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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6811.txt b/6811.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..938b3bb --- /dev/null +++ b/6811.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9416 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Abraham Lincoln, by Henry Ketcham + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Life of Abraham Lincoln + +Author: Henry Ketcham + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6811] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on January 27, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN *** + + + + +Produced by Robert Nield, Tom Allen, Tiffany Vergon, Charles Aldarondo, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +THE LIFE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN +BY HENRY KETCHAM + + + TO MY TWO OLDER BROTHERS, JOHN LEWIS KETCHAM, + AND WILLIAM ALEXANDER KETCHAM, + WHO UNDER ABRAHAM LINCOLN AS COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF + LOYALLY SERVED THEIR COUNTRY IN THE WAR + FOR THE PERPETUATION OF THE UNION AND THE + DESTRUCTION OP SLAVERY, THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + I. The Wild West + II. The Lincoln Family + III. Early Years + IV. In Indiana + V. Second Journey to New Orleans + VI. Desultory Employments + VII. Entering Politics + VIII. Entering the Law + IX. On the Circuit + X. Social Life and Marriage + XI. The Encroachments of Slavery + XII. The Awakening of the Lion + XIII. Two Things that Lincoln Missed + XIV. Birth of the Republican Party + XV. The Battle of the Giants + XVI. Growing Audacity of the Slave Power + XVII. The Backwoodsman at the Center of Eastern Culture + XVIII. The Nomination of 1860 + XIX. The Election + XX. Four Long Months + XXI. Journey to Washington + XXII. The Inauguration + XXIII. Lincoln his Own President + XXIV. Fort Sumter + XXV. The Outburst of Patriotism + XXVI. The War Here to Stay + XXVII. The Darkest Hour of the War + XXVIII. Lincoln and Fremont + XXIX. Lincoln and McClellan + XXX. Lincoln and Greeley + XXXI. Emancipation + XXXII. Discouragements + XXXIII. New Hopes + XXXIV. Lincoln and Grant + XXXV. Literary Characteristics + XXXVI. Second Election + XXXVII. Close of the War + XXXVIII. Assassination + XXXIX. A Nation's Sorrow + XL. The Measure of a Man + XLI. Testimonies + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The question will naturally be raised, Why should there be another Life +of Lincoln? This may be met by a counter question, Will there ever be a +time in the near future when there will _not_ be another Life of +Lincoln? There is always a new class of students and a new enrolment of +citizens. Every year many thousands of young people pass from the +Grammar to the High School grade of our public schools. Other thousands +are growing up into manhood and womanhood. These are of a different +constituency from their fathers and grandfathers who remember the civil +war and were perhaps in it. + +"To the younger generation," writes Carl Schurz, "Abraham Lincoln has +already become a half mythical figure, which, in the haze of historic +distance, grows to more and more heroic proportions, but also loses in +distinctness of outline and figure." The last clause of this remark is +painfully true. To the majority of people now living, his outline and +figure are dim and vague. There are to-day professors and presidents of +colleges, legislators of prominence, lawyers and judges, literary men, +and successful business men, to whom Lincoln is a tradition. It cannot +be expected that a person born after the year (say) 1855, could +remember Lincoln more than as a name. Such an one's ideas are made up +not from his remembrance and appreciation of events as they occurred, +but from what he has read and heard about them in subsequent years. + +The great mine of information concerning the facts of Lincoln's life +is, and probably will always be, the History by his secretaries, +Nicolay and Hay. This is worthily supplemented by the splendid volumes +of Miss Tarbell. There are other biographies of great value. Special +mention should be made of the essay by Carl Schurz, which is classic. + +The author has consulted freely all the books on the subject he could +lay his hands on. In this volume there is no attempt to write a history +of the times in which Lincoln lived and worked. Such historical events +as have been narrated were selected solely because they illustrated +some phase of the character of Lincoln. In this biography the single +purpose has been to present the living man with such distinctness of +outline that the reader may have a sort of feeling of being acquainted +with him. If the reader, finishing this volume, has a vivid realization +of Lincoln as a man, the author will be fully repaid. + +To achieve this purpose in brief compass, much has been omitted. Some +of the material omitted has probably been of a value fully equal to +some that has been inserted. This could not well be avoided. But if the +reader shall here acquire interest enough in the subject to continue +the study of this great, good man, this little book will have served +its purpose. + + H. K. + WESTFIELD, NEW JERSEY, February, 1901. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE WILD WEST. + + +At the beginning of the twentieth century there is, strictly speaking, +no frontier to the United States. At the beginning of the nineteenth +century, the larger part of the country was frontier. In any portion of +the country to-day, in the remotest villages and hamlets, on the +enormous farms of the Dakotas or the vast ranches of California, one is +certain to find some, if not many, of the modern appliances of +civilization such as were not dreamed of one hundred years ago. Aladdin +himself could not have commanded the glowing terms to write the +prospectus of the closing years of the nineteenth century. So, too, it +requires an extraordinary effort of the imagination to conceive of the +condition of things in the opening years of that century. + +The first quarter of the century closed with the year 1825. At that +date Lincoln was nearly seventeen years old. The deepest impressions of +life are apt to be received very early, and it is certain that the +influences which are felt previous to seventeen years of age have much +to do with the formation of the character. If, then, we go back to the +period named, we can tell with sufficient accuracy what were the +circumstances of Lincoln's early life. Though we cannot precisely tell +what he had, we can confidently name many things, things which in this +day we class as the necessities of life, which he had to do without, +for the simple reason that they had not then been invented or +discovered. + +In the first place, we must bear in mind that he lived in the woods. +The West of that day was not wild in the sense of being wicked, +criminal, ruffian. Morally, and possibly intellectually, the people of +that region would compare with the rest of the country of that day or +of this day. There was little schooling and no literary training. But +the woodsman has an education of his own. The region was wild in the +sense that it was almost uninhabited and untilled. The forests, +extending from the mountains in the East to the prairies in the West, +were almost unbroken and were the abode of wild birds and wild beasts. +Bears, deer, wild-cats, raccoons, wild turkeys, wild pigeons, wild +ducks and similar creatures abounded on every hand. + +Consider now the sparseness of the population. Kentucky has an area of +40,000 square miles. One year after Lincoln's birth, the total +population, white and colored, was 406,511, or an average of ten +persons--say less than two families--to the square mile. Indiana has +an area of 36,350 square miles. In 1810 its total population was +24,520, or an average of one person to one and one-half square miles; +in 1820 it contained 147,173 inhabitants, or about four to the square +mile; in 1825 the population was about 245,000, or less than seven to +the square mile. + +The capital city, Indianapolis, which is to-day of surpassing beauty, +was not built nor thought of when the boy Lincoln moved into the State. + +Illinois, with its more than 56,000 square miles of territory, harbored +in 1810 only 12,282 people; in 1820, only 55,211, or less than one to +the square mile; while in 1825 its population had grown a trifle over +100,000 or less than two to the square mile. + +It will thus be seen that up to his youth, Lincoln dwelt only in the +wildest of the wild woods, where the animals from the chipmunk to the +bear were much more numerous, and probably more at home, than man. + +There were few roads of any kind, and certainly none that could be +called good. For the mud of Indiana and Illinois is very deep and very +tenacious. There were good saddle-horses, a sufficient number of oxen, +and carts that were rude and awkward. No locomotives, no bicycles, no +automobiles. The first railway in Indiana was constructed in 1847, and +it was, to say the least, a very primitive affair. As to carriages, +there may have been some, but a good carriage would be only a waste on +those roads and in that forest. + +The only pen was the goose-quill, and the ink was home-made. Paper was +scarce, expensive, and, while of good material, poorly made. Newspapers +were unknown in that virgin forest, and books were like angels' visits, +few and far between. + +There were scythes and sickles, but of a grade that would not be +salable to-day at any price. There were no self-binding harvesters, no +mowing machines. There were no sewing or knitting machines, though +there were needles of both kinds. In the woods thorns were used for +pins. + +Guns were flint-locks, tinder-boxes were used until the manufacture of +the friction match. Artificial light came chiefly from the open +fireplace, though the tallow dip was known and there were some +housewives who had time to make them and the disposition to use them. +Illumination by means of molded candles, oil, gas, electricity, came +later. That was long before the days of the telegraph. + +In that locality there were no mills for weaving cotton, linen, or +woolen fabrics. All spinning was done by means of the hand loom, and +the common fabric of the region was linsey-woolsey, made of linen and +woolen mixed, and usually not dyed. + +Antiseptics were unknown, and a severe surgical operation was +practically certain death to the patient. Nor was there ether, +chloroform, or cocaine for the relief of pain. + +As to food, wild game was abundant, but the kitchen garden was not +developed and there were no importations. No oranges, lemons, bananas. +No canned goods. Crusts of rye bread were browned, ground, and boiled; +this was coffee. Herbs of the woods were dried and steeped; this was +tea. The root of the sassafras furnished a different kind of tea, a +substitute for the India and Ceylon teas now popular. Slippery elm bark +soaked in cold water sufficed for lemonade. The milk-house, when there +was one, was built over a spring when that was possible, and the milk +vessels were kept carefully covered to keep out snakes and other +creatures that like milk. + +Whisky was almost universally used. Indeed, in spite of the +constitutional "sixteen-to-one," it was locally used as the standard of +value. The luxury of quinine, which came to be in general use +throughout that entire region, was of later date. + +These details are few and meager. It is not easy for us, in the midst +of the luxuries, comforts, and necessities of a later civilization, to +realize the conditions of western life previous to 1825. But the +situation must be understood if one is to know the life of the boy +Lincoln. + +Imagine this boy. Begin at the top and look down him--a long look, for +he was tall and gaunt. His cap in winter was of coon-skin, with the +tail of the animal hanging down behind. In summer he wore a misshapen +straw hat with no hat-band. His shirt was of linsey-woolsey, above +described, and was of no color whatever, unless you call it "the color +of dirt." His breeches were of deer-skin with the hair outside. In dry +weather these were what you please, but when wet they hugged the skin +with a clammy embrace, and the victim might sigh in vain for sanitary +underwear. These breeches were held up by one suspender. The hunting +shirt was likewise of deer-skin. The stockings,--there weren't any +stockings. The shoes were cow-hide, though moccasins made by his mother +were substituted in dry weather. There was usually a space of several +inches between the breeches and the shoes, exposing a tanned and bluish +skin. For about half the year he went barefoot. + +There were schools, primitive and inadequate, indeed, as we shall +presently see, but "the little red schoolhouse on the hill," with the +stars and stripes floating proudly above it, was not of that day. There +were itinerant preachers who went from one locality to another, holding +"revival meetings." But church buildings were rare and, to say the +least, not of artistic design. There were no regular means of travel, +and even the "star route" of the post-office department was slow in +reaching those secluded communities. + +Into such circumstances and conditions Lincoln was born and grew into +manhood. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE LINCOLN FAMILY. + + +When one becomes interested in a boy, one is almost certain to ask, +Whose son is he? And when we study the character of a great man, it is +natural and right that we should be interested in his family. Where did +he come from? who were his parents? where did they come from? These +questions will engage our attention in this chapter. + +But it is well to be on our guard at the outset against the +fascinations of any theory of heredity. Every thoughtful observer knows +something of the seductions of this subject either from experience or +from observation. In every subject of research there is danger of +claiming too much in order to magnify the theory. This is emphatically +true of this theory. Its devotees note the hits but not the misses. "It +took five generations of cultured clergymen to produce an Emerson." +Undoubtedly; but what of the sixth and seventh generations? "Darwin's +greatness came from his father and grandfather." Very true; but are +there no more Darwins? + +If Abraham Lincoln got his remarkable character from parents or +grandparents, from whom did he get his physical stature? His father was +a little above medium height, being five feet ten and one-half inches. +His mother was a little less than medium height, being five feet five +inches. Their son was a giant, being no less than six feet four inches. +It is not safe to account too closely for his physical, mental, or +moral greatness by his descent. The fact is that there are too many +unexplored remainders in the factors of heredity to make it possible to +apply the laws definitely. + +The writer will therefore give a brief account of the Lincoln family +simply as a matter of interest, and not as a means of proving or +explaining any natural law. + +The future president was descended from people of the middle class. +There was nothing either in his family or his surroundings to attract +the attention even of the closest observer, or to indicate any material +difference between him and scores of other boys in the same general +locality. + +Lincoln is an old English name, and in 1638 a family of the name +settled in Hingham, Mass., near Boston. Many years later we find the +ancestors of the president living in Berks County, Pa. It is possible +that this family came direct from England; but it is probable that they +came from Hingham. Both in Hingham and in Berks County there is a +frequent recurrence of certain scriptural names, such as Abraham, +Mordecai, and Thomas, which seems to be more than a coincidence. + +From Berks County certain of the family, who, by the way, were Quakers, +moved to Rockingham County, Va. In 1769 Daniel Boone, the adventurous +pioneer, opened up what is now the state of Kentucky, but was then a +part of Virginia. + +About twelve years later, in 1781, Abraham Lincoln, great-grandfather +of the president, emigrated from Virginia into Kentucky. People have +asked, in a puzzled manner, why did he leave the beautiful Shenandoah +valley? One answer may be given: The Ohio valley also is beautiful. +During the major portion of the year, from the budding of the leaves in +April until they pass away in the blaze of their autumn glory, the +entire region is simply bewitching. No hills curve more gracefully, no +atmosphere is more soft, no watercourses are more enticing. Into this +region came the Virginian family, consisting, besides the parents, of +three sons and two daughters. + +A year or two later the head of the family was murdered by a skulking +Indian, who proceeded to kidnap the youngest son, Thomas. The oldest +son, Mordecai, quickly obtained a gun and killed the Indian, thus +avenging his father and rescuing his little brother. + +This boy Thomas was father of the president. He has been called by some +writers shiftless and densely ignorant. But he seems to have been more +a creature of circumstances. There were no schools, and he, +consequently, did not go to school. There was no steady employment, and +consequently he had no steady employment. It is difficult to see how he +could have done better. He could shoot and keep the family supplied +with wild game. He did odd jobs as opportunity opened and "just +growed." + +But he had force enough to learn to read and write after his marriage. +He had the roving disposition which is, and always has been, a trait of +pioneers. But this must be interpreted by the fact that he was +optimistic rather than pessimistic. He removed to Indiana because, to +him, Indiana was the most glorious place in the whole world. He later +removed to Illinois because that was more glorious yet. + +He certainly showed good taste in the selection of his wives, and what +is equally to the purpose, was able to persuade them to share his +humble lot. He had an unfailing stock of good nature, was expert in +telling a humorous story, was perfectly at home in the woods, a fair +carpenter and a good farmer; and in short was as agreeable a companion +as one would find in a day's journey. He would not have been at home in +a library, but he was at home in the forest. + +In 1806 he married Nancy Hanks, a young woman from Virginia, who became +the mother of the president. Doubtless there are many women among the +obscure who are as true and loyal as she was, but whose life is not +brought into publicity. Still, without either comparing or contrasting +her with others, we may attest our admiration of this one as a "woman +nobly planned." In the midst of her household cares, which were neither +few nor light, she had the courage to undertake to teach her husband to +read and write. She also gave her children a start in learning. Of her +the president, nearly half a century after her death, said to Seward, +with tears,--"All that I am or hope to be, I owe to my angel mother-- +blessings on her memory." + +Mr. Lincoln himself never manifested much interest in his genealogy. At +one time he did give out a brief statement concerning his ancestors +because it seemed to be demanded by the exegencies of the campaign. But +at another time, when questioned by Mr. J. L. Scripps, editor of the +Chicago _Tribune_, he answered: "Why, Scripps, it is a great piece of +folly to attempt to make anything out of me or my early life. It can +all be condensed into a single sentence, and that sentence you will +find in Gray's Elegy: + + 'The short and simple annals of the poor.' + +That's my life, and that's all you or any one else can make out of it." + +In all this he was neither proud nor depreciative of his people. He was +simply modest. Nor did he ever outgrow his sympathy with the common +people. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +EARLY YEARS. + + +The year 1809 was fruitful in the birth of great men in the Anglo-Saxon +race. In that year were born Charles Darwin, scientist, Alfred +Tennyson, poet, William E. Gladstone, statesman, and, not least, +Abraham Lincoln, liberator. + +Thomas Lincoln was left fatherless in early boyhood, and grew up +without any schooling or any definite work. For the most part he did +odd jobs as they were offered. He called himself a carpenter. But in a +day when the outfit of tools numbered only about a half dozen, and when +every man was mainly his own carpenter, this trade could not amount to +much. Employment was unsteady and pay was small. + +Thomas Lincoln, after his marriage to Nancy Hanks, lived in +Elizabethtown, Ky., where the first child, Sarah, was born. Shortly +after this event he decided to combine farming with his trade of +carpentering, and so removed to a farm fourteen miles out, situated in +what is now La Rue County, where his wife, on the twelfth day of +February, 1809, gave birth to the son who was named Abraham after his +grandfather. The child was born in a log cabin of a kind very common in +that day and for many years later. It was built four-square and +comprised only one room, one window, and a door. + +[Illustration: Lincoln's Boyhood Home in Kentucky.] + +Here they lived for a little more than four years, when the father +removed to another farm about fifteen miles further to the northeast. + +The occasion of this removal and of the subsequent one, two or three +years later, was undoubtedly the uncertainty of land titles in Kentucky +in that day. This "roving disposition" cannot fairly be charged to +shiftlessness. In spite of the extraordinary disadvantages of Thomas +Lincoln's early life, he lived as well as his neighbors, though that +was humble enough, and accumulated a small amount of property in spite +of the low rate of compensation. + +In the year 1816 Thomas determined to migrate to Indiana. He sold out +his farm, receiving for it the equivalent of $300. Of this sum, $20 was +in cash and the rest was in whisky--ten barrels--which passed as a kind +of currency in that day. He then loaded the bulk of his goods upon a +flat boat, floating down the stream called Rolling Fork into Salt +Creek, thence into the Ohio River, in fact, to the bottom of that +river. The watercourse was obstructed with stumps and snags of divers +sorts, and especially with "sawyers," or trees in the river which, +forced by the current, make an up-and-down motion like that of a man +sawing wood. + +The flat boat became entangled in these obstructions and was upset, and +the cargo went to the bottom. By dint of great labor much of this was +rescued and the travelers pushed on as far as Thompson's Ferry in Perry +County, Indiana. There the cargo was left in the charge of friends, and +Lincoln returned for his family and the rest of his goods. + +During his father's absence, the boy Abe had his first observation of +sorrow. A brother had been born in the cabin and had died in infancy. +The little grave was in the wilderness, and before leaving that country +forever, the mother, leading her six-year-old boy by the hand, paid a +farewell visit to the grave. The child beheld with awe the silent grief +of the mother and carried in his memory that scene to his dying day. + +The father returned with glowing accounts of the new home. The family +and the furniture,--to use so dignified a name for such meager +possessions,--were loaded into a wagon or a cart, and they were soon on +the way to their new home. + +The traveling was slow, but the weather was fine, the journey +prosperous, and they arrived duly at their destination. They pushed +northward, or back from the river, about eighteen miles into the woods +and settled in Spencer County near to a hamlet named Gentryville. Here +they established their home. + +The first thing, of course, was to stake off the land, enter the claim, +and pay the government fee at the United States Land Office at +Vincennes. The amount of land was one quarter section, or one hundred +and sixty acres. + +The next thing was to erect a cabin. In this case the cabin consisted +of what was called a half-faced camp. That is, the structure was +entirely open on one of its four sides. This was at the lower side of +the roof, and the opening was partly concealed by the hanging of the +skins of deer and other wild animals. This open face fully supplied all +need of door and window. + +The structure was built four square, fourteen feet each way. Posts were +set up at the corners, then the sides were made of poles placed as near +together as possible. The interstices were filled in with chips and +clay, which was called "chinking." The fireplace and chimney were built +at the back and outside. The chief advantage of this style of domicile +is that it provides plenty of fresh air. With one side of the room +entirely open, and with a huge fireplace at the other side, the +sanitary problem of ventilation was solved. + +There were no Brussels carpets, no Persian rugs, no hardwood floors. +The bare soil was pounded hard, and that was the floor. There were two +beds inn the two rear corners of the rooms. The corner position saved +both space and labor. Two sides of the bed were composed of parts of +the two walls. At the opposite angle a stake, with a forked top, was +driven into the ground, and from this to the walls were laid two poles +at right angles. This made the frame of the bed. Then "shakes," or +large hand-made shingles, were placed crosswise. Upon these were laid +the ticks filled with feathers or corn husks, and the couch was +complete. Not stylish, but healthful and comfortable. + +The produce of his farm was chiefly corn, though a little wheat was +raised for a change of diet. Doubtless there were enough of the staple +vegetables which grow easily in that country. Butcher shops were not +needed, owing to the abundance of wild game. + +The principal portion of the life of the average boy concerns his +schooling. As nearly as can be determined the aggregate of young +Lincoln's schooling was about one year, and this was divided between +five teachers--an average of less than three months to each--and spread +out over as many years. The branches taught were "readin', writin', and +cipherin' to the rule of three." Any young man who happened along with +a fair knowledge of the three great R's--"Readin', 'Ritin', and' +Rithmetic"--was thought fit to set up a school, taking his small pay in +cash and boarding around--that is, spending one day or more at a time +as the guest of each of his patrons. + +There was nothing of special interest in any of these teachers, but +their names are preserved simply because the fact that they did teach +him is a matter of great interest. The first teacher was Zachariah +Riney, a Roman Catholic, from whose schoolroom the Protestants were +excluded, or excused, during the opening exercises. Then came Caleb +Hazel. These were in Kentucky, and therefore their instruction of +Lincoln must have come to an end by the time he was seven years old. +When ten years old he studied under one Dorsey, when about fourteen +under Crawford, and when sixteen under Swaney. + +It can hardly be doubted that his mother's instruction was of more +worth than all these put together. A woman who, under such limitations, +had energy enough to teach her husband to read and write, was a rare +character, and her influence could not be other than invaluable to the +bright boy. Charles Lamb classified all literature in two divisions: +"Books that are not books, and books that are books." It is important +that every boy learn to read. But a far more important question is, +What use does he make of his ability to read? Does he read "books that +are books?" Let us now see what use Lincoln made of his knowledge of +reading. + +In those days books were rare and his library was small and select. It +consisted at first of three volumes: The Bible, Aesop's Fables and +Pilgrim's Progress. Some-time in the eighties a prominent magazine +published a series of articles written by men of eminence in the +various walks of life, under the title of "Books that have helped me." +The most noticeable fact was that each of these eminent men--men who +had read hundreds of books--specified not more than three or four +books. Lincoln's first list was of three. They were emphatically books. +Day after day he read, pondered and inwardly digested them until they +were his own. Better books he could not have found in all the +universities of Europe, and we begin to understand where he got his +moral vision, his precision of English style, and his shrewd humor. + +Later he borrowed from a neighbor, Josiah Crawford, a copy of Weems' +Life of Washington. In lieu of a bookcase he tucked this, one night, +into the chinking of the cabin. A rain-storm came up and soaked the +book through and through. By morning it presented a sorry appearance. +The damage was done and could not be repaired. Crestfallen the lad +carried it back to the owner and, having no money, offered to pay for +the mischief in work. Crawford agreed and named seventy-five cents (in +labor) as a fair sum. + +"Does this pay for the book," the borrower asked, "or only for the +damage to the book?" Crawford reckoned that the book "wa'n't of much +account to him nor to any one else." So Lincoln cheerfully did the +work--it was for three days--and owned the book. + +Later he had a life of Henry Clay, whom he nearly idolized. His one +poet was Burns, whom he knew by heart "from a to izzard." Throughout +his life he ranked Burns next to Shakespeare. + +The hymns which he most loved must have had influence not only on his +religious spirit, but also on his literary taste. Those which are +mentioned are, "Am I a soldier of the cross?" "How tedious and +tasteless the hours," "There is a fountain filled with blood," and +"Alas, and did my Saviour bleed?" Good hymns every one of them, in that +day, or in any day. + +Having no slate he did his "sums" in the sand on the ground, or on a +wooden shovel which, after it was covered on both sides, he scraped +down so as to erase the work. A note-book is preserved, containing, +along with examples in arithmetic, this boyish doggerel: + + Abraham Lincoln + his hand and pen + he will be good but + god knows When. + +The penmanship bears a striking resemblance to that in later life. + +[Illustration: Lincoln's Early Home In Indiana.] + +About a year after Thomas Lincoln's family settled in Indiana, they +were followed by some neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Sparrow and Dennis Hanks, +a child. To these the Lincolns surrendered their camp and built for +themselves a cabin, which was slightly more pretentious than the first. +It had an attic, and for a stairway there were pegs in the wall up +which an active boy could readily climb. There was a stationary table, +the legs being driven into the ground, some three-legged stools, and a +Dutch oven. + +In the year 1818 a mysterious epidemic passed over the region, working +havoc with men and cattle. It was called the "milk-sick." Just what it +was physicians are unable to determine, but it was very destructive. +Both Mr. and Mrs. Sparrow were attacked. They were removed, for better +care, to the home of the Lincolns, where they shortly died. By this +time Mrs. Lincoln was down with the same scourge. There was no doctor +to be had, the nearest one being thirty-five miles away. Probably it +made no difference. At all events she soon died and the future +president passed into his first sorrow. + +The widowed husband was undertaker. With his own hands he "rived" the +planks, made the coffin, and buried Nancy Hanks, that remarkable woman. +There was no pastor, no funeral service. The grave was marked by a +wooden slab, which, long years after, in 1879, was replaced by a stone +suitably inscribed. + +A traveling preacher known as Parson Elkin had occasionally preached in +the neighborhood of the Lincolns in Kentucky. The young boy now put to +use his knowledge of writing. He wrote a letter to the parson inviting +him to come over and preach the funeral sermon. How he contrived to get +the letter to its destination we do not know, but it was done. The +kind-hearted preacher cheerfully consented, though it involved a long +and hard journey. He came at his earliest convenience, which was some +time the next year. + +There was no church in which to hold the service. Lincoln never saw a +church building of any description until he was grown. But the +neighbors to the number of about two hundred assembled under the trees, +where the parson delivered the memorial sermon. + +Lincoln was nine years old when his mother died, October 5th, 1818. Her +lot was hard, her horizon was narrow, her opportunities were +restricted, her life was one of toil and poverty. All through her life +and after her untimely death, many people would have said that she had +had at best but a poor chance in the world. Surely no one would have +predicted that her name would come to be known and reverenced from +ocean to ocean. But she was faithful, brave, cheerful. She did her duty +lovingly. In later years the nation joined with her son in paying honor +to the memory of this noble, overworked, uncomplaining woman. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +IN INDIANA. + + +The death of his wife had left Thomas Lincoln with the care of three +young children: namely, Sarah, about eleven years old, Abe, ten years +old, and the foster brother, Dennis (Friend) Hanks, a year or two +younger. The father was not able to do woman's work as well as his wife +had been able to do man's work, and the condition of the home was +pitiable indeed. To the three motherless children and the bereaved +father it was a long and dreary winter. When spring came they had the +benefits of life in the woods and fields, and so lived through the +season until the edge of the following winter. It is not to be wondered +at that the father was unwilling to repeat the loneliness of the +preceding year. + +Early in December, 1819, he returned to Elizabethtown, Ky., and +proposed marriage to a widow, Mrs. Sally Bush Johnston. The proposal +must have been direct, with few preliminaries or none, for the couple +were married next morning. The new wife brought him a fortune, in +addition to three children of various ages, of sundry articles of +household furniture. Parents, children, and goods were shortly after +loaded into a wagon drawn by a four-horse team, and in all the style of +this frontier four-in-hand, were driven over indescribable roads, +through woods and fields, to their Indiana home. + +The accession of Sally Bush's furniture made an important improvement +in the home. What was more important, she had her husband finish the +log cabin by providing window, door, and floor. What was most important +of all, she brought the sweet spirit of an almost ideal motherhood into +the home, giving to all the children alike a generous portion of +mother-love. + +The children now numbered six, and not only were they company for one +another, but the craving for womanly affection, which is the most +persistent hunger of the heart of child or man, was beautifully met. +She did not humor them to the point of idleness, but wisely ruled with +strictness without imperiousness. She kept them from bad habits and +retained their affection to the last. The influence upon the growing +lad of two such women as Nancy Hanks and Sally Bush was worth more than +that of the best appointed college in all the land. + +The boy grew into youth, and he grew very fast. While still in his +teens he reached the full stature of his manhood, six feet and four +inches. His strength was astonishing, and many stories were told of +this and subsequent periods to illustrate his physical prowess, such +as: he once lifted up a hencoop weighing six hundred pounds and carried +it off bodily; he could lift a full barrel of cider to his mouth and +drink from the bung-hole; he could sink an ax-halve deeper into a log +than any man in the country. + +During the period of his growth into youth he spent much of his time in +reading, talking, and, after a fashion, making speeches. He also wrote +some. His political writings won great admiration from his neighbors. +He occasionally wrote satires which, while not refined, were very +stinging. This would not be worth mentioning were it not for the fact +that it shows that from boyhood he knew the force of this formidable +weapon which later he used with so much skill. The country store +furnished the frontier substitute for the club, and there the men were +wont to congregate. It is needless to say that young Lincoln was the +life of the gatherings, being an expert in the telling of a humorous +story and having always a plentiful supply. His speech-making proved so +attractive that his father was forced to forbid him to practise it +during working hours because the men would always leave their work to +listen to him. + +During these years he had no regular employment, but did odd jobs +wherever he got a chance. At one time, for example, he worked on a +ferryboat for the munificent wages of thirty-seven and one half cents a +day. + +When sixteen years old, Lincoln had his first lesson in oratory. He +attended court at Boonville, county seat of Warwick County and heard a +case in which one of the aristocratic Breckenridges of Kentucky was +attorney for the defense. The power of his oratory was a revelation to +the lad. At its conclusion the awkward, ill-dressed, bashful but +enthusiastic young Lincoln pressed forward to offer his congratulations +and thanks to the eloquent lawyer, who haughtily brushed by him without +accepting the proffered hand. In later years the men met again, this +time in Washington City, in the white house. The president reminded +Breckenridge of the incident which the latter had no desire to recall. + +When about nineteen years old, he made his first voyage down the Ohio +and Mississippi rivers. Two incidents are worth recording of this trip. +The purpose was to find, in New Orleans, a market for produce, which +was simply floated down stream on a flat-boat. There was, of course, a +row-boat for tender. The crew consisted of himself and young Gentry, +son of his employer. + +Near Baton Rouge they had tied up for the night in accordance with the +custom of flat-boat navigation. During the night they were awakened by +a gang of seven ruffian negroes who had come aboard to loot the stuff. +Lincoln shouted "Who's there?" Receiving no reply he seized a handspike +and knocked over the first, second, third, and fourth in turn, when the +remaining three took to the woods. The two northerners pursued them a +short distance, then returned, loosed their craft and floated safely to +their destination. + +It was on this trip that Lincoln earned his first dollar, as he in +after years related to William H. Seward: + +"... A steamer was going down the river. We have, you know, no wharves +on the western streams, and the custom was, if passengers were at any +of the landings, they were to go out in a boat, the steamer stopping +and taking them on board.... Two men with trunks came down to the shore +in carriages, and looking at the different boats, singled out mine, and +asked, 'Who owns this?' I modestly answered, 'I do.' 'Will you take us +and our trunks out to the steamer?' 'Certainly.'... The trunks were put +in my boat, the passengers seated themselves on them, and I sculled +them out to the steamer. They got on board, and I lifted the trunks and +put them on the deck. The steamer was about to put on steam again, when +I called out: 'You have forgotten to pay me.' Each of them took from +his pocket a silver half dollar and threw it on the bottom of my boat. +I could scarcely believe my eyes as I picked up the money. You may +think it was a very little thing, and in these days it seems to me like +a trifle, but it was a most important incident in my life. I could +scarcely credit that I, a poor boy, had earned a dollar in less than a +day; that by honest work I had earned a dollar. I was a more hopeful +and thoughtful boy from that time." + +The goods were sold profitably at New Orleans and the return trip was +made by steamboat. This was about twenty years after Fulton's first +voyage from New York to Albany, which required seven days. Steamboats +had been put on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, but these crafts were +of primitive construction--awkward as to shape and slow as to speed. +The frequency of boiler explosions was proverbial for many years. The +lads, Gentry and Lincoln, returned home duly and the employer was well +satisfied with the results of the expedition. + +In 1830 the epidemic "milk sick" reappeared in Indiana, and Thomas +Lincoln had a pardonable desire to get out of the country. Illinois was +at that time settling up rapidly and there were glowing accounts of its +desirableness. Thomas Lincoln's decision to move on to the new land of +promise was reasonable. He sold out and started with his family and +household goods to his new destination. The time of year was March, +just when the frost is coming out of the ground so that the mud is +apparently bottomless. The author will not attempt to describe it, for +he has in boyhood seen it many times and knows it to be indescribable. +It was Abe's duty to drive the four yoke of oxen, a task which must +have strained even his patience. + +They settled in Macon County, near Decatur. There the son faithfully +worked with his father until the family was fairly settled, then +started out in life for himself. For he had now reached the age of +twenty-one. As he had passed through the periods of childhood and +youth, and was on the threshold of manhood, it is right and fitting to +receive at this point the testimony of Sally Bush, his stepmother: + +"Abe was a good boy, and I can say what scarcely one woman--a mother-- +can say in a thousand: Abe never gave me a cross word or look, and +never refused, in fact or appearance, to do anything I requested him. I +never gave him a cross word in all my life.... He was a dutiful son to +me always. I think he loved me truly. I had a son John who was raised +with Abe. Both were good boys; but I must say, both being now dead, +that Abe was the best boy I ever saw, or expect to see." + +These words of praise redound to the honor of the speaker equally with +that of her illustrious stepson. + +Lincoln came into the estate of manhood morally clean. He had formed no +habits that would cause years of struggle to overcome, he had committed +no deed that would bring the blush of shame to his cheek, he was as +free from vice as from crime. He was not profane, he had never tasted +liquor, he was no brawler, he never gambled, he was honest and +truthful. On the other hand, he had a genius for making friends, he was +the center of every social circle, he was a good talker and a close +reasoner. Without a thought of the great responsibilities awaiting him, +he had thus far fitted himself well by his faithfulness in such duties +as fell to him. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +SECOND JOURNEY TO NEW ORLEANS. + + +The first winter in Illinois, 1830-31, was one of those epochal seasons +which come to all communities. It is remembered by "the oldest +inhabitant" to this day for the extraordinary amount of snow that fell. +There is little doing in such a community during any winter; but in +such a winter as that there was practically nothing doing. Lincoln +always held himself ready to accept any opportunity for work, but there +was no opening that winter. The only thing he accomplished was what he +did every winter and every summer of his life: namely, he made many +friends. + +When spring opened, Denton Offutt decided to send a cargo of +merchandise down to New Orleans. Hearing that Lincoln, John Hanks, and +John Johnston were "likely boys," he employed them to take charge of +the enterprise. Their pay was to be fifty cents a day and "found," and, +if the enterprise proved successful, an additional sum of twenty +dollars. Lincoln said that none of them had ever seen so much money at +one time, and they were glad to accept the offer. + +Two events occurred during this trip which are of sufficient interest +to bear narration. + +The boat with its cargo had been set afloat in the Sangamon River at +Springfield. All went well until, at New Salem, they came to a mill dam +where, in spite of the fact that the water was high, owing to the +spring floods, the boat stuck. Lincoln rolled his trousers "five feet +more or less" up his long, lank legs, waded out to the boat, and got +the bow over the dam. Then, without waiting to bail the water out, he +bored a hole in the bottom and let it run out. He constructed a machine +which lifted and pushed the boat over the obstruction, and thus their +voyage was quickly resumed. Many years later, when he was a practising +lawyer, he whittled out a model of his invention and had it patented. +The model may to-day be seen in the patent office at Washington. The +patent brought him no fortune, but it is an interesting relic. + +This incident is of itself entirely unimportant. It is narrated here +solely because it illustrates one trait of the man--his ingenuity. He +had remarkable fertility in devising ways and means of getting out of +unexpected difficulties. When, in 1860, the Ship of State seemed like +to run aground hopelessly, it was his determination and ingenuity that +averted total wreck. As in his youth he saved the flatboat, so in his +mature years he saved the nation. + +The other event was that at New Orleans, where he saw with his own eyes +some of the horrors of slavery. He never could tolerate a moral wrong. +At a time when drinking was almost universal, he was a total abstainer. +Though born in a slave state, he had an earnest and growing repugnance +to slavery. Still, up to this time he had never seen much of its +workings. At this time he saw a slave market--the auctioning off of +human beings. + +The details of this auction were so coarse and vile that it is +impossible to defile these pages with an accurate and faithful +description. Lincoln saw it all. He saw a beautiful mulatto girl +exhibited like a race-horse, her "points" dwelt on, one by one, in +order, as the auctioneer said, that "bidders might satisfy themselves +whether the article they were offering to buy was sound or not." One of +his companions justly said slavery ran the iron into him then and +there. His soul was stirred with a righteous indignation. Turning to +the others he exclaimed with a solemn oath: "Boys, if ever I get a +chance to hit that thing [slavery] I'll hit it hard!" + +He bided his time. One-third of a century later he had the chance to +hit that thing. He redeemed his oath. He hit it hard. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +DESULTORY EMPLOYMENTS. + + +Upon the arrival of the Lincoln family in Illinois, they had the few +tools which would be considered almost necessary to every frontiersman: +namely, a common ax, broad-ax, hand-saw, whip-saw. The mauls and wedges +were of wood and were made by each workman for himself. To this stock +of tools may also be added a small supply of nails brought from +Indiana, for at that period nails were very expensive and used with the +strictest economy. By means of pegs and other devices people managed to +get along without them. + +When Abraham Lincoln went to New Salem it was (like all frontier towns) +a promising place. It grew until it had the enormous population of +about one hundred people, housed--or log-cabined--in fifteen primitive +structures. The tributary country was not very important in a +commercial sense. To this population no less than four general stores-- +that is, stores containing nearly everything that would be needed in +that community--offered their wares. + +The town flourished, at least it lived, about through the period that +Lincoln dwelt there, after which it disappeared. + +Lincoln was ready to take any work that would get him a living. A +neighbor advised him to make use of his great strength in the work of a +blacksmith. He seriously thought of learning the trade, but was, +fortunately for the country, diverted from doing so. + +The success of the expedition to New Orleans had won the admiration of +his employer, Denton Offutt, and he now offered Lincoln a clerkship in +his prospective store. The offer was accepted partly because it gave +him some time to read, and it was here that he came to know the two +great poets, Burns and Shakespeare. + +Offutt's admiration of the young clerk did him credit, but his voluble +expression of it was not judicious. He bragged that Lincoln was smart +enough to be president, and that he could run faster, jump higher, +throw farther, and "wrastle" better than any man in the country. In the +neighborhood there was a gang of rowdies, kind at heart but very rough, +known as "the Clary's Grove boys." They took the boasting of Offutt as +a direct challenge to themselves and eagerly accepted it. So they put +up a giant by the name of Jack Armstrong as their champion and arranged +a "wrastling" match. All went indifferently for a while until Lincoln +seemed to be getting the better of his antagonist, when the "boys" +crowded in and interfered while Armstrong attempted a foul. Instantly +Lincoln was furious. Putting forth all his strength he lifted Jack up +and shook him as a terrier shakes a rat. The crowd, in their turn, +became angry and set out to mob him. He backed up against a wall and in +hot indignation awaited the onset. Armstrong was the first to recover +his good sense. Exclaiming, "Boys, Abe Lincoln's the best fellow that +ever broke into the settlement," he held out his hand to Lincoln who +received it with perfect good nature. From that day these boys never +lost their admiration for him. He was their hero. From that day, too, +he became the permanent umpire, the general peacemaker of the region. +His good nature, his self-command, and his manifest fairness placed his +decisions beyond question. His popularity was established once for all +in the entire community. + +There are some, anecdotes connected with his work in the store which +are worth preserving because they illustrate traits of his character. +He once sold a half pound of tea to a customer. The next morning as he +was tidying up the store he saw, by the weights which remained in the +scales, that he had inadvertently given her four, instead of eight, +ounces. He instantly weighed out the balance and carried it to her, not +waiting for his breakfast. + +At another time when he counted up his cash at night he discovered that +he had charged a customer an excess of six and a quarter cents. He +closed up the store at once and walked to the home of the customer, and +returned the money. It was such things as these, in little matters as +well as great, that gave him the nickname of "honest Abe" which, to his +honor be it said, clung to him through life. + +One incident illustrates his chivalry. While he was waiting upon some +women, a ruffian came into the store using vulgar language. Lincoln +asked him to desist, but he became more abusive than ever. After the +women had gone, Lincoln took him out of the store, threw him on the +ground, rubbed smartweed in his face and eyes until he howled for +mercy, and then he gave him a lecture which did him more practical good +than a volume of Chesterfield's letters. + +Some time after Offutt's store had "winked out," while Lincoln was +looking for employment there came a chance to buy one half interest in +a store, the other half being owned by an idle, dissolute fellow named +Berry who ultimately drank himself into his grave. Later, another +opening came in the following way: the store of one Radford had been +wrecked by the horse-play of some ruffians, and the lot was bought by +Mr. Greene for four hundred dollars. He employed Lincoln to make an +invoice of the goods and he in turn offered Greene two hundred and +fifty dollars for the bargain and the offer was accepted. But even that +was not the last investment. The fourth and only remaining store in the +hamlet was owned by one Rutledge. This also was bought out by the firm +of Berry & Lincoln. Thus they came to have the monopoly of the +mercantile business in the hamlet of New Salem. + +Be it known that in all these transactions not a dollar in money +changed hands. Men bought with promissory notes and sold for the same +consideration. The mercantile venture was not successful. Berry was +drinking and loafing, and Lincoln, who did not work as faithfully for +himself as for another, was usually reading or telling stories. So when +a couple of strangers, Trent by name, offered to buy out the store, the +offer was accepted and more promissory notes changed hands. About the +time these last notes came due, the Trent brothers disappeared between +two days. Then Berry died. + +The outcome of the whole series of transactions was that Lincoln was +left with an assortment of promissory notes bearing the names of the +Herndons, Radford, Greene, Rutledge, Berry, and the Trents. With one +exception, which will be duly narrated, his creditors told him to pay +when he was able. He promised to put all of his earnings, in excess of +modest living expenses, into the payment of these obligations. It was +the burden of many years and he always called it "the national debt." +But he kept his word, paying both principal and the high rate of +interest until 1848, or after fifteen years, when a member of congress, +he paid the last cent. He was still "honest Abe." This narrative ranks +the backwoodsman with Sir Walter Scott and Mark Twain, though no +dinners were tendered to him and no glowing eulogies were published +from ocean to ocean. + +His only further experience in navigation was the piloting of a +Cincinnati steamboat, the _Talisman_, up the Sangamon River (during the +high water in spring time) to show that that stream was navigable. +Nothing came of it however, and Springfield was never made "the head of +navigation." + +It was in the midst of the mercantile experiences above narrated that +the Black Hawk war broke out. Black Hawk was chief of the Sac Indians, +who, with some neighboring tribes, felt themselves wronged by the +whites. Some of them accordingly put on the paint, raised the whoop, +and entered the warpath in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin. +The governor called for soldiers, and Lincoln volunteered with the +rest. + +The election of captain of the company was according to an original +method. The two candidates were placed a short distance apart and the +men were invited to line up with one or the other according to their +preference. When this had been done it was seen that Lincoln had about +three quarters of the men. This testimony to his popularity was +gratifying. After he became president of the United States he declared +that no success that ever came to him gave him so much solid +satisfaction. + +Lincoln saw almost nothing of the war. His only casualty came after its +close. He had been mustered out and his horse was stolen so that he was +compelled to walk most of the way home. After the expiration of his +term of enlistment he reenlisted as a private. As he saw no fighting +the war was to him almost literally a picnic. But in 1848, when he was +in congress, the friends of General Cass were trying to make political +capital out of his alleged military services. This brought from Lincoln +a speech which showed that he had not lost the power of satire which he +possessed while a lad in Indiana. + +"Did you know, Mr. Speaker, I am a military hero? In the days of the +Black Hawk war I fought, bled, and--came away. I was not at Stillman's +defeat, but I was about as near it as General Cass was to Hull's +surrender; and, like him, I saw the place very soon afterwards. It is +quite certain I did not break my sword, for I had none to break, but I +bent my musket pretty bad on one occasion. If General Cass went in +advance of me picking whortleberries, I guess I surpassed him in +charges on the wild onions. If he saw any live fighting Indians, it was +more than I did, but I had a good many bloody struggles with the +mosquitoes; and although I never fainted from loss of blood, I can +truly say I was often very hungry. If ever I should conclude to doff +whatever our Democratic friends may suppose there is of black-cockade +Federalism about me, and thereupon they shall take me up as their +candidate for the Presidency, I protest that they shall not make fun of +me, as they have of General Cass, by attempting to write me into a +military hero." + +In 1833 Lincoln was appointed postmaster at New Salem. To him the chief +advantage of this position was the fact that it gave him the means of +reading the papers. The principal one of these was the Louisville +_Journal_, an exceedingly able paper, for it was in charge of +George D. Prentice, one of the ablest editors this country has ever +produced. The duties of the post-office were few because the mail was +light. The occasional letters which came were usually carried around by +the postmaster in his hat. When one asked for his mail, he would +gravely remove his hat and search through the package of letters. + +This office was discontinued in a short time, but no agent of the +government came to close up the accounts. Years afterwards, when +Lincoln was in Springfield, the officer suddenly appeared and demanded +the balance due to the United States, the amount being seventeen +dollars and a few cents. A friend who was by, knowing that Lincoln was +short of funds, in order to save him from embarrassment, offered to +lend him the needful sum. "Hold on a minute and let's see how we come +out," said he. He went to his room and returned with an old rag +containing money. This he counted out, being the exact sum to a cent. +It was all in small denominations of silver and copper, just as it had +been received. In all his emergencies of need he had never touched this +small fund which he held in trust. To him it was sacred. He was still +"honest Abe." + +In the early thirties, when the state of Illinois was being settled +with great rapidity, the demand for surveyors was greater than the +supply. John Calhoun, surveyor for the government, was in urgent need +of a deputy, and Lincoln was named as a man likely to be able to fit +himself for the duties on short notice. He was appointed. He borrowed +the necessary book and went to work in dead earnest to learn the +science. Day and night he studied until his friends, noticing the +wearing effect on his health, became alarmed. But by the end of six +weeks, an almost incredibly brief period of time, he was ready for +work. + +It is certain that his outfit was of the simplest description, and +there is a tradition that at first, instead of a surveyor's chain he +used a long, straight, wild-grape vine. Those who understand the +conditions and requirements of surveying in early days say that this is +not improbable. A more important fact is that Lincoln's surveys have +never been called in question, which is something that can be said of +few frontier surveyors. Though he learned the science in so short a +time, yet here, as always, he was thorough. + +It was said in the earlier part of this chapter that to the holders of +Lincoln's notes who consented to await his ability to pay, there was +one exception. One man, when his note fell due, seized horse and +instruments, and put a temporary stop to his surveying. But a neighbor +bought these in and returned them to Lincoln. He never forgot the +kindness of this man, James Short by name, and thirty years later +appointed him Indian agent. + +At this point may be mentioned an occurrence which took place a year or +two later. It was his first romance of love, his engagement to a +beautiful girl, Ann Rutledge, and his bereavement. Her untimely death +nearly unsettled his mind. He was afflicted with melancholy to such a +degree that his friends dared not leave him alone. For years afterwards +the thought of her would shake his whole frame with emotion, and he +would sit with his face buried in his hands while the tears trickled +through. A friend once begged him to try to forget his sorrow. "I +cannot," he said; "the thought of the rain and snow on her grave fills +me with indescribable grief." + +Somehow, we know not how, the poem "Oh, why should the spirit of mortal +be proud?" was in his mind connected with Ann Rutledge. Possibly it may +have been a favorite with her. There was certainly some association, +and through his whole life he was fond of it and often repeated it. Nor +did he forget her. It was late in life that he said: "I really and +truly loved the girl and think often of her now." Then, after a pause, +"And I have loved the name of Rutledge to this day." + +This bereavement took much from Lincoln. Did it give him nothing? +Patience, earnestness, tenderness, sympathy--these are sometimes the +gifts which are sent by the messenger Sorrow. We are justified in +believing that this sad event was one of the means of ripening the +character of this great man, and that to it was due a measure of his +usefulness in his mature years. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +ENTERING POLITICS. + + +Lincoln's duties at New Salem, as clerk, storekeeper, and postmaster, +had resulted in an intimate acquaintance with the people of that +general locality. His duties as surveyor took him into the outlying +districts. His social instincts won for him friends wherever he was +known, while his sterling character gave him an influence unusual, both +in kind and in measure, for a young man of his years. He had always +possessed an interest in public, even national, questions, and his +fondness for debate and speech-making increased this interest. Moreover +he had lived month by month going from one job to another, and had not +yet found his permanent calling. + +When this combination of facts is recalled, it is a foregone conclusion +that he would sooner or later enter politics. This he did at the age of +twenty-three, in 1832. + +According to the custom of the day he announced in the spring his +candidacy. After this was done the Black Hawk war called him off the +ground and he did not get back until about ten days before the +election, so that he had almost no time to attend to the canvass. One +incident of this campaign is preserved which is interesting, partly +because it concerns the first known speech Lincoln ever made in his own +behalf, and chiefly because it was an exhibition of his character. + +He was speaking at a place called Cappsville when two men in the +audience got into a scuffle. + +Lincoln proceeded in his speech until it became evident that his friend +was getting the worst of the scuffle, when he descended from the +platform, seized the antagonist and threw him ten or twelve feet away +on the ground, and then remounted the platform and took up his speech +where he had left off without a break in the logic. + +The methods of electioneering are given by Miss Tarbell in the +following words: + +"Wherever he saw a crowd of men he joined them, and he never failed to +adapt himself to their point of view in asking for votes. If the degree +of physical strength was the test for a candidate, he was ready to lift +a weight, or wrestle with the countryside champion; if the amount of +grain a man could cut would recommend him, he seized the cradle and +showed the swath he could cut" (I. 109). + +The ten days devoted to the canvass were not enough, and he was +defeated. The vote against him was chiefly in the outlying region where +he was little known. It must have been gratifying to him that in his +own precinct, where he was so well known, he received the almost +unanimous vote of all parties. Biographers differ as to the precise +number of votes in the New Salem precinct, but by Nicolay and Hay it is +given as 277 for, and three against. Of this election Lincoln himself +(speaking in the third person) said: "This was the only time Abraham +was ever defeated on the direct vote of the people." + +His next political experience was a candidacy for the legislature 1834. +At this time, as before, he announced his own candidacy. But not as +before, he at this time made a diligent canvass of the district. When +the election came off he was not only successful but he ran ahead of +his ticket. He usually did run ahead of his ticket excepting when +running for the presidency, and then it was from the nature of the case +impossible. Though Lincoln probably did not realize it, this, his first +election, put an end forever to his drifting, desultory, frontier life. +Up to this point he was always looking for a job. From this time on he +was not passing from one thing to another. In this country politics and +law are closely allied. This two-fold pursuit, politics, for the sake +of law, and law for the sake of politics, constituted Lincoln's +vocation for the rest of his life. + +The capital of Illinois was Vandalia, a village said to be named after +the Vandals by innocent citizens who were pleased with the euphony of +the word hut did not know who the Vandals were. Outwardly the village +was crude and forbidding, and many of the Solons were attired in coon- +skin caps and other startling apparel. The fashionable clothing, the +one which came to be generally adopted as men grew to be "genteel," was +blue jeans. Even "store clothes," as they came to be called, were as +yet comparatively unknown. + +But one must not be misled by appearances in a frontier town. The +frontier life has a marvelous influence in developing brains. It is as +hard for some people in the centers of culture to believe in the +possible intelligence of the frontier, as it was in 1776 for the +cultured Englishmen to believe in the intelligence of the colonial +patriots. In that collection of men at Vandalia were more than a few +who afterwards came to have national influence and reputation. + +Apart from Lincoln himself, the most prominent member of the +legislature was his lifelong antagonist, Stephen A. Douglas. Whatever +may be said of this man's political principles, there can be no +question as to the shrewdness of his political methods. It is the +opinion of the present writer that in the entire history of our +political system no man has ever surpassed him in astuteness. Even to- +day all parties are using the methods which he either devised or +introduced. The trouble with him was that he was on the wrong side. He +did not count sufficiently on the conscience of the nation. + +Lincoln was re-elected to the legislature as often as he was willing to +be a candidate, and served continuously for eight years. One session is +much like another, and in this eight years of legislative experience +only two prominent facts will be narrated. One was the removal of the +capital to Springfield. To Lincoln was entrusted the difficult task-- +difficult, because there were almost as many applications for the honor +of being the capital city as there were towns and villages in the +central part of the state. He was entirely successful, and +thenceforward he was inseparably connected with Springfield. It was his +home as long as he lived, and there his remains were buried. + +The prophetic event of his legislative work was what is known as the +Lincoln-Stone protest. This looks to-day so harmless that it is not +easy to understand the situation in 1837. The pro-slavery feeling was +running high, an abolitionist was looked on as a monster and a menace +to national law and order. It was in that year that the Reverend Elijah +P. Lovejoy was murdered--martyred--at Alton, Ill. The legislature had +passed pro-slavery resolutions. There were many in the legislature who +did not approve of these, but in the condition of public feeling, it +was looked on as political suicide to express opposition openly. There +was no politic reason why Lincoln should protest. His protest could do +no practical good. To him it was solely a matter of conscience. Slavery +was wrong, the resolutions were wrong, and to him it became necessary +to enter the protest. He succeeded in getting but one man to join him, +and he did so because he was about to withdraw from politics and +therefore had nothing to lose. Here is the document as it was spread on +the journal: + +"Resolutions upon the subject of domestic slavery having passed both +branches of the General Assembly at its present session, the +undersigned hereby protest against the passage of the same. + +"They believe that the institution of slavery is founded on both +injustice and bad policy, but that the promulgation of abolition +doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils. + +"They believe that the Congress of the United States has no power under +the Constitution to interfere with the institution of slavery in the +different States. + +"They believe that the Congress of the United States has the power, +under the Constitution, to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, +but that the power ought not to be exercised, unless at the request of +the people of the District. + +"The difference between these opinions and those contained in the above +resolutions is their reason for entering this protest." + + (Signed) + DAN STONE, + A. LINCOLN, + + "Representatives from the county of Sangamon." + +In 1836 Lincoln made an electioneering speech which was fortunately +heard by Joshua Speed, and he has given an account of it. Be it +remembered that at that time lightning rods were rare and attracted an +unreasonable amount of attention. One Forquer, who was Lincoln's +opponent, had recently rodded his house--and every one knew it. This +man's speech consisted partly in ridiculing his opponent, his bigness, +his awkwardness, his dress, his youth. Lincoln heard him through +without interruption and then took the stand and said: + +"The gentleman commenced his speech by saying that this young man would +have to be taken down, and he was sorry the task devolved upon him. I +am not so young in years as I am in the tricks and trades of a +politician; but live long or die young, I would rather die now than, +like the gentleman, change my politics and simultaneous with the change +receive an office worth three thousand dollars a year, and then have to +erect a lightning-rod over my house to protect a guilty conscience from +an offended God." + +It need hardly be said that that speech clung to its victim like a +burr. Wherever he went, some one would be found to tell about the +guilty conscience and the lightning-rod. The house and its lightning- +rod were long a center of interest in Springfield. Visitors to the city +were taken to see the house and its lightning-rod, while the story was +told with great relish. + +Having served eight terms in the legislature, Lincoln in 1842 aspired +to congress. He was, however, defeated at the primary. His neighbors +added insult to injury by making him one of the delegates to the +convention and instructing him to vote for his successful rival, Baker. +This did not interrupt the friendship which united the two for many +years, lasting, indeed, until the death of Colonel Baker on the field +of battle. + +In 1846 he renewed his candidacy, and this time with flattering +success. His opponent was a traveling preacher, Peter Cartwright, who +was widely known in the state and had not a little persuasive power. In +this contest Cartwright's "arguments" were two: the first, that Lincoln +was an atheist, and the second that he was an aristocrat. These +"arguments" were not convincing, and Lincoln was elected by a handsome +majority, running far ahead of his ticket. This was, at the time, the +height of his ambition, yet he wrote to Mr. Speed: "Being elected to +congress, though I am grateful to our friends for having done it, has +not pleased me as much as I expected." + +His one term in congress was uneventful. Twice his humor bubbled over. +Once was when he satirized the claims that Cass was a military hero, in +the speech already mentioned. The other time was his introducing the +resolutions known as the "spot resolutions." The president had sent to +congress an inflammatory, buncombe message, in which he insisted that +the war had been begun by Mexico, "by invading our territory and +shedding the blood of our citizens on our own soil." The resolutions +requested from the president the information: + +"_First_. Whether the spot on which the blood of our citizens was shed, +as in his messages declared, was or was not within the territory of +Spain, at least after the treaty of 1819, until the Mexican +revolution." + +"_Second_. Whether that spot is or is not within the territory which +was wrested from Spain by the revolutionary government of Mexico." + +"_Third_. Whether the spot is or is not, etc., etc. It is the +recurrence of the word _spot_ which gave the name to the resolutions." + +Lincoln had now served eight years in the legislature and one term in +congress. He had a good understanding of politics. He was never a time- +server, and he had done nothing unwise. He knew how to win votes and he +knew what to do with himself when the votes were won. He held the +confidence of his constituency. His was a constantly growing +popularity. He could do everything but one,--he could not dishonor his +conscience. His belief that "slavery was founded on injustice" was the +only reason for his protest. He never hesitated to protest against +injustice. The Golden Rule had a place in practical politics. The +Sermon on the Mount was not an iridescent dream. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ENTERING THE LAW. + + +In treating of this topic, it will be necessary to recall certain +things already mentioned. One characteristic which distinguished +Lincoln all through his life was thoroughness. When he was President a +man called on him for a certain favor, and, when asked to state his +case, made a great mess of it, for he had not sufficiently prepared +himself. Then the President gave him some free advice. "What you need +is to be thorough," and he brought his hand down on the table with the +crash of a maul,--"to be thorough." It was his own method. After a +successful practise of twenty years he advised a young law student: +"Work, work, work is the main thing." He spoke out of his own +experience. + +There is one remarkable passage in his life which is worth repeating +here, since it gives an insight into the thoroughness of this man. The +following is quoted from the Rev. J. P. Gulliver, then pastor of the +Congregational church in Norwich, Conn. It was a part of a conversation +which took place shortly after the Cooper Institute speech in 1860, and +was printed in _The Independent_ for September 1, 1864. + +"Oh, yes! 'I read law,' as the phrase is; that is, I became a lawyer's +clerk in Springfield, and copied tedious documents, and picked up what +I could of law in the intervals of other work. But your question +reminds me of a bit of education I had, which I am bound in honesty to +mention." + +"In the course of my law reading I constantly came upon the word +_demonstrate_. I thought, at first, that I understood its meaning, but +soon became satisfied that I did not. I said to myself, What do I do +when I _demonstrate_ more than when I _reason_ or _prove_? How does +_demonstration_ differ from any other proof? I consulted Webster's +Dictionary. They told of 'certain proof,' 'proof beyond the possibility +of doubt'; but I could form no idea of what sort of proof that was. I +thought a great many things were proved beyond the possibility of +doubt, without recourse to any such extraordinary process of reasoning +as I understood _demonstration_ to be. I consulted all the dictionaries +and books of reference I could find, but with no better results. You +might as well have defined _blue_ to a blind man. At last I +said,--Lincoln, you never can make a lawyer if you do not understand +what _demonstrate_ means; and I left my situation in Springfield, went +home to my father's house, and stayed there till I could give any +proposition in the six books of Euclid at sight. I then found out what +_demonstrate_ means, and went back to my law studies." + +Was there ever a more thorough student? + + * * * * * + +He, like every one else, had his library within the library. Though he +read everything he could lay his hands on, yet there are five books to +be mentioned specifically, because from childhood they furnished his +intellectual nutriment. These were the Bible, Aesop's Fables and +Pilgrim's Progress, Burns, and Shakespeare. These were his mental +food. They entered into the very substance of his thought and +imagination. "Fear the man of one book." Lincoln had five books, and +so thoroughly were they his that he was truly formidable. These did +not exclude other reading and study; they made it a thousand times +more fruitful. And yet people ask, where did Lincoln get the majesty, +the classic simplicity and elegance of his Gettysburg address? The +answer is here. + +While Lincoln was postmaster, he was a diligent reader of the +newspapers, of which the chief was the Louisville _Journal_. It was +edited by George D. Prentice, who was, and is, second to no other +editor in the entire history of American journalism. The ability of +this man to express his thoughts with such power was a mystery to this +reader. The editor's mastery of language aroused in Lincoln a burning +desire to obtain command of the English tongue. He applied for counsel +to a friend, a schoolmaster by the name of Mentor Graham. Graham +recommended him to study English grammar, and told him that a copy of +one was owned by a man who lived six miles away. Lincoln walked to the +house, borrowed the book--"collared" it, as he expressed it--and at the +end of six days had mastered it with his own thoroughness. + +The first law book he read was "The Statutes of Indiana." This was when +he was a lad living in that state, and he read the book, not for any +special desire to know the subject but, because he was in the habit of +reading all that came into his hands. + +His next book was Blackstone's "Commentaries." The accidental way +in which he gained possession of, and read, this book is of sufficient +interest to narrate in his own words. It was shortly after he got into +the grocery business: + +"One day a man who was migrating to the West drove up in front of my +store with a wagon which contained his family and household plunder. He +asked me if I would buy an old barrel for which he had no room in his +wagon, and which he said contained nothing of special value. I did not +want it, but to oblige him I bought it, and paid him, I think, half a +dollar for it. Without further examination I put it away in the store +and forgot all about it. Some time after, in overhauling things, I came +upon the barrel, and emptying it upon the floor to see what it +contained, I found at the bottom of the rubbish a complete edition of +Blackstone's "Commentaries." I began to read those famous works, and I +had plenty of time; for during the long summer days, when the farmers +were busy with their crops, my customers were few and far between. The +more I read, the more intensely interested I became. Never in my whole +life was my mind so thoroughly absorbed. I read until I devoured them." + +All this may have been fatal to the prosperity of the leading store in +that hamlet of fifteen log cabins, but it led to something better than +the success of the most magnificent store in New York. + +It was in 1834 that Lincoln was first elected to the legislature. +During the canvass he was brought into the company of Major John T. +Stuart, whom he had met in the Black Hawk war. Stuart advised him to +enter definitely on the study of the law. He decided to do this. This +proved to be quite the most important thing that occurred to him that +year. + +Stuart further offered to lend him the necessary books. This offer was +gladly accepted, and having no means of travel, he walked to and from +Springfield, a distance of twenty miles, to get the books and return +them. During this tramp he was able to read forty pages of the volume. +Thus he read, and we may venture to say mastered, Chitty, Greenleaf, +and Story, in addition to Blackstone before mentioned. It was the best +foundation that could have been laid for a great lawyer. + +During this reading he was getting his bread and butter by the other +employments--store-keeping, postmaster, and surveyor. These may not +have interfered greatly with the study of the law, but the study of the +law certainly interfered with the first of these. He read much out of +doors. He would lie on his back in the shade of some tree, with his +feet resting part way up the tree, then follow the shadow around from +west to east, grinding around with the progress of the sun. When in the +house his attitude was to cock his feet high in a chair, thus "sitting +on his shoulder blades," to use a common expression. When in his office +he would throw himself on the lounge with his feet high on a chair. +These attitudes, bringing his feet up to, and sometimes above, the +level with his head, have been characteristic of American students time +out of mind. He never outgrew the tendency. Even when President and +sitting with his Cabinet, his feet always found some lofty perch. + +While he was not reading, he was pondering or memorizing. Thus he took +long walks, talking to himself incessantly, until some of his neighbors +thought he was going crazy. + +He was admitted to the bar in 1837. At that date there was no lawyer +nearer to New Salem than those in Springfield, which was twenty miles +off. Consequently he had a little amateur practise from his neighbors. +He was sometimes appealed to for the purpose of drawing up agreements +and other papers. He had no office, and if he chanced to be out of +doors would call for writing-materials, a slab of wood for a desk, draw +up the paper, and then resume his study. + +This same year he became a partner of Stuart, in Springfield. The +latter wanted to get into politics, and it was essential that he +should, have a trustworthy partner. So the firm of Stuart and Lincoln +was established in 1837 and lived for four years. In 1841 he entered +into partnership with Logan, and this also lasted about four years. In +the year 1845 was established the firm of Lincoln and Herndon, which +continued until the assassination of the president in 1865. + +After a brief period Lincoln himself got deeper into politics, this +period culminating with the term in congress. In this he necessarily +neglected the law more or less. But late in 1848, or early in 1849, he +returned to the law with renewed vigor and zeal, giving it his +undivided attention for six years. It was the repeal of the Missouri +Compromise that called him back into the arena of politics. This will +be narrated later. + +His partnership with Stuart of course necessitated his removal to +Springfield. This event, small in itself, gives such a pathetic picture +of his poverty, and his cheerful endurance, that it is well worth +narrating. It is preserved by Joshua F. Speed, who became, and through +life continued, Lincoln's fast friend. The story is given in Speed's +words: + +"He had ridden into town on a borrowed horse, with no earthly property +save a pair of saddlebags containing a few clothes. I was a merchant at +Springfield, and kept a large country store, embracing dry-goods, +groceries, hardware, books, medicines, bed-clothes, mattresses--in +fact, everything that the country needed. Lincoln said he wanted to buy +the furniture for a single bed. The mattress, blankets, sheets, +coverlet, and pillow, according to the figures made by me, would cost +seventeen dollars. He said that perhaps was cheap enough; but small as +the price was, he was unable to pay it. [Note that at this time he was +carrying the debts of the merchants of New Salem. THE AUTHOR.] But if I +would credit him until Christmas, and his experiment as a lawyer was a +success, he would pay then; saying in the saddest tone, 'If I fail in +this, I do not know that I ever can pay you.' As I looked up at him I +thought then, and I think now, that I never saw a sadder face. + +I said to him: 'You seem to be so much pained at contracting so small a +debt, I think I can suggest a plan by which you can avoid the debt, and +at the same time attain your end. I have a large room with a double bed +up-stairs, which you are very welcome to share with me.' + +'Where is your room?' said he. + +'Up-stairs,' said I, pointing to a pair of winding-stairs, which led +from the store to my room. + +He took his saddle-bags on his arm, went upstairs, set them on the +floor, and came down with the most changed expression of countenance. +Beaming with pleasure, he exclaimed: + +'Well, Speed, I am moved!'" + +Thus he became established in the profession of the law and a resident +of Springfield. It was not a large city, but it was a very active one, +though small, and was the capital of the state. Lincoln was there +favorably known, because he had been chiefly instrumental in getting +the capital moved to that place from Vandalia. His first law partner +was very helpful to him, and he had abundant reason all his life to be +thankful also for the friendship of Joshua F. Speed. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +ON THE CIRCUIT. + + +The requirements of the lawyer in that part of the country, at that +date, were different from the requirements in any part of the world at +the present date. The Hon. Joseph H. Choate, in a lecture at Edinburgh, +November 13, 1900, said: "My professional brethren will ask me how +could this rough backwoodsman ... become a learned and accomplished +lawyer? Well, he never did. He never would have earned his salt as a +writer for the 'Signet,' nor have won a place as advocate in the Court +of Session, where the teachings of the profession has reached its +highest perfection, and centuries of learning and precedent are +involved in the equipment of a lawyer." + +The only means we have of knowing what Lincoln could do is knowing what +he did. If his biography teaches anything, it teaches that he never +failed to meet the exigencies of any occasion. The study of his life +will reveal this fact with increasing emphasis. Many a professional +brother looked on Lincoln as "this rough backwoodsman," unable to +"become a learned and accomplished lawyer," to his own utter +discomfiture. We are justified in saying that if he had undertaken the +duties of the Scots writer to the "Signet," he would have done them +well, as he did every other duty. + +When Douglas was congratulated in advance upon the ease with which he +would vanquish his opponent, he replied that he would rather meet any +man in the country in that joint debate than Abraham Lincoln. At +another time he said: "Lincoln is one of those peculiar men who perform +with admirable skill whatever they undertake." + +Lincoln's professional duties were in the Eighth Judicial Circuit, +which then comprised fifteen counties. Some of these counties have +since been subdivided, so that the territory of that district was +larger than would be indicated by the same number of counties to-day. +It was one hundred and fifty miles long and nearly as wide. There were +few railroads, and the best county roads were extremely poor, so that +traveling was burdensome. The court and the lawyers traveled from one +county seat to another, sometimes horseback, sometimes in buggies or +wagons, and sometimes afoot. The duties of one county being concluded, +the entire company would move on to another county. Thus only a small +part of his duties were transacted at Springfield. + +These periodic sessions of the court were of general interest to the +communities in which they were held. There were no theaters, no lyceums +for music or lectures, and few other assemblages of any sort, excepting +the churches and the agricultural fairs. It thus came about that the +court was the center of a greater interest than would now be possible. +It was the rostrum of the lecturer and the arena of the debate. Nor +were comedies lacking in its multifarious proceedings. The attorney was +therefore sure of a general audience, as well as of court and jury. + +This peripatetic practise threw the lawyers much into one another's +company. There were long evenings to be spent in the country taverns, +when sociability was above par. Lincoln's inexhaustible fund of wit and +humor, and his matchless array of stories, made him the life of the +company. In this number there were many lawyers of real ability. The +judge was David Davis, whose culture and legal ability will hardly be +questioned by any one. Judge Davis was almost ludicrously fond of +Lincoln. He kept him in his room evenings and was very impatient if +Lincoln's talk was interrupted. + +There were two qualities in Lincoln's anecdotes: their resistless fun, +and their appropriateness. When Lincoln came into court it was usually +with a new story, and as he would tell it in low tones the lawyers +would crowd about him to the neglect of everything else, and to the +great annoyance of the judge. He once called out: "Mr. Lincoln, we +can't hold two courts, one up here and one down there. Either yours or +mine must adjourn." + +Once Lincoln came into the room late, leaned over the clerk's desk and +whispered to him a little story. Thereupon the clerk threw back his +head and laughed aloud. The judge thundered out, "Mr. Clerk, you may +fine yourself five dollars for contempt of court." The clerk quietly +replied, "I don't care; the story's worth it." After adjournment the +judge asked him, "What was that story of Lincoln's?" When it was +repeated the judge threw back his head and laughed, and added, "You may +remit the fine." + +A stranger, hearing the fame of Lincoln's stories, attended court and +afterward said, "The stories are good, but I can't see that they help +the case any." An admiring neighbor replied with more zeal and justice +than elegance, "Don't you apply that unction to your soul." The +neighbor was right. Lincoln had not in vain spent the days and nights +of his boyhood and youth with Aesop. His stories were as luminous of +the point under consideration as were the stories which explained that +"this fable teaches." + +Judge Davis wrote of him that "he was able to claim the attention of +court and jury when the cause was most uninteresting by the +_appropriateness_ of his anecdotes." Those who have tried to claim +Judge Davis' attention when he did not want to give it, will realize +the greatness of praise implied in this concession. + +To this may be joined the remark of Leonard Swett, that "any man who +took Lincoln for a simple-minded man would wake up with his back in the +ditch." + +As Lincoln would never adopt the methods of his partner Herndon, the +latter could not quite grasp the essential greatness of the former, and +he uses some patronizing words. We may again quote Judge Davis: "In all +the elements that constitute a great lawyer he had few equals ... He +seized the strong points of a cause and presented them with clearness +and great compactness.... Generalities and platitudes had no charms for +him. An unfailing vein of humor never deserted him." Then follows the +passage already quoted. + +Lincoln never could bring himself to charge large fees. Lamon was his +limited partner (with the office in Danville and Bloomington) for many +years. He tells one instance which will illustrate this trait. There +was a case of importance for which the fee was fixed in advance at +$250, a very moderate fee under the circumstances. It so happened that +the case was not contested and the business required only a short time. +The client cheerfully paid the fee as agreed. As he went away Lincoln +asked his partner how much he charged. He replied, "$250." "Lamon," he +said, "that is all wrong. Give him back at least half of it." Lamon +protested that it was according to agreement and the client was +satisfied. "That may be, but _I_ am not satisfied. This is positively +wrong. Go, call him back and return him half the money at least, or I +will not receive one cent of it for my share." + +One may imagine the amazement of the client to receive back one half of +the fee. But the matter did not end here. The affair had attracted the +attention of those near at hand, including the court. Judge Davis was +of enormous physical size, and his voice was like a fog horn. The +author writes this from vivid remembrance. Once in early youth he +quaked in his shoes at the blast of that voice. The conclusion of the +incident is given in the words of Lamon: "The judge never could +whisper, but in this case he probably did his best. At all events, in +attempting to whisper to Mr. Lincoln he trumpeted his rebuke in about +these words, and in rasping tones that could be heard all over the +court room: 'Lincoln, I have been watching you and Lamon. You are +impoverishing this bar by your picayune charges of fees, and the +lawyers have reason to complain of you. You are now almost as poor as +Lazarus, and if you don't make people pay you more for your services, +you will die as poor as Job's turkey." + +The event justified the Judge's remarks. It was not unusual for +Lincoln's name, as attorney, to be found on one side or the other of +every case on the docket. In other words, his practise was as large as +that of any lawyer on the circuit, and he had his full proportion of +important cases. But he never accumulated a large sum of money. +Probably no other successful lawyer in that region had a smaller +income. This is a convincing commentary on his charges. + +The largest fee he ever received was from the Illinois Central +Railroad. The case was tried at Bloomington before the supreme court +and was won for the road. Lincoln went to Chicago and presented a bill +for $2,000 at the offices of the company. "Why," said the official, in +real or feigned astonishment, "this is as much as a first-class lawyer +would have charged." + +Lincoln was greatly depressed by this rebuff, and would have let the +matter drop then and there had not his neighbors heard of it. They +persuaded him to raise the fee to $5,000, and six leading lawyers of +the state testified that that sum was a moderate charge. Lincoln sued +the road for the larger amount and won his case. It is a matter of +interest that at that time the vice-president of the railroad was +George B. McClellan. + +It was Lincoln's habit always to go to the heart of a case. Quibbles +did not interest him. The non-professional public who have attended +jury trials will not easily forget the monotonous "I object" of the +attorneys, usually followed by, "I except to the ruling of the court," +and "The clerk will note the exception." Lincoln generally met the +objections by the placid remark, "I reckon that's so." Thus he gave up +point after point, apparently giving away his case over and over again, +until his associates were brought to the verge of nervous prostration. +After giving away six points he would fasten upon the seventh, which +was the pivotal point of the case, and would handle that so as to win. +This ought to have been satisfactory, but neither Herndon nor his other +associates ever got used to it. + +Lincoln put his conscience into his legal practise to a greater degree +than is common with lawyers. He held (with Blackstone) that law is for +the purpose of securing justice, and he would never make use of any +technicality for the purpose of thwarting justice. When others +maneuvered, he met them by a straightforward dealing. He never did or +could take an unfair advantage. On the wrong side of a case, he was +worse than useless to his client, and he knew it. He would never take +such a case if it could be avoided. His partner Herndon tells how he +gave some free and unprofessional advice to one who offered him such a +case: "Yes, there is no reasonable doubt but that I can gain your case +for you. I can set a whole neighborhood at loggerheads; I can distress +a widowed mother and her six fatherless children, and thereby get for +you six hundred dollars, which rightfully belongs, it appears to me, as +much to them as it does to you. I shall not take your case, but will +give a little advice for nothing. You seem a sprightly, energetic man. +I would advise you to try your hand at making six hundred dollars in +some other way." + +Sometimes, after having entered on a case, he discovered that his +clients had imposed on him. In his indignation he has even left the +court room. Once when the Judge sent for him he refused to return. +"Tell the judge my hands are dirty; I came over to wash them." + +The most important law-suit in which Lincoln was ever engaged was the +McCormick case. McCormick instituted a suit against one Manny for +alleged infringement of patents. McCormick virtually claimed the +monopoly of the manufacture of harvesting machines. The suit involved a +large sum of money besides incidental considerations. The leading +attorney for the plaintiff was the Hon. Reverdy Johnson, one of the +foremost, if not the foremost, at the bar in the entire country. It was +the opportunity of crossing swords with Johnson that, more than +anything else, stirred Lincoln's interest. With him, for the defense, +was associated Edwin M. Stanton. + +The case was to be tried at Cincinnati, and all parties were on hand. +Lincoln gave an extraordinary amount of care in the preparation of the +case. But some little things occurred. Through an open doorway he heard +Stanton make some scornful remarks of him,--ridiculing his awkward +appearance and his dress, particularly, for Lincoln wore a linen +duster, soiled and disfigured by perspiration. When the time came for +apportioning the speeches, Lincoln, although he was thoroughly prepared +and by the customs of the bar it was his right to make the argument, +courteously offered the opportunity to Stanton, who promptly accepted. +It was a great disappointment to Lincoln to miss thus the opportunity +of arguing with Reverdy Johnson. Neither did Stanton know what he +missed. Nor did Johnson know what a narrow escape he had. + +This chapter will not be complete without making mention of Lincoln's +professional kindness to the poor and unfortunate. Those who could find +no other friends were sure to find a friend in Lincoln. He would freely +give his services to the needy. At that time the negro found it hard to +get help, friendship, justice. Though Illinois was a free state, public +opinion was such that any one who undertook the cause of the negro was +sure to alienate friends. Lincoln was one of the few who never +hesitated at the sacrifice. + +A young man, a free negro living in the neighborhood, had been employed +as cabin boy on a Mississippi river steamboat. Arriving at New Orleans, +he went ashore without a suspicion of what the law was in a slave +state. He was arrested for being on the street after dark without a +pass, thrown into jail, and fined. Having no money to pay the fine, he +was liable to be sold into slavery, when his mother, in her distress, +came to Lincoln for help. Lincoln sent to the governor to see if there +was no way by which this free negro could be brought home. The governor +was sorry that there was not. In a towering wrath Lincoln exclaimed: +"I'll have that negro back soon, or I'll have a twenty years' +excitement in Illinois until the governor does have a legal and +constitutional right to do something in the premises!" + +He had both. He and his partner sent to New Orleans the necessary money +by which the boy was released and restored to his mother. The twenty +years' excitement came later. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +SOCIAL LIFE AND MARRIAGE. + + +Springfield was largely settled by people born and educated in older +and more cultured communities. From the first it developed a social +life of its own. In the years on both sides of 1840, it maintained as +large an amount of such social activity as was possible in a new +frontier city. In this life Lincoln was an important factor. The public +interest in the man made this necessary, even apart from considerations +of his own personal preferences. + +We have seen that he was extremely sociable in his tastes. He was fond +of being among men. Wherever men were gathered, there Lincoln went, and +wherever Lincoln was, men gathered about him. In the intervals of work, +at nooning or in the evening, he was always the center of an interested +group, and his unparalleled flow of humor, wit, and good nature was the +life of the assemblage. This had always been so from childhood. It had +become a second nature with him to entertain the crowd, while the crowd +came to look upon him as their predestined entertainer. + +But Lincoln had been brought up in the open air, on the very frontier, +"far from the madding crowd." His social experience and his tastes were +with men, not ladies. He was not used to the luxuries of civilization, +--elegant carpets, fine china, fashionable dress. Though he had great +dignity and nobility of soul, he did not have that polish of manners +which counts for so much with ladies. His ungainly physique accented +this lack. He was not, he never could be, what is known as a ladies' +man. While his friendly nature responded to all sociability, he was not +fond of ladies' society. He was naturally in great demand, and he +attended all the social gatherings. But when there, he drifted away +from the company of the ladies into that of the men. Nor were the men +loath to gather about him. + +The ladies liked him, but one of them doubtless spoke the truth, when +she declared that their grievance against him was that he monopolized +the attention of the men. This was natural to him, it had been +confirmed by years of habit, and by the time he was thirty years old it +was practically impossible for him to adopt the ways acceptable to +ladies. + +Into this society in Springfield came a pretty, bright, educated, +cultured young lady--Miss Mary Todd. She was of an aristocratic family +from Kentucky. It is said that she could trace the family genealogy +back many centuries. She may have been haughty--she was said to be so-- +and she may have been exacting in those little matters which make up so +large a measure of what is known as polish of manners. These would be +precisely the demands which Lincoln was unable to meet. + +It was a foregone conclusion that the two would be thrown much into +each other's society, and that the neighbors would connect them in +thought. For Lincoln was the most popular man and Miss Todd was the +most popular young lady in Springfield. It was simply another case of +the attraction of opposites, for in everything except their popularity +they were as unlike as they could be. + +It is proverbial that the course of true love never did run smooth. If +there were ripples and eddies and counter-currents in the course of +this love, it was in nowise exceptional. It is only the prominence of +the parties that has brought this into the strong light of publicity. + +Much has been written that is both unwarranted and unkind. Even the +most confidential friends do not realize the limitations of their +knowledge on a matter so intimate. When they say they know all about +it, they are grievously mistaken. No love story (outside of novels) is +ever told truly. In the first place, the parties themselves do not tell +all. They may say they do, but there are some things which neither man +nor woman ever tells. In the heart of love there is a Holy of Holies +into which the most intimate friend is not allowed to look. + +And in the second place, even the lovers do not see things alike. If +both really understood, there could be no _mis_understanding. It +is, then, presumptive for even the confidants, and much more for the +general public, to claim to know too much of a lovers' quarrel. + +We would gladly pass over this event were it not that certain salient +facts are a matter of public record. It is certain that Lincoln became +engaged to Miss Todd in the year 1840. It is certain that he broke the +engagement on January 1, 1841. It is certain that about that time he +had a horrible attack of melancholy. And we have seen that he never +outgrew his attachment to his early love, Ann Rutledge. Whether this +melancholy was the cause of his breaking the engagement, or was caused +by it, we cannot say. Whether the memory of Ann Rutledge had any +influence in the matter, we do not know. + +Whatever the mental cause of this melancholy, there is no doubt that it +had also a physical cause. This was his most violent attack, but by no +means his only one. It recurred, with greater or less severity, all +through his life. He had been born and had grown up in a climate noted +for its malaria. Excepting for the facts that he spent much time in the +open air, had abundant exercise, and ate plain food, the laws of +sanitation were not thought of. It would be strange if his system were +not full of malaria, or, what is only slightly less abominable, of the +medicines used to counteract it. In either case he would be subject to +depression. An unfortunate occurrence in a love affair, coming at the +time of an attack of melancholy, would doubtless bear abundant and +bitter fruit. + +Certain it is that the engagement was broken, not a little to the +chagrin of both parties. But a kind neighbor, Mrs. Francis, whose +husband was editor of the Springfield _Journal_, interposed with her +friendly offices. She invited the two lovers to her house, and they +went, each without the knowledge that the other was to be there. Their +social converse was thus renewed, and, in the company of a third +person, Miss Jayne, they continued to meet at frequent intervals. Among +the admirers of Miss Todd were two young men who came to be widely +known. These were Douglas and Shields. With the latter only we are +concerned now. He was a red-headed little Irishman, with a peppery +temper, the whole being set off with an inordinate vanity. He must have +had genuine ability in some directions, or else he was wonderfully +lucky, for he was an officeholder of some kind or other, in different +states of the Union, nearly all his life. It is doubtful if another +person can be named who held as many different offices as he; certainly +no other man has ever represented so many different states in the +senate. + +At this particular time, Shields was auditor of the state of Illinois. +The finances of the state were in a shocking condition. The state banks +were not a success, and the currency was nearly worthless. At the same +time, it was the only money current, and it was the money of the state. +These being the circumstances, the governor, auditor, and treasurer, +issued a circular forbidding the payment of state taxes in this paper +currency of the state. This was clearly an outrage upon the taxpayers. + +Against this Lincoln protested. Not by serious argument, but by the +merciless satire which he knew so well how to use upon occasion. Under +the pseudonym of Aunt Rebecca, he wrote a letter to the Springfield +_Journal_. The letter was written in the style of Josh Billings, +and purported to come from a widow residing in the "Lost Townships." It +was an attempt to laugh down the unjust measure, and in pursuance of +this the writer plied Shields with ridicule. The town was convulsed +with laughter, and Shields with fury. The wrath of the little Irishman +was funnier than the letter, and the joy of the neighbors increased. + +Miss Todd and Miss Jayne entered into the spirit of the fun. Then they +wrote a letter in which Aunt Rebecca proposed to soothe his injured +feelings by accepting Shields as her husband. This was followed by a +doggerel rhyme celebrating the event. + +Shields' fury knew no bounds. He went to Francis, the editor of the +_Journal_, and demanded the name of the author of the letters. +Francis consulted with Lincoln. The latter was unwilling to permit any +odium to fall on the ladies, and sent word to Shields that he would +hold himself responsible for those letters. + +If Shields had not been precisely the kind of a man he was, the matter +might have been explained and settled amicably. But no, he must have +blood. He sent an insulting and peremptory challenge. When Lincoln +became convinced that a duel was necessary, he exercised his right, as +the challenged party, of choosing the weapons. He selected "broadswords +of the largest size." This was another triumph of humor. The midget of +an Irishman was to be pitted against the giant of six feet four inches, +who possessed the strength of a Hercules, and the weapons were-- +"broadswords of the largest size." + +The bloody party repaired to Alton, and thence to an island or sand-bar +on the Missouri side of the river. There a reconciliation was effected, +honor was satisfied all around, and they returned home in good spirits. +For some reason Lincoln was always ashamed of this farce. Why, we do +not know. It may have been because he was drawn into a situation in +which there was a possibility of his shedding human blood. And he who +was too tender-hearted to shoot wild game could not make light of that +situation. + +The engagement between Lincoln and Miss Todd was renewed, and they were +quietly married at the home of the bride's sister, Mrs. Edwards, +November 4th, 1842. Lincoln made a loyal, true, indulgent husband. Mrs. +Lincoln made a home that was hospitable, cultured, unostentatious. They +lived together until the death of the husband, more than twenty-two +years later. + +They had four children, all boys. Only the eldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, +grew to manhood. He has had a career which is, to say the least, +creditable to the name he bears. For a few months at the close of the +war he was on the staff of General Grant. He was Secretary of War +under Garfield and retained the office through the administration of +Arthur. Under President Harrison, from 1889 to 1893, he was minister to +England. He is a lawyer by profession, residing in Chicago--the city +that loved his father--and at the present writing is president of the +Pullman Company. In every position he has occupied he has exercised a +notably wide influence. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE ENCROACHMENTS OF SLAVERY. + + +It is necessary at this point to take a glance at the history of +American slavery, in order to understand Lincoln's career. In 1619, or +one year before the landing of the _Mayflower_ at Plymouth, a Dutch +man-of-war landed a cargo of slaves at Jamestown, Virginia. For nearly +two centuries after this the slave trade was more or less brisk. The +slaves were distributed, though unevenly, over all the colonies. But as +time passed, differences appeared. In the North, the public conscience +was awake to the injustice of the institution, while in the South it +was not. There were many exceptions in both localities, but the public +sentiment, the general feeling, was as stated. + +There was another difference. Slave labor was more valuable in the +South than in the North. This was due to the climate. The negro does +not take kindly to the rigors of the North, while in the South the +heat, which is excessive to the white man, is precisely suited to the +negro. In the course of years, therefore, there came to be +comparatively few negroes in the North while large numbers were found +in the South. + +It is generally conceded that the founders of our government looked +forward to a gradual extinction of slavery. In the first draft of the +Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson inserted some scathing +remarks about the King's part in the slave traffic. But it was felt +that such remarks would come with ill grace from colonies that abetted +slavery, and the passage was stricken out. It was, however, provided +that the slave trade should cease in the year 1808. + +The Ordinance of 1787 recognized the difference in sentiment of the two +portions of the country on the subject, and was enacted as a +compromise. Like several subsequent enactments, it was supposed to set +the agitation of the subject for ever at rest. This ordinance provided +that slavery should be excluded from the northwestern territory. At +that time the Mississippi river formed the western boundary of the +country, and the territory thus ordained to be free was that out of +which the five states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and +Wisconsin were subsequently formed. It was not then dreamed that the +future acquisition of new territory, or the sudden appreciation of the +value of the slave, would reopen the question. + +But three facts changed the entire complexion of the subject. It was +discovered that the soil and climate of the South were remarkably well +adapted to the growth of cotton. Then the development of steam power +and machinery in the manufacture of cotton goods created a sudden and +enormous demand from Liverpool, Manchester, and other cities in England +for American cotton. There remained an obstacle to the supply of this +demand. This was the difficulty of separating the cotton fiber from the +seed. A negro woman was able to clean about a pound of cotton in a day. + +In 1793, Eli Whitney, a graduate of Yale college, was teaching school +in Georgia, and boarding with the widow of General Greene. Certain +planters were complaining, in the hearing of Mrs. Greene, of the +difficulty of cleaning cotton, when she declared that the Yankee school +teacher could solve the difficulty, that he was so ingenious that there +was almost nothing he could not do. + +The matter was brought to Whitney's attention, who protested that he +knew nothing of the subject,--he hardly knew a cotton seed when he saw +it. Nevertheless he set to work and invented the cotton gin. By this +machine one man, turning a crank; could clean fifty pounds of cotton a +day. The effect of this was to put a new face upon the cotton trade. It +enabled the planters to meet the rapidly-increasing demand for raw +cotton. + +It had an equal influence on the slavery question. Only negroes can +work successfully in the cotton fields. There was a phenomenal increase +in the demand for negro labor. And this was fifteen years before the +time limit of the slave trade in 1808. + +There soon came to be a decided jealousy between the slave-holding and +the non-slave-holding portion of the country which continually +increased. At the time of the Ordinance of 1787 the two parts of the +country, were about evenly balanced. Each section kept a vigilant watch +of the other section so as to avoid losing the balance of power. + +As the country enlarged, this balance was preserved by the admission of +free and slave states in turn. Vermont was paired with Kentucky; +Tennessee with Ohio; Louisiana with Indiana; and Mississippi with +Illinois. In 1836, Michigan and Arkansas were admitted on the same day. +on the same day. This indicates that the jealousy of the two parties +was growing more acute. + +Then Texas was admitted December 29, 1845, and was not balanced until +the admission of Wisconsin in 1848. + +We must now go back to the admission of Missouri. It came into the +Union as a slave state, but by what is known as the Missouri Compromise +of 1820. By this compromise the concession of slavery to Missouri was +offset by the enactment that all slavery should be forever excluded +from the territory west of that state and north of its southern +boundary: namely, the parallel of 36 degrees 30'. + +The mutterings of the conflict were heard at the time of the admission +of Texas in 1848. It was again "set forever at rest" by what was known +as the Wilmot proviso. A year or two later, the discovery of gold in +California and the acquisition of New Mexico reopened the whole +question. Henry Clay of Kentucky, a slaveholder but opposed to the +extension of slavery, was then a member of the House. By a series of +compromises--he had a brilliant talent for compromise--he once more set +the whole question "forever at rest." This rest lasted for four years. +But in 1852 Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe published "Uncle Tom's Cabin," +an event of national importance. To a degree unprecedented, it roused +the conscience of those who were opposed to slavery and inflamed the +wrath of those who favored it. + +The sudden and rude awakening from this rest came in 1854 with the +repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The overland travel to California +after the year 1848 had given to the intervening territory an +importance far in excess of its actual population. It early became +desirable to admit into the Union both Kansas and Nebraska; and the +question arose whether slavery should be excluded according to the act +of 1820. The slave-holding residents of Missouri were hostile to the +exclusion of slavery. It was situated just beyond their border, and +there is no wonder that they were unable to see any good reason why +they could not settle there with their slaves. They had the sympathy of +the slave states generally. + +On the other hand, the free states were bitterly opposed to extending +the slave power. To them it seemed that the slaveholders were planning +for a vast empire of slavery, an empire which should include not only +the southern half of the United States, but also Mexico, Central +America, and possibly a portion of South America. The advocates of +slavery certainly presented and maintained an imperious and despotic +temper. Feeling was running high on both sides in the early fifties. + +A leading cyclopedia concludes a brief article on the Missouri +Compromise with the parenthetical reference,--"see DOUGLAS, STEPHEN A." +The implication contained in these words is fully warranted. The chief +event in the life of Douglas is the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. +And the history of the Missouri Compromise cannot be written without +giving large place to the activity of Douglas. His previous utterances +had not led observers, however watchful, to suspect this. In the +compromise of 1850 he had spoken with great emphasis: "In taking leave +of this subject, I wish to state that I have determined never to make +another speech upon the slavery question.... We claim that the +compromise is a final settlement.... Those who preach peace should not +be the first to commence and reopen an old quarrel." + +This was the man who four years later recommenced and reopened this old +quarrel of slavery. In the meantime something had occurred. In 1852 he +had been the unsuccessful candidate for the democratic nomination for +President, and he had aspirations for the nomination in 1856, when a +nomination would have been equivalent to an election. It thus seemed +politic for him to make some decided move which would secure to him the +loyalty of the slave power. + +Upon Stephen A. Douglas rested the responsibility of the repeal of the +Missouri Compromise. He was at that time chairman of the Senate +committee on Territories. His personal friend and political manager for +Illinois, William A. Richardson, held a similar position in the House. +The control of the legislation upon this subject was then absolutely in +the hands of Senator Douglas, the man who had "determined never to make +another speech on the slavery question." + +It is not within the scope of this book to go into the details of this +iniquitous plot, for plot it was. But the following passage may be +quoted as exhibiting the method of the bill: "It being the true intent +and meaning of this act not to legislate slavery into any territory or +state, nor to exclude it therefrom, but to leave the people thereof +perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in +their own way, subject only to the Constitution." In other words, no +state or territory could be surely safe from the intrusion of slavery. + +Lincoln had been practising law and had been out of politics for six +years. It was this bill which called him back to politics, "like a +fire-bell in the night." + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE AWAKENING OF THE LION. + + +The repeal of the Missouri Compromise caused great excitement +throughout the land. The conscience of the anti-slavery portion of the +community was shocked, as was also that of the large numbers of people +who, though not opposed to slavery in itself, were opposed to its +extension. It showed that this institution had a deadening effect upon +the moral nature of the people who cherished it. There was no +compromise so generous that it would satisfy their greed, there were no +promises so solemn that they could be depended on to keep them. They +were not content with maintaining slavery in their own territory. It +was not enough that they should be allowed to take slaves into a +territory consecrated to freedom, nor that all the powers of the law +were devoted to recapturing a runaway slave and returning him to +renewed horrors. They wanted all the territories which they had +promised to let alone. It was a logical, and an altogether probable +conclusion that they only waited for the opportunity to invade the +northern states and turn them from free-soil into slave territory. + +The indignation over this outrage not only flamed from thousands of +pulpits, but newspapers and political clubs of all kinds took up the +subject on one side or the other. Every moralist became a politician, +and every politician discussed the moral bearings of his tenets. + +In no locality was this excitement more intense than in Illinois. There +were special reasons for this. It is a very long state, stretching +nearly five hundred miles from north to south. Now, it is a general law +among Americans that migration follows very nearly the parallels of +latitude from East to West. For this reason the northern portion of the +state was mostly settled by northern people whose sympathies were +against slavery; while the southern portion of the state was mostly +settled by southern people, whose sympathies were in favor of slavery. +The state was nearly evenly divided, and the presence of these two +parties kept up a continual friction and intensified the feeling on +both sides. + +To this general condition must be added the fact that Illinois was the +home of Douglas, who was personally and almost solely responsible for +the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. In that state he had risen from +obscurity to be the most conspicuous man in the United States. His +party had a decided majority in the state, and over it he had absolute +control. He was their idol. Imperious by nature, shrewd, unscrupulous, +a debater of marvelous skill, a master of assemblies, a man who knew +not the meaning of the word fail--this was Douglas. But his home was in +Chicago, a city in which the anti-slavery sentiment predominated. + +When Douglas returned to his state, _his_ in more than one sense, it +was not as a conquering hero. He did not return direct from Washington, +but delayed, visiting various portions of the country. Possibly this +was due to the urgency of business, probably it was in order to give +time for the excitement to wear itself out. But this did not result, +and his approach was the occasion of a fresh outbreak of feeling in +Chicago; the demonstrations of the residents of that city were not a +flattering welcome home. Bells were tolled as for public mourning, +flags were hung at half mast. Nothing was omitted that might emphasize +the general aversion to the man who had done that infamous deed. + +A public meeting was planned, at which he was to speak in defense of +his course. A large crowd, about five thousand people, gathered. +Douglas was surrounded by his own friends, but the major portion of the +crowd was intensely hostile to him. When he began to speak the +opposition broke out. He was interrupted by questions and comments. +These so exasperated him that he completely lost control of himself. He +stormed, he shook his fist, he railed. The meeting broke up in +confusion. Then came a reaction which greatly profited him. The papers +published that he had attempted to speak and had not been allowed to do +so, but had been hooted by a turbulent mob. All of which was true. By +the time he spoke again the sympathy of the public had swung to his +side, and he was sure of a favorable hearing. + +This second speech was on the occasion of the state fair at +Springfield. Men of all kinds and of every political complexion were +present from even the remotest localities in the state. The speech was +to be an address to a large audience fairly representative of the +entire state. + +Lincoln was there. Not merely because Springfield was his home. He +doubtless would have been there anyhow. His ability as a politician, +his growing fame as a lawyer and a public speaker, his well-known +antipathy to slavery, singled him out as the one man who was +preeminently fitted to answer the speech of Douglas, and he was by a +tacit agreement selected for this purpose. + +Lincoln himself felt the stirring impulse. It is not uncommon for the +call of duty, or opportunity, to come once in a lifetime to the heart +of a man with over-mastering power, so that his purposes and powers are +roused to an unwonted and transforming degree of activity. It is the +flight of the eaglet, the awakening of the lion, the transfiguration of +the human spirit. To Lincoln this call now came. He was the same man, +but he had reached another stage of development, entered a new +experience, exhibiting new powers,--or the old powers to such a degree +that they were virtually new. It is the purpose of this chapter to note +three of his speeches which attest this awakening. + +The first of these was delivered at the state Fair at Springfield. +Douglas had spoken October 3d, 1854. Lincoln was present, and it was +mentioned by Douglas, and was by all understood, that he would reply +the following day, October 4th. Douglas was, up to that time, not only +the shrewdest politician in the country, but he was acknowledged to be +the ablest debater. He was particularly well prepared upon this +subject, for to it he had given almost his entire time for nearly a +year, and had discussed it in congress and out, and knew thoroughly the +current objections. The occasion was unusual, and this was to be, and +doubtless it was, his greatest effort. + +The following day came Lincoln's reply. As a matter of fairness, he +said at the outset that he did not want to present anything but the +truth. If he said anything that was not true, he would be glad to have +Douglas correct him at once. Douglas, with customary shrewdness, took +advantage of this offer by making frequent interruptions, so as to +break the effect of the logic and destroy the flow of thought. Finally +Lincoln's patience was exhausted, and he paused in his argument to say: +"Gentlemen, I cannot afford to spend my time in quibbles. I take the +responsibility of asserting the truth myself, relieving Judge Douglas +from the necessity of his impertinent corrections." This silenced his +opponent, and he spoke without further interruption to the end, his +speech being three hours and ten minutes long. + +The effect of the speech was wonderful. The scene, as described next +day in the Springfield _Journal_, is worth quoting: + +"Lincoln quivered with feeling and emotion. The whole house was as +still as death. He attacked the bill with unusual warmth and energy, +and all felt that a man of strength was its enemy, and that he meant to +blast it if he could by strong and manly efforts. He was most +successful; and the house approved the glorious triumph of truth by +loud and long-continued huzzas.... Mr. Lincoln exhibited Douglas in all +the attitudes he could be placed in a friendly debate. He exhibited +the bill in all its aspects to show its humbuggery and falsehoods, and +when thus torn to rags, cut into slips, held up to the gaze of the vast +crowd, a kind of scorn was visible upon the face of the crowd, and upon +the lips of the most eloquent speaker.... At the conclusion of the +speech, every man felt that it was unanswerable--that no human power +could overthrow it or trample it under foot. The long and repeated +applause evinced the feelings of the crowd, and gave token, too, of the +universal assent to Lincoln's whole argument; and every mind present +did homage to the man who took captive the heart and broke like a sun +over the understanding." + +The speech itself, and the manner of its reception, could not other +than rouse Douglas to a tempest of wrath. It was a far more severe +punishment than to be hooted from the stage, as he had been in Chicago. +He was handled as he had never been handled in his life. He took the +platform, angrily claimed that he had been abused, and started to +reply. But he did not get far. He had no case. He became confused, lost +his self-control, hesitated, finally said that he would reply in the +evening, and left the stage. That was the end of the incident so far as +Douglas was concerned. When the evening came he had disappeared, and +there was no reply. + +Twelve days later, on October 16, Lincoln had promised to speak in +Peoria. To that place Douglas followed, or preceded him. Douglas made +his speech in the afternoon, and Lincoln followed in the evening. It +was the same line of argument as in the other speech. Lincoln later +consented to write it out for publication. We thus have the Springfield +and Peoria speech, _minus_ the glow of extemporaneous address, the +inspiration of the orator. These are important factors which not even +the man himself could reproduce. But we have his own report, which is +therefore authentic. The most salient point in his speech is his reply +to Douglas's plausible representation that the people of any locality +were competent to govern themselves. "I admit," said Lincoln, "that the +emigrant to Kansas and Nebraska is competent to govern himself, but I +deny his right to govern any other person without that other person's +consent." This is the kernel of the entire question of human slavery. + +The result of this speech at Peoria was less dramatic than that at +Springfield, but it was no less instructive. Douglas secured from +Lincoln an agreement that neither of them should again speak during +that campaign. It was quite evident that he had learned to fear his +antagonist and did not wish again to risk meeting him on the rostrum. +Lincoln kept the agreement. Douglas did not. Before he got home in +Chicago, he stopped off to make another speech. + +These speeches were made in 1854. It is now worth while to skip over +two years to record another epoch-making speech, one which in spirit +and temper belongs here. For it shows to what intensity Lincoln was +aroused on this vast and ever-encroaching subject of slavery. This was +at the convention which was held in Bloomington for the purpose of +organizing the Republican party. The date of the convention was May 29, +1856. The center of interest was Lincoln's speech. The reporters were +there in sufficient force, and we would surely have had a verbatim +report--except for one thing. The reporters did not report. Let Joseph +Medill, of the Chicago _Tribune_, tell why: + +"It was my journalistic duty, though a delegate to the convention, to +make a 'long-hand' report of the speeches delivered for the Chicago +_Tribune_. I did make a few paragraphs of what Lincoln said in the +first eight or ten minutes, but I became so absorbed in his magnetic +oratory, that I forgot myself and ceased to take notes, and joined with +the convention in cheering and stamping and clapping to the end of his +speech. + +I well remember that after Lincoln had sat down and calm had succeeded +the tempest, I waked out of a sort of hypnotic trance, and then thought +of my report for the _Tribune_. There was nothing written but an +abbreviated introduction. + +It was some sort of satisfaction to find that I had not been 'scooped,' +as all the newspaper men present had been equally carried away by the +excitement caused by the wonderful oration, and had made no report or +sketch of the speech." + +Mr. Herndon, who was Lincoln's law partner, and who knew him so +intimately that he might be trusted to keep his coolness during the +enthusiasm of the hour, and who had the mechanical habit of taking +notes for him, because he was his partner, said: "I attempted for about +fifteen minutes, as was usual with me then, to take notes, but at the +end of that time I threw pen and paper away and lived only in the +inspiration of the hour." + +There is no doubt that the audience was generally, if not unanimously, +affected in the same way. The hearers went home and told about this +wonderful speech. Journalists wrote flaming editorials about it. The +fame of it went everywhere, but there was no report of it. It therefore +came to be known as "Lincoln's lost speech." + +Precisely forty years afterwards one H. C. Whitney published in one of +the magazines an account of it. He says that he made notes of the +speech, went home and wrote them out. Why he withheld this report from +the public for so many years, especially in view of the general demand +for it, does not precisely appear. The report, however, is interesting. + +But after the lapse of nearly half a century, it is a matter of minor +importance whether Mr. Whitney's report be accurate or not. To us the +value of the three speeches mentioned in this chapter is found largely +in the impression they produced upon the hearers. The three taken +together show that Lincoln had waked to a new life. The lion in him was +thoroughly roused, he was clothed with a tremendous power, which up to +this point had not been suspected by antagonists nor dreamed of by +admiring friends. This new and mighty power he held and wielded until +his life's end. Thenceforth he was an important factor in national +history. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +TWO THINGS THAT LINCOLN MISSED. + + +Lincoln's intimate friends have noted that he seemed to be under the +impression that he was a man of destiny. This phrase was a favorite +with Napoleon, who often used it of himself. But the two men were so +widely different in character and career, that it is with reluctance +that one joins their names even for the moment that this phrase is +used. Napoleon was eager to sacrifice the whole of Europe to satisfy +the claims of his personal ambition; Lincoln was always ready to stand +aside and sacrifice himself for the country. The one was selfishness +incarnate; the other was a noble example of a man who never hesitated +to subordinate his own welfare to the general good, and whose career +came to its climax in his martyrdom. Whether the presidency was or was +not, Lincoln's destiny, it was certainly his destination. Had anything +occurred to thrust him one side in this career, it would have prevented +his complete development, and would have been an irreparable calamity +to his country and to the world. + +Twice in his life he earnestly desired certain offices and failed to +get them. Had he succeeded in either case, it is not at all probable +that he would ever have become President. One therefore rejoices in the +knowledge that he missed them. + +After his term in congress he was, in a measure, out of employment. +Political life is like to destroy one's taste for the legitimate +practise of the law, as well as to scatter one's clients. Lincoln was +not a candidate for reelection. Upon the election of General Taylor it +was generally understood that the democrats would be turned out of +office and their places supplied by whigs. The office of Land +Commissioner was expected to go to Illinois. At the solicitation of +friends he applied for it, but so fearful was he that he might stand in +the way of others, or impede the welfare of the state, that he did not +urge his application until too late. The President offered him the +governorship of the territory of Oregon, which he declined. Had he been +successful in his application, it would have kept him permanently out +of the study and practise of the law. It would have kept his residence +in Washington so that it would not have been possible for him to hold +himself in touch with his neighbors. So far as concerned his +illustrious career, it would have side-tracked him. He himself +recognized this later, and was glad that he had failed in this, his +first and only application for a government appointment. + +About six years later he again missed an office to which he aspired. +This was in 1854, the year of the speeches at Springfield and Peoria +described in the last chapter. Shields, the man of the duel with broad- +swords, was United States senator. His term of office was about to +expire and the legislature would elect his successor. The state of +Illinois had been democratic,--both the senators, Shields and Douglas, +were democrats,--but owing to the new phases of the slavery question, +the anti-slavery men were able to carry the legislature, though by a +narrow margin. + +Lincoln had been very useful to the party during the campaign and had +been elected to the legislature from his own district. He wanted to be +senator. He was unquestionably the choice of nearly all the whigs. Had +an election taken place then, he would undoubtedly have been elected. + +But a curious obstacle intervened. There was a provision in the +constitution of Illinois which disqualified members of the legislature +from holding the office of United States senator. Lincoln was therefore +not eligible. He could only become so by resigning his seat. There +appeared to be no risk in this, for he had a safe majority of 605. It +seemed as though he could name his successor. But there are many +uncertainties in politics. + +The campaign had been one of unusual excitement and it was followed by +that apathy which is the common sequel to all excessive activity. The +democrats kept quiet. They put up no candidate. They fostered the +impression that they would take no part in the special election. Only +one democrat was casually named as a possible victim to be sacrificed +to the triumph of the whigs. He was not a popular nor an able man, and +was not to be feared as a candidate for this office. + +But the unusual quietness of the democrats was the most dangerous sign. +They had organized a "still hunt." This was an adroit move, but it was +perfectly fair. It is not difficult to guess whose shrewdness planned +this, seeing that the question was vital to the career of Douglas. The +democratic party preserved their organization. The trusted lieutenants +held the rank and file in readiness for action. When the polls were +opened on election day, the democrats were there, and the whigs were +not. At every election precinct appeared democratic workers to +electioneer for the man of their choice. Carriages were provided for +the aged, the infirm, and the indifferent who were driven to the polls +so that their votes were saved to the party. + +The whigs were completely taken by surprise. It was too late to talk up +their candidate. They had no provision and no time to get the absent +and indifferent to the polls. The result was disastrous to them. +Lincoln's "safe" majority was wiped out and a Douglas democrat was +chosen to succeed him. + +It may be surmised that this did not tend to fill the whigs with +enthusiasm, nor to unite the party. From all over the state there arose +grumblings that the Sangamon contingent of the party had been so +ignobly outwitted. Lincoln had to bear the brunt of this discontent. +This was not unnatural nor unreasonable, for he was the party manager +for that district. When the legislature went into joint session Lincoln +had manifestly lost some of his prestige. It may be said by way of +palliation that the "still hunt" was then new in politics. And it was +the only time that Lincoln was caught napping. + +Even with the loss to the whigs of this seat, the Douglas democrats +were in a minority. Lincoln had a plurality but not a majority. The +balance of power was held by five anti-Nebraska democrats, who would +not under any circumstances vote for Lincoln or any other whig. Their +candidate was Lyman Trumbull. After a long and weary deadlock, the +democrats dropped their candidate Shields and took up the governor of +the state. The governor has presumably a strong influence with the +legislature, and this move of the partisans was a real menace to the +anti-slavery men. Lincoln recognized the danger, at once withdrew his +candidacy, and persuaded all the anti-slavery men to unite on Trumbull. +This was no ordinary conciliation, for upon every subject except the +Nebraska question alone, Trumbull was an uncompromising democrat. The +whig votes gave him the necessary majority. The man who started in with +five votes won the prize. Lincoln not only failed to get into the +senate, but he was out of the legislature. + +In commenting on this defeat of Lincoln for the United States senate, +the present writer wishes first of all to disavow all superstitions and +all belief in signs. But there is one fact which is worthy of mention, +and for which different persons will propose different explanations. It +is a fact that in all the history of the United States no person has +been elected direct from the senate to the presidency. This is the more +interesting because the prominent senator wields a very powerful +influence, an influence second only to that of the President himself. +When one considers the power of a leading senator, one would suppose +that that was the natural stepping-stone to the presidency. But history +does not support this supposition. It teaches the opposite. + +Many prominent senators have greatly desired to be president, but no +one has succeeded unless he first retired from the senate. Among the +more widely known aspirants to the presidency who have been +unsuccessful, are Jackson (his first candidacy), Clay, Webster, +Douglas, Morton, Seward, Sherman, and Blaine. So many failures may be a +mere coincidence. On the other hand there may be a reason for them. +They seem to teach that the senate is not the best start for the +presidential race, but the worst. + +The history of ethics teaches that the most determined hostility +against the best is the good, not the bad. So it may be that in the +politics of this country, the greatest obstacle to the highest position +may be the next highest. + +These facts, of course, do not prove that if Lincoln had been elected +senator in 1854, or in 1858 when he was the opposing candidate to +Douglas, he would therefore have failed of election to the presidency. +He may have been an exception. He may have been the only one to break +this rule in over a hundred years. But the sequel proved that he was +best where he was. He remained among his people. He moused about the +state library, enduring criticism but mastering the history of slavery. +He kept a watchful eye on the progress of events. He was always alert +to seize an opportunity and proclaim in trumpet tones the voice of +conscience, the demands of eternal righteousness. But he waited. His +hour had not yet come. He bided his time. It was not a listless +waiting, it was intensely earnest and active. Far more than he could +realize, he was in training for the stupendous responsibilities which +should in due time fall upon him. It is fortunate for all that he did +not learn to limit his powers to the arena of the senate, which, though +great, is limited. He kept near to the people. When his hour struck, he +was ready. + +For this reason we call his two failures escapes. He did not get the +government land office, he did not get the senatorship. He did get the +presidency, and that in the crisis of the history of the nation. What +is more, when he got that he was thoroughly furnished unto every good +work. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE BIRTH OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY. + + +In the course of history there sometimes arises a man who has a +marvelous power of attaching others to himself. He commands a measure +of devotion and enthusiasm which it is impossible fully to understand. +Such a man was Henry Clay. Under the fascination of his qualities +Lincoln lived. From childhood to maturity Clay had been his idol, and +Clay's party, the whig, nearly synonymous with all that was desirable +in American politics. It was therefore no easy matter for Lincoln to +leave the whig party. Nothing could accomplish this but the +overmastering power of a noble emotion. + +From childhood Lincoln had hated slavery. The fact that Kentucky was a +slave state had its influence in his father's removal to Indiana. His +personal observations upon his journeys down the Mississippi River had +given him a keener feeling on the subject. The persistent and ever- +increasing outrages of the slave power had intensified his hatred. The +time had come when he, and such as he, felt that other party questions +were of minor importance, and that everything else should for the time +be subordinated to the supreme question of slavery. + +There were certain reasons why the whig party could not accomplish the +desired end. Its history had identified it with a different class of +subjects. Though Clay himself and a majority of his party were opposed +to the extension of slavery, there were still pro-slavery men in its +ranks in sufficient numbers to prevent any real efficiency on the +slavery question. + +On the other hand, while the democratic party was overwhelmingly pro- +slavery, there were anti-slavery democrats who, from their numbers, +ability, and character, were not to be overlooked. The election to the +senate of Lyman Trumbull as an anti-Douglas democrat had crystalized +this wing of the party. The fiasco of Lincoln's defeat when the whigs +were in a good plurality caused much discontent in that party. If the +anti-slavery men were to be united for efficiency in opposing Douglas, +it must be under another organization--a new party must be formed. + +In this the newspapers took the initiative. A number of papers +editorially called for a convention, which was really a mass meeting, +for there were no accredited delegates, and could be none. This met in +Decatur on Washington's birthday, 1856. It was a motley assembly, from +a political standpoint. It included whigs, democrats, free-soilers, +abolitionists, and know-nothings. Said Lincoln: "Of strange, +discordant, even hostile elements, we gathered from the four winds." +Politicians were conspicuously absent, for it would imperil their +political orthodoxy to be seen there. Lincoln was the principal one who +had anything to lose. He was consulted on all measures, and gave freely +of his counsel. The proceedings ended with a dinner, at which he made a +speech. + +He was the most prominent man in the new movement, was popular +throughout the state, and was the logical candidate for governor. He +would have been highly gratified with the candidacy. But again he put +personal desires one side that the general good might not be +endangered. He therefore proposed, in his after-dinner speech, for +nomination a democrat who had a record of earnest opposition to the +slave power. Refusing the use of his own name, he added: "But I can +suggest a name that will secure not only the old whig vote, but enough +anti-Nebraska democrats to give us the victory. That man is Colonel +William H. Bissell." Bissell was afterwards regularly nominated and +triumphantly elected. The meeting at Decatur called for a convention to +be held at Bloomington on the 29th of May. + +About the same thing had been going on in some other free states. On +the very day of the Decatur meeting there was a notable meeting for the +same purpose in Pittsburg. This was attended by E. D. Morgan, governor +of New York, Horace Greeley, O. P. Morton, Zach. Chandler, Joshua R. +Giddings, and other prominent men. They issued the call for the first +national convention of the republican party to be held in Philadelphia +in June. + +In May the Illinois convention assembled in Bloomington, and the most +conspicuous person there was Lincoln. It was there that he made the +amazing speech already described. It was the speech which held even the +reporters in such a spell that they could not report it. It is known in +history as the "lost speech," but the fame of it endures to this day. + +The democratic convention met in Cincinnati early in June and nominated +James Buchanan to succeed Franklin Pierce. Thus Douglas was for a +second time defeated for the nomination. + +The republican convention met a few days later in Philadelphia. At that +time John C. Fremont was at the height of his fame. His character was +romantic, and the record of his adventures was as fascinating as a +novel by Dumas. He had earned the name of "pathfinder" by crossing the +continent. Although unauthorized, he had in California raised a +military company which was of material assistance to the naval forces +of the United States against a Mexican insurrection. He was an ardent +hater of slavery. He was precisely the man, as standard-bearer, to +infuse enthusiasm into the new party and to give it a good start in its +career. He did this and did it well. The large vote which he polled +augured well for the future. + +All this we may claim without denying the fact that it was fortunate +for the party and for the country that he was not elected. There was no +doubt of his sincerity or his patriotism. But he lacked self-control, +wariness, patience. He was hot-headed, extreme, egotistical. He never +could have carried the burdens of the first administration of the +republican party. + +When the election was over, it was found that Buchanan had carried +every slave state except Maryland, which went to Fillmore. Fremont had +carried every New England state and five other northern states. +Buchanan received 174 electoral votes; Fremont, 114; Fillmore, 8. The +popular vote was, for Buchanan, 1,838,169; for Fremont, 1,341,264; for +Fillmore, 874,534. That was an excellent showing for the new party. It +showed that it had come to stay, and gave a reasonable hope of victory +at the next presidential election. + +Lincoln was at the head of the electoral ticket of the state of +Illinois. He usually was on the ticket. He playfully called himself one +of the electors that seldom elected anybody. In Illinois the honors of +the election were evenly divided between the two parties. Buchanan +carried the state by a handsome majority, but Bissell was elected +governor by a good majority. Lincoln had faithfully canvassed the state +and made nearly fifty speeches. One paragraph from a speech made in +Galena should be quoted. The slave party had raised the cry of +sectionalism, and had charged that the republicans purposed to destroy +the Union. Lincoln said: + +"But the Union, in any event, will not be dissolved. We don't want to +dissolve it, and if you attempt it we won't let you. With the purse and +sword, the army, the navy, and the treasury in our hands and at our +command, you could not do it. This government would be very weak indeed +if a majority with a disciplined army and navy and a well-filled +treasury could not preserve itself, when attacked by an unarmed, +undisciplined minority. All this talk about the dissolution of the +Union is humbug, nothing but folly. We do not want to dissolve the +Union; you shall not." + +These words were prophetic of the condition of the country and of his +own policy four or five years later. But he apparently did not +apprehend that an unscrupulous administration might steal the army and +the munitions of war, scatter the navy, and empty the treasury. + +On the 10th of December Lincoln spoke at a republican banquet in +Chicago. It was after the election, after Buchanan's supercilious +message to congress. The purpose of the speech was to forecast the +future of the young party. The following quotations may be read with +interest: + +"He [Buchanan, in his message to congress] says the people did it. He +forgets that the 'people,' as he complacently calls only those who +voted for Buchanan, are in a minority of the whole people by about four +hundred thousand votes.... All of us who did not vote for Mr. Buchanan, +taken together, are a majority of four hundred thousand. But in the +late contest we were divided between Fremont and Fillmore. Can we not +come together for the future? Let every one who really believes, and is +resolved, that free society is not and shall not be a failure, and who +can conscientiously declare that in the past contest he has done only +what he thought best, let every such one have charity to believe that +every other one can say as much. Let bygones be bygones; let past +differences as nothing be; and with steady eye on the real issue, let +us re-inaugurate the good old 'central ideas' of the republic. We can do +it. The human heart is with us; God is with us. We shall again be able +to declare, not that 'all states as states are equal,' nor yet that +'all citizens as citizens are equal,' but to renew the broader, better +declaration, including these and much more, that 'all men are created +equal.'" + +It was upon the wisdom of this plan that, four years later, he held the +foes of slavery united, while the foes of freedom were divided among +themselves. It was this that carried the party to its first victory and +made him president. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE BATTLE OF THE GIANTS. + + +The admiring friends of Douglas had given him the nickname of "the +little giant." To this he was fairly entitled. Physically he was very +little. Intellectually he was a giant. He was in 1858 perhaps the most +prominent man in the United States. He was the unquestioned leader of +the dominant party. He had been so long in public life that he was +familiar with every public question, while upon the burning question of +slavery he was the leader. + +Lincoln was a giant physically, and it soon became evident that he was +no less intellectually. These two men soon were to come together in a +series of joint debates. It was manifest that this would be a battle of +intellectual giants. No other such debates have ever occurred in the +history of the country. + +Events led up to this rapidly and with the certainty of fate. In 1854 +Lincoln had been candidate for the senate to succeed Shields, but his +party had been outwitted and he was compelled to substitute Trumbull. +In 1856 he was the logical candidate for governor, but he was of +opinion that the cause would be better served permanently by placing an +anti-slavery democrat in nomination. This was done and Bissell was +elected. Now in 1858 the senatorial term of Douglas was about to expire +and a successor would be chosen. Douglas was the candidate of his own +party. The republicans turned naturally and spontaneously to Lincoln, +for it would be no light task to defeat so strong an opponent. + +The republican convention met in Springfield on the 16th of June. +Lincoln was by acclamation nominated "as the first and only choice" of +the republican party for United States senator. The above time-honored +phrase was used sincerely on that occasion. There was great enthusiasm, +absolute unanimity. + +On the evening of the following day he addressed the convention in a +speech which has become historic. His opening words were: + +"If we could first know where we are and whither we are tending, we +could better judge what to do and how to do it. We are now far into the +fifth year since a policy was initiated, with the avowed object and +confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation. Under the +operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but +has constantly augmented. In my opinion it will not cease until a +crisis shall have been reached and passed. 'A house divided against +itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot endure +permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be +dissolved--I do not expect the house to fall--but I do expect it will +cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. +Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, +and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is +in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it +forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states, old as +well as new, North as well as South." + +This speech came quickly to be known as "the house-divided-against- +itself speech." By that name it is still known. Concluding he said: +"Our cause, then, must be entrusted to and conducted by its own +undoubted friends, those whose hands are free, whose hearts are in the +work, who do care for the result.... The result is not doubtful. We +shall not fail. If we stand firm we shall not fail. Wise counsels may +accelerate or mistakes delay it, but sooner or later the victory is +sure to come." This was a strong speech, delivered before an audience +of men of unusual ability, delegates who represented all parts of the +state. It was in no wise a harangue. It was entirely thoughtful and +strictly logical. The effect of it was to intensify the enthusiasm, and +to spread it all through the state. It was a speech that Douglas could +not ignore, though he might misrepresent it. This he did by raising the +charge of sectionalism against his adversary. + +About three weeks later, on the 9th of July, Douglas made an elaborate +speech in Chicago. Lincoln was in the audience. It was unofficially +arranged that he should reply. He did so the following evening. A week +later a similar thing occurred in Springfield. Douglas made a speech in +the afternoon to which Lincoln replied in the evening. Shortly after +this Lincoln wrote Douglas a letter proposing a series of joint +discussions, or challenging him to a series of joint debates. Douglas +replied in a patronizing and irritating tone, asked for a slight +advantage in his own favor, but he accepted the proposal. He did not do +it in a very gracious manner, but he did it. They arranged for seven +discussions in towns, the locations being scattered fairly over the +entire territory of the state. + +If Illinois had before been "the cynosure of neighboring eyes," much +more was it so now. Lincoln was by no means the most prominent anti- +slavery man, but he was the only man in a position to beard his rival. +The proposed debates excited not only the interest of the state and the +neighboring states, but from the East and the South all minds were +turned to this tournament. It was not a local discussion; it was a +national and critical question that was at issue. The interest was no +less eager in New York, Washington, and Charleston than in +Indianapolis, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. + +The two men had been neighbors for many years. They were together +members of the legislature, first in Vandalia and then in Springfield. +They had frequently met socially in Springfield. Both paid marked +attentions to the same young lady. Both had served in Washington City. +Douglas was for most of his life an officeholder, so that in one way or +another Lincoln would be brought into association with him. But though +they met so frequently it is not probable that, before this time, +either recognized in the other his supreme antagonist. After the repeal +of the Missouri Compromise Lincoln had, as already related, discussed +Douglas with great plainness of speech. This had been twice repeated in +this year. But these were, comparatively speaking, mere incidents. The +great contest was to be in the debates. + +In the outset, Douglas had the advantage of prestige. Nothing succeeds +like success. Douglas had all his life had nothing but success. He +twice had missed the nomination for presidency, but he was still the +most formidable man in the senate. He was very popular in his own +state. He was everywhere greeted by large crowds, with bands of music +and other demonstrations. He always traveled in a special car and often +in a special train, which was freely placed at his disposal by the +Illinois Central Railway. Lincoln traveled by accommodation train, +freight train, or wagon, as best he could. As both the men were +everyday speaking independently between the debates, this question of +transportation was serious. The inconveniences of travel made a great +drain upon the nervous force and the health. One day when the freight +train bearing Lincoln was side-tracked to let his rival's special train +roll by, he good-humoredly remarked that Douglas "did not smell any +royalty in this car." + +Another fact which gave Douglas the advantage was the friendship and +sympathy of Horace Greeley and others, who had much influence with the +party of Lincoln. Douglas had broken with Buchanan's administration on +a question relating to Kansas. The iniquity of the powers at Washington +went so far that even Douglas rebelled. This led Greeley and others to +think that Douglas had in him the making of a good republican if he was +only treated with sufficient consideration. Accordingly, all of that +influence was bitterly thrown in opposition to Lincoln. + +The methods of the two men were as diverse as their bodily appearance. +Douglas was a master of what the ancient Greeks would have called +"making the worse appear the better reason." He was able to misstate +his antagonist's position so shrewdly as to deceive the very elect. And +with equal skill he could escape from the real meaning of his own +statements. Lincoln's characterization is apt: "Judge Douglas is +playing cuttlefish--a small species of fish that has no mode of +defending himself when pursued except by throwing out a black fluid +which makes the water so dark the enemy cannot see it, and thus it +escapes." + +Lincoln's method was to hold the discussion down to the point at issue +with clear and forcible statement. He arraigned the iniquity of slavery +as an offense against God. He made the phrase "all men" of the +Declaration of Independence include the black as well as the white. +Said he: "There is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled +to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of +Independence--the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of +happiness.... In the right to eat the bread, without the leave of +anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal, and the equal +of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man." He quoted +Jefferson's remark, "I tremble for my country when I remember that God +is just." Mercilessly he analyzed Douglas's speeches and exposed his +sophistry. + +The forensic ability of the two men is suggestively indicated by the +remark of a lady who heard them speak, and afterward said: "I can +recall only one fact of the debates, that I felt so sorry for Lincoln +while Douglas was speaking, and then _so_ sorry for Douglas while +Lincoln was speaking." + +These debates occupied seven different evenings of three hours each. +The speeches were afterwards published in book form and had a wide +circulation. These speeches, numbering twenty-one in all, filled a +large volume. It is not the purpose of this chapter to give an outline +of the debates, it is only to give a general idea of their result. But +out of them came one prominent fact, which so influenced the careers of +the two men that it must be briefly recorded. This went by the name of +"the Freeport doctrine." + +In the first debate Douglas had asked Lincoln a series of questions. +The villainy of these questions was in the innuendo. They began, "I +desire to know whether Lincoln stands to-day, as he did in 1854, in +favor of," etc. Douglas then quoted from the platform of a convention +which Lincoln had not attended, and with which he had nothing to do. +Lincoln denied these insinuations, and said that he had never favored +those doctrines; but the trick succeeded, and the impression was made +that Douglas had cornered him. The questions, to all intents and +purposes, were a forgery. This forgery was quickly exposed by a Chicago +paper, and the result was not helpful to Douglas. It was made manifest +that he was not conducting the debates in a fair and manly way. + +Further than this, the fact that these questions had been asked gave +Lincoln, in turn, the right to ask questions of Douglas. This right he +used. For the next debate, which was to be at Freeport, he prepared, +among others, the following question: "Can the people of a United +States territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of +the United States, exclude slavery from its limits prior to the +formation of a state constitution?" If this were answered "No," it +would alienate the citizens of Illinois. If it were answered "Yes," it +would alienate the democrats of the South. + +On the way to Freeport he met a number of friends and took counsel of +them. When he read question number two, the one above quoted, his +friends earnestly and unanimously advised him not to put that question. +"If you do," said they, "you never can be senator." To which Lincoln +replied: "Gentlemen, I am killing larger game. If Douglas answers, he +can never be President, and the battle of 1860 is worth a hundred of +this." + +It is not probable that Lincoln expected to be in 1860 the nominee of +the republican party. But he did see the danger of the election of +Douglas to the presidency. He was willing to surrender the senatorial +election to save the country from a Douglas administration. The +sacrifice was made. The prediction proved true. Lincoln lost the +senatorship, Douglas lost the presidency. + +The popular verdict, as shown in the election, was in favor of Lincoln. +The republicans polled 125,430 votes; the Douglas democrats, 121,609, +and the Buchanan democrats, 5,071. But the apportionment of the +legislative districts was such that Douglas had a majority on the joint +ballot of the legislature. He received 54 votes to 46 for Lincoln. This +secured his reelection to the senate. + +The popular verdict outside the state of Illinois was in favor of +Lincoln. The republican party circulated the volume containing the full +report of the speeches. It does not appear that the democrats did so. +This forces the conclusion that the intellectual and moral victory was +on the side of Lincoln. + +There is a pathetic sequel to this. The campaign had been very arduous +on Lincoln. Douglas had made 130 speeches in 100 days, not counting +Sundays. Lincoln had made probably about the same number. These were +not brief addresses from a railway car, but fully elaborated speeches. +The labors commenced early in July and continued through the heat of +the summer. With Lincoln the inadequate means of travel added to the +draft upon his strength. At the end of all came the triumphant election +of his rival. Add to this the fact that the next day he received a +letter from the republican committee saying that their funds would not +meet the bills, and asking for an additional contribution. The rest is +best told in Lincoln's own words: + +"Yours of the 15th is just received. I wrote you the same day. As to +the pecuniary matter, I am willing to pay according to my ability, but +I am the poorest hand living to get others to pay. I have been on +expense so long without earning anything that I am absolutely without +money now for even household purposes. Still, if you can put up $250 +for me towards discharging the debt of the committee, I will allow it +when you and I settle the private matter between us. This, with what I +have already paid, and with an outstanding note of mine, will exceed my +subscription of $500. This, too, is exclusive of my ordinary expenses +during the campaign, all which, being added to my loss of time and +business, bears pretty heavily on one no better off in world's goods +than I; but as I had the post of honor, it is not for me to be over- +nice. You are feeling badly--'And this, too, shall pass away.' Never +fear." + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +GROWING AUDACITY OF THE SLAVE POWER. + + +So closely is the life of Lincoln intertwined with the growth of the +slave power that it will be necessary at this point to give a brief +space to the latter. It was the persistent, the ever-increasing, the +imperious demands of this power that called Lincoln to his post of +duty. The feeling upon the subject had reached a high degree of tension +at the period we are now considering. To understand this fully, we must +go back and come once again down through the period already treated. +There are three salient points of development. + +The first of these is the fugitive slave law. At the adoption of the +Constitution it was arranged that there should be no specific approval +of slavery. For this reason the word "slave" does not appear in that +document. But the idea is there, and the phrase, "person held to +service or labor," fully covers the subject. Slaves were a valuable +property. The public opinion approved of the institution. To set up one +part of the territory as a refuge for escaped slaves would be an +infringement of this right of property, and would cause unceasing +friction between the various parts of the country. + +In 1793, which happens to be the year of the invention of the cotton +gin, the fugitive slave law was passed. This was for the purpose of +enacting measures by which escaped slaves might be recaptured. This law +continued in force to 1850. As the years passed, the operation of this +law produced results not dreamed of in the outset. There came to be +free states, communities in which the very toleration of slavery was an +abomination. The conscience of these communities abhorred the +institution. Though these people were content to leave slavery +unmolested in the slave states, they were angered at having the horrors +of slave-hunting thrust upon them. In other words, they were unable to +reside in any locality, no matter how stringent the laws were in behalf +of freedom, where they were not liable to be invaded, their very homes +entered, by the institution of slavery in its most cruel forms. + +This aroused a bitter antagonism in the North. Societies were formed to +assist fugitive slaves to escape to Canada. Men living at convenient +distances along the route were in communication with one another. The +fugitives were passed secretly and with great skill along this line. +These societies were known as the Underground Railway. The +appropriateness of this name is obvious. The men themselves who +secreted the fugitive slaves were said to keep stations on that +railway. + +This organized endeavor to assist the fugitives was met by an increased +imperiousness on the part of the slave power. Slavery is imperious in +its nature. It almost inevitably cultivates that disposition in those +who wield the power. So that the case was rendered more exasperating by +the passage, in 1850, of another fugitive slave law. Nothing could have +been devised more surely adapted to inflame the moral sense of those +communities that were, in feeling or conscience, opposed to slavery, +than this law of 1850. This was a reenactment of the law of 1793, but +with more stringent and cruel regulations. The concealment or assisting +of a fugitive was highly penal. Any home might be invaded and searched. +No hearth was safe from intrusion. The negro could not testify in his +own behalf. It was practically impossible to counteract the oath or +affidavit of the pretended master, and a premium was practically put +upon perjury. The pursuit of slaves became a regular business, and its +operation was often indescribably horrible. These cruelties were +emphasized chiefly in the presence of those who were known to be averse +to slavery in any form, and they could not escape from the revolting +scenes. + +The culmination of this was in what is known as the Dred Scott +decision. Dred Scott was a slave in Missouri. He was by his master +taken to Fort Snelling, now in the state of Minnesota, then in the +territory of Wisconsin. This was free soil, and the slave was, at least +while there, free. With the consent of his former master he married a +free woman who had formerly been a slave. Two children were born to +them. The master returned to Missouri, bringing the negroes. He here +claimed that they, being on slave soil, were restored to the condition +of slavery. + +Scott sued for his freedom and won his case. It was, however, appealed +to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first opinion of the +court was written by Judge Nelson. This treated of this specific case +only. Had this opinion issued as the finding of the court, it would not +have aroused general attention. + +But the court was then dominated by the slave sentiment, and the +opportunity of laying down general principles on the subject of slavery +could not be resisted. The decision was written by Chief Justice Taney, +and reaches its climax in the declaration that the negro "had no rights +which the white man was bound to respect." Professor T. W. Dwight says +that much injustice was done to Chief Justice Taney by the erroneous +statement that he had himself affirmed that the negro "had no rights +which the white man was bound to respect." But while this may be +satisfactory to the legal mind, to the lay mind, to the average +citizen, it is a distinction without a difference, or, at best, with a +very slight difference. The Judge was giving what, in his opinion, was +the law of the land. It was his opinion, nay, it was his decision. Nor +was it the unanimous ruling of the court. Two justices dissented. The +words quoted are picturesque, and are well suited to a battle-cry. On +every side, with ominous emphasis in the North, one heard that the +negro had no rights which the white man was bound to respect. This was, +until 1860, the last and greatest exhibition of audacity on the part of +the slave power. + +There was another exhibition of the spirit of slavery which deserves +special mention. This is the history of the settlement of Kansas. That +remarkable episode, lasting from 1854 to 1861, requires a volume, not a +paragraph, for its narration. It is almost impossible for the +imagination of those who live in an orderly, law-abiding community, to +conceive that such a condition of affairs ever existed in any portion +of the United States. The story of "bleeding Kansas" will long remain +an example of the proverb that truth is stranger than fiction. + +The repeal of the Missouri Compromise, in 1854, opened up to this free +territory the possibility of coming into the Union as a slave state. It +was to be left to the actual settlers to decide this question. This +principle was condensed into the phrase "squatter sovereignty." The +only resource left to those who wished Kansas to come in as a free +state was to settle it with an anti-slavery population. + +With this purpose in view, societies were formed in anti-slavery +communities, extending as far east as the Atlantic coast, to assist +emigrants. From Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Massachusetts, and elsewhere, +emigrants poured into Kansas. But the slave party had the advantage of +geographical location. The slave state of Missouri was only just across +the river. It was able, at short notice and with little expense, to +pour out its population in large numbers. This it did. Many went from +Missouri as actual settlers. By far the larger part went only +temporarily and for the purpose of creating a disturbance. These were +popularly called "border ruffians." Their excesses of ruffianism are +not easily described. They went into the territory for the purpose of +driving out all the settlers who had come in under the emigrant aid +societies. Murder was common. At the elections, they practised +intimidation and every form of election fraud then known. Every +election was contested, and both parties always claimed the victory. +The parties elected two separate legislatures, adopted two +constitutions, established two capitals. For several years, civil war +and anarchy prevailed. + +There is no doubt, either reasonable or unreasonable,--there is no +doubt whatever that the anti-slavery men had a vast majority of actual +settlers. The territorial governors were appointed by Presidents Pierce +and Buchanan. These were uniformly pro-slavery and extremely partisan. +But every governor quickly came to side with the free-state men, or +else resigned to get out of the way. + +The pro-slavery men, after the farce of a pretended vote, declared the +Lecompton constitution adopted. The governor at that time was Walker, +of Mississippi, who had been appointed as a sure friend of the +interests of slavery. But even he revolted at so gross an outrage, and +made a personal visit to Washington to protest against it. It was at +this point, too, that Senator Douglas broke with the administration. + +In spite of the overwhelming majority of anti-slavery settlers in the +state, Kansas was not admitted to the Union until after the +inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. + +So unscrupulous, imperious, grasping was the slave power. Whom the gods +wish to destroy, they first make mad. The slave power had reached the +reckless point of madness and was rushing to its own destruction. These +three manifestations,--the fugitive-slave law, the Dred Scott decision, +and the anarchy in Kansas,--though they were revolting in the extreme +and indescribably painful, hastened the end. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE BACKWOODSMAN AT THE CENTER OF EASTERN CULTURE. + + +Lincoln's modesty made it impossible for him to be ambitious. He +appreciated honors, and he desired them up to a certain point. But they +did not, in his way of looking at them, seem to belong to him. He was +slow to realize that he was of more than ordinary importance to the +community. + +At the first republican convention in 1856, when Fremont was nominated +for President, 111 votes were cast for Lincoln as the nominee for vice- +president. The fact was published in the papers. When he saw the item +it did not enter his head that he was the man. He said "there was a +celebrated man of that name in Massachusetts; doubtless it was he." + +In 1858, when he asked Douglas the fatal question at Freeport, he was +simply killing off Douglas's aspirations for the presidency. It was +with no thought of being himself the successful rival. + +Douglas had twice been a candidate for nomination before the democratic +convention. Had it not been for this question he would have been +elected at the next following presidential election. + +As late as the early part of 1860, Lincoln vaguely desired the +nomination for the vice-presidency. He would have been glad to be the +running-mate of Seward, nothing more. Even this honor he thought to be +beyond his reach, so slowly did he come to realize the growth of his +fame. + +The reports of the Lincoln-Douglas debates had produced a profound +sensation in the West. They were printed in large numbers and scattered +broadcast as campaign literature. Some Eastern men, also, had been +alert to observe these events. William Cullen Bryant, the scholarly +editor of the New York _Evening Post_, had shown keen interest in +the debates. + +Even after the election Lincoln did not cease the vigor of his +criticisms. It will be remembered that before the formal debate Lincoln +voluntarily went to Chicago to hear Douglas and to answer him. He +followed him to Springfield and did the same thing. He now, after the +election of 1858, followed him to Ohio and answered his speeches in +Columbus and Cincinnati. + +The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher, who was always watchful of the +development of the anti-slavery sentiment, now invited Lincoln to +lecture in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. The invitation was accepted with +the provision that the lecture might be a political speech. + +J. G. Holland, who doubtless knew whereof he wrote, declares that it +was a great misfortune that Lincoln was introduced to the country as a +rail-splitter. Americans have no prejudice against humble beginnings, +they are proud of self-made men, but there is nothing in the ability to +split rails which necessarily qualifies one for the demands of +statesmanship. Some of his ardent friends, far more zealous than +judicious, had expressed so much glory over Abe the rail-splitter, that +it left the impression that he was little more than a rail-splitter who +could talk volubly and tell funny stories. This naturally alienated the +finest culture east of the Alleghanies. "It took years for the country +to learn that Mr. Lincoln was not a boor. It took years for them to +unlearn what an unwise and boyish introduction of a great man to the +public had taught them. It took years for them to comprehend the fact +that in Mr. Lincoln the country had the wisest, truest, gentlest, +noblest, most sagacious President who had occupied the chair of state +since Washington retired from it." + +When he reached New York he found that there had been a change of plan, +and he was to speak in Cooper Institute, New York, instead of Beecher's +church. He took the utmost care in revising his speech, for he felt +that he was on new ground and must not do less than his best. + +But though he made the most perfect intellectual preparation, the +esthetic element of his personal appearance was sadly neglected. He was +angular and loose-jointed,--he could not help that. He had provided +himself, or had been provided, with a brand-new suit of clothes, +whether of good material or poor we cannot say, whether well-fitting or +ill-fitting we do not know, though we may easily guess. But we do know +that it had been crowded into a small carpet-bag and came out a mass of +wrinkles. And during the speech the collar or lappel annoyed both +speaker and audience by persisting in rising up unbidden. + +These details are mentioned to show the difficulty of the task before +the orator. In the audience and on the platform were many of the most +brilliant and scholarly men of the metropolis. There were also large +numbers who had come chiefly to hear the westerner tell a lot of funny +stories. The orator was introduced by Bryant. + +The speech was strictly intellectual from beginning to end. Though +Lincoln was not known in New York, Douglas was. So he fittingly took +his start from a quotation of Douglas. The speech cannot be epitomized, +but its general drift may be divined from its opening and closing +sentences. + +The quotation from Douglas was that which had been uttered at Columbus +a few months before: "Our fathers, when they framed the government +under which we live, understood this question (the question of slavery) +just as well, and even better, than we do now." To this proposition the +orator assented. That raised the inquiry, What was their understanding +of the question? This was a historical question, and could be answered +only by honest and painstaking research. + +Continuing, the speaker said: "Does the proper division of local from +Federal authority, or anything in the Constitution, forbid our Federal +government to control as to slavery in our Federal territories? Upon +this Senator Douglas holds the affirmative and the republicans the +negative. This affirmation and denial form an issue, and this issue-- +this question--is precisely what the text declares our fathers +understood 'better than we.' + +"I defy any one to show that any living man in the whole world ever +did, prior to the beginning of the present century (and I might almost +say prior to the beginning of the last half of the present century), +declare that in his understanding any proper division of local from +Federal authority, or any part of the Constitution, forbade the Federal +government to control as to slavery in the Federal territories. To +those who now so declare, I give, not only 'our fathers who framed the +government under which we live,' but with them all other living men +within the century in which it was framed, among whom to search, and +they shall not be able to find the evidence of a single man agreeing +with them." + +One paragraph is quoted for the aptness of its illustration: "But you +will not abide the election of a republican President! In that supposed +event, you say you will destroy the Union; and then you say, the great +crime of having destroyed it will be upon us! That is cool. A +highwayman holds a pistol to my ear, and mutters through his teeth, +'Stand and deliver, or I shall kill you, and then you will be a +murderer!' To be sure, what the robber demanded of me--my money--was my +own, and I had a clear right to keep it; but it was no more my own than +my vote is my own; and the threat of death to me to extort my money, +and the threat of destruction to the Union to extort my vote, can +scarcely be distinguished in principle." + +The speech reached its climax in its closing paragraph: "Wrong as we +think slavery is, we can yet afford to let it alone where it is, +because that so much is due to the necessity arising from its actual +presence in the nation; but can we, while our votes will prevent it, +allow it to spread into the national territories, and to overrun us +here in the free states? If our sense of duty forbids this, then let us +stand by our duty, fearlessly and effectively. Let us be diverted by +none of those sophistical contrivances wherewith we are so +industriously plied and belabored--contrivances such as groping for +some middle ground between the right and the wrong, vain as the search +for a man who would be neither a living man nor a dead man; such as a +policy of 'don't care' on a question about which all true men do care; +such as Union appeals to beseech all true Union men to yield to +Disunionists; reversing the divine rule, and calling, not the sinners, +but the righteous, to repentance; such as invocations to Washington, +imploring men to unsay what Washington said, and undo what Washington +did. + +"Neither let us be slandered from our duty by false accusations against +us, nor frightened from it by menaces of destruction to the government, +nor of dungeons to ourselves. Let us have faith that right makes might, +and in that faith, let us, to the end, dare to do our duty as we +understand it." + +This speech placed Lincoln in the line of the presidency. Not only was +it received with unbounded enthusiasm by the mass of the people, but it +was a revelation to the more intellectual and cultivated. Lincoln +afterwards told of a professor of rhetoric at Yale College who was +present. He made an abstract of the speech and the next day presented +it to the class as a model of cogency and finish. This professor +followed Lincoln to Meriden to hear him again. The _Tribune_ gave +to the speech unstinted praise, declaring that "no man ever before made +such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience." + +The greatest compliment, because the most deliberate, was that of the +committee who prepared the speech for general distribution. Their +preface is sufficiently explicit: + +"No one who has not actually attempted to verify its details can +understand the patient research and historical labors which it +embodies. The history of our earlier politics is scattered through +numerous journals, statutes, pamphlets, and letters; and these are +defective in completeness and accuracy of statement, and in indices and +tables of contents. Neither can any one who has not traveled over this +precise ground appreciate the accuracy of every trivial detail, or the +self-denying impartiality with which Mr. Lincoln has turned from the +testimony of 'the fathers' on the general question of slavery, to +present the single question which he discusses. From the first line to +the last, from his premises to his conclusion, he travels with a swift, +unerring directness which no logician ever excelled, an argument +complete and full, without the affectation of learning, and without the +stiffness which usually accompanies dates and details. A single, easy, +simple sentence of plain Anglo-Saxon words, contains a chapter of +history that, in some instances, has taken days of labor to verify, and +which must have cost the author months of investigation to acquire." + +Surely Mr. Bryant and Mr. Beecher and the rest had every reason for +gratification that they had introduced this man of humble beginnings to +so brilliant a New York audience. + +Lincoln went to Exeter, N.H., to visit his son who was in Phillips +Academy preparing for Harvard College. Both going and returning he made +several speeches, all of which were received with more than ordinary +favor. By the time he returned home he was no longer an unknown man. He +was looked on with marked favor in all that portion of the country +which lies north of Mason and Dixon's line. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +THE NOMINATION OF 1860. + + +The subject of this chapter is the republican convention that nominated +Lincoln for the presidency. But for an intelligent narration of this, +it is necessary to give a brief account of at least one of the three +other important political conventions that were held that year. That +one was the regular democratic convention at Charleston. And certain +other facts also must be narrated. + +Leaven was working in two respects. The first is that the plan of +secession and of setting up a Southern nation founded upon slavery, was +not a sudden or impromptu thought. The evidence is conclusive that the +plan had been maturing for years. Recent events had shown that slavery +had reached the limit of its development so far as concerned the +territory of the United States. The plan to annex Cuba as a garden for +the culture of slavery, had failed. California had been admitted as a +free state. Slavery had been excluded from Kansas, although that +territory had for two years been denied admission to the sisterhood of +states. + +As the slave power was not content with any limitation whatever, its +leaders now looked for an opportunity to break up this present +government and start a new one. At the time (December, 1860) South +Carolina passed the ordinance of secession, to be narrated later, +certain things were said which may be quoted here. These utterances +exposed the spirit that animated the slave power long before Lincoln's +election, long before he was even known in politics. + +Parker said that the movement of secession had been "gradually +culminating for _a long series of years_." + +Inglis endorsed the remark and added, "Most of us have had this matter +under consideration for the last twenty years." + +Keitt said, "I have been engaged in this movement _ever since I +entered political life_." + +Rhett said, "The secession of South Carolina was not the event of a +day. It is not anything produced by Mr. Lincoln's election, or by the +non-execution of the fugitive slave law. It is a matter which has been +gathering head _for thirty years_. The election of Lincoln and +Hamlin was the last straw on the back of the camel. But it was not the +only one. The back was nearly broken before. + +The other important fact was the result of Lincoln's Freeport question. +The answer of Douglas was: "I answer _emphatically_ ... that in my +opinion the people of a territory can, by lawful means, exclude slavery +from its limits prior to the formation of a state constitution." This +answer satisfied the democrats of Illinois and secured his election to +the senate, as Lincoln predicted that it would. But it angered the +southern leaders beyond all reason--as Lincoln knew it would. + +When, therefore, the democratic convention met in Charleston, the first +purpose of the southern leaders was to defeat Douglas. In their +judgment he was not orthodox on slavery. He was far the strongest +candidate before the convention, but he was not strong enough to secure +the two-thirds vote which under the rules of that party were necessary +to a choice. After fifty-seven ballots, and a corresponding amount of +debating, the feeling of antagonism rising, continually higher, the +crisis came. The southern delegates withdrew from the convention and +appointed a convention of their own to be held in Richmond. This was +done with the full knowledge that, if it accomplished anything, it +would accomplish the defeat of the party. It was probably done for this +very purpose,--to defeat the party,--so as to give an excuse, more or +less plausible, for carrying out the matured plan of secession, +claiming to be injured or alarmed at the ascendancy of the republican +party. + +Up to this point, at least, Lincoln had no aspirations for the +presidency. But he did aspire to the United States senate. He accepted +his defeat by Douglas in 1858 as only temporary. He knew there would be +another senatorial election in four years. When asked how he felt about +this defeat, he turned it into a joke, and said that he felt "like the +boy who had stubbed his toe, too badly to laugh, and he was too big to +cry." + +He had thought of being nominated as vice-president with Seward as +President, which would have given him, if elected, a place in the +senate. He was glad of any possible prominence in the Chicago +convention, which was still in the future. For that would help his +senatorial aspirations when the time came. But as to anything higher, +he declared, "I must in all candor say that I do not think myself fit +for the presidency." And he was an honest man. With the senate still in +view, he added, "I am not in a position where it would hurt me much not +to be nominated [for president] on the national ticket; but I am where +it would hurt some for me not to get the Illinois delegates." + +Thus, at the beginning of the year 1860, Lincoln was in no sense in the +race for the presidential nomination. About that time a list of twenty- +one names of possible candidates was published in New York; Lincoln's +name was not on the list. A list of thirty-five was published in +Philadelphia. Lincoln's name was not on that list. After the speech at +Cooper Institute the Evening Post mentioned Lincoln's name along with +others. That was the only case in the East. + +In Illinois his candidacy developed in February and came to ahead at +the republican state convention at Decatur. Lincoln's name had been +prominent in the preceding local conventions, and the enthusiasm was +growing. Decatur was very near to the place where Thomas Lincoln had +first settled when he came into the state. When Abraham Lincoln came +into this convention he was greeted with an outburst of enthusiasm. +After order had been restored, the chairman, Governor Oglesby, +announced that an old-time Macon County democrat desired to make a +contribution to the convention. The offer being accepted, a banner was +borne up the hall upon two old fence rails. The whole was gaily +decorated and the inscription was: + + ABRAHAM LINCOLN, + THE RAIL CANDIDATE + FOR PRESIDENT IN 1860. + + Two rails from a lot of 3,000 made in 1830 by + Thos. Hanks and Abe Lincoln-whose + father was the first pioneer of + Macon County. + +This incident was the means of enlarging the soubriquet "Honest Abe" to +"Honest Old Abe, the Rail-splitter." The enthusiasm over the rails +spread far and wide. That he had split rails, and that he even had done +it well, was no test of his statesmanship. But it was a reminder of his +humble origin, and it attached him to the common people, between whom +and himself there had always been a warm feeling of mutual sympathy. + +The democratic convention had, after the bolt of the extreme +southerners, adjourned to Baltimore, where they duly nominated Douglas. +What any one could have done for the purpose of restoring harmony in +the party, he did. But the breach was too wide for even that astute +politician to bridge over. Lincoln grasped the situation. It was what +he had planned two years before, and he confidently expected just this +breach. "Douglas never can be President," he had said. He fully +understood the relentless bitterness of the slave power, and he well +knew that whatever Douglas might do for the northern democrats, he had +lost all influence with the southern branch of that party. So Lincoln +told his "little story" and serenely awaited the result. + +The second republican national convention met in Chicago, May 16, 1860. +A temporary wooden structure, called a wigwam, had been built for the +purpose. It was, for those days, a very large building, and would +accommodate about ten thousand people. + +The man who was, far and away, the most prominent candidate for the +nomination, was William H. Seward, of New York. He had the benefit of +thirty years of experience in political life. He was a man of wide +learning, fine culture, unequaled as a diplomatist; he was a patriot, a +statesman, and loyal to the principles of the republican party. He had +a plurality of the delegates by a wide margin, though not a majority. +It seemed a foregone conclusion that he would be nominated. Horace +Greeley, who was determinedly opposed to him, gave up the contest and +telegraphed to his paper that Seward would be nominated. The +opposition, he said, could not unite on any one man. + +The next most prominent name was Lincoln. He had the full delegation of +Illinois, who, at Decatur, had been instructed to vote for him as "the +first and only choice" of the state. He had many votes, too, from the +neighboring states. + +In addition to these two candidates before the convention, there were +half a dozen others, all "favorite sons" of their own states, but who +at no time developed any great strength. + +The only point against Seward was his inability to carry certain +doubtful states. If the split in the democratic party had not occurred, +and if the election were to be carried according to the experience of +1856, it would be necessary for the republicans to carry certain states +which they had at that time failed to carry. The most available states +were Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana, and Illinois. Under favorable +circumstances, these could be carried. Seward's long public career had +inevitably caused antagonisms, and these necessary states he could not +carry. The question with his opponents then was, Who is most likely to +carry these states? Lincoln's popularity in three of the four states +named singled him out as the rival of Seward. It then became only a +question whether the opposition to Seward could or could not unite in +the support of Lincoln. + +At this point there came in a political ruse which has been often used +in later years. Seward's friends had taken to Chicago a small army of +claquers, numbering nearly or quite two thousand. These were +distributed through the audience and were apparently under orders to +shout whenever Seward's name was mentioned. This gave the appearance of +spontaneous applause and seemed to arouse great enthusiasm for the +candidate. + +Lincoln's friends soon came to understand the situation and planned to +beat their rivals at their own game. They sent out into the country and +secured two men with phenomenal voices. It was said, with playful +exaggeration, that these two men could shout so as to be heard across +Lake Michigan. They were made captains of two stentorian bands of +followers. These were placed on opposite sides of the auditorium and +were instructed to raise the shout at a preconcerted signal and keep it +up as long as desired. The plan worked. + +Leonard Swett describes the result: "Caleb B. Smith of Indiana then +seconded the nomination of Lincoln, and the West came to his rescue. No +mortal before ever saw such a scene. The idea of us Hoosiers and +Suckers being out-screamed would have been as bad to them as the loss +of their man. Five thousand people at once leaped to their seats, women +not wanting in the number, and the wild yell made soft vesper +breathings of all that had preceded. No language can describe it. A +thousand steam-whistles, ten acres of hotel gongs, a tribe of Comanches +headed by a choice vanguard from pandemonium, might have mingled in the +scene unnoticed." + +A dramatic scene had occurred at the adoption of the platform. When the +first resolution was read, Joshua E. Giddings, an old-time abolitionist +of the extreme type, moved as an amendment to incorporate the words +from the Declaration of Independence which announce the right of all +men to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The hostility to +this amendment was not so much owing to an objection to the phrase, as +to its being introduced upon the motion of so extreme a partisan as +Giddings. The new party was made up of men of various old parties, and +it was important that the moderate democrats should not be antagonized +by the extreme abolitionists. The motion was lost by a decided vote, +and the old man, almost broken-hearted, left the hall amid the +protestations of his associates. + +There then came to his rescue a young man, about thirty-six years of +age, who was then not widely known, but who since has more than once +decidedly influenced republican conventions at a critical stage of the +proceedings. It was George William Curtis. When the second resolution +was under consideration he presented the amendment of Giddings in a +form slightly modified. He then urged it in an impassioned speech, and +by his torrent of eloquence carried the enthusiasm of the convention +with him. "I have to ask this convention," he concluded, "whether they +are prepared to go upon the record before the country as voting down +the words of the Declaration of Independence.... I rise simply to ask +gentlemen to think well before, upon the free prairies of the West, in +the summer of 1860, they dare to wince and quail before the assertion +of the men of Philadelphia in 1776--before they dare to shrink from +repeating the words that these great men enunciated." + +The amendment was adopted in a storm of applause. Giddings, overjoyed +at the result, returned to the hall. He threw his arms about Curtis +and, with deep emotion, exclaimed,--"God bless you, my boy! You have +saved the republican party. God bless you!" + +The candidates in those days were simply announced without speeches of +glorification, Mr. Evarts of New York named Seward, and Mr. Judd of +Illinois named Lincoln. The names of half a dozen "favorite sons" were +offered by their states, the most important being Bates of Missouri. +After the seconding of the nominations the convention proceeded to the +ballot. There were 465 votes, and 233 were necessary for a choice. + +On the first ballot Seward received 173-1/2, and Lincoln, 102. The rest +were scattering. On the second ballot Seward received 184-1/2, and +Lincoln, 181. Seward was still ahead, but Lincoln had made by far the +greater gain. On the third ballot Seward received 180, and Lincoln 231- +1/2. But this ballot was not announced. The delegates kept tally during +the progress of the vote. When it became evident that Lincoln was about +elected, while the feeling of expectancy was at the highest degree of +tension, an Ohio delegate mounted his chair and announced a change of +four Ohio votes from Chase to Lincoln. There was instantly a break. On +every side delegates announced a change of vote to Lincoln. The result +was evident to every one, and after a moment's pause, the crowd went +mad with joy. One spectator has recorded the event: + +"The scene which followed baffles all human description. After an +instant's silence, which seemed to be required to enable the assembly +to take in the full force of the announcement, the wildest and +mightiest yell (for it can be called by no other name) burst forth from +ten thousand voices which were ever heard from mortal throats. This +strange and tremendous demonstration, accompanied with leaping up and +down, tossing hats, handkerchiefs, and canes recklessly into the air, +with the waving of flags, and with every other conceivable mode of +exultant and unbridled joy, continued steadily and without pause for +perhaps ten minutes." + +"It then began to rise and fall in slow and billowing bursts, and for +perhaps the next five minutes, these stupendous waves of uncontrollable +excitement, now rising into the deepest and fiercest shouts, and then +sinking, like the ground swell of the ocean, into hoarse and lessening +murmurs, rolled through the multitude. Every now and then it would seem +as though the physical power of the assembly was exhausted, when all at +once a new hurricane would break out, more prolonged and terrific than +anything before. If sheer exhaustion had not prevented, we don't know +but the applause would have continued to this hour." + +During all this time Lincoln remained at Springfield, where he was in +telegraphic communication with his friends at Chicago, though not by +private wire. At the time of his nomination he had gone from his office +to that of the Sangamon _Journal_. A messenger boy came rushing up +to him, carrying a telegram and exclaiming, "You are nominated." The +friends who were present joyously shook his hands and uttered their +eager congratulations. Lincoln thanked them for their good wishes, and +said "There is a little woman on Eighth Street who will be glad to hear +this, and I guess I'll go up and carry her the news." Pocketing the +telegram he walked home. + +At the wigwam, the news spread quickly. A man had been stationed on the +roof as picket. He shouted, "Hallelujah! Abe Lincoln is nominated. Fire +the cannon!" The frenzy of joy spread to the immense throng of citizens +outside the wigwam, then through the city, then through the state, then +through the neighboring states. At Washington that night some one +asked, "Who is this man Lincoln, anyhow?" Douglas replied, "There won't +be a tar barrel left in Illinois' tonight." With unprecedented +enthusiasm the republican party started on this campaign which led to +its first victory in the election of Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and +Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +THE ELECTION. + + +There are two things which made the campaign of 1860 paradoxical, so to +speak. One was that the nomination was equivalent to an election, +unless unforeseen difficulties should arise. The other was that this +election might be used by the extreme Southern democrats as an excuse +for precipitating war. They threatened this. + +After the nomination the committee of the convention duly called on +Lincoln to give him the formal notification. This committee included +some names that were at that time, and still more so later, widely +known. Among them were three from Massachusetts: Ashmun, then Governor, +and chairman of the Chicago convention, Bowles, editor of the +Springfield _Republican_, and Boutwell. There were also Gideon +Welles, Carl Schurz, Francis P. Blair, and W. M. Evarts. The chairman +of this committee notified Lincoln in a brief speech, to which he +responded with equal brevity. Even these few words impressed his +hearers with a sense of dignity and manliness which they were only too +glad to perceive. Said Mr. Boutwell: "Why, sir, they told me he was a +rough diamond. Nothing could have been in better taste than that +speech." + +One who had opposed Lincoln in the convention said: "We might have done +a more daring thing [than nominate him], but we certainly could not +have done a better thing." Carl Schurz evidently shared this feeling. + +Judge Kelly of Pennsylvania was a very tall man and was proud of the +fact. During the brief ceremony he and Lincoln had been measuring each +other with the eye. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the President- +elect demanded: + +"What's your height?" + +"Six feet three. What is yours, Mr. Lincoln?" + +"Six feet four." + +"Then," said the judge, "Pennsylvania bows to Illinois. My dear man, +for many years my heart has been aching for a President I could _look +up to_, and I've found him at last in the land where we thought +there were none but _little_ giants." + +The general feeling of the committee was that the convention had made +no mistake. This feeling quickly spread throughout the entire party. +Some of Seward's friends wanted him to run on an independent ticket. It +is to his credit that he scouted the idea. The democrats, at least the +opponents of Lincoln, were divided into three camps, The first was the +regular party, headed by Douglas. The second was the bolting party of +fire-eaters, who nominated Breckinridge. The third was the party that +nominated Bell and Everett. This was wittily called the Kangaroo +ticket, because the tail was the most important part. Lincoln's popular +vote at the November election was about forty per cent, of the total. +It was plain that if his supporters held together and his opponents +were divided, he could readily get a plurality. There were attempts on +the part of the opponents of Lincoln to run fusion tickets in New York, +New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, so as to divert the electoral votes from +him; but these came to nothing more than that New Jersey diverted three +of her seven electoral votes. + +A curious feature of the campaign was that all four candidates declared +emphatically for the Union. Breckinridge, who was the candidate of the +Southern disunionists, wrote; "The Constitution and the equality of the +states, these are symbols of everlasting union." Lincoln himself could +hardly have used stronger language. Some people were doubtless deceived +by these protestations, but not Douglas. He declared: "I do not believe +that every Breckinridge man is a disunionist, but I do believe that +every disunionist in America is a Breckinridge man." During the period +of nearly six months between nomination and election, Lincoln continued +simple, patient, wise. He was gratified by the nomination. He was not +elated, for he was not an ambitious man. On the contrary, he felt the +burden of responsibility. He was a far-seeing statesman, and no man +more distinctly realized the coming tragedy. He felt the call of duty, +not to triumph but to sacrifice. This was the cause of his seriousness +and gravity of demeanor. + +There was no unnecessary change in his simple manners and unpretentious +method of living. Friends and neighbors came, and he was glad to see +them. He answered the door-bell himself and accompanied visitors to the +door. Some of his friends, desiring to save his strength in these +little matters, procured a negro valet, Thomas by name. But Abraham +continued to do most of the duties that by right belonged to Thomas. + +Some one sent him a silk hat, that he might go to Washington with head- +gear equal to the occasion. A farmer's wife knit him a pair of yarn +stockings. Hundreds of such attentions, kind in intent, grotesque in +appearance, he received with that kindness which is the soul of +courtesy. There was a woman at whose modest farmhouse he had once dined +on a bowl of bread and milk, because he had arrived after everything +else had been eaten up. She came into Springfield to renew her +apologies and to remind him that he had said that that repast was "good +enough for the President." While he commanded the respect of Bryant, +Schurz, Boutwell, and such, he was at the same time the idol of the +plain people, whom he always loved. He once said he thought the Lord +particularly loved plain people, for he had made so many of them. + +Shortly after his nomination he was present at a party in Chicago. A +little girl approached timidly. He asked, encouragingly, if he could do +anything for her. She replied that she wanted his name. He looked about +and said, "But here are other little girls--they will feel badly if I +give my name only to you." She said there were eight of them in all. +"Then," said he, "get me eight sheets of paper, and a pen and ink, and +I will see what I can do for you." The materials were brought, and in +the crowded drawing-room he sat down, wrote a sentence and his name on +each sheet of paper. Thus he made eight little girls happy. + +The campaign was one of great excitement. His letter of acceptance was +of the briefest description and simply announced his adherence to the +platform. For the rest, his previous utterances in the debates with +Douglas, the Cooper Institute speech, and other addresses, were in +print, and he was content to stand by the record. He showed his wisdom +in his refusing to be diverted, or to allow his party to be diverted, +from the one important question of preventing the further extension of +slavery. The public were not permitted to lose sight of the fact that +this was the real issue. The Chicago wigwam was copied in many cities: +temporary wooden structures were erected for republican meetings. These +did good service as rallying centers. + +Then the campaign biographers began to appear. It was said that by June +he had had no less than fifty-two applications to write his biography. +One such book was written by W. D. Howells, not so famous in literature +then as now. Lincoln furnished a sketch of his life, an "autobiography" +so called. This contains only about five hundred words. Its brevity is +an indication of its modesty. + +Nor was there any lack of eulogistic music. Among the writers of +campaign songs were J. G. Whittier and E. C. Stedman. + +The parading contingent of the party was represented by the "Wide- +Awakes." The uniform was as effective as simple. It consisted of a +cadet cap and a cape, both made of oil-cloth, and a torch. The first +company was organized in Hartford. It had escorted Lincoln from the +hotel to the hall and back again when he spoke in that city in February +after his Cooper Institute speech. The idea of this uniformed company +of cadets captivated the public fancy. Bands of Wide-Awakes were +organized in every community in the North. At the frequent political +rallies they poured in by thousands and tens of thousands, a very +picturesque sight. The original band in Hartford obtained the identical +maul with which Lincoln had split those rails in 1830. It is now in the +collection of the Connecticut Historical Society, in Hartford. + +Though Lincoln had much to cheer him, he had also his share of +annoyances. One of his discouragements was so serious, and at this day +it appears so amazing, that it is given nearly in full. A careful +canvas had been made of the voters of Springfield, and the intention of +each voter had been recorded. Lincoln had the book containing this +record. He asked his friend Mr. Bateman, the State Superintendent of +Public Instruction, to look through the book with him. They noted +particularly those who might be considered leaders of public morals: +clergymen, officers, or prominent members of the churches. + +When the memorandum was tabulated, after some minutes of silence, he +turned a sad face to Mr. Bateman, and said: "Here are twenty-three +ministers, of different denominations, and all of them are against me +but three; and here are a great many prominent members of the churches, +a very large majority of whom are against me. Mr. Bateman, I am not a +Christian--God knows I would be one--but I have carefully read the +Bible, and I do not so understand this book." He drew from his pocket a +New Testament. "These men well know that I am for freedom in the +territories, freedom everywhere as far as the Constitution and laws +will permit, and that my opponents are for slavery. They know this, and +yet, with this book in their hands, in the light of which human bondage +cannot live a moment, they are going to vote against me. I do not +understand it at all." + +After a long pause, he added with tears: "I know there is a God, and +that He hates injustice and slavery. I see the storm coming, and I know +that His hand is in it. If He has a place and work for me--and I think +He has--I believe I am ready. I am nothing, but truth is everything. I +know I am right because I know that liberty is right, for Christ +teaches it, and Christ is God. I have told them that a house divided +against itself cannot stand, and Christ and reason say the same; and +they will find it so. Douglas doesn't care whether slavery is voted up +or voted down, but God cares, and humanity cares, and I care; and with +God's help I shall not fail. I may not see the end; but it will come +and I shall be vindicated; and these men will find that they have not +read their Bibles aright." + +After another pause: "Doesn't it appear strange that men can ignore the +moral aspects of this contest? A revelation could not make it plainer +to me that slavery or the government must be destroyed. The future +would be something awful, as I look at it, but for this rock [the +Testament which he was holding] on which I stand,--especially with the +knowledge of how these ministers are going to vote. It seems as if God +had borne with this thing [slavery] until the very teachers of religion +had come to defend it from the Bible, and to claim for it a divine +character and sanction; and now the cup of iniquity is full, and the +vials of wrath will be poured out." + +Lincoln did not wear his heart upon his sleeve. On the subject of +religion, he was reticent to a degree. Peter Cartwright had called him +an atheist. There was a wide, if not general, impression, that he was +not a religious man. This did him great injustice. It is for this +reason that his remarks to Mr. Bateman are here quoted at length. From +his early boyhood, from before the time when he was at great pains to +have a memorial sermon for his mother, he was profoundly, intensely +religious. He did no injustice to any other man, he did not do justice +to himself. + +The election occurred on the sixth day of November. The vote was as +follows: Lincoln received 1,866,452 popular votes, and one hundred and +eighty electoral votes. Douglas received 1,375,157 popular votes, and +twelve electoral votes. Breckinridge received 847,953 popular votes, +and seventy-two electoral votes. Bell received 590,631 popular votes, +and thirty-nine electoral votes. + +Lincoln carried all the free states, excepting that in New Jersey the +electoral vote was divided, he receiving four out of seven. In the +fifteen slave states he received no electoral vote. In ten states not +one person had voted for him. + +Of the 303 electoral votes he had received 180, while the aggregate of +all against him numbered 123, giving him an absolute majority of 57. +The electoral vote was duly counted in the joint session of the two +houses of congress February 13, 1861, and it was officially announced +that Abraham Lincoln, having received a majority of the votes of the +presidential electors, was duly elected President of the United States +for four years, beginning March 4, 1861. + +One circumstance is added which may be of interest to the reader. This +was published, after his death, by his personal friend, Noah Brooks. It +is given in Lincoln's own words: "It was just after my election, in +1860, when the news had been coming in thick and fast all day, and +there had been a great 'Hurrah boys!' so that I was well tired out and +went home to rest, throwing myself upon a lounge in my chamber. +Opposite to where I lay was a bureau with a swinging glass upon it; and +looking in that glass, I saw myself reflected nearly at full length; +but my face, I noticed, had two separate and distinct images, the tip +of the nose of the one being about three inches from the tip of the +other. I was a little bothered, perhaps startled, and got up and looked +in the glass, but the illusion vanished. On lying down again, I saw it +a second time, plainer, if possible, than before; and then I noticed +that one of the faces was a little paler--say five shades--than the +other. I got up, and the thing melted away, and I went off, and, in the +excitement of the hour, forgot all about it,--nearly, but not quite, +for the thing would once in a while come up, and give me a little pang +as though something uncomfortable had happened. When I went home, I +told my wife about it, and a few days after I tried the experiment +again, when, sure enough, the thing came back again; but I never +succeeded in bringing the ghost back after that, though I once tried +very industriously to show it to my wife, who was worried about it +somewhat. She thought it was 'a sign' that I was to be elected to a +second term of office, and that the paleness of one of the faces was an +omen that I should not see life through the last term." + +The incident is of no interest excepting in so far as everything about +Lincoln is of interest. The phenomenon is an optical illusion not +uncommon. One image--the "paler," or more indistinct, one--is reflected +from the surface of the glass, while the other is reflected from the +silvered back of the glass. Though Lincoln understood that it was an +optical illusion, yet the thought of it evidently weighed on him. +Otherwise he would not have repeated the experiment several times, nor +would he have told of it to different persons. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +FOUR LONG MONTHS. + + +Four months would not ordinarily be considered a long period of time. +But when one is compelled to see the working of a vast amount of +mischief, powerless to prevent it, and knowing one's self to be the +chief victim of it all, the time is long. Such was the fate of Lincoln. +The election was not the end of a life of toil and struggle, it was the +beginning of a new career of sorrow. The period of four months between +the election and inauguration could not be devoted to rest or to the +pleasant plans for a prosperous term of service. There developed a plan +for the disruption of the government. The excuse was Lincoln's +election. But he was for four months only a private citizen. He had no +power. He could only watch the growing mischief and realize that he was +the ultimate victim. Buchanan, who was then President, had a genius for +doing the most unwise thing. He was a northern man with southern +principles, and this may have unfitted him to see things in their true +relations. He certainly was putty in the hands of those who wished to +destroy the Union, and his vacillation precisely accomplished what they +wished. Had he possessed the firmness and spirit of John A. Dix, who +ordered,--"If any man attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot +him on the spot;" had he had a modicum of the patriotism of Andrew +Jackson; had he had a tithe of the wisdom and manliness of Lincoln; +secession would have been nipped in the bud and vast treasures of money +and irreparable waste of human blood would have been spared. Whatever +the reason may have been,--incapacity, obliquity of moral and political +vision, or absolute championship of the cause of disruption,--certain +it is that the southern fire-eaters could not have found a tool more +perfectly suited to their purpose than James Buchanan. He was the +center of one of the most astonishing political cabals of all history. + +Lincoln did not pass indiscriminate condemnation upon all men of +southern sympathies. At the time of which we are now writing, and +consistently up to the end of his life, he made a marked distinction +between the rank and file of the Confederates on the one hand, and +those leaders who, on the other hand, had, while in the service of the +United States government, sought to accomplish its destruction. The +first were revolutionists; they were so regarded generally in Europe, +and he believed they were sincere; he regarded them as having the +spirit of revolutionists. For the second, who held office under, drew +pay from, and were under solemn oath to support, the government, while +they were using the vantage of their official position to violate the +Constitution and disrupt that government, there is but one word, and +that a strong one,--traitors. This was Lincoln's judgment of the men. + +Let us now briefly describe the situation. Jefferson Davis, though not +a member of Buchanan's cabinet, was probably the most influential of +the Southerners in Washington. He had been Secretary of War under +Pierce, and it was he who inaugurated the policy of stripping the North +for the purpose of strengthening the military defenses of the South. +This policy was vigorously pursued under his successor. + +The only person to call a halt to the treasonable proceedings was +General Winfield Scott. He was residing in New York City, and on +October 29th addressed a letter to President Buchanan containing his +views upon the situation. A day or two later he added supplementary +considerations addressed to the Secretary of War. He set forth, with +much clearness and force, the necessity of garrisoning the southern +forts before they should be lost; His letter had its faults, but it +accomplished one thing: it showed that there was one high official who +was in earnest in the discharge of his duties, and with whom it was not +safe to trifle. + +President Buchanan sent in his annual message to Congress December +3, 1860. In his discussion of the subject of slavery, he recommended +that it be extended to the territories,--the very thing that the people +had just voted should not be done. Concerning secession, he said for +substance that the government had the power to suppress revolt, but +that it could not use that power in reference to South Carolina, the +state then under consideration. The secessionists had apparently tied +the hands of the executive effectually. + +Now observe what was going on in the cabinet. Lewis Cass had been +Secretary of State, but resigned in indignation over the inaction of +the President when he failed to succor the forts in Charleston Harbor. +He was succeeded by Jeremiah S. Black, who, as attorney-general, had +given to Buchanan an opinion that the Federal government had no power +to coerce a seceding state. + +Howell Cobb, Secretary of the Treasury, having wasted the funds and +destroyed the credit of the government, resigned and left an empty +treasury. + +John B. Floyd, Secretary of War, was not the least active. He carried +out fully the plan which Jefferson Davis had begun to operate several +years before. The northern arsenals were stripped of the arms and +ammunition which were sent South for storage or use. The number of +regular troops was small, but the few soldiers there were, he scattered +in distant places, so that they should be out of reach. They were not +to be available for the use of the government until the conspirators +should have time to complete their work. It was Floyd whom an emotional +Virginian later eulogized. With quite as much truth as poetry he +declared that the Secretary of War "thwarted, objected, resisted, and +forbade" the efforts of General Scott. This same admirer of Floyd +further declared that, if Scott's plans had been adopted and his +measures executed, the conspiracy would have been defeated and it would +have been impossible to form the Southern Confederacy. + +Not worse, perhaps, but more flagrant, was the action of the Secretary +of the Interior, Thompson of Mississippi. With the advice and consent +of Buchanan, he left his post at Washington to visit North Carolina and +help on the work of secession, and then returned and resumed his +official prerogatives under the government he had sworn to sustain. +This is so grave a matter that a passage from the diary of Mr. Clingman +is here inserted, quoted by Nicolay and Hay: "About the middle of +December (1860) I had occasion to see the Secretary of the Interior on +some official business. On my entering the room, Mr. Thompson said to +me, 'Clingman, I am glad you have called, for I intended presently to +go up to the senate to see you. I have been appointed a commissioner by +the state of Mississippi to go down to North Carolina to get your state +to secede.' ... I said to him, 'I did not know you had resigned.' He +answered, 'Oh, no! I have not resigned.' 'Then,' I replied, 'I suppose +you resign in the morning.' 'No,' he answered, 'I do not intend to +resign, for Mr. Buchanan wished us all to hold on, and go out with him +on the 4th of March.' 'But,' said I, 'does Mr. Buchanan know for what +purpose you are going to North Carolina?' 'Certainly,' he said, 'he +knows my object.'" In the meanwhile, Isaac Toucey, the Secretary of the +Navy, had been prevailed on to put the navy out of reach. The armed +vessels were sent to the ends of the earth. At the critical period, +only two were available to the government. What was going on in +congress? That body was very busy doing nothing. Both senate and house +raised committees for the purpose of devising means of compromise. But +every measure of concession was promptly voted down by the body that +had appointed the committees. In the senate the slave power was in full +control. In the house the slave power was not in majority, but they +enjoyed this advantage that they were able to work together, while the +constituency of the free states were usually divided among themselves. +And in joint session the extreme pro-slavery men were always able to +prevent anything from being accomplished. This was all they wished. +They had sufficient pledges from the President that nothing would be +done before the 4th of March, and it was their belief that by that time +the new power would have so good a start that it could treat with the +United States on equal terms. On January 7, 1861, Senator Yulee, of +Florida, wrote: "By remaining in our places until the 4th of March, it +is thought we can keep the hands of Mr. Buchanan tied, and disable the +republicans from effecting any legislation which will strengthen the +hands of the incoming administration." + +On December 14, thirty of the southern senators and representatives had +issued a circular to their constituents. They said that the argument +was exhausted, that all hope of relief was extinguished, that the +republicans would grant nothing satisfactory, and that the honor, +safety, and independence of the Southern people required the +organization of a Southern Confederacy. + +South Carolina was the first to act. Six days later that state passed +the ordinance of secession. + +Upon this, one of the extreme traitors was forced out of the cabinet. +Floyd, the mischievous Secretary of War, was displaced by Holt, a loyal +man. Floyd, however, had done nearly, if not quite, all the mischief he +could have done. Stanton had already replaced Black as Attorney-General. + +The conspirators then held a caucus. It is supposed that this caucus +was held in one of the rooms of the Capitol. At all events it was held +in the city of Washington. It was composed of the extreme southern +congressmen. It decided to recommend immediate secession, the formation +of the Southern Confederacy, and, not least, that the congressmen +should remain in their seats to keep the President's hands tied. The +committee to carry out these plans consisted of Jefferson Davis, +Slidell, and Mallory. By the first day of February, seven states had +passed ordinances of secession. + +This is about what was going on during the four months Lincoln was +waiting for the appointed time when he should enter upon his duties. It +was not unlike looking upon a house he was shortly to occupy, and +seeing vandals applying the torch and ax of destruction, while he was +not permitted to go to the rescue, all the while knowing that he would +be held accountable for the preservation of the structure. So Lincoln +saw this work of destruction going on at Washington. It was plain that +the mischief ought to be, and could be, stopped. But Buchanan would not +stop it, and Lincoln was, until March 4th, a private citizen and could +do nothing. The bitterest part of it was that all the burden would fall +on him. As soon as he should become President it would be his duty to +save the government which these men were now openly destroying. + +Miss Tarbell has recorded a conversation between Lincoln and his friend +Judge Gillespie, which took place in Springfield early in January, in +which the former expressed his feelings upon the situation. +"Gillespie," said he, "I would willingly take out of my life a period +in years equal to the two months which intervene between now and the +inauguration, to take the oath of office now." + +"Why?" + +"Because every hour adds to the difficulties I am called upon to meet +and the present administration does nothing to check the tendency +towards dissolution. I, who have been called to meet this awful +responsibility, am compelled to remain here, doing nothing to avert it +or lessen its force when it comes to me.... Every day adds to the +situation and makes the outlook more gloomy. Secession is being +fostered rather than repressed.... I have read, upon my knees, the +story of Gethsemane, where the Son of God prayed in vain that the cup +of bitterness might pass from him. I am in the garden of Gethsemane +now, and my cup of bitterness is full to overflowing" (Tarbell, "Life +of Lincoln," II., 406). + +It was indeed hard to keep his patience and self-control. He was +importuned for expressions of his views, for messages conciliatory to +the South, for some kind of a proclamation which might quiet the public +feeling. But he saw clearly that anything he might say at that time, no +matter how wise or conciliatory, would surely be misused as fuel to add +to the flames. While therefore he talked and wrote freely to his +friends, he made no public announcement. He merely referred to his +record. His opinions had been fully expressed in the debates with +Douglas and in other speeches. There were four important points as to +his future policy. The Union should be preserved, the Constitution +should be upheld, and the fugitive slave law (being a law) should be +enforced, but slavery should not be extended. These fully covered all +the necessary points of the subject, and beyond these he would not go. +He who would control others must first control himself. It is hard to +imagine a more severe test than this imposed on Lincoln during this +period of waiting. He made his preparations in silence, and not an +injudicious word escaped him. He left his home for Washington the 11th +day of February, but though he made several speeches on the way, he did +not outline his policy until he read his inaugural address on the 4th +of March. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +JOURNEY TO WASHINGTON. + + +The long period of waiting approached its end. Most of the states and +cities lying between Springfield and Washington invited him officially +to visit them on his way to the capital. It was decided that he should +accept as many as possible of these invitations. This would involve a +zigzag route and require considerable time. The invitation of +Massachusetts he declined on account of the pressure of time. Maryland +was conspicuous by its omission of courtesy. Two private citizens of +Baltimore invited him to dinner. That was all. + +The presidential party consisted of about a dozen, all told. They were +to leave Springfield February 11, and to consume about two weeks on the +way. It was a dreary morning, partly drizzling, and partly snowing. A +large crowd of neighbors had assembled at the dingy railway station to +bid him good-by. The process of handshaking was interrupted by the +arrival of the train. After the party had entered the car, the +President reappeared on the rear platform. He raised his hand to speak, +but did not utter a word until the solemn silence became painful. Then, +with great tenderness and seriousness, he spoke as follows: + +"My friends, no one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of +sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these +people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and +have passed from a young to an old man. Here my children have been +born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever +I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon +Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever +attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I cannot fail. +Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be +everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. +To His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend +me, I bid you an affectionate farewell." + +The speech was telegraphed, with substantial accuracy all over the +country, and was read with loving sympathy by millions of loyal +citizens. The words above given are the report as revised by Lincoln +himself, and first published in the _Century_ for December, 1887. + +The party was in charge of Colonel Ward Hill Lamon, afterwards Marshal +of the District of Columbia. He was a trained athlete, a Hercules in +strength, a man who knew not what fear was, and, with an enthusiasm +akin to religious zeal, he was devoted to his chief soul and body. In +the words of a later Marshal, he "worshiped every bone in his body." + +A few friends had accompanied the presidential party to Indianapolis, +where the first stop was made. After the address of welcome by Governor +Morton and the response, after the speech to the legislature, after the +reception and the handshaking, they were left in quiet in the Bates +House. These friends then took Lamon into a room, locked the door, and +in the most solemn and impressive manner laid upon him the +responsibilities of guarding Lincoln's person until they should reach +Washington. The scene was concluded by Dubois with a mixture of +solemnity and playfulness, who said: "Now, Lamon, we intrust the sacred +life of Mr. Lincoln to your keeping; and if you don't protect it, never +return to Illinois, for we will murder you on sight." + +Neither the exhortation nor the threat were in the least needed by +Lamon, who was thoroughly alert. But it is of interest in this, that it +indicates that there was a wide-spread feeling that this journey was +fraught with unusual dangers. + +Of course Lincoln made many brief speeches. These were closely scanned +in the hope of finding some premonition of his inaugural. But not one +such word escaped him. He complained that though he had in his day done +much hard work, this was the hardest work he had ever done,--to keep +speaking without saying anything. It was not quite true that he did not +say anything, for the speeches were thoughtful and full of interest. +But he did not anticipate his inaugural, and to that the popular +curiosity was alive. He did not say the things that were uppermost in +his mind. + +At Indianapolis he asked pregnant questions: "What, then, is +'coercion'? What is 'invasion'?... If the United States should merely +hold and retake its own forts and other property [in South Carolina +that had seceded], and collect the duties on foreign importations, or +even withhold the mails from places where they were habitually +violated, would any, or all, of these things be 'invasion' or +'coercion'?... Upon what principle, what rightful principle, may a +state, being no more than one-fiftieth part of the nation in soil and +population, break up the nation, and then coerce a proportionally +larger subdivision of itself in the most arbitrary way? What mysterious +right to play tyrant is conferred on a district of country, with its +people, by merely calling it a state? Fellow-citizens, I am not +asserting anything. I am merely asking questions for you to consider." + +At Trenton, New Jersey, historic in the annals of the revolutionary +war, he spoke with simple candor of the influence upon his life of +Weems' "Life of Washington," one of the first books he ever read. The +audience broke into cheers, loud and long, when he appealed to them to +stand by him in the discharge of his patriotic duty. "I shall +endeavor," said he, "to take the ground I deem most just to the North, +the East, the West, the South, and the whole country. I take it, I +hope, in good temper; certainly with no malice towards any section. I +shall do all that may be in my power to promote a peaceful settlement +of all our difficulties. The man does not live who is more devoted to +peace than I am, none who would do more to preserve it; but it may be +necessary to put the foot down firmly. And if I do my duty and do +right, you will sustain me, will you not?" + +At Philadelphia he spoke in Independence Hall on Washington's Birthday, +and raised a flag. "Our friends," he said of it, "had provided a +magnificent flag of our country. They had arranged it so that I was +given the honor of raising it to the head of its staff. And when it +went up, I was pleased that it went to its place by the strength of my +own feeble arm. When, according to the arrangement, the cord was +pulled, and it flaunted gloriously to the wind without an accident, in +the bright glowing sunshine of the morning, I could not help hoping +that there was in the entire success of that beautiful ceremony at +least something of an omen of what is to come." + +On this very day, President Buchanan, in Washington City, was +apologizing for permitting the American flag to be carried at the head +of a procession that was marching to celebrate the birthday of George +Washington! + +It was at Philadelphia that matters became more exciting. At that place +they were informed of a plot to assassinate the President as he passed +through Baltimore. This information came to them from a variety of +sources entirely independent, and the various stories so nearly agreed +in substance that they could not be disregarded. Most important of +these informants was Allan Pinkerton of Chicago, one of the most famous +detectives in the world. He had been personally with his assistants in +Baltimore and knew the details of the plot. But Lincoln was neither +suspicious nor timid, and was therefore disinclined to pay heed to the +warnings of Pinkerton. + +At about this time the son of William H. Seward met Lincoln with +confidential communications from his father. This gave other evidences +of this plot, gathered by some detectives from New York City. These two +sets of detectives had worked on the case; each party entirely ignorant +of the other. Both got specific evidence of the plot. + +It was remembered, too, that since leaving Springfield ten days before, +they had had at least two escapes. The track had been tampered with in +a manifest attempt to wreck the train. A hand grenade had been found in +one of the cars. It is not likely that this deadly machine was taken on +the train merely for fun. + +The members of the party were deeply concerned about the Baltimore +revelations. But it was hard to get Lincoln to take them seriously. +With difficulty was he persuaded to follow Pinkerton's plan and enter +Washington secretly. He consented to do this really out of +consideration for the judgment of others, not that he shared their +apprehension. On one thing, however, Lincoln was firm. He had made +certain appointments for speaking _en route_ which he would not +abandon. His promise had been given and would be kept. One was the +flag-raising at Philadelphia, narrated above, and the other was to +address the legislature at Harrisburg. "Both these appointments," said +he, "I will keep _if it costs me my life_." These words suggest +that he may have realized more of the danger than he was willing to +show. + +There are also intimations of the same thing which will be noticed by +the careful reader of the speeches at Philadelphia and Harrisburg. In +declining to give a hint of the details of his proposed policy, he +said: "It were useless for me to speak of details of plans now; I shall +speak officially next Monday week, _if ever_. If I should not +speak then, it were useless for me to do so now." + +Again: "If this country cannot be saved without giving up that +principle,--I was about to say that I would rather be _assassinated +on this spot_ than surrender it." + +And finally: "I may have said something indiscreet. But I have said +nothing but what I am willing to live by, and, if it be the pleasure of +Almighty God, _die by_." + +These veiled references would pass unnoticed by the crowd, but they +would be perfectly intelligible to those who knew of the warnings that +had just been received. Lincoln was not in the habit of using such +phrases, and the fact that he used them at this particular time can +hardly be explained as a mere coincidence. He took in the situation, +and--except for keeping the engagements already made--he submitted +meekly to Pinkerton's plans. + +An incident occurred at Harrisburg which made a great stir in the +little party. This was nothing less than the loss of the manuscript of +the inaugural address. This precious document the President himself had +carried in a satchel. This satchel he had given to his son Robert to +hold. When Robert was asked for it, it was missing. He "_thought_ +he had given it to a waiter--or somebody." This was one of the rare +occasions on which Lincoln lost control of his temper, and for about +one minute he addressed the careless young man with great plainness of +speech. + +For obvious reasons it was not judicious to say much about this loss. +The President applied to Lamon for help. "Lamon," he whispered, "I have +lost my certificate of moral character written by myself. Bob has lost +my gripsack containing my inaugural address. I want you to help me find +it." + +Lamon, who knew Lincoln intimately, said that he never saw him so much +annoyed, nor, for the time, so angry. If the address were to be +published prematurely, it might be made the occasion of a vast amount +of mischief. Then, too, it was the product of much painstaking thought +and he had no duplicate copy. + +Lincoln and Lamon instituted a search for the missing satchel and were +directed to the baggage-room of the hotel. Here they spied a satchel +that looked like the lost one. Lincoln tried the key. It fitted. With +great joy he opened it, and he found within--one bottle of whisky, one +soiled shirt, and several paper collars. So quickly from the sublime to +the ridiculous. + +A little later the right satchel was found, and was not again entrusted +to Robert. The President kept it in his own hands. After the nervous +strain was over, the humor of the situation grew on the President, and +it reminded him of a little story. + +A man had saved up his earnings until they reached the sum of fifteen +hundred dollars. This was deposited for safekeeping in a bank. The bank +failed and the man received as his share, ten per cent, or one hundred +and fifty dollars. This he deposited in another bank. The second bank +also failed and the poor fellow again received ten per cent, or fifteen +dollars. When this remnant of his fortune was paid over to him, he held +it in his hand, looking at it thoughtfully. Finally he said: "Now, I've +got you reduced to a portable shape, so I'll put you in my pocket." +Suiting the action to the word, Lincoln took his "certificate of moral +character" from the satchel and carefully put it in the inside pocket +of his vest. No further mishap came to that document. + +The journey from Harrisburg to Washington was accomplished as planned, +with the assistance of certain officials of the railway and telegraph +companies. First all the wires leading out of Harrisburg were cut, so +that, if Lincoln's departure were discovered, the news could not be +communicated by telegraph. Then, after the reception, Lincoln, attended +by Lamon, left the hotel by a side door and was driven to the railway +station. Here they found waiting a special train consisting of one +baggage car and one passenger car. The track was for the time kept +entirely clear for this train. Arriving at Philadelphia they stopped +outside the station, where Pinkerton met them with a closed carriage in +readiness. They were driven rapidly across the city to the Washington +train which had been detained a few minutes for "a sick passenger and +one attendant." They entered the rear door of the sleeping car. The +"sick passenger" went to his berth at once and the attendant gave the +tickets to the conductor who did not even see the "sick passenger," and +who did not dream of what a precious life he was carrying. They arrived +at six o'clock in the morning at Washington City, where they were met +by Seward and Washburn and taken to Willard's Hotel. + +The rest of the party came on schedule time. At Baltimore there was a +large crowd in waiting, but no disturbance. The news of the President's +arrival had been telegraphed over the country, and the band of +assassins were for the time helpless. Their intended victim had +escaped. There was no reason why they should create a disturbance. + +Lincoln always regretted this "secret passage." He later came to +discount heavily the revelations of a professional spy. Long after, he +said: "I did not then, nor do I now, believe I should have been +assassinated had I gone through Baltimore as first contemplated, but I +thought it wise to run no risk where no risk was necessary." + +It is positively asserted by Lamon, who knew whereof he spake, that +there was no time, from the moment of leaving Springfield to his death, +when Lincoln was free from danger of murder. Yet he never could be +prevailed on to accept precautions. What were the reasons for his +apparent carelessness? + +It is almost certain that he realized, more than he would have his +friends know, that he was surrounded by dangers. He probably realized +this more keenly than they did. They could locate specific dangers, but +no man ever better understood the murderous spirit which underlay much +of the hatred towards this man who had never harmed a human being. He +felt that an escape from one danger might be simply running into +another more deadly. It was like dodging bullets on the field of +battle. He, better than they, realized that the unseen dangers were +greater than those which they thought they had discovered. The only +way, then, was to go straight ahead as if unmindful of all dangers. + +Then, too, though Lincoln could understand dangers in the abstract, his +mind did not seem to be able to individualize them. He knew full well +that many persons wanted to kill him, but when it came to the point of +the murder being done by X, or Y, or Z, he did not believe it possible +that they would do such a thing. + +These explanations are suggested. There may be others. But these two +conflicting and paradoxical facts must be kept in mind. All through his +public life he was oppressed with the belief that he would not live to +see the end of the national crisis. On the other hand, not all the +importunities of his most devoted friends could persuade him to guard +himself. In the light of what we now know, it is wonderful that he +escaped these plots for more than four years. Had he been more +cautious, he might not have escaped so long. At the same time, as we +shall presently see, had he heeded the last caution of his devoted +friend, he would not have been shot in 1865. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +THE INAUGURATION. + + +Beautiful for situation and beautiful in construction is the Washington +City of to-day. But it was not so in Lincoln's day. The proper +decoration of the city did not begin until Grant's administration. In +1861 it was comparatively a small city. Its population numbered only +about 65,000. The magnificent modern residences had not been built. The +houses were few, low, not handsome, with hideous spaces of unimproved +land lying between. The streets were not paved with asphalt. Some were +paved with cobble stones, and some consisted of plain aboriginal mud. +The dome of the Capitol was but half finished when Lincoln saw it for +the first time, and the huge derrick which surmounted it was painfully +suggestive of the gallows. The approach was not a well-kept lawn, but a +meadow of grass, ragged and ill-cared for. + +Washington society was then, as always, composed of people of education +and social culture, but it was not such as would kindle the enthusiasm +of the patriot. From the time whereof the memory of man runneth not to +the contrary, it had been dominated by the slave power. The District of +Columbia is situated in a slave state. The politics of South Carolina +and Mississippi had always been aggressive, and the social leadership +had been the same. J. G. Holland estimated that not more than one in +five of the people in Washington in the winter of 1860-61 were glad to +have Lincoln come. He was not far from right. Lamon called the city "a +focus of political intrigue and corruption." + +For many years, specifically since 1848, the slave power had been +masterful in Washington, while its despotic temper had grown +continually more assertive. The intellectual and moral atmosphere +became increasingly repulsive to those who believed in freedom, and +such people would not therefore choose that city as a place of +residence. + +The departments were of course filled with employees in sympathy with +slavery. Pierce had been made President in 1853. The Missouri +Compromise had been repealed in 1854. Buchanan came into office in +1857. The crowning act of his administration was supporting the Kansas +infamy in 1859. From these indications it is easy to estimate the +political status of Washington society when Lincoln entered the city +February 23, 1861. Many thousands of his friends poured in from all +quarters north of Mason and Dixon's line to attend the ceremonies of +the inaugural. But these were transients, and foreign to the prevailing +sentiment of the city. + +Every official courtesy, however, was shown to the President-elect. The +outgoing President and cabinet received him politely. He had many +supporters and some personal friends in both houses of congress. These +received him with enthusiasm, while his opponents were not uncivil. The +members of the Supreme Court greeted him with a measure of cordiality. +Both Douglas and Breckinridge, the defeated candidates at the late +election, called on him. The so-called Peace Conference had brought +together many men of local influence, who seized the opportunity of +making his acquaintance. So the few days passed busily as the time for +inauguration approached. + +Of course anxiety and even excitement were not unknown. One instance is +enough to relate here. Arrangements were about concluded for the +cabinet appointments. The most important selection was for the +Secretary of State. This position had been tendered to Seward months +before and had by him been accepted. The subsequent selections had been +made in view of the fact that Seward was to fill this position. On +Saturday, March 2d, while only a few hours remained before the +inaugural, Seward suddenly withdrew his promised acceptance. This +utterly upset the balancings on which Lincoln had so carefully worked +for the last four months, and was fitted to cause consternation. +Lincoln's comment was: "I can't afford to have Seward take the first +trick." So he sent him an urgent personal note on the morning of March +4th, requesting him to withdraw this refusal. Seward acceded to this +and the matter was arranged satisfactorily. + +The morning of the day of the inauguration was clear, mild, beautiful. +The military display gave a bright and showy appearance to the scene. +General Scott had used the utmost care to have the arrangements for the +defense of the President perfect. There were guards about the carriage, +guards about the Capitol, a flying battery upon a commanding hill. +Besides this, sharpshooters were posted on the roofs of the houses +along the route of travel, with injunctions to watch narrowly the +windows opposite and fire upon the first manifestation of disorder. One +cannot resist the temptation to speculate upon the excitement that +would have developed had a mischievous boy set off a large fire-cracker +at a critical moment! + +Shortly after twelve o'clock, noon, Buchanan called to escort his +successor to the Capitol. The retiring President and the President- +elect rode side by side through the streets. Reaching the grounds of +the Capitol they found an improvised board tunnel through which they +walked arm in arm to the building. This tunnel had been constructed to +guard against assassination, of which there had recently been many +threats. They passed through the senate chamber and through the +building to the large platform which had been erected at the east +front. The procession was headed by the justices of the Supreme Court +clothed in cap and gown. + +The platform was densely packed, but in the number there were four men +of especial interest. When Lincoln had first been nominated for the +senate, at Springfield, June 16, 1858, he made the speech which came to +be known as "the house-divided-against-itself speech." One remarkable +paragraph is here quoted: + +"We cannot absolutely know that all these exact adaptations are the +result of preconcert. But when we see a lot of framed timbers, +different portions of which we know have been gotten out at different +times and places and by different workmen--Stephen, Franklin, Roger, +and James, for instance--and when we see these timbers joined together, +and see they exactly make the frame of a house or a mill, all the +tenons and mortices exactly fitting, and all the lengths and +proportions of the different pieces exactly adapted to their respective +places, and not a piece too many or too few--not omitting even +scaffolding--or, if a single piece be lacking, we see the place in the +frame exactly fitted and prepared yet to bring the piece in--in such a +case, we find it impossible not to believe that Stephen and Franklin +and Roger and James all understood one another from the beginning, and +all worked upon a common plan or draft drawn up before the first blow +was struck." + +The manifest reference here is to the co-workers for the extension of +slavery: namely, Stephen A. Douglas, Franklin Pierce, Roger B. Taney, +and James Buchanan. One of this number, Franklin, had fallen into +welcome oblivion; James had escorted Lincoln to the platform; Stephen +stood immediately behind him, alert to show him any courtesy; and +Roger, as Chief Justice, was about to administer the oath of office. It +was a rare case of poetic justice. + +Lincoln was introduced to the vast audience by his former neighbor, E. +D. Baker, at this time senator from Oregon. In one hand Lincoln had his +silk hat, and as he looked about for a place to put it, his old +antagonist, Douglas, took it. To a lady he whispered: "If I can't be +President, I can at least hold the President's hat." + +The inaugural address had been submitted confidentially to a few +trusted friends for criticism. The only criticisms of importance were +those of Seward. By these Lincoln was guided but not governed. A +perusal of the documents will show that, while Seward's suggestions +were unquestionably good, Lincoln's finished product was far better. +This is specifically true of the closing paragraph, which has been +widely admired for its great beauty. From the remarkable address we +quote only two passages. In the first he meets the charge that he would +involve the country in war. It is as follows: + +"I shall take care, as the Constitution itself expressly enjoins upon +me, that the laws of the Union shall be faithfully executed in all the +states. Doing this, which I deem to be only a simple duty on my part, I +shall perfectly perform it, so far as is practicable, unless my +rightful masters, the American people, shall withhold the requisition, +or in some authoritative manner direct the contrary. I trust this will +not be regarded as a menace, but only as the declared purpose of the +Union that it will constitutionally defend and maintain itself. + +"In doing this, there need be no bloodshed or violence, and there shall +be none unless it is forced upon the national authority. _The power +confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property +and places belonging to the government, and collect the duties and +imposts._ But beyond what may be necessary for these objects there +will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people +anywhere." + +Concerning the clause above italicised there was a general +questioning,--Does he mean what he says? In due time they learned that +he meant what he said, and all of it. + +The address concluded as follows: + +"In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is +the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. +You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You +have no oath registered in Heaven to destroy the government, while I +shall have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend' it. + +"I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be +enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break, our bonds +of affection. The mystic cords of memory, stretching from every battle- +field and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over +this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again +touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." + +The address was listened to closely throughout. Immediately upon its +conclusion the speaker was sworn into office by Chief Justice Taney +whose name is connected with the famous Dred Scott decision. James +Buchanan was now a private citizen and the pioneer rail-splitter was at +the head of the United States. + +In all the thousands of people there assembled, there was no one who +listened more intently than Stephen A. Douglas. At the conclusion he +warmly grasped the President hand's, congratulated him upon the +inaugural, and pledged him that he would stand by him and support him +in upholding the Constitution and enforcing the laws. The nobler part +of the nature of the "little giant" came to the surface. The clearness, +the gentleness, the magnanimity, the manliness expressed in this +inaugural address of his old rival, won him over at last, and he +pledged him here his fealty. For a few months, while the storm was +brewing, Douglas was inactive, so that his influence counted on the +side of the hostile party, the party to which he had always belonged. +But when war actually broke out, he hastened to stand by the President, +and right nobly did he redeem his promise which he had given. Had he +lived, there are few men whose influence would have been more weighty +in the cause of the Union. An untimely death cut him off at the +beginning of this patriotic activity. His last public act was to +address to the legislature of Illinois a masterly plea for the support +of the war for the Union. He died in Chicago on the 3d of June, 1861. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +LINCOLN HIS OWN PRESIDENT. + + +Had the question been asked early in 1861, Who will be the real force +of the republican administration? almost every unprejudiced observer +would have answered promptly, Seward. He was a man of unusual +intellectual powers, of the best education, and of the finest culture. +In regard to the moral aspects of politics, he was on the right side. +He had a career of brilliant success extending over thirty years of +practical experience. He had been governor of the Empire State, and one +of the leading members of the United States senate. He was the most +accomplished diplomatist of the day. + +In marked contrast was the President-elect. He had, in his encounters +with Douglas, shown himself a master of debate. But his actual +experience of administration was practically _nil_. He had served +a few years in a frontier legislature and one term in the lower house +of congress. Only this and nothing more. His record as representative +may be summarized as follows: + + 1 comic speech on General Cass. + + 1 set of humorous resolutions, known as the spot resolutions. + + 1 bill in reference to slavery in the District of Columbia, which + bill failed to pass. + +There was thus no comparison between the careers of the two men. +Seward's friends, and Seward himself, assumed as a self-evident truth, +that "where Seward sits is the head of the table." Lincoln did not +assent to this proposition. + +He considered himself President and head of the cabinet. How the matter +came out will appear later in the chapter. + +The selection of a cabinet was a difficult and delicate task. It must +be remembered that Lincoln confronted a solid South, backed by a +divided North. It has already been said that in fifteen states he +received not a single electoral vote, and in ten of these not a single +popular vote. That was the solid South. + +The divided condition of the North may be inferred from the following +letter, written by ex-President Franklin Pierce to Jefferson Davis +under date of January 6, 1860: + +"If, through the madness of Northern abolitionists, that dire calamity +[the disruption of the Union] must come, the fighting will not be along +Mason and Dixon's line merely. It will be _within our own borders, in +our own streets_, between the two classes of citizens to whom I have +referred. Those who defy law, and scout constitutional obligation, +will, if we ever reach the arbitrament of arms, find occupation enough +at home." + +It is plain that unless Lincoln could, in a large measure, unite the +various classes of the North, his utter failure would be a foregone +conclusion. He saw this with perfect clearness. His first move was in +the selection of his cabinet. These selections were taken not only from +the various geographical divisions of the country, but also from the +divers political divisions of the party. It was not his purpose to have +the secretaries simply echoes of himself, but able and representative +men of various types of political opinion. At the outset this did not +meet the approval of his friends. Later, its wisdom was apparent. In +the more than a hundred years of cabinets in the history of the United +States there has never been an abler or a purer cabinet than this. + +As guesses, more or less accurate, were made as to what the cabinet +would be, many "leading citizens" felt called on to labor with the +President and show him the error of his ways. As late as March 2d there +was an outbreak against Chase. A self-appointed committee, large in +numbers and respectable in position, called on Lincoln to protest +vigorously. He heard them with undivided attention. When they were +through he replied. In voice of sorrow and disappointment, he said, in +substance: "I had written out my choice and selection of members for +the cabinet after most careful and deliberate consideration; and now +you are here to tell me I must break the slate and begin the thing all +over again. I don't like your list as well as mine. I had hoped to have +Mr. Seward as Secretary of State and Mr. Chase as Secretary of the +Treasury. But of course I can't expect to have things just as I want +them.... This being the case, gentlemen, how would it do for us to +agree to a change like this? To appoint Mr. Chase Secretary of the +Treasury, and offer the State department to Mr. Dayton of New Jersey? + +"Mr. Dayton is an old whig, like Mr. Seward and myself. Besides, he is +from New Jersey, which is next door to New York. Then Mr. Seward can go +to England, where his genius will find wonderful scope in keeping +Europe straight about our troubles." + +The "committee" were astounded. They saw their mistake in meddling in +matters they did not understand. They were glad enough to back out of +the awkward situation. Mr. Lincoln "took _that_ trick." + +The names sent on March 5th were: for Secretary of State, William H. +Seward, of New York; for Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, of +Ohio; for Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, of Pennsylvania; for +Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, of Connecticut; for Secretary of +the Interior, Caleb B. Smith of Indiana; for Attorney-General, Edward +Bates, of Missouri; for Postmaster-General, Montgomery Blair, of +Maryland. + +All these names were confirmed by the senate the next day, March 6th. +Of the variety of the selection he said, "I need them all. They enjoy +the confidence of their several states and sections, and they will +strengthen the administration. The times are too grave and perilous for +ambitious schemes and rivalries." To all who were associated with him +in the government, he said, "Let us forget ourselves and join hands, +like brothers, to save the republic. If we succeed, there will be glory +enough for all." He playfully spoke of this cabinet as his happy +family. + +The only one who withdrew early from this number, was Cameron. He was +accused of various forms of corruption, especially of giving fat +government contracts to his friends. Whether these charges were true or +not, we cannot say. But in the following January he resigned and was +succeeded by Edwin M. Stanton, a lifelong democrat, one who had +accepted office under Buchanan. Probably no person was more amazed at +this choice than Stanton himself. But he patriotically accepted the +call of duty. With unspeakable loyalty and devotion he served his chief +and his country to the end. + +As has already been indicated, Seward cheerfully assumed that he was +the government, while Lincoln's duties were to consist largely in +signing such papers as he instructed him to sign. As difficulties grew +fast and thick, he wrote home, "These cares fall chiefly on me." Mr. +Welles wrote that confidence and mutual frankness existed among all the +members of the cabinet, "with the exception of Mr. Seward, who had, or +affected, a mysterious knowledge which he was not prepared to impart." +He went so far as to meddle with the affairs of his associates. He did +not entirely approve of the cabinet meetings and served notice that he +would attend only upon special summons of the President. + +This condition reached its climax on the first day of April, an +appropriate date. Seward addressed on that day a document entitled, +"Some Thoughts for the President's Consideration, April 1, 1861." + +Henry Watterson said that Seward could not have spoken more explicitly +and hardly more offensively if he had simply said: "Mr. Lincoln, you +are a failure as President, but turn over the direction of affairs +exclusively to me, and all shall be well and all be forgiven." This +statement gives a fair and truthful idea of Seward's letter. It is not +likely that its amazing assurance has ever been equaled in any nation +by "thoughts" addressed by an inferior officer to his chief. The paper +itself is here omitted from lack of space, but its tenor can be guessed +from the character of the reply, which is given in full: + + EXECUTIVE MANSION, April 1, 1881. + + +"HON. W. H. SEWARD, + +"MY DEAR SIR: Since parting with you I have been considering your paper +dated this day, and entitled 'Some Thoughts for the President's +Consideration.' The first proposition in it is, 'First, We are at the +end of a month's administration, and yet without a policy either +domestic or foreign.'" + +"At the beginning of that month, in the inaugural, I said, 'The power +confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the property +and places belonging to the Government, and to collect the duties and +imposts.' This had your distinct approval at the time; and, taken in +connection with the order I immediately gave General Scott, directing +him to employ every means in his power to strengthen and hold the +forts, comprises the exact domestic policy you now urge, with the +single exception that it does not propose to abandon Fort Sumter." + +"Again, I do not perceive how the reinforcement of Fort Sumter would be +done on a slavery or party issue, while that of Fort Pickens would be +on a more national and patriotic one." + +"The news received yesterday in regard to St. Domingo certainly brings +a new item within the range of our foreign policy; but up to that time +we have been preparing circulars and instructions to ministers and the +like, all in perfect harmony, without even a suggestion that we had no +foreign policy." + +"Upon your closing propositions that 'whatever policy we adopt, there +must be an energetic prosecution of it," + +"'For this purpose it must be somebody's business to pursue and direct +it incessantly," + +"'Either the President must do it himself, and be all the while active +in it, or" + +"'Devolve it on some member of his cabinet. Once adopted, debates on it +must end, and all agree and abide.'" + +"I remark that if this must be done, I must do it. When a general line +of policy is adopted, I apprehend there is no danger of its being +changed without good reason or continuing to be a subject of +unnecessary debate; still, upon points arising in its progress I wish, +and suppose, I am entitled to have the advice of all the cabinet." + + "Your ob't serv't, + A. LINCOLN." + +The courtesy, the convincing logic, the spirit of forbearance shown in +this letter, were characteristic of the man at the helm. It need hardly +be said that Seward never again tried the experiment of patronizing his +chief. He saw a great light. He suddenly realized that these cares did +not fall chiefly on him. + +So far as is known, neither gentleman ever made any reference to this +correspondence. The result was worth while. It bound Seward to his +President with hoops of steel. For four long, weary, trying years he +served his chief with a loyal devotion which did credit to both men. +Thus the hallucination that he was premier was forever dispelled. The +"Public Man" wrote: "There can be no doubt of it any longer. This man +from Illinois is not in the hands of Mr. Seward." + +There was surely no doubt of it. Lincoln was President. In the +councils, the place where Lincoln sat was the head of the table. Seward +was his secretary. And a good secretary he was, as well as a true man. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +FORT SUMTER. + + +The events connected with the fall of Fort Sumter were so dramatic that +that name is in memory linked with, and stands for, the opening of the +war. The fort was not a large military structure. The number of men +defending it was not great. But the events connected with it were +great. It stood as the representative of great principles and facts. +The firing on it marked an epoch in the same sense as Caesar's crossing +the Rubicon. It is vitally connected with events that precede and +follow. + +Wendell Phillips says that when Charles Sumner entered the senate, free +speech could hardly be said to exist there. To him, as much as to any +man, was due the breaking of the chain that fettered free speech. On +all important subjects he spoke his mind eloquently and in words that +were not ambiguous. In August, 1852, he made a speech--the more +accurate phrase would be, he delivered an oration--under the title, +"Freedom National, Slavery Sectional." It may easily be guessed that +this highly incensed the slave power and the fire-eaters never outgrew +their hatred of the Massachusetts senator. + +In May, 1856, he delivered an excoriating address upon "the Crime +against Kansas." This greatly angered the southern congressmen. After +the senate had adjourned, Sumner was seated at his desk writing. +Preston S. Brooks, of South Carolina, approached from the rear and with +a heavy cane began to beat Sumner on the head. He was not only +defenseless, but, though a powerful man in body, was to a certain +extent held down by his desk, and it was only as he wrenched the desk +from the floor that he was able to rise. The beating had been terrible +and Sumner suffered from it, often with the most excruciating pains, +until the day of his death. This ruffian attack was by a large portion +of the North looked on as an exhibition of southern chivalry, so +called, and not entirely without reason as the sequel showed. Congress +censured Brooks _by a divided vote_. He resigned but was reelected +by his constituents with great enthusiasm. Thus his act was by them +adopted as representative of their spirit and temper. This was his +"vindication." + +South Carolina was the first state to secede, and since Fort Sumter +commanded Charleston Harbor, it instantly became the focus of national +interest. The Secretary of War, Floyd, had so dispersed the little army +of the United States that it was impossible to command the few hundred +men necessary adequately to garrison the United States forts. As +matters in and about Charleston grew threatening, Major Anderson, who +was in command of the twin forts, Moultrie and Sumter, decided to +abandon the former and do his utmost to defend the latter. The removal +was successfully accomplished in the night, and when the fact was +discovered it was greeted by the South Carolinians with a howl of +baffled wrath. Buchanan had endeavored to send provisions. The steamer, +_Star of the West_, had gone there for that purpose, but had been +fired on by the South Carolinians and forced to abandon the attempt. + +When Lincoln took the government at Washington, it may well be believed +that he found matters in a condition decidedly chaotic. His task was +many sided, a greater task than that of Washington as he had justly +said. First, of the fifteen slave states seven had seceded. It was his +purpose to hold the remaining eight, or as many of them as possible. Of +this number, Delaware and Maryland could have been held by force. +Kentucky and Missouri, though slave states, remained in the Union. The +Union party in Tennessee, under the lead of Andrew Johnson, made a +strong fight against secession, but failed to prevent the ordinance. + +The next task of Lincoln was to unite the North as far as possible. The +difficulty of doing this has already been set forth. On the other hand +there was in the North a sentiment that had been overlooked. It was +devotion to the flag. Benjamin F. Butler, though an ardent democrat, +had cautioned his southern brethren that while they might count on a +large pro-slavery vote in the North, war was a different matter. The +moment you fire on the flag, he said, you unite the North; and if war +comes, slavery goes. + +Not the least task of the President was in dealing with foreign +nations. The sympathies of these, especially England and France, were +ardently with the South. They would eagerly grasp at the slightest +excuse for acknowledging the Southern Confederacy as an independent +nation. It was a delicate and difficult matter so to guide affairs that +the desired excuse for this could not be found. + +The tactics of the southerners were exceedingly exasperating. They kept +"envoys" in Washington to treat with the government. Of course these +were not officially received. Lincoln sent them a copy of his inaugural +address as containing a sufficient answer to their questions. But they +stayed on, trying to spy out the secrets of the government, trying to +get some sort of a pledge of conciliation from the administration, or, +what would equally serve the purpose, to exasperate the administration +into some unguarded word or act. Their attempts were a flat failure. + +Lincoln held steadily to the two promises of his inaugural. First, that +he would hold the United States forts, and second, that he would not be +the aggressor. "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and +not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will +not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the +aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the +government; while I have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and +defend' it." + +To this plan he adhered. It there was to be war it must be begun by the +enemies of the country, and the government would patiently bear +outrages rather than do a thing which could be tortured into an +appearance of 'invading the South' or being an aggressor of any sort. + +Meanwhile, Major Anderson was beleaguered in Fort Sumter. He had a +handful of men, 76 combatants and 128 all told. He had insufficient +ammunition and was nearly out of provisions. Lincoln at last concluded +to "send bread to Sumter,"--surely not a hostile act. Owing to +complications which he inherited from Buchanan's administration he had +given to Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, a promise that he would +not attempt to relieve Sumter without first giving him notice. He now +sent him notice that there would be an attempt to provision Sumter +peaceably if possible, or otherwise by force. + +All this while the southerners were busy perfecting their +fortifications, which were now overwhelmingly better, both in number +and in completeness of appointment, than the one fort held by the +United States that rightfully controlled the entire harbor. General +Beauregard was in command of the military forces. He sent to Major +Anderson a summons to surrender. The latter replied that if he received +from Washington no further direction, and if he was not succored by the +15th of the month, April, he would surrender on honorable terms. It is +characteristic of the southern general that he intercepted Major +Anderson's mail before notifying him of hostilities. It is +characteristic of Lincoln that he sent notice to Governor Pickens of +the intended provision of the fort. + +On Friday, April 12th, 1861, at 3:30 P. M., General Beauregard gave +notice to Major Anderson that he would open fire on Fort Sumter in one +hour. Promptly at the minute the first gun was fired and the war had +begun. Batteries from various points poured shot and shell into Sumter +until nightfall caused a respite. + +The little garrison sat up half the night after the attack, as they had +done the preceding night, and with their six needles, all they had, +made cartridges out of old blankets, old clothing, and whatever else +they could lay hands on. These one hundred and twenty-eight men made +all the defense that could be made under the circumstances. + +The next day the officer's quarters were set on fire either by an +exploding shell or by hot shot. The men fought the flames gallantly, +but the wind was unfavorable. Then the water tanks were destroyed. As +the flames approached the magazine, the powder had to be removed. As +the flames approached the places where the powder was newly stored, it +had to be thrown into the sea to prevent explosion. In the mean time +the stars and stripes were floating gloriously. The flag pole had been +struck seven times on Friday. It was struck three times the next day. +The tenth shot did the work, the pole broke and the flag fell to the +ground at one o'clock Saturday afternoon. An officer and some men +seized the flag, rigged up a jury-mast on the parapet, and soon it was +flying again. + +But ammunition was gone, the fire was not extinguished, and there was +no hope of relief. Negotiations were opened and terms of surrender were +arranged by eight o'clock that evening. The next day, Sunday, April +14th, the garrison saluted the flag as it was lowered, and then marched +out, prisoners of war. Sumter had fallen. + +Beauregard was a military man, Lincoln was a statesman. The general got +the fort, the President got nearly everything else. The war was on and +it had been begun by the South. The administration had not invaded or +threatened invasion, but the South had fired on the flag. Dearly they +paid for this crime. + +The effect of the fall of Sumter was amazing. In the South it was +hailed with ecstatic delight, especially in Charleston. There was a +popular demonstration at Montgomery, Ala., the provisional seat of the +Confederate government. L. P. Walker, Confederate Secretary of War, +made a speech and, among other things, said that "while no man could +tell where the war would end, he would prophesy that the flag which now +flaunts the breeze here, would float over the dome of the old Capitol +at Washington before the end of May," and that "it might eventually +float over Fanueil Hall itself." The Confederate government raised a +loan of eight millions of dollars and Jefferson Davis issued letters of +marque to all persons who might desire to aid the South and at the same +time enrich themselves by depredations upon the commerce of the United +States. + +The effect upon the North was different. There was a perfect storm of +indignation against the people who had presumed to fire on the flag. +Butler's prediction proved to be nearly correct. This did unite the +North in defense of the flag. Butler was a conspicuous example of this +effect. Though a Breckinridge democrat, he promptly offered his +services for the defense of the country, and throughout the war he had +the distinction of being hated by the South with a more cordial hatred +than any other Union general. + +It was recollected throughout the North that Lincoln had been +conciliatory to a fault towards the South. Conciliation had failed +because that was not what the South wanted. They wanted war and by them +was war made. This put an end forever to all talk of concession and +compromise. Douglas was one of the many whose voice called in trumpet +tones to the defense of the flag. + +At the date of the fall of Sumter, Lincoln had been in office less than +six weeks. In addition to routine work, to attending to extraordinary +calls in great numbers, he had accomplished certain very important +things: He had the loyal devotion of a cabinet noted for its ability +and diversity. He had the enthusiastic confidence of the doubtful minds +of the North. He had made it impossible for the European monarchies to +recognize the South as a nation. So far as our country was concerned, +he might ask for anything, and he would get what he asked. These were +no mean achievements. The far-seeing statesman had played for this and +had won. + +Beauregard got the fort, but Lincoln got the game. In his own words, +"he took _that_ trick." + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +THE OUTBURST OF PATRIOTISM. + + +The fall of Sumter caused an outburst of patriotism through the entire +North such as is not witnessed many times in a century. On Sunday +morning, April 14th, it was known that terms of surrender had been +arranged. On that day and on many succeeding Sundays the voices from a +thousand pulpits sounded with the certainty of the bugle, the call to +the defense of the flag. Editors echoed the call. Such newspapers as +were suspected of secession tendencies were compelled to hoist the +American flag. For the time at least, enthusiasm and patriotism ran +very high. Those who were decidedly in sympathy with the South remained +quiet, and those who were of a doubtful mind were swept along with the +tide of popular feeling. The flag had been fired on. That one fact +unified the North. + +On that same evening Senator Douglas arranged for a private interview +with President Lincoln. For two hours these men, rivals and antagonists +of many years, were in confidential conversation. What passed between +them no man knows, but the result of the conference was quickly made +public. Douglas came out of the room as determined a "war democrat" as +could be found between the oceans. He himself prepared a telegram which +was everywhere published, declaring that he would sustain the President +in defending the constitution. + +Lincoln had prepared his call for 75,000 volunteer troops. Douglas +thought the number should have been 200,000. So it should, and so +doubtless it would, had it not been for certain iniquities of +Buchanan's mal-administration. There were no arms, accouterments, +clothing. Floyd had well-nigh stripped the northern arsenals. Lincoln +could not begin warlike preparations on any great scale because that +was certain to precipitate the war which he so earnestly strove to +avoid. + +Further, the 75,000 was about five times the number of soldiers then in +the army of the United States. Though the number of volunteers was +small, their proportion to the regular army was large. + +That night Lincoln's call and Douglas's endorsement were sent over the +wires. Next morning the two documents were published in every daily +paper north of Mason and Dixon's line. + +The call for volunteer soldiers was in the South greeted with a howl of +derision. They knew how the arsenals had been stripped. They had also +for years been quietly buying up arms not only from the North, but also +from various European nations. They had for many years been preparing +for just this event, and now that it came they were fully equipped. +During the first months of the war the administration could not wisely +make public how very poorly the soldiers were armed, for this would +only discourage the defenders of the Union and cheer the enemy. + +This call for troops met with prompt response. The various governors of +the northern states offered many times their quota. The first in the +field was Massachusetts. This was due to the foresight of ex-Governor +Banks. He had for years kept the state militia up to a high degree of +efficiency. When rallied upon this he explained that it was to defend +the country against a rebellion of the slaveholders which was sure to +come. + +The call for volunteers was published on the morning of April 15th. By +ten o'clock the 6th Massachusetts began to rendezvous. In less than +thirty-six hours the regiment was ready and off for Washington. They +were everywhere cheered with much enthusiasm. In New York they were +guests of the Astor House, whose patriotic proprietor would receive no +compensation from the defenders of the flag. + +The reception in Baltimore was of a very different sort. Some ruffians +of that city had planned to assassinate Lincoln in February, and now +they in large numbers prepared to attack the soldiers who were +hastening to the defense of the national capital. Here was the first +bloodshed of the war. The casualties were four killed and thirty-six +wounded. When the regiment reached Washington City, the march from the +railway station was very solemn. Behind the marching soldiers followed +the stretchers bearing the wounded. The dead had been left behind. +Governor Andrew's despatch to Mayor Brown,--"Send them home +tenderly,"--elicited the sympathy of millions of hearts. + +The mayor of Baltimore and the governor of Maryland sent a deputation +to Lincoln to ask that no more troops be brought through that city. The +President made no promise, but he said he was anxious to avoid all +friction and he would do the best he could. He added playfully that if +he granted that, they would be back next day to ask that no troops be +sent around Baltimore. + +That was exactly what occurred. The committee were back the next day +protesting against permitting any troops to cross the state of +Maryland. Lincoln replied that, as they couldn't march around the +state, nor tunnel under it, nor fly over it, he guessed they would have +to march across it. + +It was arranged that for the time being the troops should be brought to +Annapolis and transported thence to Washington by water. This was one +of the many remarkable instances of forbearance on the part of the +government. There was a great clamor on the part of the North for +vengeance upon Baltimore for its crime, and a demand for sterner +measures in future. But the President was determined to show all the +conciliation it was possible to show, both in this case and in a +hundred others. + +These actions bore good fruit. It secured to him the confidence of the +people to a degree that could not have been foreseen. On the 22d of +July, 1861, Mr. Crittenden, of Kentucky, offered the following +resolution: + +"_Resolved by the House of Representatives of the United States_, +That the present deplorable civil war has been forced upon the country +by the disunionists of the Southern States, now in arms against the +Constitutional Government and in arms around the capital: + +"That in this national emergency, congress, banishing all feelings of +mere passion or resentment, will recollect only its duty to the whole +country; + +"That this war is not waged on their part in any spirit of oppression, +or for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, or purpose of +overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established institutions +of those states, but to defend and maintain the _supremacy_ of the +Constitution, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality, +and rights of the several states unimpaired; and that, as soon as these +objects are accomplished, the war ought to cease." + +This resolution was passed with only two dissenting votes. Lincoln's +patience, forbearance, conciliation had accomplished this marvel. + +Very early in the war the question of slavery confronted the generals. +In the month of May, only about two months after the inauguration, +Generals Butler and McClellan confronted the subject, and their methods +of dealing with it were as widely different as well could be. When +Butler was in charge of Fortress Monroe three negroes fled to that +place for refuge. They said that Colonel Mallory had set them to work +upon the rebel fortifications. A flag of truce was sent in from the +rebel lines demanding the return of the negroes. Butler replied: "I +shall retain the negroes as _contraband of war_. You were using +them upon your batteries; it is merely a question whether they shall be +used for or against us." From that time the word _contraband_ was +used in common speech to indicate an escaped slave. + +It was on the 26th day of the same month that McClellan issued to the +slaveholders a proclamation in which are found these words: "Not only +will we abstain from all interference with your slaves, but we will, on +the contrary, with an iron hand crush any attempt at insurrection on +their part." It is plain that McClellan's "we" did not include his +brother-general at Fortress Monroe. Further comment on his attitude is +reserved to a later chapter. + +The early victims of the war caused deep and profound sympathy. The +country was not yet used to carnage. The expectancy of a people not +experienced in war was at high tension, and these deaths, which would +at any time have produced a profound impression, were emphatically +impressive at that time. + +One of the very first martyrs of the war was Elmer E. Ellsworth. He was +young, handsome, impetuous. At Chicago he had organized among the +firemen a company of Zouaves with their spectacular dress and drill. +These Zouaves had been giving exhibition drills in many northern cities +and aroused no little interest. One result was the formation of similar +companies at various places. The fascinating Zouave drill became quite +popular. + +In 1861 Ellsworth was employed in the office of Lincoln and Herndon in +Springfield. When the President-elect journeyed to Washington +Ellsworth, to whom Lincoln was deeply attached, made one of the party. +At the outbreak of hostilities he was commissioned as colonel to raise +a regiment in New York. On the south bank of the Potomac, directly +opposite Washington, was Alexandria. The keeper of the Mansion House, +in that place, had run up a secession flag on the mast at the top of +the hotel. This flag floated day after day in full sight of Lincoln and +Ellsworth and the others. + +Ellsworth led an advance upon Alexandria on the evening of May 23d. The +rebels escaped. The next morning as usual, the secession flag floated +tauntingly from the Mansion House. Ellsworth's blood was up and he +resolved to take down that flag and hoist the stars and stripes with +his own hand. Taking with him two soldiers he accomplished his purpose. + +Returning by a spiral stairway, he carried the rebel flag in his hand. +The proprietor of the hotel came out from a place of concealment, +placed his double-barreled shot-gun nearly against Ellsworth's body and +fired. The assassin was instantly shot down by private Brownell, but +Ellsworth was dead. The rebel flag was dyed in the blood of his heart. +Underneath his uniform was found a gold medal with the inscription, +_non solum nobus, sed pro patria_,--"not for ourselves only but for our +country." + +The body was removed to Washington City, where it lay in state in the +East room until burial. The President, amid all the cares of that busy +period, found time to sit many hours beside the body of his friend, and +at the burial he appeared as chief mourner. + +This murder fired the northern imagination to a degree. The picture of +Ellsworth's handsome face was everywhere familiar. It is an easy guess +that hundreds, not to say thousands, of babies were named for him +within the next few months, and to this day the name Elmer, starting +from him, has not ceased to be a favorite. + +A little more than two weeks later, on the 10th of June, the first real +battle of the war was fought. This was at Big Bethel, Va., near +Fortress Monroe. The loss was not great as compared with later battles, +being only eighteen killed and fifty-three wounded. But among the +killed was Major Theodore Winthrop, a young man barely thirty-three +years of age. He was the author of several successful books, and gave +promise of a brilliant literary career. He was a true patriot and a +gallant soldier. His death was the source of sorrow and anger to many +thousands of readers of "Cecil Dreeme." + +It was two months later that General Lyon fell at Wilson's Creek, Mo. +He had been conspicuous for his services to the country before this +time. The battle was bitterly contested, and Lyon showed himself a +veritable hero in personal courage and gallantry. After three wounds he +was still fighting on, leading personally a bayonet charge when he was +shot for the fourth time, fell from his horse, and died immediately. It +was the gallant death of a brave soldier, that touches the heart and +fires the imagination. + +These deaths, and such as these, occurring at the beginning of the war, +taught the country the painful truth that the cost of war is deeper +than can possibly be reckoned. The dollars of money expended, and the +lists of the numbers killed, wounded, and missing, do not fully express +the profound sorrow, the irreparable loss. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +THE WAR HERE TO STAY. + + +Lincoln was a man of great sagacity. Few statesmen have had keener +insight, or more true and sane foresight. While cordially recognizing +this, it is not necessary to claim for him infallibility. He had his +disappointments. + +The morning after the evacuation of Fort Sumter he issued his call for +75,000 volunteers to serve for three months. We have seen that one +reason why the number was so small was that this was the largest number +that could possibly be clothed, armed, and officered at short notice. +Subsequent experience showed that the brief enlistment of three months +was an utterly inadequate period for so serious an insurrection. Did +Lincoln really think the rebellion could be put down in three months? +Why did he not save infinite trouble by calling for five-year +enlistments at the beginning? + +For one thing, he had at that time no legal power to call for a longer +period of enlistment. Then he desired to continue the conciliatory +policy as long as possible, so as to avoid alienating the undecided in +both the North and the South. Had the first call been for 500,000 for +three years, it would have looked as if he intended and desired a long +and bloody war, and this would have antagonized large numbers of +persons. But it is probable that neither he nor the community at large +suspected the seriousness of the war. The wars in which the men then +living had had experience were very slight. In comparison with what +followed, they were mere skirmishes. How should they foresee that they +were standing on the brink of one of the longest, the costliest, the +bloodiest, and the most eventful wars of all history? + +Virginia was dragooned into secession. She declined to participate in +the Charleston Convention. Though a slave state, the public feeling was +by a decided majority in favor of remaining in the Union. But after the +fall of Sumter she was manipulated by skilful politicians, appealed to +and cajoled on the side of prejudice and sectional feeling, and on +April 17th passed the ordinance of secession. It was a blunder and a +more costly blunder she could not have made. For four years her soil +was the theater of a bitterly contested war, and her beautiful valleys +were drenched with human blood. + +Back and forth, over and over again, fought the two armies, literally +sweeping the face of the country with the besom of destruction. The +oldest of her soldiers of legal age were fifty-five years of age when +the war closed. The youngest were twelve years of age when the war +opened. Older men and younger boys were in the war, ay, and were killed +on the field of battle. As the scourge of war passed over that state +from south to north, from north to south, for four years, many an +ancient and proud family was simply exterminated, root and branch. Of +some of the noblest and best families, there is to-day not a trace and +scarcely a memory. + +All this could not have been foreseen by these Virginians, nor by the +people of the North, nor by the clear-eyed President himself. Even the +most cautious and conservative thought the war would be of brief +duration. They were soon to receive a rude shock and learn that "war +is hell," and that _this_ war was here to stay. This revelation +came with the first great battle of the war, which was fought July 21, +1861, at Bull Run, a location not more than twenty-five or thirty miles +from Washington. + +Certain disabilities of our soldiers should be borne in mind. Most of +them were fresh from farm, factory, or store, and had no military +training even in the militia. A large number were just reaching the +expiration of their term of enlistment and were homesick and eager to +get out of the service. The generals were not accustomed to handling +large bodies of men. To add to the difficulty, the officers and men +were entirely unacquainted with one another. Nevertheless most of them +were ambitious to see a little of real war before they went back to the +industries of peace. They saw far more than they desired. + +It was supposed by the administration and its friends that one crushing +blow would destroy the insurrection, and that this blow was to be dealt +in this coming battle. The troops went to the front as to a picnic. The +people who thronged Washington, politicians, merchants, students, +professional men, and ladies as well, had the same eagerness to see a +battle that in later days they have to witness a regatta or a game of +football. The civilians, men and women, followed the army in large +numbers. They saw all they looked for and more. + +The battle was carefully planned, and except for delay in getting +started, it was fought out very much as planned. It is not the scope of +this book to enter into the details of this or any battle. But thus +much may be said in a general way. The Confederates were all the day +receiving a steady stream of fresh reinforcements. The Federals, on the +other hand, had been on their feet since two o'clock in the morning. By +three o'clock in the afternoon, after eleven hours of activity and five +hours of fighting in the heat of a July day in Virginia, these men were +tired, thirsty, hungry,--worn out. Then came the disastrous panic and +the demoralization. A large portion of the army started in a race for +Washington, the civilians in the lead. + +The disaster was terrible, but there is nothing to gain by magnifying +it. Some of the oldest and best armies in the world have been broken +into confusion quite as badly as this army of raw recruits. They did +not so far lose heart that they were not able to make a gallant stand +at Centerville and successfully check the pursuit of the enemy. It was +said that Washington was at the mercy of the Confederates, but it is +more likely that they had so felt the valor of the foe that they were +unfit to pursue the retreating army. It was a hard battle on both +sides. No one ever accused the Confederates of cowardice, and they +surely wanted to capture Washington City. That they did not do so is +ample proof that the battle was not a picnic to them. It had been +boasted that one southern man could whip five northern men. This catchy +phrase fell into disuse. + +It was natural and politic for the Confederates to magnify their +victory. This was done without stint by Jeff Davis who was present as a +spectator. He telegraphed the following: + +"Night has closed upon a hard-fought field. Our forces were victorious. +The enemy was routed and fled precipitately, abandoning a large amount +of arms, ammunition, knapsacks, and baggage. The ground was strewed for +miles with those killed, and the farmhouses and the ground around were +filled with wounded. Our force was fifteen thousand; that of the enemy +estimated at thirty-five thousand." + +That account is sufficiently accurate except as to figures. Jeff Davis +never could be trusted in such circumstances to give figures with any +approach to accuracy. Lossing estimates that the Federal forces were +13,000, and the Confederates about 27,000. This is certainly nearer the +truth than the boast of Jeff Davis. But a fact not less important than +the numbers was that the Confederate reinforcements were fresh, while +the Federal forces were nearly exhausted from marching half the night +before the fighting began. + +Although the victorious forces were effectively checked at Centerville, +those who fled in absolute rout and uncontrollable panic were enough to +give the occasion a lasting place in history. The citizens who had gone +to see the battle had not enjoyed their trip. The soldiers who had +thought that this war was a sort of picnic had learned that the foe was +formidable. The administration that had expected to crush the +insurrection by one decisive blow became vaguely conscious of the fact +that the war was here to stay months and years. + +It is a curious trait of human nature that people are not willing to +accept a defeat simply. The mind insists on explaining the particular +causes of that specific defeat. Amusing instances of this are seen in +all games: foot-ball, regattas, oratorical contests. Also in elections; +the defeated have a dozen reasons to explain why the favorite candidate +was not elected as he should have been. This trait came out somewhat +clamorously after the battle of Bull Run. A large number of plausible +explanations were urged on Mr. Lincoln, who finally brought the subject +to a conclusion by the remark: "I see. We whipped the enemy and then +ran away from him!" + +The effect of the battle of Bull Run on the South was greatly to +encourage them and add to their enthusiasm. The effect on the North was +to deepen their determination to save the flag, to open their eyes to +the fact that the southern power was strong, and with renewed zeal and +determination they girded themselves for the conflict. But the great +burden fell on Lincoln. He was disappointed that the insurrection was +not and could not be crushed by one decisive blow. There was need of +more time, more men, more money, more blood. These thoughts and the +relative duties were to him, with his peculiar temperament, a severer +trial than they could have been to perhaps any other man living. He +would not shrink from doing his full duty, though it was so hard. + +It made an old man of him. The night before he decided to send bread to +Sumter he slept not a wink. That was one of very many nights when he +did not sleep, and there were many mornings when he tasted no food. But +weak, fasting, worn, aging as he was, he was always at his post of +duty. The most casual observer could see the inroads which these mental +cares made upon his giant body. It was about a year later than this +that an old neighbor and friend, Noah Brooks of Chicago, went to +Washington to live, and he has vividly described the change in the +appearance of the President. + +In _Harper's Monthly_ for July, 1865, he writes: "Though the +intellectual man had greatly grown meantime, few persons would +recognize the hearty, blithesome, genial, and wiry Abraham Lincoln of +earlier days in the sixteenth President of the United States, with his +stooping figure, dull eyes, careworn face, and languid frame. The old +clear laugh never came back; the even temper was sometimes disturbed; +and his natural charity for all was often turned into unwonted +suspicion of the motives of men, whose selfishness caused him so much +wear of mind." + +Again, the same writer said in _Scribner's Monthly_ for February, 1878: +"There was [in 1862] over his face an expression of sadness, and a +faraway look in the eyes, which were utterly unlike the Lincoln of +other days.... I confess that I was so pained that I could almost have +shed tears.... By and by, when I knew him better, his face was often +full of mirth and enjoyment; and even when he was pensive or gloomy, +his features were lighted up very much as a clouded alabaster vase +might be softly illuminated by a light within." + +He still used his epigram and was still reminded of "a little story," +when he wished to point a moral or adorn a tale. But they were +superficial indeed who thought they saw in him only, or chiefly, the +jester. Once when he was reproved for reading from a humorous book he +said with passionate earnestness that the humor was his safety valve. +If it were not for the relief he would die. It was true. But he lived +on, not because he wanted to live, for he would rather have died. But +it was God's will, and his country needed him. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +THE DARKEST HOUR OF THE WAR. + + +There were so many dark hours in that war, and those hours were so +dark, that it is difficult to specify one as the darkest hour. Perhaps +a dozen observers would mention a dozen different times. But Lincoln +himself spoke of the complication known as the Trent affair as the +darkest hour. From his standpoint it was surely so. It was so because +he felt the ground of public confidence slipping out from under him as +at no other time. The majority of the North were with him in sentiment +for the most part. A goodly number were with him all the time,--except +this. This time, Charles Sumner, the Chairman of the Senate Committee +on Foreign Relations, was in agreement with him, but beyond that, +everybody was against him, North and South, and all Europe as well. +Upon him fell the task of turning the very turbulent current of public +sentiment into the channel of duty and wisdom. + +The facts of the affair were simple. Two men, Mason and Slidell, both +ex-senators of the United States, had started, with their secretaries +and families, to England and France as emissaries of the Confederate +government. These countries had already recognized the Confederates as +belligerents, and the mission of these men was to secure the +recognition of the Confederate government as a nation. They succeeded +in running the blockade at Charleston and put in at Havana. There they +were received with much ostentation. They took passage on the British +mail steamer _Trent_ to St. Thomas, intending to take the packet thence +to England. + +Captain Wilkes, commanding a war vessel of the United States, was in +the neighborhood and learned of these proceedings and plans. He stopped +the British vessel on the high seas and by force took the two men and +their secretaries. They were confined in Fort Warren, Boston Harbor. + +This capture set the entire North ablaze with enthusiasm. Seward was in +favor of it. Stanton, who a few weeks later was appointed Secretary of +War, applauded the act. Welles, Secretary of the Navy, wrote a +congratulatory letter upon the "great public service." The people of +Boston tendered a banquet to the hero of the hour. When congress +assembled about a month later, it gave him a vote of thanks. This wave +of public enthusiasm swept the country from ocean to ocean. The +southern sympathies of England and France had been so pronounced that +this whole country seemed to unite in hilarious triumph over this +capture, and regarded it as a slap in the face to England's pride. The +fact that the complications threatened war with that nation only added +fuel to the flames. + +The excitement ran highest among the soldiers. Camp life had become +monotonous, no decisive victories had raised their courage and +enthusiasm. They were tired. They were exasperated with England's +policy. They wanted to fight England. + +The feeling upon the other side of the question ran equally high in the +South, in England, and in France. As soon as the matter could receive +official attention, the British minister at Washington was instructed +to demand the instant release of the four men with a suitable apology. +He was to wait seven days for an answer, and if the demand was not met +by that time, he was to break off diplomatic relations with the United +States. This of course meant war. + +Sumner seems to have been the only other one who said, "We shall have +to give them up." Lincoln, when he heard of the capture, declared that +they would prove to be white elephants on our hands. "We shall have to +give them up," he too said. But the difficulty was to lead the excited +nation to see the need of this as he saw it. He declared that "we +fought Great Britain for doing just what Captain Wilkes has done. If +Great Britain protests against this act and demands their release, we +must adhere to our principles of 1812. We must give up these prisoners. +Besides, one war at a time." He again said that it was "the bitterest +pill he ever swallowed. But England's triumph will not last long. After +this war is over we shall call her to account for the damage she has +done us in our hour of trouble." + +The policy of the government with regard to this matter was not settled +in the cabinet meeting until the day after Christmas. Public enthusiasm +by that time had had six weeks in which to cool down. In that time the +sober second judgment had illuminated many minds, and the general +public was ready to see and hear reason. The outline of the reply of +the United States was directed by Lincoln, but he instructed Seward to +choose his own method of arguing the case. The reply was set forth in a +very able and convincing paper. It reaffirmed our adhesion to the +doctrine of 1812, said that Captain Wilkes had not done in an orderly +way that which he did, promised that the prisoners would be cheerfully +set at liberty, but declined to make any apology. + +At this late date we are able to look somewhat behind the scenes, and +we now know that the Queen and the Prince consort were very deeply +concerned over the possibility of a war with us. They had only the +kindest feelings for us, and just then they felt especially grateful +for the many courtesies which had been shown to the Prince of Wales +upon his recent visit to this country. They were glad to get through +with the incident peaceably and pleasantly. + +Seward's reply was accepted as fully satisfactory. The English +concurred, the Americans concurred, and the danger was over. There was +then something of a revulsion of feeling. The feeling between our +government and that of England was more cordial than before, and the +same is true of the feeling between the two peoples. The South and +their sympathizers were bitterly disappointed. The wise management of +our President had turned one of the greatest dangers into a most +valuable success. There was never again a likelihood that England would +form an alliance with the Southern Confederacy. + +The result was most fortunate for us and unfortunate for the southern +emissaries. They were no longer heroes, they were "gentlemen of +eminence," but not public functionaries. They were like other +travelers, nothing more. They were not received at either court. They +could only "linger around the back doors" of the courts where they +expected to be received in triumph, and bear as best they could the +studied neglect with which they were treated. The affair, so ominous at +one time, became most useful in its practical results to our cause. +Lord Palmerston, the British premier, got the four prisoners, but +Lincoln won the game. + +This is a convenient place to speak of the personal griefs of the +President. From his earliest years on, he was wonderfully affected by +the presence of death. Very few people have had this peculiar feeling +of heart-break with such overwhelming power. The death of his infant +brother in Kentucky, the death of his mother in Indiana, impressed him +and clouded his mind in a degree entirely unusual. We have seen that in +Springfield the death of Ann Rutledge well-nigh unseated his reason. +From these he never recovered. + +The horror of war was that it meant death, death, death! He, whose +heart was tender to a fault, was literally surrounded by death. The +first victim of the war, Colonel Ellsworth, was a personal friend, and +his murder was a personal affliction. There were others that came near +to him. Colonel E. D. Baker, an old friend and neighbor of Lincoln, the +man who had introduced him at his inaugural, was killed at Ball's Bluff +Oct. 21, 1861. Baker's personal courage made him conspicuous and marked +him out as a special target for the enemy's aim. While gallantly +leading a charge, he fell, pierced almost simultaneously by four +bullets. It fell upon Lincoln like the death of a brother. He was +consumed with grief. + +The following February his two boys, Willie and Tad, were taken ill. +Lincoln's fondness for children was well known. This general love of +children was a passion in regard to his own sons. In this sickness he +not only shared the duties of night-watching with the nurse, but at +frequent intervals he would slip away from callers, and even from +cabinet meetings, to visit briefly the little sufferers. Willie died on +February 20th, and for several days before his death he was delirious. +His father was with him almost constantly. + +This is one of the few instances when he could be said to neglect +public business. For a few days before, and for a longer period after, +Willie's death, he was completely dejected. Though he was a devout +Christian, in spirit and temper, his ideas of personal immortality were +not at that time sufficiently clear to give him the sustaining help +which he needed under his affliction. + +J. G. Holland records a pathetic scene. This was communicated to him by +a lady whose name is not given. She had gone to Washington to persuade +the President to have hospitals for our soldiers located in the North. +He was skeptical of the plan and was slow to approve it. His hesitation +was the occasion of much anxiety to her. When he finally granted the +petition, she thanked him with great earnestness and said she was sure +he would be happy that he had done it. He sat with his face in his +hands and groaned: "Happy? I shall never be happy again!" + +Below all his play of wit and humor, there was an undercurrent of +agony. So great were his kindness, gentleness, tenderness of heart, +that he could not live in this cruel world, especially in the period +when the times were so much out of joint, without being a man of +sorrows. The present writer never saw Lincoln's face but twice, once in +life and once in death. Both times it seemed to him, and as he +remembers it after the lapse of more than a third of a century, it +still seems to him, the saddest face his eyes have ever looked upon. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +LINCOLN AND FREMONT. + + +In a community like that of the United States, where free press and +free, speech prevail, where every native-born boy is a possible +President, some undesirable results are inevitable. The successful men +become egotistic, and it is a common, well-nigh universal, practise for +all sorts and conditions of men to speak harshly of the authorities. In +the loafers on the street corners, in the illiterate that use the +country store as their club, in the very halls of congress, are heard +the most unsparing criticisms and denunciations of the administration. +These unwarranted comments fell thick and fast on Lincoln, because he +was at the post of responsibility in a critical period, a time of +general unrest. Self-appointed committees of business men, politicians, +clergymen, editors, and what not, were continually telling him what to +do and how to do it. Not a few of even the generals caught the +infection. + +It is not possible nor desirable to tell of Lincoln's relations with +many of the eminent men with whom he dealt. But a few will be selected +--Fremont, McClellan, Greeley, and Grant--in order to explain some of +the difficulties which were continually rising up before him, and by +showing how he dealt with them to illustrate certain phases of his +character. This chapter will treat of Fremont. + +At the outbreak of the war he was the most conspicuous military man in +the North. He had earned the gratitude of the country for distinguished +services in California, and he was deservedly popular among the +republicans for his leadership of the party in 1856. He was at the best +period of life, being forty-eight years of age. His abilities were +marked, and he possessed in an unusual degree the soldierly quality of +inspiring enthusiasm. If he could turn all his powers into the channel +of military efficiency, he would be the man of the age. He had the +public confidence, and he had such an opportunity as comes to few men. + +At the opening of the war he was in Paris and was at once summoned +home. He arrived in this country about the first of July and was by the +President appointed Major-General in the regular army. On the 3d of +July he was assigned to the Western department with headquarters at St. +Louis. This department included the state of Illinois and extended as +far west as the Rocky Mountains. + +At that time the condition of affairs in Missouri was distressful and +extremely threatening. The state of Missouri covers a very large +territory, 69,415 square miles, and it was imperfectly provided with +railroads and other means of communication. Private bands of marauders +and plunderers were numerous and did a great amount of damage among +law-abiding citizens. There were also several insurgent armies of no +mean dimensions threatening the state from the southwest. There were +good soldiers and officers there in defense of the Union, but they were +untried, insufficiently armed and accoutered, unprovided with means of +transportation, and, above all, they were in need of a commanding +general of sagacity, daring, and personal resources. Fremont seemed to +be just the man for the important post at that critical hour. + +Generals Lyon, Hunter, and others, were sore pressed in Missouri. They +needed the presence of their commander and they needed him at once. +Fremont was ordered to proceed to his post immediately. This order he +did not obey. He could never brook authority, and he was not in the +habit of rendering good reasons for his acts of disobedience. Though he +was aware that the need of his presence was urgent, he dallied about +Washington a long time and then proceeded west with leisure, arriving +in St. Louis nearly three weeks later than he should have done. These +three weeks were under the circumstances time enough for an +incalculable amount of damage, enough to make all the difference +between success and failure. It was long enough to insure the death (on +August 10th) of that brave soldier, General Lyon, and long enough to +account for many other disasters. + +One of the most annoying things with which the subordinate generals had +to contend, was that about this time the term of service of the men who +had enlisted for three months was beginning to expire. Many of these +reenlisted, and many did not. It was not possible to plan an expedition +of any sort when it was probable that a large portion of the command +would be out of service before it was completed. There was need of a +master hand at organizing and inspiring loyalty. + +Though Fremont had so unaccountably delayed, yet when he came he was +received with confidence and enthusiasm. Lincoln gave to him, as he did +to all his generals, very nearly a _carte blanche_. His instructions +were general, and the commander was left to work out the details in +his own way. All that he required was that something should be done +successfully in the prosecution of the war. The country was not a +judge of military plans; it was a judge of military success and +failure. They expected, and they had a right to expect, that Fremont +should do something more than keep up a dress parade. Lincoln laid on +him this responsibility in perfect confidence. + +The first thing Fremont accomplished in Missouri was to quarrel with +his best friends, the Blair family. This is important chiefly as a +thermometer,--it indicated his inability to hold the confidence of +intelligent and influential men after he had it. About this time +Lincoln wrote to General Hunter a personal letter which showed well how +things were likely to go:-- + +"My dear Sir: General Fremont needs assistance which it is difficult to +give him. He is losing the confidence of men near him, whose support +any man in his position must have to be successful. His cardinal +mistake is that he isolates himself and allows no one to see him; and +by which he does not know what is going on in the very matter he is +dealing with. He needs to have by his side a man of large experience. +Will you not, for me, take that place?" + +It was Louis XV. who exclaimed, "_L'etat? C'est moi!_" "The state? +_I'm_ the state!" The next move of Fremont can be compared only with +that spirit of the French emperor. It was no less than a proclamation +of emancipation. This was a civic act, while Fremont was an officer of +military, not civil, authority. The act was unauthorized, the President +was not even consulted. Even had it been a wise move, Fremont would +have been without justification because it was entirely outside of his +prerogatives. Even had he been the wisest man, he was not an autocrat +and could not have thus transcended his powers. + +But this act was calculated to do much mischief. The duty of the hour +was to save the Union. Fremont's part in that duty was to drive the +rebels out of Missouri. Missouri was a slave state. It had not seceded, +and it was important that it should not do so. The same was true of +Kentucky and Maryland. It is easy to see, upon reading Fremont's +proclamation, that it is the work not of a soldier, but of a +politician, and a bungling politician at that. + +When this came to the knowledge of the President he took prompt +measures to counteract it in a way that would accomplish the greatest +good with the least harm. He wrote to the general: + +"Allow me, therefore, to ask that you will, as of your own motion, +modify that paragraph so as to conform to the first and fourth sections +of the act of congress entitled, 'An act to confiscate property used +for insurrectionary purposes,' approved August 6, 1861, and a copy of +which act I herewith send you. This letter is written in a spirit of +caution, and not of censure." + +But Fremont was willing to override both President and congress, and +declined to make the necessary modifications. This placed him, with +such influence as he had, in direct antagonism to the administration. +That which ought to have been done by Fremont had to be done by +Lincoln, upon whom was thrown the onus of whatever was objectionable in +the matter. It did give him trouble. It alienated many of the extreme +abolitionists, including even his old neighbor and friend, Oscar H. +Browning. They seemed to think that Lincoln was now championing +slavery. His enemies needed no alienation, but they made adroit use of +this to stir up and increase discontent. + +So matters grew no better with Fremont, but much worse for three +months. The words of Nicolay and Hay are none too strong: "He had +frittered away his opportunity for usefulness and fame; such an +opportunity, indeed, as rarely comes." + +On October 21st, the President sent by special messenger the following +letter to General Curtis at St. Louis: + +"DEAR SIR: On receipt of this, with the accompanying enclosures, you +will take safe, certain, and suitable measures to have the inclosure +addressed to Major-General Fremont delivered to him with all reasonable +despatch, subject to these conditions only, that if, when General +Fremont shall be reached by the messenger,--yourself or any one sent by +you,--he shall then have, in personal command, fought and won a battle, +or shall then be in the immediate presence of the enemy in expectation +of a battle, it is not to be delivered but held for further orders." + +The inclosure mentioned was an order relieving General Fremont and +placing Hunter temporarily in command. It is plain that the President +expected that there would be difficulties, in the way of delivering the +order,--that Fremont himself might prevent its delivery. General +Curtis, who undertook its delivery, evidently expected the same thing, +for he employed three different messengers who took three separate +methods of trying to reach Fremont. The one who succeeded in delivering +the order did so only because of his successful disguise, and when it +was accomplished Fremont's words and manner showed that he had expected +to head off any such order. This incident reveals the peril which would +have fallen to American institutions had he been more successful in his +aspirations to the presidency. + +Fremont had one more chance. He was placed in command of a corps in +Virginia. There he disobeyed orders in a most atrocious manner, and by +so doing permitted Jackson and his army to escape. He was superseded by +Pope, but declining to serve under a junior officer, resigned. And that +was the end of Fremont as a public man. The fact that he had ceased to +be a force in American life was emphasized in 1864. The extreme +abolitionists nominated him as candidate for the presidency in +opposition to Lincoln. But his following was so slight that he withdrew +from the race and retired permanently to private life. + +Yet he was a man of splendid abilities of a certain sort. Had he +practised guerilla warfare, had he had absolute and irresponsible +command of a small body of picked men with freedom to raid or do +anything else he pleased, he would have been indeed formidable. The +terror which the rebel guerilla General, Morgan, spread over wide +territory would easily have been surpassed by Fremont. But guerilla +warfare was not permissible on the side of the government. The aim of +the Confederates was destruction; the aim of the administration was +construction. It is always easier and more spectacular to destroy than +to construct. + +One trouble with Fremont was his narrowness of view. He could not work +with others. If he wanted a thing in his particular department, it did +not concern him that it might injure the cause as a whole. Another +trouble was his conceit. He wanted to be "the whole thing," President, +congress, general, and judiciary. Had Lincoln not possessed the +patience of Job, he could not have borne with him even so long. The +kindness of the President's letter, above quoted, is eloquent testimony +to his magnanimity. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + +LINCOLN AND MCCLELLAN. + + +McClellan was a very different man from Fremont. Though he was as +nearly as possible opposite in his characteristics, still it was not +easier to get along with him. He was a man of brilliant talents, fine +culture, and charming personality. Graduating from West Point in 1846, +he went almost immediately into the Mexican War, where he earned his +captaincy. He later wrote a manual of arms for use in the United States +army. He visited Europe as a member of the commission of officers to +gather military information. + +His greatest genius was in engineering, a line in which he had no +superior. He went to Illinois in 1857 as chief engineer of the Central +Railroad, the following year he became vice-president, and the year +after that president of the St. Louis and Cincinnati Railway. At the +outbreak of the war this captain was by the governor of Ohio +commissioned as major-general, and a few days later he received from +Lincoln the commission of major-general in the United States army. + +He was sent to West Virginia with orders to drive out the rebels. This +he achieved in a brief time, and for it he received the thanks of +congress. He was, after the disaster at Bull Run, called to Washington +and placed in command of that portion of the Army of the Potomac whose +specific duty was the defense of the capital. He was rapidly promoted +from one position to another until age and infirmity compelled the +retirement of that grand old warrior, Winfield Scott, whereupon he was +made general-in-chief of the United States army. All this occurred in +less than four months. Four months ago, this young man of thirty-five +years was an ex-captain. To-day he is general-in-chief, not of the +largest army, but probably of the most intelligent army, the world has +ever seen. He would be almost more than human if such a sudden turn of +the wheel of fortune did not also turn his head. + +It was Lincoln's habit to let his generals do their work in their own +ways, only insisting that they should accomplish visible and tangible +results. This method he followed with McClellan, developing it with +great patience under trying circumstances. On this point there is no +better witness than McClellan himself. To his wife he wrote, "They give +me my way in everything, full swing and unbounded confidence." Later he +expressed contempt for the President who "showed him too much +deference." He was a universal favorite, he became known as "the young +Napoleon," he had the confidence of the country and the loyal devotion +of the army, and the unqualified support of the administration. Of him +great things were expected, and reasonably so. In the power of +inspiring confidence and enthusiasm he was second only to Napoleon. + +As an organizer and drill-master he was superb. The army after Bull Run +was as demoralized as an army could be. The recruits soon began to +arrive from the North, every day bringing thousands of such into +Washington. These required care and they must be put into shape for +effective service. This difficult task he accomplished in a way that +fully met the public expectation and reflected great credit upon +himself. + +In defense he was a terrible fighter. That is to say, when he fought at +all--for he fought only in defense--he fought well. A distinguished +Confederate soldier said, "There was no Union general whom we so much +dreaded as McClellan. He had, as we thought, no equal." And they +declared they could always tell when McClellan was in command by the +way the men fought. + +An illustrious comment on this is the splendid fighting at Antietam. +That was one of the greatest battles and one of the most magnificent +victories of the war. It showed McClellan at his best. + +We know what the Army of the Potomac was previous to the accession of +McClellan. Let us see what it was after his removal. "McClellan was +retired," says the Honorable Hugh McCulloch, "and what happened to the +Army of the Potomac? Terrible slaughter under Burnside at +Fredericksburg; crushing defeat at Chancellorsville under Hooker." All +this shows that McClellan narrowly missed the fame of being one of the +greatest generals in history. But let us glance at another page in the +ledger. + +His first act, when in command at Cincinnati, was to enter into an +agreement with General Buckner that the state of Kentucky should be +treated as neutral territory. That agreement put that state into the +position of a foreign country, like England or China, when the very +purpose of the war was to insist that the United States was one nation. +This act was a usurpation of authority, and further, it was +diametrically wrong even had he possessed the authority. + +His next notable act, one which has already been mentioned, was to +issue a proclamation in defense of slavery, promising to assist [the +rebels] to put down any attempt at insurrection by the slaves. This was +wrong. His duty was to conquer the enemy. It was no more his duty to +defend slavery than it was Fremont's to emancipate the slaves. + +The next development of McClellan was the hallucination, from which he +never freed himself, that the enemy's numbers were from five to ten +times as great as they really were. "I am here," he wrote August 16, +1861, "in a terrible place; the enemy have from three to four times my +force. The President, the old general, cannot or will not see the true +state of affairs." At that time the "true state of affairs" was that +the enemy had from one-third to one-half his force. That is a fair +specimen of the exaggeration of his fears. That is, McClellan's +estimate was from six to twelve times too much. + +At Yorktown he faced the Confederate Magruder, who commanded 11,000 all +told. Of this number, 6,000 were spread along a line of thirteen miles +of defense across the peninsula, leaving 5,000 for battle. McClellan's +imagination, or fears, magnified this into an enormous army. With his +58,000 effective troops he industriously prepared for defense, and when +the engineering work was accomplished thought he had done a great act +in defending his army. All the while he was calling lustily for +reinforcements from Washington. When Magruder was ready he retired with +his little army and McClellan's opportunity was gone. + +At Antietam he won a brilliant victory, but he failed to follow it up. +There was a chance to annihilate the Confederate army and end the war. +To do that was nearly as important as it had been to win the victory. +To be sure his troops were worn, but as compared with the shattered +condition of the enemy, his army was ready for dress parade. So the +enemy was allowed to cross the Potomac at leisure, reform, reorganize, +and the war was needlessly prolonged. It was this neglect which, more +than any other one thing, undermined the general confidence in +McClellan. + +Later, at second Bull Run he left Pope to suffer. It was clearly his +duty to reinforce Pope, but he only said that Pope had got himself into +the fix and he must get out as he could. He seemed to forget that there +never was a time when he was not calling for reinforcements himself. +This wanton neglect was unsoldierly, inhuman. He also forgot that this +method of punishing Pope inflicted severe punishment on the nation. + +His chronic call for reinforcements, were it not so serious, would make +the motive of a comic opera. When he was in Washington, he wanted all +the troops called in for the defense of the city. When he was in +Virginia, he thought the troops which were left for the defense of the +city ought to be sent to reinforce him,--the city was safe enough! He +telegraphed to Governor Denison of Ohio to pay no attention to +Rosecrans' request for troops. He thought that 20,000, with what could +be raised in Kentucky and Tennessee, was enough for the Mississippi +Valley, while he needed 273,000. When he was insisting that Washington +should be stripped in order to furnish him with 50,000 additional men, +the President asked what had become of his more than 160,000; and in +his detailed reply he gave the item of 38,500 absent on leave. Here was +nearly the number of 50,000 which he asked for, if he would only call +them in. + +Incidentally to all this were persistent discourtesies to the +President. He would sit silent in the cabinet meetings pretending to +have secrets of great importance. Instead of calling on the President +to report, he made it necessary for the President to call on him. At +other times he would keep the President waiting while he affected to be +busy with subordinates. Once indeed he left the President waiting while +he went to bed. All this Lincoln bore with his accustomed patience. He +playfully said, when remonstrated with, that he would gladly hold +McClellan's horse if he would only win the battles. This he failed to +do. And when he was finally relieved, he had worn out the patience not +only of the President, but of his army, and of the entire country. One +writer of the day said with much bitterness, but with substantial +truth, that "McClellan, with greater means at his command than +Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon, or Wellington, has lost more men and means +in his disasters than they in their victories." + +What were the defects of this remarkable man? In the first place, he +believed in slavery. At this late day it is difficult to realize the +devotion which some men had for slavery as a "divine institution," +before which they could kneel down and pray, as if it was the very ark +of God. McClellan was one such. And it is not improbable that he early +had more than a suspicion that slavery was the real cause of all the +trouble. This would in part account for his hesitation. + +Then there was a bitter personal hatred between him and Stanton. This +led him to resent all suggestions and orders emanating from the War +Department. It also made him suspicious of Stanton's associates, +including the President. + +Then he seemed to lack the nerve for a pitched battle. He could do +everything up to the point of action, but he could not act. This lack +of nerve is a more common fact in men in all walks of life than is +usually recognized. He was unconquerable in defense, he did not know +the word _aggressive_. Had he possessed some of the nerve of Sheridan, +Hooker, Sherman, or any one of a hundred others, he would have been one +of the four great generals of history. But he could not be persuaded or +forced to attack. His men might die of fever, but not in battle. So far +as he was concerned, the Army of the Potomac might have been +reorganizing, changing its base, and perfecting its defenses against +the enemy, to this day. + +A fatal defect was the endeavor to combine the military and the +political. Few men have succeeded in this. There were Alexander, +Caesar, Napoleon,--but all came to an untimely end; the first met an +early death in a foreign land, the second was assassinated, the third +died a prisoner in exile. McClellan and Fremont, with all their +splendid talents, made the fatal mistake. They forgot that for the time +they were only military men. Grant was not a politician until after his +military duties were ended. + +The conclusion of the relations between Lincoln and McClellan was not +generally known until recently made public by Lincoln's intimate friend +Lamon. McClellan was nominated in 1864 for President by the democrats. +As election day approached it became increasingly clear that McClellan +had no chance whatever of being elected. But Lincoln wanted something +more than, and different from, a reelection. His desires were for the +welfare of the distracted country. He wanted peace, reconstruction, +prosperity. A few days before election he sent a remarkable proposition +through a common friend, Francis P. Blair, to McClellan. Mr. Blair was +in hearty sympathy with the plan. + +This proposition set forth the hopelessness of McClellan's chances for +the presidency, which he knew perfectly well. It was then suggested +that McClellan withdraw from the contest and let the President be +chosen by a united North, which would bring the war to a speedy close +and stop the slaughter of men on both sides. The compensations for this +concession were to be: McClellan was to be promoted immediately to be +General of the Army, his father-in-law Marcy was to be appointed major- +general, and a suitable recognition of the democratic party would be +made in other appointments. + +At first blush McClellan was in favor of the arrangement. It is +probable that if left to himself he would have acceded. The imagination +can hardly grasp the fame that would have come to "little Mac," and the +blessings that would have come to the reunited country, had this wise +plan of Lincoln been accepted. But McClellan consulted with friends who +advised against it. The matter was dropped,--and that was the end of +the history of McClellan. He had thrown away his last chance of success +and fame. All that followed may be written in one brief sentence: On +election day he resigned from the army and was overwhelmingly defeated +at the polls. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + +LINCOLN AND GREELEY. + + +Much of the mischief of the world is the work of people who mean well. +Not the least of the annoyances thrust on Lincoln came from people who +ought to have known better. The fact that such mischief-makers are +complacent, as if they were doing what was brilliant, and useful, adds +to the vexation. + +One of the most prominent citizens of the United States at the time of +the civil war was Horace Greeley. He was a man of ardent convictions, +of unimpeachable honesty, and an editorial writer of the first rank. He +did a vast amount of good. He also did a vast amount of mischief which +may be considered to offset a part of the good he accomplished. + +His intellectual ability made it impossible for him to be anywhere a +nonentity. He was always prominent. His paper, the New York _Tribune_, +was in many respects the ablest newspaper of the day. Large numbers of +intelligent republicans took the utterances of the _Tribune_ as gospel +truth. + +It is not safe for any man to have an excess of influence. It is not +surprising that the wide influence which Greeley acquired made him +egotistic. He apparently came to believe that he had a mortgage on the +republican party, and through that upon the country. His editorial +became dictatorial. He looked upon Lincoln as a protege of his own who +required direction. This he was willing to give,--mildly but firmly. +All this was true of many other good men and good republicans. But it +was emphatically true of Greeley. + +If there is anything worse than a military man who plumes himself upon +his statesmanship, it is the civilian who affects to understand +military matters better than the generals, the war department, and the +commander-in-chief. This was Greeley. He placed his military policy in +the form of a war-cry,--"On to Richmond!"--at the head of his editorial +page, and with a pen of marvelous power rung the changes on it. + +This is but one sample of the man's proneness to interfere in other +matters. With all the infallibility of an editor he was ever ready to +tell what the President ought to do as a sensible and patriotic man. +_He_ would have saved the country by electing Douglas, by permitting +peaceable secession, by persuading the French ambassador to intervene, +by conference and argument with the Confederate emissaries, and by +assuming personal control of the administration. At a later date he +went so far as to propose to force Lincoln's resignation. He did not +seem to realize that Lincoln could be most effective if allowed to do +his work in his own way. He did not grasp the truth that he could be of +the highest value to the administration only as he helped and +encouraged, and that his obstructions operated only to diminish the +efficiency of the government. If Greeley had put the same degree of +force into encouraging the administration that he put into hindering +its work, he would have merited the gratitude of his generation. + +He was singularly lacking in the willingness to do this, or in the +ability to recognize its importance. Like hundreds of others he +persisted in expounding the duties of the executive, but his +patronizing advice was more harmful in proportion to the incisiveness +of his literary ability. This impertinence of Greeley's criticism +reached its climax in an open letter to Lincoln. This letter is, in +part, quoted here. It shows something of the unspeakable annoyances +that were thrust upon the already overburdened President, from those +who ought to have delighted in holding up his hands, those of whom +better things might have been expected. The reply shows the patience +with which Lincoln received these criticisms. It further shows the +skill with which he could meet the famous editor on his own ground; for +he also could wield a trenchant pen. + +Greeley's letter is very long and it is not necessary to give it in +full. But the headings, which are given below, are quite sufficient to +show that the brilliant editor dipped his pen in gall in order that he +might add bitterness to the man whose life was already filled to the +brim with the bitter sorrows, trials, and disappointments of a +distracted nation. The letter is published on the editorial page of the +New York _Tribune_ of August 20, 1862. + +"THE PRAYER OF TWENTY MILLIONS: + +"To ABRAHAM LINCOLN, _President of the United States_: + +"DEAR SIR: I do not intrude to tell you--for you must know already-- +that a great proportion of those who triumphed in your election, and +of all who desire the unqualified suppression of the Rebellion now +desolating our country, are sorely disappointed and deeply pained by +the policy you seem to be pursuing with regard to the slaves of the +Rebels. I write only to set succinctly and unmistakably before you +what we require, what we think we have a right to expect, and of what +we complain. + +"I. We require of you, as the first servant of the Republic, charged +especially and preeminently with this duty, that you EXECUTE THE +LAWS...." + +"II. We think you are strangely and disastrously remiss in the +discharge of your official and imperative duty with regard to the +emancipating provisions of the new Confiscation Act...." + +"III. We think you are unduly influenced by the counsels, the +representations, the menaces, of certain fossil politicians hailing +from the Border States...." + +"IV. We think the timid counsels of such a crisis calculated to prove +perilous and probably disastrous...." + +"V. We complain that the Union cause has suffered and is now suffering +immensely, from mistaken deference to Rebel Slavery. Had you, Sir, in +your Inaugural Address, unmistakably given notice that, in case the +Rebellion already commenced were persisted in, and your efforts to +preserve the Union and enforce the laws should be resisted by armed +force, you _would recognize no loyal person as rightfully held in +Slavery by a traitor_, we believe that the Rebellion would have +received a staggering, if not fatal blow...." + +"VI. We complain that the Confiscation Act which you approved is +habitually disregarded by your Generals, and that no word of rebuke for +them from you has yet reached the public ear...." + +"VII. Let me call your attention to the recent tragedy in New Orleans, +whereof the facts are obtained entirely through Pro-Slavery +channels...." + +"VIII. On the face of this wide earth, Mr. President, there is not one +disinterested, determined, intelligent champion of the Union Cause who +does not feel that all attempts to put down the Rebellion and at the +same time uphold its inciting cause are preposterous and futile--that +the Rebellion, if crushed out to-morrow, would be renewed within a year +if Slavery were left in full vigor--that the army of officers who +remain to this day devoted to Slavery can at best be but half way loyal +to the Union--and that every hour of deference to Slavery is an hour of +added and deepened peril to the Union...." + +"IX. I close as I began with the statement that what an immense +majority of the Loyal Millions of your countrymen require of you is a +frank, declared, unqualified, ungrudging execution of the laws of the +land, more especially of the Confiscation Act.... As one of the +millions who would gladly have avoided this struggle at any sacrifice +but that of Principle and Honor, but who now feel that the triumph of +the Union is indispensable not only to the existence of our country, +but to the well-being of mankind, I entreat you to render a hearty and +unequivocal obedience to the law of the land." + +"Yours," + +"HORACE GREELEY." + +"NEW YORK, August 19, 1862." + +Those who are familiar with the eccentricities of this able editor will +not be slow to believe that, had Lincoln, previous to the writing of +that letter, done the very things he called for, Greeley would not +improbably, have been among the first to attack him with his caustic +criticism. Lincoln was not ignorant of this. But he seized this +opportunity to address a far wider constituency than that represented +in the subscription list of the _Tribune_. His reply was published +in the Washington _Star_. He puts the matter so temperately and +plainly that the most obtuse could not fail to see the reasonableness +of it. As to Greeley, we do not hear from him again, and may assume +that he was silenced if not convinced. The reply was as follows: + +"EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, August 22, 1862. + +"HON. HORACE GREBLEY, + +"DEAR SIR: I have just read yours of the 19th, addressed to myself +through the New York _Tribune_. If there be in it any statements, +or assumptions of fact, which I may know to be erroneous, I do not, now +and here, controvert them. If there be in it any inferences which I may +believe to be falsely drawn, I do not, now and here, argue against +them. If there be perceptible in it an impatient and dictatorial tone, +I waive it in deference to an old friend, whose heart I have always +supposed to be right. As to the policy I 'seem to be pursuing,' as you +say, I have not meant to leave any one in doubt. I would save the +Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The +sooner the national authority can be restored, the nearer the Union +will be 'the Union as it was.' If there be those who would not save the +Union unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree +with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they +could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My +paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not +either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without +freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it by freeing all the +slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and +leaving others alone, I would also do that. What I do about slavery and +the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union: +and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to +save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am +doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe +doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when +shown to be errors, and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall +appear to be true views. I have here stated my purpose according to my +view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft expressed +personal wish that all men everywhere could be free." + +"Yours, + +A. LINCOLN." + +Not the least interesting fact connected with this subject is that at +this very time Lincoln had the Emancipation Proclamation in mind. But +not even the exasperating teasing that is fairly represented by +Greeley's letter caused him to put forth that proclamation prematurely. +It is no slight mark of greatness that he was able under so great +pressure to bide his time. + +This was not the last of Greeley's efforts to control the President or +run the machine. In 1864 he was earnestly opposed to his renomination +but finally submitted to the inevitable. + +In July of that year, 1864, two prominent Confederates, Clay of +Alabama, and Thompson of Mississippi, managed to use Greeley for their +purposes. They communicated with him from Canada, professing to have +authority to arrange for terms of peace, and they asked for a safe- +conduct to Washington. Greeley fell into the trap but Lincoln did not. +There is little doubt that their real scheme was to foment discontent +and secure division throughout the North on the eve of the presidential +election. Lincoln wrote to Greeley as follows: + +"If you can find any person, anywhere, professing to have authority +from Jefferson Davis, in writing, embracing the restoration of the +Union and the abandonment of slavery, whatever else it embraces, say to +him that he may come to me with you." + +Under date of July 18, he wrote the following: + +"_To whom it may concern:_" + +"Any proposition which embraces the restoration of peace, the integrity +of the whole Union, and the abandonment of slavery, and which comes by +and with an authority that can control the armies now at war with the +United States, will be received and considered by the Executive +government of the United States, and will be met on liberal terms on +substantial and collateral points; and the bearer or bearers thereof +shall have safe-conduct both ways." + +"ABRAHAM LINCOLN." + +Greeley met these "commissioners" at Niagara, but it turned out that +they had no authority whatever from the Confederate government. The +whole affair was therefore a mere fiasco. But Greeley, who had been +completely duped, was full of wrath, and persistently misrepresented, +not to say maligned, the President. According to Noah Brooks, the +President said of the affair: + +"Well, it's hardly fair to say that this won't amount to anything. It +will shut up Greeley, and satisfy the people who are clamoring for +peace. That's something, anyhow." The President was too hopeful. It did +not accomplish quite that, for Greeley was very persistent; but it did +prevent a serious division of the North. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. + +EMANCIPATION. + + +The institution of slavery was always and only hateful to the earnest +and honest nature of Lincoln. He detested it with all the energy of his +soul. He would, as he said, gladly have swept it from the face of the +earth. Not even the extreme abolitionists, Garrison, Wendell Phillips, +Whittier, abominated slavery with more intensity than Lincoln. But he +did not show his hostility in the same way. He had a wider scope of +vision than they. He had, and they had not, an appreciative historical +knowledge of slavery in this country. He knew that it was tolerated by +the Constitution and laws enacted within the provisions of the +Constitution, though he believed that the later expansion of slavery +was contrary to the spirit and intent of the men who framed the +Constitution. And he believed that slaveholders had legal rights which +should be respected by all orderly citizens. His sympathy with the +slave did not cripple his consideration for the slave-owner who had +inherited his property in that form, and under a constitution and laws +which he did not originate and for which he was not responsible. + +He would destroy slavery root and branch, but he would do it in a +manner conformable to the Constitution, not in violation of it. He +would exterminate it, but he would not so do it as to impoverish law- +abiding citizens whose property was in slaves. He would eliminate +slavery, but not in a way to destroy the country, for that would entail +more mischief than benefit. To use a figure, he would throw Jonah +overboard, but he would not upset the ship in the act. + +Large numbers of people have a limited scope of knowledge. Such +overlooked the real benefits of our civilization, and did not realize +that wrecking the constitution would simply destroy the good that had +thus far been achieved, and uproot the seeds of promise of usefulness +for the centuries to come. They wanted slavery destroyed at once, +violently, regardless of the disastrous consequences. On the other +hand, Lincoln wanted it destroyed, but by a sure and rational process. +He wished--and from this he never swerved--to do also two things: +first, to compensate the owners of the slaves, and second to provide +for the future of the slaves themselves. Of course, the extreme +radicals could not realize that he was more intensely opposed to +slavery than themselves. + +Let us now glance at his record. We have already seen (in chapter V.) +how he revolted from the first view of the horrors of the institution, +and the youthful vow which he there recorded will not readily be +forgotten. That was in 1831 when he was twenty-two years of age. + +Six years later, or in 1837, when he was a youthful member of the +Illinois legislature, he persuaded Stone to join him in a protest +against slavery. There was positively nothing to be gained by this +protest, either personally or in behalf of the slave. The only possible +reason for it was that he believed that slavery was wrong and could not +rest until he had openly expressed that belief. "A timely utterance +gave that thought relief, And I again am strong." + +When he was in congress, in 1846, the famous Wilmot Proviso came up. +This was to provide "that, as an express and fundamental condition to +the acquisition of any territory from the republic of Mexico by the +United States ... neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever +exist in any part of the said territory." By reason of amendments, this +subject came before the house very many times, and Lincoln said +afterwards that he had voted for the proviso in one form or another +forty-two times. + +On the 16th day of January, 1849, he introduced into congress a bill +for the emancipation of slavery in the District of Columbia. This was a +wise and reasonable bill. It gave justice to all, and at the same time +gathered all the fruits of emancipation in the best possible way. The +bill did not pass, there was no hope at the time that it would pass. +But it compelled a reasonable discussion of the subject and had a +certain amount of educational influence. + +It is interesting that, thirteen years later, April 10, 1862, he had +the privilege of fixing his presidential signature to a bill similar to +his own. Congress had moved up to his position. When he signed the +bill, he said: "Little did I dream, in 1849, when I proposed to abolish +slavery in this capital, and could scarcely get a hearing for the +proposition, that it would be so soon accomplished." + +After the expiration of his term in congress he left political life, as +he supposed, forever. He went into the practise of the law in earnest, +and was so engaged at the time of the repeal of the Missouri Compromise +which called him back to the arena of politics. + +In the early part of the war there were certain attempts at +emancipation which Lincoln held in check for the reason that the time +for them had not arrived. "There's a tide in the affairs of men." It is +of prime importance that this tide be taken at the flood. So far as +emancipation was concerned, this came in slower than the eagerness of +Generals Fremont and Hunter. But it was coming, and in the meantime +Lincoln was doing what he could to help matters on. The difficulty was +that if the Union was destroyed it would be the death-blow to the cause +of emancipation. At the same time not a few loyal men were +slaveholders. To alienate these by premature action would be +disastrous. The only wise plan of action was to wait patiently until a +sufficient number of these could be depended on in the emergency of +emancipation. This was what Lincoln was doing. + +The first part of the year 1862 was very trying. The North had expected +to march rapidly and triumphantly into Richmond. This had not been +accomplished, but on the contrary disaster had followed disaster in +battle, and after many months the two armies were encamped facing each +other and almost in sight of Washington, while the soldiers from the +North were rapidly sickening and dying in the Southern camps. Small +wonder if there was an impatient clamor. + +A serious result of this delay was the danger arising from European +sources. The monarchies of Europe had no sympathy with American +freedom. They became impatient with the reports of "no progress" in the +war, and at this time some of them were watching for a pretext to +recognize the Southern Confederacy. This came vividly to the knowledge +of Carl Schurz, minister to Spain. By permission of the President he +returned to this country--this was late in January, 1862--to lay the +matter personally before him. With the help of Schurz, Lincoln +proceeded to develop the sentiment for emancipation. By his request +Schurz went to New York to address a meeting of the Emancipation +Society on March 6th. It need not be said that the speaker delivered a +most able and eloquent plea upon "Emancipation as a Peace Measure." +Lincoln also made a marked contribution to the meeting. He telegraphed +to Schurz the text of his message to congress recommending emancipation +in the District of Columbia,--which resulted in the law already +mentioned,--and this message of Lincoln was read to the meeting. The +effect of it, following the speech of Schurz, was overwhelming. It was +quite enough to satisfy the most sanguine expectations. This was not a +coincidence, it was a plan. Lincoln's hand in _the whole matter_ +was not seen nor suspected for many years after. It gave a marked +impetus to the sentiment of emancipation. + +To the loyal slaveholders of the border states he made a proposal of +compensated emancipation. To his great disappointment they rejected +this. It was very foolish on their part, and he cautioned them that +they might find worse trouble. + +All this time, while holding back the eager spirits of the +abolitionists, he was preparing for his final stroke. But it was of +capital importance that this should not be premature. McClellan's +failure to take Richmond and his persistent delay, hastened the result. +The community at large became impatient beyond all bounds. There came +about a feeling that something radical must be done, and that quickly. +But it was still necessary that he should be patient. As the bravest +fireman is the last to leave the burning structure, so the wise +statesman must hold himself in check until the success of so important +a measure is assured beyond a doubt. + +An event which occurred later may be narrated here because it +illustrates the feeling which Lincoln always had in regard to slavery. +The item was written out by the President himself and given to the +newspapers for publication under the heading, + +"THE PRESIDENT'S LAST, SHORTEST, AND BEST SPEECH." + +"On Thursday of last week, two ladies from Tennessee came before the +President, asking the release of their husbands, held as prisoners of +war at Johnson's Island. They were put off until Friday, when they came +again, and were again put off until Saturday. At each of the interviews +one of the ladies urged that her husband was a religious man. On +Saturday, when the President ordered the release of the prisoners, he +said to this lady: You say your husband is a religious man; tell him +when you meet him that I say I am not much of a judge of religion, but +that, in my opinion, the religion that sets men to rebel and fight +against their government because, as they think, that government does +not sufficiently help _some_ men to eat their bread in the sweat +of _other_ men's faces, is not the sort of religion upon which +people can get to heaven." + +As the dreadful summer of 1862 advanced, Lincoln noted surely that the +time was at hand when emancipation would be the master stroke. In +discussing the possibilities of this measure he seemed to take the +opposite side. This was a fixed habit with him. He drew out the +thoughts of other people. He was enabled to see the subject from all +sides. Even after his mind was made up to do a certain thing, he would +still argue against it. But in any other sense than this he took +counsel of no one upon the emancipation measure. The work was his work. +He presented his tentative proclamation to the cabinet on the 22d of +July, 1862. The rest of the story is best told in Lincoln's own words: +-- + +"It had got to be midsummer, 1862. Things had gone on from bad to +worse, until I felt that we had reached the end of our rope on the plan +of operations we had been pursuing; that we had about played our last +card, and must change our tactics or lose the game. I now determined +upon the adoption of the emancipation policy; and without consultation +with, or knowledge of, the cabinet, I prepared the original draft of +the proclamation, and after much anxious thought called a cabinet +meeting upon the subject.... I said to the cabinet that I had resolved +upon this step, and had not called them together to ask their advice, +but to lay the subject-matter of a proclamation before them, +suggestions as to which would be in order after they had heard it +read." + +The members of the cabinet offered various suggestions, but none which +Lincoln had not fully anticipated. Seward approved the measure but +thought the time not opportune. There had been so many reverses in the +war, that he feared the effect. "It may be viewed," he said, "as the +last measure of an exhausted government, a cry for help; the government +stretching forth its hands to Ethiopia, instead of Ethiopia stretching +forth her hands to the government." He then suggested that the +proclamation be not issued until it could be given to the country +supported by military successes. This seemed to Lincoln a wise +suggestion, and he acted on it. The document was laid away for the +time. + +It was not until September 17th that the looked-for success came. The +Confederate army had crossed the Potomac with the intention of invading +the North. They were met and completely defeated in the battle of +Antietam. Lincoln said of it: "When Lee came over the river, I made a +resolution that if McClellan drove him back I would send the +proclamation after him. The battle of Antietam was fought Wednesday, +and until Saturday I could not find out whether we had gained a victory +or lost a battle. It was then too late to issue the proclamation that +day; and the fact is I fixed it up a little Sunday, and Monday I let +them have it." + +This was the preliminary proclamation and was issued September 22d. The +supplementary document, the real proclamation of emancipation, was +issued January 1, 1863. As the latter covers substantially the ground +of the former, it is not necessary to repeat both and only the second +one is given. + +EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. + +Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord +one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by +the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the +following, to wit:-- + +That on the first day of January in the year of our Lord one thousand +eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any +state, or designated part of a state, the people whereof shall then be +in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward +and forever free, and the Executive Government of the United States, +including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and +maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to +repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for +their actual freedom. + +That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid by +proclamation, designate the states and part of states, if any, in which +the people thereof respectively shall then be in rebellion against the +United States; and the fact that any state, or the people thereof, +shall on that day be in good faith represented in the congress of the +United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority +of the qualified voters of such state shall have participated, shall, +in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive +evidence that such state and the people thereof are not then in +rebellion against the United States:-- + +_Now, therefore,_ I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United +States, by virtue of the power in me vested as commander-in-chief of +the army and navy of the United States, in time of actual armed +rebellion against the authority of, and government of, the United +States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said +rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord +one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my +purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one +hundred days from the day first above mentioned, order, and designate, +as the states and parts of states wherein the people thereof +respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States [here +follows the list]. + +And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order +and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated +states and parts of states, are and henceforward shall be free; and +that the executive government of the United States, including the +military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the +freedom of said persons. + +And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain +from all violence, unless in necessary self-defense, and I recommend to +them, that in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for +reasonable wages. + +And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable +condition will be received into the armed service of the United States +to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man +vessels of all sorts in said service. + +And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, +warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the +considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of almighty God. + +_In Testimony whereof,_ I have hereunto set my name and caused the +seal of the United States to be affixed. + +Done at the city of Washington, this first day of January, in the year +of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the +Independence of the United States of America the eighty-seventh. + + ABRAHAM LINCOLN. + +By the President: + WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State. + +So he fulfilled his youthful vow. He had hit that thing, and he had hit +it hard! From that blow the cursed institution of slavery will not +recover in a thousand years. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + +DISCOURAGEMENTS. + + +The middle period of the war was gloomy and discouraging. Though the +Confederates made no substantial progress they certainly held their +own. Time is an important factor in all history, and the fact that the +Confederates at least gained time counted heavily against the Union. +There were no decisive victories gained by the Federal troops. +Antietam, to be sure, was won, but the fruits of the victory were lost. +For many months the two armies continued facing each other, and for the +most part they were much nearer Washington than Richmond. + +Meantime the summer, fall, winter were passing by and there was no +tangible evidence that the government would ever be able to maintain +its authority. All this time the Army of the Potomac was magnificent in +numbers, equipment, intelligence. In every respect but one they were +decidedly superior to the enemy. The one thing they needed was +leadership. The South had generals of the first grade. The generalship +of the North had not yet fully developed. + +Lincoln held on to McClellan as long as it was possible to do so. He +never resented the personal discourtesies. He never wearied of the +fruitless task of urging him on. He never refused to let him have his +own way provided he could show a reason for it. But his persistent +inactivity wore out the patience of the country and finally of the army +itself. With the exception of northern democrats with southern +sympathies, who from the first were sure of only one thing, namely, +that the war was a failure, the clamor for the removal of McClellan was +well-nigh unanimous. To this clamor Lincoln yielded only when it became +manifestly foolish longer to resist it. + +A succeeding question was no less important: Who shall take his place? +There was in the East no general whose record would entitle him to this +position of honor and responsibility. In all the country there was at +that time no one whose successes were so conspicuous as to point him +out as the coming man. But there were generals who had done good +service, and just at that time. Burnside was at the height of his +success. He was accordingly appointed. His record was good. He was an +unusually handsome man, of soldierly bearing, and possessed many +valuable qualities. He was warmly welcomed by the country at large and +by his own army, who thanked God and took courage. + +His first battle as commander of the Army of the Potomac was fought at +Fredericksburg on the 15th of December and resulted in his being +repulsed with terrible slaughter. It is possible, in this as in every +other battle, that had certain things been a little different,--had it +been possible to fight the battle three weeks earlier,--he would have +won a glorious victory. But these thoughts do not bring to life the men +who were slain in battle, nor do they quiet the clamor of the country. +Burnside showed a certain persistence when, in disregard of the +unanimous judgment of his generals, he tried to force a march through +the heavy roads of Virginia, as sticky as glue, and give battle again. +But he got stuck in the mud and the plan was given up, the only +casualty, being the death of a large number of mules that were killed +trying to draw wagons through the bottomless mud. After this one +battle, it was plain that Burnside was not the coming general. + +The next experiment was with Hooker, a valiant and able man, whose +warlike qualities are suggested by his well-earned soubriquet of +"fighting Joe Hooker." He had his limitations, as will presently +appear. But upon appointing him to the command Lincoln wrote him a +personal letter. This letter is here reproduced because it is a perfect +illustration of the kindly patience of the man who had need of so much +patience: + +"EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, D.C., January 26, 1863. + +MAJOR-GENERAL HOOKER, + +GENERAL: I have placed you at the head of the Army of the Potomac. Of +course I have done this upon what appears to me to be sufficient +reasons, and yet I think it best for you to know that there are some +things in regard to which I am not satisfied with you. I believe you to +be a brave and skilful soldier, which of course I like. I also believe +that you do not mix politics with your profession, in which you are +right. You have confidence in yourself, which is a valuable, if not +indispensable, quality. You are ambitious, which, within reason, does +good rather than harm; but I think that during General Burnside's +command of the army you have taken counsel of your ambition and +thwarted him as much as you could, in which you did a great wrong to +the country, and to a most meritorious and honorable brother officer. I +have heard, in such a way as to believe it, of your recently saying +that both the army and the government needed a dictator. Of course it +was not for this, but in spite of it, that I have given you the +command. Only those generals who gain success can be dictators. What I +now ask of you is military success, and I will risk the dictatorship. +The government will support you to the utmost of its ability, which is +neither more nor less than it has done and will do for all commanders. +I much fear that the spirit you have aimed to infuse into the army, of +criticising their commander and withholding confidence from him, will +now turn upon you. I shall assist you as far as I can to put it down. +Neither you, nor Napoleon, if he were alive again, could get any good +out of an army while such a spirit prevails in it. And now, beware of +rashness. Beware of rashness, but, with energy and sleepless vigilance, +go forward and give us victories. + + Yours, very truly, + A. LINCOLN." + +The first effect of this letter was to subdue the fractious spirit of +the fighter. He said, "That is just such a letter as a father might +write to a son. It is a beautiful letter, and although I think he was +harder on me than I deserved, I will say that I love the man who wrote +it." + +But later his conceit took possession of him. According to Noah Brooks +he said to some friends: "I suppose you have seen this letter or a copy +of it?" They had. "After I have been to Richmond I shall have the +letter published in the newspapers. It will be amusing." When this was +told Lincoln he took the good-natured view of it and only said, "Poor +Hooker! I am afraid he is incorrigible." + +It was in January, 1863, that Hooker took command of the army. Three +months later he had it in shape for the campaign, and Lincoln went down +to see the review. It was indeed a magnificent army, an inspiring +sight. But it was noticed by many that Lincoln's face had not the +joyous radiancy of hope which it had formerly worn; it was positively +haggard. It was plain that he did not share his general's easy +confidence. He could not forget that he had more than once seen an army +magnificent before battle, and shattered after battle. He spent a week +there, talking with the generals, shaking hands with "the boys." Many a +private soldier of that day carries to this day as a sacred memory the +earnest sound of the President's voice, "God bless you!" + +Then came Chancellorsville with its sickening consequences. When the +news came to Washington, the President, with streaming eyes, could only +exclaim: "My God, my God! what will the country say?" + +The next we hear of Hooker, he had not entered Richmond nor had he +found the amusement of publishing the President's fatherly letter. He +was chasing Lee in a northerly direction,--towards Philadelphia or New +York. He became angry with Halleck who refused him something and +summarily resigned. It was not, for the country, an opportune time for +changing generals, but perhaps it was as well. It certainly shows that +while Lincoln took him as the best material at hand, while he +counseled, encouraged, and bore with him, yet his diagnosis of Hooker's +foibles was correct, and his fears, not his hopes, were realized. + +He was succeeded by George C. Meade, "four-eyed George," as he was +playfully called by his loyal soldiers, in allusion to his eyeglasses. +It was only a few days later that the great battle of Gettysburg was +fought under Meade, and a brilliant victory was achieved. But here, as +at Antietam, the triumph was bitterly marred by the disappointment that +followed. The victorious army let the defeated army get away. The +excuses were about the same as at Antietam,--the troops were tired. Of +course they were tired. But it may be assumed that the defeated army +was also tired. It surely makes one army quite as tired to suffer +defeat as it makes the other to achieve victory. It was again a golden +opportunity to destroy Lee's army and end the war. + +Perhaps Meade had achieved enough for one man in winning Gettysburg. It +would not be strange if the three days' battle had left him with nerves +unstrung. The fact remains that he did not pursue and annihilate the +defeated army. They were permitted to recross the Potomac without +molestation, to reenter what may be called their own territory, to +reorganize, rest, reequip, and in due time to reappear as formidable as +ever. It is plain that the hero of Gettysburg was not the man destined +to crush the rebellion. + +Here were three men, Burnside, Hooker, and Meade, all good men and +gallant soldiers. But not one of them was able successfully to command +so large an army, or to do the thing most needed,--capture Richmond. +The future hero had not yet won the attention of the country. + +In the meantime affairs were very dark for the administration, and up +to the summer of 1863 had been growing darker and darker. Some splendid +military success had been accomplished in the West, but the West is at +best a vague term even to this day, and it has always seemed so remote +from the capital, especially as compared to the limited theater of war +in Virginia where the Confederate army was almost within sight of the +capital, that these western victories did not have as much influence as +they should have had. + +And there were signal reverses in the West, too. Both Louisville and +Cincinnati were seriously threatened, and the battle of Chickamauga was +another field of slaughter, even though it was shortly redeemed by +Chattanooga. But the attention of the country was necessarily focussed +chiefly on the limited territory that lay between Washington and +Richmond. In that region nothing permanent or decisive had been +accomplished in the period of more than two years, and it is small +wonder that the President became haggard in appearance. + +He did what he could. He had thus far held the divided North, and +prevented a European alliance with the Confederates. He now used, one +by one, the most extreme measures. He suspended the writ of _habeas +corpus_, declared or authorized martial law, authorized the +confiscation of the property of those who were providing aid and +comfort for the enemy, called for troops by conscription when +volunteers ceased, and enlisted negro troops. Any person who studies +the character of Abraham Lincoln will realize that these measures, or +most of them, came from him with great reluctance. He was not a man who +would readily or lightly take up such means. They meant that the +country was pressed, hard pressed. They were extreme measures, not +congenial to his accustomed lines of thought. They were as necessities. + +But what Lincoln looked for, longed for, was the man who could use +skillfully and successfully, the great Army of the Potomac. He had not +yet been discovered. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + +NEW HOPES. + + +The outlook from Washington during the first half of the year 1863 was +as discouraging as could well be borne. There had been no real advance +since the beginning of the war. Young men, loyal and enthusiastic, had +gone into the army by hundreds of thousands. Large numbers of these, +the flower of the northern youth, had been slain or wounded, and far +larger numbers had died of exposure in the swamps of Virginia. There +was still no progress. Washington had been defended, but there was +hardly a day when the Confederates were not within menacing distance of +the capital. + +After the bloody disaster at Chancellorsville matters grew even worse. +Lee first defeated Hooker in battle and then he out-maneuvered him. He +cleverly eluded him, and before Hooker was aware of what was going on, +he was on his way, with eighty thousand men, towards Philadelphia and +had nearly a week's start of the Union army. The Confederates had +always thought that if they could carry the war into the northern +states they would fight to better advantage. Jeff Davis had threatened +the torch, but it is not likely that such subordinates as General Lee +shared his destructive and barbarous ambition. Still, Lee had a +magnificent army, and its presence in Pennsylvania was fitted to +inspire terror. It was also fitted to rouse the martial spirit of the +northern soldiers, as afterwards appeared. + +As soon as the situation was known, Hooker started in hot pursuit. +After he had crossed the Potomac going north, he made certain requests +of the War Department which were refused, and he, angry at the refusal, +promptly sent in his resignation. Whether his requests were reasonable +is one question; whether it was patriotic in him to resign on the eve +of what was certain to be a great and decisive battle is another +question. But his resignation was accepted and Meade was appointed to +the command. He accepted the responsibility with a modest and soldierly +spirit and quit himself like a man. It is one of the rare cases in all +history in which an army has on the eve of battle made a change of +generals without disaster. That is surely highly to the credit of +General Meade. Lee's objective point was not known. He might capture +Harrisburg or Philadelphia, or both. He would probably desire to cut +off all communication with Washington. The only thing to do was to +overtake him and force a battle. He himself realized this and was fully +decided not to give battle but fight only on the defensive. Curiously +enough, Meade also decided not to attack, but to fight on the +defensive. Nevertheless, "the best laid schemes o' mice an' men gang +aft agley." + +The result was Gettysburg, and the battle was not fought in accordance +with the plan of either commander. Uncontrollable events forced the +battle then and there. This battle-field was some distance to the +north, that is to say, in advance of Pipe Creek, the location selected +by Meade. But a conflict between a considerable force on each side +opened the famous battle on July 1st. A retreat, or withdrawal, to Pipe +Creek would have been disastrous. The first clash was between Heth's +division on the Confederate side, and Buford and Reynolds on the Union +side. Rarely have soldiers been more eager for the fray than were those +of the Union army at this time, especially the sons of Pennsylvania. +"Up and at 'em" was the universal feeling. It was hardly possible to +hold them back. The generals felt that it was not wise to hold them +back. Thus, as one division after another, on both sides, came up to +the help of their comrades, Gettysburg was accepted as the battle- +field. It was selected by neither commander, it was thrust upon them by +the fortunes of war, it was selected by the God of battles. + +Almost the first victim on the Union side was that talented and brave +soldier, the general in command, Reynolds. His place was later in the +day,--that is, about four o'clock in the afternoon,--filled, and well +filled, by General Hancock. + +The scope of this volume does not permit the description of this great +battle, and only some of the results may be given. The evening of July +1st closed in with the Union army holding out, but with the advantages, +such as they were, on the Confederate side. The second day the fight +was fiercely renewed and closed with no special advantage on either +side. On the third day it was still undecided until in the afternoon +when the climax came in Pickett's famous charge. This was the very +flower of the Confederate army, and the hazard of the charge was taken +by General Lee against the earnest advice of Longstreet. They were +repulsed and routed, and that decided the battle. Lee's army was turned +back, the attempted invasion was a failure, and it became manifest that +even Lee could not fight to advantage on northern soil. + +Gettysburg was the greatest battle ever fought on the western +hemisphere, and it will easily rank as one of the great battles of +either hemisphere. The number of troops was about 80,000 on each side. +In the beginning the Confederates decidedly outnumbered the Federals, +because the latter were more scattered and it took time to bring them +up. In the latter part, the numbers were more nearly evenly divided, +though nearly one-fourth of Meade's men were not in the battle at any +time. + +The total loss of killed, wounded, and missing, was on the Confederate +side over 31,000; on the Union side, about 23,000. The Confederates +lost seventeen generals, and the Federals twenty. When we consider this +loss of generals, bearing in mind that on the Union side they were +mostly those on whom Meade would naturally lean, it is hardly to be +wondered at that he so far lost his nerve as to be unwilling to pursue +the retreating enemy or hazard another battle. He could not realize +that the enemy had suffered much more than he had, and that, despite +his losses, he was in a condition to destroy that army. Not all that +Lincoln could say availed to persuade him to renew the attack upon the +retreating foe. When Lee reached the Potomac he found the river so +swollen as to be impassable. He could only wait for the waters to +subside or for time to improvise a pontoon bridge. + +When, after waiting for ten days, Meade was aroused to make the attack, +he was just one day too late. Lee had got his army safely into +Virginia, and the war was not over. Lincoln could only say, "Providence +has twice [the other reference is to Antietam] delivered the Army of +Northern Virginia into our hands, and with such opportunities lost we +ought scarcely to hope for a third chance." + +Lincoln wrote a letter to Meade. He also wrote him a second letter--or +was it the first?--which he did not send. We quote from this because it +really expressed the President's mind, and because the fact that he did +not send it only shows how reluctant he was to wound another's feelings +even when deserved. + +"Again, my dear general, I do not believe you appreciate the magnitude +of the misfortune involved in Lee's escape. He was within your easy +grasp, and to have closed upon him would, in connection with our other +late successes, have ended the war. As it is, the war will be prolonged +indefinitely. If you could not safely attack Lee last Monday, how can +you possibly do so south of the river, when you can take with you very +few more than two-thirds of the force you then had in hand? It would be +unreasonable to expect, and I do not expect, that you can now effect +much. Your golden opportunity is gone, and I am distressed immeasurably +because of it. I beg you will not consider this a prosecution or +persecution of yourself. As you had learned that I was dissatisfied, I +thought it best to kindly tell you why." + +While not overlooking Meade's omission, as this letter shows, he +appreciated the full value of the victory that checked Lee's advance, +and thanked the general heartily for that. + +On the same afternoon of July 3d, almost at the very minute that +Pickett was making his charge, there was in progress, a thousand miles +to the west, an event of almost equal importance. Just outside the +fortifications of Vicksburg, under an oak tree, General Grant had met +the Confederate General, Pemberton, to negotiate terms of surrender. +The siege of Vicksburg was a great triumph, and its capitulation was of +scarcely less importance than the victory at Gettysburg. Vicksburg +commanded the Mississippi River and was supposed to be impregnable. +Surely few cities were situated more favorably to resist either attack +or siege. But Admiral Porter got his gunboats below the city, running +the batteries in the night, and Grant's investment was complete. The +Confederate cause was hopeless, their men nearly starved. + +Grant's _plan_ was to make a final attack (if necessary) on the 6th or +7th day of July; but some time previous to this he had predicted that +the garrison would surrender on the fourth. General Pemberton tried his +utmost to avoid this very thing. When it became apparent that he could +not hold out much longer, he opened negotiations on the morning of July +3d for the specific purpose of forestalling the possibility of +surrender on the next day, Independence Day. In his report to the +Confederate government he claims to have chosen the 4th of July for +surrender, because he thought that he could secure better terms on that +day. But his pompous word has little weight, and all the evidence +points the other way. When on the morning of the 3d of July he opened +negotiations, he could not possibly have foreseen that it would take +twenty-four hours to arrange the terms. + +It was, then, on the 4th of July that Grant occupied Vicksburg. The +account by Nicolay and Hay ends with the following beautiful +reflection: "It is not the least of the glories gained by the Army of +the Tennessee in this wonderful campaign that not a single cheer went +up from the Union ranks, not a single word [was spoken] that could +offend their beaten foes." + +The loss to the Union army in killed, wounded, and missing, was about +9,000. The Confederate loss was nearly 50,000. To be sure many of the +paroled were compelled to reenlist according to the policy of the +Confederate government. But even so their parole was a good thing for +the cause of the Union. They were so thoroughly disaffected that their +release did, for the time, more harm than good to the southern cause. +Then it left Grant's army free. + +The sequel to this victory came ten months later in Sherman's march to +the sea: not less thrilling in its conception and dramatic in its +execution than any battle or siege. Much fighting, skilful generalship, +long patience were required before this crowning act could be done, but +it came in due time and was one of the finishing blows to the +Confederacy, and it came as a logical result of the colossal victory at +Vicksburg. + +There were some eddies and counter currents to the main drift of +affairs. About the time that Lee and his beaten army were making good +their escape, terrific riots broke out in New York City in resisting +the draft. As is usual in mob rule the very worst elements of human or +devilish depravity came to the top and were most in evidence. For +several days there was indeed a reign of terror. The fury of the mob +was directed particularly against the negroes. They were murdered. +Their orphan asylum was burnt. But the government quickly suppressed +the riot with a firm hand. The feeling was general throughout the +country that we were now on the way to a successful issue of the war. +The end was almost in sight. Gettysburg and Vicksburg, July 3 and 4, +1863, had inspired new hopes never to be quenched. + +On the 15th day of July the President issued a thanksgiving +proclamation, designating August 6th as the day. Later in the year he +issued another thanksgiving proclamation, designating the last Thursday +in November. Previous to that time, certain states, and not a few +individuals, were in the habit of observing a thanksgiving day in +November. Indeed the custom, in a desultory way, dates back to Plymouth +Colony. But these irregular and uncertain observances never took on the +semblance of a national holiday. _That_ dates from the proclamation +issued October 3d, 1863. From that day to this, every President has +every year followed that example. + +Lincoln was invited to attend a public meeting appointed for August +26th at his own city of Springfield, the object of which was to concert +measures for the maintenance of the Union. The pressure of public +duties did not permit him to leave Washington, but he wrote a +characteristic letter, a part of which refers to some of the events +touched on in this chapter. A few sentences of this letter are here +given: + +"The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea. Thanks to the +great Northwest for it; nor yet wholly to them. Three hundred miles tip +they met New England, Empire, Keystone, and Jersey, hewing their way +right and left. The sunny South, too, in more colors than one, also +lent a helping hand. On the spot, their part of the history was jotted +down in black and white. The job was a great national one, and let none +be slighted who bore an honorable part in it. And while those who have +cleared the great river may well be proud, even that is not all. It is +hard to say that anything has been more bravely and well done than at +Antietam, Murfreesboro, Gettysburg, and on many fields of less note. +Nor must Uncle Sam's web-feet be forgotten. At all the watery margins +they have been present, not only on the deep sea, the broad bay, and +the rapid river, but also up the narrow, muddy bayou, and wherever the +ground was a little damp, they have been and made their tracks. Thanks +to all. For the great republic--for the principle it lives by and keeps +alive--for man's vast future--thanks to all. + +"Peace does not appear so distant as it did. I hope it will come soon +and come to stay; and so come as to be worth the keeping in all future +time. It will then have been proved that among freemen there can be no +successful appeal from the ballot to the bullet, and that they who take +such appeal are sure to lose their case and pay the cost. And there +will be some black men who can remember that with silent tongue and +clenched teeth and steady eye and well-poised bayonet they have helped +mankind on to this great consummation; while I fear there will be some +white ones unable to forget that with malignant heart and deceitful +speech they have striven to hinder it." + +It is plain that after July 4, 1863, the final result was no longer +doubtful. So Lincoln felt it. There were indeed some who continued to +cry that the war was a failure, but in such cases the wish was only +father to the thought. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. + +LINCOLN AND GRANT. + + +The great army of R. E. Lee operated, through the whole period of the +four years of the war, almost within sight of Washington City. It is +not in the least strange that eastern men, many of whom had hardly +crossed the Alleghanies, should think that the operations in Virginia +were about all the war there was, and that the fighting in the West was +of subordinate importance. Lincoln could not fall into this error. Not +only had he a singularly broad vision, but he was himself a western +man. He fully appreciated the magnitude of the operations in that vast +territory lying between the Alleghanies on the east and the western +boundary of Missouri on the west. He also clearly understood the +importance of keeping open the Mississippi River throughout its entire +length. + +At the very time the Army of the Potomac was apparently doing nothing, +--winning no victories, destroying no armies, making no permanent +advances,--there was a man in the West who was building up for himself +a remarkable reputation. He was all the while winning victories, +destroying armies, making advances. He was always active, he was always +successful. The instant one thing was accomplished he turned his +energies to a new task. This was Grant. + +He was a graduate of West Point, had seen service in the Mexican War, +and ultimately rose to the grade of captain. At the outbreak of the war +he was in business with his father in Galena, Illinois. When the +President called for the 75,000 men, Grant proceeded at once to make +himself useful by drilling volunteer troops. He was by the governor of +Illinois commissioned as colonel, and was soon promoted. His first +service was in Missouri. When stationed at Cairo he seized Paducah on +his own responsibility. This stroke possibly saved Kentucky for the +Union, for the legislature, which had up to that time been wavering, +declared at once in favor of the Union. + +He was then ordered to break up a Confederate force at Belmont, a few +miles below Cairo. He started at once on his expedition, and though the +enemy was largely reinforced before his arrival, he was entirely +successful and returned with victory, not excuses. + +Then came Forts Henry and Donaldson. The latter attracted unusual +attention because it was the most important Union victory up to that +time, and because of his epigrammatic reply to the offer of surrender. +When asked what terms he would allow, his reply was, "Unconditional +surrender." As these initials happened to fit the initials of his name, +he was for a long time called "Unconditional Surrender Grant." So he +passed promptly from one task to another, from one victory to another. +And Lincoln kept watch of him. He began to think that Grant was the man +for the army. + +It has been said that Lincoln, while he gave general directions to his +soldiers, and freely offered suggestions, left them to work out the +military details in their own way. This is so well illustrated in his +letter to Grant that, for this reason, as well as for the intrinsic +interest of the letter, it is here given in full: + +"MY DEAR GENERAL:--I do not remember that you and I ever met +personally. I write this now as a grateful acknowledgment for the +almost inestimable service you have done the country. I wish to say a +word further. When you first reached the vicinity of Vicksburg, I +thought you should do what you finally did--march the troops across the +neck, run the batteries with the transports, and thus go below; and I +never had any faith, except a general hope that you knew better than I, +that the Yazoo Pass expedition and the like could succeed. When you got +below and took Port Gibson, Grand Gulf, and vicinity, I thought you +should go down the river and join General Banks; and when you turned +northward, east of the Big Black, I thought it was a mistake. I now +wish to make the personal acknowledgment that you were right and I was +wrong." + +There was surely no call for this confession, no reason for the letter, +except the bigness of the heart of the writer. Like the letter to +Hooker, it was just such a letter as a father might write a son. It was +the production of a high grade of manliness. + +Prominence always brings envy, fault-finding, hostility. From this +Grant did not escape. The more brilliant and uniform his successes, the +more clamorous a certain class of people became. The more strictly he +attended to his soldierly duties, the more busily certain people tried +to interfere,--to tell him how to do, or how not to do. In their self- +appointed censorship they even besieged the President and made life a +burden to him. With wit and unfailing good nature, he turned their +criticisms. When they argued that Grant could not possibly be a good +soldier, he replied, "I like him; he fights." + +When they charged him with drunkenness, Lincoln jocularly proposed that +they ascertain the brand of the whisky he drank and buy up a large +amount of the same sort to send to his other generals, so that they +might win victories like him! + +Grant's important victories in the West came in rapid and brilliant +succession. Forts Henry and Donaldson were captured in February, 1862. +The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, was fought in April of the +same year. Vicksburg surrendered July 4th, 1863. And the battle of +Chattanooga took place in November of that year. + +Grant was always sparing of words and his reports were puzzling to the +administration. He always reported, and that promptly. But his reports +were of the briefest description and in such marked contrast to those +of all other officers known to the government, that they were a mystery +to those familiar with certain others. Lincoln said that Grant could do +anything except write a report. He concluded to send a trusty messenger +to see what manner of man this victorious general was. Charles A. Dana, +Assistant-Secretary of War, was chosen for this purpose. His +investigation was satisfactory, fully so. Lincoln's confidence in, and +hopes for, this rising warrior were fully justified. + +It was after the capitulation of Vicksburg that Grant grasped the fact +that he was the man destined to end the war. After the battle of +Chattanooga public opinion generally pointed to him as the general who +was to lead our armies to ultimate victory. In February, 1864, congress +passed an act creating the office of Lieutenant General. The President +approved that act on Washington's birthday, and nominated Grant for +that office. The senate confirmed this nomination on March 2d, and +Grant was ordered to report at Washington. + +With his usual promptness he started at once for Washington, arriving +there the 8th of March. The laconic conversation which took place +between the President and the general has been reported about as +follows:-- + +"What do you want me to do?" + +"To take Richmond. Can you do it?" + +"Yes, if you furnish me troops enough." + +That evening there was a levee at the White House which he attended. +The crowd were very eager to see him, and he was persuaded to mount a +sofa, which he did blushing, so that they might have a glimpse of him, +but he could not be prevailed on to make a speech. On parting that +evening with the President, he said, "This is the warmest campaign I +have witnessed during the war." + +That evening Lincoln informed him that he would on the next day +formally present his commission with a brief speech--four sentences in +all. He suggested that Grant reply in a speech suitable to be given out +to the country in the hope of reviving confidence and courage. The +formality of the presentation occurred the next day, but the general +disappointed the President as to the speech. He accepted the commission +with remarks of soldier-like brevity. + +It is fitting here to say of General Meade that as he had accepted his +promotion to the command of the Army of the Potomac with dignified +humility, so he accepted his being superseded with loyal obedience. In +both cases he was a model of a patriot and a soldier. + +As soon as he received his commission Grant visited his future army-- +the Army of the Potomac. Upon his return Mrs. Lincoln planned to give a +dinner in his honor. But this was not to his taste. He said, "Mrs. +Lincoln must excuse me. I must be in Tennessee at a given time." + +"But," replied the President, "we can't excuse you. Mrs. Lincoln's +dinner without you would be Hamlet with Hamlet left out." + +"I appreciate the honor Mrs. Lincoln would do me," he said, "but time +is very important now--and really--Mr. Lincoln--I have had enough of +this show business." + +Mr. Lincoln was disappointed in losing the guest for dinner, but he was +delighted with the spirit of his new general. + +Grant made his trip to the West. How he appreciated the value of time +is shown by the fact that he had his final conference with his +successor, General Sherman, who was also his warm friend, on the +railway train _en route_ to Cincinnati. He had asked Sherman to +accompany him so far for the purpose of saving time. + +On March 17th General Grant assumed command of the armies of the United +States with headquarters in the field. He was evidently in earnest. As +Lincoln had cordially offered help and encouragement to all the other +generals, so he did to Grant. The difference between one general and +another was not in Lincoln's offer of help, or refusal to give it, but +there was a difference in the way in which his offers were received. +The following correspondence tells the story of the way he held himself +alert to render assistance: + +"EXECUTIVE MANSION, + +WASHINGTON, April 30, 1864. + +LIEUT.-GENERAL GRANT: + +Not expecting to see you again before the spring campaign opens, I wish +to express in this way my entire satisfaction with what you have done +up to this time, so far as I understand it. The particulars of your +plan I neither know nor seek to know. You are vigilant and self- +reliant; and, pleased with this, I wish not to obtrude any constraints +or restraints upon you. While I am very anxious that any great disaster +or capture of our men in great numbers shall be avoided, I know these +points will be less likely to escape your attention than they would be +mine. If there is anything wanting which is within my power to give, do +not fail to let me know it. And now, with a brave army and a just +cause, may God sustain you. + + Yours very truly, + A. LINCOLN." + + + + "Headquarters Armies of the United States, + Culpepper Court-House, May 1, 1864." + +THE PRESIDENT: + +"Your very kind letter of yesterday is just received. The confidence +you express for the future and satisfaction with the past in my +military administration is acknowledged with pride. It will be my +earnest endeavor that you and the country shall not be disappointed. +From my first entrance into the volunteer service of the country to the +present day, I have never had cause of complaint--have never expressed +or implied a complaint against the Administration, or the Secretary of +War, for throwing any embarrassment in the way of my vigorously +prosecuting what appeared to me my duty. Indeed since the promotion +which placed me in command of all the armies, and in view of the great +responsibility and importance of success, I have been astonished at the +readiness with which everything asked for has been yielded, without +even an explanation being asked. Should my success be less than I +desire and expect, the least I can say is, the fault is not with you. + + Very truly, your obedient servant, + U. S. Grant, _Lieut-General_." + + + +There is just here a subject on which there is a curious difference of +opinion between Grant and John Hay. Grant says that, on his last visit +to Washington before taking the field, the President had become +acquainted with the fact that a general movement had been ordered all +along the line, and _seemed_ (italics ours) to think it a new +feature in war. He explained this plan to the President who was greatly +interested and said, "Oh, yes! I see that. As we say out West, if a man +can't skin, he must hold a leg while somebody else does." + +There is, at the same time, documentary evidence that Lincoln had been +continually urging this precise plan on all his generals. Mr. Hay +therefore distrusts the accuracy of General Grant's memory. To the +present writer, there is no mystery in the matter. The full truth is +large enough to include the statement of Grant as well as that of +Nicolay and Hay. Mr. Hay is certainly right in claiming that Lincoln +from the first desired such a concerted movement all along the line; +for, even though not all could fight at the same time, those not +fighting could help otherwise. This was the force of the western +proverb, "Those not skinning can hold a leg," which he quoted to all +his generals from Buell to Grant. + +When therefore Grant explained precisely this plan to Lincoln, the +latter refrained from the natural utterance,--"That is exactly what I +have been trying to get our generals to do all these years." In +courtesy to Grant he did not claim to have originated the plan, hut +simply preserved a polite silence. He followed eagerly as the general +reiterated his own ideas, and the exclamation, "Oh, yes! I see that," +would mean more to Lincoln than Grant could possibly have guessed. He +did see it, he had seen it a long time. + +It will be remembered that Lincoln had, for the sake of comprehending +the significance of one word, mastered Euclid after he became a lawyer. +There is here another evidence of the same thoroughness and force of +will. During the months when the Union armies were accomplishing +nothing, he procured the necessary books and set himself, in the midst +of all his administrative cares, to the task of learning the science of +war. That he achieved more than ordinary success will now surprise no +one who is familiar with his character. His military sagacity is +attested by so high an authority as General Sherman. Other generals +have expressed their surprise and gratification at his knowledge and +penetration in military affairs. But never at any time did he lord it +over his generals. He did make suggestions. He did ask McClellan why +one plan was better than another. He did ask some awkward questions of +Meade. But it was his uniform policy to give his generals all possible +help, looking only for results, and leaving details unreservedly in +their hands. This is the testimony of McClellan and Grant, and the +testimony of the two generals, so widely different in character and +method, should be and is conclusive. Grant says that Lincoln expressly +assured him that he preferred not to know his purposes,--he desired +only to learn what means he needed to carry them out, and promised to +furnish these to the full extent of his power. + +Side by side these two men labored, each in his own department, until +the war was ended and their work was done. Though so different, they +were actuated by the same spirit. Not even the southern generals +themselves had deeper sympathy with, or greater tenderness for, the +mass of the Confederate soldiers. It was the same magnanimity in +Lincoln and Grant that sent the conquered army, after their final +defeat, back to the industries of peace that they might be able to +provide against their sore needs. + +When that madman assassinated the President, the conspiracy included +also the murder of the general. This failed only by reason of Grant's +unexpected absence from Washington City on the night of the crime. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. + +LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS. + + +The duties of the President of the United States include the writing of +state papers that are considerable both in number and in volume. Many +of the Presidents, from Washington down, have been men of great +ability, and almost all of them have had sufficient academic training +or intellectual environments in their early years. These state papers +have frequently been such as to compare favorably with those of the +ablest statesmen of Europe. With every new election of President the +people wait in expectancy for the inaugural address and the messages to +congress. These are naturally measured by the standard of what has +preceded--not of all that has preceded, for the inferior ones are +forgotten, but of the best. This is no light test for any man. + +Lincoln's schooling was so slight as to be almost _nil_. He did not +grow up in a literary atmosphere. But in the matter of his official +utterances he must be compared with the ablest geniuses and most +cultured scholars that have preceded him, and not merely with his early +associates. He is to be measured with Washington, the Adamses, +Jefferson, and not with the denizens of Gentryville or New Salem. + +Perhaps the best study of his keenness of literary criticism will be +found in his correction of Seward's letter of instruction to Charles +Francis Adams, minister to England, under date of May 21, 1861. Seward +was a brilliant scholar, a polished writer, a trained diplomatist. If +any person were able to compose a satisfactory letter for the critical +conditions of that period, he was the one American most likely to do +it. He drafted the letter and submitted it to Lincoln for suggestions +and corrections. The original manuscript with Lincoln's +interlineations, is still preserved, and facsimiles, or copies, are +given in various larger volumes of Lincoln's biography. This document +is very instructive. In every case Lincoln's suggestion is a marked +improvement on the original. It shows that he had the better command of +precise English. Lowell himself could not have improved his criticisms. +It shows, too, that he had a firmer grasp of the subject. Had Seward's +paper gone without these corrections, it is almost certain that +diplomatic relations with England would have been broken off. In +literary matters Lincoln was plainly the master and Seward was the +pupil. + +The power which Lincoln possessed of fitting language to thought is +marked. It made him the matchless story-teller, and gave sublimity to +his graver addresses. His thoroughness and accuracy were a source of +wonder and delight to scholars. He had a masterful grasp of great +subjects. He was able to look at events from all sides, so as to +appreciate how they would appear to different grades of intelligence, +different classes of people, different sections of the country. More +than once this many-sidedness of his mind saved the country from ruin. +Wit and humor are usually joined with their opposite, pathos, and it is +therefore not surprising that, being eminent in one, he should possess +all three characteristics. In his conversation his humor predominated, +in his public speeches pure reasoning often rose to pathos. + +If the author were to select a few of his speeches or papers fitted to +give the best example of his literary qualities, and at the same time +present an evidence of the progress of his doctrine along political +lines, he would name the following: The House-divided-against-itself +speech, delivered at Springfield June 16, 1858. The underlying thought +of this was that the battle between freedom and slavery was sure to be +a fight to the finish. + +Next is the Cooper Institute speech, Feb. 12, 1860. The argument in +this is that, in the thought and intent of the founders of our +government, the Union was permanent and paramount, while slavery was +temporary and secondary. + +Next was his inaugural, March 4, 1861. This warned the country against +sectional war. It declared temperately but firmly, that he would +perform the duties which his oath of office required of him, but he +would _not_ begin a war: if war came the aggressors must be those +of the other side. + +The next was the Emancipation Proclamation, September 22, 1862, and +January 1, 1863. This was not a general and complete emancipation of +all slaves, it was primarily a military device, a war measure, freeing +the slaves of those who were in actual and armed rebellion at the time. +It was intended to weaken the belligerent powers of the rebels, and a +notice of the plan was furnished more than three months in advance, +giving ample time to all who wished to do so, to submit to the laws of +their country and save that portion of their property that was invested +in slaves. + +Then came the second inaugural, March 4, 1865. There was in this little +to discuss, for he had no new policy to proclaim, he was simply to +continue the policy of the past four years, of which the country had +shown its approval by reelecting him. The end of the war was almost in +sight, it would soon he finished. But in this address there breathes an +intangible spirit which gives it marvelous grandeur. Isaiah was a +prophet who was also a statesman. Lincoln--we say it with reverence-- +was a statesman who was also a prophet. He had foresight. He had +_in_sight. He saw the hand of God shaping events, he saw the spirit of +God in events. Such is his spiritual elevation of thought, such his +tenderness of yearning, that there is no one but Isaiah to whom we may +fittingly compare him, in the manly piety of his closing paragraph: + +"Fondly do we hope, fervently do we pray, that this mighty scourge of +war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue until +all the wealth piled by the bondman's two hundred and fifty years of +unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with +the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said +three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, 'The judgments of +the Lord are true and righteous altogether. With malice toward none, +with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to +see the right, let us strive to finish the work we are in; to bind up +the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have home the battle, +and for his widow, and his orphan; to do all which may achieve and +cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." + +The study of these five speeches, or papers, will give the salient +points of his political philosophy, and incidentally of his +intellectual development. These are not enough to show the man Lincoln, +but they do give a true idea of the great statesman. They show a +symmetrical and wonderful growth. Great as was the House-divided- +against-itself speech, there is yet a wide difference between that and +the second inaugural: and the seven years intervening accomplished this +growth of mind and of spirit only because they were years of great +stress. + +Outside of this list is the address at the dedication of Gettysburg +cemetery, November 19, 1863. This was not intended for an oration. +Edward Everett was the orator of the occasion. Lincoln's part was to +pronounce the formal words of dedication. It was a busy time--all times +were busy with him, but this was unusually busy--and he wrote it on a +sheet of foolscap paper in such odd moments as he could command. In +form it is prose, but in effect it is a poem. Many of its sentences are +rhythmical. The occasion lifted him into a higher realm of thought. The +hearers were impressed by his unusual gravity and solemnity of manner +quite as much, perhaps, as by the words themselves. They were awed, +many were moved to tears. The speech is given in full: + +GETTYSBURG ADDRESS. + +"Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth on this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the +proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a +great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so +conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great +battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that +field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that +that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we +should do this. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot +consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and +dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power +to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what +we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, +the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which +they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for +us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us,--that +from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for +which they gave the last full measure of devotion,--that we here highly +resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain,--that this nation, +under God, shall have a new birth of freedom,--and that government of +the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the +earth." + +The effect of this speech was not immediate. Colonel Lamon was on the +platform when it was delivered and he says very decidedly that Everett, +Seward, himself, and Lincoln were all of opinion that the speech was a +failure. He adds: "I state it as a fact, and without fear of +contradiction, that this famous Gettysburg speech was not regarded by +the audience to whom it was addressed, or by the press or people of the +United States, as a production of extraordinary merit, nor was it +commented on as such until after the death of the author." + +A search through the files of the leading New York dailies for several +days immediately following the date of the speech, seems to confirm +Lamon's remark--all except the last clause above quoted. These papers +give editorial praise to the oration of Everett, they comment favorably +on a speech by Beecher (who had just returned from England), but they +make no mention of Lincoln's speech. It is true that a day or two later +Everett wrote him a letter of congratulation upon his success. But this +may have been merely generous courtesy,--as much as to say, "Don't feel +badly over it, it was a much better speech than you think!" Or, on the +other hand, it may have been the result of his sober second thought, +the speech had time to soak in. + +But the silence of the great daily papers confirms Lamon up to a +certain point. At the very first the speech was not appreciated. But +after a few days the public awoke to the fact that Lincoln's "few +remarks" were immeasurably superior to Everett's brilliant and learned +oration. The author distinctly remembers that it was compared to the +oration of Pericles in memory of the Athenian dead; that it was +currently said that there had been no memorial oration from that date +to Lincoln's speech of equal power. This comparison with Pericles is +certainly high praise, but is it not true? The two orations are very +different: Lincoln's was less than three hundred words long, that of +Pericles near three thousand. Pericles gloried in war, Lincoln mourned +over the necessity of war and yearned after peace. But both orators +alike appreciated the glory of sacrifice for one's country. And it is +safe to predict that this Gettysburg address, brief, hastily prepared, +underestimated by its author, will last as long as the republic shall +last, as long as English speech shall endure. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. + +SECOND ELECTION. + + +It was Lincoln's life-long habit to keep himself close to the plain +people. He loved them. He declared that the Lord must love them or he +would not have made so many of them. Out of them he came, to them he +belonged. In youth he was the perennial peacemaker and umpire of +disputes in his rural neighborhood. When he was President the same +people instinctively turned to him for help. The servants called him +Old Abe,--from them a term of affection, not of indignity. The soldiers +called him Father Abraham. He was glad to receive renowned politicians +and prominent business men at the White House; he was more glad to see +the plain people. When a farmer neighbor addressed him as "Mister +President," he said, "Call me Lincoln." The friendship of these people +rested him. + +Then, too, he had a profound realization of their importance to the +national prosperity. It was their instincts that constituted the +national conscience. It was their votes that had elected him. It was +their muskets that had defended the capital. It was on their loyalty +that he counted for the ultimate triumph of the Union cause. As his +administrative policy progressed it was his concern not to outstrip +them so far as to lose their support. In other words, he was to lead +them, not run away from them. His confidence in them was on the whole +well founded, though there were times when the ground seemed to be +slipping out from under him. + +The middle portion of 1864 was one such period of discouragement. The +material for volunteer soldiers was about exhausted, and it was +becoming more and more necessary to depend upon the draft, and that +measure caused much friction. The war had been long, costly, sorrowful. +Grant was before Petersburg, Farragut at Mobile, and Sherman at +Atlanta. The two first had no promise of immediate success, and as to +the third it was a question whether he was not caught in his own trap. +This prolongation of the war had a bad effect on the northern public. + +Lincoln, shrewdly and fairly, analyzed the factions of loyal people as +follows: + +"We are in civil war. In such cases there always is a main question; +but in this case that question is a perplexing compound--Union and +slavery. It thus becomes a question not of two sides merely, but of at +least four sides, even among those who are for the Union, saying +nothing of those who are against it. Thus-- + +Those who are for the Union with, but not without, slavery; + +Those for it without, but not with; + +Those for it with or without, but prefer it with; and + +Those for it with or without, but prefer it without. + +Among these again is a subdivision of those who are for gradual, but +not for immediate, and those who are for immediate, but not for +gradual, extinction of slavery." + +One man who was in the political schemes of that day says that in +Washington there were only three prominent politicians who were not +seriously discontented with and opposed to Lincoln. The three named +were Conkling, Sumner, and Wilson. Though there was undoubtedly a +larger number who remained loyal to their chief, yet the discontent was +general. The President himself felt this. Nicolay and Hay have +published a note which impressively tells the sorrowful story: + + + + "Executive Mansion, + Washington, August 28, 1864. + +This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that +this administration will not be reelected. Then it will be my duty to +so cooperate with the President-elect as to save the Union between the +election and the inauguration, as he will have secured his election on +such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward. + + A. Lincoln." + +Early in the year this discontent had broken out in a disagreeable and +dangerous form. The malcontents were casting about to find a candidate +who would defeat Lincoln. They first tried General Rosecrans, and from +him they got an answer of no uncertain sound. "My place," he declared, +"is here. The country gave me my education, and so has a right to my +military services." + +Their next attempt was Grant, with whom they fared no better. Then they +tried Vice-President Hamlin who was certainly dissatisfied with the +slowness with which Lincoln moved in the direction of abolition. But +Hamlin would not be a candidate against his chief. + +Then the Secretary of the Treasury, Chase, entered the race as a rival +of Lincoln. When this became known, the President was urged by his +friends to dismiss from the cabinet this secretary who was so far out +of sympathy with the administration he was serving. He refused to do +this so long as Chase did his official duties well, and when Chase +offered to resign he told him there was no need of it. But the citizens +of Ohio, of which state Chase had in 1860 been the "favorite son," did +not take the same view of the matter. Both legislature and mass +meetings demanded his resignation so emphatically that he could not +refuse. He did resign and was for a short time in private life. In +December, 1864, Lincoln, in the full knowledge of the fact that during +the summer Chase had done his utmost to injure him, nominated him as +chief justice, and from him received his oath of office at his second +inaugural. + +The search for a rival for Lincoln was more successful when Fremont was +solicited. He was nominated by a convention of extreme abolitionists +that met in the city of Cleveland. But it soon became apparent that his +following was insignificant, and he withdrew his name. + +The regular republican convention was held in Baltimore, June 8, 1864. +Lincoln's name was presented, as in 1860, by the state of Illinois. On +the first ballot he received every vote except those from the state of +Missouri. When this was done, the Missouri delegates changed their +votes and he was nominated unanimously. + +In reply to congratulations, he said, "I do not allow myself to suppose +that either the convention or the League have concluded to decide that +I am either the greatest or best man in America, but rather that they +have concluded that it is not best to swap horses while crossing the +river, and have further concluded that I am not so poor a horse that +they might not make a botch of it trying to swap." + +That homely figure of "swapping horses while crossing the river" caught +the attention of the country. It is doubtful if ever a campaign speech, +or any series of campaign speeches, was so effective in winning and +holding votes as that one phrase. + +But, as has already been said, the prospects during the summer,--for +there was a period of five months from the nomination to the election, +--were anything but cheering. At this crisis there developed a means of +vigorous support which had not previously been estimated at its full +value. In every loyal state there was a "war governor." Upon these men +the burdens of the war had rested so heavily that they understood, as +they would not otherwise have understood, the superlative weight of +cares that pressed on the President, and they saw more clearly than +they otherwise could have seen, the danger in swapping horses while +crossing the river. These war governors rallied with unanimity and with +great earnestness to the support of the President. Other willing +helpers were used. The plain people, as well as the leading patriots, +rallied to the support of the President. + +The democrats nominated McClellan on the general theory that the war +was a failure. As election day approached, the increased vigor with +which the war was prosecuted made it look less like a failure, even +though success was not in sight. The result of the election was what in +later days would be called a landslide. There were two hundred and +thirty-three electors. Of this number two hundred and twelve were for +Lincoln. The loyal North was back of him. He might now confidently gird +himself for finishing the work. + +Such was his kindliness of spirit that he was not unduly elated by +success, and never, either in trial or achievement, did he become +vindictive or revengeful. After the election he was serenaded, and in +acknowledgment he made a little speech. Among other things he said, +"Now that the election is over, may not all, having a common interest, +reunite in a common effort to save our common country? For my own part, +I have striven, and will strive, to place no obstacle in the way. So +long as I have been here _I have not willingly planted a thorn in any +man's bosom_." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. + +CLOSE OF THE WAR. + + +As the year 1864 wore towards its close, military events manifestly +approached a climax. In 1861 the two armies were comparatively green. +For obvious reasons the advantage was on the side of the South. The +South had so long been in substantial control at Washington that they +had the majority of the generals, they had nearly all the arms and +ammunition, and, since they had planned the coming conflict, their +militia were in the main in better condition. But matters were +different after three years. The armies on both sides were now composed +of veterans, the generals had been tried and their value was known. Not +least of all, Washington, while by no means free from spies, was not so +completely overrun with them as at the first. At the beginning the +departments were simply full of spies, and every movement of the +government was promptly reported to the authorities at Richmond. Three +and a half years had sufficed to weed out most of these. + +In that period a splendid navy had been constructed. The Mississippi +River was open from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. Every southern +port was more or less successfully blockaded, and the power of the +government in this was every month growing stronger. + +Strange as it may seem, the available population of the North had +increased. The figures which Lincoln gave prove this. The loyal states +of the North gave in 1860 a sum total of 3,870,222 votes. The same +states in 1864 gave a total of 3,982,011. That gave an excess of voters +to the number of 111,789. To this should be added the number of all the +soldiers in the field from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, +Delaware, Indiana, Illinois, and California, who by the laws of those +states could not vote away from their homes, and which number could not +have been less than 90,000. Then there were two new states, Kansas and +Nevada, that had cast 33,762 votes. This leaves an increase for the +North of 234,551 votes. It is plain that the North was not becoming +exhausted of men. + +Nor had the manufactures of the North decreased. The manufacture of +arms and all the munitions of war was continually improving, and other +industrial interests were flourishing. There was indeed much poverty +and great suffering. The financial problem was one of the most serious +of all, but in all these the South was suffering more than the North. +On the southern side matters were growing desperate. The factor of time +now counted against them, for, except in military discipline, they were +not improving with the passing years. There was little hope of foreign +intervention, there was not much hope of a counter uprising in the +North. It is now generally accepted as a certainty that, if the +Confederate government had published the truth concerning the progress +of the war, especially of such battles as Chattanooga, the southern +people would have recognized the hopelessness of their cause and the +wickedness of additional slaughter, and the war would have terminated +sooner. + +In the eighth volume of the History by Nicolay and Hay there is a +succession of chapters of which the headings alone tell the glad story +of progress. These headings are: "Arkansas Free," "Louisiana Free," +"Tennessee Free," "Maryland Free," and "Missouri Free." + +In August Admiral Farragut had captured Mobile. General Grant with his +veterans was face to face with General Lee and his veterans in +Virginia. General Sherman with his splendid army had in the early fall +struck through the territory of the Southern Confederacy and on +Christmas day had captured Savannah. The following letter from the +President again shows his friendliness towards his generals: + + "EXECUTIVE MANSION, + WASHINGTON, December 26, 1864. + +MY DEAR GENERAL SHERMAN: + +Many, many thanks for your Christmas gift, the capture of Savannah. + +When you were about leaving Atlanta for the Atlantic, I was anxious, if +not fearful; but feeling that you were the better judge, and +remembering that 'nothing risked, nothing gained,' I did not interfere. +Now, the undertaking being a success, the honor is all yours; for I +believe none of us went further than to acquiesce. + +And taking the work of General Thomas into the count, as it should be +taken, it is indeed a great success. Not only does it afford the +obvious and immediate military advantages; but in showing to the world +that your army could be divided, putting the stronger part to an +important new service, and yet leaving enough to vanquish the old +opposing force of the whole,--Hood's army,--it brings those who sat in +darkness to see a great light. But what next? + +I suppose it will be safe if I leave General Grant and yourself to +decide. + +Please make my grateful acknowledgment to your whole army--officers and +men. + + Yours very truly, + A. LINCOLN." + + + +The principal thing now to be done was the destruction of the +Confederate army or armies in Virginia. That and that only could end +the war. The sooner it should be done the better. Grant's spirit cannot +in a hundred pages be better expressed than in his own epigram,--"I +propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." It did +take all summer and all winter too, for the Confederates as well as the +Federals had grown to be good fighters, and they were no cowards. They, +too, were now acting on the defensive and were able to take advantage +of swamp, hill, and river. This was an important factor. Grant had +indeed captured two armies and destroyed one, but this was different. + +It needed not an experienced eye or a military training to see that +this could only be done at a costly sacrifice of life. But let it be +remembered that the three years of no progress had also been at a +costly sacrifice of life. The deadly malaria of Virginia swamps was +quite as dangerous as a bullet or bayonet. Thousands upon thousands of +soldiers were taken to hospital cursing in their wrath: "If I could +only have been shot on the field of battle, there would have been some +glory in it. But to die of drinking the swamp water--this is awful!" +The sacrifice of life under Grant was appalling, but it was not greater +than the other sort of sacrifice had been. What is more, it +accomplished its purpose. Inch by inch he fought his way through many +bloody months to the evacuation of Richmond and the surrender of Lee's +army at Appomattox, April 9, 1865. Then the war was over. + +[Illustration: Grant's Campaign around Richmond.] + +The sympathies of the President were not limited to his own friends or +his own army. The author is permitted to narrate the following +incident--doubtless there were many others like it--which is given by +an eye-witness, the Reverend Lysander Dickerman, D.D., of New York +City: + +It was at Hatcher's Run on the last Sunday before the close of the war. +A detachment of Confederate prisoners, possibly two thousand in all, +had just been brought in. They were in rags, starved, sick, and +altogether as wretched a sight as one would be willing to see in a +lifetime. A train of cars was standing on the siding. The President +came out of a car and stood on the platform. As he gazed at the +pitiable sufferers, he said not a word, but his breast heaved with +emotion, his frame quivered. The tears streamed down his cheeks and he +raised his arm ("I don't suppose," commented the Doctor, "he had a +handkerchief") and with his sleeve wiped away the tears. Then he +silently turned, reentered the car which but for him was empty, sat +down on the further side, buried his face in his hands, and wept. That +is the picture of the man Lincoln. Little did the Southerners suspect, +as they in turn cursed and maligned that great and tender man, what a +noble friend they really had in him. + +As the end came in sight an awkward question arose, What shall we do +with Jeff Davis--if we catch him? This reminded the President of a +little story. "I told Grant," he said, "the story of an Irishman who +had taken Father Matthew's pledge. Soon thereafter, becoming very +thirsty, he slipped into a saloon and applied for a lemonade, and +whilst it was being mixed he whispered to the bartender, 'Av ye could +drap a bit o' brandy in it, all unbeknown to myself, I'd make no fuss +about it.' My notion was that if Grant could let Jeff Davis escape all +unbeknown to himself, he was to let him go. I didn't want him." +Subsequent events proved the sterling wisdom of this suggestion, for +the country had no use for Jeff Davis when he was caught. + +Late in March, 1865, the President decided to take a short vacation, +said to be the first he had had since entering the White House in 1861. +With a few friends he went to City Point on the James River, where +Grant had his headquarters. General Sherman came up for a conference. +The two generals were confident that the end of the war was near, but +they were also certain that there must be at least one more great +battle. "Avoid this if possible," said the President. "No more +bloodshed, no more bloodshed." + +On the second day of April both Richmond and Petersburg were evacuated. +The President was determined to see Richmond and started under the care +of Admiral Porter. The river was tortuous and all knew that the channel +was full of obstructions so that they had the sensation of being in +suspense as to the danger of torpedoes and other devices. Admiral +Farragut who was in Richmond came down the river on the same day, April +4th, to meet the presidential party. An accident happened to his boat +and it swung across the channel and there stuck fast, completely +obstructing the channel, and rendering progress in either direction +impossible. The members of the presidential party were impatient and +decided to proceed as best they could. They were transferred to the +Admiral's barge and towed up the river to their destination. + +The grandeur of that triumphal entry into Richmond was entirely moral, +not in the least spectacular. There were no triumphal arches, no +martial music, no applauding multitudes, no vast cohorts with flying +banners and glittering arms. Only a few American citizens, in plain +clothes, on foot, escorted by ten marines. The central figure was that +of a man remarkably tall, homely, ill-dressed, but with a countenance +radiating joy and good-will. It was only thirty-six hours since +Jefferson Davis had fled, having set fire to the city, and the fire was +still burning. There was no magnificent civic welcome to the modest +party, but there was a spectacle more significant. It was the large +number of negroes, crowding, kneeling, praying, shouting "Bress de +Lawd!" Their emancipator, their Moses, their Messiah, had come in +person. To them it was the beginning of the millennium. A few poor +whites added their welcome, such as it was, and that was all. But all +knew that "Babylon had fallen," and they realized the import of that +fact. + +Johnston did not surrender to Sherman until April 26th, but Lee had +surrendered on the 9th, and it was conceded that it was a matter of but +a few days when the rest also would surrender. On Good Friday, April +14th,--a day glorious in its beginning, tragic at its close,--the +newspapers throughout the North published an order of the Secretary of +War stopping the draft and the purchase of arms and munitions of war. +The government had decreed that at twelve o'clock noon of that day the +stars and stripes should be raised above Fort Sumter. The chaplain was +the Reverend Matthias Harris who had officiated at the raising of the +flag over that fort in 1860. The reading of the psalter was conducted +by the Reverend Dr. Storrs of Brooklyn. The orator of the occasion was +the eloquent Henry Ward Beecher. And the flag was raised by Major (now +General) Anderson, whose staunch loyalty and heroic defense has linked +his name inseparably with Sumter. + +The war was over and Lincoln at once turned his attention to the duties +of reconstruction. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. + +ASSASSINATION. + + +Ward H. Lamon asserts that there was no day, from the morning Lincoln +left Springfield to the night of his assassination, when his life was +not in serious peril. If we make generous allowance for the fears which +had their root in Lamon's devoted love for his chief, and for that +natural desire to magnify his office--for his special charge was to +guard the President from bodily harm--which would incline him to +estimate trifles seriously, we are still compelled to believe that the +life was in frequent, if not continual, danger. There are, and always +have been, men whose ambition is in the direction of a startling crime. +There were not less than three known attempts on the life of Lincoln +between Springfield and Washington. There may have been others that are +not known. If any one was in a position to know of real and probable +plots against the President's life, it was Lamon. It was he, too, who +showed the greatest concern upon the subject, though he was personally +a man of unlimited courage. + +An event occurred early in 1862, which we here transcribe, not merely +because of its intrinsic interest, but especially because it hints of +dangers not known to the public. Lincoln was at this time residing at +the Soldier's Home and was accustomed to riding alone to and from this +place. His friends could not prevail on him to accept an escort, though +they were in daily fear of kidnapping or murder. Lamon narrates the +occurrence substantially (in the President's words) as follows: One day +he rode up to the White House steps, where the Colonel met him, and +with his face full of fun, he said, "I have something to tell you." The +two entered the office, where the President locked the door and +proceeded: + +"You know I have always told you I thought you an _idiot_ that ought to +be put in a strait jacket for your apprehensions of my personal danger +from assassination. You also know that the way we skulked into this +city in the first place has been a source of shame and regret to me, +for it did look so cowardly!" + +"Yes, go on." + +"Well, I don't now propose to make you my father-confessor and +acknowledge a change of heart, yet I am free to admit that just now I +don't know what to think: I am staggered. Understand me, I do not want +to oppose my pride of opinion against light and reason, but I am in +such a state of 'betweenity' in my conclusions, that I can't say that +the judgment of _this court_ is prepared to proclaim a decision upon +the facts presented." + +After a pause he continued: + +"Last night about eleven o'clock, I went to the Soldiers' Home alone, +riding _Old Abe_, as you call him; and when I arrived at the foot of +the hill on the road leading to the entrance to the Home grounds, I was +jogging along at a slow gait, immersed in deep thought, when suddenly I +was aroused--I may say the arousement lifted me out of my saddle as +well as out of my wits--by the report of a rifle, and seemingly the +gunner was not fifty yards from where my contemplations ended and my +accelerated transit began. My erratic namesake, with little warning, +gave proof of decided dissatisfaction at the racket, and with one +reckless bound he unceremoniously separated me from my eight-dollar +plug hat, with which I parted company without any assent, express or +implied, upon my part. At a break-neck speed we soon arrived in a haven +of safety. Meanwhile I was left in doubt whether death was more +desirable from being thrown from a runaway Federal horse, or as the +tragic result of a rifle-ball fired by a disloyal bushwhacker in the +middle of the night." + +"I tell you there is no time on record equal to that made by the two +Old Abes on that occasion. The historic ride of John Gilpin, and Henry +Wilson's memorable display of bareback equestrianship on the stray army +mule from the scenes of the battle of Bull Run, a year ago, are nothing +in comparison to mine, either in point of time made or in ludicrous +pageantry." + +"No good can result at this time from giving [this occurrence] +publicity. It does seem to me that I am in more danger from the +augmentation of an imaginary peril than from a judicious silence, be +the danger ever so great; and, moreover, I do not want it understood +that I share your apprehensions. I never have." + +When one takes into account the number of Lincoln's bitter enemies, and +the desperate character of some of them, the wonder is that he was not +shot sooner. There were multitudes of ruffians in Washington City and +elsewhere, who had murder in their hearts and plenty of deadly weapons +within reach. Yet Lincoln lived on for four years, and was reluctant to +accept even a nominal body guard. The striking parallel between him and +William the Silent will at once occur to the reader. He, like Lincoln, +would take no precaution. He exposed himself freely, and there were +plots almost innumerable against his life before he was slain. Such +persons seem to have invisible defenders. + +Lincoln was not a fatalist, but he did believe that he would live to +complete his specific work and that he would not live beyond that. +Perhaps he was wise in this. Had he surrounded himself with pomp and +defense after the manner of Fremont he could not have done his work at +all, for his special calling required that he should keep near to the +people, and not isolate himself. Moreover, it is a question whether an +elaborate show of defense would not have invited a correspondingly +elaborate ingenuity in attack. His very trustfulness must have disarmed +some. The wonder is not that he was slain at last, but that under the +circumstances he was not slain earlier. + +Much has been written, and perhaps justly, of Lincoln's presentiments. +It is not exceptional, it is common in all rural communities to +multiply and magnify signs. The commonest occurrences are invested with +an occult meaning. Seeing the new moon over the right shoulder or over +the left shoulder, the howling of a dog at night, the chance assemblage +of thirteen persons, the spilling of salt,--these and a thousand other +things are taken to be signs of something. The habit of attending to +these things probably originates in mere amusements. It takes the +place, or furnishes the material, of small talk. But years of attention +to these things, especially in the susceptible period of childhood and +youth, are almost certain to have a lasting effect. A person gets into +the habit of noting them, of looking for them, and the influence +becomes ingrained in his very nature so that it is next to impossible +to shake it off. This condition is a feature of all rural communities, +not only in the West, but in New England: in fact, in Europe, Asia, +Africa, and Australia. + +Lincoln shared the impressibility of the community in which he grew up; +no more, no less. Like all the rest, indeed, like all of mankind, he +counted the hits, not the misses. Being unusually outspoken, he often +told of impressions which another would not have mentioned. The very +telling of them magnified their importance. He had been having +premonitions all his life, and it would be strange if he did not have +some just before his death. He did, and these are the ones that are +remembered. + +In spite of all, he was in excellent spirits on Good Friday, April 14, +1865. The burdens and sorrows of bloodshed had made an old man of him. +But the war was at an end, the stars and stripes were floating over +Sumter, the Union was saved, and slavery was doomed. There came back +into his eyes the light that had long been absent. Those who were about +him said the elasticity of his movements and joyousness of his manner +were marked. "His mood all day was singularly happy and tender." + +The events of the day were simple. It was the day of the regular +meeting of the cabinet. Grant, who had arrived in Washington that +morning, attended this meeting. It was the President's idea that the +leaders of the Confederacy should be allowed to escape,--much as he had +already jocularly advised Grant to let Jeff Davis escape "all unbeknown +to himself." He spoke plainly on the subject. "No one need expect me to +take any part in hanging or killing these men, even the worst of them. +Enough lives have been sacrificed." After the discussion of various +matters, when the cabinet adjourned until the following Tuesday, the +last words he ever uttered to them were that "they must now begin to +act in the interests of peace." + +In the afternoon he went for a drive with Mrs. Lincoln. The +conversation embraced plans of living--in Chicago? or California?-- +after the expiration of his term of office. This fact shows that his +presentments did not make so real an impression on him as many people +have believed. + +Three days before this his devoted servant Colonel Lamon--we might +almost call him his faithful watch-dog, so loving, loyal, and watchful +was he--had gone on an errand for him to Richmond. Lamon, who was loath +to start, tried to secure from him a promise in advance of divulging +what it was to be. Lincoln, after much urging, said he thought he would +venture to make the promise. It was that he would promise not to go out +after night in Lamon's absence, and _particularly to the theater_ +(italics Lamon's). The President first joked about it, but being +persistently entreated said at last: "Well, I promise to do the best I +can towards it." + +But for the evening of the day under consideration, Mrs. Lincoln had +got up a theater party--her husband was always fond of the diversion +of the theater. The party was to include General and Mrs. Grant. But +the general's plans required him to go that evening to Philadelphia, +and so Major Rathbone and Miss Harris were substituted. This party +occupied the upper proscenium box on the right of the stage. + +About ten o'clock, J. Wilkes Booth, a young actor twenty-six years of +age, and very handsome, glided along the corridor towards that box. +Being himself an actor and well known by the employees of the theater, +he was suffered to proceed without hindrance. Passing through the +corridor door he fastened it shut by means of a bar that fitted into a +niche previously prepared, and making an effectual barricade. A hole +had been bored through the door leading into the box so that he could +survey the inmates without attracting their attention. With revolver in +one hand and dagger in the other he noiselessly entered the box and +stood directly behind the President who was enjoying the humor of the +comedy. + +"The awful tragedy in the box makes everything else seem pale and +unreal. Here were five human beings in a narrow space--the greatest man +of his time, in the glory of the most stupendous success in our +history, the idolized chief of a nation already mighty, with +illimitable vistas of grandeur to come; his beloved wife, proud and +happy; a pair of betrothed lovers, with all the promise of felicity +that youth, social position, and wealth could give them; and this young +actor, handsome as Endymion upon Latmos, the pet of his little world. +The glitter of fame, happiness, and ease was upon the entire group, but +in an instant everything was to be changed with the blinding swiftness +of enchantment. Quick death was to come on the central figure of that +company--the central figure, we believe, of the great and good men of +the century. Over all the rest the blackest fates hovered menacingly-- +fates from which a mother might pray that kindly death would save her +children in their infancy. One was to wander with the stain of murder +on his soul, with the curses of a world upon his name, with a price set +upon his head, in frightful physical pain, till he died a dog's death +in a burning barn; the stricken wife was to pass the rest of her days +in melancholy and madness; of those two young lovers, one was to slay +the other, and then end his life a raving maniac" (Nicolay and Hay, X. +295). + +The revolver was thrust near to the back of the head of the +unsuspecting victim--that kind man who had "never willingly planted a +thorn in any man's bosom," who could not bear to witness suffering even +in an animal. The report of the pistol was somewhat muffled and was +unnoticed by the majority of the audience. The ball penetrated the +President's brain, and without word or sound his head dropped upon his +breast. Major Rathbone took in the situation and sprang at the murderer +who slashed him savagely with the dagger, tore himself free, and leaped +over the balustrade upon the stage. It was not a high leap for an +athletic young man, but his spur caught in a flag with which the box +was draped, so that he did not strike quite squarely on his feet. The +result was that he broke his leg or ankle. But gathering himself up, he +flourished his dagger, declaiming the motto of Virginia, _Sic semper +Tyrannis_ (Thus ever to tyrants), and before the audience could realize +what was done, he disappeared. He ran out of the rear of the theater +where a fleet horse was in waiting. He mounted and rode for his life. +For eleven days he was in hiding, with the curse of Cain upon him, +suffering all the while excruciating agonies from his broken leg, which +could be but imperfectly cared for. He was finally corralled in a barn, +the barn was set on fire, and while thus at bay he was shot down. + +Aid came at once to the President, but the surgeons saw at a glance +that the wound was mortal. They carried him out into the open air. When +they reached the street the question arose, Where shall we take him? On +the opposite side of the street was an unpretentious hotel. A man, +standing on the front steps, saw the commotion and asked what it meant. +On being told, he said, "Take him to my room." It was thus that the +greatest man of the age died in a small room of a common hotel. But +this was not unfitting; he was of the plain people, he always loved +them, and among them he closed his earthly record. He lingered +unconscious through the night, and at twenty minutes after seven +o'clock, on the morning of April 15th, he died. + +The band of assassins of which Booth was the head, planned to murder +also other officials. Grant escaped, having suddenly left the city. The +only other person who was actually attacked was Seward. Though the +assassin was a giant in stature and in strength, though he fought like +a madman, and though Seward was at the time in bed with his right arm +and jaw fractured, he having been thrown from a horse, yet strangely +enough he was not killed. The assassin inflicted many and terrible +wounds, especially upon Frederick Seward, his son, who did not regain +consciousness for weeks; but no one in that house was killed. + +Surely never did the telegraph hear heavier news than when it flashed +the message, "Lincoln has been assassinated." More than one ex- +Confederate stoutly declared that "when Lincoln was murdered the South +lost its best friend." And thousands of others replied, that was the +truth! At the dedication of his monument in 1874 General Grant gave +utterance again to this thought: "In his death the nation lost its +greatest hero; in his death the South lost its most just friend." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. + +A NATION'S SORROW. + + +The outburst of sorrow and indignation over the foul murder of the +President was so great as to lead people to assume that Lincoln was at +all times and universally a favorite. Those who know better have +sometimes thought it discreet to preserve silence. But the greatness of +his work cannot be appreciated at its full value unless one bears in +mind that he had not the full measure of sympathy and a reasonable help +from those on whom he had a right to depend. During the four years that +he was in Washington he was indeed surrounded by a band of devoted +followers. But these people were few in numbers. Those who sympathized +with Fremont, or McClellan, or Greeley, plus those who were against +Lincoln on general principles, constituted a large majority of the +people who ought to have sustained him. All of these factions, or +coteries, however much they differed among themselves, agreed in +hampering Lincoln. For one person Lincoln was too radical, for another +too conservative, but both joined hands to annoy him. + +Much of this annoyance was thoughtless. The critics were conscientious, +they sincerely believed that their plans were the best. They failed to +grasp the fact that the end desired might possibly be better reached by +other methods than their own. But on the other hand much of this +annoyance was malicious. + +When the shock of the murder came, there was a great revulsion of +feeling. The thoughtless were made thoughtful, the malicious were +brought to their senses. Neither class had realized into what +diabolical hands they were playing by their opposition to the +administration. It was the greatness of the sorrow of the people--the +plain people whom he had always loved and who always loved him--that +sobered the contentions. Even this was not fully accomplished at once. +There is documentary evidence to show that the extreme radicals, +represented by such men as George W. Julian, of Indiana, considered +that the death of Lincoln removed an obstruction to the proper +governing of the country. Julian's words (in part) are as follows: + +"I spent most of the afternoon [April 15, 1864, the day of Lincoln's +death] in a political caucus held for the purpose of considering the +necessity for a new Cabinet and a line of policy less conciliating than +that of Mr. Lincoln; and while everybody was shocked at his murder, the +feeling was nearly universal that the accession of Johnson to the +presidency would prove a godsend to the country.... On the following +day, in pursuance of a previous engagement, the Committee on the +Conduct of the War met the President at his quarters at the Treasury +Department. He received us with decided cordiality, and Mr. Wade said +to him: 'Johnson, we have faith in you. There will be no trouble now in +running the government.'... While we were rejoiced that the leading +conservatives of the country were not in Washington, we felt that the +presence and influence of the committee, of which Johnson had been a +member, would aid the Administration in getting on the right track.... +The general feeling was ... that he would act on the advice of General +Butler by inaugurating a policy of his own, instead of administering on +the political estate of his predecessor." (Julian, "Political +Recollections," p. 255, ff.). + +The names of the patriots who attended this caucus on the day of +Lincoln's death, are not given. It is not necessary to know them. It is +not probable that there were many exhibitions of this spirit after the +death of the President. This one, which is here recorded in the words +of the confession of one of the chief actors, is an exception. But +_before_ the death of Lincoln, this spirit of fault-finding, +obstruction, hostility, was not uncommon and was painfully aggressive. +_After_ his death there was a revulsion of feeling. Many who had failed +to give the cheer, sympathy, and encouragement which they might have +given in life, shed bitter and unavailing tears over his death. + +On the other, the Confederate, side, it is significant that during the +ten days the murderer was in hiding, no southern sympathizer whom he +met wished to arrest him or have him arrested, although a large reward +had been offered for his apprehension. As to the head of the +Confederacy, Jeff Davis, there is no reasonable doubt that he approved +the act and motive of Booth, whether he had given him a definite +commission or not. Davis tried to defend himself by saying that he had +greater objection to Johnson than to Lincoln. But since the conspiracy +included the murder of both Lincoln and Johnson, as well as others, +this defense is very lame. It was certainly more than a coincidence +that Booth--a poor man who had plenty of ready money--and Jacob +Thompson, the Confederate agent in Canada, had dealings with the same +bank in Montreal. Davis himself said, "For an enemy so relentless, in +the war for our subjugation, I could not be expected to mourn." + +To put it in the mildest form, neither Jeff Davis in the South, nor the +extreme radicals in the North, were sorry that Lincoln was out of the +way. Extremes had met in the feeling of relief that the late President +was now out of the way. This brings to mind a statement in an ancient +book which records that "Herod and Pilate became friends with each +other that very day; for before they were at enmity between +themselves." + +On Friday evening there had been general rejoicing throughout the loyal +North. On Saturday morning there rose to heaven a great cry of +distress,--such a cry as has hardly been paralleled since the +destruction of the first-born in Egypt. For the telegraph--invented +since Lincoln had come into manhood--had carried the heavy news to +every city and commercial center in the North. The shock plunged the +whole community, in the twinkling of an eye, from the heights of +exultation into the abyss of grief. + +There was no business transacted that day. The whole nation was given +up to grief. Offices, stores, exchanges were deserted. Men gathered in +knots and conversed in low tones. By twelve o'clock noon there was +scarcely a public building, store, or residence in any northern city +that was not draped in mourning. The poor also procured bits of black +crepe, or some substitute for it, and tied them to their door-knobs. +The plain people were orphaned. "Father Abraham" was dead. + +Here and there some southern sympathizer ventured to express +exultation,--a very rash thing to do. Forbearance had ceased to be a +virtue, and in nearly every such case the crowd organized a lynching +bee in the fraction of a minute, and the offender was thankful to +escape alive. + +Though this wave of sorrow swept over the land from ocean to ocean, it +was necessarily more manifest in Washington than elsewhere. There the +crime had been committed. There the President's figure was a familiar +sight and his voice was a familiar sound. There the tragedy was nearer +at hand and more vivid. In the middle of the morning a squad of +soldiers bore the lifeless body to the White House. It lay there in +state until the day of the funeral, Wednesday. It is safe to say that +on the intervening Sunday there was hardly a pulpit in the North, from +which, by sermon and prayer, were not expressed the love of the chief. +On Wednesday, the day of the funeral in Washington, all the churches in +the land were invited to join in solemnizing the occasion. + +The funeral service was held in the East room of the White House, +conducted by the President's pastor Dr. Gurley, and his eloquent +friend, Bishop Simpson of the Methodist Episcopal church. Mrs. Lincoln, +prostrated by the shock, was unable to be present, and little Tad would +not come. Only Robert, a recent graduate of Harvard and at the time a +member of Grant's staff, was there to represent the family. + +After the service, which was brief and simple, the body was borne with +suitable pomp and magnificence, the procession fittingly headed by +negro troops, to the Capitol, where it was placed in the rotunda until +the evening of the next day. There, as at the White House, innumerable +crowds passed to look upon that grave, sad, kindly face. The negroes +came in great numbers, sobbing out their grief over the death of their +Emancipator. The soldiers, too, who remembered so well his oft repeated +"God bless you, boys!" were not ashamed of their grief. There were also +neighbors, friends, and the general public. + +It was arranged that the cortege should return to Springfield over as +nearly as possible the same route as that taken by the President in +1861,--Baltimore, Harrisburg, Philadelphia, New York, Albany, +Cleveland, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Chicago. In the party there were +three of those who had escorted him to Washington,--David Davis, W. H. +Lamon, and General Hunter. + +At eight o'clock on Friday, April 21st, the funeral train left +Washington. It is hardly too much to say that it was a funeral +procession two thousand miles in length. All along the route people +turned out, not daunted by darkness and rain--for it rained much of the +time--and stood with streaming eyes to watch the train go by. At the +larger cities named, the procession paused and the body lay for some +hours in state while the people came in crowds so great that it seemed +as if the whole community had turned out. At Columbus and Indianapolis +those in charge said that it seemed as if the entire population of the +state came to do him honor. The present writer has never witnessed +another sight so imposing. + +Naturally the ceremonies were most elaborate in New York City. But at +Chicago the grief was most unrestrained and touching. He was there +among his neighbors and friends. It was the state of Illinois that had +given him to the nation and the world. They had the claim of fellow- +citizenship, he was one of them. As a citizen of the state of which +Chicago was the leading city, he had passed all his public life. The +neighboring states sent thousands of citizens, for he was a western man +like themselves, and for the forty-eight hours that he lay in state a +continuous stream of all sorts and conditions of men passed by +sorrowing. + +In all these cities not a few mottoes were displayed. Most of these +were from his own writings, such as, "With malice toward none, with +charity for all;" and, "We here highly resolve that these dead shall +not have died in vain." Two others are firmly fixed in the mind of the +writer which are here given as a sample of all. The first is from the +Bible: "He being dead yet speaketh." The second is from Shakespeare: + + "His life was gentle, and the elements + So mix'd in him, that Nature might stand up + And say to all the world, This was a man!" + +His final resting-place was Springfield. Here, and in all the +neighboring country, he was known to every one. He had always a kind +word for every one, and now all this came back in memory. His goodness +had not been forgotten. Those whom he had befriended had delighted to +tell of it. They therefore came to do honor not merely to the great +statesman, but to the beloved friend, the warm-hearted neighbor. Many +could remember his grave face as he stood on the platform of the car +that rainy morning in February, 1861, and said, "I now leave, not +knowing when or whether ever I shall return." Between the two days, +what a large and noble life had been lived. + +The city had made elaborate preparations for the final services. The +funeral in Springfield was on May 4th. The order of service included a +dirge, a prayer, the reading of his second inaugural address, and an +oration. The latter was by Bishop Simpson and was worthy of the noble +and eloquent orator. It was a beautiful day, the rain which had been +falling during the long journey was over, and May sunshine filled earth +and sky. Near the close of the day the body of the President, together +with that of his little son Willie, which also had been brought from +Washington, was laid in a vault in Oak Ridge cemetery. + +A movement was at once set on foot to erect a suitable monument. For +this purpose a few large sums of money were subscribed, but most of it +came in small sums from the plain people. The negro troops contributed +$8,000. The sum of $180,000 in all was raised and a noble structure was +erected. It was dedicated in 1874. The orator of the day was his old- +time friend, Governor, afterwards General, Oglesby. Warm words of +appreciation were added by Generals Grant and Sherman. The former, who +served under him as general and for two terms succeeded him in office, +among other things said, "To know him personally was to love and +respect him for his great qualities of heart and head, and for his +patience and patriotism." + +[Illustration: Tomb of Abraham Lincoln at Springfield, Illinois.] + +Lincoln was never a resident of Chicago, but he was always a favorite +in that city, even though it was the home of his great rival, Judge +Douglas. It was there he was nominated in 1860, and the city always +felt as if it had a personal claim on him. It has done itself honor by +the construction of Lincoln Park. The chief ornament is a bronze statue +of heroic size, by the sculptor St. Gaudens. The statue represents +Lincoln in the attitude of speaking, and the legend, which is lettered +at the base, is the sublime paragraph that concludes the second +inaugural. The beauty of the park--lawn, flowers, shrubbery, trees-- +and the majesty of the statue, constitute a noble memorial of the man +whose name they perpetuate. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. + +THE MEASURE OF A MAN. + + "God's plan + And measure of a stalwart man."--_Lowell_. + + +Lincoln's physical characteristics have been sufficiently described,-- +his unmanageable height and his giant strength. His mental traits have +been treated in chapter xxxv. We now consider his moral qualities, that +is to say his character. + +Conspicuous was his honesty. The sobriquet "Honest Abe Lincoln," which +his neighbors fastened on him in his youth was never lost, shaken off, +or outgrown. This was something more than the exactness of commercial +honesty which forbade him to touch a penny of the funds that remained +over from the extinct post-office of New Salem, though the government +was for years negligent in the matter of settling up. In youth he +always insisted on fairness in sports so that he came to be the +standing umpire of the neighborhood. It came out also in his practise +of the law, when he would not lend his influence to further scoundrel +schemes, nor would he consent to take an unfair advantage of an +opponent. But the glory of his honesty appeared in his administration. +It is a wonderful fact that there has never been any suspicion, even +among his enemies, that he used the high powers of his office for gain, +or for the furtherance of his political ambition. When contracts, to +the amount of many millions of dollars, were being constantly given out +for a period of four years, there was never a thought that a dishonest +dollar would find its way, either directly or indirectly, into the +hands of the President, or with his consent into the hands of his +friends. When he was a candidate for reelection he was fully aware that +some officials of high station were using their prerogatives for the +purpose of injuring him. It was in his power to dismiss these in +disgrace,--and they deserved it. This he refused to do. So long as +they did well their official duties, he overlooked their injustice to +him. No President has surpassed him in the cleanness of his record, and +only Washington has equaled him. + +His tenderness of heart over-rode almost everything. In childhood he +would not permit boys to put live coals on the back of a turtle. In +youth he stayed out all night with a drunkard to prevent his freezing +to death, a fate which his folly had invited. In young manhood with the +utmost gentleness he restored to their nest some birdlings that had +been beaten out by the storm. When a lawyer on the circuit, be +dismounted from his horse and rescued a pig that was stuck in the mud. +This spoiled a suit of clothes, because he had to lift the pig in his +arms. His explanation was that he could not bear to think of that +animal in suffering, and so he did it simply for his own peace of mind. + +But when he became President, his tenderness of heart was as beautiful +as the glow of the sunset. To him the boys in blue were as sons. On him +as on no one else the burden of the nation's troubles rested. It may +with reverence be said that he "bore our sorrows, he carried our +grief." Not only was this true in general, but in specific cases his +actions showed it. When the soldiers were under sentence from court- +martial--many of them mere boys--the sentence came to Lincoln for +approval. If he could find any excuse whatever for pardon he would +grant it. His tendency to pardon, his leaning towards the side of +mercy, became proverbial and greatly annoyed some of the generals who +feared military discipline would be destroyed. But he would not turn a +deaf ear to the plea of mercy, and he could not see in it any permanent +danger to the republic. One or two examples will stand fairly for a +large number. When a boy was sentenced to death for desertion, he said: + +"Must I shoot a simple-minded soldier boy who deserts, and not touch a +hair of the wily agitator who induces him to desert? I think that in +such a case, to silence the agitator and save the boy, is not only +constitutional, but withal a great mercy." + +Early in the war he pardoned a boy who was sentenced to be shot for +sleeping at his post as sentinel. By way of explanation the President +said: "I could not think of going into eternity with the blood of that +poor young man on my skirts. It is not to be wondered at that a boy, +raised on a farm, probably in the habit of going to bed at dark, +should, when required to watch, fall asleep; and I cannot consent to +shoot him for such an act." The sequel is romantic. The dead body of +this boy was found among the slain on the field of the battle of +Fredericksburg. Next his heart was a photograph of the President on +which he had written "God bless President Abraham Lincoln!" + +On the 21st day of November, 1864, he wrote to Mrs. Bixby, of Boston, +Mass., the following letter which needs no comment or explanation: + +"DEAR MADAM: I have been shown, in the files of the War Department, a +statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts, that you are the +mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I +feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should +attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I +cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found +in the thanks of the Republic they died to save. I pray that our +Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, and leave +you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn +pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the +altar of freedom. + + Yours, very sincerely and respectfully, + ABRAHAM LINCOLN." + +A different side of his character is shown in the following incident. A +slave-trader had been condemned, in Newburyport, Mass., to a fine of +one thousand dollars and imprisonment for five years. He served out his +term of imprisonment, but he could not pay his fine, because he had no +money and no way of getting any. Consequently he was still held for the +fine which he was unable to pay. Some people of influence interested +themselves in the case, and a congressman from eastern Massachusetts, +who stood very near to the President, laid the facts before him with +the request for a pardon. He was indeed much moved by the appeal, but +he gave his decision in substantially the following words: "My friend, +this appeal is very touching to my feelings, and no one knows my +weakness better than you. I am, if possible to be, too easily moved by +appeals for mercy; and I must say that if this man had been guilty of +the foulest murder that the arm of man could perpetrate, I might +forgive him on such an appeal. But the man who could go to Africa, and +rob her of her children, and then sell them into interminable bondage, +with no other motive than that which is furnished by dollars and cents, +is so much worse than the most depraved murderer that he can never +receive pardon at my hand. No, sir; he may stay in jail forever before +he shall have liberty by any act of mine." + +It was his magnanimity that constructed his cabinet. Hardly another man +in the world would have failed to dismiss summarily both Seward and +Chase. But, thanks to his magnanimous forbearance, Seward became not +only useful to the country, but devotedly loyal to his chief. After +Chase's voluntary retirement Lincoln appointed him Chief Justice. To +his credit be it said that he adorned the judiciary, but he never did +appreciate the man who saved him from oblivion, not to say disgrace. Up +to the year 1862, his only personal knowledge of Stanton was such as to +rouse only memories of indignation, but when he believed that Stanton +would make a good Secretary of War he did not hesitate to appoint him. +It is safe to say that this appointment gave Stanton the greatest +surprise of his life. + +He was always ready to set aside his preference, or to do the expedient +thing when no moral principle was involved. When such a principle was +involved he was ready to stand alone against the world. He was no +coward. In early youth he championed the cause of temperance in a +community where the use of liquors was almost universal. In the +Illinois legislature and in congress he expressed his repugnance to the +whole institution of slavery, though this expression could do him no +possible good, while it might do him harm. When, he was a lawyer, he +was almost the only lawyer of ability who did not dread the odium sure +to attach to those who befriended negroes. + +When in the White House, he stood out almost alone against the clamors +of his constituents and directed the release of Mason and Slidell. + +Personally he was a clean man. The masculine vices were abhorrent to +him. He was not profane. He was not vulgar. He was as far removed from +suspicion as Caesar could have demanded of his wife. He was not given +to drink. When a young man he could not be tricked into swallowing +whisky. At the close of the war, a barrel of whisky was sent him from +some cellar in Richmond, as a souvenir of the fall of the city, but he +declined to receive it. Wine was served at the table of the White House +in deference to foreign guests who did not know, and could not be +taught, how to dine without it. As a matter of courtesy he went through +the form of touching the glass to his lips, but he never drank. How +widely his life was separated from many of his associates! The +atmosphere of the White House has been sweeter and purer ever since he +occupied it, and this is largely due to the influence of his +incorruptible purity. + +In the matter of religion, he did not wear his heart on his sleeve, and +some of his friends have refused to believe that he was religious. It +is true that he was not a church member, but there were special reasons +for this. The church with which he was naturally affiliated was the +Presbyterian. The most eloquent preacher of that denomination was the +Reverend Dr. Palmer of New Orleans, who was an aggressive champion of +slavery as a divine institution. His teachings were feebly echoed in +thousands of other pulpits. Now Lincoln abhorred slavery. He +incorporated human freedom into his religion. The one point on which he +insisted all his life was that "slavery is wrong!" It may therefore be +seen that the church did not give him a cordial invitation. If this +needs any proof, that proof is found in the fact that the pastors in +Springfield voted almost unanimously against him. Even Peter Cartwright +had denounced him as an atheist. + +The marvel is that this did not embitter him against the church. But +all his life long he kept up such bonds of sympathy with the church as +were possible. He bore with the faults of the church and of ministers +with that patience which made his whole character so remarkably +genuine. He was a constant attendant at the services, he was favorable +to all the legitimate work of the church, and he was exceptionally kind +to ministers, though they were often a sore trial to him. + +In childhood he would not rest until a clergyman had traveled many +miles through the forests to preach a memorial discourse over the grave +of his mother. When his father was ill he wrote a letter of religious +consolation intended for him: "Tell him to remember to call upon and +confide in our great and good and merciful Maker, who will not turn +away from him in any extremity. He notes the fall of a sparrow, and +numbers the hairs of our heads, and He will not forget the dying man +who puts his trust in Him." + +Hugh McCulloch, in a personal letter to the author, January 28, 1889, +wrote: "He was, as far as I could judge, a pure man, and 'in spirit and +temper' a Christian." His pastor, Dr. Gurley, regarded him as a +Christian. Other clergymen who were acquainted with him did so. + +J. G. Holland has preserved the following incident: + +Colonel Loomis, who was commandant of Fort Columbus, Governor's Island, +in New York Harbor, reached the age at which by law he should be put on +the retired list. He was a very religious man, and his influence was so +marked that the chaplain and some others, determined to appeal to the +President to have him continued at the post. The Reverend Dr. Duryea of +Brooklyn was sent to Washington to prefer the request. "What does the +clergyman know of military matters?" inquired the President. "Nothing," +was the reply. "It is desired to retain Colonel Loomis solely for the +sake of his Christian influence. He sustains religious exercises at the +fort, leads a prayer-meeting, and teaches a Bible class in the Sunday +School." "That is the highest possible recommendation," replied the +President. He approved the request, and the Christian officer was +retained there until imperative military duty called him elsewhere. + +The religious strain that runs through his papers and addresses cannot +be overlooked. But there are two that deserve special mention. The +first is the "Sunday Order," which is as follows: + +"The importance for man and beast of the prescribed weekly rest, the +sacred rights of Christian soldiers and sailors, a becoming deference +to the best sentiment of a Christian people, and a due regard for the +Divine will, demand that Sunday labor in the army and navy be reduced +to the measure of strict necessity. The discipline and character of the +national forces should not suffer, nor the cause they defend be +imperiled, by the profanation of the day or the name of the Most High." + +The other is his thanksgiving proclamation. He it was who nationalized +this festival which had previously been local and irregular. His +successors in office have done well to follow his example in the +matter. Every November, when the entire population turns from daily +toil to an hour of thanksgiving, they should not forget that they are +thereby acting on his recommendation, and in doing this they are +strengthening the best possible monument to the grand, good man whom +the Most High mercifully gave to this country in the time of her direst +need. + + + + "He was a _man_; take him for all in all + I shall not look upon his like again." + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. + +TESTIMONIES. + + +We have now followed the career of Lincoln throughout. It is fitting +that this book should conclude with a record of what some observant men +have said about him. Accordingly this, the last, chapter is willingly +given up to these testimonies. Of course such a list could easily be +extended indefinitely, but the quotations here given are deemed +sufficient for their purpose. + +H. W. Beecher: + +Who shall recount our martyr's sufferings for this people? Since the +November of 1860 his horizon has been black with storms. By day and by +night, he trod a way of danger and darkness. On his shoulders rested a +government dearer to him than his own life. At its integrity millions +of men were striking home. Upon this government foreign eyes lowered. +It stood like a lone island in a sea full of storms; and every tide and +wave seemed eager to devour it. Upon thousands of hearts great sorrows +and anxieties have rested, but not on one such, and in such measure, as +upon that simple, truthful, noble soul, our faithful and sainted +Lincoln. Never rising to the enthusiasm of more impassioned natures in +hours of hope, and never sinking with the mercurial in hours of defeat +to the depths of despondency, he held on with immovable patience and +fortitude, putting caution against hope, that it might not be +premature, and hope against caution, that it might not yield to dread +and danger. He wrestled ceaselessly through four black and dreadful +purgatorial years, wherein God was cleansing the sin of his people as +by fire.... + +Then the wail of a nation proclaimed that he had gone from among us. +Not thine the sorrow, but ours, sainted soul! Thou hast indeed entered +the promised land, while we are yet on the march. To us remains the +rocking of the deep, the storm upon the land, days of duty and nights +of watching; but thou art sphered high above all darkness and fear, +beyond all sorrow and weariness. Rest, O weary heart! Rejoice +exceedingly, thou that hast enough suffered! Thou hast beheld Him who +invisibly led thee in this great wilderness. Thou standest among the +elect. Around thee are the royal men that have ennobled human life in +every age. Kingly art thou, with glory on thy brow as a diadem. And joy +is upon thee forevermore. Over all this land, over all this little +cloud of years, that now from thine infinite horizon moves back as a +speck, thou art lifted up as high as the star is above the clouds that +hide us, but never reach it. In the goodly company of Mount Zion thou +shalt find that rest which thou hast sorrowing sought in vain; and thy +name, an everlasting name in heaven, shall flourish in fragrance and +beauty as long as men shall last upon the earth, or hearts remain, to +revere truth, fidelity, and goodness. + +... Four years ago, O Illinois, we took from your midst an untried man, +and from among the people. We return him to you a mighty conqueror. Not +thine any more but the Nation's; not ours, but the world's. Give him +place, O ye prairies! In the midst of this great continent his dust +shall rest, a sacred treasure to myriads who shall pilgrim to that +shrine to kindle anew their zeal and patriotism. Ye winds that move +over the mighty places of the West, chant his requiem! Ye people, +behold a martyr whose blood, as so many articulate words, pleads for +for fidelity, for law, for liberty! + +Noah Brooks: + +He became the type, flower, and representative of all that is worthily +American; in him the commonest of human traits were blended with an +all-embracing charity and the highest human wisdom; with single +devotion to the right he lived unselfishly, void of selfish personal +ambition, and, dying tragically, left a name to be remembered with love +and honor as one of the best and greatest of mankind. + +W. C. Bryant: + + Oh, slow to smite and swift to spare, + Gentle and merciful and just! + Who, in the fear of God, didst bear + The sword of power, a nation's trust! + + In sorrow by thy bier we stand, + Amid the awe that hushes all, + And speak the anguish of a land + That shook with horror at thy fall. + + Thy task is done; the bond are free: + We bear thee to an honored grave, + Whose proudest monument shall be + The broken fetters of the slave. + + Pure was thy life; its bloody close + Hath placed thee with the sons of light, + Among the noble host of those + Who perished in the cause of Right. + +J. H. Choate: + +A rare and striking illustration of the sound mind in the sound body. +He rose to every occasion. He led public opinion. He knew the heart and +conscience of the people. Not only was there this steady growth of +intellect, but the infinite delicacy of his nature and capacity for +refinement developed also, as exhibited in the purity and perfection of +his language and style of speech. + +R. W. Emerson: + +He had a face and manner which disarmed suspicion, which inspired +confidence, which confirmed good will. He was a man without vices. He +had a strong sense of duty.... He had what the farmers call a long +head.... He was a great worker; he had a prodigious faculty of +performance; worked easily.... He had a vast good nature which made him +accessible to all.... Fair-minded ... affable ... this wise man. + +What an occasion was the whirlwind of the war! Here was the place for +no holiday magistrate, no fair-weather sailor; the new pilot was hurled +to the helm in a tornado. In four years,--four years of battle-days,-- +his endurance, his fertility of resources, his magnanimity, were sorely +tried and never found wanting. There, by his courage, his justice, his +even temper, his fertile counsel, his humanity, he stood a heroic +figure in the center of a heroic epoch. He is the true history of the +American people in his time. Step by step he walked before them; slow +with their slowness, quickening his march by theirs, the true +representative of this continent; an entirely public man; father of his +country, the pulse of twenty millions throbbing in his heart, the +thought of their minds articulated by his tongue. + +J. G. Holland: + +Conscience, and not expediency, not temporary advantage, not popular +applause, not the love of power, was the ruling and guiding motive of +his life. He was patient with his enemies, and equally patient with +equally unreasonable friends. No hasty act of his administration can be +traced to his impatience. He had a tender, brotherly regard for every +human being; and the thought of oppression was torment to him.... A +statesman without a statesman's craftiness, a politician without a +politician's meannesses, a great man without a great man's vices, a +philanthropist without a philanthropist's impracticable dreams, a +Christian without pretensions, a ruler without the pride of place and +power, an ambitious man without selfishness, and a successful man +without vanity. + +O. W. Holmes: + + Our hearts lie buried in the dust + With him so true and tender, + The patriot's stay, the people's trust, + The shield of the offender. + +J. R. Lowell: + +On the day of his death, this simple Western attorney, who, according +to one party was a vulgar joker, and whom the _doctrinaires_ among +his own supporters accused of wanting every element of statesmanship, +was the most absolute ruler in Christendom, and this solely by the hold +his good-humored sagacity had laid on the hearts and understandings of +his countrymen. Nor was this all, for it appeared that he had drawn the +great majority not only of his fellow-citizens, but of mankind also, to +his side. So strong and so persuasive is honest manliness without a +single quality of romance or unreal sentiment to help it! A civilian +during times of the most captivating military achievement, awkward, +with no skill in the lower technicalities of manners, he left behind a +fame beyond that of any conqueror, the memory of a grace higher than +that of outward person, and of a gentlemanliness deeper than mere +breeding. Never before that startled April morning did such multitudes +of men shed tears for the death of one whom they had never seen, as if +with him a friendly presence had been taken away from their lives, +leaving them colder and darker. Never was funeral panegyric so eloquent +as the silent look of sympathy which strangers exchanged when they met +on that day. Their common manhood had lost a kinsman. + + Wise, steadfast in the strength of God, and true. + How beautiful to see + Once more a shepherd of mankind indeed, + Who loved his charge, but never loved to lead; + One whose meek flock the people joyed to be, + Not lured by any Cheat of birth, + But by his clear-grained human worth, + And brave old wisdom of sincerity! + + * * * * * + + Great Captains, with their guns and drums, + Disturb our judgment for the hour, + But at last silence comes; + These all are gone, and, standing like a tower, + Our children shall behold his fame, + The kindly-earnest, brave, foreseeing man, + Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, + New birth of our new soil, the first American. + +Clara Morris: + +God's anointed--the great, the blameless Lincoln.... The homely, +tender-hearted "Father Abraham"--rare combination of courage, justice, +and humanity. + +H. J. Raymond: + +But there was a native grace, the out-growth of kindness of heart, +which never failed to shine through all his words and acts. His heart +was as tender as a woman's,--as accessible to grief and gladness as a +child's,--yet strong as Hercules to bear the anxieties and +responsibilities of the awful burden that rested on it. Little +incidents of the war,--instances of patient suffering in devotion to +duty,--tales of distress from the lips of women, never failed to touch +the innermost chords of his nature, and to awaken that sweet sympathy +which carries with it, to those who suffer, all the comfort the human +heart can crave. Those who have heard him, as many have, relate such +touching episodes of the war, cannot recall without emotion the +quivering lip, the face gnarled and writhed to stifle the rising sob, +and the patient, loving eyes swimming in tears, which mirrored the +tender pity of his gentle and loving nature. He seemed a stranger to +the harsher and stormier passions of man. Easily grieved, he seemed +incapable of hate.... It is first among the marvels of a marvelous +time, that to such a character, so womanly in all its traits, should +have been committed, absolutely and with almost despotic power, the +guidance of a great nation through a bloody and terrible civil war.... + +Carl Schurz: + +As the state of society in which Abraham Lincoln grew up passes away, +the world will read with increasing wonder of the man who, not only of +the humblest origin, but remaining the simplest and most unpretending +of citizens, was raised to a position of power unprecedented in our +history; who was the gentlest and most peace-loving of mortals, unable +to see any creature suffer without a pang in his own breast, and +suddenly found himself called to conduct the greatest and bloodiest of +our wars; who wielded the power of government when stern resolution and +relentless force were the order of the day, and then won and ruled the +popular mind and heart by the tender sympathies of his nature; who was +a cautious conservative by temperament and mental habit, and led the +most sudden and sweeping social revolution of our time; who, preserving +his homely speech and rustic manner, even in the most conspicuous +position of that period, drew upon himself the scoffs of polite +society, and then thrilled the soul of mankind with utterances of +wonderful beauty and grandeur; who, in his heart the best friend of the +defeated South, was murdered because a crazy fanatic took him for its +most cruel enemy; who, while in power, was beyond measure lampooned and +maligned by sectional passion and an excited party spirit, and around +whose bier friend and foe gathered to praise him--which they have since +never ceased to do--as one of the greatest of Americans and the best of +men. + +Henry Watterson: + +He went on and on, and never backward, until his time was come, when +his genius, fully developed, rose to the great exigencies intrusted to +his hands. + +Where did he get his style? Ask Shakespeare and Burns where they got +their style. Where did he get his grasp upon affairs and his knowledge +of men? Ask the Lord God, who created miracles in Luther and +Bonaparte!... Where did Shakespeare get his genius? Where did Mozart +get his music? Whose hand smote the lyre of the Scottish plowman, and +stayed the life of the German priest? God, God, and God alone; and as +surely as these were raised up by God, inspired by God, was Abraham +Lincoln; and a thousand years hence, no drama, no tragedy, no epic +poem, will be filled with greater wonder, or be followed by mankind +with deeper feeling, than that which tells the story of his life and +death. + + + + +THE END. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Abraham Lincoln, by Henry Ketcham + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN *** + +This file should be named 6811.txt or 6811.zip + +Produced by Robert Nield, Tom Allen, Tiffany Vergon, Charles Aldarondo, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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