -<p>A specially devised apparatus has been constructed in the Smithsonian -laboratory for quantitative studies of the way plants absorb carbon dioxide -under different lighting conditions. Not only is the process greatly -effected by the intensity of the light, the experiments show, but the wave -length also is of paramount importance. The experimental plants are -grown with their roots in a nutrient solution and their tops extending into -a double-walled glass tube. They are furnished light from surrounding -lamps, so that the intensity and wave lengths of the light can be varied as -desired. Through the tube, air containing different amounts of carbon -dioxide can be passed. Thus every element of the process is under rigid -control of the experimenters.</p> - -<p>The experiment already has shown that the correct combination of wave -lengths is of the utmost importance in making up synthetic light. Thus, -regardless of the intensity, the ordinary electric light when used alone has -been demonstrated to be a poor light source. Its maximum energy occurs -in the infrared region, below the limit of visibility, while that of sunlight -falls in the green-blue region. If tomato plants are grown under high -powered Mazda lamps in the Smithsonian’s special growth chambers, -especially when the humidity is high, their leaves turn pale and almost -white. Chlorophyll disappears under these conditions.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Venezuelas_Nocturnal_Orchid"><i>Venezuela’s Nocturnal Orchid</i></h2> - - -<p>A flower that opens only by moonlight is one of Venezuela’s plant curiosities. -It is an ivory-white, velvety orchid which depends entirely on -nocturnal butterflies to sip its nectar while pollenization takes place.</p> - -<p>The plant is one of 800 species of Venezuelan orchids. Among these -is probably the prettiest and rarest of the orchid family, the mother-of-pearl -flower, which can sometimes be found in the deep jungles of the -Gran Sabana area at altitudes of more than 3,000 feet.</p> - -<p>Still another high mountain variety has square petals with fringed -edges. Another, found in the jungles of the Upper Orinoco, has blossoms -measuring up to 16 inches in diameter. A unique Venezuelan orchid -grows only in water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span></p> - -<p>Throughout the world there are more than 20,000 species of orchids, -the great majority of which are found only in mountainous regions of the -tropics. A few, however, grow as far north as the Arctic Circle.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Plant_That_Strikes_Men_Dumb"><i>The Plant That Strikes Men Dumb</i></h2> - - -<p>A plant cultivated in the gardens of the Venezuelan National University -at Caracas might well be a boon to pestered husbands and harassed -mothers.</p> - -<p>It is described under the popular Spanish name of “planta del mudo.” -It looks like sugarcane. According to the probably exaggerated claims, -anybody who chews the stem is stricken dumb for at least 48 hours, presumably -due to some paralyzing effect on some part of the vocal apparatus. -It is not known whether anybody has tried to extract the marvelous talk-stopping -principle.</p> - -<p>American botanists are unable to identify the plant. They explain, -however, that the northern portion of South America long has been known -as the world’s greatest storehouse of plants with strange physiological -effects. There is one, for example, alleged to grow hair on bald heads, -another which makes everything look red.</p> - - - - -<h2 class="content" id="Combat_of_Moth_and_Shrew"><i>Combat of Moth and Shrew</i></h2> - - -<p>A strange fight between a grey shrew, smallest of North American -mammals, and a black “witch moth” has been described by Laurence M. -Huey of the San Diego Society of Natural History.</p> - -<p>The moth, with a wing spread of about four inches and a body size -almost equal to that of the shrew, was placed in a cage with the mammal. -The shrew proved too much for the insect after the odds had been equalized -by clipping a great part of the latter’s wings.</p> - -<p>“Even with this severe handicap”, reports Mr. Huey, “the moth still -was very strong and, as its body was so large, the shrew attacked it by -grasping one of its wing stubs, tugging with main strength, and hanging -on like a bulldog. Once, in a burst of spirited action, the shrew was -pitched half way across the cage. This only caused a more determined -attack and the moth finally was killed and eaten.</p> - -<p>“Another moth, with a body about three-quarters of an inch long, was -placed in the cage. It had lost many of the scales from its wings and -was partially disabled. It could fly feebly, however, from one side of the -cage to the other. The shrew, apparently by its sense of hearing, kept -following the course of the moth until its flight carried it about two inches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> -above the little mammal. Then, with an almost invisible quickness, the -animal sprang and seized the moth in the air, much as a basketball player -leaps to catch a ball high over his head. A few crunches with the sharp-toothed -jaws dispatched the moth.”</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ferocious_Snake_Weasel"><i>The Ferocious Snake Weasel</i></h2> - - -<p>From South Africa comes a report from Dr. Raymond B. Cowles of a -fight between a deadly reptile and a little known mammal, the inyengelizi, -or snake weasel.</p> - -<p>The habitat of the snake weasel, unknown in any zoo, is the Umzumbe -Valley in Natal Province, where it is one of the rarest of carnivores. -Natives either refuse to bring in inyengelizis or demand exorbitant prices -for their skins. All parts of the body are used in the native pharmacopoeia -and elders wear a narrow strip of the fur to ward off evil and bring good -luck.</p> - -<p>Little is known concerning the habits of the animal except that it apparently -frequents burrows of subterranean animals in gardens, sometimes is -ploughed up, and will attack and kill large snakes.</p> - -<p>A reliable Zulu described to Dr. Cowles a fight between one of them and -a deadly mamba about seven feet long. He said he had been watching -the snake, basking in the sun in a coiled position. After a few moments -a movement in the bushes caught his attention and he saw an inyengelizi -cautiously stealing towards the snake. When within a foot or two the -animal suddenly leaped upon the reptile and fastened its teeth just behind -the head where it clung during the ensuing wild struggle. After a few -minutes it succeeded in killing the snake, whereupon it relinquished its -hold, performed its toilet, and left without eating any of its prey.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Rabbit_That_Swims"><i>The Rabbit That Swims</i></h2> - - -<p>Life history and habits of a swimming rabbit are the subject of a report -to the American Society of Mammologists. The animal is the little known -marsh rabbit of the South Carolina coast. It spends most of its life on -the tidal marshes and hence, alone of the rabbit family, has become a -partially aquarian animal. Almost strictly nocturnal in its habits, its ways -of life hitherto have eluded naturalists.</p> - -<p>By far the best known trait of the species is its liking for water. Individuals -sometimes are encountered in day time far out in one of the coastal -rivers. In summer when the water is warm they take to it readily. They -seldom are observed, however, swimming in cold water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></p> - -<p>In fall and winter the little animal leads a precarious existence. It is the -favorite food of the great marsh hawks, continuously circling over the -swamps. When Spring comes the birds leave for the North, the sedges -grow tall so as to conceal completely the timid little animals, and they are -left in peace until the frosts of Autumn.</p> - -<p>Generally the marsh rabbit is a home-loving creature but floods in the -fresh water area of its habitat sometimes force a migration. It is a natural -swimmer. On land it walks with a swimming motion. Other rabbits are -practically helpless in the water and try to swim with the hopping motions -they use on land. The rare special type appears to be holding its own in -spite of its many enemies.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="Gorilla_Warriors_of_the_Belgian_Congo"><i>Gorilla Warriors of the Belgian Congo</i></h2> - - -<p>A study of mountain gorillas in a part of the world which they have all -to themselves has been reported by Captain C. S. R. Pitman, British -zoologist.</p> - -<p>The only humans who ever penetrate the dense forests on the Uganda -border of the Belgian Congo, where these animals are found, are pigmies, -with whom the great apes live on the best of terms. Captain Pitman is one -of the few white men ever to have entered the area.</p> - -<p>The mountain gorilla is probably the highest of all the gorillas, next to -man. One of the two or three ever in captivity was an infant kept at the -National Zoological Park in Washington, D. C. Its brain was the largest -ever found in an infra-human creature; it almost matched the smallest -normal human brains.</p> - -<p>Capt. Pitman found the gorilla quite a likeable and peaceful animal. -He says:</p> - -<p>“Around the male gorilla, on account of its enormous size and strength, -coupled in recent years with frequent lapses from grace provoked by -unnecessary and undue interference, there has been woven and unfortunately -published a fantasy of inaccuracy and exaggeration—so much so -that the very homely old male is visualized as an object of dread. The -male gorilla, as the family head, is most solicitous for the welfare of his -wives and children—a very human trait. On the threat of danger, he -accepts full responsibility for the well-being of his charges.</p> - -<p>“If the danger is real the females and young are sent off, while the father -waits to take on all comers until satisfied that the remainder of the band -are out of harm’s way. Sometimes, when the danger is sudden and overwhelming, -the youngsters are sent up trees to hide until the trouble is over. -It is strangely reminiscent of the records of some of the early African -explorers relative to tribal customs. When the womenfolk were to be seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> -busily engaged in their usual vocations in the precincts of a village all -was well and no hostility contemplated on the part of the local inhabitants.</p> - -<p>“But an absence of women and children was interpreted as unfavorable, -signifying that they had been removed to a safe place to enable the warriors -to fight unhampered. And so it is with the old male gorilla, for as -soon as he bids his family seek safety he is out for mischief, although -without direct provocation he is unlikely to attack. There are black sheep -in every fold and solitary examples both male and female, which probably -have been outlaws for a very good reason, have been known to be abnormally -aggressive.”</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Biggest_Rat_in_the_World"><i>The Biggest “Rat” in the World</i></h2> - - -<p>Close relative of the porcupine, but without quills, is the aquatic coypu, -or nutria, of South America. It has become quite valuable in recent years -because of its soft fur. Weighing about 20 pounds, it often is referred to -as the “biggest rat in the world”. It shares with the porcupine large, -orange-colored incisor teeth which give it a frightful appearance. Like its -barbed northern cousin it is a strict vegetarian, living exclusively on water -weeds in its native habitat. Before the last war coypu farms were being -established through much of Europe. However some apprehension was -felt that it might cause considerable damage to crops if it escaped from -its enclosures.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Suicide_Marches_of_Lemmings"><i>The Suicide Marches of Lemmings</i></h2> - - -<p>Mass death marches of lemmings long have intrigued biologists and -psychologists.</p> - -<p>The Lapland lemming is a short-tailed animal, related to the meadow -mouse, that looks like a miniature rabbit. Through the sub-Arctic winter -it lives completely buried under snow through which it burrows in search -of mosses and lichens.</p> - -<p>It is extremely prolific; females produce two litters of from four to six -offspring every year. The numbers soon become far too great to subsist -on the sparse supply available in the Scandinavian mountains.</p> - -<p>Then, irregularly in periods of from five to ten years, occurs one of -the weirdest phenomena of animal life. Acting apparently on a common, -sub-conscious, simultaneous impulse, the entire lemming population starts -a mass migration out of the mountains to the lowlands. The animals -proceed in a straight line, a few feet apart, each usually tracing a shallow -furrow in the soil. They are a devouring scourge, stripping the earth of all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> -vegetation in their path. Their progress seems irresistible. No obstacle -stops them. If they come across a man they glide between his legs. If -they meet with a haystack they gnaw through it. If a rock stands in their -way they go around it in a semi-circle and then resume the straight line of -their march. When they come to a lake, river or arm of the sea they swim -directly across, vast numbers being drowned on the way. If they encounter -a boat they climb over it, so as not to be diverted from a straight line. -Curiously, they seem to avoid human habitations. They resist fiercely -all efforts to stop them. They will bite a stick or hand, crying and barking -like little dogs. Multitudes are destroyed every mile of the way. When -the migrating horde reaches the sea it moves straight on—to inevitable -destruction.</p> - -<p>A few linger behind and eventually make their way back to the mountain -habitat. Numbers are so reduced that they are seldom observed. -Then a new generation starts and builds up for the next migration.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Ferocity_of_the_Tiger"><i>The Ferocity of the Tiger</i></h2> - - -<p>Symbol of ferocity in the animal world is the tiger. When troops of -the American 101st Division entered the German city of Halle in 1945 it -probably was considered effective psychological warfare tactics on the -part of the Nazis to open the zoo cages and let loose the tigers. So far -as known, however, the animals did not attack any Americans.</p> - -<p>Whether the reputation of the tiger is entirely justified is debatable. -“The tiger”, says Dr. William M. Mann, long-time director of the National -Zoological Park in Washington, “is one of the finest animals that lives. -In the cage he is the most snobbish of all aristocrats, his contempt for -those who jostle in front of his bars being nothing less than magnificent. -He is dignity itself. He condescends to no boyish antics to attract attention -as does the chimpanzee, to no begging for sweets as do the bear and -elephant, to no pacific, philosophic acceptance of fate such as that of the -hippopotamus. You cannot win his favor by a stick of candy. He is -above rage or gratitude.”</p> - -<p>Sometimes adult tigers are captured in traps and sold to circuses. One -American circus some years ago had a cage of ten. Their keeper made -them perform as another man might spaniels. In the arena they appeared -to be a ferocious group. In the menagerie tent, confined in small cages -like so many kittens, the keeper could put his hand in their months and -rub their teeth. Once he complained bitterly about the tranquility of his -charges. “I cannot make a show with ten tame tigers,” he argued. “I -must have five mean ones to add to the act.”</p> - -<p>The tiger had a prominent part in the menageries of Indian and Chinese<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> -monarchs before the Christian era. It first appeared in Europe about the -time of the eastern conquests of Alexander. Well known to the Romans, -the animal was one of the most dreaded of all the beasts that appeared in -the arena.</p> - -<p>Despite its supposed ferocity, no great harm has been done in the few -cases in which tigers have escaped from zoos. Often they have returned -of their own accord.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Fearsome_Porcupine"><i>The Fearsome Porcupine</i></h2> - - -<p>There are more than 1,000 minute barbs on each of a porcupine’s -many quills. This is the reason why such a quill is very difficult to withdraw -from the flesh. The armament of quills, from a half inch to three -inches long and developed from hairs of the underfur, renders the “spiny -pig” of northern woodlands almost immune to attack. About its only -enemy in nature is the giant weasel, the fisher, which has learned the trick -of quickly turning the porcupine on its back.</p> - -<p>The quills are very lightly attached to the porcupine’s body and become -detached almost automatically when the creature is attacked. That they -can be “shot”, however, is almost certainly a fallacy. A victim must -actually be in contact with the animal.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Plant_That_Stimulates_Visions"><i>The Plant That Stimulates Visions</i></h2> - - -<p>In 1560 a Franciscan monk wrote of Aztecs eating a plant called peyotl -“which gives them terrible and ludicrous visions, alleviates hunger and -thirst, gives strength and incites to battle.” It was used, he reported “to -bring about a state of ecstasy in which one had prophetic visions.”</p> - -<p>This was the first known reference in literature to the mescal cactus, -<i>Lopophora williamsii</i>, whose remarkable effects on the human mind ever -since have aroused wonderment. Many have experimented with eating -the so-called “buttons” of this cactus and have reported all sorts of terrible -and ludicrous visions. But no two experimenters apparently have -the same experience. After nearly 400 years the supposed active principle, -mescaline, has been extracted and the same effects produced either by -swallowing or injection of as little as a half gram.</p> - -<p>First comes a decided nausea which lasts about two hours. This passes -and is followed by weird hallucinations. One’s own body seems distorted, -with some parts exceedingly small and some very large. A common -experience is the feeling that only one’s head is the self. The rest of the -body is away somewhere in space. The time sense is badly distorted.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> -Minutes stretch out into hours and days, days and hours are contracted -into minutes. There are strange optical delusions—lights flashing before -the eyes and floating patches of color. Seldom, however, are actual hallucinatory -objects seen.</p> - -<p>The consumer has the impression that he thinks more clearly than at -other times but it has been found that this thought is based more on the -sounds than meaning of words. There is a tendency, for example, to -argue in puns. An invisible barrier seems to separate one from the rest of -the world. This condition lasts for two or three hours, and then passes -away, leaving no after affects. The condition has been likened to schizophrenia.</p> - -<p>Large doses produce catatonic conditions. A person may sit motionless -for a long time in an apparently quite uncomfortable position and refuse -to move. Dogs and cats given mescaline injections crouch motionless in -corners of their cages, only rousing themselves from time to time to attack -invisible assailants.</p> - -<p>It recently has been found that only one chemical constituent of mescaline, -beta-phenylethylamine, is responsible for the delusions. This is -quite similar in chemical structure to the body hormone adrenaline. There -have been conjectures that adrenaline may be changed into the mescaline -constituent by some as yet unknown process of body chemistry and that -this change may be the physiological cause of schizophrenia.</p> - -<p>About 40 years ago a peyotl church was set up by Indians in New -Mexico. It followed essentially the Catholic ritual, but with mescal buttons -substituted for bread in communion. The U.S. Bureau of Indian -Affairs did not interfere with the rites when its investigations indicated -that the mysterious drug was not habit-forming and apparently caused no -physical injury.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="content" id="The_Puzzling_Platypus"><i>The Puzzling Platypus</i></h2> - - -<p>Fantastic combination of mammal, bird and reptile is the egg-laying, -toothless water animal of New South Wales and Tasmania, Australia, the -duck-billed platypus. It is clearly a mammal but, with a single exception, -it stands quite alone among these warm-blooded animals. The creatures -from which it is a survivor probably have been extinct for fifty million -years.</p> - -<p>It is an animal about twenty inches long from the tip of its horny beak -to the end of its broad, flattened tail. It is covered with soft brown fur. -Its four legs are short and five-toed. These toes on the front foot are -joined by webs like those of aquatic birds which extend beyond the long, -sharp, curved toe-nails. On the hind legs of the male are inch-long, sharp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> -spurs through which run minute canals connected with a large gland at -the back of the thigh—very much like the poison fangs of a serpent. Yet, -so far as can be determined, the gland secretes no poison and the spurs -apparently are seldom used in self defense.</p> - -<p>The female lays two eggs at a time, each about three-fourths of an inch -long and a half inch wide, with strong, flexible white shells. These eggs -are not incubated but hatch buried shallowly in sand and straw. The -platypus lives on the banks of ponds and quiet streams where it digs burrows -as much as 20 feet long with two entrances, one below and the other -above the water level. The rear, or land, end of a burrow is enlarged into -a small chamber in which the young are reared.</p> - -<p>The creatures pass most of the daylight hours asleep in these burrows, -curled in rather tight balls. The entrances are concealed in grass and -reeds so that the occupants of the burrows are seldom seen. At night the -platypus takes to the water. It swims and dives easily and its major food -consists of worms and other aquatic animals found in the mud or gravel -at the bottom. It has cheek pouches like a squirrel. When it comes up -from a dive these pouches are stuffed with the food it has gathered, which -is extracted and eaten at leisure.</p> - -<p>Adult animals are toothless but in each jaw there is a horny ridge. The -young, however, have rootless teeth—a possible clue to their very remote -ancestry. Like a bird the platypus has a very small head. There is no -division of its brain into two hemispheres, as in all other mammals and -most birds. This is a characteristic of the reptile brain.</p> - -<p>The creatures can climb with apparent ease. Small groups sometimes -are seen sunning themselves on broad tree trunks overhanging the water. -They are extremely timid but, when captured, soon become quite tame. -In captivity, however, they seldom live long.</p> - -<p>The only other member of this animal group is the echidna, or spiny -ant eater, of the same part of the world. It is, however, an inhabitant of -rocky districts where it digs shallow burrows in sand or hides in rock -crevices. The back is covered with sharp, backward-directed spines -which give it the appearance of a small porcupine. It has a long, tubular -snout from which projects the long, slender tongue covered with some -sticky substance. With this it laps up ants and other insects.</p> - -<p>Like the platypus, it has short, strong legs with large claws with which -it burrows with considerable speed. Burrowing, where possible, is its -usual method of flight. Its other defense is to roll itself in a ball, when -its sharp spines give it considerable protection. “The only way of carrying -the creature”, says George Bennett (<i>Gatherings of a Naturalist in -Australasia</i>) “is by one of its hind legs. Its powerful resistance and the -sharpness of the spines will soon oblige the captor, attempting to seize it -by any other part of the body, to be relinquish his hold.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - - -<ul> -<li class="ifrst"> -Abominable Snow Man, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ants, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aphroditids, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asp, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Bats, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bear, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beavers, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bees, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beetles, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brachiopods, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bryozoa, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Caterpillars, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Caves, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Centipedes, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chameleon, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clams, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Corals, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crabs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crocodile, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ctenophores, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Dodo, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dogs, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Duck Hawk, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dugongs, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Eagle, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elephant, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Fireflies, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fish, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flowers, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Forests, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frogs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Gorilla, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grasshopper, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Guacharo, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hornbills, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horned Viper, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Iguanas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insects, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Lemmings, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lizards, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Locusts, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Manatees, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mantid, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mermaids, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Millipedes, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mollusk, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monkeys, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moth, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ocean, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Octracoderms, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Opossum, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orchids, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oysters, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Pearls, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Penguins, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pigeons, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plants, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Platypus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Porcupine, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proteus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Proturans, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Rabbit, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rats, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Raven, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reptiles, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotifers, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Salamander, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sea Horse, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sea Urchin, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Seals, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shark, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shrew, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Silk Worm, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Skuas, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snails, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Snakes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spiders, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sponge, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Squids, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sting Rays, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Tamandua, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tarantula, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Termites, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ticks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tiger, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Toads, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tomato, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Toucan, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trees, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Viper, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Weasel, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whippoorwill, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Worms, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> -</ul> - -<h3 id="Topic_list">Topic List</h3> - -<ul> -<li><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></li> -<li><a href="#PREFACE">PREFACE</a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Invisible_Underground_Jungle"><i>The Invisible Underground Jungle</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Self-Perpetuating_Sponge"><i>The Self-Perpetuating Sponge</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Living_Stars_in_Caves"><i>Living “Stars” in Caves</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Parenthood_Among_Penguins"><i>Parenthood Among Penguins</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Strategy_of_Warrior_Ants"><i>The Strategy of Warrior Ants</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Ugandas_Miniature_Dinosaur"><i>Uganda’s Miniature Dinosaur</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Strange_Ways_of_Spiders"><i>The Strange Ways of Spiders</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_With_a_Thousand_Eyes"><i>Worms With a Thousand Eyes</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Queer_Fish_But_Definitely"><i>Queer Fish, But Definitely</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Love_Life_Among_the_Spiders"><i>Love Life Among the Spiders</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Lace_Weavers"><i>The Lace Weavers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ways_of_Crabs"><i>The Ways of Crabs</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Ticks_With_Noses_in_Their_Legs"><i>Ticks With Noses in Their Legs</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Fourth_Realm_of_Life"><i>The Fourth Realm of Life</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Rubber-Band_Worms_that_Stretch_and_Stretch"><i>Rubber-Band Worms that Stretch and Stretch</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Frog_Versatility"><i>Frog Versatility</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Horned_Viper_Spears_Other_Animals"><i>The Horned Viper Spears Other Animals</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_World_of_Insects"><i>The World of Insects</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Gigantic_Serpents_of_the_Sky"><i>Gigantic Serpents of the Sky</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Limbless_Lizard"><i>The Limbless Lizard</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Maddening_Tarantula"><i>The Maddening Tarantula</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#A_Flower_That_Grows_Through_Solid_Ice"><i>A Flower That Grows Through Solid Ice</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Versatile_Ant_Farmers"><i>The Versatile Ant Farmers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Ostracoderms_Ancestors_of_True_Fish"><i>Ostracoderms: Ancestors of True Fish</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ever_Faithful_Hornbills"><i>The Ever Faithful Hornbills</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Ants_With_Tailor_Skills"><i>Ants With Tailor Skills</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fiend_Symphonies_of_the_Jungle"><i>Fiend Symphonies of the Jungle</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Tyrants_of_the_Polychaete_Race"><i>Tyrants of the Polychaete Race</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Eating_Habits_of_Spiders"><i>Eating Habits of Spiders</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Suicide_Instinct_of_Iguanas"><i>The Suicide Instinct of Iguanas</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Forests_That_Eat_Meat"><i>Forests That Eat Meat</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Cave-Dwelling_Birds"><i>Cave-Dwelling Birds</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Where_Snails_Become_Flowers"><i>Where Snails Become Flowers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Termites_That_Eat_Lead"><i>Termites That Eat Lead</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Plant_That_Eats_Animals"><i>The Plant That Eats Animals</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Oceans_Sound_Barrier"><i>The Ocean’s Sound Barrier</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Snakes_That_Act_and_Look_Like_Worms"><i>Snakes That Act and Look Like Worms</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#A_Porcupine_of_the_Sea"><i>A Porcupine of the Sea</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_That_Are_Unkillable"><i>Worms That Are Unkillable</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Remarkable_Brachiopods"><i>The Remarkable Brachiopods</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Feathers_on_Birds_Adapt_to_the_Seasons"><i>Feathers on Birds Adapt to the Seasons</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Why_the_Dodo_Became_Extinct"><i>Why the Dodo Became Extinct</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Shark_of_the_Soil"><i>The Shark of the Soil</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Sleeping_Habits_of_Mammals"><i>The Sleeping Habits of Mammals</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Eerie_Eyes_of_Animals_at_Night"><i>The Eerie Eyes of Animals at Night</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#World_of_the_Blind">World of the Blind</a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Remarkable_Clam_Worms"><i>The Remarkable Clam Worms</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Winged_Reptile"><i>Winged Reptile</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Vicious_Fire_Ants"><i>Vicious Fire Ants</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Architectural_Genius_of_Birds"><i>The Architectural Genius of Birds</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ferocious_Leech_Worms"><i>The Ferocious Leech Worms</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Complex_Spiders_Web"><i>The Complex Spider’s Web</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Monsters_of_the_Deep_The_Great_Squids"><i>Monsters of the Deep: The Great Squids</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Vanishing_Whippoorwill"><i>The Vanishing Whippoorwill</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Ants_Can_Smell_Almost_Anything"><i>Ants Can Smell Almost Anything</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fish_That_Fish_For_Fish"><i>Fish That Fish For Fish</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_That_Are_Flowers"><i>Worms That Are Flowers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Heavy_Toll_of_Bird_Migrations"><i>The Heavy Toll of Bird Migrations</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Deadly_Snakes_That_Take_Life_Easy"><i>Deadly Snakes That Take Life Easy</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Weird_Plant-Animals"><i>Weird Plant-Animals</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Weird_Ways_of_Birds"><i>Weird Ways of Birds</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Fantastic_Sea_Horse"><i>The Fantastic Sea Horse</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Great_Seal_Migrations"><i>The Great Seal Migrations</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Monsters_With_Buzz_Saws"><i>Monsters With Buzz Saws</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Two-Headed_Snakes_Arent_Rare"><i>Two-Headed Snakes Aren’t Rare</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fantastic_Sea_Creatures"><i>Fantastic Sea Creatures</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Varieties_of_Raven_Language"><i>The Varieties of Raven Language</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_With_Hypodermic_Needles"><i>Worms With Hypodermic Needles</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Fatal_Black_Widow_Spider"><i>The Fatal Black Widow Spider</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Plants_That_are_Animated"><i>Plants That are Animated</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_TomatoCinderella_of_Vegetables"><i>The Tomato—Cinderella of Vegetables</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Holiest_Place_on_Earth"><i>The Holiest Place on Earth</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Vanishing_Golden_Carpet"><i>The Vanishing Golden Carpet</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Evolution_of_the_Bird"><i>Evolution of the Bird</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Speed_Ace_of_the_Air"><i>Speed Ace of the Air</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Remarkable_Instincts_of_the_Silk_Worm"><i>The Remarkable Instincts of the Silk Worm</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Strange_World_of_the_Sea"><i>The Strange World of the Sea</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Cannibal_Birds_of_the_Pacific"><i>The Cannibal Birds of the Pacific</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Eagles_as_Indian_Pets"><i>Eagles as Indian Pets</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Giant_Insects_of_the_Carolines"><i>The Giant Insects of the Carolines</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Valley_Where_Dusk_is_Death"><i>The Valley Where Dusk is Death</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Enigma_of_Evolution_the_Snake"><i>Enigma of Evolution: the Snake</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Fastest_Growth_on_Earth"><i>The Fastest Growth on Earth</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Birds_That_Duel"><i>Birds That Duel</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Brakes_on_Plant_Life"><i>Brakes on Plant Life</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Snails_Are_the_Flowers_of_the_Sea"><i>Snails Are the Flowers of the Sea</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Brutal_South_Pole_Birds"><i>The Brutal South Pole Birds</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Silk-Bearded_Clams"><i>Silk-Bearded Clams</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Pearls_Grow_in_Brooks"><i>Pearls Grow in Brooks</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Grasshopper-Infested_Glaciers"><i>Grasshopper-Infested Glaciers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Monster_Clams_of_Polynesia"><i>Monster Clams of Polynesia</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Corals_Combine_Plants_and_Animal_Life"><i>Corals Combine Plants and Animal Life</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_First_EngineersTermites"><i>The First Engineers—Termites</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Oyster_Oddities"><i>Oyster Oddities</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Worlds_Biggest_Sneeze"><i>The World’s Biggest Sneeze</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Luminescent_Ctenophores"><i>The Luminescent Ctenophores</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Forest_That_Time_Forgot"><i>The Forest That Time Forgot</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Versatility_of_the_Elephants_Trunk"><i>The Versatility of the Elephant’s Trunk</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fiendish_Vampires_of_the_Night"><i>Fiendish Vampires of the Night</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Remarkable_Orchids"><i>Remarkable Orchids</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Natures_Insecticide_The_Millipede"><i>Nature’s Insecticide: The Millipede</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Bats_Have_Built-in_Radar"><i>Bats Have Built-in Radar</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Crabs_That_Climb_Trees"><i>Crabs That Climb Trees</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ferocious_Centipede"><i>The Ferocious Centipede</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Plant_That_Makes_Men_Dumb"><i>The Plant That Makes Men Dumb</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Scourge_of_the_Earth_Locusts"><i>The Scourge of the Earth: Locusts</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Trees_Can_Grow_Smaller"><i>Trees Can Grow Smaller</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Underworld_Cities"><i>Underworld Cities</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Plants_That_Create_Mirages"><i>Plants That Create Mirages</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Octopus_Worm_Evolutions_Mystery"><i>The Octopus Worm: Evolution’s Mystery</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Monster_Bear_of_Kamchatka"><i>The Monster Bear of Kamchatka</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Strange_Denizens_of_the_Deep"><i>Strange Denizens of the Deep</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Communism_Among_the_Bees"><i>Communism Among the Bees</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Candles_on_Bushes"><i>Candles on Bushes</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Desert_Rat_Manufactures_Water"><i>The Desert Rat Manufactures Water</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Caste_System_of_the_Termite"><i>The Caste System of the Termite</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Shark_That_Stands_Upright"><i>The Shark That Stands Upright</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Dead_Mans_Vine"><i>The Dead Man’s Vine</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Insect_With_Fourteen_Lives"><i>The Insect With Fourteen Lives</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Shyness_Characteristic_of_Giant_Rats"><i>Shyness Characteristic of Giant Rats</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Nocturnal_Potto"><i>Nocturnal Potto</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Where_Trees_are_Square"><i>Where Trees are Square</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Lamp_That_is_a_Beetle"><i>The Lamp That is a Beetle</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Rainstorms_of_Worms"><i>Rainstorms of Worms</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Icy_Arctic_Wonderland"><i>The Icy Arctic Wonderland</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fish_That_Live_on_Land"><i>Fish That Live on Land</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Special_Language_of_Bees"><i>The Special Language of Bees</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Poisonous_Platters_of_the_Sea"><i>Poisonous Platters of the Sea</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Our_Un-American_Food"><i>Our Un-American Food</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_That_Commit_Mass_Suicide"><i>Worms That Commit Mass Suicide</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fish_That_Survive_Freezing"><i>Fish That Survive Freezing</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Plants_That_Kill"><i>Plants That Kill</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Caterpillars_That_Pretend_to_be_Snakes"><i>Caterpillars That Pretend to be Snakes</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#All_Plants_Are_Luminous"><i>All Plants Are Luminous</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_That_Live_in_the_Snow"><i>Worms That Live in the Snow</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Strange_Ways_of_Snails"><i>The Strange Ways of Snails</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Vision-Producing_Plants"><i>Vision-Producing Plants</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Abominable_Snow_Man"><i>The Abominable Snow Man</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fish_That_Sing_in_the_Moonlight"><i>Fish That Sing in the Moonlight</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Brazils_Vicious_Glow_Worm"><i>Brazil’s Vicious Glow Worm</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Grasshoppers_Like_Chameleons"><i>Grasshoppers Like Chameleons</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Beetles_That_Helped_an_Army"><i>Beetles That Helped an Army</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Worms_in_Medical_History"><i>Worms in Medical History</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Toads_That_Make_Poison_Gas"><i>Toads That Make Poison Gas</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Plants_That_Thrive_on_Ice-Bloom"><i>Plants That Thrive on Ice-Bloom</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Poison_Arrow_Frogs"><i>Poison Arrow Frogs</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Seal_That_Can_Lose_Its_Head"><i>The Seal That Can “Lose” Its Head</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Delectable_Horned_Viper"><i>The Delectable Horned Viper</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Flying_Snakes_Frogs_and_Toads"><i>Flying Snakes, Frogs and Toads</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Eagles_Build_Log_Cabin_Nests"><i>Eagles Build Log Cabin Nests</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Predatory_Mantid"><i>The Predatory Mantid</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Fireflies_as_Electricians"><i>Fireflies as Electricians</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Mollusk_Vampire_of_Hell"><i>The Mollusk Vampire of Hell</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Climbing_and_Flying_Frogs"><i>Climbing and Flying Frogs</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Mad_Dog_Cycles"><i>Mad Dog Cycles</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Amazing_Survival_of_the_Opossum"><i>The Amazing Survival of the Opossum</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Mammal_Prototypes_of_the_Mermaid"><i>Mammal Prototypes of the “Mermaid”</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Limbless_Lizards_and_Glass_Snakes"><i>Limbless Lizards and Glass Snakes</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Only_Bug_in_the_Sea"><i>The Only Bug in the Sea</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#A_Crocodile_With_Life_After_Death"><i>A Crocodile With Life After Death</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Salamander_That_Lives_Like_a_Worm"><i>The Salamander That Lives Like a Worm</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Three-eyed_Lizards_of_New_Zealand"><i>Three-eyed Lizards of New Zealand</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Prodigious_Fertility_of_Insects"><i>Prodigious Fertility of Insects</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Lizard_That_Runs_Out_of_Its_Own_Skin"><i>The Lizard That Runs Out of Its Own Skin</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#High_Living_in_the_Himalayas"><i>High Living in the Himalayas</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Barking_Spider_Monkeys"><i>Barking Spider Monkeys</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Insect_That_is_Born_Pregnant"><i>The Insect That is Born Pregnant</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Bull-dog_Animals"><i>Bull-dog Animals</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Foresight_of_Kangaroo_Rats"><i>Foresight of Kangaroo Rats</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Primitive_Proturans"><i>The Primitive Proturans</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Air-Conditioned_Homes_of_Beavers"><i>Air-Conditioned Homes of Beavers</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Demon_of_Puerto_Rico"><i>The Demon of Puerto Rico</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Man-Made_Plants"><i>Man-Made Plants</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Great_Seal_Migration"><i>The Great Seal Migration</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Magic_Bark_of_the_Cinchona_Tree"><i>The Magic Bark of the Cinchona Tree</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Colombias_Ant_Tree"><i>Colombia’s Ant Tree</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Strange_Behavior_of_Plants"><i>The Strange Behavior of Plants</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Venezuelas_Nocturnal_Orchid"><i>Venezuela’s Nocturnal Orchid</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Plant_That_Strikes_Men_Dumb"><i>The Plant That Strikes Men Dumb</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Combat_of_Moth_and_Shrew"><i>Combat of Moth and Shrew</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ferocious_Snake_Weasel"><i>The Ferocious Snake Weasel</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Rabbit_That_Swims"><i>The Rabbit That Swims</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#Gorilla_Warriors_of_the_Belgian_Congo"><i>Gorilla Warriors of the Belgian Congo</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Biggest_Rat_in_the_World"><i>The Biggest “Rat” in the World</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Suicide_Marches_of_Lemmings"><i>The Suicide Marches of Lemmings</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Ferocity_of_the_Tiger"><i>The Ferocity of the Tiger</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Fearsome_Porcupine"><i>The Fearsome Porcupine</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Plant_That_Stimulates_Visions"><i>The Plant That Stimulates Visions</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#The_Puzzling_Platypus"><i>The Puzzling Platypus</i></a></li> -<li><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></li> -</ul> - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGEST THINGS IN THE WORLD ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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