diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 6912.txt | 20939 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 6912.zip | bin | 0 -> 285589 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
5 files changed, 20955 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6912.txt b/6912.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f8d4da --- /dev/null +++ b/6912.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20939 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of School and Home Cooking, by Carlotta C. Greer + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: School and Home Cooking + +Author: Carlotta C. Greer + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6912] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on February 10, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING *** + + + + +Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +[Illustration: _By permission of Harrison H Dodge, Superintendent_ A +CORNER OF WASHINGTON'S KITCHEN AT MOUNT VERNON] + +SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING + +BY + +CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD +MANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO + + + + +PREFACE + +_School and Home Cooking_ is a text which can be placed in the hands +of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its +use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves +much time. + +The _psychological_ method of education, which treats first of +material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis +develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in +preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff +may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the +content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is +psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are +sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil. + +Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any +subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving +technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a +classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the +text; they are classified after each is considered. + +At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of +lessons called _Related Work_, which includes table service lessons, +home projects, and meal cooking. _Table service_ lessons are +introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should +be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative +processes are performed. The _cost_ and _food value_ of meals +are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise +_selection_ and thrifty _buying_ of foods are also treated in +these lessons. + +_Home projects_ which progressive teachers have found effective in +making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be +attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may +be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes. + +An adaptation of the "meal method," _i.e., meal cooking_, is used +both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for +gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same +time. + +_Experiments_ regarding food preparation and composition and +processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken +to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil +and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow +directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions. + +The _recipes_ have been adapted from various sources. Where it is +possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive +food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as +sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods +follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in +the home kitchen. + +Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of +Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions +of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the +Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for +valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the +preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading +of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative +material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and +Company, _The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal +of Home Economics_, and the United States Department of Agriculture. + +CLEVELAND, July, 1920. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +LIST OF EXPERIMENTS + +FOREWORD + + +DIVISION ONE + +INTRODUCTION + +I. Baked Apples--Dishwashing + +II. Measurements--Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes + +III. Fuels and Combustion--Sauted and Baked Squash + +IV. Coal Ranges--Corn Dishes + +V. Gas Ranges--Scalloped Fruit + +VI. Stoves and Heating Devices--Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples + + +DIVISION TWO + +BODY-REGULATING FOOD--WATER + +VII. Water and Beverages (A) + +VIII. Water and Beverages (B) + +RELATED WORK + +IX. Home Projects + +X. Afternoon Tea + + +DIVISION THREE + +BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,--RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER) + +XI. Fresh Vegetables (A) + +XII. Fresh Vegetables (B) + +XIII. Fresh Fruits + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON + +XIV. Review: Meal Cooking + +XV. Home Projects + + +DIVISION FOUR + +ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES + +XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar + +XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A) + +XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B) + +XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose + +XX. Cereals: Rice (A) + +XXI. Cereals: Rice (B) + +XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker + +XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking + +XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening + +XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch + +XXVI. Root Vegetables (A) + +XXVII. Root Vegetables (B) + +XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C) + +XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature + +RELATED WORK + +XXX. Dining Room Service + +XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast + +XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking + +XXXIII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION FIVE + +ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AN OILS + +XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium + +XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium--Food Fats + +XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium--Digestion of Fat + +XXXVII. Fat Saving + +RELATED WORK + +XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy + +XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast + +XL. Review: Meal Cooking + +XLI. Home Projects + + +DIVISION SIX + +ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN + +XLII. Eggs + +XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein + +XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A) + +XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B) + +XLVI. Milk + +XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate + +XLVIII. Milk and Cream + +XLIX. Cream Soups (A) + +L. Cream Soups (B) + +LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A) + +LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B) + +LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C) + +LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A) + +LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B) + +LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C) + +LVII. Cheese (A) + +LVIII. Cheese (B) + +LIX. Structure of Beef--Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts + +LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A) + +LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B) + +LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A) + +LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B) + +LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C) + +LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D) + +LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef + +LXVII. Gelatine (A) + +LXVIIL. Gelatine (B) + +LXIX. Fish (A) + +LXX. Fish (B) + +LXXI. Fish (C) + +LXXII. Legumes (A) + +LXXIII. Legumes (B) + +LXXIV. Legumes (C) + +RELATED WORK + +LXXV. Cost of Food + +LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast + +LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking + +LXXVIII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION SEVEN + +HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES + +LXXIX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Delicate Flavor + +LXXX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Strong Flavor + +LXXXI. Salads (A) + +LXXXII. Salads (B) + +LXXXIII. Classification of Foodstuffs + +RELATED WORK + +LXXXIV. Selecting Food + +LXXXV. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper + +LXXXVL. Review: Meal Cooking + +LXXXVII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION EIGHT + +FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS + +LXXXVIII. Food Adjuncts--Dishes Containing Food Adjuncts + +RELATED WORK + +LXXXIX. Spending for Food + +XC. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper + +XCI. Review: Meal Cooking + +XCII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION NINE + +FOOD COMBINATIONS + +XCIII. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (A) + +XCIV. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (B) + +XCV. Fish Salad and Salad Rolls + +XCVI. Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws + +XCVII. Veal and Potatoes + +XCVIII. Mutton and Lamb Dishes + +XCIX. Pork, Vegetables, and Apple Sauce + +C. Chicken and Rice + +CI. Chicken and Peas + +CII. Oyster Dishes + +CIII. Meat-substitute Dishes + +CIV. Meat Extenders and One-dish Meals + +RELATED WORK + +CV. Menu-making + +CVI. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Luncheon or Supper + +CVII. Review: Meal Cooking + +CVIII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION TEN + +QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS + +CIX. Leavening with Steam and Air: Popovers + +CX. Leavening with Baking Soda and Sour Milk: Spider Corn Bread + +CXI. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Molasses: Gingerbread + +CXII. Leavening with Baking Powder: Griddle Cakes + +CXIII. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Baking Powder: Sour Milk +Griddle Cakes + +CXIV. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Cream of Tartar: Steamed +Brown Breads + +CXV. Formulating Recipes--Waffles + +RELATED WORK + +CXVI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Foods + +CXVII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner + +CXVIII. Review: Meal Cooking + +CXIX. Home Projects + + +DIVISION ELEVEN + +QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS + +CXX. Fine and Coarse Flours--Muffins + +CXXI. Comparison of Wheat and Other Grains--Muffins + +CXXII. Baking Powder Loaf Breads + +CXXIII. Eggs for Quick Breads--Cream Puffs + +RELATED WORK + +CXXIV. Food Requirement + +CXXV. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner + +CXXVI. Review: Meal Cooking + +CXXVII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION TWELVE + +QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS + +CXXVIII. Method of Mixing Fat in Quick Breads--Drop Biscuit + +CXXIX. Quantity of Fat in Quick Breads--Short Cake + +CXXX. "Cut" Biscuit + +RELATED WORK + +CXXXI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Food Applied to the Daily Food +Requirement. + +CXXXII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner. + +CXXXIII. Review: Meal Cooking. + +CXXXIV. Home Projects. + + +DIVISION THIRTEEN + +YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS + +CXXXV. Yeast--Loaf Bread. + +CXXXVI. Wheat Flour--Bread Sponge. + +CXXXVII. Modifications of Plain White Bread. + +CXXXVIII. Rolls and Buns. + +RELATED WORK + +CXXXIX. Food for Girls and Boys. + +CXL. Planning a Day's Diet--Cooking and Serving a Meal. + +CXLI. Review: Meal Cooking. + +CXLII. Home Projects. + + +DIVISION FOURTEEN + +CAKE + +CXLIII. Cake without Fat--Sponge Cake. + +CXLIV. Cake Containing Fat--One-egg Cake. + +CXLV. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (A) + +CXLVI. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (B) + +CXLVII. Cake Containing Fat--Cookies + +CXLVIII. Cakes without Eggs + +RELATED WORK + +CXLIX. The Luncheon Box + +CL. Planning and Preparing Box Luncheons + +CLI. Review--Meal Cooking + +CLII. Home Projects + + +DIVISION FIFTEEN + +PASTRY + +CLIII. Pies with Under Crust + +CLIV. Pies with Upper Crust + +CLV. Two-crust Pies + +RELATED WORK + +CLVI. Infant Feeding + +CLVII. Modifying Milk + +CLVIII. Review--Meal Cooking + +CLIX. Home Projects + + +DIVISION SIXTEEN + +FROZEN DESSERTS + +CLX. Method of Freezing--Water Ice + +CLXI. Frozen Creams + +RELATED WORK + +CLXII. Diet for Young Children + +CLXIII. Planning and Preparing Menus for Children + +CLXIV. Review--Meal Cooking + +CLXV. Home Projects + + +DIVISION SEVENTEEN + +FOOD PRESERVATION + +CLXVI. The Principles of Preserving Food + +CLXVII. Processing with Little or No Sugar--Canned Fruit + +CLXVIII. Processing with Much Sugar--Preserves, Jams, and Conserves + +CLXIX. Processing with Much Sugar--Jellies + +CLXX. Processing with Vinegar and Spices--Relishes + +CLXXI. Canned Vegetables + +CLXXII. Dried Vegetables + +RELATED WORK + +CLXXIII. The Sick-room Tray + +CLXXIV. Preparing Trays for the Sick and Convalescent + +CLXXV. Review--Meal Cooking + +CLXXVI. Home Projects + + +DIVISION EIGHTEEN + +SUPPLEMENTARY + +I. Thanksgiving Sauce + +II. Thanksgiving Desserts + +III. Christmas Sweets + +IV. Christmas Candy + + +APPENDIX + +Suggestions for Teaching + +Books for Reference + + +INDEX + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + +A corner in Washington's kitchen at Mt. Vernon [_Frontispiece_] + +1. Skewer and knitting needle for testing foods + +2. A sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing + +3. Utensils for dish-washing + +4. Dish-drainer + +5. Dish-drainer + +6. Dish-rack + +7. Dish-rack + +8. A rack for drying dishes + +9. Utensils for measuring and weighing foods + +10. Coal range, showing course of direct draft + +11. Coal range, showing course of indirect draft + +12. Gas burner, showing mixer + +13. Gas burners + +14. Gas range, showing direction of draft + +15. Cross-section of wickless kerosene stove + +16. Electric range + +17. Pressure cooker + +18. Steam cooker, containing various foods + +19. Scene on a tea plantation + +20. Tea-ball teapot + +21. Coffee berries + +22. Coffee percolator + +23. Grains of starch + +24. A cupful of rice before and after boiling + +25. Insulated wall of a refrigerator + +26. Fireless cooker, having excelsior packing + +27. Fireless cooker, with stone disks + +28. Electric fireless cooker + +29. Gas range, having fireless cooker attachment, insulated oven and hoods + +30. Method of folding filter paper + +31. Utensil for steaming,--a "steamer" + +32. "Steam" without pressure, and "steam" which has been under pressure + +33. Table laid for an informal luncheon + +34. Wheel tray + +35. How to hold the knife and fork + +36. Keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth + +37. The teaspoon should rest on the saucer + +38. How to hold the soup spoon + +39. Apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate + +40. Method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter + +41. Cocoa pods + +42. Dried bread crumbs + +43. Structure of meat + +44. Club or Delmonico steak + +45. Porterhouse + +46. Sirloin,--hip steak + +47. Sirloin,--flat bone + +48. Sirloin,--round bone + +49. First cut prime rib roast + +50. Second cut prime rib roast + +51. Blade rib roast + +52. Chuck rib roast + +53. Colonial fireplace, showing a "roasting kitchen" + +54. Round + +55. Chuck + +56. Cuts of beef + +57. Rump + +58. Cross rib, Boston cut, or English cut + +59. Skirt steak; flank steak + +60. Fish kettle, showing rack + +61. A suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food + +62. The composition of roots and succulent vegetables + +63. The composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods + +64. The composition of milk and milk products + +65. Cuts of veal + +66. Cuts of lamb or mutton + +67. Lamb chops + +68. The composition of fresh and cured meats + +69. Cuts of pork + +70. The composition of fresh and dried fruits + +71. Removing tendons from the leg of a fowl + +72. Fowl trussed for roasting,--breast view + +73. Fowl trussed for roasting,--back view + +74. Composition of fish, fish products, and oysters + +75. The composition of eggs and cheese + +76. The composition of legumes and corn + +77. The composition of bread and other cereal foods + +78. Foods containing calcium + +79. Foods containing phosphorus + +80. Foods containing iron + +81. Oven heat regulator + +82. Illustrating the amount of heat represented by one Calorie + +83. Comparative weights of 100-Calorie portions of food + +84. 100-Calorie portions of food + +85. Longitudinal section of wheat grain, showing bran, floury part, and +germ + +86. Growing yeast plants + +87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified +milk + +88. Some species of molds + +89. The four types of bacteria + +90. Canning foods + +91. Rack for holding jars + +92. The composition of fruits and fruit products + +93. Drier for vegetables or fruits + +94. The composition of sugar and similar foods + +LIST OF EXPERIMENTS + +1. Measurement equivalents. + +2. Use of the wooden spoon. + +3. Lack of draft. + +4. Presence of draft. + +5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer. + +6. The dissolving power of water. + +7. Presence of gases in water. 8. Simmering and boiling of water. + +9. Tannin in tea. + +10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water. + +11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water. + +12. The solubility of powdered sugar. + +13. The solubility of caramel. + +14. The starch test. + +15. The effect of cold water on starch. + +16. The effect of heat on starch. + +17. Stiffening of cooked starch. + +18. The structure of starch. + +19. Separation of cellulose and starch. + +20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked +over boiling water. + +21. Retention of heat. + +22. Starch grains and boiling water. + +23. Separation of starch grains with cold water. + +24. Separation of starch grains with sugar. + +25. Separation of starch grains with fat. + +26. The change of starch into dextrin. + +27. The solubility of dextrin. + +28. Starch in cracker. + +29. Action of saliva upon starch. + +30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water. + +31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn". + +32. Bread fried in "cool" fat. + +33. The temperature of fat for frying + +34. Saponification of fat + +35. Action of oil and water + +36. Emulsion of fat + +37. The coagulation of egg-white + +38. The solubility of albumin + +39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate + +40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs + +41. Effect of beating a whole egg + +42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wire +spoon + +43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately + +44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs + +45. Scalding milk + +46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware + +47. Effect of rennet on milk + +48. Separation of curd and whey + +49. Effect of acid on milk + +50. Division of muscle + +51. Effect of dry heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle +fiber + +52. Effect of moisture and heat on (_a_) connective tissue, +(_b_) muscle fiber + +53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening + +54. Effect of cold water on meat + +55. Effect of boiling water on meat + +56. Effect of salt on meat + +57. Effect of cold water on gelatine + +58. Effect of hot water on gelatine + +59. Effect of soaking fish in water + +60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly + +61. Effect of acid on milk + +62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda + +63. Protein in oyster liquor + +64. Leavening with steam and air + +65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads + +66. Preparation of flour for quick breads + +67. Action of baking soda on sour milk + +68. Chemical change + +69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk + +70. Action of baking soda on molasses. + +71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses. + +72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda. + +73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda. + +74. Effect of hot water on baking powder. + +75. Starch in baking powder. + +76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders. + +77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant. + +78. Protein in flour. + +79. Mixtures for freezing. + +80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds. + +81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds. + +82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds. + +83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds. + +84. Growth of molds on cut fruit. + +85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits. + +86. Growth of molds on other foods. + +87. Growth of molds upon wood. + +88. Growth of molds upon cloth. + +89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food. + +90. Growth of bacteria. + +91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria. + +92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria. + +93. Use of sugar as a preservative. + +94. Pectin in fruit juice. + +95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel. + + + + +[Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED] + +FOREWORD + +One of the slogans of the World War,--"Food will win the War,"--showed +that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It +confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or +relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in +achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time. + +The subject of food is a broad one,--one that is growing in interest. Many +present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what +you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The +most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an +individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If +you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food +carefully. + +A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods +one should know what foods to _select_ at market, whence they come, +how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and +how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of +foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others +contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that +for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a +pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased +at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to +choose to meet best the needs of the body. + +Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of +_combining_ foods that are varied in composition or that supplement +one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only +nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to +combine foods that "taste well." + +In learning to _prepare_ foods, the experience of those who have +cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to +follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following +a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in +rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you +would become skilful in food preparation. + +One class of food or one principle of cooking may be _related_ to +another or _associated_ with another. For example, the method of +cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general. +There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of +cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil +has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the +principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the +pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge +gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of +a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes +appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved. +The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker +and acquires skill in a much shorter time. + +The _results_ of every process should be observed. Careful +observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such +thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The +cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same +mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result +from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of +one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great +satisfaction, to the home-keeper. + +A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful +_serving_ of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve +food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to +acquire. + +Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as +follows: + +(_a_) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy, +nutriment, and flavor. + +(_b_) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class +of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another. + +(_c_) Note the results of your work; know why the results are +successful or why they are unsuccessful. + +Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important +factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize +that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil, +broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All +this demands much earnest thought and effort. + + + + +SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING + +DIVISION ONE + + + +INTRODUCTION + +LESSON I + + +BAKED APPLES--DISH-WASHING + +BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins) + +6 apples +Seeded raisins +6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar +6 tablespoonfuls water + +Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from +each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish. +Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar +in each core. Pour the water around the apples. + +Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking +with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking, +occasionally "baste" the apples, _i.e._ take spoonfuls of the water +from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking +apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From +20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required. + +DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.--There is almost invariably a waste of effort +in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to: + +(_a_) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments. + +(_b_) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing. + +(_c_) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too +many motions in washing and drying them. + +Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping, +efficiency methods, _i.e._ methods which accomplish satisfactory +results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied +to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may +become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS. +Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves +as a handle.] + +For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable: + +A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing +dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a +sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on +an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this +purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the +sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans; +dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish- +mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish- +cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap- +holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a +large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size +for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats +for drying brushes (see Figure 2). + +PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.--If possible, as soon as _serving dishes, +i.e._ dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of +food from them. The scraping may be done with: (_a_) a piece of soft +paper, (_b_) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (_c_) a knife or +spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping, +but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to +wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be +washed. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING. + +Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the +upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.] + +_Cooking utensils_ need special care before washing, especially if +they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from +dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the +drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and +great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a +utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully +with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or +kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil +with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few +minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness +of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to +aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark +stain on aluminum) + +[Illustration: FIGURE 3--UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING + +A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G +plate scraper] + +Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency +if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using +cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or +starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup. + +ARRANGING DISHES.--Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing +utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of +dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the _right_ of +the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the _left_ of +the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her +left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be +no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing +at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left +hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed +at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board +at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure +2). + +WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--Fill the dish-pan about two +thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in +the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter +is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about +two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be +placed in the rinsing pan. + +Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest +dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups, +saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap- +dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not +wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits +of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or +vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg +beater should not soak in water. + +If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth. +Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or +greasy. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--DISH-DRAINER.] + +Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to +scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to +the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are +any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply +the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible, +rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or +bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water +and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which +is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or +bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to +prevent warping. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--DISH-DRAINER.] + +RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.--Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see +Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former +has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the +water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish- +racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 6--DISH-RACK.] + +DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--If such dishes as plates, platters, and +saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no +towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft +towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for +this purpose. + +Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting, +dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on +these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the +warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open +air. Stand boards on end until dry. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--DISH-RACK.] + +CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.--Use dish-towels and cloths for no other +purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance +to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak +them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well. +Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At +least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as +directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it +boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry. + +[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.--A RACK +FOR DRYING DISHES.] + +CARE OF THE SINK.--If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be +cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears +away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult +to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in +cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water +standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and +wash the sink. _Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning +the sink._ If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply +a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening +the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the +drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap. + +The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This +is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If +this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much +hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If +the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the +drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of +the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use +this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water. +Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain +in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of +water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.--For +both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen +or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover +the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in +the kitchen. The hands should be washed _before_ preparing or cooking +food, and _after_ touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable +to have a hand towel conveniently placed. + +_Clean cooking_ means _clean tasting_. This can be done by +taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from +the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon. + +QUESTIONS + +Are apples sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck? + +What is the price per pound or per peck of apples? + +Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be +rinsed with _cold_ water? + +Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in _hot_ +water? + +Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed +with hot water before washing? + +Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water? + +Why not _fill_ the dish-pan with soiled dishes? + +Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water? + +Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg +beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a +soft towel? + +Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly? + +Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment +87.) + +Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering? + +Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or +enamel sink? + +What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water +run from the faucet while cleaning a sink? + + + + +LESSON II + + +MEASUREMENTS--STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES + +EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in a +notebook in a methodical way, giving (_a_) the aim of the experiment, +(_b_) the process, (_c_) the result, and (_d_) the +conclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.--In +measuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuring +cup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then +"level" it with a knife. + +Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements: + +(_a_) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful + +(_b_) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup + +(_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint + +Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise + +A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise + +[Illustration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS] + +An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally + +A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise + +A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring +fractional teaspoonfuls + +NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all +ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients +for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is +satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own +standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are +not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should +always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as +possible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When the +quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely +the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated. +When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on +which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more +convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more +conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment +for cooking (see Figure 9). + +The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements. +She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking +utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of +several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of +measurement. + +Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to +buy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number +of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough +rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She +might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts +concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a +little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty +housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when +there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the +quantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of the +finished product. + +EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in +a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5 +minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would +be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of +spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See +_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) + +Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers for +saucepans, etc., are of wood. + +STUFFED TOMATOES + +6 ripe tomatoes +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +Dash pepper +3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + +Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the +seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then +add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the +prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about +20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs +brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1) +rather than with a fork. + +For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme. + +_Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread +that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours. + +Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread +crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with these +vegetables. + +Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See +_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) + +SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both +fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon +the season can be made.] + +1 can or 1 quart tomatoes +1 tablespoonful salt +Dash pepper +3 cupfuls bread crumbs +3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + +If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and +peel and cut into pieces. + +Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking- +dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at +400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to +prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped +dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked. + +Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes. + +Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1 +cupful of the dried crumbs. + +TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to +be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the +heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method +because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not +have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be +wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is +well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen +for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory +means of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to +the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful +cleaning. + +Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for +oiling pans or baking-dishes. + +QUESTIONS + +In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs +before they are buttered. Why? + +Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a +fork? + +What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for +Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking +Fruits_, p.65) + +Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or +peck? + +What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck? + +How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs? + +How many slices in one loaf of bread? + + + + +LESSON III + +FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH + + +FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This +heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first +requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The +fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. +Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well +established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat. + +HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper, +cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does +not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is +placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it +is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood +and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by +the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood. +All fuels must be heated before they will burn. + +When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the +difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some +substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn, +while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require +different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on +the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing +the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The +burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the +temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to +paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The +temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and +continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that +substance. + +DRAFT; OXYGEN.-- + +EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan. +Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the +candle continue to burn? Why? + +(_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time +support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so +that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of +cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn? +Why? + +EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the +chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What +substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why +the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this +experiment. + +If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases +to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded +from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of +any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are +produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until +heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel +will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third +requisite for combustion. + +The necessity for a draft, _i.e._ a continuous supply of fresh air +which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4. + +SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.] +SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.] + +Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the +skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat +and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden +brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the +frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at +once. + +BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3] + +Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for +serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at +right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell. +Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at +moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter, +salt, and pepper. + +QUESTIONS + +Name the three requisites for combustion. + +Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your +answer. + +What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of +squash is required to serve 6 persons? + + + + +LESSON IV + +COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The principles of building +a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and +heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking +or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the +pupils, this lesson may be omitted]--CORN DISHES + +EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.--Remove the lids from the coal range. Note +the location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of the +fire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose? +Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Note +the place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of the +stovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note the +location of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the oven +damper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven +damper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper is +open? + +_An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range_ +(see Figure 10). + +Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when the +damper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damper +is closed? + +_A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the +range_ (see Figure 11). + +How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged when +the fire is kindled? + +PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.--What is found deposited on the inside of the +stovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipe +joined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney? + +[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.] + +In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it united +with oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solid +fuels--coal, wood, paper--burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gas +is consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have +been burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been +burned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the +chimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke, +are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are called _products of +combustion_. + +FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.--It is necessary to have the fire box, ash +pan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. After +cleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom +of the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so that +there are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put two +shovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace the +stove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.] + +Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: To +the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory +metal cleanser. + +To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffin +oil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or a +soft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polish +with soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oil +must be used with caution. _It should never be applied to a stove +containing burning fuels._ If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, is +not destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or +stone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood is +reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If this +burns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft. + +GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that are +filled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows when +pressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering. + +_To boil green corn_ remove silk and husk from the corn, place the +ears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels +when pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter. +The platter may be covered with a folded napkin. + +_To bake green corn_ select 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob as +follows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the tops +of the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in a +baking-dish, add: + +3/4 cupful milk +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +2 teaspoonfuls salt +Pepper + +Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot. + +Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of +the range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, using +less milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender. + +SCALLOPED CORN + +1 can corn +2/3 cupful milk +1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt +Dash pepper +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs + +Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place one +fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half of +the corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of the +corn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at +400 degrees F., for 45 minutes. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts +of a coal range clean before building a fire. + +If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should be +placed next to the paper? Explain your answer. + +What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a +range? + +Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a covered +tin can or stone jar. + +Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and in +Scalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,--corn or tomatoes? From +this explain the difference in mixing. + +What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn? + + + + +LESSON V + +GAS RANGES--SCALLOPED FRUIT + + +EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.--Inspect a gas burner and find the following +parts: (_a_) Supply pipe. (_b_) Stopcock. (_c_) Burner. +(_d_) Mixer (see Figure 12). + +To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the order +named: (_a_) Strike the match. (_b_) Turn the stopcock. +(_c_) Apply the match to the open burner. (_d_) If necessary, +regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Clark Stove Co_ FIGURE 12.--GAS BURNER +SHOWING MIXER] + +EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.--Light a gas +burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer is +stationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. What +is the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of the +flame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner? +What is the purpose of the mixer? + +EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.--Inspect a gas range and find the following +parts: (_a_) Top burners--regular, giant and simmering (see Figure +13). (_b_) Stopcocks of top burners. (_c_) Oven burners. +(_d_) Stopcocks of oven burners. (_e_) Pilot (if there is one). +(_f_) Baking oven. (_g_) Broiling oven. (_h_) Warming oven +and its burner (if there is one). (_i_) Supply pipe. (_j_) +Stovepipe. + +The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and for +this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will +apply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction that +should always be borne in mind. _Always open the oven door before +lighting the oven burners._ If such caution is not observed, the gas +may escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot- +lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off +before lighting the pilot. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13--GAS BURNERS A, +giant, B, regular, C, simmering] + +ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.--The products of combustion of fuel gas that most +interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is +not a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containing +much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect +respiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of +a gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range +as for a coal range (see Figure 14). + +When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensils +and does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incomplete +combustion. Moreover, _carbon monoxide_, which is present in some +gas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas and +when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence it +is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is +clean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient air +can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame. + +CONSERVING GAS.--According to authoritative information, [Footnote +8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation of +Natural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than the +available supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies are +constantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in natural +gas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of +years will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far as +we are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever. +Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper and +householder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions for +conserving gas follow: + +(1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light +blue in color. + +(2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that the +cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of the +flame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have a +long flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste of +gas. + +(3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary. +Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. A +short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided the +cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner. + +(4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock so +that only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter in +rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water. + +(5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular or +giant burner. + +(6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is a +wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking +utensil. + +(7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches are +cheaper than fuel gas. + +CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.--_Daily Care_.--If any substance on the stove +cannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stove +with a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little +light paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Remove +the tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash. + +_Weekly Care_.--Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with +water to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to light +the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish the +nickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal +range. (_Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not to +apply the oil when the stove is lighted!_) Wipe the burner with the +oil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or +wire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots, +use a knife to clean them. + +SCALLOPED APPLES + +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +3 cupfuls apples +1/2 cupful sugar +1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon +1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg +1/2 lemon,--juice and grated rind +1/4 cupful water + +Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. + +Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredients +to the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as +directed for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples are +tender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20 +minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Care +should be taken in grating _lemon rind_. Only the thin yellow portion +should be used as flavoring. + +HARD SAUCE + +1 cupful butter +1 cupful powdered sugar +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill and +serve over hot puddings. + +SCALLOPED BANANAS + +In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit the +water, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves +for the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs +browned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the +oven burners are being lighted. + +If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution must +be observed in ventilating the kitchen? + +What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range? + +What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up +the sides of a cooking utensil? + +What causes pared apples to become discolored? + +Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so that +discoloration of the apples will be avoided. + +How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped +apples? + +What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first half +of the time for baking? + +What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas? + +Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas. + +Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple +mixture? + +What is the effect of too long baking on bananas? + +What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not the +dish-cloth be used in cleaning it? + + + + +LESSON VI + +STOVES AND HEATING DEVICES--STUFFED PEPPERS, BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES + + +KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--In case no kerosene, +gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, the +portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]--Where gas +is not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case a +house is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also be +desirable for use in summer time. + +There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves. +The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become +saturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, the +kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vapor +vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Detroit Vapor Stove Co_ FIGURE 15.-- +CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.] + +In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that +the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure +15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline +into it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter is +sufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene then +vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns. + +In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped with +asbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturated +with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as +does a cloth wick. + +It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carbon +collect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" or +soot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicks +free from charred material, and to renew the latter when they become +short. + +Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel. +These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wick +burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the +container is exhausted. + +GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]-- +Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, it +requires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasoline +cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (In +the stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.) + +When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline +before lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by letting +the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning off +the supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the time +the gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turned +on, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns. + +Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be kept +clean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosion +may result. It is for this reason that _the tank or gasoline container +of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are +lighted or even hot._ + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing +Co_ FIGURE 16.--ELECTRIC RANGE.] + +ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--It +was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electric +stoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which contain +coils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity is +the cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate an +electric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the current +required for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if the +current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be +cooked in the oven (see Figure 16). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--PRESSURE COOKER.] + +DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.--The _pressure cooker_ (see +Figure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is +maintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from one +third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices. +Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude +cooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level. + +The _steam cooker_ (see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when several +foods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner is +required to operate it. The so-called _clover leaf pans_ or +utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or +heater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.). + +The _fireless cookers_ described in Lesson XXII are practical fuel +and heat savers. + +STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers or +Butterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.] + +6 green peppers +1 cupful cooked meat, chopped +1 tablespoonful scraped onion +1 teaspoonful salt +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Toledo Cooker Co_ FIGURE 18.--STEAM +COOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.] + +Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise +in halves. Remove the seeds. + +Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as +directed in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff the +peppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, and +pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it. +Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until the +peppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat. + +If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the +stuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. A +mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tasty +stuffing for peppers. + +If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid to +cover the pepper after stuffing. + +BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.] + +5 apples +2/3 cupful brown sugar +1/2 cupful water +3/4 cupful milk +1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into a +saucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add the +apples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove the +apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing the +fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving. + +In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cook +until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup in +which the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt, +butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce over +the apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert. + +QUESTIONS + +State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are more +popular fuels in summer time than coal. + +Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner. + +Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene +in the container is exhausted? + +Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled +while the stove is lighted or hot. + +Why are electric stoves not provided with burners? + +Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver? + +How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel? + +Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans. + +Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give the +reason for this. + +What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which +peppers are baked? + +Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit? +From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the +cooking. + +NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the course in food study is begun in the fall, +when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen--_The +Preservation of Food_--may follow this lesson. The plan of canning +fruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods covers +but one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teacher +may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second +year, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupils +at these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foods +can be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits and +sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from +food preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.) + + + + +DIVISION TWO + +BODY-REGULATING FOOD: WATER + +LESSON VII + + +WATER AND BEVERAGES (A) + +EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.--Put 1/2 teaspoonful of salt +in a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tube +with the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set the +tube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water? + +When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water and +does not separate on standing, the solid substance is _dissolved_. +The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said that +salt is _soluble_ in cold water, or that water is a _solvent_ of +salt. + +SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.--The change of foods in the body from insoluble to +a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the +digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as +salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo +changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not +dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily +dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important +step in the process of digesting. + +USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.--A person might live for a number of weeks +without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking +water. Water has many uses in the body. + +(_a_) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property, +water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (See +_Solution and Digestion_.) + +(_b_) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all +parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body. + +(_c_) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because +water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the +body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of +the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of +water, also aids in regulating body temperature. + +It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the +body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the +statement: _Water aids in regulating body processes_. + +FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.--Since water is such a ready solvent, it +contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing +through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances +are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well +water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking +purposes unless boiled. + +EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of +water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes +which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What +does water contain which is driven off by heat? + +EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water +of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface +of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until +bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is +indicated by the larger bubbles? + +HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is +_simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off, +water is _boiling_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 19--SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.] + +The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness +can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling, +_i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air +with it. + +TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan +(see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and +sold as tea. + +In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest +leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence +are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves +make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are +choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves. + +Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are +either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is +that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not. +Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance +called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with +digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown +by the following: + +EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea +in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes, +then strain the infusion. + +(_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black. + +(_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage. +To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the +tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present. +Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity +of tannin? + +By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the +beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from +green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more +stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not +dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture +of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor +of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in +various countries have different flavors. + +Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by +adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not +reach this country. + +MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen, +enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never +be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in +tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea +leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans. + +Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and +stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially +draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are +allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is +drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water +over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves. + +TEA (proportion for one cupful) + +1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves +1 cupful freshly boiled water + +Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and +add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the +teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea +leaves. + +Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20) +for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the +leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the +surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots +may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other. + +The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If +the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are +loosely folded. + +Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The +latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry. + +In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be +utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to +it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a +finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar +does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments +10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.--TEA-BALL +TEAPOT.] + +Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some +tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating +material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons, +and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea. + +TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE + +Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the +cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the +oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve. + +If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface +spread with cheese. + +QUESTIONS + +By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves? + +How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea? + +Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7 +and 8.) + +Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain. + +Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes? + +From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black +teas. From what countries do they come? + +How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a +pound? + +Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the +quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers. + + + + +LESSON VIII + +WATER AND BEVERAGES (B) + +WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such +as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain +water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the +needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage. + +When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of +water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in +beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water +drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown +that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it +has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are +not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used. + +WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many +different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one +substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which +foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_ +[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of +the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a +scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food +principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain +several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs. + +[Illustration: Figure 21--Coffee Berries.] + +Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall +study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body. +As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating +foodstuff._ + +USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing +agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most +important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium +for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling. +Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as +in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can +be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for +example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during +cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking. + +COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in +tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or +berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed +from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans, +are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due +to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and +the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a +port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee +grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of +coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not +used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of +coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil. + +Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and +therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be +extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through +it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid +is extracted by long boiling. + +Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased +ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly +covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In +this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma. + +BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful) + +1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee +2 tablespoonfuls cold water +Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white +1 cup boiling water +(1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls +of +ground coffee.) + +Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the +cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more +than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful +of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the +spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second +tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper +may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a +warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear. + +Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee + +CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the +coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear +coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other +desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary. +The spout needs special care in cleaning. + +FILTERED COFFEE + +2/3 cupful finely ground coffee +5 cupfuls freshly boiled water + +(For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is +used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a +muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is +poured through the ground coffee.) + +Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the +bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or +perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot. +Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly +boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage +may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken, +however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear +cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_" +or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1 +cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Manning, Bowman Co_ FIGURE 22.--COFFEE +PERCOLATOR.] + +Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure +22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot +and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee. +The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the +percolator. Follow the directions that come with it. + +OATMEAL COOKIES + +1 egg +1/2 cupful sugar +3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil +2 tablespoonfuls sour milk +1 cupful rolled oats +1 cupful flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful baking soda +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 cupful raisins + +Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat +is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the +sour milk and rolled oats. + +Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt, +baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first +mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little +flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the +mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate +oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color. + +These cookies may be served with coffee. + +QUESTIONS + +How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer? + +When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then +explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee. + +Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after +the coffee is boiled? + +Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling? + +In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why? + +In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain. + +How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping +tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee. + +What is the average price per pound of coffee? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON IX + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most +insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely +to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is +thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best +training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she +is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her +share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school +activities can be measured by the way they function in the home. + +Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function +in the home than by the educative process called the _project_. +Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion +in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole- +hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_. + +In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the +needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils' +mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon +tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to +become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of +the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in +the home. + +In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary +to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can +doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can +contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which +will be performed in a "hearty" manner. + +Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For +successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a +project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the +activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the +project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of +the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in +a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work +should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the +teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory +results. + +The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating: + +Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project +Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X, +Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W. +Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The +Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.] + + +WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to +fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an +unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home +duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy +home membership." + +APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way +of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods +learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies +or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert +in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will +be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your +achievements will bring to the entire household. + +Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will +doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad +to have your cooperation in housekeeping. + +Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a +determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects." +To secure successful results, your home work must be done +_thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_ +way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home +project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also +instructs you to keep in mind the following aims: + +(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining +table. + +(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other +things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or +other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal +is being served. + +In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a +_determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your +mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your +work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a +week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have +given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you +will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have +made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future. +You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought +as you worked. + +You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of +home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes, +it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if +possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their +cost. + +Suggestions for Home Projects: + +Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the +evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in +Lessons I to V once a week. + +Suggested Aims: + +(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as +possible. + +(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note +the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency +methods strive to lessen the time. + +(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped +dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the +members of your home will find them most palatable. + + + + +LESSON X + +AFTERNOON TEA + + +PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or +having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged +that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit +with your teacher and classmates. + +In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the +day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a +number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to +entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant +time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to +serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of +serving them must also be considered. + +The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small +portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and +accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu. +Sweets or candies are often served with these foods. + +The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or +Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut +Sweetmeats + +From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream), +sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats +follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter. + +COCONUT SWEETMEATS + +1/4 cupful powdered sugar +l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1 egg white + +Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff. +Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly. + +Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture +by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 +degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan, +place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box. + +SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the +kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the +guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the +presence of the guests. + +When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and +napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the +pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of +guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household +usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest +and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and +places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is +then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes +and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a +small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers, +sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty +baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take +them from the plates with their fingers. + +Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests +have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also +replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the +materials and dishes needed. + + + + +DIVISION THREE + +BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER) + +LESSON XI + +FRESH VEGETABLES (A) + + +ASH.--In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not +consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral +matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term +"ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of +substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and +cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the +same kind of ash. + +The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The +substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral +matter or ash. + +Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a +few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral +substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes +forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been +heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment +salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused +with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances +besides common salt. + +USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body. +It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and +many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps +to build the body. + +Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in +perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also +contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the +body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the +regulation of body processes. + +Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building +the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_. +Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet. + +FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of +the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots +of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may +be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels +sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes, +cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips. + +Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed +most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water. + +In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_. +The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins +and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and +celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much +cellulose. + +Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the +value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be +too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved +vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body +grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven). + +Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable +constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all +the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that +the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many +of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water +in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off +water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss +of nutriment. + +Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables. +Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking. + +A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the +saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways: + +1. Cooking in water with their skins. + +2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after +cooking for sauces and soups. + +3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained +away after cooking. + +4. Cooking in steam. + +5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat. + +COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should +be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water +should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept +boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water +wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them. + +The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_. +When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock +should be utilized in making vegetable sauces. + +Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle. + +BEETS + +Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as +not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the +beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking +Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient +cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover +with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into +slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter. +A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot. + +Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White +Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar. + +Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and +placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold. + +SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS + +2 cupfuls sliced onions +2 cupfuls tomatoes +1 tablespoonful fat +Salt and pepper +1 cupful bread crumbs + +Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is +drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions, +however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the +sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish +put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and +pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added. + +Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle +these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400 +degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot. + +BROILED TOMATOES + +Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them +(with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the +range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until +the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of +tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once. + +QUESTIONS + +Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain +considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11, +explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking. + +State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces +before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on +beets during cooking. + +Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why +it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with +a fork. + +What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound? + +Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and +tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson. + +What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after +parboiling them? + + + + +LESSON XII + +FRESH VEGETABLES (B) + +FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain +foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste +of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may +be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food. + +There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to +prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate +their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by +a thorough knowledge of the subject. + +Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why +certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully, +you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously +considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing +experience. + +TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state +just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time +varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a +vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables, +especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long +cooking. + +For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a +food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking +a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time +table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the +most reliable test. + +TABLE + +Asparagus 15-20 minutes +Beets (young) 45-60 minutes +Beets (old) 3-4 hours +Cabbage 15-30 minutes +Carrots 30-60 minutes +Cauliflower 20-30 minutes +Celery 20-45 minutes +Green Corn 12-20 minutes +Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes +Onions 30-45 minutes +Parsnips 30-45 minutes +Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes +Potatoes 25-30 minutes +Spinach 15-30 minutes +Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes +String Beans 1-3 hours +Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes +Turnips 30-45 minutes + +PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it +should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new +potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the +valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin. + +Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material +covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a +turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.) + +MASHED TURNIPS + +6 medium turnips +Salt and pepper +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + +Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of +a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or +knitting needle. + +Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough +salt and pepper to season. Serve hot. + +BUTTERED CARROTS + +4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +2 teaspoonfuls salt +Dash pepper + +Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and +add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a +small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and +seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining +water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot. + +Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may +be cooked in the same way. + +(Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.) + +QUESTIONS + +Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible? +What is the exception to this rule? + +How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why? + +Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is +moisture not added to mashed turnips? + +What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in +water? + +Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large +amount? + +What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of +these vegetables in a pound? + + + + +LESSON XIII + +FRESH FRUITS + +FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family" +(p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much +money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should +no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet. + +Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,-- +the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits, +especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges, +and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in +constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they +are constipating. + +A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and +fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy. +Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation +and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral +matter. + +KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This +classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered +vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are +termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but +because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as +such. + +Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This +distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits +contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried +fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less +sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This +classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be +considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in +ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value. + +WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a +practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most +cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable. + +The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is +desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a +less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh +flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is +cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a +mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to +fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of +the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup +if it is desired to preserve its shape. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces, +and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking. +For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining. + +We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for +paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by +the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is +disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all +fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils. + +The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This +can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering) +_temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used +on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits. +Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces. + +FRUIT SAUCES + +Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is +tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press +through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the +sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of +cooked fruit. + +If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding +spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding +cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice. + +STEWED FRUITS + +Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1 +cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook +_gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the +fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of +proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit. + +Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe +fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened. + +COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit +and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of +Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and +appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor? + +At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit? +Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should +sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool? +Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.) + +What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after +cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two +precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means, +other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked +fruit? + +RHUBARB SAUCE + +Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top +of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring +occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful +of cooked rhubarb. + +The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in +a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb. +Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add +sugar as directed above. + +QUESTIONS + +How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a +pound? + +What is the price per pound of fresh peaches? + +For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions +for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list +of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season. + +NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen, +_The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note +at the end of Lesson VI. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON XIV + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is +to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that +its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods +are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product +is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in +individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal" +lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook +enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory +period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch +room.] + +Scalloped Corn +Baked Apple +Tea + +Outside Preparation of Lesson. + +(_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text. + +(_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make. + +(_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions +regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class. + +(_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food. + +(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in +the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be +ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_. + +Preparation of Lesson in Class. + +(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work +independently. + +(_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more +persons as the time permits. + +(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible. + +(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working. + +(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary. + +(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned. + +(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be +ready for serving. + +(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and +serving without a maid. + +(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of +the failure and its remedy. + + + + +LESSON XV + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal +daily. + +Cook fruit at least once a week. + +Suggested Aims: + +(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost. + +(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as +possible. + + + + +DIVISION FOUR + +ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES + +LESSON XVI + + +SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR + +ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this +machine gives it energy or the power to move. + +The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human +machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power +to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary +and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind +of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood +are examples of the latter kind. + +At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not +only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the +body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel +foods. + +There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the +first one to be considered. + +EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place +half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold +water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does +the sugar separate from the water? + +EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve +half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with +Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If +you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you +have the water? + +EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a +teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in +Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar? +Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar +quickly, how would you prepare it? + +THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since +dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see +_Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar +would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a +chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too +concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is +slightly more complex. + +Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude +that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to +other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much +dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the +stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true +when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty. +Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce +digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and +either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other +foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress. + +SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a +number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two +groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or +_glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or +_cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar. + +The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade +names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A +discussion of these follows: + +(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or +sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then +purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by +crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely +ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar. +Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials. + +_Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as +much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture. + +(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid +and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its +sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per +cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as +granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency +is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for +sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is +needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn +sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods. + +(_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane +sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as +lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain +lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for +children. + +One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for +children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar +refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It +also differs in flavor. + +Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and +has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too +strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses +or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under +various trade names may be purchased. + +(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited +supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral +matter as is molasses. + +(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are +prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a +distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains +approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71 +per cent. + +PEANUT CANDY + +2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_ +1 cupful granulated sugar _and_ +1 cupful corn sirup (dark) +3/4 cupful chopped peanuts +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar +is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and +stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup. + +If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and +cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water. + +Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in +as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_ +pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife. + +_Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of +peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are +used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted. + +CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to +granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This +brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called +_caramelization_. + +When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting +point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of +granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of +temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature, +hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar. + +NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of +an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of +Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated, +the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields +more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn +sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural +is expelled. + +In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water, +hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn +sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color. + +EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the +candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand +for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it +dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical +application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan +in which sugar has been caramelized? + +QUESTIONS + +Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure? + +Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure? + +What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar? + +What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure? + +Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and +that made with granulated sugar and sirup. + +Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled +peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts? + +Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy? + +What is the advantage of heating the pan? + +Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after +adding the peanuts? + +Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of +peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.) + +From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion, +absorption, and assimilation of foods. + + + + +LESSON XVII + +SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A) + + +DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has +been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they +are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh +fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and +ash. + +Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They +are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most +dried fruit is sugar. + +Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets +for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than +candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as +explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the +concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of +Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is +another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits +contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its +laxative effect. + +The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were +formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served +in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining +them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts +containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked +without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured +by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as +apricots, apples, and rhubarb. + +Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long +distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their +high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver). +Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This +is an advantageous factor in carrying them. + +GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place +it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water +over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak +for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering +temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender, +remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir +carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold. + +PRUNES + +Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add +about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar +may be omitted and only the lemon juice added. + +APRICOTS + +Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2 +cupful of sugar. + +TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need +only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined +for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is +desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads. + +Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins +in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins +are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel. + +If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are +soft, drain and press out the seeds. + +TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little +washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before +using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer, +shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands. +Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If +the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or +in a "cool" oven. + +MIXED FRUIT SAUCE + +1/2 pound dried apricots +1 pint water +1 cupful raisins +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1 lemon,--juice +1 orange,--juice and grated rind +5/8 cupful sugar + +Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the +other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the +apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until +dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert. + +QUESTIONS + +Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight. + +Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight +and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due? +What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What +does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.) + +What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking? + +What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking? + +Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that +obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the +difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit. + +State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked +Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce. + + + + +LESSON XVIII + +SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B) + + +DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as +accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often +with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. +These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be +added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and +nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are +unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten. + +PRUNE PUDDING + +1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped +1/2 cupful sugar +1 cupful chopped nuts +1/2 cupful milk or prune water +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted +3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs +1 teaspoonful baking powder +Salt + +Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the +baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes, +or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped +cream. + +DATE PUDDING + +1/2 cupful sugar +1 egg +2 tablespoonfuls milk +1/3 cupful flour +1 teaspoonful baking powder +Salt +1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces +1 cupful California walnuts, chopped + +Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to +the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in +a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or +cold with plain or whipped cream. + +QUESTIONS + +How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked +prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.) + +What are the prices per pound of figs and dates? + +How many will the above recipes serve? + +What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding +surrounded with hot water during baking? + + + + +LESSON XIX + +CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE + + +STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the +body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition +and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs +from sugar. + +EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,-- +corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca, +potato, meat, and egg. What is the result? + +If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture +of iodine is added to it. + +From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the +starchy foods belong. + +EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful +of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What +happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set +the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch +soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar +does this experiment show? + +EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch +and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn +the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the +test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by +heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and +water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble, +like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term +indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch? + +EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube +containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten +minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked +starch change when cooled? + +EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the +microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a +drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook. + +CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As +previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and +their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material +found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose. + +EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping +teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it. +Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese- +cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a +saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by +holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the +cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common +material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this +substance? + +The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23) +contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of +the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose: +(_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework; +(_c_) in the covering of the starch grains. + +[Illustration: From _Household Chemistry_, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure +23.--Grains of Starch. _a_, potato starch; _b_, corn-starch. +(Much magnified.)] + +Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain +fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in +the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food. +Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it +softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose +are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in +contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food +and separate cellulose fibers. + +Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes: + +(_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a +paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor. + +Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an +energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and +furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the +digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract, +and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste +material. + +CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have +somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are +grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and +cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is +one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the +carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other +foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than +any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as +carbohydrate-rich foods. + +CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for +food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye, +and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and +breakfast foods are prepared. + +Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per +cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the +body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have +an important place in man's diet. + +At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1) +the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The +ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that +require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an +accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in +cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration. + +Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are +doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are +steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home +kitchen than the uncooked grains. + +All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable, +the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the +method of preparing the cereal for market. + +Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is +usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a +rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2 +hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked +cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are +also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure +greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that +require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and +need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness. + +GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling +salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then +place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one +teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The +quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is +particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is +a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and +economically. + +Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods +require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the +water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done, +the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of +water is evaporated. + +Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the +top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be +prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally. + +Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp. + +ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT + +3 cupfuls boiling water +1 cupful cereal +1 teaspoonful salt + +Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler +at least 1 1/2 hours. + +CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA + +3 cupfuls boiling water +1/2 cupful cereal +1 teaspoonful salt + +Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at +least 1/2 hour. + +A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned, +stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be +used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals. + +QUESTIONS + +How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of +cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals +should be added _slowly_ to the boiling water. + +Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance +and quantity? + +Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame? + +What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or +Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena? + +What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above? + +Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and +uncooked cereals. + + + + +LESSON XX + +CEREALS: RICE (A) + + +POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one +white and pearly in appearance called _polished_ rice, and the other, +gray or brown and lusterless called _unpolished_ rice. In preparing +rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is +cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further +treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is +subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of +purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the +unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a +certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those +inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of +polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by +giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired +by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It +requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water +before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking. + +TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water +from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands. + +RICE (cooked over boiling water) + +3 cupfuls boiling water +1 teaspoonful salt +1 cupful rice + +Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to +the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot +water, _i.e._ in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually +about 45 minutes). + +The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and +cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called +_Steamed Rice_. + +Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits. + +ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS + +[Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The +large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the +jar] + +BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson +for the following lesson.] + +3 quarts boiling water +1 cupful rice +2 teaspoonfuls salt + +Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the +rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil _rapidly_ +for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or +strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with +salt. + +Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for +preparing Cheese Sauce for class work. + +When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered +tightly. + +EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE +COOKED OVER BOILING WATER--Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice +into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch. +Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which +method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product? + +CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water) + +1 pint rice water +1 tablespoonful corn-starch +1 teaspoonful salt +1/4 teaspoonful mustard +1/6 teaspoonful paprika +1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces + +Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat +the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice +water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and +cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the +other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice. + +One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces) +may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the +paprika should be omitted. + +QUESTIONS + +How is rice tested for sufficient cooking? + +Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat +foods? (See _Cereals_.) + +Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for +rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking +one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the +reason for the difference in the quantity of water used. + +Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the +length of time of cooking. + +Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one +desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used? + +Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice +cooked over boiling water,--are the grains separated or pasted together? +Explain the difference in appearance. + +What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them +(see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,--boiled rice or +rice cooked over boiling water? Why? + +What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to +prepare Cheese Sauce? + +What other use could be made of rice water? + + + + +LESSON XXI + +CEREALS: RICE (B) + + +RICE PUDDING + +Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and +water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2 +cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until +the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water. +Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce. + +RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice +cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.] + +2 cupfuls cooked rice +3/4 - 1 cupful milk +1/2 cupful raisins +1/3 cupful sugar +Grated rind 1/2 lemon + +These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the +flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety +may be made from the materials above. + +The pudding may be _baked_ in the following manner: Mix the +ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven +until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or +both, may be substituted for the lemon rind. + +This dessert may be _cooked over water_ by mixing the ingredients in +the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then +butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn +out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce. + +Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a +tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the +raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg. + +CARAMEL SAUCE + +1/3 cupful sugar +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +1 cupful milk +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla +Salt + +Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to +caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double +boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the +mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and +vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to +allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see +_Flavoring Extracts_).] Serve hot or cold over puddings. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson +XX) + +If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should +not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water? +(See statement regarding the scorching of milk in _Questions_, Lesson +XXIV) + +Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding--baking or cooking over water-- +requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite +quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe. + +See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in +caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce? + + + + +LESSON XXII + +CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER + + +THE FIRELESS COOKER.--The fact that fuels are expensive and that the +supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat. +This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless +cooker. + +It has been said that future historians in summing up the great +achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably +name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless +cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking, +but its possibilities are many. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _McCray Refrigerator Co_ FIGURE 25. +--INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.] + +THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.--In Experiment 2 it was found that wood +did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar +illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in +transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day, +because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a +wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of +heat. Metals are good conductors of heat. + +Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other +materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded +by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is +retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a +poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet +or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting, +one makes use of the latter principle. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.] + +The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of +non-conducting materials (see Figure 25). + +To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the +following: + +EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.--Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of +boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap +paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and +paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of +the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter +water? + +The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are +surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the +heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the +fireless cooker. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 27--FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note the +kettles of various shapes] + +In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can +be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water, +_i. e._ simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a +metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks. +Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into +the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of +food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature +than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27). + +There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are +equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the +insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before +placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the +current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut +off when the desired length of time of heating has passed. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Standard Electric Stove Co_ FIGURE +28.--ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of the +cooker.] + +The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and +electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by +insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired +temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature +is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a +fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is +first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and +the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained +heat (see Figure 29). + +SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.--One should keep the following in +mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker: + +[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Chambers Manufacturing Co._ FIGURE +29.--GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN AND +HOODS.] + +1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker. +(This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as +shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes' +boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a +piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through. + +2. After heating, place the _covered_ kettle containing the food into +the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as +to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker. + +3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not +be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large +kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of +the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see +Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim, +such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to +rest on the rim. + +4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the +box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be +reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow +this plan, where food requires very long cooking. + +5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies +with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes, +the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some, +for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they +should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. _Food should never be +allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker_. + +6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open +for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly. + +Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has +been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating +all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning +and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A +fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure +of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford +considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a +fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are +given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771, +"Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books. + +CORN-MEAL MUSH + +4 cupfuls boiling water +1 cupful corn-meal +1 teaspoonful salt + +Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook +directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring +occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker +which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10 +hours. + +NOTE.--If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler, +prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling +water for at least 3 hours. + +CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING" + +2 cupfuls corn-meal +2 tablespoonfuls flour +2 teaspoonfuls salt +2 cupfuls cold water +1 quart boiling water + +Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the +boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal +mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the +flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling +water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush +from the water and allow the mush to cool. + +NOTE.--Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double +boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours. + +RICE AND TOMATOES + +1/2 cupful rice +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +1/2 teaspoonful celery salt +l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water +1 cupful tomatoes +1 slice onion +1 teaspoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice, +onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add +boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the +tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and +place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless +cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served +as a border around meat. + +QUESTIONS + +In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire." + +What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn- +meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush +for "Frying"? (See _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.) + +How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from +the usual method of cooking cereals? + +How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is +the price per pound of corn-meal and rice? + + + + +LESSON XXIII + +CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING + + +"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH + +Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice +in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice +of salt pork fat may be used). + +The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted +fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven. + +Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in +cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture--1 egg +beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into +cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put +fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the +crumbs are brown. + +Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup. + +In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other +breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked. + +FRENCH TOAST + +1 or 2 eggs +1 cupful milk +1/4 teaspoonful salt +6 or 8 slices of stale bread + +Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the +mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or +substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan. +Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top +of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of +powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French +Toast. + +SIRUP + +1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark) +1/4 cupful boiling water +2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point +is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the +sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of +butter. + +QUESTIONS + +In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale +bread in the milk and egg mixture? + +Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the +better for French Toast,--large or small pieces of bread? + +What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just +before turning it? + +Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to +be served hot? + +What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See _Corn +Sirup_.) + + + + +LESSON XXIV + +POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING + + +EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.--Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of +boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame. +Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare +with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble? + +EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.--Mix 1 +teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of +boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the +use of cold water in this mixture. + +EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.--Mix 1 teaspoonful +of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling +water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of +sugar in the mixture. + +EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of +flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water, +stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this +mixture. + +To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of +starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must +be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the +cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly +cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered +starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes +necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture +can penetrate every grain at the same time. + +BLANC MANGE + +2 cupfuls milk +1/4 cupful corn-starch +1/2 cupful sugar +2 teaspoonfuls vanilla +Nutmeg +1/8 teaspoonful salt + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the +hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly. +Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the +mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which +has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve +with sugar and cream. + +If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be +reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the +cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable +dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold. + +NOTE.--While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is +required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in +the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time +after it thickens? (See _Cereals_.) + +CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING + +Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4 +cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (_i.e._ 1 ounce) of Baker's +chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until +smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just +before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and +serve as Blanc Mange. + +Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to +the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to +make them tasty. + +3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this +is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to +it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange. + +QUESTIONS + +Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered +cereals used for thickening. + +Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc +Mange as directed. + +For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to +stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture? + +Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see +_Scalding Milk_). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked +entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double +boiler, as cereals. + +Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see +_Flavoring Extracts_)? + +What is the price per package of corn-starch? + +How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure? + +Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for +thickening? + +How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve? + + + + +LESSON XXV + + +TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH + +EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of +flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes _very dark +brown_ and _uniform_ in color. Put a little of the browned flour +into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What +indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present? + +The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish +blue) color when treated with iodine. + +EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the +browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake. +Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper, +but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon +filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the +paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the +liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered +liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration: +Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.] + +From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch +into a soluble substance called _dextrin_. Dextrin is found in small +amounts in the crust of bread and in toast. + +DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that +sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are +closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found +to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the +process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the +starch to make it soluble. Such a change _does_ take place; starch is +changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested. + +Substances called _enzymes_ which are in the saliva of the mouth +[Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth +and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the +intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in +the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that +this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following +experiments: + +EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for +starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain +starch? + +EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of +cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor. +Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with +iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate +(see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain? +Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication. + +TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then +browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus +made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication. + +Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the +moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast +is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh +bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in +a solid mass and is digested with difficulty. + +Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the +desired kind of toast. + +CREAM TOAST + +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1/2 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls flour +2 cupfuls milk or cream +6 to 8 slices of toast + +Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly. +Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it +thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue +until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when +it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been +added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast. + +_Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot, +salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for +toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened. + +The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter +flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild +flavored fat or oil may be used. + +QUESTIONS + +Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see +Experiment 25). + +What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour +and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one +cupful of liquid? + +What is the use of flour in White Sauce? + +Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of +comparison for the thickness of other sauces. + +What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly +digested? Give reasons for your answer. + + + + +LESSON XXVI + +ROOT VEGETABLES (A) + + +Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in +the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of +the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse +for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in +so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are +potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and +tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and +beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much +cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose. + +All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash. + +Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or +in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted +most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having +each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and +carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and +unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared +potatoes and scraped carrots. + +Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently +boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when +cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water. +When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle), +drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by +shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame. + +Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked +vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch. + +Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an +evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely +evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred +material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so, +it is mineral matter. + +Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,-- +lose the more starch and ash? + +Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked +in steam,--lose the more starch and ash? + +As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is +better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better +for vegetables without the skins? + +Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice. +Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the +vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following +proportion: + +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +1 cupful liquid + +For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water +without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk +for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for +steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream +Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the +vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six +vegetables. + +Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more +pleasing color? + +Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more +pleasing flavor? + +As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation +is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots? + +As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking +is better for both vegetables? + +Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath +the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a +vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any +length of time before cooking. + +The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should +not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the +nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and +pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their +skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired +than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in +color when cooked without their skins. + +The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water +consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable +materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven] + +Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_ +vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut +into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been +pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May, +1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.] +however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed +vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of +steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a +steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the +perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from +the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the +steamer. + +An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the +manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the +water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer +can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting +the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should, +of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using +the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan +(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated +vegetable broth is used. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Geo H Bowman Co_ FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR +STEAMING--A "STEAMER"] + +Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a +very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker. +This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor. + +If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain +away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in +a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes +starchy vegetables soggy. + +BOILED POTATOES + +If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as +possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green +portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers +growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains +an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If +the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain +some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious +material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an +injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by +storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around +the sprouts. + +In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59, +Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water +immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the +saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the +moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put +through a ricer before serving. + +CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by +cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the +cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce +with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling +point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break +the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken +to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is +desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts +of diced vegetables. + +Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled +baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven. + +WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES + +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute + _or_ +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1/2 teaspoonful salt +White pepper +1/2 cupful milk +1/2 cupful vegetable stock + +Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness +of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The +thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables. + +CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES + +1 cupful soft bread crumbs +1/8 teaspoonful salt +White pepper or cayenne +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute + +Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place +the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs. + +QUESTIONS + +How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why? + +Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking? + +Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or +bushel? + +Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain +their nutriment. + + + + +LESSON XXVII + +ROOT VEGETABLES (B) + + +EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over +several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable +to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a +test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does +the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of +vegetables in water before cooking? + +SWEET POTATOES + +Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables +in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot +milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve. + +Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with +butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in +the oven. + +SWEET POTATOES (Southern style) + +3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +6 sweet potatoes +Salt and pepper +Boiling water + +Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put +the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes. +Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to +cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the +potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the +potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes +as a sauce for serving. + +Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the +casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them. + +MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice) + +4 parsnips +2 eggs +1 cupful nuts, chopped +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use + the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.] +4 tablespoonfuls flour +1 teaspoonful salt + +Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve +or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the +ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a +little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake +until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery +Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety +Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.) + +TOMATO SAUCE + +1/2 can tomatoes +1 cupful water +2 cloves +3 allspice berries +3 peppercorns +2 sprays of parsley +3 tablespoonfuls fat +2 slices onion +1/4 cupful flour +1 teaspoonful salt + +Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown +the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow +the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and +serve. + +QUESTIONS + +From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed +in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking. + +Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after +cooking? + +From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually +purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with +white potatoes? + +What is the price per pound of parsnips? + +In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and +spices together for 15 or 20 minutes? + +Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before? + + + + +LESSON XXVIII + +ROOT VEGETABLES (C) + + +Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant +grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of +plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation, +tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is +prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or +granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If +granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the +quantity is required. + +APPLE TAPIOCA + +3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or +3/4 cupful granulated tapioca +2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water +1/2 teaspoonful salt +6 apples +1/2 cupful sugar + +If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it +to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If +any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given +quantity of boiling water. + +If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either +granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca +and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of +breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in +the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples; +place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour +tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft. +Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce. + +Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used, +substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is +cooked. + +RHUBARB TAPIOCA + +Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca, +substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and +using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft. + +LEMON SAUCE + +3/4 cupful sugar +2 tablespoonfuls flour +2 cupfuls boiling water +1 lemon,--juice and rind +1 tablespoonful butter + +Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10 +minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the +butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve. + +For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however. + +SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are +thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of +the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains +of the flour or corn-starch. + +The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a +little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch +grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of +flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of +sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the +starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce +above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the +flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the +sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in +Lemon Sauce. + +PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES + + Flour Fat Liquid + +Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast, +sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.) + +Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup + +(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.) + +Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup +(Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.) + +Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup +(Croquettes, etc.) + + +(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be +used.) + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give +the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it +necessary to cook it in a double boiler? + +What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the +sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does +it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for +cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a +time? + +What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching? + +If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick +enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it? + +For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise +a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce. + + + + +LESSON XXIX + +STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE + + +STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water +vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or +the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan +or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held +under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water. + +EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains +water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose +holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a +temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the +covering and the starch swells at once. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS +BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.] + +In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized +water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The +steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is +cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are +lost. + +POP CORN + +Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with +the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then +gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn +from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half +minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there +is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn +will become tough. + +BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I + +4 quarts freshly popped corn +1/4 cupful butter +Salt + +Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle +at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring. + +BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II + +1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil _or_ +2 tablespoonfuls oil +1/2 cupful shelled pop corn +Salt + +Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir +until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat +gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time. + +BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a _hot_ +oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a _hot_ oven, to +prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested +with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin +at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of +each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so +that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming +potatoes on a folded napkin for serving. + +STUFFED POTATOES + +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1 teaspoonful salt +3 tablespoonfuls milk +Pepper +6 baked potatoes + +Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking +care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and +seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture +to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a +_hot_ oven (500 degrees F.) until brown. + +Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over +them. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while +rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking. + +Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is +the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully +why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see +Experiment 26 and _Solution and Digestion_). + +Which contains more nutriment,--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain +(see _Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in +Water or in Steam_). + +What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes _at once_ after +baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be +used to cover them? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON XXX + + +DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching, +Appendix.] + +BASIC PRINCIPLES.--Practically all rules for laying the table and all +methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness, +convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.--See +Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining +room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into +consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must +be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general +suggestions. + +THE TABLE + +TABLE LINEN.--Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on +the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the +position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers. +Also note that a _low_ bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.] + +Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A +dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to +form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong. + +If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon. +Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table +runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two +latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly +laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than +that of a table-cloth. + +Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on +plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and +hot breads may be served in a folded napkin. + +CHINA AND GLASSWARE.--The term "cover" means the space, with its china, +silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches +of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33). + +The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style +of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be +placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a +hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated. +For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and- +butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses +are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher, +salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper +shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes +containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the +guests are seated. + +For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers, +spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle +about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right, +and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot +and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table +service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service. + +If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all +the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table +or on the serving table. + +SILVER.--Convenience and order have determined the customary way of +placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the +knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as +for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to +be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except +the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses, +except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is +permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver +for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it +may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving +the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course. + +While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each +cover in the order of its use, _the knives are usually all grouped +together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the +right of the knives._ It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and +knives in the order of their use, _i.e._ place the spoon that is to +be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used +first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are +placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their +use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure +33). + +All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the +table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned +towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls +and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread- +and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the +oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be +used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laid +_beside_ not _in_ the dish of food. + +TABLE ACCESSORIES.--A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged, +makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real +source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite +(see Figure 33). + +Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they +should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional +dinners, are also placed on the napkin. + +STYLES OF SERVING + +There are several styles of serving: + +ENGLISH (ordinary family service).--The foods are served at the table, the +host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad, +and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the +vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be +passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be +passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and +informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid. + +RUSSIAN (serving from the side).--This may be observed in one of two ways: + +(_a_) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and +placed before the guests. + +(_b_) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and +passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the +portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork +should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving +is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid. + +COMPROMISE.--Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one +course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the +soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of +one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles +of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in +Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise. + +METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID + +ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.--While each hostess follows her own +inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are +always observed: + +Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes. + +Dishes offered to a guest are _passed_ to the left of the guest; +other dishes are _placed_ to the right of a guest, except when a +plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,--it +is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when +possible. + +When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of +removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed: + +The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her +right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate +of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty +or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the +kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served +plate, and proceeds as before. + +In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places +the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the +host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets +another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served +plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then +places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side. +Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and +proceeds as before. + +At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes +as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging +to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled +dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in +the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When +the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to +be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes) +should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed +one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of +each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course, +two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand. + +USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.--Many dining rooms have both a buffet +and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for +holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as +dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is +used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee +service, chafing dish, etc. + +Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft +(_i.e._ unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the +meal is announced. + +USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.--The serving tray should be used for carrying all +silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves, +olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers. +In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a +folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray. + +REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.--For a table with a cloth, the crumb +tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove +the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table +without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be +crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course. + +USE OF FINGER BOWLS.--Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of +breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed +on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl. + +For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The +finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same +plates may be used for the fruit course. + +For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are +brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The +finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons +and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may +be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are +exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass +finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the +finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served +on the same plate. + +ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.--The host and hostess usually sit +opposite each other, _i.e._ at the head and foot of the table. If +there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be +farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the +hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman +guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the +right of the hostess. + +The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different +occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men. +This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons +are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually +served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are +served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be +served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should +always be served first. + +METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID + +When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when +serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much +skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The +underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must +plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty. + +PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.--In planning the menu, a wise +selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few +courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple +meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate +dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be +selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not +be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when +taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal. + +For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the +warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as +possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced. +The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a +pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a +tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water +dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops. + +A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a +woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess +so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of +a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and +clearing the table; it saves many steps. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 34--WHEEL TRAY.] + +SERVING AT THE TABLE.--The English style of serving should be followed. +The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the +family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of +hospitality. + +As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or +for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned, +she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the +indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She +should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of +energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled +dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving +table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an +overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf +of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes. + +For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess +use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on +so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his +own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present +and where there is no maid. + +The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the +pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation +that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the +hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an +absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread, +and cakes? + +Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded +napkin? + +Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and +the cups and saucers at the left of her cover? + +In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are +to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should +the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the +plates? + +In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left +of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at +the right? + +Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be +followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes, +and finally the crumbs? + +Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the +end of the course? + +Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table? + +Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the +end of luncheon or dinner? + +Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining +and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of +serving each course, using the English style. + +Cream of Tomato Soup--Soup Sticks +Veal Cutlets +Rice +Rolls--Butter +Cucumber Salad +Wafers +Snow Pudding, Custard Sauce +Cakes--Coffee + + + + +LESSON XXXI + +COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST + + +Cook and serve a breakfast. + +If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan +only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested: + +Seasonable Fruit,--fresh or cooked +French Toast with Sirup +Milk + +Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will +serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or +more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become +accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes. + +Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper +condition--hot or cold--at the time set for serving the breakfast. + +Follow the English or family style of serving. + +Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson). + + + + +LESSON XXXII + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Seasonable Fruit Sauce +Breakfast Cereal +Coffee + +See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON XXXIII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at +your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following +morning. + +Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: + +(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet +flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that +mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top. + +(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served +each time. + + + + +DIVISION FIVE + +ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AND OILS + + +LESSON XXXIV + +FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM + + +COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.--_Fat is a foodstuff._ Fat and +oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is +liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving +or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy; +in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as +carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one +pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By +measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body +almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of +tapioca. + +Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as +constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The +use of fat as a cooking medium follows: + +EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."-- +Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil, +corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the +fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer +[Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It +should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the +temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats +decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook. + +How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling +water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling +water? + +Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose? +If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as +temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for +your answer. + +What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils? + +Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils? + +FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.--As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a +high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking +medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called _frying_. +From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which +can be heated to a very high temperature without burning. + +Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into +consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some +of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the +various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for +cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper +vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings +and lard satisfactory. + +EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--Put some +suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change +that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or +reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of +bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread +by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it +desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you +draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats? + +EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).-- +Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from +the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a +bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as +above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What +conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for +frying foods? + +Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher +temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is +browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods +and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper +temperature for uncooked foods. + +GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.--Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high +temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron. + +If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods +brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, _foods +that are to be fried should be as dry as possible._ + +Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them. +The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over +especially when moist foods are placed in it. + +Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the +fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained +on paper. + +When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and +its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food. + +Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed +on the following page. + +If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel +should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire. + +If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before +grasping the handle of the kettle. + +TO TRY OUT FAT.--The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of +connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to +separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows: + +Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into +small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold +water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly +all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a +"cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out. + +As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or +drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The +heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in +appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained +fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place. + +TO CLARIFY FAT.--Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly +until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand +until solid. + +FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the price of oysters +is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in +place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as +oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.] + +Large oysters +Dried bread crumbs +Salt and pepper +Eggs +1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg + +Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the +fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth +or towel (see _Cleaning Oysters_). Season with salt and pepper. Beat +the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or +strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried +bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg +mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on +paper, and serve. + +Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley +makes a pleasing garnish. + +To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.--An alkaline substance such as +washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show +the action of washing soda on fats try the following: + +EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.--Into a test tube put 1/2 +teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the +washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and +add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few +minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What +has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be +drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that +have contained fat? + +Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of +water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not +use washing soda in aluminum utensils (see _Preparing Dishes for +Washing_). + +QUESTIONS + +What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor? + +Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg. + +Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that +are to be fried? + + + + +LESSON XXXV + +FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--FOOD FATS + + +FOOD FATS.--Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined +so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and +vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet, +lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and +peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats. +A discussion of various food fats follows: + +(_a_) _Butter_ is made by churning ripened cream so as to +separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is +salted and usually colored before putting it on the market. + +The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value +is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much +fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats. +Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and +lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain +growth-producing substances called _vitamines_ (see Division Seven). +All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are +not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat. + +Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use, +therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor, +for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to +be combined with foods of _pronounced flavor, i.e._ foods whose +flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be +substituted with satisfactory results. + +(_b_) _Oleomargarin_ is a combination of several different fats. +It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral +(_i.e._ carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter +and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is +highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the +market. + +The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the +composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared +as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market +and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin. + +(_c_) _Nut Margarin_ is also a mixture of various fats. It +usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil. + +(_d_) _Meat Fats_.--The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or +"rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying +out the fat from around the kidneys is called _leaf lard_; ordinary +lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is +considered of superior quality. + +Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also +tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat--cooked or uncooked--as +well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved +and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so +cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials +(see _Mutton_). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and +drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other +uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out. + +(_e_) _Vegetable Oils_.--The oil from cottonseed, corn, and +peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil +is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its +food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive +flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils +are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most +persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is +disagreeable. + +FAT COMBINATIONS.--Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of +fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be +combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing +and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as +butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat. + +FISH BALLS + +1 cupful salt codfish +4 small potatoes +1 egg +1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the +potatoes. Cook the fish and the _whole_ potatoes together in gently +boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and +shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and +salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls, +mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls +at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or +Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls. + +The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must +be soaked or cooked in water. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before +cooking? + +Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are +cooked? + +If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the +water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the +potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it +especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying? + +What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being +heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be +fried? + +What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure +of a package? + + + + +LESSON XXXVI + +FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--DIGESTION OF FAT + + +EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.--Pour a little corn or cottonseed +oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube. +Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the +top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this +concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water? + +EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.--In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2 +tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2 +teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What +familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute. +Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an +emulsified condition. + +BREAKING UP OF FATS.--Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found +in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote +41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which +acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic +juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote +42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid +properties.] and glycerin. + +During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which +do not coalesce. + +When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in +an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to +the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different +substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify +fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in +Experiment 36.) + +If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap +comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed +by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty +acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus +formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is +broken up into fatty acids and glycerin. + +FRYING AND DIGESTION.--Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats, +but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time +in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances. + +When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and +irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are +absorbed by foods which are browned in fats. + +It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into +foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat +when sauted (_i.e._ browning in a small quantity of fat) than when +fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the +fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as +possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see +Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food +drained on paper. + +Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of +an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in +sauces, dressings, and pastry. + +CROQUETTES.--Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish +mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These +food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are +usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into +cones. + +Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be +"dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead +of frying in deep fat. + +Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals +commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick +White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain +a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it +is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the +starch may be as stiff as possible. + +POTATO CROQUETTES + +1 pint mashed potatoes +Celery salt +2 tablespoonfuls butter +Onion juice +Cayenne +1 teaspoonful chopped parsley +1 teaspoonful salt +1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg + +Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into +cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (see +_Fried Oysters_). Fry in deep fat until brown. + +QUESTIONS + +How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of +boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite +for heating fat (see _Caramelized Sugar_)? + +What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see +Experiment 32)? + +What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried? +How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"? + +How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato +Croquettes? + +If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what +ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted? + + + + +LESSON XXXVII + +FAT SAVING + + +BAKING _VS._ FRYING.--Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and +in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried, +especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat. + +Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead +of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried +food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before +serving. + +Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes. + +Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the +cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of +baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying. + +RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE + +3/4 cupful rice +3 cupfuls boiling water +1 teaspoonful salt + +Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for +several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils. +Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water). +(Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of +the following ingredients: + +4 tablespoonfuls flour +1 teaspoonful salt +Dash pepper +3 tablespoonfuls fat +1 cupful milk + +To 2/3 of the White Sauce add: + +Cooked rice +1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped +1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped + +(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese +Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets. + +Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried +Oysters. + +Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the +cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with +the following sauce: + +Remainder of the White Sauce +3/4 cupful milk +1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces +1 pimento chopped + +Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and +stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot +over the cutlets. + +FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.--The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no +food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food. +Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making +is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial +days. + +The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should, +however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in +the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.) + +Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat +and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A +commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper +does not. + +Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time +consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is +a saving to make soap at home. + +SOAP + +1 can Babbit's lye +1 quart cold water +6 pounds clarified fat +2 tablespoonfuls ammonia + +Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring +with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the +lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye, +the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool. + +Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then +remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it. +Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and +continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick +cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a +granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of +suitable size. + +The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap. + +NOTE.--If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in +the classroom. The following recipe may be used: + +1 teaspoonful lye +4 teaspoonfuls cold water +2 tablespoonfuls fat +1/8 teaspoonful ammonia + +Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup +of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box. + +QUESTIONS + +How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former +takes a longer time to cook than the latter (see _Polished and +Unpolished Rice_). + +Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for +serving, while fried croquettes do not. + +State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them. +Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at +home? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON XXXVIII + +DINING ROOM COURTESY + +THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS + + +No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an +absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be +overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The +basis of all good manners is tact, _i.e._ a kindly consideration of +others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well +as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge +of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the +pleasure of one's associates in the dining room. + +Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend +ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established +by custom and long usage. + +SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS + +THE CHAIR.--If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just +touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when +taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until +the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair +to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the +chair. + +THE KNIFE AND FORK.--There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or +fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the +knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the +handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost +cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade +of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is +held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading +butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader, +is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it +should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly +on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at +the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is +talking. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 35--HOW TO HOLD THE KNIFE AND FORK.] + +The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It +should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the +knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It +used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting +food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right +hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of +keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now +accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used +for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should +be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen +is held. + +When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed +together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At +the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in +the center of the plate. + +[Illustration: Figure 36--Keeping the Fork in the Left Hand to Carry Food +to the Mouth] + +THE FORK AND SPOON--Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey +food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork +should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods, +such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served +with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used +for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads, +and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is +sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut +lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces +before it is served. + +For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for +sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer +(see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side--not the tip--of the +spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup, +there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from, +rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 37--THE TEASPOON SHOULD REST ON THE SAUCER] + +THE FINGERS.--Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The +serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork +or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and +wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should +not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of +bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If +cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut +into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken +with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken +from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided +for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with +the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding +corn served on the cob. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 38.--HOW TO HOLD THE SOUPSPOON.] + +Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the +hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit +may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled, +scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are +served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter +should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and +eaten with a spoon. + +THE NAPKIN.--When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread +entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be +present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if, +however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for +but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding. + +QUIET EATING.--Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an +obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain +from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips +are kept closed while chewing. + + + + +LESSON XXXIX + +COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST + + +Cook and serve a breakfast. + +The following is a suggestive menu: + +Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit +Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce +Toast--Butter +Coffee + +Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or +without a maid (see Lesson XXX). + + + + +LESSON XL + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Cooked Fruit,--fresh or dried +Creamed Toast +Coffee + +See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the +lesson. + + + + +LESSON XLI + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats +which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3 +or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use, +weigh it. + +Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese +Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a +substitute for meat. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: + +(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost +of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have +saved by making soap at your home. + +(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute +sufficient to serve the family. + + + + +DIVISION SIX + +ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN + +LESSON XLII + + +EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the egg lessons came in the +mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is +reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning +the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the +cooking of eggs take place later in the year.] + +PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.--An automobile requires not only +fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel +but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods +considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another +great class of foods, or foodstuffs--those included under the term +_protein_--that not only give energy to the body but also build up or +promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and +repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an +automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and +repairing. + +The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth +is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and +maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away +of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the +foodstuff, protein. + +Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having +different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body +and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life +supporting, while still others are only life supporting. + +The first type of protein is sometimes called _complete_ protein, +while the two latter types are called _incomplete_ protein. In food +study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains +protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete. +The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods +containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish +contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain +cereals contain incomplete proteins. + +A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows: + +EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.--Put the white of an egg in a +dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then +place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat. +Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat? + +When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white called _albumin_ +stiffens or _coagulates_. The yolk also contains a kind of protein +which coagulates when heated. + +EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.--Put a small portion of the +broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then +turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the +filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear? + +Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin +was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the +tube? Explain. + +EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.--Place a teaspoonful +of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and +place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the water +_gradually_. Note and record: (_a_) Temperature at which +coagulation first appears. (_b_) Temperature at which the egg +white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when +the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from +this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked? + +EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.--Remove _at +once_ about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment +39. Examine it and press it between the fingers. + +Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the +water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it +between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling +point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do +you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the +temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and +palatable? + +DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.--The experiments of this lesson +show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those +cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg +more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the +boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in +boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested +as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of +little importance. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 39.--APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH +EGGS COAGULATE.] + +But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the +difference in _palatability_ is worth some attention. If soft-cooked +and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be +much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm, +while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is +raw. + +STRUCTURE OF EGGS.--A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk, +and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young +chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white +membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins +to spoil. + +CARE AND USE OF EGGS.--(_a_) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote +45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the +entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are +to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee. + +(_b_) Keep eggs in a cool place. + +(_c_) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by +covering with cold water. + +(_d_) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or +decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in +the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains +microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out +of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran, +sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass. + +(_e_) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break +each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest. + +(_f_) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit +of white clinging to the inside of the shell. + +TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.--(_a_) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (_b_) +Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is +stale. + +SOFT-COOKED EGGS + +Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover, +and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes. + +The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The +time depends upon: + +(_a_) Temperature of the eggs. + +(_b_) Number of eggs cooked. + +(_c_) Quantity of water used. + +(_d_) Place on the stove. + +One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce +the desired results. + +By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table. + +HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The Hard-cooked Eggs +prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs +of the following lesson.]--Place eggs in cold water and heat the water +gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at +once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20 +minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily. + +Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked, +allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer. + +Eggs may also be hard-cooked in the _double boiler_. Put boiling +water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the +top part and cook 40 minutes. + +If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause +distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to +chop them fine and mix them with some other food (see _Goldenrod +Eggs_). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive +disturbances to the normal person. + +QUESTIONS + +Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point? +Explain your answer. + +Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-_cooked_ rather than hard- or +soft-_boiled_? + + + + +LESSON XLIII + +EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN + + +THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.--It was mentioned previously that proteins are +made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are +called _amino acids_. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins +are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various +proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity. + +When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally +separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally +absorbed and carried to all parts of the body. + +The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the +intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric +acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin +of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein +into soluble forms. + +POACHED EGG + +Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2 +teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in +the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it +into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water +will keep hot _but not boil_. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on +each yolk occasionally. + +Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film +covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast, +and serve at once. + +An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in +the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once +into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating +into pieces. + +Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather +than in water. + +GOLDENROD EGGS + +3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +3/4 teaspoonful salt +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1 1/2 cupfuls milk +6 pieces of toast +Parsley + +Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a +White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites +to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a +strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the +toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once. + +If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip +the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water +before adding the sauce (see _Cream Toast_). + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the +yolks of eggs that are being poached? + +Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more +easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, and +_Solution and Digestion_). + + + + +LESSON XLIV + +EGGS: OMELETS (A) + + +TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.--An egg is sometimes broken by +cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the +edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found +satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and +yolk. + +Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs +together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently +break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one +part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge +into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg. + +Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,--the Dover egg beater and the +wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped +into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate. + +TO BEAT AN EGG.--When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the +spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting +the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke. +Egg whites are beaten _stiff_ when the impression made by the beater +is retained; and they are beaten _dry_, when the gloss has +disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are +beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than +before beating. + +TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.--Pour the beaten +egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a +tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over +the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly. + +EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.--Break an egg into a bowl. +What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon +beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has +been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten +and an unbeaten egg? + +(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.) + +EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH +A WIRE SPOON.--Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg +beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the +difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different +utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs? +Which contains the more air? + +EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.--Separate +an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg +beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which +becomes lighter when beaten,--a whole or a separated egg? From this +explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before +beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible. + +(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.) + +SCRAMBLED EGGS + +4 eggs +1 teaspoonful salt +Pepper +1/2 cupful milk +1 teaspoonful butter + +Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and +add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the +whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the +mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double +boiler and serve at once. + +For economy, the butter may be omitted. + +FOAMY OMELET + +4 eggs +4 tablespoonfuls milk or water +1/2 teaspoonful salt +Pepper +2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute + +Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs +until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until +stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an +omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cook _slowly_, +occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the +omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven +for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 40--METHOD OF HOLDING PAN TO TURN AN OMELET ON TO A +PLATTER] + +TO FOLD AN OMELET--Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make +a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right +angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away +from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand, +placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from +you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40). + +QUESTIONS + +How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the +effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method +given above for Scrambled Eggs. + +What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet? + +Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly. + +What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"? + +What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet? + +How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs +and Foamy Omelet? + + + + +LESSON XLV + +EGGS: OMELETS (B) + + +WHITE SAUCE OMELET + +3 tablespoonfuls flour +2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1 teaspoonful salt +1 cupful milk +Pepper +4 eggs +2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute + +Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the +whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White +Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as +Foamy Omelet. + +BAKED OMELET + +Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan, +pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.) +for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden +brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked. + +MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.--Mix and cook a Foamy or +White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while +cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook +and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet. + +Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the +sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with +either omelet. + +Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomato +sauce may be served with either of these omelets. + +Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered +sugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softened +jelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful of +jelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White Sauce +Omelet? + +Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White Sauce +Omelet. + +What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in +omelets? + +What is the purpose of beating eggs? + +What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry? + +What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk? + + + + +LESSON XLVI + +MILK + + +MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.--It has been said that there is no one food +_except milk_ which cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is the +only food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeper +or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, if +possible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under +ten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used +either as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods, +_less should be spent for meat, and more for milk_. + +Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little more +water than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the fact +that it contains: (_a_) _Proteins of "excellent quality_." An +authority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge of +Nutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteins +of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable +sources." The most important protein existing in milk is called +_casein_. + +Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a +peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk +sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid +causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme +occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach. + +(_b_) _Valuable ash_. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding +is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States +Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is +calcium oxide.) + +[Illustration] + +(_c_) _Vitamines_. These are substances contained only in +certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is +rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven). + +Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in +milk is shown by the following: + +EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS. + +(_a_) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of +milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry. +What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper? + +(_b_) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood +temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, see _Junket +Custard_). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir +until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it +is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter +paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains +in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")? + +(_c_) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49: +NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a +solution of Rochelle salts,--175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of +sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution +of copper sulphate,--57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters +of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part +of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4 +parts of water. Boil the mixture. + +This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using +a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in +a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from +(_b_) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture +change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test +indicate that milk contains? + +(_d_) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (_b_) in a custard +cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What +foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue? + +(_e_) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during +evaporation? + +(_f_) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines. + + + + +LESSON XLVII + +MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE + + +EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.--Fill the lower part of a double boiler one +third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the +double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes +examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain +why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold +water, and then washed in warm water. + +Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to +boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to +make cocoa and chocolate.) + +The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less +change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also +apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary +to boil milk to sterilize it. + +COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The +latter grow in pods,--the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure +41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and +roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans. + +Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate. +In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered +chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the +fat is removed. + +Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These +materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the +beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But +in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa +and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage +of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in +addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no +ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much +preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys. + +Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very +finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 41.--CACAO PODS.] + +When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others, +but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be +blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and +practical method of accomplishing this is to make a _smooth paste_ of +chocolate and boiling water. + +To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling +temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the +cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate +beverage causes the fat to separate and float. + +COCOA + +1/4 cupful cocoa +3 cupfuls milk +1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch +1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar +1 cupful water +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk +and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt. +Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired. + +Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage +may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn- +starch may be omitted entirely. + +CHOCOLATE + +2 squares chocolate +3 cupfuls milk +1 cupful boiling water +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1/3 cupful sugar +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water. +Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth. +Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the +chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add +salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat +well. Serve hot. + +Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of +whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich +in fat. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How +can one determine when milk is scalded? + +If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better +to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled? + +What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and +when lowest? + +If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate +beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not +be boiled after adding the hot milk. + +Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (see +_Flavoring Extracts_)? + +What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an +ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake? + +How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price +per box? + +See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce +of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference +in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa? + + + + +LESSON XLVIII + +MILK AND CREAM + + +WHIPPING CREAM.--A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip +it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold, +_i.e._ surrounded with ice water during the beating process. + +To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the +following: + +EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND +EARTHENWARE.--Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same +size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in +each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes, +take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware +utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,--tin or earthenware,--is +heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water +for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your +answer. + +Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream +"spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very +satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with +paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper, +insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and +push the paper down to cover. + +Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is +possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other +constituents, and form _butter_. For making butter the cream should +be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be +churned. + +On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to +form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To +accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat) +from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount +of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream +may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by +surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer +not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while +whipping. + +A harmless substance called _viscogen_ may be added to thinner cream +(_i.e._ the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter +whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients: + +1/2 cupful sugar +1 cupful water +1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared + by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.] + +Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add +the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using. +Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed +above. + +COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.--Cream is richer in fat than milk, average +cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But +cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk. + +Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to +compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for +the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different +places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk. +The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two +quantities: + +_In 1 quart of milk_ [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home +Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).] + +As much protein as in 5 eggs +2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat +3 tablespoonfuls of sugar + +_In 1/2 pint of cream_ + +As much protein as in 1 egg +3 tablespoonfuls of fat +1/2 tablespoonful of sugar + +Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than +does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of +sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison +makes us question the advisability of buying much cream. + +If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of +cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk +contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as +much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and +skim milk is advised. + +CARE OF MILK.--Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care, +and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy +farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth +of microscopic vegetable organisms, called _bacteria_ (see _Why +Foods Spoil_). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce +changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease- +producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk. + +Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by: + +(_a_) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm. + +(_b_) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by +keeping it cool. + +(_c_) Placing it in sterilized utensils. + +(_d_) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust. + +Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth, +bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and +placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be +used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk +in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should +be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors +and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong +odor or flavor. + +RICE DAINTY + +3/4 cupful cooked rice +3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces +3/4 cupful powdered sugar +1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped + +Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple, +shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and +cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert. + +CREAM OF RICE PUDDING + +1 quart milk _or_ +1 quart milk and water +1/3 cupful rice +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/3 cupful sugar +Grated rind of 1/2 lemon + +Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding +dish. Bake in a _slow_ oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually +takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally. + +If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1 +teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon +rind. + +QUESTIONS + +From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why +Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven. + +What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during +long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long +cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little +rice forms a solid mixture. + +What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream? + +What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream? + +What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased? + +Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk +(see _Care of Milk_). + +Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled? + + + + +LESSON XLIX + +CREAM SOUPS (A) + + +THICK SOUPS.--Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is +used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and +mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,--usually +milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp +uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid +with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked +as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the +vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White +Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added. + +GENERAL PROPORTIONS.--_The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree +to liquid is:_ One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of +liquid, _i.e._ milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock. + +_The proportion of flour to liquid is:_ 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1 +cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour +to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as +celery, is used. + +Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to +increase the food value. + +Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and +beans, or corn and beans. + +POTATO SOUP + +3 potatoes +1 tablespoonful flour +1 pint milk _or_ +1 pint milk and potato stock +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 slices of onion +Celery salt +3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute +2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley + +Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler, +then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a +strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other +ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more +liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley +just before serving. + +"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup. + +CROUTONS + +Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bake _slowly_ in the oven until +a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups. + +Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for +Vegetables? + +How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup +differ from the above proportion? + +Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer _after_ rather than +_before_ adding the hot milk? + +Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (see _Toast_)? + + + + +LESSON L + +CREAM SOUPS (B) + + +FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.--Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid, +their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however, +are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all +soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to +say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are +more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper +rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods. + +Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken +into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and +thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal. + +CORN SOUP + +1 can of corn +1 pint water +l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1 slice onion +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 teaspoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful white pepper +1 pint milk + +Add the water to the canned corn and _simmer_ 20 minutes. Melt the +fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry +ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and +strain. + +Reheat before serving, if necessary. + +NOTE.--The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (_i.e._ +browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods, +especially meats and sauces. + +SOUP STICKS + +Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter. +Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare +Dried Bread Crumbs with them. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 42.--DRIED BREAD CRUMBS. (Note that the jar is +covered with a cloth.)] + +DRIED BREAD CRUMBS + +Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread. +Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on +a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are +desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in +separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The +muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber +band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the +crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and +stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42). + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal. + +Why is it served as the first course of a meal? + +Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to +the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor +extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor +extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the +soups. + +If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from +that of canned corn? + +How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (see _Green +Corn_)? + +What is the price per can of corn? + +In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before +buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into +strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for +Soup Sticks with butter? + +How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why? + +What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe +for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for +scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes +which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of +crumbs could be used. Explain. + + + + +LESSON LI + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A) + + +CUSTARDS.--Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they +are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened +with eggs is called _custard_. + +There are two kinds of plain custards: (_a_) steamed or baked custard +and (_b_) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the +same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking +differ. + +That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all +milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of +water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot +water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too +quickly, the water in the double boiler _should not boil rapidly_. + +If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It +exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy +appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes +hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk +mixture. The custard is then said to be _curdled_. + +A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the +double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard _at +once_ with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain +custards. + +STEAMED OR BAKED CUSTARD + +1 pint milk +2 or 3 eggs +1/4 cupful sugar +1/8 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirup _or_ +1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg + +Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs _slightly_, add the +sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture, +flavor, and pour it into a mold. If _steamed custard_ is desired, +steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the +steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by +inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is +done. + +If _baked custard_ is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of +hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or +until firm. Test as steamed custard. + +If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after +steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a +little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be +turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently +on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The +caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup +may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in making _Peanut +Candy_) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use +equal quantities of sugar and water.) + +SOFT CUSTARD + +1 pint milk +1/4 cupful sugar +2 eggs +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead +of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook +(stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon. +Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and +flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking. + +In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked +with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and +beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be +used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods. + +_To Decrease the Eggs in Custard _ + +When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2 +_tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg._ For methods of +thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of eggs in custard? + +Why are eggs beaten _slightly_ for custards? + +How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking? +What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each? + +What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained +and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking? + +In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled +custard be made smooth? + + + + +LESSON LII + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (B) + + +FLOATING ISLAND + +_Custard_ + +1 pint milk +3 egg yolks +1/4 cupful sugar +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +_Meringue_ + +3 egg whites +3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar + +The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs. + +Prepare the custard as Soft Custard. + +Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I +tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by +spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of +jelly or colored gelatine. + +From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most +advisable for preparing Meringue? + +If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in +several ways: (_a_) place it on the _hot_ custard at once after +preparing the custard, (_b_) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on +the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white +cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken +the milk with the egg yolks, (_c_) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the +cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by +placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking +oven. + +QUESTIONS + +In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead +of the eggs to the hot milk? + +How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard? + +What is Meringue? + +Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs. +How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost? + + + + +LESSON LIII + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (C) + + +APRICOT DAINTY + +1 cupful dried apricots +1/3 cupful powdered sugar +3 egg whites + +Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press +through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of +eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture. +Chill and serve with Custard Sauce. + +Dried _prunes_ may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and +adding a little lemon juice. + +If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it +should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of +granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add +the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until +the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as +directed above. + +CUSTARD SAUCE + +Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks +for 2 whole eggs. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for +this dessert? + +Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg +yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color? + +How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening? + + + + +LESSON LIV + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A) + + +EGG AND STARCH.--How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures +so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (see _Blanc Mange_)? How +long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for +thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and +egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can +be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling. + +BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA + +1 pint milk +1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca +1/2 cupful dark brown sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla +1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter + +Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until +the tapioca is transparent (see _Apple Tapioca_, above). Mix the +sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg +mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler. +Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn +into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream. + +The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very +soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca. + +Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the +serving dishes. + +For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the +greater quantity of tapioca should be used. + +CREAM OF POTATO SOUP + +3 potatoes +2 1/2 cupfuls milk +2 egg yolks or 1 egg +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +Pepper +1/8 teaspoonful celery salt + +Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it +to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning, +combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double +boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. _Serve +immediately_. + +QUESTIONS + +In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca? +How much of this ingredient should be used (see _Blanc Mange_, +above)? + +What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup? + +Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs? + +How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see +above)? + +What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange? + +When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of +adding the egg. + +Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for +one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard. + + + + +LESSON LV + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B) + + +CORN CUSTARD + +1 can corn _or_ +6 ears green corn +1 teaspoonful salt +l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 cupful milk +2 eggs + +Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for +method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs, +add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking- +dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven +until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable. + +_One egg may be omitted_ and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2 +tablespoonfuls respectively. + +CHEESE PUDDING + +1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces +1 egg +1 cupful milk +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca +Cayenne + +Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered +baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and +bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method +of preparing _Dried Bread Crumbs_). + +QUESTIONS + +What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture? + +What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture? + +What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or +Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two +foods bake? Give a reason for your answer. + +In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the +same length of time? + +Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn. + +How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve? + +How many will the Cheese Pudding serve? + + + + +LESSON LVI + +MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C) + + +Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then +baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or +dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk. + +How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked +Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread +Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference. + +BREAD PUDDING + +2 cupfuls milk +1 cupful bread crumbs +1 tablespoonful butter +3 tablespoonfuls sugar +1 egg +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful spices +3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants + +Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the +remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and +place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until +it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of +baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see +below). + +If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change +should be made in the other ingredients (see _Chocolate Corn-starch +Pudding_)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be +omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and +Chocolate Bread Pudding. + +CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING + +1 cupful bread crumbs +2 cupfuls scalded milk +1 ounce chocolate +1/4 cupful boiling water +1/3 cupful sugar +1 egg +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until +soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook +gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture. +Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or +whipped cream or Lemon Sauce. + +VANILLA SAUCE + +1/2 cupful sugar +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1/8 teaspoonful salt +2 cupfuls boiling water +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10 +minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla +[Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just +before serving. + +CHOCOLATE SAUCE + +1/2 cupful sugar +3 tablespoonfuls flour +1 cupful water +1 cupful milk +3/8 cupful cocoa _or_ +2 squares (or ounces) chocolate +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water; +stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over +boiling water for at least 15 minutes. + +If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling +water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to +the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See +footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over +desserts. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding? + +What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk +mixture? + +Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding, +and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result, +if baked in a very hot oven? + +What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of +baking? + +Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding. + +What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water? + +In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see +Experiment 24)? + +How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the +quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast? + +Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one +pint of sauce. + +What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce? + +Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for +Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening +each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures? +What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly +over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked +only over boiling water? + + + + +LESSON LVII + +CHEESE (A) + + +THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.--To show the relation of cheese to milk, +and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following: + +EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in +a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it. +Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set +aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed +the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see +Lesson XLVI)? + +EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY--Again heat the contents of the +test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and +press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the +cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In +cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted +milk? + +Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown +in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into +shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the +ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the +cheese firm. + +There are two general classes of cheese,--hard cheese and soft cheese. A +hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in +this country. + +ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.--The rennet or junket used to clot the +casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of +a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human +stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in +the stomach. + +EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Add a few drops of vinegar to warm +milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has +been curdled by the acid? + +To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this +substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material +(see _Care of Milk_)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the +clotted condition of sour milk. + +JUNKET "CUSTARD" + +1 quart milk +1/4 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1 tablespoonful liquid rennet _or_ +1 junket tablet +Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg + +Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is _lukewarm_ only; do not +heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, _i.e._ body +temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like +the wrist"--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature. If a +junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or +junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a +warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool +place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve +with cream. + +COTTAGE CHEESE + +1 quart thick sour milk +1/4 teaspoonful salt +Cream, top milk, or butter + +Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the +mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the +mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it +to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt +and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve +lightly heaped, or molded into balls. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see +Experiment 12)? + +In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the +digestion of milk in the stomach? + +Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested. + +How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk? + +Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour +milk. + +What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home? + +What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market? + + + + +LESSON LVIII + +CHEESE (B) + + +FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is concentrated food, _i.e._ it +contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as +much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and +as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to +protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven). + +Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive +than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent +than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute +dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese. + +Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but +investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, _The Digestion of Cheese_, +p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of +digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should +be heated at low or moderate temperature. + +It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The +use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already +been eaten, is not advisable. + +CARE OF CHEESE.--Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is +placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see _Why Foods +Spoil_). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly +covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a +cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin +paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should +not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it. + +MACARONI AND CHEESE + +1 cupful macaroni +1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce +2 cupfuls buttered crumbs +3/4 cupful grated cheese + +Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling, +salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a +colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk +and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni +to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs +and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown. + +_Rice or noodles_, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for +macaroni. + +QUESTIONS + +What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very +soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce? + +What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity? + +What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)? + +Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water? + +What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain? + +What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see +_Cheese Sauce,_)? + +What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of +rice? What is the price per pound of cheese? + +How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese? + +How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve? + +How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it +compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How +much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food? + + + + +LESSON LIX + +STRUCTURE OF BEEF--METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS + + +MEAT.--The flesh of animals is called _meat_. In market this term is +applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton +(sheep), lamb, and pork (pig). + +To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try +the following experiments with beef: + +EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.--Scrape a piece of lean beef on both +sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat. +What is the color and texture, _i.e._ toughness, of the two parts into +which the muscle is divided? + +Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (_a_) +connective tissue or framework, and (_b_) muscle fiber. + +Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal +portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52. + +EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.-- +Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying +pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more +tender or tough by dry heat? + +(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a +ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (_a_). Is the +fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over +it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber? + +EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE +TISSUE.--Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover +it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and +heat affect its toughness? + +(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook +in water at simmering temperature as directed in (_a_). How do heat +and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and +taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has +a more pleasing flavor? + +From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the +length of time--_long or short_--that _connective tissue_ must +be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with +regard to the kind of heat--_dry or moist_--that must be applied to +connective tissue to make it tender? + +What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat +upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more +pleasing flavor? + +[Illustration: FIGURE 43.--STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fat +cells; C. connective tissue.] + +THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.--The connective tissue of meat is +the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of +the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump. +This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination, +however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes, +microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of +connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle +juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring +materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are +called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as +shown also in Figure 43. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers +College. FIGURE 44.--CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.] + +The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the +walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These +proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the +following lesson. + +CARE OF MEAT.--As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in +which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before +cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold +water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking. + +SEARING MEAT.--Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor, +it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be +accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein +coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are +prevented from escaping. _This process is called searing._ + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College +FIGURE 45.--PORTERHOUSE] + +From the results of Experiment 51 (_b_), one can understand why +seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is +desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to +make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the +temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat. + +TENDER CUTS OF BEEF--Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain +more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts +of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the +connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 46.--SIRLOIN,--HIP STEAK (portion next to the +porterhouse) _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College_] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 47.--SIRLOIN,--FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middle +of the sirloin section). _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers +College._] + +Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts +of the beef would one expect to find most tender? + +Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts. +Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked +successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts +of meat: (_a_) broiling, (_b_) pan-broiling, and (_c_) +roasting (baking). + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College +FIGURE 48.--SIRLOIN,--ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).] + +The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure +44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and +first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime +ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin. + +Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see +Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College +FIGURE 49.--FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST] + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College +FIGURE 50.--SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST] + +BROILING + +Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut +from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove +the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals +or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or +placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly _seared_ +on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the +coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch +thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10 +minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve _at once_. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College +FIGURE 51.--BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).] + +PAN-BROILING + +Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying +pan _without any fat_. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more +slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to +brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is +the same as for broiling. + +DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.--Pan-broiled steak differs +from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (_a_) ease of +digestion and (_b_) flavor. As explained previously (_Frying and +Digestion_), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested. +For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit +the fat, and to broil a steak. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_. Teachers College +FIGURE 52--CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)] + +Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a +pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In +"fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the +flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the +addition of any other flavor. + +ROASTING (BAKING) + +Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before +an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and +baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIGURE 53.--COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTING +KITCHEN"--a device for roasting meat--at lower right-hand corner.] + +Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a +rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in +the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven +(500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400 +degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with +flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste +often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with +flour, and continue baking as before. + +Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one, +the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of +beef should weigh at least 4 pounds. + +The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for +beef roasts, _15 minutes to each pound_ is allowed. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain the purpose of searing meat. + +If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared? + +Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or +pan-broiled? + +Why cannot meat be broiled over _blazing_ coals? + +What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak? + +What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak? + +How many persons will each serve? + + + + +LESSON LX + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A) + + +PROTEIN IN MEAT.--It was mentioned previously that there are several +different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins +exist in: + +(_a_) Connective tissue. + +(_b_) Walls of muscle fibers. + +(_c_) Muscle juice. + +Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz., _collagen_ and +_elastin._ Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water. +Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle +fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,--_myosin or muscle +globulin_ and _albumin_. + +Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat +because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat +broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of +albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold +water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its +nutriment is lost. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE +54--ROUND.] + +[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE +55.--CHUCK.] + +Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in +greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble +in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As +not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making, _the solid part +of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment_. +Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat. + +CHOPPED BEEF.--If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on +its structure? How would this affect its toughness? + +It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if +the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or +chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose. + +CHOPPED STEAK + +1 pound beef steak, chopped +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley +1 onion, grated +1 teaspoonful salt +1/2 cupful water or +3/4 cupful tomatoes +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan +until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat; _then remove the +fat_. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking. +Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once. + +Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat +mixture. + +The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is +thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef. + +Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into +one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan- +broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in +turning over the steak. + +BEEF LOAF + +Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg. +Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven +(450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or +Brown Sauce. + +The use of tomatoes instead of water in _Beef Loaf_ makes the meat +especially tasty. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after +searing it? + +What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder? + +How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat? + +How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat? + + + + +LESSON LXI + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B) + + +STUFFED MEAT ROAST + +2 pounds chopped meat +2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it +into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large +cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows: + +2 cupfuls bread crumbs +1 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful marjoram +1/4 teaspoonful thyme +1/4 teaspoonful savory +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 tablespoonfuls fat + +Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir +and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned. + +Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the +latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven +and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,--plain or with Brown Sauce (see +below). + +Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used +in _Stuffed Meat Roast_. + +Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (see _Beef Loaf_). + +POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration +Bulletin.] + +2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes +1 egg (beaten) +1 small onion, grated +1 tablespoonful fat +1 stalk celery finely minced _or_ +1/2 teaspoonful celery salt +1 teaspoonful salt +Pepper + +Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing. + +EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.--When +flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see +Experiment 26, above)? + +Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of +flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same +ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce +as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,--starch or +dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to +make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3 +tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid. + +NOTE.--If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned +and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast. + +BROWN SAUCE + +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +Pepper +1 cupful meat stock or hot water +1 teaspoonful scraped onion + +If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the +"Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them. +Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as +_White Sauce_. + +QUESTIONS + +What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why? + +Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them +successfully. + + + + +LESSON LXII + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A) + + +EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.--Place a bit of meat in a +test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for +a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the +water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from +this? + +Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water +contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth? +Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be +used? Why? + +EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.--Pour boiling water over a +bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water? +Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out. + +EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.--Sprinkle some salt on a piece of +meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical +application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this? + +NOTE.--The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved +and used for soup-making. + +TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.--From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to +be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was +used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness +of meat depends upon (_a_) amount of connective tissue, and +(_b_) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin). +These conditions depend upon (_a_) the age of the animal, and +(_b_) locality of muscle or cut of meat. + +Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked, +tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is +necessary to make them palatable. _The long cooking must be accomplished +in water or steam_ in order that the meat may not burn or become too +dry. + +Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than +beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they +are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue. +Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough +cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always +appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely +extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned +previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop +flavor in meat. + +USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.--Bone contains a substance which long +cooking changes into a jellylike mass called _gelatine_. In the +center of the bone there is a fatty substance called _marrow_. This +fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making +soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the +air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in +soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the +lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock +before using. + +BEEF STOCK + +2 pounds meat, bone and fat +1/4 teaspoonful celery seed +5 peppercorns +2 cloves +2 quarts cold water +1/2 bay leaf +2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt + +Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown +about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the +seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below +boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it +through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed +to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used. + +1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small +pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones +of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut +into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of +meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel, +provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness. + +CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).--The feeding, care, and age of an animal +have much to do with the _quality_ of its meat. It is considered that +good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should +be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a +generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In +most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several +days at a temperature near freezing. + +The _cost_ of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The +difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and +upon the demand,--not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different +localities, and in different seasons. + +The _waste_ of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs +to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing +no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower. + +[Illustration: Adapted from diagram in _University of Illinois_ +Bulletin, No 158 FIGURE 56.--CUTS OF BEEF.] + +The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the +division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the +various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated +around the outer boundary of the diagram. + +The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the +cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as +shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for +roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces +into which a cut is usually divided. + +EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF + +HIND QUARTER + + NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING + +ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting. + 1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing. + 57). Corning. + + B. Round (not including Sauteing. + rump and shank). Stewing. + 2-14. Round steaks (see Braising. + Figure 54). Pot-roasting. + + C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting. + 15. Pot roast. Stewing. + + D. Hind shank. + 16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making. + 17-19. Soup bones. + +LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling + 1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into + steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces + 5-6. Flat-bone sirloin + steaks (see Figure 47). + 7. Hip-bone sirloin steak + (see Figure 46). + + F. Porterhouse. Broiling. + 8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into + (see Figure 45). thick pieces). + 16-18. Club or Delmonico + steaks (see Figure 44). + +FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing. + Rolling and Braising + + H-H. Flank stew. Stewing. + Corning. + +FORE QUARTER + + NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING +RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting. + 1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see + Figures 49 and 50). + +CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks + 1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising. + Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting. + 2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling. + (see Figure 55). Sauteing. + 10-13. Pot roasts. + NOTE.--In some localities, a pot + roast is cut from the lower portion + of the chuck. It is called Cross + Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut + (see Figure 58). + 14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle + soup bone). + + L. Neck. Stewing. + 15. Stew. Soup-making. + Corning. + +PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing. + 1, 2. Stews. Soup-making. + Corning. + + N. Navel. Stewing. + 3. Stew. Soup-making. + Corning. + + O. Brisket. Stewing. + 4. Stew. Soup-making. + Corning. + +FORE P. Shin. +SHANK 1. Stew. + 2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing. + clod, _J_, 14). Soup-making. + 3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneath + clod, _J_, 14). + + Skirt steak,--diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising. + ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing. + + Tail. Soup-making. + +QUESTIONS + +Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using +tough cuts of meat for soup? + +Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making. +Give the price per pound of these cuts. + +In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of +cracking the bone? + +Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see +Experiment 56)? + + + + +LESSON LXIII + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B) + + +EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.--Examine the beef stock of the previous +lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat +cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of +the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock. +Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike +consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid +material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock +is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54). + +VEGETABLE SOUP + +2 quarts beef stock +2 tablespoonfuls fat +1 onion, sliced +1 carrot +1 turnip +1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves + +Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a +small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the +water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender. +Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate, +if necessary, and then serve. + +The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni, +or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the +vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in +the stock. + +Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas, +asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and +utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making. + +EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.--Which contains the more +nutriment,--beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What +valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (see _Protein in +Meat_)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the +flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat +as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what +supplies flavor to the meat? + +BAKED HASH + +l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat +1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water +1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock +Salt and pepper +1 cupful cracker crumbs, _or_ +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +1 teaspoonful scraped onion +Chopped parsley +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + + +Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or +stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking- +dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture +with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and +the crumbs browned. Serve at once. + + + + +LESSON LXIV + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C) + + +ROLLED BEEFSTEAK + +1 pound round steak +1 cupful soft bread crumbs +1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves +Pepper +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 small onion, chopped +Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat + +[Illustration: FIGURE 57.--RUMP.] + +Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a +stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with +enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces +of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer +it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper. +Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer +for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and +serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked. + +If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden +potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin. + +BEEF STEW + +2 pounds beef +1/4 cupful flour +2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +1 onion cut into slices +1 quart hot water +2 carrots, cut in dice +1 turnip, cut in dice +4 potatoes, cut in dice +1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet + +Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch +pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out +the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the +meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the +frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler +and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and +cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done. +If desired, more flour,--mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,--may +be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen +bouquet, and serve. + +THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.--When meat is dipped in +flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour +thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however, +more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick. +Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat +stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some +time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing +flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour +is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a +little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus +the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the +sauce is ready to serve. + +QUESTIONS + +If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way +of making it of one half inch thickness? + +For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water? + +Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than +at boiling temperature. + +What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour? + +Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water +is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables? + +Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew? + +Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What +are the prices per pound of these cuts? + + + + +LESSON LXV + +BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D) + + +SWISS STEAK + +1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick +1/2 to 1 cupful flour +Suet or bacon fat +1/2 onion, sliced +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +Dash pepper + +With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak. +In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then +brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water +and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range +or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough +salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce +around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown +Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot. + +If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If +tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (_i.e._ of what material) +should be used in cooking the meat? See _Suggestions for Cooking +Fruits._) + +This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and +sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The +onion may be omitted, if desired. + +POT ROAST + +3 pounds beef +Flour +Salt pork or suet +1/2 bay leaf +6 peppercorns +Salt and pepper +1/4 cupful each,--diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery + +[Illustration: FIGURE 58.--CROSS RIB, BOSTON CUT, OR ENGLISH CUT] + +Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with +flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in +the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with +salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer +for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the +sauce containing vegetables. + +NOTE--This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding +the uses of cooked beef + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_ Teachers College +FIGURE 59--SKIRT STEAK, FLANK STEAK.] + +SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT--There are many +recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few +methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (see _Tough +Cuts of Beef_) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as +follows + +1 _Soup-making_--Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and +then cook below boiling temperature in the water. + +2. "_Boiling" or Stewing_.--Plunge meat into boiling water; boil +until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature. + +3. _Pot-roasting and Braising_.--Sear meat by boiling or browning in +fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range, +it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called +braising. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising? + +Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods? + +What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (see +_Roasting_)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting +for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)? + +Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price +per pound of each. + + + + +LESSON LXVI + +BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF + + +"LEFT OVERS"--Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they +can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to +extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and +this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the +meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned +well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been +cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for +cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not +recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine +in order to heat it quickly. + +As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials +is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for +stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes +here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions +should be changed to utilize available materials. + +SCALLOPED MEAT + +2 cupfuls chopped meat +2 tablespoonfuls fat +3 tablespoonfuls flour +l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley +l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water +2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (See _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_.) + +Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and +milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one +half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat +mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the +oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown. + +_Cold fish_ may be shredded and used in the same way. + +COTTAGE PIE.--Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting +mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the +top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion. + +QUESTIONS + +How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive +value? How does it differ in taste? + +Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash. + +Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes? + +Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be +desirable for hash. + +How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of +fresh meat? + +Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked? + + + + +LESSON LXVII + +GELATINE (A) + + +EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful of +cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes. +Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the +gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to +hardness? + +EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful +boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot +water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine? + +NOTE.--Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of +the gelatine dessert of the lesson. + +GELATINE.--When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled, +what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what +substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (see _Protein in +Meat_; _Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making_; _Examination of +Cold Beef Stock_)? + +The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle, +skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in +several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized +gelatine the most convenient to use. + +One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly. +In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be +molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine. + +Gelatine should be first hydrated (_i.e._ combined with water) by +means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water. + +THE VALUE OF GELATINE.--Gelatine is an incomplete protein, _i.e._ it +is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does +not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body. + +The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that +the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit, +however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value. +Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid +diet. + +LEMON JELLY + +1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine _or_ +1/4 ounce shredded gelatine +1/4 cupful cold water +3/4 cupful sugar +Salt +1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water +1/4 cupful lemon juice + +Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is +absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine +is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a +mold. Set in a cool place to harden. _Gelatine mixtures should be +covered while soaking and cooling_. + +_To remove jelly from the mold_, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water +to the outside of the mold. + +FRUIT JELLY + +Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to +stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices. +Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a +mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or +without cream. + +Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If +pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple +contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh +pineapple fails to stiffen. + +WHIPPED JELLY + +When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped +with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in +appearance and quantity. + +Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows: + +Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into +two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set +aside in a cool place. + +Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff, +pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool. + +When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve +with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling? + +Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely? + +What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine +mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From +this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice +is added. + +What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures? + +Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained? + +Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why? + +How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the +jellies? Explain. + +When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the +jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit? + + + + +LESSON LXVIII + +GELATINE (B) + + +SNOW PUDDING + +1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine +1/4 cupful cold water +1 cupful sugar +Salt +1 cupful boiling water +1/4 cupful lemon juice +2 or 3 egg whites + +Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to +cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to +stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then +add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to +stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with +chilled Custard Sauce. + +For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks +(instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful). +In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of +corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested. + +The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a +pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the +mixture into the mold. + +Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in +the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg +whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more +tasty. + +PINEAPPLE BAVARIAN CREAM + +1 tablespoonful gelatine +1/4 cupful cold water +1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple +Boiling water +1/2 cupful sugar +Salt +2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice +1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream + +Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed. + +Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to +make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point. +Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is +dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are +dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until +the mixture begins to stiffen. + +Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the +gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture +again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. +Serve cold. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the price per package of gelatine? + +How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one +package? + +Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference +in the cost? + +Which is lighter in weight,--beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From +this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until +it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation +of Snow Pudding. + +Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened +condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of +Bavarian Cream. + + + + +LESSON LXIX + +FISH (A) + +EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.--Soak a piece of fresh +fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the +boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical +application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing +fish? + +EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.--Boil a small piece of +fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging +from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish? + +From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,--boiling or +baking,--would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why? + +COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.--Fish is an animal food containing protein. +It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more +water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the +quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is +also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is +lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning. + +FAT OF FISH.--The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of +fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat. +The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The +ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish +containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested. + +CLASSES OF FISH.--According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may +be divided into two classes: _(_a_) dry, or_ lean _fish_, +and _(_b_) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch, +bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel, +herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This +latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.) + +Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which +they live, fish from the sea being termed _salt-water fish_, and +those from rivers and lakes _fresh-water fish_ + +Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be +generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at +market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish. + +SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF + +1 can salmon +1 cupful soft bread crumbs +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley +1/2 teaspoonful salt +Pepper +1 or 2 eggs +1 tablespoonful lemon juice +1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk + +Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour +into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan, +surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the +range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out, +and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for +White Sauce, see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. For the fat of the +White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon). + +Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale, _Tuna +fish_ or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon. + +CASSEROLE OF FISH + +Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients +given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or +cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf. + +Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a +mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in +the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover +it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn +from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon +Timbale. + +Any kind of _cooked_ and _chopped meat_ may be used instead of +fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS + +What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf? + +Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this +fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or +at a high temperature. + +What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish? + +Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of +each? + + + + +LESSON LXX + +FISH (B) + +FRESHNESS OF FISH.--Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is +dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be +able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish: + +(_a_) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone. + +(6) The gills are bright. + +(_c_) The eyes are bright and bulging. + +The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an +indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water. + +Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of +time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state +until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water _just +before cooking_. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time +before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called +_ptomaines_. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may +even prove fatal. + +Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be +placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly +covered,--put in a tin pail or glass jar,--and placed in the +refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet +cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish +should be washed in salted water. + +BAKED FISH + +Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed +before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before +serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained, +it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 60.--FISH KETTLE, SHOWING RACK] + +Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then +fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the +incision as follows: + +Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the +opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by +_"lacing"_ string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side +across the fish and put strips of salt + +pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a +baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the +fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the +sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for +each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by +means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every +10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on +a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve with _Tomato +Sauce_ or _Sauce for Fish_ (see below). + +In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be +placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish +may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin. + +STUFFING FOR FISH + +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +Cayenne +1 teaspoonful scraped onion +1 teaspoonful chopped parsley +1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + +Mix the ingredients in the order given (see _Crumbs for Scalloped +Dishes_) + +SAUCE FOR FISH + +3 tablespoons butter or substitute +1/4 cupful flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +Cayenne +l 3/4 cupfuls hot water +1/4 cupful vinegar _or_ 1 large lemon,--juice +1 tablespoonful chopped parsley + +Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (see _White Sauce +for Vegetables_. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley. +Serve hot over fish. + +Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole +eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the +sauce. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator? + +Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing +in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)? + +What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of +muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)? + +How is fish tested for sufficient cooking? + +How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked? + + + + +LESSON LXXI + +FISH (C) + + +PLANKED (BROILED) FISH + +An oak plank,--one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large +platter,--is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or +broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish, +should be selected. + +Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with +salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the +broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes. + +A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (see +_Potato Puff_). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from +the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube +may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with +water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to +finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and +potatoes on the plank. + +FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH + +Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal +and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain +and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used +for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (see _Fried +Oysters_). + +FISH CHOWDER + +1/2 pound salt fish _or_ +2 pounds fresh fish +1 quart potatoes cut in pieces +2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippings _or_ other fat +1 onion, chopped +2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal +1 pint milk +Crackers + +If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes +(why?), then shred it. + +If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into +six or eight pieces. + +Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes +and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot +water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and +continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few +crackers broken into pieces. + +QUESTIONS + +State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish. + +Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling? + +What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg? + +Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish +(see _Comparison of Beef with Fish_). + + + + +LESSON LXXII + +LEGUMES (A) + + +THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear +pods containing seeds; the seeds--green or ripened--and the pods of some +of the plants are commonly used as foods. + +PROTEIN IN SEEDS.--Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal +kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common +cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats +contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds +in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein +than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein. +Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They +contain about 37 per cent. + +It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried +legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete +protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to +be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and +cheese. + +Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat, +they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk +or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of +protein food. The protein in legumes is called _legumin_. + +COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.--The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in +water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables +require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little +soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening +them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes. +During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked. + +Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be +removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot +water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for +each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then +drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans +require long cooking,--usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking, +they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in a +_fireless cooker_. The _pressure cooker_ may be used effectively +in cooking these dried beans. + +Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner +as navy beans (see _Boston Baked Beans_). Serve cooked soy-beans with +Tomato Sauce. + +Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook +them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent. +In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is +already required for some other purpose. The _fireless cooker_ is +most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods. + +BOSTON BAKED BEANS + +2 cupfuls navy beans +2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar +2 teaspoonfuls salt +2 ounces salt pork or bacon +1/2 teaspoonful mustard + +Soak the beans overnight as directed in _Cooking Dried Legumes_. Add +a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the +seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the +pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in +it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to +cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours. +Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with +liquid. + +_Lentils_ may be baked in the same way as beans. + +SALTED PEANUTS + +1/2 cupful salt +1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts +3 cupfuls water +2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute + +Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3 +minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat +the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts. _Cook 8 +minutes_. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the +fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on +paper. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking? + +Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk? + +What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while +baking? + +Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the +oven but an hour or two. + +How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in +water (see Experiment 35)? + +What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon? + +What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted +water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning? + +What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound? + +How many cupfuls in a pound of each? + + + + +LESSON LXXIII + +LEGUMES (B) + + +BEAN SOUP + +2 cupfuls beans +3 quarts water +Baking soda +1 piece of celery root _or_ +1/2 teaspoonful celery salt _or_ +Dried celery leaves +l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +2 slices onion +Cayenne +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/4 teaspoonful mustard +2 tablespoonfuls flour + +Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until +the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates. +Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a +sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (see +_Thick Soups_). + +Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this +soup. + +SPLIT PEA SOUP + +1 cupful split peas +2 1/2 quarts water +Baking soda +2 slices onion +1 pint milk +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt +3 tablespoonfuls flour +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute + +Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the +peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the +remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve. + +Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor. + +GREEN PEA SOUP + +1 pint or can of peas +1/2 teaspoonful sugar +1 pint liquid round peas and water +Pepper +1 teaspoonful salt +1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1 pint milk +2 tablespoonfuls flour + +Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook +until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of +the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve. + +Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the +pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas. + +CRISP CRACKERS + +Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve +with soup. + +QUESTIONS + +How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (see +_Cooking Vegetables in Water_)? + +What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick? + +If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted +in making the soup? Why? + +How many persons will these recipes for soup serve? + +How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of +split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by +soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What +is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using +split peas rather than green peas? + + + + +LESSON LXXIV + +LEGUMES (C) + + +BEAN ROAST + +1 cupful white beans, cooked +1 cupful roasted peanuts +1/2 cupful bread crumbs +1 teaspoonful salt +Speck pepper +1/2 cupful milk + +Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining +ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30 +minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. + +PEANUT BUTTER SOUP + +1 cupful peanut butter +1/2 cupful chopped celery +1 1/2 cupfuls water +3 cupfuls milk +2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +1 grated potato + +Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in a +double boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender. +Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Then +add it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning. +Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot. + +Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery. + +QUESTIONS + +Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast and +Peanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient. + +Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve? + +How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate the +difference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak. + +What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substance +could be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing and +cooking if the substitution were made. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON LXXV + +COST OF FOOD + + +FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.--One pound of rice costs much less than one +pound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another. +Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of +beefsteak. + +Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken into +consideration when determining the value of foods. + +COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.--Foods differ in nutritive +value per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than three +times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value of +a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak. + +COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.--Although one cut of meat may sell for +more than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is +less waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound than +shoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all +edible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. One +pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs. + +COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.--Most foods are higher in price when +out of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in +February and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. An +unseasonable food is invariably expensive. + +COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.--Food labels often contain valuable +information. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, and +sometimes the composition of food appears on them. + +Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the same +quantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects the +quantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight and +composition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared +with another. + +Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such as +meats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have been +purchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for +which she pays. + +LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.--There are many things, then, that the +thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It is +one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a +family to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thrift +is both forceful and true: + +"It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure +no matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper should +take as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as the +manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his +factory." [Footnote 56: _United States Department of Agriculture_, +Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.] + +CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.--In counting the cost of foods, it is +necessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package, +but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data for +the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and +from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from +the "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are not +required. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places. + +FOODS COST MEASURE COST PER COST PER COST PER + PER IN CUPFUL TABLE- TEA- + POUND, CUPFULS SPOONFUL SPOONFUL + QUART, OF + ETC. POUND, + QUART, + ETC. + +Apricots (dried) ----- ----- +Baking Powder ----- ----- +Beans, dried ----- ----- +Butter +Butter + Substitute +Cheese ----- ----- +Cocoa ----- ----- +Coffee Heaping ----- + Table- + spoonful +Corn-meal ----- ----- +Corn-starch ----- +Cream of Wheat ----- ----- +Cream ----- +Currants ----- ----- + (dried) +Eggs (see ----- One ----- +Experiment 41 +Flour, white ----- +Flour, whole wheat ----- ----- +Flour, graham ----- ----- +Gelatine ----- +Lard ----- +Macaroni ----- ----- +Meat, chopped ----- ----- +Milk ----- ----- +Potatoes ----- One ----- ----- + potato +Prunes (dried) ----- ----- +Raisins (dried) ----- ----- +Rice ----- ----- +Rolled Oats ----- ----- +Salt ----- +Split Peas ----- ----- +Sugar, brown ----- ----- +Sugar, granulated ----- ----- +Sugar, loaf One ----- ----- + lump +Sugar, powdered ----- ----- +Tapioca ----- ----- +Tea ----- +Vanilla ----- ----- ----- +Vegetable Oil ----- +Wheatena ----- ----- + + + + +LESSON LXXVI + +COOKING AND SERVING A BREAKFAST + +Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges or +Baked Apples +Goldenrod Eggs +Baked Mush with Honey or Marmalade +Cocoa + +Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or +without a maid. + +Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data from +the previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods such +as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or +from the grocer's statement. + + + + +LESSON LXXVII + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Cereal with Fruit +Poached Egg on Toast + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson. + + + + +LESSON LXXVIII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Set the table for the evening meal each day. + +Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week. + +Suggested Aims: + +(1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight. + +(2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table. + +(3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining +table. + +(4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other +things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or +other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal +is being served. + +(5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty. + +(6) To determine the cost of meat. + + + + +DIVISION SEVEN + +HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES + +LESSON LXXIX + +VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF DELICATE FLAVOR + + +VITAMINES.--In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment, +scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a +certain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. They +were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the +foods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffs +must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,--that there should be +enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet made +up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper +proportion was termed a _balanced ration_. + +Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alone +do not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is being +done on the question of adequate diet. It is found that _certain +substances_ contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential +in diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs +mentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing, +become diseased, and eventually die. + +These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life +are termed _Vitamines_ by some authorities. There are three classes +of Vitamines, called _Fat-soluble A_, _Water-soluble B_, and +_Water-soluble C_. It is now believed that there is at least one more +vitamine. + +Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is +necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote +growth and to keep in health. + +Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to prevent +rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war, +because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed in +Europe. + +Water-soluble B is called the _anti-neuritic vitamine_ because it is +necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (see +_Polished and Unpolished Rice_). + +Water-soluble C is called the _anti-scorbutic vitamine_ because it is +necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy. + +FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A are _milk_, _eggs_, and _leafy +vegetables_. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops, +beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions. +Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also contain +fat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such +as carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat- +soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils. + +It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especially +milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According to +McCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds; +the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium, +sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetables +not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential +minerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented with +milk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are so +valuable and essential in diet, these foods have been termed _protective +foods_. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity of +water-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has been +previously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally +and as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seem +to be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realize +the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her +home. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment +and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their +use. + +FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.--Water-soluble B is more widely +distributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part, +however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine include +seeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach, +cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and all +other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought that +the germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B. +Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the other +two. + +FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods, +but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orange +juice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of this +vitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water- +soluble C. + +SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.--It was mentioned in _Suggestions for +Cooking Fresh Vegetables_ that a saving of ash in vegetables meant a +saving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor are +to be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash +constituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of +delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in +such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or the +vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the +vegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained. + +SPINACH + +1 pound or 1/2 peck spinach +1/2 tablespoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 tablespoonfuls butter + +If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomes +fresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop them +in a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan of +water; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the +pan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and add +the seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add the +butter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish and +serve at once. + +Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a +combination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and +1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slices +of hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach. + +Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash the +spinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan or +casserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning, +cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinach +several times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in the +saucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve at +once. + +SCALLOPED SPINACH WITH CHEESE + +1 pound spinach +1 cupful thick White Sauce +1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces +2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced +2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs + +Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Season +it with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt. + +Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined with +milk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2 +teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until the +cheese is blended with the sauce. + +Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbs +into 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbs +in a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add another +layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in a +moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Serve +hot. + +DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which the +leaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cooked +and served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked, +it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. In +case the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combined +with milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.] + +Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter or +granite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectly +dry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoring +soups and stews. + +QUESTIONS + +In what kind of soil does spinach grow? + +What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach? + +What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate +flavor? + +If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using a +small, rather than a large quantity of water? + +What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does one +pound or peck serve? + +What is the price of celery per bunch? + +What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems? + + + + +LESSON LXXX + +VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF STRONG FLAVOR + + +THE EFFECT OF COOKING AND DRYING VITAMINE-RICH FOODS.--Since vitamines are +so essential in food, the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitamine +content of a food needs to be considered. There has been some difference +of opinion regarding this matter. Indeed, the question of whether or not +vitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and drying +has not been determined. It is thought, however, that fat-soluble A may be +destroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolonged +cooking may almost entirely destroy it. + +Water-soluble B is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cooking +processes. But when foods containing it are heated above boiling +temperature, as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker, +the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed. It is +thought the water-soluble B vitamine present in foods is destroyed by +cooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added. + +Water-soluble C is decidedly affected by heat. Vegetables cooked for even +twenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness in +preventing scurvy. It is thought, however, that very young carrots cooked +for a short time, and canned tomatoes, contain water-soluble C. Drying +also destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foods +containing water-soluble C. Most dried vegetables and fruits have been +found valueless in checking scurvy. + +Since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncooked +vegetables, the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables such +as cabbage and carrots should find favor. Spinach is a valuable food not +only because it + +contains vitamines, but because it is rich in iron. Young beet tops so +often discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted. + +NUTRIMENT _VERSUS_ FLAVOR.--If vegetables of strong flavor are cooked +carefully in a large quantity of boiling water (at least 4 quarts), a mild +flavor results, but much of the ash is lost. If vegetables are steamed +there is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained. In the +cooking of cabbage, for example, investigation has shown that almost four +times as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming. + +In the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the question +arises: Is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment but +preserve the strong flavor; or to boil them in much water and thus lose +much nutriment but secure delicate flavor? If strong cabbage flavor is not +distasteful, steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by all +means. If delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing, cook it in much +water. Onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer to +sacrifice nutriment for flavor. + +CREAMED CABBAGE (Cooked in Much Water) + +A head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water. If +it is wilted, it should remain in the water until freshened. Cook the +cabbage uncovered from 15 to 25 minutes in a large quantity of boiling +water (1 teaspoonful of salt to I quart of water). The time depends upon +the age of the cabbage. Drain well. With the knife and fork cut the +cabbage in the saucepan. (Do not discard the core of young cabbage since +it contains valuable nutrients.) Mix with White Sauce, using two parts of +cabbage to one of White Sauce. Heat and serve (see _Creamed and +Scalloped Vegetables_). + +_Scalloped Cabbage_ may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in a +baking-dish, covering with Buttered Crumbs and baking until the crumbs are +brown. + +Instead of using White Sauce with the cabbage, butter (or substitute), +pepper, and more salt (if required) may be added. Use 1 tablespoonful of +butter (or substitute) to each pint of cabbage. + +CABBAGE (COOKED IN LITTLE WATER) + +Clean cabbage, then cut or chop both the leaves and core. Cook in a +_small quantity_ of boiling water from 15 to 25 minutes. The small +quantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with the +vegetable to which butter (or substitute) and seasonings are added. + +The stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making White +Sauce in which the vegetable is served. + +CREAMED CABBAGE (STEAMED) + +Cut and clean cabbage as directed above. Place in a granite utensil and +steam until tender (usually about 45 minutes). Cut the leaves and add +White Sauce as directed above. + +ONIONS (COOKED IN MUCH WATER) + +1 pound onions +1/2 cupful milk +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter +1/2 teaspoonful salt +Pepper + +Peel and wash the onions; then cook uncovered in a large quantity of +boiling salted water; change the water at the end of 5 minutes and again +in 10 minutes; cook until tender. Drain; add milk and seasonings and cook +until the milk is hot. + +NOTE.--It is advisable to save the water drained from onions, boil it +down, and use it in soups, stews, or hash for flavor. + +Onions may also be served with White Sauce, or they may be scalloped, +_i.e._ cut into quarters, placed in a baking-dish, covered + +with White Sauce and Buttered Crumbs, and then browned in the oven. + +The stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held under +water when peeled. + +If onions are cooked uncovered in a _large quantity of gently boiling +water in a well-ventilated kitchen_, not much odor is noticed. The +fireless cooker, however, provides satisfactory means of cooking onions +without the disagreeable odor (see Lesson XXII). Place the onions in a +large quantity of water and boil for 5 minutes. Then cook in the fireless +cooker from 2 to 8 hours, according to the size and the age of the onions, +and the type of cooker. + +QUESTIONS + +Compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson. State +the advantages and disadvantages of each. + +Why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food? + +What is the price per pound of cabbage? What is the weight of one cabbage +of average size? Give suggestions for selecting a cabbage. + +Why should onions be peeled under water? + +What is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions? + +Why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it in +soups and other foods? + +What is the price per pound of onions? How many persons will one pound of +onions serve? + + + + +LESSON LXXXI + +SALADS (A) + + +PREPARATION OF A SALAD.--A well-prepared salad is a good food. It is +necessary, however, to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearance +as well as in taste. The green vegetables used for salads should be crisp, +cold, and dry when served. If several food materials are used, the flavors +should blend. Have the salad dressing well seasoned, and its ingredients +well proportioned. Add the dressing to a salad just before serving. + +LETTUCE FOR SALAD + +Either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads. It is often +used as a bed for a salad, or as a border. For the latter purpose, leaf +lettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors. Keep lettuce +in a cold place; separate the leaves, and place them in cold water until +crisp and fresh. Wash and look over carefully to see that no insects cling +to them. Shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or a +wire basket. Then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain. +The leaves may also be dried with a towel. + +Lettuce served with French Dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad. When +lettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad, it should be eaten and not +left to be turned into the garbage can. + +FRENCH DRESSING + +Clove of garlic _or_ +Slice of onion +1 teaspoonful salt +6 tablespoonfuls salad oil +half teaspoonful paprika +2 tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice + +Rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion. Add the remainder +of the ingredients, and stir until well blended. More vinegar or lemon +juice may be used, if desired. Chopped parsley or mint may be added. + +Some find it convenient to put the materials for French Dressing in a +bottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle. + +For Fruit Salads, the addition of 1 tablespoonful of sugar and 1 +teaspoonful of lemon juice to the French Dressing recipe above makes a +pleasing flavor. Celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor. +From a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added. + +COLESLAW + +3 cupfuls shredded cabbage +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful mustard +Cayenne +1 teaspoonful sugar +1 egg or 2 egg yolks +1/2 cupful milk +2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute +1/4 cupful vinegar + +Heat the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs, add the dry ingredients. +Then add the milk to them. Return the mixture to the double boiler and +cook as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Remove from the hot water, +add the fat and vinegar, and _at once_ strain over the cabbage. Set +aside to cool. Serve cold. + +CARROT AND CABBAGE SALAD + +1 medium-sized carrot +2 cupfuls cabbage +1/2 cupful roasted peanuts +French or Cream Salad Dressing + +Clean and scrape the carrot. Wash the cabbage. Put the carrot (uncooked), +cabbage, and peanuts through the food chopper. Mix with French or Cream +Salad Dressing. Add more seasoning if necessary. Serve at once. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding the +salad dressing. + +Give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatable +and pleasing if served with French Dressing. + +How is cabbage cleaned? How should it be cut for salad? + +When is the dressing usually added to salads? When is the dressing added +to the Coleslaw? Give the reason for this exception. + +What is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing? What could be +substituted for the egg? Give the method of preparation if this +substitution were made. + +What is the price per pound of leaf lettuce? Of head lettuce per pound or +per head? What is the average number of leaves in a pound? + +What materials in Carrot and Cabbage Salad contain vitamines? State the +kind of vitamine present in each material. + + + + +LESSON LXXXII + +SALADS (B) + + +STUFFED EGGS + +Cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them, +and for each egg add the following ingredients: + +1 tablespoonful chopped chicken, ham, or other meat +Dash salt +1 teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter +6 drops vinegar +1/8 teaspoonful mustard +Cayenne + +Mix the ingredients. Refill the whites with the yolk mixture. Serve the +stuffed eggs on lettuce leaves. + +The chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture, or a +little chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat. +Salad dressing may be served with Stuffed Eggs. + +CREAM SALAD DRESSING + +3 tablespoonfuls butter _or_ substitute +4 tablespoonfuls flour +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +Pepper +1 to 2 eggs +l 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/2 teaspoonful mustard +1 1/2 cupfuls milk (sweet _or_ sour) +1/2 cupful vinegar + +Make a sauce of the fat, flour, and milk. Beat the eggs, add the +seasonings. Add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cook +over hot water as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Add the vinegar, +strain. Cool before serving. + +Less mustard may be used, if desired. + +BANANA SALAD + +Peel and scrape bananas. Place them on lettuce leaves or surround with a +border of shredded lettuce. Cover with Cream Salad or Mayonnaise Dressing +and sprinkle chopped peanuts or California walnuts over them. Serve at +once. + +Banana Salad may be varied by serving it with Cream Salad Dressing to +which peanut butter is added,--(1/2 cupful salad dressing and 1/4 cupful +peanut butter). Do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination. A +mixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butter +dressing makes a pleasing salad. + +QUESTIONS + +Name the food materials contained in the above recipes which contain +vitamines. What kind of vitamines does each contain? + +Give two methods of hard-cooking eggs (see _Hard-cooked Eggs_). + +In Stuffed Eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken or +ham? + +What material could be substituted for one of the eggs in Cream Salad +Dressing? + +If yolks of eggs are used in Cream Salad Dressing, how many should be +substituted for two whole eggs? + +Why should bananas be scraped? + +Why should they be served at once after preparing? + + + + +LESSON LXXXIII + +CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOODSTUFFS + + +Substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows: + + / (_a_) Starch + / Carbohydrates \ (_b_) Sugar +Energy Givers | Fats + \ Protein + +[Footnote 59: Carbohydrates also include cellulose. But because cellulose +does not yield any appreciable amount of energy, it is not listed with +starch and sugar.] + + / Complete Proteins + / Protein +Body Builders \ Incomplete Proteins + \ Ash + + / Ash +Body Regulators | Water / (_a_) Fat-soluble A + \ Vitamines | (_b_) Water-soluble B + \ (_c_) Water-soluble C + +[Footnote 60: "So little is known regarding the chemical composition of +vitamines that it is difficult to classify them. Since the three food +essentials termed as fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, and water-soluble C +are individual substances and very different in character, it may be that +they will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs. It could then +be said that there are eight foodstuffs."] + +Make lists of foods rich in: + +(1) Water. (2) Ash. (3) Carbohydrates. Subdivide foods rich in +carbohydrates, into foods rich in (_a_) sugar, (_b_) starch, +(_c_) cellulose (_i.e._ bulky foods). (4) Fats. (5) Protein. +Indicate those foods that contain _complete_ proteins and those that +contain _incomplete_ proteins. (6) Vitamines. Subdivide foods rich in +vitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, water-soluble +C. + +Explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON LXXXIV + +SELECTING FOOD + + +MARKETING _VERSUS_ TELEPHONING.--Visits to food markets or grocery +stores are most essential, especially if one is learning to buy. It is +first necessary to find desirable market places or stores,--those that are +clean and reliable. Screened windows and doors, and adequate bins, boxes, +jars, or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keeping +foods clean. After one has found desirable places for marketing, it is +well to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned or +package goods. After this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered by +telephone, or by messenger with satisfaction. + +But no matter how experienced the buyer, it is more satisfactory to select +at markets perishable goods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables +that wilt readily. In certain cases where the housekeeper has such +obligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets is +impossible, food must be purchased by telephone or messenger. Such a +procedure, however, is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy and +satisfaction in buying. + +FRESH _VERSUS_ CANNED FOODS.--Fresh foods of good quality are +generally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutriment +than canned goods. When, however, fresh foods are unseasonable, their +price may greatly exceed that of canned foods. A good rule to follow is to +buy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when fresh +foods of reasonable price cannot be secured. The practice of buying +perishable foods, especially fruits, when they are abundant and canning +them for later use is thrifty. + +To buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits, such +as cranberries, oranges, and apples, and root vegetables may be purchased +is questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment. It is +often more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits. The +former usually contain more food value per pound. + +BULK _VERSUS_ PACKAGE GOODS.--Time spent in placing and sealing foods +in packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foods +exceed those sold in bulk. Moreover, large packages usually cost more +proportionately than small ones. On the other hand, package foods may be +cleaner, require less handling, and are often much more inviting because +of their attractive wrapping. It does not follow, however, that all foods +sold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk. Unsanitary +conditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed. It +is a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot be +washed or sterilized by cooking. + +UNCOOKED _VERSUS_ COOKED FOODS.--Not only breads, cakes, certain +cereals, and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked, but other foods, +such as salads and puddings, may be bought in certain markets and stores. +Such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality prepared +at home. The cost of labor, fuel, and "overhead expense" as well as of +materials must be paid for by the purchaser. Unless one is engaged in +business other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are too +arduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cooked +foods. + +LARGE _VERSUS_ SMALL QUANTITIES.--It is usually wasteful to purchase +perishable foods in large quantities. Fresh meats, perishable fruits such +as berries, and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantities +sufficient for immediate use. It is sometimes economical, as far as fuel +and time are concerned, to buy enough fresh meat for two days' +consumption, provided all of it can be cooked on the first day, and then +used cold or merely reheated on the second day. + +Unless storage space is limited, flour should not be purchased in less +than 25 pound sacks. In less quantity than this it usually costs more per +pound. It is wise for small families, however, to purchase flour and other +grains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infest +such food materials. + +When a non-perishable food such as sugar, or any of the grains, sells for +a fractional sum per pound, it is economical to buy several pounds so as +not to add to the cost per pound. It is wiser, for example, to buy 2 +pounds of dried beans at 12 1/2 cents per pound than one pound at 13 +cents. + +Semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased with +satisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week. They should, of course, +be stored in a cool place. Many persons find it economical to buy eggs in +large quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass for +winter use. + +Root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel and +case. There must, however, be cool, dry storage space to make the purchase +of the former in large quantities practical. + +It is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in small +enough quantities for immediate consumption. A can of molasses, for +example, is usually more than enough for use at one time. When this is the +case, the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefully +and to utilize them before they spoil. + +Cooperative buying usually means a saving. Such foods as flour, potatoes, +dried vegetables, sugar, apples, and dried fruits may be purchased by the +barrel, box, or other measure. If several families jointly purchase such +quantities of foods, the expense is reduced. It is also of advantage to +buy from the producer. The middle man's profit is thus eliminated. + + + + +LESSON LXXXV + +COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER + + +Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested: + +Cream of Pea Soup--Croutons +Macaroni and Cheese +Lettuce Salad +Bread and Butter +Oatmeal Cookies Tea + +Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or +supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person. + + + + +LESSON LXXXVI + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Chopped Steak +Boiled or Steamed Potato +Coleslaw +Tea + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON LXXXVII + +HOME PROJECTS I [Footnote 61: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare salads or other foods containing leafy +vegetables at least twice a week. + +Calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: + +(1) To prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty. +(Make sure that they are properly seasoned.) + +(2) To vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method of +serving and preparing the same salad materials. + +(3) If the vegetable is cooked, to prepare it in such a way that no +nutriment is lost. + +(4) To compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family with +the quantities suggested at the top of. + + + + +DIVISION EIGHT + +FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS + +LESSON LXXXVIII + +FOOD ADJUNCTS--DISHES CONTAINING FOOD ADJUNCTS + + +FOOD ADJUNCTS.--Besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances called +_food adjuncts_. These cannot be termed foods, as they do not perform +the functions of such, but they give flavor to them and they may excite +the secretion of the digestive juices, and thus aid in the digestion of +real foods. For the most part, food adjuncts are contained in these +classes of materials,--condiments, flavoring extracts, and beverages. + +Condiments.--Seasoning materials and spices are called _condiments_. +They are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor. But +condiments should be eaten in moderation. They are often used to cover up +the flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used to +excess in sauces. Highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foods +that are insipid in taste, but valuable for their nutritive properties. +Good foods, well cooked, have a flavor which needs little change. We +should train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods, so that there +is no craving for condiments. + +_Salt_ may be classed both as a condiment and as a food (see +_Ash_). When used in moderation, it has undoubted value in diet. It +is used in many types of foods, especially meats and vegetables. The +flavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariably +improved by the addition of a small quantity of salt. + +_Vinegar_ is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting apple +or grape juice or other materials. It contains acetic acid. + +_Cinnamon_ is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree. +Like most spices, it contains a volatile oil, i.e. an oil which +evaporates. Cinnamon is sometimes adulterated with _cassia_, a spice +prepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in China and Dutch +West Indies. Cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor. + +_Cloves_ are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in +Brazil, Ceylon, and West Indies. + +_Nutmeg_ is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree native +to the Malay Archipelago. + +_Ginger_ is the root of a tropical plant. It contains starch and oil +of ginger. + +_Mustard_ is prepared from the seed of mustard plants. + +_Black pepper_ is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vine +while _white pepper_ is prepared from the ripe berries. The latter is +not as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive. It is +sometimes desired, however, because of its more pleasing appearance. + +_Cayenne pepper_ is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of the +Capsicum plant. + +_Paprika_ is also prepared from the fruit of the Capsicum plant, but +the seeds and stems of the fruit are removed. It is a much milder spice +than cayenne pepper. + +_Marjoram, savory_, and _thyme_ are the leaves of herbs used for +flavoring. + +FLAVORING EXTRACTS.--Alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived from +plants are termed flavoring extracts. By dissolving the vanilla bean and +lemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla, lemon, and orange extracts are +prepared. Since volatile oils evaporate readily, especially when heated, +flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods. + +BEVERAGES.--The stimulating materials contained in the common beverages,-- +tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate,--are food adjuncts. [Footnote 62: +_Caffeine_ is the stimulating material in coffee; _theine_, in +tea; and _theobromine_, in cocoa and chocolate.] Except for the value +of the water they contain, in carrying on the needs of the body, and for +the small quantity of sugar and cream used with them, tea and coffee have +no food value. But cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value (see +_Cocoa and Chocolate_). These beverages contain both foodstuffs and +food adjuncts. + +CURRY OF KIDNEY BEANS + +1 pint kidney beans +2 tablespoonfuls fat +1 onion +1 teaspoonful curry powder [Footnote 63: Curry powder is a mixture of +various +spices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders.] +1 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls flour +1 pint tomatoes + +Wash and soak the beans overnight. Boil gently until tender. + +Brown the onion in the fat, then add the curry powder, salt, and flour, +and proceed as for Tomato Sauce (see _Tomato Sauce_). Add the cooked +beans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes. Serve hot. + +_Chili con carni_ may be prepared by adding 1 pound chopped beef to +the ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder. If +this change is made, brown the onion in the fat, then add the meat. Stir +and cook until the meat loses its red color. Add the cooked beans and +seasonings. Mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato. Add this +and the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture. Stir and cook for a +few minutes. Serve hot. + +SPICED BAKED APPLES + +5 apples +5 tablespoonfuls sugar +Water +1 lemon +Whole cloves + +Wash and core the apples. They may be pared if desired. Stick 2 or 3 whole +cloves in each apple. Place the apples in a baking-dish, put 1 +tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple, and a slice of lemon +on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish. +Cover, bake at 400 degrees F. until soft. Serve cold. + +If the apples are very sour, more sugar should be used. + +SAVORY TOAST + +2 cupfuls canned tomatoes +1 cupful water +2 cloves +3 allspice berries +3 peppercorns +2 sprays parsley +2 tablespoonfuls fat +1/2 onion, sliced +3 tablespoonfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful mustard +2 teaspoonfuls salt +Dash cayenne +1/4 pound cheese +1 egg +8 slices toast + +In a covered saucepan, cook the tomatoes, water, cloves, allspice berries, +peppercorns, and parsley at simmering temperature for at least 15 minutes. + +Brown the onion in the fat. Mix the flour, mustard, salt, and cayenne. Add +these ingredients to the onion and fat. Mix well and add the cooked +tomatoes. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then +strain. Add the cheese, stir and cook until the cheese is blended with the +other ingredients. + +Beat the egg, add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it. Mix +thoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture. Stir and +cook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg is +thickened. Pour over toast. Serve at once. + +Canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes. If this +substitution is made, the cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and +parsley should be omitted. For economy, the egg may be omitted. If no egg +is used, the flour may be increased to 4 tablespoonfuls and the fat to 3 +tablespoonfuls. + +Compare this recipe with that for Tomato Sauce. In what ways are the +ingredients and method of preparation similar? In what ways do they +differ? + +QUESTIONS + +In which ingredients of the Curry of Kidney Beans and Spiced Baked Apples +are the food adjuncts found? + +Beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking? + +What material can be added during cooking that will soften them (see +_Cooking Dried Legumes_)? + +What is the purpose of covering apples during baking? Why should they be +baked in a slow oven (see _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_)? + +What kind of substance do all spices contain? + +Why should spices be used in moderation? + +Explain why flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold +foods. + +Mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased: + +Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, mustard, and black pepper. + +What materials in the recipe for Savory Toast are used merely for +flavoring? + +What materials are removed by straining? How is the flavor extracted from +these materials before straining? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON LXXXIX + +SPENDING FOR FOOD + + +WHAT TO BUY.--Dr. Langworthy of the United States Department of +Agriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that food +from each group be used daily. The five groups follow: + +" 1. Fruits and Vegetables. + 2. Milk, Cheese, Eggs, Fish, Meat, Beans, Peas, Peanuts. + 3. Cereals--Corn-meal, Oatmeal, Rice, Rye, Wheat, Flour, Bread. + 4. Sugar, Sirups, Jelly, Honey, Candies. + 5. Fats--Butter, Margarine, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Drippings, Suet, +Bacon, +Chocolate." + +From studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil will +doubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of the +body. By following this plan of using some food from each group every day, +the needs of the body will be supplied. + +HOW MUCH TO SPEND FOR FOOD.--Any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtless +can get rid of money. But it takes a wise person, one who understands +values and quality, to get value received for money spent. Whether one is +purchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting a +luncheon or one meal, it is desirable to spend money wisely. + +The five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods. It +has been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into 5 +parts of 20 cents each. + +"Out of every dollar spent use: [Footnote 64: From _United States +Thrift +Leaflet #15_.] + + 20 cents, _more or less_, for vegetables and fruits + 20 cents, or _more_, for milk and cheese + 20 cents, or _less_, for meat, fish, eggs, etc. + 20 cents, or _more_, for bread and cereals + 20 cents, or _less_, for sugar, fat, tea, coffee, chocolate, +flavoring" + +NOTE.--Compare these groups of food with those given above. Note that the +first division of money should be used for the foods of Group 1; the +second and third divisions for the foods of Group 2; the fourth division +for the foods of Group 3; and the fifth division for the foods of Groups 4 +and 5. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 61.--A SUGGESTION FOR THE DIVISION OF EACH DOLLAR +SPENT FOR FOOD.] + +According to Lucy H. Gillett of the Dietetic Bureau of Boston, when +strictest economy is necessary, _one fourth_ of each dollar spent for +food should be used to purchase bread and other grain products. The +remainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups of +food mentioned above. If 25 instead of 20 cents is spent for cereal +products, however, care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet the +needs of each member of the family (see _Milk, an Invaluable Food_). +This is especially necessary where there are young children in the family. + +COMPARING THE COST OF FOODS.--The pupil should note that the different +foods contained in the same groups differ in cost. One can economize by +using the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive only +occasionally. If you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits, use +the latter more sparingly than the former. Meats are more expensive than +dried peas or beans and cheese, especially Cottage Cheese. Cottage Cheese +or peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place of +meat. A small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes or +cereals and a saving effected. + +The third, fourth, and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods (see +Divisions IV and V). Of the three groups of foods, cereals are by far the +cheapest source of energy. A generous use of cereals is economical. In +buying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost (when compared with +other foods). If the food bills must be curtailed, use cereals generously +and meat sparingly. Do not eat cereals, however, to the exclusion of the +foods of the other groups. It is especially necessary to use milk and +leafy vegetables with cereals. The latter are lacking in the fat-soluble A +vitamine. + +The fats included in Group 5 differ in cost. It is necessary to select +these wisely in order to economize. A wise and economical use of fats is +discussed previously. + +PLANNING BEFORE BUYING.--It is not only an obligation but a necessity to +waste no food. The bit of cereal left from breakfast, the crust of bread, +and the scrap of meat represent money. They must be utilized. + +The thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly cared +for so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage. She covers food and +stores it in a cool place. She uses it before it begins to spoil. + +In order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foods +already in the house or in the garden. It is necessary to decide before +going to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already on +hand. + + + + +LESSON XC + +COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER + + +Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested: + + Salmon Timbale with White Sauce + Stuffed Baked Potatoes + Stewed or Scalloped Tomatoes + Bread and Butter + Prune Pudding with Top Milk + +Analyze this menu. Is food from each of the groups given in lesson LXXXIX +contained in it? + +Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or +supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person. + + + + +LESSON XCI + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + + Cream of Tomato Soup + Cheese Pudding + Spiced Baked Apples + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON XCII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 65: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If possible secure lists of foods purchased +for use at your home during a week or a month. List each article and price +in one of the five groups, viz., + +===================================================================== +| Vegetables | Milk and | Meat, Fish, | Bread and | Sugar, Fat and | +| and Fruits | Cheese | Eggs, Etc | Cereals | Other Groceries | +_____________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +| | | | | | +===================================================================== + +Add up the cost in each column. Compare the sums. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: + +(1) To determine if the money for the various groups of food has been +spent according to the plan suggested in lesson LXXXIX. + +(2) If not, to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation and +change them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lesson +LXXXIX. + + + + +DIVISION NINE + +FOOD COMBINATIONS + +LESSON XCIII + +VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (A) + + +FOOD COMBINATIONS.--From a dietetic standpoint, it is well to combine +foods of different compositions. If a food is lacking in one or more of +the foodstuffs, it should be combined with a food that supplies the +missing nutrient. Bread contains little fat, and butter contains no +carbohydrates; hence these two foods make a desirable combination. +Vegetable oils, butter, and other fats make desirable additions to +vegetables. Macaroni contains little fat, while cheese is rich in this +foodstuff. Moreover, macaroni contains a small quantity of incomplete +protein, while cheese is rich in complete protein. Hence macaroni and +cheese make a good combination. In selecting foods to be used together, +careful attention should be given to their composition. + +EMULSION OF OIL; SALAD DRESSING.--As has been stated (see _Breaking Up +of Fats_), to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tiny +globules, and to coat each globule with some materials, so that the +droplets will remain separate. Various materials serve to emulsify fats. +During digestion, fat is emulsified by means of a _soap_ (see +Experiment 36). Egg is another material which emulsifies fats. This fact +is made use of in making Mayonnaise Dressing from vegetable oil and eggs. +If one understands that the oil must be divided into globules, and that +each globule must be coated with egg, the preparation of salad dressing +becomes interesting and successful. It is evident that the fat should be +added to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added. If the oil +and other ingredients are cold, a thicker dressing results. Quick +mayonnaise, however, is an exception to this rule. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 62--THE COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND SUCCULENT +VEGETABLES (Revised edition)] + +Since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion, it would seem +that fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested. This is true +of some emulsified fats,--the fat of milk is one of the most readily +digested. But when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as in +Mayonnaise Dressing, the digestion of the mixture is slower than if either +of the foodstuffs were alone. Hence to some persons, Mayonnaise Dressing +proves distressing. + +MAYONNAISE DRESSING + +1 egg yolk +1 tablespoonful vinegar +1 tablespoonful lemon juice +1/4 teaspoonful mustard +3/4 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful sugar +Cayenne +1 cupful vegetable oil +2 tablespoonfuls boiling water + +Put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl, add hot vinegar, and mix thoroughly. +Then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients. Let the mixture stand until +cool. Then beat it with a Dover egg beater and while beating add the oil +in small quantities,--about 1/2 tablespoonful at a time. Continue beating +and adding the oil. When the mixture begins to thicken, the oil can be +added in greater quantities. After all the oil is added, add the boiling +water. Beat until the latter is thoroughly blended. + +It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is +acidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to the +fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of +salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more water +that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the more +easily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to the +mixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil from +separating from the other ingredients. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 63--THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER AND OTHER FAT-YIELDING +FOODS (Revised edition)] + +If desired, the _whole egg_ may be used in place of the egg yolks. In +case this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the egg +should be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfuls +of oil. + +The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild and +pleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as +nutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. After +opening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. If +it is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing. + +If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. If +the dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e. +it has not been emulsified. + +_To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled_, beat the yolk of an egg +slightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly. + +_Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied_ by the addition of chili or +celery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, and +green peppers. + +QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oil +at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for +making an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may be +explained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which +hydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions for +emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. The +starch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possible +to emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.] + +2 egg yolks _or_ +1 whole egg +2 tablespoonfuls vinegar +2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice +1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt +1 teaspoonful sugar +1/2 teaspoonful mustard +Cayenne +1 cupful vegetable oil + +Into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar. Mix well. Add the other +ingredients. (It is not necessary to stir them.) + +Prepare a thick paste as follows: + +In the top part of a double boiler put + +1/3 cupful flour +1 cupful cold water +1 tablespoonful butter + +Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes. +At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture. +Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform +dressing results. + +(Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.) + +SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS + +Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, and +cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage, +carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes, +and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut into +desirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets are +greatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking for +one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soaked +in French Dressing. + +A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbers +and pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries are +successful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts with +vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads. +Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make a +tasty salad. + +Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have a +better flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowed +to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process is +called _marinating_. If several meats or vegetables are used in the +same salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving, +Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinated +salad materials. + +A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should +not be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressing +wilts the leaves. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small +quantities. + +Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it +gradually to an egg. + +What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseed +oil? Of corn oil? + +Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn, +cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil. + +From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and +Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63). + +How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How many +will the above recipe serve? + +Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads. + + + + +LESSON XCIV + +VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B) + + +SALAD GARNISHING.--Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of +good color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity in +arranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials for +garnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however, +in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with +"fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole, +pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer, +and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices, +cubes, or fancy shapes,--all these make pleasing garnishes. + +PERFECTION SALAD + +2 tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine +1/2 cupful cold water +1/2 cupful vinegar +1 lemon,--juice +2 cupfuls boiling water +1/2 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful salt +1 1/2 cupfuls sliced celery +1 1/2 cupfuls shredded cabbage +3 pimentos chopped + +Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture +(see _Lemon Jelly_). When the mixture begins to set, stir in the +vegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with Mayonnaise +Dressing. + +Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery +molded in jelly make tasty salads. + +QUESTIONS + +Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnish +for each. + +What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads? + +How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads? + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, +celery, and onions. + +Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash? + +Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad, +why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)? + +Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable +food addition to Perfection Salad. + + + + +FOOD COMBINATIONS + +LESSON XCV + +FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS + + +SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD + +1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish +1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery + +Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add the +cabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange on +lettuce and garnish as desired. + +If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon may +be used for the fat of Cream Dressing. + +The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When this +is done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fat +that it is not well to add more oil after marinating. + +SALAD ROLLS + +2 cupfuls flour +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute +1/2 cupful milk +1 egg + +Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder and +salt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it. +Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughly +mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a floured +board, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep crease +through the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2 +tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it. +Bake in a moderate oven. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should the +egg be diluted for such purposes? + +What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls? + +How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (see _U. +S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28)? + +Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see +Figure 68). + + + + +LESSON XCVI + +CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS + + +COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.--In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, it +is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,--a food containing acid. If +the following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from the +results of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soup +successfully. + +EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a +test tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,-- +tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result? + +EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.--Put a small +quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4 +teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to the +mixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that it +does not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as to +the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures? + +CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP + +1 can tomatoes +1/4 teaspoonful baking soda +1 quart milk +1/3 cupful flour +1/4 cupful butter or substitute +1 tablespoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmering +temperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and add +the baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat, _remove +from the fire_. Add the _hot_ tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce, +stirring constantly. Add the seasonings. _Do not heat the mixture after +combining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once._ + +[Illustration: FIGURE 64--THE COMPOSITION OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS] + +Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the +tomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce +into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings. + +Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milk +and the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is used +to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid +flavor of the tomatoes still predominates. + +CHEESE STRAWS + +2/3 cupful flour +1/4 teaspoonful salt +Cayenne +1 cupful soft bread crumbs +1 cupful grated cheese +2 tablespoonfuls milk + +Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk should +merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may be +necessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll the +mixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6 +inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup? + +Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature? + +From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explain +why soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup. + +What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauce +_slowly_ to the White Sauce or milk? + +Why should the soup be served _at once_ after combining the tomato +and milk mixture? + +If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and when +should the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed? + +What is the price per can of tomatoes? + +How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes? + +With the aid of _United States Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin +No. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition of +tomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, and +bread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws +make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in +the body. + + + + +LESSON XCVII + +VEAL AND POTATOES + + +MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.--The muscle of an undeveloped animal contains +more water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking in +flavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well as +that of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and not +allowed to hang. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 65.--CUTS OF VEAL.] + +CUTS OF VEAL (see Figure 65). +=================================================================== +| NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING | +=================================================================== +| A. Loin. | Chops. | Sauteing. | +| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | +| | | | +| B. Leg. | Steaks--veal cutlets | Sauteing. | +| | or veal steak. | Stewing. | +| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | +| | | | +| C. Knuckle. | Whole. | Stewing. | +| | | Soup-making. | +| | | | +| D. Rib or Rack. | Chops. | Sauteing. | +| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | +| | | | +| E. Shoulder. | Thick Pieces. | Stuffing and Roasting. | +| | Whole. | Braising. | +| | | | +| F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | +| | | | +| G. G. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | +| | Whole. | Stewing. | +| | | | +| Sweetbreads | Whole--in pairs. | Parboiling and | +| (thymus glands) | | Sauteing, Broiling, | +| --"Throat" and | | etc. | +| "Heart" | | | +| Sweetbreads. | | | +=================================================================== + +VEAL.--Veal is the muscle of the calf or young cow. It has the +characteristic qualities of undeveloped muscle. Because it is lacking in +flavor, it should be seasoned with herbs and spices, or served with a +sauce of pronounced flavor. It is also improved by adding some fat, or +some meat containing considerable fat such as pork. A calf is usually +killed when it is six or eight weeks old. The season for veal is spring; +it can usually be purchased, however, throughout the year. The muscle of +the veal should be pink in color, and the fat, white. The meat of a calf +less than six weeks old is lacking in color. + +The connective tissue in veal is abundant, but it is easily changed to +gelatine by cooking. Veal is generally considered difficult of digestion. + +VEAL CUTLETS (STEAK) + +Clean the meat; then remove the bone and tough membranes. Cut the meat +into pieces for serving. Cover the bone and the tough pieces of meat with +cold water and cook at a low temperature. (This stock is to be used in the +sauce.) Small pieces of meat may be put together by using wooden +toothpicks for skewers. Season the veal with salt and pepper. Roll in +dried bread crumbs, dip in beaten egg, then in crumbs again. Put 2 +tablespoonfuls of drippings or other fat in a frying pan. Brown the +cutlets in the fat. Remove the veal; in the frying pan prepare the +following: + +SAUCE FOR CUTLETS + +3 tablespoonfuls drippings +1/4 cupful flour +1/2 tablespoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 cupfuls stock or water +2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley +1 teaspoonful Worcestershire sauce + +Make a brown sauce, using all ingredients except the Worcestershire sauce +(see _Brown Sauce_). Add the cutlets to the sauce, and cook them at +simmering temperature for 1 hour or until tender. Just before serving, add +the Worcestershire sauce. + +_Beef_ may be prepared in the same way. + +VEAL WITH EGG DRESSING + +1 pound veal steak, sliced thin +2 eggs +3/4 cupful flour +Salt and pepper + +Cut the meat into pieces of suitable size for serving. Brown each piece in +fat. (Use scraps of fat cut from the meat.) + +Mix the egg, flour, and seasoning. Spread both sides of each piece of meat +with the egg mixture. Again brown the pieces of meat in fat. Then add +boiling water and let the meat cook at _simmering temperature_ for at +least 2 hours. Serve hot. + +_Beef_ may be substituted for veal. + +POTATO PUFF + +2 cupfuls mashed potatoes +2 tablespoonfuls milk +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +1 teaspoonful salt +Pepper +1 egg + +Mix all the ingredients except the egg. Separate the egg, and beat the +white and the yolk. Beat the yolk into the potato mixture; then add the +white by cutting and folding-in. Turn into a buttered baking-dish or drop +by spoonfuls on a buttered baking-sheet. Bake until the egg is cooked and +the top brown. Serve at once. + +The egg may also be added unbeaten to the potatoes, and the entire mixture +beaten vigorously. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is cold water, rather than hot, used for making meat stock? + +How does veal stock compare in color with beef stock? What is the stock +called that is made from veal? + +Why is this meat cooked at simmering rather than at boiling temperature? + +Why is it desirable to use parsley and Worcestershire sauce with veal? Is +it desirable to use Worcestershire sauce with beef or mutton? Explain your +answer. Why is Worcestershire sauce not cooked with the brown sauce? + +Locate veal cutlets or veal steak (see Figure 65). To what cut of beef +does it correspond? + +What cut of veal corresponds to the tenderloin cuts of beef? + +How does the cutting and the using of the rib section of veal differ from +that of beef? + +What are the prices per pound of each cut of veal? Arrange in tabulated +form and record the date. + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of veal cutlets or veal steak. Compare with the +percentage composition of beef steak (see Figure 68). + +Potato Puff may be prepared from either hot or cold mashed potatoes. +Should the temperature of the oven be the same for each? Explain your +answer. + +What is the purpose of the egg in the potato mixture? + +Which would give the better result when added to the potato mixture, +beaten egg or unbeaten egg? Give the reason for your answer. + +How many persons will the Potato Puff recipe serve? + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of fresh potatoes (see Figure 62) and boiled +potatoes. How much nutriment is lost by boiling one pound of potatoes? By +what method can potatoes be cooked in order to retain the most nutriment? + +Give reasons for combining veal and potatoes. + + + + +LESSON XCVIII + +MUTTON AND LAMB DISHES + + +MUTTON.--Mutton is the meat obtained from the sheep. The animal is usually +about three years of age when killed. Like beef, mutton needs to hang a +few days before using. It is considered as nutritious and as easily +digested as beef. Its strong flavor may be destroyed by removing the "pink +skin" and much of the fat. The latter has such a strong flavor, that it +cannot be used for cooking unless it is tried out with onion, apple, and +dried herbs. Mutton fat so prepared is sometimes termed _savory fat_. +It is thought that the fat dissolves certain flavoring materials present +in the fruit, vegetable, and herbs. The caramelized carbohydrate formed by +browning the apple and onion also adds to the flavor. [Footnote 68: See +_Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin_, No. 526.] + +Mutton fat is useful for soap-making. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 66.--CUTS OF LAMB OR MUTTON] + +LAMB.--Lamb is meat obtained from the young sheep, killed when from six +weeks to one year old. As the animal matures, the blood recedes from its +joints; hence the joints of lamb are pink in color, while those of mutton +are white. + +Lamb has the characteristics of the meat of immature animals. It contains +more water and a little less fat than mutton, and should not be allowed to +hang. It is more delicate in flavor than is mutton. Lamb should be well +cooked; mutton is sometimes served rare. + +FOOD COMBINATIONS + +CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON (see Figure 66). +================================================================== +| Name of Cut | Form Of Cut | Method Of Cooking | +================================================================== +| A. Loin. | Chops--Loin chops (see | Broiling. | +| | Figure 67). | Roasting. | +| | Thick pieces (loin sections | | +| | of both hind quarters in | | +| | one piece called "Saddle | | +| | of Mutton"). | | +| | | | +| B. Leg. | Slices. | Broiling. | +| | Thick pieces. | Roasting. | +| | | Stewing. | +| | | | +| C. Rib. | Chops--rib chops(see Fig- | Broiling. | +| | ure 67) (when trimmed | Roasting. | +| | called "French" chops. | | +| | see Figure 67). | | +| | Thick Pieces (rib sections | | +| | of both fore quarters in | | +| | one piece called "Rack | | +| | of Mutton"). | | +| | | | +| D. Shoulder. | Chops blade shoulder | Broiling. | +| | chops (see Figure 67) | Braising. | +| | and round shoulder | Roasting. | +| | chops (see Figure 67). | Stuffing and | +| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. | +| | Whole. | | +| | | | +| E. Breast. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | +| | | Broth-making. | +| | | | +| F. Neck. | Thick Pieces. | Stewing. | +| | | Broth-making. | +================================================================== + +STUFFED SHOULDER OF LAMB + +4 to 5 pounds shoulder of lamb, boned, cleaned, and stuffed with the +mixture used in Stuffed Meat Roast. (Double the quantity of ingredients +for the shoulder of lamb.) Add the stuffing to the meat; then "lace" (see +_Baked Fish_) or skewer into shape. Season, and dredge with flour. +Place drippings or other fat in a frying pan or iron roasting pan, and +brown the surface of the meat. Place the lamb on the rack in a roasting +pan, add boiling water; cover; and bake in a moderate oven, allowing +_one half hour to the pound_. _Shoulder of veal_ may be +prepared and stuffed in the same way. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers +College. FIGURE 67.--LAMB CHOPS. Upper row: Rib chops,--French. Loin +chops. Lower row: Rib chops. Blade shoulder chop. Round bone shoulder +chop.] + +MINT SAUCE + +1 cupful fresh mint +1/2 cupful vinegar +1/4 cupful sugar + +Chop the leaves and the tender tips of the mint. Dissolve the sugar in the +vinegar, and add the mint. Let the sauce stand one hour before using. Heat +over hot water before serving. + +LAMB OR MUTTON IN THE CASSEROLE + +2 pounds neck, breast, or shoulder of lamb or mutton +Flour +Fat for browning +Water or stock +4 carrots +2 cupfuls peas +2 teaspoonfuls salt +Pepper +1/2 bay leaf +3 allspice berries + +Cut the meat into pieces suitable for serving. Roll in flour, and brown in +a frying pan with hot fat. Remove to the casserole, and cover with boiling +water or stock. Wash, scrape, and cut the carrots into halves. Add them +and the spices to the meat in the casserole. Cover, and cook at simmering +temperature for two hours. Then add the peas and the seasoning. Cook until +tender. Serve hot from the casserole. + +One half cupful of cooked rice may be used instead of the carrots and +peas. Tomatoes also make a pleasing addition. + +THE CASSEROLE.--The casserole is a popular utensil for cooking and +serving. It is suitable for foods that need to be cooked at a low +temperature for a long period of time; hence its adaptability to tough +cuts of meat. Because the casserole is tightly covered, foods may be +cooked in it with little loss by evaporation. The flavor is retained also, +if the cooking is carefully done. The use of the casserole in serving is a +distinct advantage, since the foods may be served hot. The casserole may +be used in the oven or on top of the range. + +If a covered crock is used in place of the regulation casserole, a dinner +napkin should be folded neatly around it for serving. + +QUESTIONS + +Tell how lamb can be distinguished from mutton. Give two reasons for +adding dried herbs to the stuffing for lamb. + +Give two reasons for serving Mint Sauce with lamb. What is the purpose of +first browning the lamb that is to be roasted? + +[Illustration: FIGURE 68.--THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND CURED MEATS. +(Revised edition)] + +What is the easiest method of adding extra flour to the sauce around lamb +or mutton in the casserole (see _Thickening the Sauce of Meat Cooked in +Water_)? + +How many persons will this recipe serve? + +Name the advantages of cooking meat in a casserole. + +Give a dietetic reason for combining carrots, peas, or rice, with lamb or +mutton. + +Distinguish between rib and loin chops of lamb or mutton. What is a French +chop? + +Obtain the prices per pound of each cut of mutton or lamb. Arrange in +tabulated form and record the date. + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the +percentage composition of the hind quarter of mutton. Compare it with the +composition of beef steak. + +Tabulate the percentage composition of beets, carrots, parsnips, and +turnips. Which contains the most carbohydrates? Which the most ash? + + + + +LESSON XCIX + +PORK, VEGETABLES, AND APPLE SAUCE + + +PORK.--Pork is meat obtained from the pig. In all meats, much fat is +entangled in the network of connective tissue that binds the muscle +fibers. Pork, however, contains more fat than does any other meat. The fat +is most intimately mingled with the lean. For this reason it is digested +slowly. Fresh pork should be used sparingly. Its use should be confined to +the winter months. Pork should be thoroughly cooked. It sometimes contains +organisms which may produce serious results, if not destroyed in the +cooking. Pork is made more wholesome by curing, salting, and smoking. The +fat of bacon is readily digested. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 69.--CUTS OF PORK.] + + +CUTS OF PORK (see Figure 69). +=================================================================== +| NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING | +=================================================================== +| A. Loin. | Chops--rib and loin | Sauteing. | +| | chops (freed from fat| Roasting. | +| | called "spare ribs") | | +| | --cut into chops or | | +| | thick pieces. | | +| | | | +| B. Ham | Slices. | Sauteing. | +| (usually smoked). | Whole. | "Boiling." | +| | | Roasting. | +| | | | +| C. Back (all fat). | Strips. | "Tried out" (its | +| | Slices. | fat used for | +| | | sauteing, frying, | +| | | and flavoring), | +| | | Larding. | +| | | | +| D. Shoulder | Slices. | Sauteing. | +| (smoked or fresh). | Whole. | "Boiling." | +| | | Roasting. | +| | | | +| E. Bacon (smoked) | Thin or thick slices. | Sauteing. | +| or Salt Pork. | | Broiling. | +=================================================================== + + +PORK CHOPS WITH SWEET POTATOES + +Pare sweet potatoes, and place them in the bottom of a roasting pan. Wipe +the pork chops, and place them on top of the potatoes. Place the roasting +pan on the top shelf of a hot oven, in order to brown the chops. Brown on +one side; turn the chops with a fork, and brown on the other side. Then +remove the roasting pan from the oven, sprinkle the chops with salt, +pepper, and powdered sage. Add a little boiling water. Return to the oven. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 70.--THE COMPOSITION OF FRESH AND DRIED FRUITS. +(Revised edition)] + +Cover and bake 1 hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Baste the +potatoes and meat occasionally. + +Remove the chops to the center of a hot platter, and surround them with +the potatoes. Serve at once with Apple Sauce (for preparation of Apple +Sauce, see _Fruit Sauces_). + +TURNIPS WITH FRESH PORK + +1 1/2 pounds fresh pork (shoulder) +3 medium sized turnips +1 tablespoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls flour +Pepper + +Clean the meat, put it in a saucepan, and add enough boiling water to +cover. Cook at simmering temperature for 1 1/2 hours. + +Pare the turnips, cut them into cubes. When the meat has cooked 1/2 hour, +add the turnips and salt and continue cooking for 1 hour or until the meat +and vegetables are tender. Mix the flour with enough cold water (about 2 +tablespoonfuls) to make a thin batter. Add it to the meat and turnips. +Stir and cook for at least 10 minutes. Add a dash of pepper. Serve hot. + +BROILED HAM + +Parboil in boiling water for 10 minutes a slice of ham about 1/2 inch +thick. Place in a broiler and broil, or place in a "frying" pan and pan- +broil, turning often. Garnish with parsley and serve at once. + +BACON + +Place thin slices of bacon (from which the rind has been removed) in a hot +frying-pan. As the fat tries out, drain it from the bacon. Scorching of +the fat is thus prevented. Cook the bacon until it is brown and crisp, +turning once. + +_Bacon fat_ should be saved. It can be used in cooking. + +SCALLOPED POTATOES WITH BACON + +4 medium potatoes +1/4 pound sliced bacon +Flour +Salt, used sparingly +Pepper +Milk + +Pare the potatoes and cut them into thin slices. Cook the bacon until +brown; cut each slice of bacon into several pieces. Oil a baking-dish and +place a layer of potatoes in it, then a layer of bacon and some of the +tried-out bacon fat. Sprinkle with flour, salt, and pepper. Repeat, until +all the ingredients are used; the top layer should be of bacon. Add milk +until it reaches the top layer. Bake in a moderate oven for one hour, or +until much of the milk has evaporated and the potatoes are tender. Serve +hot. + +1/4 cupful of bacon drippings may be used instead of sliced bacon. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should fresh pork be used in winter rather than in summer? + +Why is pork slow in digesting? + +Explain why vegetables and Apple Sauce are desirable foods to serve with +pork (see Figure 62, Figure 68, and Figure 70). + +For what reason should pork be cooked thoroughly? + +What is the purpose of parboiling ham before broiling it? + +What ingredient, invariably used in Scalloped Potatoes, is omitted in +Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon? What is substituted for this material? + +Why should salt be added sparingly to potatoes cooked with bacon? + +How many persons does the given quantity of Scalloped Potatoes with Bacon +and of Turnips with Fresh Pork serve? + +To what cut of beef does ham correspond? + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the +percentage composition of fresh and salted ham. Compare it with the +composition of beef steak (see Figure 68). + +Obtain the price per pound of each cut of pork. Arrange in tabulated form +and record date. + + + + +LESSON C + +CHICKEN AND RICE + + +POULTRY.--Poultry includes chicken (or common fowl), turkey, duck, and +goose--domestic birds suitable for food. Pigeon and squab are not +considered poultry. Chickens that are three or four months old are called +_spring chickens_ or broilers. Birds older than one year are +sometimes called _fowls_. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 71.--REMOVING TENDONS FROM THE LEG OF A FOWL.] + +SELECTION OF CHICKEN AND FOWL.--Chickens and fowls have certain +characteristics which make them readily distinguishable. Chickens have +soft feet, a soft and flexible breast bone, many pin feathers, and little +fat. Fowls have hard and scaly feet, rigid breast bone, long hairs, and +much fat surrounding the intestines. + +DIGESTION OF POULTRY.--The muscle of chicken, fowl, and turkey contains +little fat; the fat that exists is in layers directly under the skin and +around the intestines. The fibers of the muscle are short. For this +reason, and also because they have so little fat, these meats are readily +digested. The white meat contains less fat than the dark. + +[Illustration with caption: FIGURE 72--FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. BREAST +VIEW] + +DRESSING AND CLEANING POULTRY.--Singe, by holding the bird over a flame of +gas, alcohol, or burning paper. Cut off the head, push back the skin, and +cut off the neck close to the body. Cut through the skin around the leg +one inch below the leg joint. If it is a fowl, take out the tendons; +remove them separately, using a skewer (see Figure 71). Remove the pin +feathers with the point of a knife or with a strawberry huller. Cut the +oil bag from the tail. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 73--FOWL TRUSSED FOR ROASTING,--BACK VIEW.] + +The internal organs are not always removed before the chicken is sold. If +they have not been removed, make an opening under one of the legs or at +the vent, leaving a strip of skin above the vent. Remove the organs +carefully,--the intestines, gizzard, heart, and liver should all be +removed together. Care must be taken that the gall bladder, which lies +under the liver, is not broken; it must be cut away carefully from the +liver. The lungs and kidneys, lying in the hollow of the backbone, must be +carefully removed. Press the heart to extract the blood. Cut off the outer +coat of the gizzard. The gizzard, heart, and liver constitute the giblets +to be used in making gravy. Wash the giblets. Place them all, with the +exception of the liver, in cold water; heat quickly and cook (at simmering +temperature) until tender. Add the liver a short time before removing the +other giblets from the stove, as it does not require long cooking. + +Clean the bird by wiping it thoroughly inside and out with a damp cloth, +stuff and truss for roasting, or cut into pieces for fricassee or stew. If +the bird is stuffed, the incision in the skin may be fastened together as +directed for Baked Fish. + +TRUSSING FOWL.--Insert a skewer through the fowl just underneath the legs, +then thrust another skewer through the wings and breast. With a piece of +string, tie the ends of the legs together and fasten them to the tail. +Then wind the ends of the string fastened to the tail, around the ends of +the skewer beneath the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and wind +them around the ends of the skewer through the wings; tie the strings +together at the back. If trussed in this manner, there is no string across +the breast of the fowl. A fowl should be served breast side up (see +Figures 72 and 73). + +CUTTING A FOWL.--Cut off the leg, and separate it at the joint into +"drumstick" and second joint. Cut off the wing and remove the tip; make an +incision at the middle joint. Remove the leg and wing from the other side; +separate the wishbone with the meat on it, from the breast, cut through +the ribs on each side, and separate the breast from the back. Cut the +breast in half lengthwise and the back through the middle crosswise. There +should be twelve pieces. The neck and the tips of the wings may be cooked +with the giblets for making gravy. + +STEWED CHICKEN [Footnote 69: Stewed Chicken may be utilized for _Chicken +Croquettes_) or _Creole Stew_.] + +Cover the pieces of chicken with boiling water, and cook at boiling +temperature for 15 minutes; then add one tablespoonful of salt and cook at +simmering temperature until tender. + +Arrange the pieces on a platter, placing the neck at one end of the +platter and the "drumsticks" at the other, and the remaining pieces in +order between. Cover with a sauce. + +The chicken may be placed on pieces of _toast_ or served in a border +of cooked _rice_. + +SAUCE FOR CHICKEN + +3 tablespoonfuls tried-out chicken fat or butter or substitute +1/4 cupful of flour +1 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley +1 pint stock +2 egg yolks or 1 egg +1/8 teaspoonful pepper + +Prepare the sauce (see _Cream Toast_), and pour it over the well- +beaten eggs, stirring until thoroughly mixed. Cook until the eggs are +coagulated. Serve at once over chicken. + +QUESTIONS + +Why is chicken more readily digested than other meat? + +What is the reason for cooking stewed chicken 15 minutes in _boiling_ +water? Why is the salt not added at first? Why should the chicken finally +be cooked at simmering temperature rather than at boiling? + +What use can be made of the fat of a fowl? + +What is the purpose of the eggs in Sauce for Chicken? + +Explain fully why rice or toast makes a desirable addition to Stewed +Chicken. + + + + +LESSON CI + +CHICKEN AND PEAS + + +CHICKEN CROQUETTES + +2 1/2 cupfuls chopped chicken or fowl +Onion juice +2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice +1 tablespoonful parsley + +SAUCE + +1 pint cream or milk +1/3 cupful fat +1/2 cupful flour +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +1 teaspoonful celery salt + +Chop the chicken very fine; add the seasonings. Make the sauce (see +_Cream Toast_). Add the chicken to the sauce. Cool the mixture. Shape +into cones. Cover with dried bread crumbs and egg, and cook in deep fat +(see _Fried Oysters_). Drain on paper. Serve at once with green peas. + +An egg may be beaten and added to the sauce, before mixing it with the +meat. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of cooling the chicken mixture before shaping it into +croquettes (see Experiment 17)? + +How many croquettes does this recipe make? + +How many cupfuls of chopped meat can be obtained from fowl of average +weight? + +What is the average weight of a chicken one year old? How long does it +take to cook it? + +What is the average weight of a spring chicken? + +What is the present market price of spring chicken? Of fowl? + +Compare the composition of fowl with that of round steak, using _U. S. +Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_. Also record the percentage +of refuse in a fowl when it is purchased. Considering the refuse in fowl, +what is the price per pound? + +Tabulate the percentage composition of fresh and dried peas and beans, and +of dried lentils. Which are richer in protein, the fresh or the dried +vegetables (see Figure 76)? + + + + +LESSON CII + +OYSTER DISHES + + +EXPERIMENT 63. PROTEIN IN OYSTER LIQUOR.--Pour a small quantity of oyster +liquor into a test tube and boil it. What change takes place? From your +previous experience with eggs, what foodstuff would you infer that oysters +contain? What inference can you draw from this as to the temperature at +which oysters should be cooked? + +OYSTERS.--An oyster is an animal covered with shell. The shell, which +consists of mineral matter, protects the animal. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 74--COMPOSITION OF FISH, FISH PRODUCTS AND OYSTERS +(Revised edition)] + +The oyster has no head, arms, or legs, but it has a mouth, liver, gills, +and one strong muscle. The mouth is near the hinge-end of the shell; by +means of the hinge, the shell is opened and water and food taken in; by +means of the muscle, the shell is closed. (Find the muscle in an oyster; +then the dark spot,--this is the liver; also find the fluted portions that +partly surround the liver,--these are the gills.) + +Oysters are in season from September until May. They are sometimes eaten +during the summer months, but are not so palatable and are more apt to be +contaminated by the bacteria of warm water. The bluish green color of some +oysters is due to the oyster's feeding upon vegetable materials. This does +not harm the flavor of the oyster. + +Oysters are sometimes placed in fresh water streams or in water which is +less salt than that in which they have grown to "fatten them." The animals +take in the fresh water, become plump, and increase in weight. If the +water is sewage-polluted, the oysters become contaminated with dangerous +bacteria. Methods of cooking usually applied to oysters, such as stewing +and boiling, may not destroy all bacteria. Hence, the danger in eating +oysters taken from polluted water. + +When oysters are prepared for market, they are sorted according to size. +Blue points, or small oysters originally grown in Blue Point, are prized +for serving raw in the half shell. This name, however, no longer indicates +the place from which the oysters come, but is applied to small oysters in +the shell. Large oysters selected for frying may be purchased. Oysters are +found at markets either in the shell or with the shell removed. + +Since oysters spoil readily, they must be kept cold during transportation. +They are now shipped in containers surrounded by ice. Formerly ice was +placed in contact with the oysters. + +Note the percentage composition of oysters (see Figure 74). With such a +large quantity of water, the oyster has little food value. Oysters are +prized for their flavor, but make an expensive food. Cooking makes oysters +somewhat tough, but it sterilizes them and makes them safer to use. It is +considered that oysters properly cooked are easily digested. They should +be eaten when very fresh. They spoil quickly and develop poisonous +products. + +CLEANING OYSTERS.--Drain off the liquor. If the liquor is to be used, +strain it through a fine strainer. Place the oysters in a strainer or +colander, and wash them. Do not allow oysters to stand in water after +washing. Run each oyster through the fingers to remove pieces of shell +that may be clinging to it. + +OYSTER STEW + +1 cupful milk +1 pint oysters +1 tablespoonful butter +Salt and pepper + +Heat the milk in a double boiler; add the seasonings and butter. Clean the +oysters; cook them in a saucepan until they become plump and the edges +curl. Add the hot milk and serve at once. + +The milk may be thickened with 1 tablespoonful of flour (see recipe for +_Thin White Sauce_). + +Serve crackers or bread with Oyster Stew. + +SCALLOPED OYSTERS + +1 pint oysters +1/2 teaspoonful salt +3 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1/4 cupful oyster juice or milk +Cayenne + +Wash the oysters, strain the juice, and butter the crumbs. Add the +seasoning to the oysters. Place one fourth of the buttered crumbs in the +bottom of a buttered baking-dish. Add one half of the oysters, another +fourth of the crumbs, then the remainder of the oysters, the liquid, and +finally the remaining half of the buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven +from 30 to 40 minutes. + +If baked in individual baking-dishes, only 15 minutes will be required for +baking. + +QUESTIONS + +Count and record the number of oysters in one pint. + +From Figures 64 and 74, tabulate the percentage composition of oysters and +milk. + +Find the weight of one cupful of oysters and of one cupful of milk. How do +they compare as to the amount of water, protein, and fat contained in one +pint of each? + +What is the difference in cost of one pint of each? + +What is the purpose of straining the oyster liquor? + +Why should not oysters stand in water after washing (see Experiment 38)? + +Explain why oysters should be cooked only a short time. What is the effect +of long cooking upon oysters? + +In Scalloped Oysters, why is the liquid added before the last layer of +crumbs? + +How many persons do each of these oyster recipes serve? + +What dietetic reason can be given for combining oysters and bread? + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, tabulate the +percentage composition of the following fish: Fresh and salt cod, fresh +and smoked herring, fresh and salt mackerel, fresh and canned salmon, +fresh perch, and fresh white fish. Which contains the most fat? How can +fish be classified with regard to fat content (see _Classes of +Fish_)? Which fish contains the most protein? + +How do fish, shellfish, and beef compare in protein content? Which is the +cheapest source of protein (see Figures 68 and 74)? + + + + +LESSON CIII + +MEAT-SUBSTITUTE DISHES + + +MEAT-SUBSTITUTE MATERIALS.--Cottage cheese, eggs, peanuts, and other +legumes are valuable substitutes for meat. The legumes with the exception +of soy-beans and peanuts, however, do not contain complete protein. Hence, +their use with eggs or milk is desirable. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 75.--The composition of eggs and cheese. (Revised +edition.)] + +Nuts are a form of fruit. They are rich in nutritive materials. If they +can be digested readily, they make a valuable food. They need to be ground +fine or chewed thoroughly, however, to make them digestible. Nuts contain +much fat, protein, and little carbohydrates. Chestnuts, however, contain +much of the latter foodstuff. Because they contain protein, nuts may be +used as substitutes for meat. But most nuts are expensive. For this reason +in many households they are impractical as everyday foods. + +COTTAGE CHEESE AND NUT LOAF + +1 cupful cottage cheese +1 cupful chopped nuts +1 cupful soft bread crumbs +1 teaspoonful salt +1/8 teaspoonful pepper +2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice +2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion +1 tablespoonful fat + +Mix the cheese, nuts, bread crumbs, lemon juice, salt, and pepper. Cook +the onion and fat together until they are brown. Add a small quantity of +water and then add the onion mixture to the other ingredients. If +necessary, add more water to moisten the mixture. Pour into a baking-dish +and bake until brown. + +(From _United States Food Administration Leaflet_.) + +SCALLOPED EGGS WITH CHEESE + +6 hard-cooked eggs +2 cupfuls medium White Sauce +2 cupfuls buttered soft bread crumbs +3/4 cupful cheese + +Grate the cheese, or cut it into pieces, and add it to the White Sauce. +Cut the eggs in slices. Oil a baking-dish, and place the materials in the +dish in layers, having the lower and top layers of bread crumbs. Bake in a +moderate oven until the mixture is heated through and the crumbs are +browned. Serve hot in place of meat. + +PEANUT ROAST + +1 1/2 cupfuls dried bread crumbs +Milk +1 1/2 cupfuls shelled peanuts +4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1 egg +Salt and pepper + +[FIGURE 76--THE COMPOSITION OF LEGUMES AND CORN (Revised edition.)] + +Cover the bread crumbs with milk, and soak them until soft. Chop the +peanuts very fine, and mix with the baking powder; beat the egg. Mix +thoroughly all the ingredients, and turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake +about 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 77.--THE COMPOSITION OF BREAD AND OTHER CEREAL +FOODS. (Revised edition.)] + +Commercial salted peanuts may be used for Peanut Roast. + +QUESTIONS + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 28_, find the +percentage of protein in Cream and Cottage Cheese, eggs (see Figure 75), +walnuts, peanuts, dried peas, and beans (see Figure 76), and beef. How +many ounces of protein does a pound of each of these foods contain? What +is the price per pound of each of these foods? Which food is the cheapest +source of protein? + +Why are bread crumbs a valuable addition to Scalloped Eggs with Cheese +(see Figure 77)? + +Name other meat-substitute foods and dishes. + + + + +LESSON CIV + +MEAT EXTENDERS AND ONE-DISH MEALS + + +MEAT EXTENDERS.--The flavor of meat is generally liked. Doubtless the +flavor accounts more than any other characteristic for the popularity of +meat. By using a small quantity of meat and combining it with various +cereals and vegetables, the flavor of meat permeates the mixture although +its quantity is reduced and price consequently lowered. Foods containing +such a combination of food materials are termed _meat extenders_. +Those desiring to reduce the quantity of meat consumed either for the sake +of health or economy will find meat-extending dishes desirable. + +ONE-DISH MEALS.--When many demands other than those of housekeeping are +made upon homekeepers it is often wise to lessen housekeeping duties. It +is both possible and satisfactory to cook an entire meal in one dish. A +meal consisting of one dish with a few accessories is termed a one-dish +meal. It is obvious that the one-dish meal is both simple and economical; +it saves time, fuel, and food; it is a wise conservation measure. + +In preparing the one-dish meal use a combination of two or more of the +following groups of food: + +(1) Vegetables, + +(2) Milk, or cheese, or eggs, or fish, or meat, or beans, or nuts, + +(3) Cereal, such as corn, barley, rice, oats, or buckwheat. + +To two or more of these groups of food a small amount of fat or oil is +generally added. + +The use of such foods with a dessert or fruit or a plain salad makes a +meal that satisfies the most exacting. + +It is most interesting to select foods from the groups above that would +"eat well" together. The one-dish meal gives one the opportunity for a +fascinating study of food combinations. If the casserole or fireless +cooker is used in their preparation, the possibilities are limitless. + +An examination of the meat-substitute dishes and meat extenders will show +that most of these foods make one-dish meals. + +MUTTON WITH BARLEY + +1 pound mutton +1 onion +1/2 cupful pearled barley +2 quarts water, boiling +4 potatoes +Celery leaves (fresh or dried) +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt + +Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and +sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley +and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least +1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes +and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the +potatoes are tender. Serve hot. + +(Adapted from _Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) + +TAMALE PIE + +3/4 cupful corn-meal +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +3 cupfuls boiling water +1 onion +1 tablespoonful fat +1 pound chopped meat +2 cupfuls tomatoes +Dash Cayenne pepper, _or_ +1 small chopped sweet pepper +1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt + +Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into +boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown +the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color +disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in +a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. +Bake 30 minutes. + +(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) + +CREOLE STEW + +1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl +1 tablespoonful fat +1/4 cupful chopped onion +1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers +1 cupful boiling water +1/2 cupful rice +1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) +2 cupfuls tomatoes +2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt + +Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying +pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a +few minutes. + +Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and +add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering +temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless +cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in +the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot. + +With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South. + +(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.) + +QUESTIONS + +Make a list of meat-extending dishes. + +Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals. + +How many persons will one pound of meat serve? + +How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound +of meat) serve? + +Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food +combinations. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CV + + +MENU-MAKING + +REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.--All the foodstuffs or nutrients +should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods +composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of: + +Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body. + +Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but +also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (see +_Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement_) its energy-giving power is +not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body. + +Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body. + +Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body. + +Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet. + +Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but +as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage. + +A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the +body follows: + +A. _Food for Energy_.--Although both _starch_ and _sugar_ +are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body +should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of +excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously. + +A certain amount of _fat_ is needed for energy-giving. A meal +containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of +foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other +foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may +feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other +hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them +greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of +much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is +valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting. + +B. _Food for Body-building and Repairing_.--Both _protein_ and +_ash_ are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the +element nitrogen,--one of the necessary elements for the growth and +maintenance of the body. + +Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question +arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or +vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least +desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the +formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons +with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction. + +Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others +find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable +condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much +benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly +lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, +such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. +Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in +diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes +and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by +foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is +eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits +should be used. + +While all the _mineral materials_ found in the body [Footnote 71: The +ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are: + +Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron +Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus + +] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and +iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities +(see Figures 78, 79, and 80). + +[Illustration: FIGURE 78.--FOODS CONTAINING CALCIUM. a, Dried beans, b, +dried figs; c, rutabaga, d, celery; e, milk; f, cauliflower, g, almonds; +h, egg yolk; i, cheese] + +Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and +bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. +Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is +especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children. + +_The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a +generous supply of milk._ Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of +plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium. + +_Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most +satisfactory sources of phosphorus._ A free use of these foods is +especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as +necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. +Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat +of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat +flour. + +[Illustration: Foods Containing Phosphorus: _a_ Dried peas; _b_, +chocolate; _c_, dried beans; _d_, whole wheat; _e_, +peanuts; _f_, cheese; _g_, cocoa; _h_, egg yolk.] + +In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron +is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If +foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so +likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in +eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely +assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable +sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable +foods for children. _The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, +and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized_. + +_Sulphur_ is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually +found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is +supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity. + +As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but _sodium_ +and _chlorine_,--two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh +vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and +phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain +all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet contains _all_ +the necessary ash constituents. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 80.--FOODS CONTAINING IRON. a. Dried peas; b. dried +figs; c. whole wheat; d. lentils; e. spinach; f. dried dates; g. eggs; h. +rye; i. lean beef; j. dried beans; k. raisins; l. dried lima beans.] + +C. _Food for Regulating_.--Although ash is needed for body-building, +it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. +Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is +also supplied with regulating materials. + +D. _Food for Promoting Growth_.--A discussion of vitamines,--the +materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of +health,--was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that +foods rich in vitamines be included in diet. + +E. _Food for Bulk_.--The use of foods containing cellulose, which +adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral +matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains +furnish both of these materials. + +OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.--For successful menu- +making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the +needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows: + +A. _Appetizing Foods_.--If the appetite needs stimulation, foods +which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. +Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and +sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the +appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially +nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing +food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal. + +B. _Foods of Contrasting Flavor_.--If beef or some other protein-rich +food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root +vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good +additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less +pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in +another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor +may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting +foods that will taste well together. + +C. _Variation of Foods_.--The same food should not be used twice in +the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be +monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked +beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for +both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread +and butter may be used with every meal. + +D. _Moist and Dry Foods_.--A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods +is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. +This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; +that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of +persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain +boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a +sauce or gravy. + +E. _Sweet Foods_.--A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning +of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served +with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, +the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less +irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving +them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When +the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large +quantities of sweet foods. + +A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be +served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or +gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal. + +Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. +They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has +taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of +the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been +eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered +one of the nutritious foods of a meal. + +F. _Milk and Beverages_.--Since milk is necessary for perfect +nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one +meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful +to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served +in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the +proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes +as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the +family. + +When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these +beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, +should be taken into consideration. + +G. _Foods on Hand_.--When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper +considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would +spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis +on which to plan one or more meals. + +A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. +But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible +uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with +milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread +crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute +one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; +a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several +pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring +over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be +crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding. + +It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of +time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy +expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is +wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other +hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to +plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is +especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and +other dried foods. + +MENU PLANS.--Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only +where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the +meals of most families are served only in one or two courses. + +Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it +is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements +of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, +and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors +involved in the planning of a desirable meal. + +As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu +planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, +economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the +menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of +the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to +have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists +of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these +when planning meals. + +The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more +elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals. + +A breakfast may consist of: + +Fruit +Cereal or Eggs and Toast +Beverage + +_or_ + +Fruit or Cereal (or both) +Meat, Egg, or Vegetable +Bread and Butter +Beverage + + +A luncheon or supper may consist of: + +Cream Soup +Bread and Butter +Salad or fruit +Beverage + +_or_ + +Fruit or Cream Soup +{Fish or Meat Substitutes +{Vegetables +{Bread and Butter +Salad +Dessert +Beverage + +A dinner may consist of: + +{Meat +{Vegetables +{Bread and Butter +Salad or Dessert +Beverage + +_or_ + +Clear Soup +Fish +{Meat +{Vegetables +{Bread With or Without Butter +Salad +Dessert +Beverage + +QUESTIONS + +Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in +moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. +Give reasons for making the combinations. + +Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the +week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent +for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed +the food allowance. + + + + +LESSON CVI + +PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER + + +Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is +limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve +the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal +planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat +substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow +the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it +exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within +this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained +in it? + +Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style +of serving. Serve the meal without a maid. + + + + +LESSON CVII + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Seasonable Vegetable Salad +Salad Dressing +Salad Rolls + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CVIII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals +containing meat-substitute,--at least one a week. + +Plan and prepare meals containing meat,--at least one a week. + +Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare +them. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a +one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes. + +(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one +containing a meat-substitute. + + + + +DIVISION TEN + +QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS + +LESSON CIX + +LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS + + +When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other +ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor. + +To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour +mixtures, try the following: + +EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE +TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by +dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two +experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat +thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. +Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 +minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following +questions: + +What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With +what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a +part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was +made porous. + +EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat +Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 +cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. +Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of +moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be +leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the +mixture? + +Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In +most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using +lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being +moistened and heated. + +EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful +of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it +carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour +measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour +before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before +measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread? + +[NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.] + +In preparing all quick bread mixtures, _pastry flour_ (see _Wheat +Flour_) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually +any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is +added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other +materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but +should be stirred. + +OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are +equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more +satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do +not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a +thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does +not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, +the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By +making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove +very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a +thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is +provided with a glass door. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of the _National Stove Co_ FIGURE 81--OVEN +HEAT REGULATOR] + +A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached +to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, +but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature +wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner +lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed +in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened +or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased +or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant, +_i.e._ at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens, +_i.e._ ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow +little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and +kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with +clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off +automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a +certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated +walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat." + +A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means +of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided +with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained +so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. +The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of +250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the +Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 +minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; +place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., +450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 +degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper. + +Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From +Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven +Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers +College, Columbia University.] + +1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues. + +2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, +plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf +cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures. + +3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and +Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat +after the first ten minutes. + +4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the +first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot." + +Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (_a_) note the +number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a +light brown or to a golden brown; (_b_) note the number of "counts" +(one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven. + +POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (_a_) Quick +Breads and (_b_) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much +shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided +into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture +in the batter. A _pour batter_ is the thinnest quick bread mixture. +It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite +proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different +flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials +varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. +Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter. + +POPOVERS + +1 egg +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 cupful milk +1 cupful flour +1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted) + +Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all +the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a +Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a +hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be +used instead of iron pans. + +Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may +be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a +pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, +peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup. + +QUESTIONS + +What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that +helps to lighten the Popovers? + +What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when +they are heated quickly? + +What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many +Popovers will the given recipe make? + + + + +LESSON CX + +LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD + + +Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined +ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often +introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the +following: + +EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of +sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any +change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What +kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see +Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of +baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture? + +EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk. +[Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the +end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes +place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an _acid_ is +present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of +baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper. +When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an _alkaline_ substance is +present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction. + +Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and +heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the +saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color, +carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again. +If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus +does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue +litmus paper changes color a _neutral_ substance is present, i.e. a +substance neither acid nor alkaline. + +When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction. +Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A _chemical +change_ has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely +different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan; +another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is +water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change +always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain +food mixtures are cooked and digested. + +EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the +contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of +baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction-- +acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was +the first quantity? Explain. + +If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour +milk is used, some _unneutralized_ soda will remain in the mixture. +This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive +quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture. + +Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the _approximate_ proportion of +baking soda to sour milk is: _1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 +cupful of thick sour milk._ + +The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper +amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials: + +1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote +79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water ++ carbon dioxide gas + neutral material. + +1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon +dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda." + +SPIDER CORN BREAD + +3/4 cupful corn-meal +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda +1/4 cupful flour +1 egg +1 tablespoonful sugar +1 cupful sour milk +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute + +Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk, +then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well +blended. + +Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the +corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked, +usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot. + +TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually +sufficiently baked: (_a_) when it is a golden brown in color; +(_b_) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (_c_) when the +crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or +(_d_) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting +needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary +to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a +very thick layer. + +QUESTIONS + +Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain +their action. + +Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2 +teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe. + +What is the price per half-pound of baking soda? + +How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve? + + + + +LESSON CXI + +LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD + + +EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of +baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it +with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat. +What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the +action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain +how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread. + +EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully +measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may +be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its +intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16 +teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the +soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue +litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the +litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor +pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,--acid, alkaline, +or neutral,--is present? What change has taken place in the materials +placed in the saucepan? + +This experiment shows that the _approximate_ proportion of baking +soda to molasses is: + +1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda to_ 1 _cupful of molasses_. + +This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment: + +1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> neutral material + +carbon dioxide gas + water. + +GINGERBREAD + +2 cupfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +3/4 teaspoonful baking soda +1 teaspoonful cinnamon +2 teaspoonfuls ginger +1/8 teaspoonful cloves +1 egg +1 cupful thick sour milk +1/2 cupful molasses +1/2 cupful sugar +2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat + +Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing +bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt +it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry +ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a +shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees +F.) 20 minutes or longer (see _Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick +Bread_) + +_Gingerbread without Eggs_ may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe +above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder. + +_Water Gingerbread_ may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water +for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4 +teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder. + +QUESTIONS + +Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain +their action. + +What is the price per quart of molasses? + +How many persons does this recipe serve? + + + + +LESSON CXII + +LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES + + +EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND +BAKING SODA.--Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper. +Is it acid or alkaline in reaction? + +Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of +tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1 +teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes +place? What substance is being formed? + +EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND +BAKING SODA.--Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with +the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,-- +hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before +or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the +temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick +bread mixtures? + +EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.--Add about 1 +teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the +effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of +Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do +you infer this baking powder contains? + +(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.) + +EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.--Filter the contents of the tube +used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of +tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper. +What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder? + +COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.--Baking powder consists of + +(_a_) baking soda, +(_b_) a substance having an acid reaction, +(_c_) a starchy material. + +The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some +powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium +acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They +are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum +baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material. +Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction, +such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid +phosphate. + +The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent +the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide. + +The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its +composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can. + +EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF +BAKING POWDERS.--Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each +of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful +of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate +baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and +phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that +chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts +the longest time? + +DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Although there has been much +discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over +another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little +harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain +types is slower than that of others, _i.e._ the formation of the gas +continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react +very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still +in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is +well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can +can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is +much greater than that of others. + +QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.--Since baking powder contains +both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a +quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the +quantity of flour and eggs. _When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of +baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour._ When eggs are +added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened +1/2 teaspoonful for each egg. + +_Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 +cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._ + +SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.--The general rules for mixing +quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the +egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most +housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result +satisfactory. + +The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in +the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of +baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change +from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than +to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After +mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as +well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency +of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin, +"pasty," and coarse grained. + +A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are +mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to +oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain +one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake +batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each +baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper. + +Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot +griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen, +when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes +should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after +baking. + +PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES + +2 cupfuls flour +1 egg +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 1/2 cupfuls milk +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +3 tablespoonfuls fat + +Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More +or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given +quantity may be required. + +1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired, +one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup +(see _Sirup_). + +BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES + +1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs +1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk +3 tablespoonfuls fat +1 to 2 eggs +1/2 cupful flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +3 teaspoonfuls baking powder + +Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in +the order given. + +1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. _Rice +Griddle Cakes_ are especially pleasing. + +QUESTIONS + +Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes. + +What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder? +Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate +baking powder? + +What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How +should baking powder be stored? + +What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too +thick? + +What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool? + +How should griddle cakes be served? + + + + +LESSON CXIII + +LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK +GRIDDLE CAKES + + +ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Some housekeepers maintain +that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of +sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light +and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain +as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain +eggs. If _the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour_ +and _no eggs are present_, it is often desirable to add leavening +materials other than sour milk and baking soda. + +From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of +baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon +dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists +of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance +for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and +baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures, +especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no +eggs. This involves a double reaction: + +(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> neutral material + carbon dioxide +gas + water. + +(_b_) Baking powder (moistened and heated) --> neutral material + +carbon dioxide gas + water. + +About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of baking +soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1 +teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking +powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 _teaspoonful of baking +soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be +used to leaven 1 cupful of flour_. + +_Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity +of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour +or flour or meal_ other than wheat. + +In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened +with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and +flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2 +teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the +amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will +leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of +the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2 +teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with +"acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to +leaven 1 cupful of flour (_i.e._ 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used. +Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls +of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of +flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour +(_i.e._ 1 teaspoonful) should be used. + +SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs) + +2 cupfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful baking powder +7/8 teaspoonful baking soda +1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk +3 tablespoonfuls fat + +Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour +milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix +thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water. + +CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES + +1 cupful corn-meal +2 cupfuls water +3 tablespoonfuls fat +1 cupful sour milk +1 cupful flour +1 teaspoonful salt +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking +soda +(with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2 +teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn- +meal is +contained in the recipe (see _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick +Breads_).] +2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82] +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar + +Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add +the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop +at once on a hot griddle. + +FRUIT SIRUP + +Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a +generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a +strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water. +Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of +sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce +for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding. + +Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and +used in the same way. + +QUESTIONS + +If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how +should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change. + +Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes +(without eggs). + +In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder, +upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what +ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your +answers. + +What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other +ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the +other ingredients? + + + + +LESSON CXIV + +LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN +BREADS + + +ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Instead of using prepared +baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous +lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough +baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and +the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction: + +(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> water + carbon dioxide gas + +neutral substance. + +(_b_) Baking soda + cream of tartar --> water + carbon dioxide gas + +a neutral substance. + +If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction +occurs: + +(_c_) Baking soda + molasses --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral +substance. + +It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and +baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 _teaspoonfuls of cream of +tartar with _1/2_ teaspoonful of baking soda._ These quantities of +materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2 +_teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _2/3_ teaspoonful of baking +soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal +other than wheat._ + +In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with +mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of +flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of +baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of +flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the +necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much +of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid" +food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to +neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to +neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe +calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour +milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) +will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will +neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar +(_i.e._ 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the +remainder of the baking soda. + +GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.--A quick bread +mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If +the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should +be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed +mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold +should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled +more than two thirds full. + +A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a +kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter +device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to +the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more _boiling_ +water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed +directly in the water. + +At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread +is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires +more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46). + +PLAIN BROWN BREAD + +2 cupfuls graham flour +2/3 cupful white flour +3/4 cupful brown sugar +2/3 teaspoonful salt +1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar +2 cupfuls sour milk + +Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. +Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan, +and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking +powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4 +hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds +and dry in the oven for a few minutes. + +BOSTON BROWN BREAD + +1/4 cupful sugar +1 cupful corn-meal +2 cupfuls graham flour +3/4 teaspoonful salt +2 teaspoonfuls baking soda +2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar +2 cupfuls sour milk +1/2 cupful molasses + +Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses, +sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix +well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove +from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes. + +Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour. + +If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water +before adding to the other ingredients. + +1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above +recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them. + +BUTTER BALLS + +Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water. +Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then +in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of +the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the +other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle +over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place. + +QUESTIONS + +What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the +gas formed in each mixture? + +How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe +containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful +molasses? + +Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread +recipes. + +Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture +should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds +full? + +Why should _boiling_ water be used to replenish the water in steaming +kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick +bread mixtures? + +Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a +cloth? + +What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before +using? + +Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls? + + + + +LESSON CXV + +FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES + + +LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate +fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the +required consistency of flour mixtures, _i.e._ the approximate +proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of +leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour. + +In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the +quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The +following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for +quick breads that contain little or no sugar: + +BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK + +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk + +BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.] + +1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses + +FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER + +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used. + +When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2 +teaspoonful for each egg. + +COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER + +2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal. + +FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA + +1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda +to 1 cupful of flour. + +COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR +AND BAKING SODA + +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda +to 1 cupful of flour. + +Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of +salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour. + +In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick +breads that contain little or no sugar: + +FLOUR AND SALT + +1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour + +FLOUR AND FAT + +1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour + +While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should +remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When +recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring +material, some of the quantities will need to be changed. + +WAFFLES + +2 cupfuls flour +3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 to 2 eggs +1 1/2 cupfuls milk +2 tablespoonfuls fat + +Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of +baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should +be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated +slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may +be used for this purpose. + +Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and +brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy. + +QUESTIONS + +Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs. + +Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional +leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other. + +How many waffles does the given recipe make? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CXVI + +MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS + + +HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, +fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that +these foodstuffs either (_a_) "burned" (_i.e._ united with +oxygen) and produced energy, (_b_) built the body, or (_c_) +aided in regulating body processes. + +All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of +digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see _Solution and +Digestion_); they are then further altered, _i.e._ split to their +end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The +blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood +also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the +air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs +that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel +materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when +oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body +builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue. +The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for +building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other +materials needed for building muscle. + +Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other +than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the +body. + +HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body +could be compared to an automobile, _i.e._ the "burning" of the fuel +foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy +that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the _fuel value_ of +that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat +is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although +ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure +their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the +nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, +and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous +nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence, +the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see +"Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, +Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. _If the quantity of heat that is +produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the +quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body._ + +Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in +temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The +heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a _Calorie_, or a definite +quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of +temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote +86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the +Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by +the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course +will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in +keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will +enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The +following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the +Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of +water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the +temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of +heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat +required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four +degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, _i.e._ the +quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water +from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat +that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from +60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as +the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of +water through about 4 degrees F. + +The Calorie, [Footnote 87: _I.e._ greater Calorie, distinguished from +the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, _is +approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of +one pound (pint) of water through_ 4 degrees F. If one pint of water +were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four +degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have +been applied to the water (see Figure 82). + +HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked +with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced +by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those +given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and +Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143, +"Physiological Fuel Values."] + +1 gram protein yields 4 Calories +1 gram fat yields 9 Calories +1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories +Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become: +1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories +1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories +1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories + +[Illustration: FIGURE 82.--ILLUSTRATING THE AMOUNT OF HEAT REPRESENTED BY +ONE CALORIE.] + +In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their +composition. For such data _United States Department of Agriculture_ +Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source. + +_Flour_.--The fuel content of flour is (see _United States +Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses +Average): + +10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates. +Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of +fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates. + +The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 83.--COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF +FOODS.] + +The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The +carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories. + +Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =) +100.98. + +_Butter_.--The fuel content of butter is (see _United States +Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54): + +1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates. + +1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and +no carbohydrates. + +The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories. + +The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories. + +Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is +(1.13+216.75=) 217.88. + +_Sugar_.--The fuel content of sugar is (see _United States +Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent +protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates. + +1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1 +ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories. + +HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.--For +practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found +more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value +instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred +Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in +the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This +weight is termed a _standard portion_ or a _100-Calorie portion_ +(see Figures 83 and 84). + +From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the +quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories. + +If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and _x_ represents the +number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then +_x_/1=100/100.98 or _x_=0.99, the number of ounces of flour +which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of flour. + +If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and _x_ represents the +number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then +_x_/1=100/217.88 or _x_=0.45, the number of ounces of butter +which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of butter. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 84--100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS. a, banana, b, +butter, c, eggs d, meat; e, bread.] + +If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of +ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/113 or +_x_=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 +Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of sugar. + +HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--It is +possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several +food materials. To do this one must know or find: + +(_a_) Recipe for food. +(_b_) Weight and measure of combustible food materials. +(_c_) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the +combustible +foodstuffs. + +The recipe for one loaf of bread is: + +1 cupful water +1 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful sugar +3 1/2 cupfuls flour +1/2 tablespoonful butter +1/4 cake compressed yeast +1/4 cupful water + +By weighing and measuring one finds: + +1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls +1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls +1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls + +Then, + +1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce +1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce +3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces + +(From data of _How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured_.) + +1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories +1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories +3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories +1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories + +For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated +in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a +recipe, or a "made" food. + +The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the +following manner: + +Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100 +Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of +homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6 +) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories. + +QUESTIONS + +Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk. + +Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg. + +Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar. + +Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the +butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar. + +Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then +weigh these portions. + +Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard +portion? + +Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is +computed? + +Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard. + +Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard. + +NOTE.--Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient +in recording the results of these calculations. + + + + +LESSON CXVII + +PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER + + +Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. +Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost +of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the +menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV. + +Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving. +Serve the meal without a maid. + +[Illustration: FORM A: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS OF FOODS] + +[Illustration: FORM B: CALCULATION OF FUEL VALUE OF RECIPES] + + + + +LESSON CXVIII + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Cereal Griddle Cakes +Fruit Sirup +Coffee + +_or_ + +Butterscotch Apples +Gingerbread +Tea + +See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson. + + + +LESSON CXIX + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.] + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or +Gingerbread in your home at least once a week. + +If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a +week. + +Calculate the cost of these breads. + +Suggested Aims: + +(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by +using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking +soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder. + +(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet +milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each. + + + + +DIVISION ELEVEN + +QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS + +LESSON CXX + +FINE AND COARSE FLOURS--MUFFINS + + +DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.--Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and +graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of +bran (cellulose). + +As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard +covering of cellulose (see _Cellulose_). Cereals also contain a germ +from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the +germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat +(erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham +[Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham +advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing +it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain. +The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called +_bran_, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of +the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the +protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a +mixture of inferior flour and bran. + +THE MILLING OF FLOUR.--In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are +passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and +separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of +times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more +thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are +they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour +consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called +_middlings_). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains +more of the outer coats. In general, the term _patent_ is applied to +flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer +coats is called _baker's_ or family flour. Patent flour contains more +starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein +than does patent flour. The terms _patent_ and _baker's_ vary in +meaning, however, in different localities. + +[Illustration: _From Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. +103._ FIGURE 85.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WHEAT GRAIN SHOWING BRAN +(outer coatings), FLOURY PART (interior of grain), AND GERM (base of +grain).] + +VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.--Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours +contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that +breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material. +But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse +flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of +protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours. + +The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine +flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a +valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and +Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and +p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or +bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," +E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are +more beneficial than fine flour products. + +PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.--The per cent of nutrients in a +food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield. +The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain +as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole +wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the +system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are +thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body +as they will when in the form of meal. + +In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for +some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others. +In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors +determine the nutritive value of a food: (_a_) per cent of nutrients, +(_b_) form of nutrients, and (_c_) personal digestive +characteristics. + +DROP BATTERS.--All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are +somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, _two +parts of flour to one part of moisture_. Compare the Plain Muffin +recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the +quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while +popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter. + +PLAIN MUFFINS + +2 cupfuls flour +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls fat +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1 egg +1 cupful milk + +Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the +fat, add it to the egg mixture. + +Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the +other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered +muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes. + +_Whole wheat_ flour may be substituted for fine white flour. + +For _graham_ muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful +of graham flour. + +1 1/8 cupfuls of _sour milk_ may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet +milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and +decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls. + +_Molasses_ may be substituted for sugar. + +QUESTIONS + +Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What +determines the quantity of baking powder? + +Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What +ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used? + +If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should +the empty cups be protected while in the oven? + +How many muffins will the recipes above make? + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of +"entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which +probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy +(see _Value of Coarse Flour_). + +Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade +of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein? +Which, the more carbohydrates? + +What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour? + +What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent +flour? + +How many cupfuls in a pound of flour? + +In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased +for home use? What is the price per pound of each? + + + + +LESSON CXXI + +COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS--MUFFINS + + +SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.--A resourceful worker in foods +is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her +available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one +to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize +all materials, allowing none to waste. + +During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations +were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It +was found that _the substitution should be based upon the relative +weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals_ rather than upon +their relative measures. + +By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same +quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained. + +For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute: + +l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour +5/6 cupful buckwheat flour +1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal +1 scant cupful peanut flour +7/8 cupful rice flour +1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats +1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground +in food chopper +1/3 cupful tapioca flour +7/8 cupful soy-bean flour +3/4 cupful potato flour +1 cupful rye flour + +Although _yeast breads_ are not so satisfactory if made +_entirely_ of a grain other than wheat, _quick breads of desirable +grain and texture may be made without wheat_. It has been found, +however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more +satisfactory results than a single substitute. + +When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of +substitutes are suggested by the _United States Department of +Agriculture, States Relation Service_. + +Rolled oats (ground) _or_ +Barley flour _or_ +Buckwheat flour _or_ +Peanut flour _or_ +Soy-bean flour + +and + +Corn flour _or_ +Corn-meal _or_ +Rice flour _or_ +Potato flour _or_ +Sweet potato flour + +Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein +which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in +the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a +satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials +together. + +By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other +ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding +materials together. + +When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in +_Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_) it is advisable to +increase the quantity of _baking powder_,--1/2 _teaspoonful for +each cupful of the substitute_ used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are +substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased +to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls. + +WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.--In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used +of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well +with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a +culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any +other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,--tender but firm +enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger +than those made with other cereals. + +Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that +of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we +have favored it more than other cereals. + +COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.--Make a comparative study of the +composition of the following: + +_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.--From _U.S. Department of +Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of +wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains +the more ash? + +Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in +corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic +property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the +latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best +to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing +corn breads. + +It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and +it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a +difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow +and of white corn-meal. + +_Wheat Flour and Oatmeal_.--From _U.S. Department of +Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of +wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash? +Which contains the more carbohydrates? + +Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals +commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in +order to make it palatable. + +_Wheat Flour and Rice_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, +Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all +analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice +(average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein +and ash? + +Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common +cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals. + +Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the +polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94: +Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02; +fat, 1.96; +carbohydrates, 76.98; +ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other + +grains. + +_Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye._--From _U. S. Department +of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition +of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of +fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in +buckwheat and in rye. + +CORN MUFFINS + +1 1/3 cupfuls flour +2/3 cupful corn-meal +4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1/3 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +1 1/4 cupfuls milk +2 tablespoonfuls fat + +Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at +400 F. + +_Rye meal_ may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe. + +RICE MUFFINS + +1 1/3 cupfuls flour +3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +2/3 cupful milk +1/2 cupful cooked rice +2 tablespoonfuls fat + +Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients +(through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour +mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a +hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes. + +OATMEAL MUFFINS + +Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful +rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the +rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool. +Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4 +teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls. + + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see +_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_). + +Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain +Muffins. Account for the difference. + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the +uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling? + +By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment? + +Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate +the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see +_Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values_). + + + + +LESSON CXXII + +BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS + + +QUICK LOAF BREADS.--The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers +a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder +or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time. +The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are +about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather +than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and +in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the +making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended. + +If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat, +baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such + +grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the +addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast +breads. + +A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,--about +300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise +sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the +temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results +by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in +the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven +of proper temperature. + +WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD + +3 cupfuls whole wheat flour +3 tablespoonfuls sugar +2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +7/8 teaspoonful baking soda +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt +1 egg +1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk +3 tablespoonfuls fat + +Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled +bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes. + +The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3 +1/4 teaspoonfuls. + +_Peanut Bread_ may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If +commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful. + +PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD + +1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour +1 cupful pastry flour +3/8 cupful sugar +5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking) +1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk) +2 tablespoonfuls fat + +Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone, +and cut in pieces or chop them. + +Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put +the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the +latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then +proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in +a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes. + +_Raisins_ or _dates_ may be used instead of prunes. These fruits +may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used +uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead +of 1 cupful liquid. + +QUESTIONS + +Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used. + +Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins +are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk. + +Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a +recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used. +Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made, +what ingredients will also require changing in quantity? + + + + +LESSON CXXIII + +EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS--CREAM PUFFS + + +DRIED EGGS.--Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in +price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save +these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or +desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not +injurious. Their food value is high. + +It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p. +108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that +desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes, +and salad dressings. _Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg +for each egg desired_. To this amount of powder, _add 3 +tablespoonfuls of water_. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30 +to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which +resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together. + +Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute +powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These +usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little +nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their +food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of +nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high. + +THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.--In all the quick +bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten +together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be +inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately. +It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a +delicate bread is desired. + +The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because +some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs +used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use. + +It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some +of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be +separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet, +should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a +quick bread. + +CREAM PUFF BATTER.--The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked +before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the +flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great +extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same +manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added +to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin +tins or gem pans. + +The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening +Popovers, _i.e._ by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs. + +CREAM PUFFS + +1/2 cupful water +3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil +1 tablespoonful butter +5/8 cupful flour +1/4 teaspoonful salt +2 eggs + +Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all +of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the +ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of +the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the +fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be +successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a +time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled +baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325 +degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with +Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream. + +Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad +mixture. + +CREAM FILLING + +1 cupful flour +3/4 cupful sugar +2 cupfuls scalded milk +1/2 tablespoonful butter +1 egg +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the +mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat. +Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return +to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the +salt. Cool, and add flavoring. + +For economy the butter may be omitted. + +_Chocolate Filling_ may be made by following the recipe for Cream +Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by +cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as +directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. + +QUESTIONS + +Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind +of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do +you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready +to bake? + +From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers +before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures. + +By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced +into the mixture? + +Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time? + +What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time? + +In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before +cooking (see Experiment 24)? + +Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather +than directly over the flame. + +How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it +necessary to cook it for 20 minutes? + +What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as +the flour mixture? + +Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make. + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure +75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains +the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more +water? Which contains the more nutriment? + +Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64). + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CXXIV + +FOOD REQUIREMENT + + +DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.--One hears much concerning working efficiency, +_i.e._ the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest +type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and +quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his +working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious +consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is +produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So +sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be +supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness. + +Since foods furnish the body with energy, _the energy which the body +spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed_. If the +body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy, +measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of +combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in +Calories. + +Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the +quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many +factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food +requirements or _dietary standards_. Some of these factors are: (1) +weight; (2) occupation; (3) age. + +(1) _Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy +Requirement_.--In general the quantity of food required increases with +the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight +increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in +height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short, +fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather +than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food +requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is +generally based upon body weight. + +(2) _Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement_.--From the +previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise, +even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been +found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the +functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the +energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is +furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an +important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an +individual should use. + +The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who +sits quietly at his employment. + +The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions +of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and +Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.] + + Man sleeping requires 65 Calories per hour + Man sitting at rest requires 100 Calories per hour + Man at light muscular exercise requires 170 Calories per hour + Man at active muscular exercise requires 290 Calories per hour + Man at severe muscular exercise requires 450 Calories per hour + Man at very severe muscular exercise requires 600 Calories per hour + +From these data, it is possible to compute the dietaries of people of +different occupations. For example, the energy requirement for a +bookkeeper (male) leading an inactive muscular life is: + +8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories +9 hours work at desk (100 Calories per hour) 900 Calories +4 hours sitting at rest and reading (100 Calories per + hour) 400 Calories +3 hours walking (170 Calories per hour) 510 Calories + ------------- + 2330 Calories + +The energy requirement for a man of severe muscular activity, such as +excavating, is: + +8 hours sleep (65 Calories per hour) 520 Calories +8 hours excavating (450 Calories per hour) 3600 Calories +1 hour walking (170 Calories per hour) 170 Calories +7 hours sitting at rest (100 Calories per hour) 700 Calories + ------------- + 4990 Calories + +Another authority [Footnote 97: "Textbook of Physiology," p. 141, +Tigerstedt.] gives these data pertaining to men engaged in muscular work: + +Shoemaker requires 2001-2400 Calories per day +Weaver requires 2401-2700 Calories per day +Carpenter or mason requires 2701-3200 Calories per day +Farm laborer requires 3201-4100 Calories per day +Excavator requires 4101-5000 Calories per day +Lumberman requires 5000 or more Calories per day + +The following data regarding the energy requirements of the average woman +in some of her common occupations have been formulated [Footnote 98: See +"Feeding the Family," p. 76, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.]: + +At rest 1600-1800 Calories per day +Sedentary occupations 2000-2200 Calories per day + Milliners Teachers + Bookkeepers Seamstresses + Stenographers Machine operatives +Occupations involving standing, walking, + or manual labor 2200-2500 Calories per day + Cooks in family groups Chamber maids + General housekeepers Waitresses +Occupations developing muscular + strength 2500-3000 Calories per day + Laundresses Cooks for large groups + +(3) _Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement._--Young children, +_i.e._ those under eight or nine years of age, do not require as much +food as adults. The food requirement of a child and of an adult is not +proportional to weight, however. In proportion to his weight a child +requires more food than an adult. The growing child needs food, not only +to give energy to the body and rebuild tissue, but to build new tissue. An +aged person needs less food to build new tissue. Furthermore, since an old +person's strength is somewhat lessened, he needs less food to carry on the +activities of the body. Hence, the aged person requires less food than the +adult of middle life. The following table [Footnote 99: From "Chemistry of +Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 197.] +gives the differences in energy requirement of children from one to +seventeen years inclusive. It is thought that after the age of seventeen, +food requirement will depend quite as much upon occupation as upon age. +Hence, the foregoing tables can be used to estimate energy requirement for +all ages above seventeen: + +Children of 1-2 years inclusive 1000-1200 Calories per day +Children of 2-5 years inclusive 1200-1500 Calories per day +Children of 6-9 years inclusive 1400-2000 Calories per day +Girls of 10-13 years inclusive 1800-2400 Calories per day +Boys of 10-13 years inclusive 2300-3000 Calories per day +Girls of 14-17 years inclusive 2200-2600 Calories per day +Boys of 14-17 years inclusive 2800-4000 Calories per day + +The fact that the energy requirement of the boy from 10 to 17 years is +greater than that of the girl of equal age is due probably to the greater +restlessness or muscular activity of the boy. + +DAILY PROTEIN REQUIREMENT.--If a person's energy requirement were 2500 +Calories, sufficient energy might be supplied by using butter or beef +steak for a day's ration. Yet this would be extremely unpalatable and +would not meet the needs of the body. The body should be nourished by all +the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Now the +question arises: How many of the required Calories shall be supplied by +each of these foodstuffs? + +Too much or too little protein is often harmful and produces serious +results. As mentioned previously, too much protein may cause intestinal +disturbances, and an overtaxing of the excretory organs. On the other +hand, the use of too little protein may produce imperfect nourishment. +Concerning the quantity of protein used in diet, there has been much +difference of opinion. Atwater, an American authority, thought that there +should be a generous supply, i.e. a surplus of protein, to supply the +demands of body-building. Chittenden, another American authority, believes +in just enough protein to meet the demands of the body. However, the use +of sufficient protein food to produce from ten to fifteen per cent of the +total Calories has been found both practical and satisfactory. + +Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement.--Although protein may furnish the +body with energy, it should not serve as the principal source of fuel. Its +more essential function is to help build the body. If carbohydrates and +fat are present with protein, the former supply energy and allow the +protein to perform its more important function of body-building. There +should always be enough carbohydrates and fat to furnish energy to the +body, so that the protein can be used chiefly for body-building. In the +growing period of youth or after a wasting disease, it might seem that +"flesh" could be "put on" by increasing the quantity of bodybuilding food. +But such is not the case. The most effective work in building the body can +be accomplished by using a normal amount of food rich in protein and a +generous supply of foods rich in ash, carbohydrates, fat, and vitamines. +With such a combination, the protein can be used to best advantage for +body-building. + +For practical purposes, the following general statement concerning the +carbohydrates and fat requirement is believed to be adequate: If the total +Calories and the number of Calories yielded by protein meet the +requirement of a dietary standard and the food composing the diet is +varied in composition, the carbohydrates and fat will exist in +satisfactory proportion. + +DAILY ASH REQUIREMENT.--Since ash is not a combustible foodstuff, it +cannot be included in the foodstuffs whose energy requirement can be +measured. Although ash exists in small quantity in food, the use of +certain ash constituents is considered as necessary as the use of protein. +A diet may meet the total energy, the protein, the carbohydrate, and the +fat requirements, yet may be lacking in certain essential mineral +materials. It is especially necessary to include food containing +phosphorus, iron, and calcium in one's diet. + +THE APPETITE AND FOOD REQUIREMENT.--The appetite is the most common +measure of daily food requirement. If one relies upon his appetite as an +index of the quantity of food he should consume, and if his health and +weight remain normal, the appetite may serve as a guide for daily food +requirement. But one may be a little over weight or under weight, and yet +have normal body functions. + +There can be no doubt, however, that the whims of the appetite often lead +to unwise selection of food. A study of food composition is absolutely +essential in overcoming this fault. Lack of energy or loss of flesh may be +due to improper feeding. If the needs of the body and the kind and +quantity of food that will supply these needs are understood by the home- +keeper, she may do much in maintaining the health, happiness, and +usefulness of the members of the family. + +WEIGHT AS AN INDEX TO PROPER NOURISHMENT.--It has been found that the diet +of an individual has a most decided effect upon his weight. Dr. Thomas D. +Wood has prepared tables showing the normal height and weight of girls and +boys of various ages. These tables are most valuable in determining +whether or not a girl or boy is of the proper weight for his height. If +the weight of a girl or boy is less than it should be, he is likely to be +malnourished. + +HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS + +HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 +INCHES YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS YRS + + 39 34 35 36 + 40 36 37 38 + 41 38 39 40 + 42 40 41 42 43 + 43 42 42 43 44 + 44 44 45 45 46 + 45 46 47 47 48 49 + 46 48 48 49 50 51 + 47 49 50 51 52 53 + 48 51 52 53 54 55 56 + 49 53 54 55 56 57 58 + 50 56 57 58 59 60 61 + 51 59 60 61 62 63 64 + 52 62 63 64 65 66 67 + 53 66 67 68 68 69 70 + 54 68 69 70 71 72 73 + 55 72 73 74 75 76 77 + 56 76 77 78 79 80 81 + 57 81 82 83 84 85 86 + 58 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 + 59 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 98 + 60 94 95 97 99 100 102 104 106 + 61 99 101 102 104 106 108 109 111 + 62 104 106 107 109 111 113 114 115 + 63 109 111 112 113 115 117 118 119 + 64 115 117 118 119 120 121 122 + 65 117 119 120 122 123 124 125 + 66 119 121 122 124 126 127 128 + 67 124 126 127 128 129 130 + 68 126 128 130 132 133 134 + 69 129 131 133 135 136 137 + 70 134 136 138 139 140 + 71 138 140 142 143 144 + 72 145 147 148 149 + +ABOUT WHAT A GIRL SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH + + Age Age + 5 to 8 6 oz. 14 to 16 8 oz + 8 to 11 8 oz. 16 to 18 4 oz + 11 to 14 12 oz. + +Weights and measures should be taken without shoes and in only the +usual indoor clothes + +CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION +156 Fifth Avenue, New York + +Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_. Prepared by _Dr. Thomas +D. +Wood_. + +HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS + +HEIGHT 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 +INCHES Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs Yrs + +39 35 36 37 +40 37 38 39 +41 39 40 41 +42 41 42 43 44 +43 43 44 45 46 +44 45 46 46 47 +45 47 47 48 48 49 +46 48 49 50 50 51 +47 51 52 52 53 54 +48 53 54 55 55 56 57 +49 55 56 57 58 58 59 +50 58 59 60 60 61 62 +51 60 61 62 63 64 65 +52 62 63 64 65 67 68 +53 66 67 68 69 70 71 +54 69 70 71 72 73 74 +55 73 74 75 76 77 78 +56 77 78 79 80 81 82 +57 81 82 83 84 85 86 +58 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 +59 87 88 89 90 92 94 96 97 +60 91 92 93 94 97 99 101 102 +61 95 97 99 102 104 106 108 110 +62 100 102 104 106 109 111 113 116 +63 103 107 109 111 114 115 117 119 +64 113 115 117 118 119 120 122 +65 120 122 123 124 125 126 +66 125 126 127 128 129 130 +67 130 131 132 133 134 135 +68 134 135 136 137 138 139 +69 138 139 140 141 142 143 +70 142 144 145 146 147 +71 147 149 150 151 153 +72 152 154 155 156 157 +73 157 159 160 161 162 +74 162 164 165 166 167 +75 169 170 171 172 +76 174 175 176 177 + +ABOUT WHAT A BOY SHOULD GAIN EACH MONTH + +AGE AGE +5 to 8 6 oz 12 to 16 16 oz +8 to 12 8 oz 16 to 18 8 oz + +Courtesy of _Child Health Organization_ Prepared by +_Dr Thomas D Wood_ + +Dr. Wood's tables also indicate the proper rate of increase in weight. The +rate of increase in weight is thought to be quite as important as is the +correct proportion between weight and height. The use of scales in the +home and school is to be recommended. They furnish a means of determining +whether the proper amount is being eaten. + +QUESTIONS + +Compute the energy requirement of at least two members of your family. +Compute your own energy requirement from this table. + +Determine your height and weight. How does your weight compare with the +normal weight given in the table for one of your height? If you are under +weight, discuss with your teacher the kind and quantity of food needed to +increase your weight. At the end of a month, again determine your weight. +How does the gain compare with that given in the table for one of your +age? + + + + +LESSON CXXV + +PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER + + +Plan a dinner. [Footnote 100: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods and a +meat-substitute. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. + +Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 +cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements +stated in Lesson CV. + +Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise style of +serving. Serve the dinner with a maid, provided the pupils find it useful +to know how to serve with a maid either in their own homes or in the homes +of others. [Footnote 101: See Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix), +regarding service with and without a maid.] + + + + +LESSON CXXVI + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Potato Soup +Lettuce Salad with French Dressing +Muffins + + +See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CXXVII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 102: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare muffins, baking powder biscuits, or +baking powder loaf breads at least twice a week. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To learn to work quickly. Note the time required to +mix these quick breads. Strive to lessen the number of minutes each time +you prepare them. + +(2) To use available materials. Use the food-materials you have on hand,-- +such as sour or sweet milk, left-over cooked cereals, and different kinds +of flours or meals. + + + + +DIVISION TWELVE + +QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS + +LESSON CXXVIII + +METHOD OF MIXING FAT IN QUICK BREADS--DROP BISCUIT + + +MIXING FAT.--What method is used in mixing the fat in all batter quick +breads (see previous lessons on _Batters_)? + +In making quick breads, it is desirable to mix all ingredients thoroughly. +Fat is mixed in a quick bread most easily and thoroughly by melting it and +stirring it into the other ingredients, provided only that the quick bread +mixture is thin, _i.e._ a batter. + +When the quick bread is a stiff mixture, _i.e._ a dough, this method +of mixing the fat is not considered satisfactory, although it has been +found that biscuits of good quality can be made by adding melted fat, +provided the dough is beaten thoroughly. Fat is usually added to doughs by +working it, in solid form, into the dry ingredients, either with a knife +or with the fingers. (In which method of mixing--with the knife or with +the fingers--can the mixture be kept cooler? Which is the cleaner method?) +If the fingers are used for mixing the fat, it is well to work it into the +flour with the tips of the fingers rather than to rub the ingredients +between the palms of the hands. + +SOFT DOUGHS.--Doughs are most easily mixed by using a knife instead of a +spoon. A soft dough contains approximately _three parts of flour to one +part of moisture_. Baking Powder Biscuit is a typical soft dough +mixture. + +DROP BISCUITS + +2 cupfuls flour +4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +2 tablespoonfuls fat +Milk or water, about 3/4 cupful + +Mix the dry ingredients; then work the fat into the mixture with the tips +of the fingers, or cut it in thoroughly with a knife. With a knife mix the +liquid with the dry ingredients. The mixture is of proper consistency when +it may be dropped from the spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls on +an oiled pan, or into oiled muffin tins. Bake in a hot oven (475 degrees +F.) from 12 to 15 minutes. + +FRUIT PUDDING + +Place sliced fruit--fresh, canned, or dried--in an oiled baking-dish. +Cover the fruit with a biscuit mixture, made by using the ingredients in +the same proportion as for Drop Biscuits. Two or three times as much fat +as the given quantity may be used. Bake until the fruit is tender and the +batter is firm and brown, usually from 15 to 30 minutes. Serve with cream +or fruit sauce. Plain cream may be used, or the cream may be whipped, or +sweetened and flavored with a little nutmeg or vanilla. + +WHIPPED CREAM SAUCE + +1 cupful whipped cream +1 egg white +1/3 cupful powdered sugar +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +Chill the cream; add the unbeaten egg; then beat with an egg beater (for +method of whipping cream see Lesson XLVIII). Add the sugar and vanilla. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why the fat in Drop Biscuit is not added in the same manner as in +pour batters. + +If the fat is to be mixed with the dry ingredients, why rub the +ingredients together between the fingers rather than between the palms of +the hands? + +Compare as to taste and appearance the biscuits made with lard or +vegetable fat with those made with butter. + +Why should not a tin pan be used for the fruit pudding? + +Mention at least four kinds of fruit that could be used for the pudding +and tell how the use of some kinds of fruit would modify the time of +baking. + +Why does the quantity of liquid given in Drop Biscuits vary (see _Pour +Batter_ and _Gluten_)? + +Why is it necessary to surround the cream with ice water while whipping it +(see _Whipping Cream_)? + + + + +LESSON CXXIX + +QUANTITY OF FAT IN QUICK BREADS--SHORT CAKE + +"Shortening."--The tenderness of a quick bread is an important +consideration. It is dependent upon the quantity of fat in the bread. Oil +and water do not mix (see Experiment 35). Hence when much fat is used in a +quick bread, particles of dough or batter, which contain both fat and +moisture, do not adhere firmly. Quick bread containing much fat becomes +tender, that is, it crumbles readily. + +In preparing modified biscuit mixtures,--short cakes, fruit dumplings, +etc.,--in which the quantity of fat is increased, make very careful +comparisons between the "rich" or "short" breads and those containing the +standard quantity of fat. In making observations, note the following: + +(_a_) ease or difficulty in removing from the pan without +breaking, +(_b_) tenderness or toughness, +(_c_) difference in flavor. + +FRUIT SHORT CAKE + +Make a biscuit mixture, containing two or three times the quantity of fat +used in biscuit mixture. Place one half of the mixture in an oiled cake +pan, then spread it with a scant quantity of melted butter or substitute. +Add the remainder of the mixture and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 +minutes. Remove from the pan, and place on a cake cooler for a few +minutes. Split the cake open and fill with crushed and sweetened fruits. +Place uncrushed fruits on the top, and serve with plain cream or Whipped +Cream or Fruit Sauce; or cover the cake with a meringue, garnish with +whole fruit, and serve with a Soft Custard Sauce. + +1/4 cupful of sugar may be added to the dry ingredients of Short Cake. + +QUESTIONS + +What general statement can you make with regard to the effect of +increasing the fat in quick breads? + +Knowing the change that takes place in a quick bread, when the quantity of +fat is increased, state the effect of adding too much fat. + +What is the purpose of using _melted_ butter or substitute in the +Short Cake mixture? + +Mention some fruits, or fruit combinations, that would be palatable in a +Short Cake. + +How many persons can be served with a Short Cake made with 2 cupfuls of +flour? + + + + +LESSON CXXX + +"CUT" BISCUIT + + +USE OF THE ROLLING PIN.--When dough is to be rolled and cut into biscuits, +it needs to be a little stiffer than for Drop Biscuits. It should, +however, be a soft dough. Biscuit dough should not be pressed down with a +rolling motion, but should be deftly and gently "patted" out with several +successive "touches" with the rolling pin. + +In using the rolling pin for stiff doughs, when more pressure should be +exerted, the pin should be lifted up at the end of each stroke. + +BAKING POWDER BISCUITS + +2 cupfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +4 teaspoonfuls baking powder +2 tablespoonfuls fat +Milk or water, about 2/3 cupful + +Mix as in drop biscuits, using less milk, so that the dough is just stiff +enough to roll out. Roll gently to 1/2 inch thickness on a slightly +floured board, and cut into small biscuits. If any dry flour clings to the +top of the biscuits, moisten it with a little milk or water. Place on a +slightly oiled pan, and bake in a hot oven (475 degrees F.) from 12 to 15 +minutes. Serve hot. They may be placed on a folded napkin or doily. + +APPLE DUMPLINGS + +Make Baking Powder Biscuit dough. Roll until 1/4 inch thick and cut into +pieces. Place an apple (cored and pared) in the center of each piece. Fold +the dough over the fruit and bake (375 degrees F.) or steam for 1/2 hour, +or until the apples are soft. The dumplings may be browned in the oven +after steaming. + +Rich biscuit dough or pastry may be used for Apple Dumplings. Other fruits +may be used instead of apples. + +FRUIT ROLLS + +Make a biscuit mixture, using 4 tablespoonfuls of fat instead of 2 +tablespoonfuls, as given in the recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits. Gently +roll to 1/4 inch thickness, and spread the following ingredients over it: + +1 tablespoonful butter or substitute +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon +Fruit + +For the fruit use: + +1/2 cupful dried currants, or +1/3 cupful raisins and 2 tablespoonfuls citron, or +2 cupfuls chopped apples + +Roll as jelly roll, then cut into pieces 3/4 inch thick and place (cut +side down) on buttered tins. Bake in a hot oven (450 degrees F.) 15 to 30 +minutes. If apples are used, serve the roll with cream and sugar as a +dessert. If the dried fruits are used, serve the roll in place of a hot +bread or cake. + +QUESTIONS + +Compare recipes for "drop" and "cut" biscuits. How do they differ? + +Why should biscuits be "patted" out rather than rolled out with the +rolling pin? + +If dry flour clings to the top of the biscuits after cutting, what is the +result after baking? How can this be remedied? + +How can the biscuit cutter and rolling pin be prevented from sticking to +the dough? + +Why are biscuits sometimes served on a napkin or doily? + +Write a recipe for Baking Powder Biscuits, using 3 cupfuls of flour as the +basis. + +How many apples of medium size are required for Apple Dumplings, when 2 +cupfuls of flour are used? + +Why do Apple Dumplings require a longer time for baking than Baking Powder +Biscuits? + +How should citron be cut for use in cooking? + +If apples are to be used for the fruit of Fruit Rolls, give in order the +measuring, the preparation, and the mixing of the materials. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CXXXI + + +MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD APPLIED TO DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENT + +Practical Method of Diet Calculation.--The 100-Calorie portions can be +used in a very practical way for computing the fuel value of one's daily +diet. In Lesson CXVI the weights of 100-Calorie portions of flour, +butter, sugar, etc., were determined, then these portions were weighed and +measured. In much the same way, tables have been prepared containing the +weight and measure of 100-Calorie portions. If such a table is read and +the quantity of the various ordinary foods that will produce 100 Calories +of heat is kept in mind, the computation of the meal becomes very simple. + +If a person knows his energy requirement, he can select such quantities of +food for the day as will conform with the ideal standard. The quantity of +food to be used at each meal is a matter of personal choice. The important +point is to have the food of the entire day conform to the standard. +However, in computing the energy value of the foods of each meal, some +find it convenient to divide the day's ration. The following is a +convenient division: One third for breakfast, one fourth for luncheon, and +five twelfths for dinner. + +But the division may vary with individual needs. Ascertaining one's energy +requirement and deciding upon a certain division for the three meals, one +can very easily select such quantities of foods for each meal as will +conform with the ideal standard. If the energy requirement of a girl of +fourteen years is 2200 Calories, her breakfast may yield approximately 750 +Calories, her luncheon 550 Calories, and her dinner 900 Calories. A +luncheon consisting of an omelet made with one egg (50), one medium slice +of homemade bread (100), orange marmalade (100), butter for bread (100), +large banana (100), and a small glass of milk (100) would yield sufficient +nourishment according to the requirement above. + +If it is desired to compute the Calories produced by the protein of a +meal, data can be obtained from the table also (see _Calories Derived +from Protein_). + +The calculation of the protein content of the luncheon above is: + +Number of Calories derived from protein of egg 18.2 +Number of Calories derived from protein of bread 13.8 +Number of Calories derived from protein of marmalade 0.7 +Number of Calories derived from protein of butter 0.5 +Number of Calories derived from protein of banana 5.3 +Number of Calories derived from protein of milk 19.1 + ---- +Number of Calories derived from protein of entire meal 57.6 + +If one tenth of the total energy requirement is taken as the desired +protein requirement, the above luncheon approaches the ideal. + +The Form C given below will be found convenient to use in calculating the +fuel value of menus from 100-Calorie portions. + +QUESTIONS + +Calculate your own breakfast, luncheon, and dinner energy requirement, and +those of at least two members of your family. + +From the table of 100-Calorie portions estimate the fuel value of all your +meals served either at your home or at school for several days. Compare +the result with the ideal energy requirement obtained above. If the +results vary greatly, strive to select the proper kind and quantity of +foods so that the total Calories and Calories derived from protein +approach the ideal. + +FORM C: CALCULATION OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS + +Meal: +Number Served: +Food Quantity Number Total Calories Total Cost Total + of 100- Calories Produced Calories of 100- Cost + Calorie by Protein Produced Calorie + Portions in 100- by Protein Portion + Calorie + Portion + +Total +Total +for One +Person + +Percent of Total Calories produced by calories derived from Protein: +Signature: +Date: + +TABLE OF 100-Calorie PORTIONS + +[Footnote 103: The approximate measure of 100-Calorie portions is based in +part upon "Table of 100 Food Units," compiled by Dr. Irving Fisher. The +weight in ounces of 100-Calorie portions and Calories derived from protein +are based upon data found on p. 410 of "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," +by Henry C. Sherman, Ph. D. Items marked "*" are from "Feeding the +Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Table III, p. 355.] + +EDIBLE PORTIONS APPROXIMATE MEASURE WEIGHT CALORIES + OF 100-CALORIE IN OUNCES DERIVED + PORTION OF 100- FROM + CALORIE PROTEIN + PORTION +Almonds 15 average 0.5 12.6 +Apples 2 medium 5.6 2.5 +Apricots, fresh 2 large 6.1 7.7 +Asparagus, cooked 2 servings 7.5 17.9 +Bacon, smoked + (uncooked) 1 thin slice, small 0.6 6.7 +Bananas 1 large 3.6 5.3 +Beans, baked, canned 1 small serving + (1/2 cupful) 2.8 21.5 + string, canned 5 servings 17.2 21.5 + lima, canned 1 large saucedish 4.6 20.8 +Beef, corned 1.2 21.2 + dried, salted, + and smoked 4 large slices 2.0 67.2 + *loaf Slice 4in.x6in.x1/8in. 1.4 40.0 + porterhouse steak 1 serving 1.3 32.4 + ribs, lean 1 average serving 1.9 42.3 + ribs, fat 0.9 15.6 + round, free from + visible fat 1 generous serving 3.1 80.7 + rump, lean 1.7 41.0 + rump, fat 0.9 17.5 + *stew with + vegetables 2/5 cupful 3.0 16.0 + sirloin steak 1 average serving 1.4 31.0 +Beets, cooked 3 servings 8.9 23.2 +*Biscuits, baking + powder 2 small 1.3 11.0 +*Blanc Mange 1/4 cupful 1.9 8.0 +Brazil nuts 3 average size 0.5 10.2 +Bread, graham 1 thick slice 1.3 13.5 + toasted 2 medium slices + (baker's) 1.2 15.2 + white homemade 1 medium slice 1.3 13.8 + average 1 thick slice 1.3 14.0 + whole wheat 1 thick slice 1.4 15.9 +Buckwheat flour 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.4 +Butter 1 tablespoonful(ordinary + pat) 0.5 0.5 +Buttermilk 1 1/4 cupfuls (1 1/2 9.9 33.6 + glasses) +Cabbage 2 servings 11.2 20.3 +*Cake, chocolate Piece 2 1/2" x 2 1/2" 0.9 8.0 + x 7/8" +*Cake, one egg Piece 1 3/4" x 1 3/4" 1.0 8.0 + x 1 3/4" +Calf's-foot jelly 4.1 19.8 +Carrots, fresh 2 medium 7.8 9.7 +Cauliflower (as + purchased) 11.6 23.6 +Celery 19.1 23.8 +Celery soup, canned 2 servings 6.6 15.7 +Cheese, American pale + (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 26.5 + American red + (as purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 20.0 + Cheddar (as + purchased) 1 1/2 cubic inches 0.8 24.4 + Cottage 4 cubic inches (1/2 cupful) 3.2 76.1 + Neufchatel 1 1/2 cubic inches 1.1 23.2 + (1/4 cupful) (1/2 small package) + Roquefort (as + purchased) 1.0 25.3 + Swiss (as purchased) 1 1/3 cubic inches 0.8 25.4 +Chicken, broilers 1 large serving 3.3 79.1 +Chocolate "generous half" square 0.6 8.3 +*Chocolate (beverage + half milk and half + water) 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.1 10.0 +Cocoa 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 0.7 17.3 +*Cocoa (beverage, + half milk and half + water) 3/4 cupful 5.5 14.0 +Cod, salt 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls 3.4 97.5 +*Cookies 2, 2 1/4 in. diameter 0.9 6.0 +Corn, green (as + purchased) 1 side dish 3.6 11.4 +Corn-meal 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 10.3 +Crackers, graham.. 3 crackers 0.9 9.6 + soda 3 crackers 0.9 9.4 + water 3 crackers 0.9 10.3 +Cranberries(as + purchased) 1 cupful (cooked) 7.5 3.4 +Cream 1/4 cupful 1.8 5.0 +Cucumbers 2 large 20.3 18.4 +*Custard, cup 1/3 cupful 3.3 17.0 +Dates, dried 4 medium 1.0 2.4 +Doughnuts 1/2 doughnut 0.8 6.2 +Eggs, uncooked 1 1/2 medium + or 2 small 2.4 36.4 +Farina 1.0 12.3 +Figs, dried 1 large 1.1 5.5 +Flour, rye 1/4 cupful 1.0 7.9 + wheat, entire 1/4 cupful 1.0 15.5 + wheat, graham 1/4 cupful 1.0 14.9 + wheat, average high + and medium 1/4 cupful 1.0 12.8 +Gelatine 4 tablespoonfuls 1.0 98.7 +*Gingerbread Piece 1 in. + x 2in. x 2 in. 1.2 8.0 +Grapes 1 large bunch 3.7 5.4 +Haddock 4.9 96.3 +Halibut steaks 1 average serving 2.9 61.8 +Ham, fresh, lean 1.5 44.0 + fresh, medium 1 average serving 1.1 19.0 + smoked, lean 1.3 30.1 +Herring, whole 2.5 54.6 +Hominy, uncooked 1/4 cupful 1.0 9.3 +*Ice cream, vanilla 1/4 cupful 2.0 6.0 +Lamb, chops, broiled 1 small chop 1.0 24.3 + leg, roast 1 average serving 1.8 41.0 +Lard, refined 1 tablespoonful + (scant) 0.4 (--) +Lemons 3 medium 8.0 9.0 +Lettuce 50 large leaves 20.4 25.2 +Liver, veal, uncooked 2 small servings 2.9 61.6 +*Macaroni and cheese 1/3 cupful 2.1 17.0 +Macaroni, uncooked. 1/4 cupful(4 sticks) 1.0 15.0 +Macaroons 2 0.8 6.2 +Mackerel, uncooked 1 large serving 2.5 53.9 + salt 1.2 29.5 +Marmalade, orange 1 tablespoonful 1.0 0.7 +Milk, condensed, + sweetened 1 1/16 cupfuls 1.1 10.9 + skimmed 1 1/4 cupfuls (scant) 9.6 37.1 + whole 5/8 cupful (generous half + glass) 5.1 19.1 +Molasses, cane 1/8 cupful 1.2 3.4 +*Muffins, corn-meal 3/4 muffin 1.2 13.0 +*Muffins, wheat 4/5 muffin 1.2 12.0 +Muskmelons 1/2 average serving 8.9 6.0 +Mutton, leg 1 average serving 1.8 41.2 +Oatmeal, uncooked 1/8 cupful 0.9 16.1 +Olives, green 7 to 10 1.2 1.5 +Onions, fresh 2 medium 7.3 13.2 +Oranges 1 very large 6.9 6.2 +Oysters, canned 5 oysters 4.9 48.6 +Parsnips 1 large 5.4 9.9 +Peaches, canned 1 large serving 7.5 6.0 + fresh 4 medium 8.5 6.8 +Peanuts 10 to 12 (double kernels) 0.6 18.6 +Peas, canned 2 servings 6.3 25.9 +Peas, dried, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 27.6 + green 1 generous serving 3.5 28.0 +Pies, apple 1/3 piece 1.3 4.6 + custard 1/3 piece 2.0 9.4 + lemon 1/3 piece 1.4 5.6 + mince 1/4 piece 1.2 8.1 + squash 1/3 piece 2.0 9.9 +Pineapples, fresh 5 slices 8.2 3.7 + canned 1 small serving 2.3 1.0 +Pork, chops, medium 1 very small serving 1.1 19.9 + fat, salt [Footnote + 104: As purchased.] 0.5 1.0 +*Potatoes, creamed 2/5 cupful 2.7 9.0 +Potatoes, white, + uncooked 1 medium 4.2 10.6 +Potatoes, sweet, + uncooked 1/2 medium 2.9 5.8 +Prunes, dried 3 large 1.2 2.8 +Raisins 1/8 cupful 1.0 3.0 + (packed solid) +Rhubarb, uncooked 3 1/2 cupfuls (scant) 15.3 10.4 +*Rice Pudding 1/4 cupful 2.2 12.0 +Rice, uncooked 2 tablespoonfuls 1.0 9.3 +Salmon, whole 1 small serving 1.7 43.1 +Sauce, white 1/4 cupful 2.4 8.0 +*Salmon, loaf 1/4 cupful 2.1 37.0 +Shad, whole 1 average serving 2.2 45.9 +Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1.0 11.3 +*Soup, corn 1/2 cupful 3.9 12.0 + potato 1/2 cupful (scant) 4.2 15.0 + cream of tomato 3/8 cupful 3.2 11.0 +Spinach, fresh 3 ordinary servings 14.7 35.0 + [Footnote 105: as (after cooking) + purchased] +Succotash, canned 1 average serving 3.6 14.7 +Sugar 3 lumps, 5 teaspoonfuls + granulated 0.9 (--) + 6 1/2 teaspoonfuls + powdered sugar +Tapioca, apple 1/4 cupful 3.6 0.7 +Tomatoes, fresh 4 average servings 15.5 15.8 + canned 1 3/4 cupfuls 15.6 21.3 +Turkey 1 serving 1.2 28.7 +Turnips 2 large servings 9.0 13.3 + (2 turnips) +Veal, cutlet 2.3 53.6 + fore quarter 2.3 52.8 + hind quarter 2.3 53.0 +Walnuts, California 4 whole nuts 0.5 10.3 +Wheat, cracked 1.0 12.4 +White fish 2.4 61.4 +Zwieback 1 thick slice 0.8 9.4 + + + + +LESSON CXXXII + +PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER + + +Plan a dinner. [Footnote 106: See Footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. +Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost +of the materials does not exceed 30 cents per person. From the Table of +100-Calorie Portions estimate the total Calories and the Calories derived +from protein produced by the foods of your menu. How do the total Calories +compare with the dinner energy requirement of an average man or woman? Are +the Calories derived from protein from 10 to 15 per cent of the total +Calories? If necessary, change your menu so that its total Calories meet +the dinner energy requirements of an average man or woman and its Calories +derived from protein are from 10 to 15 per cent of the total Calories. The +pupil should note that the Calorific value of meals is usually correct if +the suggestions for menu-making given in Lesson CV are followed. + +Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the Russian or Compromise Style of +serving. Serve the dinner with a maid. [Footnote 107: See Footnote 101.] + + + + +LESSON CXXXIII + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Rolled Beef Steak +Stuffed Baked Potato +Drop Biscuits + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CXXXIV + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 108: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and cook meals. + +From the Table of 100-Calorie Portions estimate the fuel value of the +meals you prepare. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: To compare the fuel value of the meals with the energy +requirements secured in answering the _Questions_ in Lesson CXXXI. To +use these comparisons as a basis on which to plan meals more nearly +approaching the desired energy requirements. + + + + +DIVISION THIRTEEN + +YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS + +LESSON CXXXV + +YEAST--LOAF BREAD + + +EXPERIMENT 77: CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF THE YEAST PLANT.--(_a_) Mix 1 +tablespoonful of flour, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, 3/4 cake compressed +yeast, and 5 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Put 1 tablespoonful of the +mixture in a test tube and mark the tube "_a_." Fill the tube nearly +full of lukewarm water and stand in a warm place for 15 minutes. Examine, +noting especially the appearance at the top of the test tube. What kind of +substance (gas, liquid, or solid) has been formed by the growth of the +yeast plants? + +(_b_) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, and fill +nearly full of boiling water. Label it "_b_" and after 15 minutes +examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? What has +happened to the yeast plants? + +(_c_) Put 1 teaspoonful of the yeast mixture in a test tube, fill +nearly full of cold water, and label it "_c_." Surround it with +cracked ice or, if the weather is cold, place it out of doors. After 15 +minutes examine. Is there any change in the contents of the tube? Why do +not the yeast plants grow? + +(_d_) Surround the tube marked "_c_" with lukewarm water and +stand in a warm place. After 15 minutes examine. Are the yeast plants +growing? Does freezing kill yeast plants? + +(_e_) Mix 1/8 cake yeast with a little lukewarm water. Stand in a +warm place and after 15 minutes examine. Will yeast grow in water alone? + +(_f_) Mix 1/8 cake yeast, 1 tablespoonful of sugar, and a little +lukewarm water. Set aside in a warm place so that the yeast plants may +grow. Then examine under the microscope. Are there any budding yeast +cells? Make a drawing of the plants as they appear under the microscope. + +Draw at least two practical conclusions from these experiments as to the +use and care of yeast for bread making + +[Illustration: From _Farmers' Bulletin 398_ FIGURE 86--GROWING YEAST +PLANTS] + +PROPERTIES OF YEAST.--Yeast consists of a mass of microscopic plants (see +Figure 86). When placed under proper conditions these plants grow rapidly, +and in so doing they separate the sugar that exists in flour into carbon +dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide lightens dough. The alcohol passes +off as vapor in baking. + +Plants need moisture, warmth, light, and the food that is furnished by the +air and soil for their growth. Yeast plants require all of these except +light. They are not green plants, hence they need no light. Moisture is +obtained from the water, milk, or other liquids used in bread dough. Yeast +thrives at a temperature of 90 degrees F. It is killed by a temperature +above 130 degrees F. Hence the yeast is mixed with lukewarm water. The +other liquids that are added to it are of the same temperature. Also, the +dough is placed in a warm place while it is rising, or while the yeast +plants are growing. The food required for the rapid growth of the yeast +is obtained from the protein and carbohydrates in the flour. + +_Compressed yeast cakes_ which are wrapped in tinfoil and received +fresh at the market every day or two are the most satisfactory to use. +This yeast must be fresh for successful bread making. It is fresh when it +is of a light color, is free from dark streaks, and is crumbly in texture. + +Stiff Dough.--_Approximately four parts of flour to one of moisture are +used for stiff doughs._ When sufficient flour has been added to stiff +dough, it should not cling to the sides of the mixing bowl. This is an +indication to the pupil of the proper stiffness of the dough. The test +applies, however, only when there is no coating of flour over the dough. +One should remember that the softest dough will not "stick," if covered +generously with flour. + +General Suggestions for Bread Making.--Use wheat bread flour, or a +combination of wheat bread flour with whole wheat, or graham flour, or +with flour or meal made from other grains, in making bread. Flour should +be kept in a dry place. It is well to warm flour for bread before using. + +If milk is used, scald or boil it to prevent it from souring. Water should +be boiled and then cooled (see _Why Foods Spoil_). + +With 1 pint of liquid 1/2 to 1 cake of yeast should be used. When it is +desired to mix and bake bread in a few hours, a greater quantity of yeast +may be used. If the yeast is fresh, most satisfactory results are secured +when this is done. The use of much yeast, however, adds to the cost of +bread. The less quantity of yeast (1/2 cake) is used when the dough is +allowed to rise overnight. Mix 1 yeast cake in 1 cupful of lukewarm water +before adding the rest of the liquid. + +It is desirable to use sufficient yeast and to subject it to desirable +conditions so that the dough will rise quickly. If the rising process +occupies much time, certain kinds of bacteria which may be present in the +yeast or other materials may act upon the alcohol present in the risen +dough and convert it into acid. This produces sour dough and consequently +bread of sour taste and odor. + +Although it is customary to allow bread to rise twice, tasty bread may be +secured by one rising. Bread raised only once, however, is usually of +uneven grain, because the carbon dioxide bubbles formed during rising are +uneven in size or are unevenly distributed. By kneading bread, the larger +bubbles are broken or distributed more evenly through the dough. Since +considerable gas is pressed out by kneading, it is necessary to allow the +dough to rise a second time. It is well to make the dough into small +loaves, and place them in small pans, so that the bread will be baked +through. + +Loaves of bread should bake at least 1 hour at a temperature varying from +375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F. During the first 20 minutes they should +rise but slightly and just begin to brown; during the second 20 minutes +they should continue to brown; during the last 20 minutes they should +shrink from the sides of the pan, while still continuing to brown. + +_To soften the crust_, rub it with a bit of butter or substitute a +few minutes before taking from the oven and again after removing from the +oven. After baking, place the loaves of bread on a bread cooler, or +arrange them in such a way that the air may reach them on all sides. When +cool, place in a covered tin box. + +BREAD (2 loaves) + +2 cupfuls hot water _or_ milk and water +2 teaspoonfuls salt +2 teaspoonfuls sugar +1/2 tablespoonful fat +1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast +1/2 cupful lukewarm water +Bread flour (7 to 8 cupfuls) + +Boil the water or milk and water. Pour it into a bowl and add the salt, +sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fat +is melted. Mix the yeast with lukewarm water. When the first mixture is +cooled to lukewarm temperature, add the yeast mixture to it. Then add +flour enough to make it of the proper consistency (see _Stiff +Dough_), using a knife for mixing. Turn out on a floured board, and +knead until soft and elastic. Return the dough to the bowl, moisten, +cover, and let rise until doubled in bulk. Then divide it into loaves, +or shape into biscuits. Cover and allow the loaves or biscuit to rise in +the pan in which they are to be baked until they are doubled in bulk. +Bake the biscuits 30 minutes in a hot oven and the bread about 60 minutes +in a moderate oven (see _Oven Thermometers and Temperatures_). + +QUESTIONS + +Why should the flour for bread be warmed before using? + +What should be the temperature of all materials mixed with yeast? Why? + +What should be the difference in the temperature of the oven for loaf +bread and for biscuits? Explain. + +Why should bread be stored in a covered tin box? + +At what temperatures should biscuits and loaf bread bake? Why are these +foods baked at different temperatures? + +For how long a time should biscuits and bread bake? Explain the difference +in the length of time of baking each. + + + + +LESSON CXXXVI + +WHEAT FLOUR--BREAD SPONGE + + +EXPERIMENT 78: PROTEIN IN FLOUR.--Make a stiff dough, using 2 +tablespoonfuls of bread flour and about 1/2 tablespoonful of water. Knead +well, and allow to stand for 20 minutes. Then tie the dough in cheese- +cloth, place it in a bowl of water, and knead for a few minutes. + +Pour a little of the water in a test tube; drain the remainder of the +water from the dough. Add more water to the bowl. Again knead the dough +under the clean water. + +Examine the material in the cloth. What is its color? Feel and pull it. +Put a little on a plate to dry, and bake some in the oven. Examine after +drying and baking. How has it changed in size by heating? + +Test the water in the test tube for starch. + +GLUTEN.--The material left in the cloth consists largely of protein. If +flour is mixed with water, _gluten_ is formed from the two kinds of +protein that are to be found in all wheat flours. Gluten is yellowish gray +in color, is extremely elastic and sticky, and, if moistened and heated, +expands to many times its original bulk. These qualities of gluten are +most desirable for good yeast bread; hence, the more protein that flour +contains, the better it is for bread making. As has been stated, some +flours contain more protein than others. The protein of wheat as well as +of other grains is incomplete, hence grains need to be supplemented with +other kinds of protein food. + +WHEAT FLOUR.--The quantity of protein in flour is not only dependent upon +the portion of the wheat kernel used in making the flour (see +_Difference in Wheat Flours_), but also upon the kind of wheat from +which the flour is made. Spring wheat, the seeds of which are sown in the +springtime, usually contains more protein than winter wheat, the seeds of +which are sown in the fall. The flour made from spring wheat is called +_hard wheat flour_ or _bread flour_. This flour is creamy in +color, rather gritty in feeling, and when pressed in the hand does not +retain the impression of the fingers. Flour made from winter wheat is +called _soft wheat flour_ or _pastry flour_. This is white, very +fine and velvety in feeling, and easily retains the impression of the +fingers. + +On account of the greater quantity of protein in bread flour, this flour +absorbs more moisture than pastry flour. Less bread flour than pastry +flour, therefore, is required for the bread mixture. If bread flour is +substituted for pastry flour, its quantity should be decreased,--2 +tablespoonfuls for each cupful. + +DRY YEAST SPONGE.--It is generally agreed that compressed yeast is more +satisfactory for bread making than dry yeast. By the use of the former, +the method is shorter, and the "rising" can take place during the daytime +and be checked at the proper time. The use of dry yeast, however, is +necessary under some conditions. For this kind of yeast cake, the yeast is +made into a stiff dough by mixing it with starch or meal, and is then +dried. In the dry state, yeast plants do not grow, but remain inactive +until they are subjected to conditions favorable for growth. In order that +dry yeast may begin to grow, it is necessary to make a _sponge_ of +the materials used in bread making. A sponge is a batter containing half +as much flour as is required for the stiff dough. A thin mixture rises +more quickly than does a stiff dough; hence the advantage of "starting" +dry yeast in a sponge. + +The growth of yeast is somewhat retarded by salt and spices. Sugar in +small quantity aids rapid growth; much sugar delays the rising of bread. +Much fat and many eggs also make the process slower. In the preparation of +buns, when much fat and sugar and many eggs are to be used, it is +advisable to make a sponge. These materials are not to be added, however, +until the sponge is stiffened. The yeast thus gets a good "start" before +the eggs, etc., are added. + +BREAD (made with dry yeast) (2 loaves) + +2 cupfuls water +1/2 cake dry yeast +2 teaspoonfuls salt +2 teaspoonfuls sugar +1 tablespoonful fat +6 cupfuls (or more) bread flour + +Soak the yeast in the water (lukewarm) until softened. Then add the salt, +sugar, and fat. Stir until the salt and sugar are dissolved, and the fat +is melted. Add one half the given quantity of flour. Beat until the +mixture is smooth; cover. Let rise until very porous and foamy. Add enough +flour to make a stiff dough; knead; and allow to rise until doubled in +bulk. Proceed as for bread made with compressed yeast. + +SCORE CARD FOR BREAD [Footnote 109: "Selection and Preparation of Food," +by Bevier and Van Meter, p. 82.]--DETERMINING ITS QUALITY + +Flavor 35 +Lightness 15 +Grain and texture 20 +Crust (color, depth, texture) 10 +Crumb (color, moisture) 10 +Shape and size 10 + --- +Total 100 + +QUESTIONS + +Under what conditions would dry yeast be used in bread making? + +For what reason is bread dough kneaded? + +What is the test for sufficient kneading of bread dough? + +In what part of the country is spring wheat grown? Winter wheat? + +How are the flours distinguished that are made from these different kinds +of wheat? + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of winter and of spring wheat flour. + +Which contains the more protein; which, the more carbohydrates? Compare +the quantity of ash in each. + +Knowing the method of leavening, the time required for raising, and the +properties of gluten, explain why spring wheat flour is better adapted to +yeast breads than to quick breads. + +What is the price per sack of pastry and of bread flour? + +What is the price per cake of compressed yeast? What is the price per +package of dry yeast? How many cakes in a package? + + + + +LESSON CXXXVII + +MODIFICATIONS OF PLAIN WHITE BREAD + + +BREADS OTHER THAN WHEAT.--As mentioned previously, wheat is the most +popular grain in this country, largely because we are most used to it, not +because it is a better food than other cereals. The use of different +starchy materials and grains, especially the whole cereals, is advised to +give variation not only in flavor, but in nutritive content. Yeast breads +containing cereals other than wheat are more satisfactory in texture and +in size of loaf when they are made by combining some wheat with the other +grains. + +The housekeeper of olden days considered the potato most essential for +bread making. It is possible to make good bread by using 1/3 as much +mashed potato as wheat flour. Potato bread is moist; it keeps better than +bread made entirely with wheat. It has been observed that bread containing +potatoes or potato water rises quickly. It is possible that the growth of +the yeast is stimulated by potato. Although bread containing potatoes is +light, it is not as delicate or "fluffy" as plain wheat bread. + +Since potatoes contain much moisture, the quantity of liquid used in +making potato bread should be lessened. Because bread dough containing +potatoes softens as it rises, sufficient flour should be added to make it +very stiff or more flour added while kneading. + +Much experimenting with bread during the World War showed that bread +containing cereals other than wheat is more satisfactory when potatoes are +used in making it. It was found that less of wheat and more of the other +grains could be used when potatoes were added to the dough. + +Bread made of grains other than wheat requires a greater quantity of yeast +than wheat bread. The following explanation may account for this fact: +Some recent scientific investigations point out the fact that the activity +of yeast is increased when vinegar or other weak acid material is added to +bread dough. Since the proteins of cereals other than wheat absorb more of +the free acid of the dough than do the proteins of wheat, the acidity of +the dough is lessened. Hence more yeast is required to leaven dough +containing grains other than wheat. + +GRAHAM BREAD + +Use one half white bread flour and one half graham flour in the recipe +given for Bread in order to make Graham Bread. One fourth cupful of +molasses may be substituted for the sugar. Mix and bake as white bread. + +Some consider that it is much more satisfactory to make a sponge when +using graham flour. If this is done, first make a sponge using only one +half the given quantity of flour. Let the mixture rise, then add the +remainder of the flour, and proceed as in making white wheat bread. + +WHOLE WHEAT BREAD + +Follow the recipe for Bread, substituting whole wheat for the fine wheat +bread flour, but make a soft, not stiff dough. + +_Raisin Bread_ may be made by adding 2 cupfuls of seeded raisins to +whole wheat bread mixture and increasing the sugar to 1/4 cupful or +substituting 1/3 cupful molasses for the sugar. Use the greater quantity +of yeast. Add the raisins to the mixture before adding the flour. + +POTATO BREAD (2 loaves) + +2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes +1 cupful water in which potatoes were cooked +1 tablespoonful salt +1/2 cupful lukewarm water +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1 tablespoonful fat +1/2 to 1 cake compressed yeast +5 1/2 to 6 cupfuls wheat bread flour + +Pare 6 medium-sized potatoes. Cut into pieces and cook in boiling water +until tender. Drain the water from the potatoes, but save the potato water +to use as moisture for the dough, and for mixing with the yeast. Mash the +potatoes; add the potato water, salt, sugar, and fat. Then proceed as +directed for Bread. + +OATMEAL-POTATO BREAD (2 loaves) + +1 1/2 cupfuls potato water +2 cupfuls rolled oats +1 tablespoonful salt +2 teaspoonfuls sugar +Wheat bread flour, about 6 cupfuls +1 tablespoonful fat +2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes +1 cake compressed yeast +1 tablespoonful lukewarm water + +Heat the liquid to boiling point. Pour it over the rolled oats. Add the +salt, sugar, and fat. Stir and let stand until the mixture is lukewarm. +Add the potatoes, then proceed as for plain bread. Let the dough rise in +the pans until it is from 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 times its original bulk. + +QUESTIONS + +From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of white, of graham, and of whole wheat bread. + +Under what conditions should a sponge be made when compressed yeast is +used? + +What kind of bread is most satisfactory in high altitudes, _i.e._ +where the climate is dry? Explain. + +Why is potato water a more valuable liquid for bread making than water? + +What is the purpose of adding boiling water to rolled oats in making +Oatmeal-Potato Bread (see _Substituting Other Cereals for Wheat +Flour_)? + +Compare the quantity of yeast used in Oatmeal-Potato Bread with that used +in plain wheat bread. Account for the difference. + + + + +LESSON CXXXVIII + +ROLLS AND BUNS + + +PLAIN ROLLS OR BISCUITS + +For rolls or biscuits use the recipe for Bread, adding twice the quantity +of fat, and using milk for part of the liquid. Or they may be made by +kneading more fat into any bread dough. Knead well after the first rising; +then cut into pieces half the size of an egg, and shape into balls. Place +the balls some distance apart in a pan or place the balls so that one +touches another. The latter plan of placing in the pan produces biscuits +having a small amount of crust. Allow the biscuits to rise to double their +bulk; then bake in a hot oven. + +PARKER HOUSE ROLLS + +2 cupfuls hot milk and water +3 tablespoonfuls fat +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1 teaspoonful salt +1 yeast cake +1/4 cupful lukewarm water +Bread flour + +Make a sponge of the ingredients, using 3 cupfuls of flour. Beat +thoroughly, cover, and let rise until light. Then add enough flour to +knead. Knead, cover, and allow to rise until doubled in bulk. Knead again +slightly, and roll out on a floured board until 1/3 of an inch in +thickness. Cut into rounds with a biscuit cutter; put a bit of butter or +substitute near the edge of the biscuit; fold; and press the edges +together. Place in an oiled pan; cover. Let rise until double in bulk, and +bake at 425 degrees F. from 20 to 30 minutes. + +The crust may be _glazed_ with a mixture of milk and sugar a few +minutes before removing the biscuits from the oven. Use 1 part sugar to 2 +parts milk. Diluted egg white also may be used for glazing. + +A corn-starch paste is sometimes used for _glazing_. It is made as +follows: Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of corn-starch with the same quantity of cold +water. Add 3/4 cupful of boiling water; stir and cook for 5 minutes. Brush +this over the top of the rolls, sprinkle with sugar. Return the rolls to +the oven and continue baking until the crust is browned. + +POTATO YEAST ROLLS + +Use the recipe for Parker House Rolls as a basic rule. In preparing the +sponge, use 2 cupfuls of dry mashed potatoes instead of flour. Decrease +the liquid to 1 cupful. Increase the quantity of salt to 1 tablespoonful. +When the sponge is light, add sufficient wheat flour to make the dough of +the proper consistency. Proceed as for plain wheat rolls. + +_Rye flour_ may be used instead of wheat in preparing these rolls. + +CINNAMON BUNS + +Use one half of the recipe for Parker House Rolls. After the dough has +risen, roll until 1/4 inch thick, and spread with the following: + +1/2 cupful butter or butter and other fat softened +2 tablespoonfuls cinnamon +1 cupful currants or raisins +1 cupful brown sugar + +Roll the dough as for Jelly Roll or for Fruit Rolls and cut into slices 1 +inch thick. Place in well-oiled pans or muffin tins, with a cut surface +resting on the pan. When very light, bake in a moderate oven about 30 +minutes. The buns may be basted with molasses or sugar, or with a milk and +sugar mixture (see _Parker House Rolls_). Add 1 teaspoonful of the +basting material to each bun 15 minutes before removing from the oven. + +BISCUITS WITH PRUNE OR RAISIN FILLING + +1 cupful milk +1 cupful water +2 tablespoonfuls sugar +1 teaspoonful salt +3 tablespoonfuls fat +1 to 3 eggs +2 cakes compressed yeast +1/4 cupful lukewarm water +Bread flour (about 7 cupfuls) + +Heat the milk and water. Turn into a bowl and add the sugar, salt, and +fat. Let the mixture stand until it is lukewarm in temperature. Mix the +yeast with the lukewarm water and add it to the lukewarm milk mixture. +Break the egg; beat the white and yolk separately. Add the egg to the +other ingredients. + +Through a sifter, add enough flour to knead. Knead and roll out on a +floured board until about 1 inch in thickness. Cut into rounds with a +biscuit cutter. Make a depression in the center of each biscuit, fill with +prunes or raisins prepared as directed below. + +Place the biscuits on greased pans, let them rise (in a warm place) until +doubled in bulk; bake in a hot oven. + +PRUNE OR RAISIN FILLING + +1 pound dried prunes _or_ 1 1/2 cupfuls seeded raisins +1 teaspoonful cinnamon +1/8 teaspoonful cloves +2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice +1/4 teaspoonful salt +Sugar + +Soak the fruit in enough water to cover overnight or for several hours. +Cook as directed on until the fruit is tender and the water is almost +evaporated. If prunes are used, remove the stones. Add the spices, lemon +juice, and salt. Also add sugar "to taste." + +QUESTIONS + +Why should a sponge be made when eggs are to be added to the yeast +mixture? + +What would be the disadvantage in adding them to a dough, after the dough +had stiffened? + +What must be done to produce biscuits having much crust rather than little +crust? + +What care should be taken in regulating the temperature of the oven when +baking Cinnamon Buns, especially if they are to be basted during baking? + +How many times are Biscuits with Prune or Raisin Filling allowed to rise? +How does yeast bread made with one rising differ from that made with +several risings? + +Why is it necessary to cook the fruit used for filling for biscuits until +the water is almost evaporated? What would be the effect on the biscuits +of much moisture in the filling? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CXXXIX + +FOOD FOR GIRLS AND BOYS + + +THE YOUNG GIRL.--Adolescence is a period of great activity and growth. +Much physical development characterizes the years of youth. + +During the time of rapid growth, it is very easy to acquire craving not +only for sweets, but for condiments and highly seasoned and spiced foods +and for foods of decided and contrasting flavor. As previously explained, +such foods used excessively are harmful. It is especially necessary that a +girl growing into womanhood use foods which furnish building and energy- +giving nutrients in sufficient quantity as well as materials to promote +growth. + +Going without breakfast may be the cause of headaches, poorly prepared +lessons, and in some cases irritability or bad dispositions. When the +morning meal is omitted, an undue quantity of food is apt to be eaten at +noon. In many schools, work is resumed immediately or shortly after +luncheon. The digestion of a large quantity of hearty food interferes with +mental effort. + +THE HUNGRY BOY belongs to the period of adolescence. It is perfectly +natural for the growing boy to be hungry. Indeed during the time from +twelve to seventeen years, more food is consumed by the average youth than +by an adult. If three meals a day are to satisfy the hungry boy, a +nourishing diet must be eaten. Concentrated, but easily digested foods, +such as eggs, cereals, meat, starchy and nitrogenous vegetables for +building and energy as well as foods which supply mineral matter such as +fruits and succulent vegetables, are needed. + +The use of milk and cocoa rather than tea and coffee should be encouraged. +It is especially necessary that milk with its growth-promoting materials +and valuable proteins be included in the diet of a growing youth. If +coffee must be used, let it be cereal coffee. + +For the boy who would "make the team" and excel in athletics the matter of +a proper food selection is most important. The athlete must give serious +consideration to his diet. + +FOOD PLANS FOR GIRLS AND BOYS.--According to the table given on +previously, the diet of a girl from fourteen to seventeen should supply +Calories averaging 2400, while that of a boy of the same age should supply +Calories averaging 3400. [Footnote 110: The reason why the energy +requirements of a boy exceeds that of a girl of the adolescent period is +stated on previously.] + +The following plans for a day's diet for the girl and boy of fourteen to +seventeen years are offered as suggestions for wholesome food +combinations: + +FOODS APPROXIMATE CALORIES + +Breakfast. Fruits, fresh or cooked 75-100 + Cereal with Whole Milk and Sugar 200-250 + Toast and Butter (2 to 3 slices) 300-450 + Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150 + +Luncheon. Cream Soup 150-175 + Meat Substitute 200-300 + Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 + Rice or Tapioca Pudding or Blanc Mange 150-200 + Cocoa or Whole Milk 120-150 + +Dinner. Egg-dish or Meat 200-300 + Starchy Vegetable or Cereal 100-125 + Succulent Vegetable or Salad 50-150 + Bread and Butter (1 to 2 slices) 150-300 + Baked Custard or Ice Cream with + Chocolate Sauce 250-300 + Cereal Coffee (with Sugar, and Top Milk) or + Whole Milk 125-150 + --------- + 2340-3400 + +THE SCHOOL LUNCHEON.--Girls and boys of high school age invariably lunch +at school, or a luncheon is brought from home and eaten at school. If a +pupil buys his luncheon at school, hot, wholesome, nourishing foods such +as cream-soup vegetables, eggs, cereal puddings, cocoa, and milk should be +purchased. It is unfortunate if pastry and sweets are chosen to the +exclusion of the foods just mentioned. + +In case the plainer foods are selected, it is a mistake for the pupil to +narrow his purchase to a very few foods such as meat, potatoes, and +pastry. Too often pupils get in the habit of choosing foods which furnish +too little variety in composition. Learning to like many different foods +is a characteristic one should strive to develop. When one abolishes food +prejudices and "eats everything" that is wholesome, the possibility of +securing a well-balanced meal to meet the needs of the body is increased. + +LUNCHEON MENUS.--The quantity and kind of food that should be eaten at +luncheon depends largely upon the kind and quantity of foods eaten at +breakfast and dinner or supper. Some eat more breakfast than luncheon +while others follow the reverse plan. It has been found, however, that a +luncheon yielding from 750 to 1000 Calories furnishes adequate nutriment +for the average youth, provided of course the foods are well balanced in +composition. Suggestive luncheon menus for school girls and boys follow. +(The luncheon which is carried from home is discussed in Lesson CXLIX.) + + FOOD CALORIES DERIVED TOTAL + FROM PROTEIN CALORIES + +1 serving macaroni and cheese (1 cupful) 34.0 200.00 +1 slice bread and butter 14.2 150.00 +1 portion gingerbread (2 ounces) 14.0 200.00 +1 medium baked apple with whole milk 6.8 128.00 +1 serving cocoa (3/4 cupful) 16.1 118.40 + ---- ------ + 85.1 796.40 + +1 serving vegetable soup (1 cupful) 21.28 148.22 +1 cheese and peanut sandwich 43.47 270.00 +1 large orange 6.20 100.00 +1 portion cake (2 ounces) 14.00 200.00 +1 glass milk (7/8 cupful) 26.60 140.00 + ------ ------ + 111.55 858.22 + +1 serving cream of tomato soup (1 cupful) 25.07 178.4 +3 soda crackers 9.4 100.0 +1 ham sandwich 51.1 316.4 +1 portion ice cream (1/8 quart) 7.66 199.2 +1 large banana 5.3 100.0 +1 glass milk (7/8 cupful) 26.6 140.0 + ------ ------ + 125.13 1034.0 + +QUESTIONS + +Plan a week's series of school luncheons containing foods which may be +obtained at home or at school or at any other place where you eat your +luncheon. Calculate the total Calorific value of the menus. Also determine +the per cent of Calories derived from protein. + + + + +LESSON CXL + +PLANNING A DAY'S DIET--COOKING AND SERVING A MEAL + + +Plan [Footnote 111: See Footnote 72] a day's diet containing the kinds of +foods suitable for you and other members of your class and furnishing +sufficient Calories to meet the energy-requirement of girls of your age. +(Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV and CXXXIX.) Determine the per +cent of the total Calories produced by Calories derived from protein. +Compute the cost of the meal. + +Cook and serve one of the meals of the day's diet. Follow the English or +family style of serving,--either with or without a maid. + + + + +LESSON CXLI + +REVIEW: MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Bread (or Raised Biscuits) +Cranberry Jelly (or Fruit Sauce) + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CXLII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 112: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Bake yeast bread or raised biscuits at your +home at least once a week. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To improve the quality of the bread. Score your +products each time you prepare them. By careful observation and by +consultation with your teacher, determine the cause of any undesirable +quality your breads may have and then strive at the next baking to correct +your mistakes. + +(2) To compare homemade and baker's bread. Determine the weight and cost +of a loaf of homemade and baker's bread. Compute the cost per pound of +each. Compare the flavor and satisfying qualities of each. Consult other +members of your family regarding these two qualities. Name the advantages +and disadvantages of baking bread at home. + + + + +DIVISION FOURTEEN + +CAKE + +LESSON CXLIII + +CAKE WITHOUT FAT--SPONGE CAKE + + +COMPARISON OF SPONGE CAKE AND POPOVERS.--See the recipe for Popovers. +Compare it with the recipe for Sponge Cake I. + +SPONGE CAKE NO. I + +4 egg yolks +1 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful lemon juice +Grated rind of 1/2 lemon +4 egg whites +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 cupful flour + +What two ingredients are similar in these recipes? What ingredients does +Sponge Cake contain which do not exist in Popovers? What ingredients in +Popovers are omitted in Sponge Cake? Note the number of eggs in each. What +is the wetting material in Popovers? In Sponge Cake? By what means are +Popovers lightened? Sponge Cake? How do you account for the difference in +the number of eggs? + +NOTE.--A typical Sponge Cake contains no baking powder or moisture except +that contained in the eggs and flavoring material. To make a cheaper cake, +the following modification may be made: Instead of 4 eggs, 2 eggs with 1/4 +cupful of water and 1 teaspoonful of baking powder may be used. + +METHOD OF MIXING SPONGE CAKE. Beat the yolks of the eggs until thick and +lemon-colored. Add the sugar and continue beating; then add the flavoring +and any other liquid that the recipe may call for. Beat the mixture well. +Add the salt to the egg whites and beat until the whites are stiff. Sift +the flour (and baking powder if used) several times. Add part of the dry +ingredients through the sifter to the yolk mixture, then add some of the +egg whites. Repeat until all the dry ingredients and the egg whites have +been added. Mix by cutting and folding the ingredients. Turn at once into +an unoiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 50 or 60 +minutes. + +BAKING SPONGE CAKES.--_The baking of a cake, as well as the manner of +mixing the ingredients_ and the quality of the ingredients themselves, +determines the success of the cake. A practical test for the temperature +of the oven is the placing of a bit of flour or white paper in the oven. +If at the end of 5 minutes the paper or flour is slightly browned, the +oven is of proper temperature for sponge cakes or cakes without fat. The +time required to bake a cake should be divided into quarters. During the +first quarter the cake should begin to rise; during the second quarter it +should continue to rise and begin to brown; during the third quarter it +should continue to brown, and the fourth quarter it should finish baking. + +If the mixing and the baking have been successful, failure may result +after removing the cake from the oven. It should not be placed in a cold +place or in a draft. Invert the cake pan on a wire rack and allow the cake +to remain until cool. Remove the cake from the pan, and store in a covered +tin box. + +SPONGE CAKE NO. II + +2 or 3 egg yolks +l 1/2 cupfuls sugar +1 tablespoonful lemon juice +3/4 cupful water +2 cupfuls flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +2 or 3 egg whites + +Mix and bake according to the directions given above. It is advisable to +oil the pan for this cake. + +WASHINGTON PIE + +Sponge Cake with Cream Filling is termed Washington Pie. Follow the recipe +for Cream Filling and put it between the layers of Sponge Cake, or as a +filling between split sheets of a loaf or thick sheet of Sponge Cake. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the purpose of cutting and folding the egg whites and the dry +ingredients into a sponge cake mixture? + +Why is it necessary to add moisture and baking powder to Sponge Cake No. +II? + +What is the effect of too cool an oven on Sponge Cake? + + + + +LESSON CXLIV + +CAKE CONTAINING FAT--ONE-EGG CAKE + + +CLASSES OF CAKES.--Cakes are commonly divided into two classes: (_a_) +Cakes without fat and (_b_) Cakes containing fat. Sponge Cake is an +example of the first class and the One-egg Cake given below is an example +of the second class. The method of mixing cakes containing fat differs +from the method of mixing cakes without fat. The temperature of the oven +and the length of time required for baking also differ for the two classes +of cakes. + +COMPARISON OF ONE-EGG CAKE AND MUFFINS.--See the recipe for Plain Muffins. +Compare it with the following recipe. + +ONE-EGG CAKE [Footnote 113: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If a richer cake is +desired, follow the Plain Cake recipe given in Lesson CXLV.] + +2 cupfuls flour +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +3/4 to 1 cupful sugar +1 egg +1 cupful milk or water +1 teaspoonful flavoring +2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat + +What ingredient does cake contain that is not present in muffins? What two +ingredients exist in greater quantity in cake than in muffins? + +THE INGREDIENTS OF A CAKE CONTAINING FAT.--Materials of the best quality +should be used for cakes. Pastry flour and the finest granulated sugar are +necessary ingredients. + +In determining the kind of fat to use in a cake, one should consider all +of the ingredients in a recipe, and then decide which one will give the +most pronounced flavor to the combined materials. If a cake contains so +much fat that the fat will be one of the predominating flavoring +ingredients, table butter should be used alone or combined with some bland +fat. When but little fat is used in Plain Cake, there is little difference +in the flavor of cake made with butter or substitutes. Oleomargarine, +tried-out chicken fat, suet, lard, or vegetable fat may be used for spice +cakes or other highly flavored cakes. Cake is one of the foods whose +ingredients require the greatest accuracy and care in measuring. When a +cake contains much fat, the latter can usually be more easily and +accurately weighed than measured. + +METHOD OF MIXING CAKE CONTAINING FAT.--Since cakes contain much more fat +and sugar than muffins, a different method of mixing the fat with the +other ingredients of the cake has been used quite generally. The fat and +sugar have usually been blended by creaming them. + +However, many experiments in the mixing and baking of cakes have been +made. These show that a cake of good quality may be made by following the +method of mixing fat in a muffin mixture, _i.e._ melting the fat and +adding it to other ingredients. The following is the method of mixing cake +when melted fat is used: + +Beat the eggs, add the sugar, liquid, and flavoring. Melt the fat and add +it to the other ingredients. Mix the dry ingredients, _i.e._ the +flour, baking powder, and salt. Add these through a sifter to the egg and +sugar mixture. Beat from 1 to 2 minutes. + +In cake mixing, the yolks and the whites of the eggs are often separated. +When this is done, the yolks and sugar are blended, the moisture, +flavoring, melted fat, and dry ingredients are added, the mixture beaten, +and finally the beaten whites are folded in. + +In combining cake ingredients, great care must be taken to mix all +ingredients _thoroughly_. Cakes, except those containing very little +moisture and much fat, such as Jumbles or Pound Cake, can be made +satisfactorily by adding melted fat. It has been estimated that half as +much time is required for mixing a cake in which melted fat is used as one +in which the fat is creamed. It has been found [Footnote 114: See Journal +Home Economics, Vol. X, pp. 542-7, December, 1918.] that the amount of +mixing and the preparation of ingredients in a cake are much more +important factors than the manner of combining the ingredients. Too little +beating makes a cake of coarse, crumbly mixture. Too much beating makes it +compact in texture with "tunnels" through it. + +PREPARING THE PANS FOR CAKES CONTAINING FAT.--The pans for cakes that +contain fat should be well oiled. It is well to line the pans with paper +and to oil the paper thoroughly, or to oil the pans well and to sprinkle a +little flour over them before adding the cake batter. + +BAKING LAYER AND LOAF CAKES.--If a bit of flour or white paper is +delicately browned after being placed for 2 minutes in the oven, the oven +is of proper temperature for layer cakes containing fat. For a loaf cake +the oven should be cooler, since a longer time for baking is required. It +is especially important that a crust does not form over the top of a cake +before the cake has risen, or before it has been in the oven one fourth of +the time required (see _Baking Sponge Cakes_). To avoid this, the +temperature of the oven should be quite low when a thick loaf cake is +first placed in it. Some housekeepers find it most satisfactory to cover +the top of a pan containing loaf cake with paper until the cake has risen. +In general, layer cakes require 20 to 35 minutes for baking and loaf cakes +from 40 minutes to 1 1/2 hours. Shortly after taking from the oven, cake +containing fat may be removed from the pan, and placed on a wire cake +cooler or towel until cold. In a heat-regulated oven, bake layer cakes at +375 degrees F., and loaf cakes at 350 degrees F. + +THE QUALITY OF CAKE.--Desirable cake is tender and light, but of fine +grain. The quantity of eggs, sugar, fat, and moisture affects these +qualities. Too much sugar makes a cake of coarse grain and of waxy or +tough texture. On the other hand, a cake containing too little sugar is +not as fine grained as one having "just enough." + +A cake in which there is too much fat is crisp or crumbly,--i.e. it will +not hold its shape. Too little fat may make it tough in texture. Generally +the more fat a cake contains the smaller the quantity of moisture needed. +Note that the One-egg Cake recipe contains 1 cupful of liquid, but when +the fat is increased to 1/2 cupful, the moisture is decreased to 2/3 +cupful (see Plain Cake recipe). + +Many eggs without a proportionate quantity of fat and sugar produce a +tough cake. The toughness occasioned by eggs, may be offset, of course, by +the tenderness produced by fat. It is a most interesting study to compare +cake recipes. Some are well proportioned, others could be greatly improved +by variations in the quantity of ingredients. + +The flavor of a cake is largely affected by the proportion of ingredients +in a cake. For the sake of economy, however, certain ingredients, +especially fat and eggs, must be decreased even though texture, grain, and +flavor are sacrificed. The matter of wholesomeness must also be taken into +consideration. Many persons can eat with comfort plain cakes, i.e. those +containing little fat and a moderate quantity of sugar, while rich cakes +distress them. + +SCORE CARD FOR CAKE,--DETERMINING ITS QUALITY + + Flavor 40 + Lightness 20 + Grain and texture 15 + Baking (crust and color) 15 + Appearance (shape and icing) 10 + --- + Total 100 + +QUESTIONS + +How should cake batter be spread in the pan to prevent it from rising +higher in the center than at the edges? + +What is the purpose of placing the warm cake on a cake cooler or on a +cloth? Mention some substitute other than a cloth for a wire cake cooler. +Why not place the warm cake _inverted_ on the cake cooler? + +Explain why a hot cake should not be placed in a cool place or in a draft. + +Why store a cake in a tightly covered tin box? + +Give two reasons for the cracking of the crust of a cake. + +What is the effect of using too much fat in a cake? Too much sugar? Too +much moisture? + +If the quantity of fat is increased, what ingredient in a cake recipe +should be decreased? + +If the number of eggs in a cake is reduced, what ingredient should be +increased? + + + + +LESSON CXLV + +CAKE CONTAINING FAT--PLAIN CAKE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS (A) + + +The "Conventional" method of mixing cake is as follows: Cream the fat; +then gradually add the sugar. Cream the mixture. Add egg yolks that have +been beaten until light. Add the flavoring. Then add some of the milk and +part of the dry ingredients. Repeat until all the milk and dry ingredients +have been added. Beat the mixture thoroughly. Cut and fold in the whites +of the eggs quickly; then turn into oiled pans. Bake layer cakes at +375 degrees F., and loaf cakes at 350 degrees F. + +PLAIN CAKE + +2 cupfuls flour +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +2 eggs +1 cupful sugar +2/3 cupful liquid +1 teaspoonful flavoring +1/4 to 1/2 cupful fat + +Mix according to the directions above or according to _Method of Mixing +Cake Containing Fat_. + +_Compare_ this recipe with that for One-egg Cake. Note that the eggs +and fat are increased, while the baking powder and moisture are decreased. +Can you account for these variations? + +WHITE CAKE + +Follow the Plain Cake recipe, using 4 egg whites instead of 2 eggs and the +greater quantity of fat. Vanilla or almond flavoring are pleasing in White +Cake. If almond extract is used, add only 1/2 teaspoonful. + +White Cake is mixed according to the general directions, except, of +course, that the egg yolks are omitted; the egg whites are beaten until +stiff and folded into the other ingredients. + +A cheaper but tasty white cake may be made by following the recipe for +One-egg Cake and using 2 egg whites instead of 1 whole egg. + +FRESH COCONUT CAKE + +Break open a fresh coconut, save all the milk and use it as part of the +liquid for a White Cake. Add milk to the milk of coconut to make the 2/3 +cupful of liquid in the plain cake recipe. Prepare a White Cake in two +layers. + +CAKE + +Break the coconut into pieces, pare these and put them through a food +chopper or grate them. Prepare Boiled Frosting. When the frosting is ready +to spread on the cake, add about 3/4 of the chopped coconut. Spread the +mixture on the cake layers and sprinkle the remainder of the coconut over +the frosting on the top layer of the cake. + +A fresh coconut cake will keep moist for a week. + +WATER FROSTING + +1 cupful confectioner's sugar +1 tablespoonful hot water, milk, or cream +Salt +1 tablespoonful lemon juice + +Stir the hot water into the sugar and add the salt and lemon juice. If too +stiff, add a little more boiling water. + +3 tablespoonfuls of _cocoa_ or 1 ounce of _chocolate_ may be +mixed with 3 tablespoonfuls of water, cooked for a few minutes, and used +in place of the moisture and lemon juice. 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla +should be added when these materials are used. When cocoa is used the +addition of 1 tablespoonful of butter improves the flavor. + +_Mocha frosting_ may be made by mixing the cocoa or chocolate with +strong coffee instead of water. + +EGG FROSTING + +1 egg white +1 tablespoonful lemon juice +1 cupful confectioner's sugar +Salt + +Put the unbeaten egg white into a bowl; add the lemon juice, then the salt +and sugar. Mix thoroughly. Spread on warm cake. + +The lemon juice may be omitted, and _chocolate_ (or cocoa) and +vanilla added, as in Water Frosting. + +GOLD FROSTING + +2 egg yolks +Confectioner's sugar +1 tablespoonful lemon juice or vanilla +Salt + +Add the flavoring and salt to the unbeaten yolks. Add enough +confectioner's sugar to the mixture to make it thick enough to spread. Use +on White Cake when it is warm. + +BOILED FROSTING + +3/4 to 1 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful vinegar +1 teaspoonful flavoring +1/3 cupful water +1 egg white +Salt + +Mix the sugar, water, and vinegar in a saucepan. Cook _gently_ until +the sirup (when dropped from a spoon) "spins a thread" 3 inches long. +Remove from the fire, and gradually pour the sirup over the egg white to +which a pinch of salt has been added and which has been beaten stiff. +Continue to beat the mixture; when it begins to stiffen, add the +flavoring, and spread over cooled cake. + +The less quantity of sugar produces a more delicate and less dense +frosting than the greater quantity. + +CHOCOLATE-MARSHMALLOW FROSTING + +1 cupful sugar +1/4 cupful boiling water +1/8 teaspoonful salt +12 marshmallows +2 ounces chocolate +3 tablespoonfuls water +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla + +In a saucepan stir the sugar, boiling water, and salt. Then place over a +low flame and heat until the sugar is dissolved. + +Cut the marshmallows in halves, add to the sugar mixture, and beat until +the marshmallows have melted. Cut the chocolate in pieces and mix with 3 +tablespoonfuls water. Stir and cook over a low flame until a thick, smooth +paste is formed. Add to the sugar mixture. Beat until the frosting is of +proper consistency to spread, then stir in the vanilla. + +QUESTIONS + +Give the reason for the greater quantity of fat in cake when egg yolks are +omitted. + +If the conventional method of mixing cake is followed, what can be done in +cold weather to hasten the creaming of fat? What is the result of +insufficient creaming? + +Why is the cake mixture beaten thoroughly before the whites of eggs are +added? + +What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in the +cake mixture? + +What kind of fat should be used for white cake? Why? + +Why use hot water rather than cold water for Water Frosting (see +Experiment 11)? + +When egg whites alone are used in cake, give at least three uses for the +yolks of the eggs. + +Why is Egg Frosting used on warm cake, rather than on cold? + +What is the use of vinegar in Boiled Frosting (see Christmas Candy)? + +Why should the white of egg be beaten while the hot sirup is being poured +over it? + + + + +LESSON CXLVI + +CAKE CONTAINING FAT--PLAIN CAKE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS (B) + + +CHOCOLATE CAKE + +2 cupfuls flour +3 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 to 1 teaspoonful salt +2 ounces chocolate _or_ +1/3 cupful cocoa +1/2 cupful water +1/4 teaspoonful baking soda +2 eggs +1 1/2 cupfuls sugar +1/2 cupful milk +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1/3 cupful fat + +Cook the chocolate or cocoa in the water until a smooth paste is formed, +stirring constantly while cooking. Cool, and add the baking soda. + +Beat the egg yolks and whites separately. Mix as plain cake, adding the +chocolate mixture after the egg yolks have been mixed with the sugar. Use +the less quantity of salt if butter is used for the fat. + +Bake in layers at 375 degrees F., placing Chocolate Filling between the +layers and Boiled Frosting on the top layer. + +Sour milk may be substituted for the sweet milk. When this is done, +increase the baking soda to 1/2 teaspoonful and decrease the baking powder +to 2 teaspoonfuls. + +Baking soda is used with chocolate to neutralize a small quantity of acid +(tartaric) contained in it. Its use with chocolate will also darken the +cake. + +CHOCOLATE FILLING + +1/2 cupful sugar +1/3 cupful flour +1 cupful milk +1 ounce chocolate +3 tablespoonfuls water +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1 egg yolk +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix all ingredients except the egg yolk and flavoring in the same manner +as Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. When sufficiently cooked, add the egg +yolk as directed for Butterscotch Tapioca. Continue cooking until the egg +is coagulated. Remove from the fire, cool, add vanilla. + +3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this +substitution is made, mix the cocoa with the flour and sugar and omit the +water. + +The egg yolk may be omitted. When this is done add 1/2 tablespoonful of +corn-starch to the flour and sugar mixture. + +Compare the recipes for chocolate and plain cake. How do you account for +the difference in the quantities of sugar (see _Chocolate Corn-starch +Pudding_)? + +Does the water used for making the chocolate paste change in quantity +during the cooking? Explain. What ingredient do both chocolate and cocoa +contain which aids in thickening the cake? From this can you account for +the greater quantity of moisture used in Chocolate Cake? + +Would it be advisable to use a greater quantity of fat (1/2 cupful) for +Chocolate Cake? Why? + +NUT CAKE + +Follow the recipe for Plain Cake, use the smaller quantity of fat, and add +1 cupful of chopped nuts. A convenient way of chopping nuts is to put them +through the food chopper, using the coarse knife. + +CAKE CONTAINING FRUIT + +Follow the recipe for Plain Cake, but add 1 cupful of raisins or currants. +Clean the fruit, then dry, and sprinkle it with flour. Raisins may be +chopped, or cut in two pieces (see _To Prepare Raisins for Cooking_). +Citron may also be added. It should be cut in thin slices or put through +the food chopper. + +When light brown sugar is used instead of white sugar, dates make a +pleasing addition. These should be cleaned, stoned, cut into pieces, and +added as are the raisins or currants. + +Spices give pleasing flavor when dried fruits are used. 1 teaspoonful each +of cinnamon and nutmeg and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves make desirable +flavoring. + +QUESTIONS + +Mention the kinds of fat that could be used for spice cakes and for +Chocolate Cake. Give the reason for the selection made. From _U. S. +Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin 28, tabulate the percentage +composition of some common nuts. Of chocolate and cocoa. + +Explain why the minimum quantity of fat should be used for Nut Cake. + +Why are the dried fruits floured? + +Why are nuts not floured? + +Compare cakes made with the least and the greatest quantity of fat. Which +is the more tender? Which has the better taste? + +Calculate the cost per pound of Sponge Cake. Calculate the cost per pound +of cake containing fat (see _Plain Cake_). + + + + +LESSON CXLVII + +CAKE CONTAINING FAT--COOKIES + + +CLASSES OF COOKIES.--Cooky mixture may be thin like a drop batter and +dropped by spoonfuls on to a pan or it may be about as stiff as a soft +dough and rolled and then cut into rounds or other shapes. Hence cookies +may be classified as: + +(1) Drop Cookies. + +(2) Cut or Rolled Cookies. + +TEXTURE OF COOKIES.--Drop cookies may or may not contain fat. Cut or +rolled cookies usually contain fat. Since a dough is prepared in making +the latter kind of cookies, fat is needed to make the mixture sufficiently +tender. A dough containing little or no fat usually produces a tough cut +cooky. A skilled cooky maker, however, can secure a soft cut cooky +containing little fat by making a very soft dough. + +If crisp, cut cookies are desired, the dough should be rolled thin. To +secure soft cookies roll the dough to at least 1/4 inch thickness. If +cookies containing fat are stored in a tightly covered box, they become +softer after several days. + +COMPARE the recipe for Sugar Cookies with that for Plain Cake. Account for +the difference in the quantity of milk. Explain why the quantity of milk +is decreased rather than the quantity of flour increased. + +SUGAR COOKIES + +2 cupfuls flour +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +1 cupful sugar +1/2 cupful fat +Milk or water (about 3/8 cupful) +1 teaspoonful flavoring or spice + +Mix as for Plain Cake (do not separate the eggs), adding just sufficient +milk to make the dough stiff enough to be rolled out. Put the dough in a +cool place to chill. Roll out in small portions; then sprinkle with sugar. +Cut and bake at 375 degrees F. 10 minutes or until browned. + +SOUR MILK OR CREAM COOKIES + +Follow the recipe for Sugar Cookies, using 1/2 cupful of thick sour milk +or cream in the place of sweet milk and adding 1/4 teaspoonful of baking +soda. If sour cream is used, only 1/3 cupful (instead of 1/2 cupful) of +fat is needed. Nutmeg--1/2 teaspoonful--is a pleasing flavoring material +for these cookies. + +For _Ginger Cookies_, vary the recipe for Sour Cream Cookies as +follows: + +Use 1/2 cupful sugar and 1/2 cupful molasses instead of 1 cupful of sugar. + +Increase the baking soda to 1/2 teaspoonful. + +For flavoring use 1 teaspoonful ginger and 1 teaspoonful allspice. + +Since the molasses furnishes some moisture, it is usually necessary to add +more flour or decrease the sour milk or cream. + +COOKIES WITH RAISIN FILLING + +Prepare Sour Cream Cooky dough. Roll the dough into a thin sheet and cut +it into rounds. Spread half of the rounds with a thin layer of Raisin +Filling (see below). Then cover each round with another piece of dough. +Press the edges together. Place on an oiled baking sheet and bake in a +moderate oven. + +RAISIN FILLING + +1/2 cupful corn sirup +1 cupful seeded raisins +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +Cook these ingredients until the mixture is thick enough to use as cake +filling. + +One fourth cupful of chopped nuts may be added. One egg may also be added +to the mixture just before removing from the fire. + +PEANUT BUTTER COOKIES + +2 1/2 cupfuls flour +3 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 egg +1 cupful sugar +3/4 cupful peanut butter +1 cupful sour milk + +Mix and bake as Sugar Cookies. It is especially necessary to make the +dough for these cookies very soft. It requires skilful handling. + +CORN-MEAL COOKIES + +1/2 cupful melted fat +1/2 cupful molasses +1/2 cupful corn sirup +1 egg +6 tablespoonfuls sour milk +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +2 cupfuls corn-meal +1 cupful wheat flour +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Combine the melted fat, molasses, sirup, beaten egg, and milk. Sift the +dry ingredients and combine with the liquid. Drop from a teaspoon on to a +greased pan and bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 15 minutes. +This makes 55 to 60 cookies about 2 inches in diameter. + +(Adapted from _United States Food Administration Bulletin_.) + +QUESTIONS + +How does the method of preparing cooky mixture differ from that of +preparing cake mixture? + +Why should cooky dough be chilled before rolling out? + +What can be done to the cooky cutter to prevent it from sticking? + +Why is less fat required for Sour Cream than for Sour Milk Cookies (see +Figure 64)? + +From the _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, +find the per cent of fat in peanut butter. What is the per cent of fat in +butter (see Figure 63)? If butter were substituted for peanut butter in +Peanut Butter Cookies, how much would be needed to furnish the same +quantity of fat? + + + + +LESSON CXLVIII + +CAKES WITHOUT EGGS + + +OMITTING EGGS IN CAKE.--It was previously stated that 2 teaspoonfuls of +baking powder are required to leaven 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are +used. The statement was also made that the quantity of baking powder is +reduced when eggs are used. Hence cakes made with eggs require less than +the proportionate quantity of leavening given above. + +When eggs are omitted in a cake, it is necessary to use 2 teaspoonfuls of +baking powder (or its equivalent) for each cupful of flour. + +The flavor of cakes is usually improved when eggs are used. In eggless +cakes, it is advisable to use spices or other materials of pronounced +flavor. + +Since eggs are highly nutritious, their omission in cake decreases +considerably the food value of the cake. Leavens and flavoring materials +(except chocolate) used in eggless cakes have practically no food value. + +APPLE SAUCE CAKE + +2 cupfuls flour +1/8 teaspoonful cloves +1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cinnamon +1 teaspoonful nutmeg +1 teaspoonful baking soda +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1 cupful sugar +1 cupful apple sauce (unsweetened) +1/3 cupful fat +1 cupful raisins, cut in halves + +Mix the sugar and apple sauce; add the fat. Mix the dry ingredients. +Through a sifter, add them to the apple sauce mixture. Flour the raisins +and stir them into the batter. Turn into a greased loaf-cake pan or into +two layer-cake pans. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.). If the +cake is baked in layers, put Raisin Filling between them, but omit the +raisins in the cake batter. + +CHOCOLATE CAKE + +2 cupfuls flour +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1 teaspoonful salt +1/3 cupful cocoa +1/3 cupful water +1/4 cupful fat +1/2 teaspoonful baking soda +1 cupful sugar +3/4 cupful sour milk +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Mix the cocoa and water. Stir and cook until a thick smooth paste is +formed. Add the fat. If solid fat is used stir until it is melted. Set +aside to cool. + +Add the baking soda and mix well. Then add the sugar and sour milk. +Through a sifter, add the dry ingredients. Then add the vanilla. Beat +well. Bake in two layers (375 degrees F.) or in one sheet (350 degrees +F.). Use frosting or Chocolate Filling made without eggs between the +layers and frosting on the top layer. + +If it is desired to save sugar, a thin layer of Chocolate Filling may be +used between the layers and on the top layer. + +SPICE CAKE + +1 cupful brown sugar +1/4 cupful molasses +1 cupful seeded raisins +3/4 cupful water +1/2 cupful fat +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful nutmeg +2 teaspoonfuls cinnamon +1/8 teaspoonful cloves +2 1/2 cupfuls flour +1/4 teaspoonful baking soda +3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder + +In a saucepan mix all the ingredients except flour and leavening +materials. Stir and cook the mixture at boiling temperature for 3 minutes. +Set aside to cool. + +Through a sifter, add the leavening materials and flour. Beat well. Turn +into an oiled loaf-cake pan and bake in a moderate oven (350 degrees F.) +from 45 to 60 minutes. + +Chopped nuts--1/2 cupful--may be added to this cake. This addition, +however, increases the cost. For economy the raisins may be omitted. + +NOTE.--Various changes occur when certain of the ingredients of this cake +are cooked, viz., + +(_a_) The sugar is dissolved +(_b_) The raisins are softened +(_c_) The fat is melted +(_d_) The spices are improved in flavor. + +QUESTIONS + +What materials in Apple Sauce Cake leaven it? + +What ingredient usually present in cake recipes is omitted in this cake? +What takes the place of this ingredient? + +In Chocolate Cake, how much baking soda is required to neutralize the acid +of the sour milk? For what purpose is the additional quantity used? + +What is the purpose of cooking the cocoa and water (see _Cocoa and +Chocolate_)? + +Determine the difference in the cost of Chocolate Cake with and without +eggs. + +What ingredient in Spice Cake contains a small quantity of acid? Explain +why baking soda is an ingredient of this ingredient. + +Why should the cooked mixture of Spice Cake be cool before the remaining +ingredients are added? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CXLIX + +THE LUNCHEON BOX + + +The luncheon box most commonly used is of pasteboard or tin. Both these +materials have advantages and disadvantages. Bread and cake are prevented +from drying out when placed in a tightly covered tin box. On the other +hand, food odors are retained and one pronounced odor may permeate all of +the foods. But since dry bread is unpalatable, the tin box is considered +more satisfactory. It should be kept clean and free from odors, should be +emptied of its contents every day, washed (scalded often), and allowed to +remain open all night. The collapsible box is the most convenient. + +For most lunches, a teaspoon, jelly glass, and in some cases a drinking +cup are all the "dishes" needed. The jelly glass may serve for many +purposes. Cup custard may be steamed or baked in it, or it makes an +admirable mold for an individual steam pudding. Small fruits and fruit +sauces may also be carried in jelly glasses. + +MENU MAKING FOR THE LUNCHEON BOX.--A luncheon box may be made a source of +pleasure to the school child or everyday worker. To bring this about, the +foods must be varied on successive days. It is not necessary that each +luncheon consist of various foods. Indeed, many kinds of food or foods in +great quantity are not desirable for a child who sits quietly at study +much of the day or for a person of sedentary occupation. It is both +possible and necessary, however,--if the luncheon box is not to become +monotonous,--to have different foods for each day of the week. As in any +meal, all of the foodstuffs should be represented in the food of a +luncheon box. + +FOODS FOR THE LUNCHEON BOX.--(1) _Sandwiches_.--Bread is the basis of +almost all box luncheons. Since sandwiches furnish the most convenient way +of carrying foods that are to be eaten with bread, they invariably form a +part of every luncheon. Because they are used so frequently they should be +varied. Different kinds of bread, such as graham, Boston brown, and nut +bread, may be used. Variety may be had by serving bread sometimes in the +form of muffins or rolls. The slices of bread may be cut thin or thick to +suit the appetite of the eater. It is often desirable to leave the crusts +on the bread. Butter should be creamed before spreading it on the bread. +If the sandwiches are to be cut extremely thin, spread the bread before +cutting it into slices. If sandwiches are prepared some time before they +are served, they can be kept moist by wrapping in a dry towel, covered +with a towel wrung out of hot water. + +The fillings for sandwiches offer many variations. They may be divided +into two classes, seasoned and sweet. _Seasoned fillings_ may include +meat, eggs, cheese, vegetables. If meat is used, it may be cut in slices, +or chopped and mixed with a sauce. If sliced meat is used, it is well to +tear it into pieces. (This applies also to lettuce.) If it is desired to +lessen the quantity of meat in a diet, the meat should be chopped, for it +has been found that only half as much meat is required when it is chopped +and mixed with a dressing. Either Salad Dressing or White Sauce may be +combined with meat. A French Dressing made of vegetable oil, lemon juice, +and seasonings is better, so far as ease of digestion is concerned, than +Cream or "Boiled" Salad Dressing. If oil is not palatable, learn to like +it. Any of the seasoned fillings may be mixed with Salad Dressing. Sliced +tomatoes spread with Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing, chopped peanuts +mixed with salad dressing, sardines or cold chicken with lemon juice and +paprika make tasty sandwich fillings. + +_Sweet fillings_ for sandwiches include: preserved or dried fruits, +bananas, nuts. Sandwiches made with a sweet filling are most popular among +children. Some of them make good substitutes for cake, and are much more +easily digested. The dried fruits such as dates, figs, and prunes, cooked +and combined with bread and butter, make excellent foods. The growing +child is apt to become anemic. Since prunes contain iron, they should be +frequently used in children's diet. Cooked prunes--seeded and flavored +with lemon juice--make palatable sandwiches, especially when brown bread +is used or a few chopped nuts are added. Breads containing sugar or +molasses are most pleasing when used with a sweet filling. Banana +sandwiches are much improved by the addition of lemon juice or Salad +Dressing. Nuts are often combined with both sweet and seasoned materials; +their use gives opportunity for variety. Chopped raisins and nuts may be +moistened with grape juice and used as sandwich filling. Chopped dates, +apples, and nuts mixed with salad dressing make a pleasing filling. +Crushed maple or brown sugar mixed with cream or butter and used with +whole wheat bread is a favorite sandwich among children. + +(2) _Relishes_.--Celery, olives, and radishes serve as relishes for +the luncheon box. Celery and olives (especially those stuffed with +pimentos or nuts) are pleasing as a sandwich filling. Most relishes, +however, are more suitable for the luncheon box of a mature person than +for that of a child. + +(3) _Desserts_.--Cake is a common constituent of the luncheon box. +Not all cakes, however, are suitable for luncheons. For children, only the +plainer cakes, _i.e._ those containing little fat, should be used. +Plain cake and cookies, sponge cake, lady fingers, and gingerbread (if not +too highly spiced) are also desirable for the school luncheon. Cookies or +cakes baked in muffin pans are more suitable for packing than cut pieces +of cake. + +Most fresh fruits can be easily packed in the luncheon box. As has been +mentioned, grapes, the small fruits such as strawberries and raspberries, +sliced pineapple, or fruit sauces may be carried in jelly glasses. + +Cup custards and simple puddings may be used as desserts. If a child is +permitted to have sweets, a little candy may be placed in the luncheon +box; it is better for a child to have candy at the end of a luncheon than +after school (see _Use of Candy in Diet_). + +PACKING THE LUNCHEON.--Neatness is an essential in an inviting luncheon +box. All foods should be wrapped separately in paraffin paper, and placed +neatly in the box. Since some foods crush readily, it is not always +possible to place the foods to be eaten first on top, but it is desirable +to arrange the foods so that not all of them will have to be removed +before beginning to eat the luncheon. The paper napkin should always be +placed on top. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that foods should not come +in direct contact with newspapers or any printed matter. + +QUESTION + +Plan menus for five school luncheons, making them as varied as possible. +If you carry your luncheon to school, follow these menus in preparing your +luncheon box. + + + + +LESSON CL + +PLANNING AND PREPARING BOX LUNCHEONS + + +Plan [Footnote 115: See Footnote 72.] box luncheons. Make sandwiches and +other foods for the luncheon box. Fill one or more luncheon boxes +according to plans. + + + + +LESSON CLI + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Cake (for Cottage Pudding) +Vanilla Sauce +Cocoa + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CLII + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 116: See Lesson IX] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Bake cake or cookies at least once a week. If +eggs are high in price, bake cake without eggs or bake One-egg Cake. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To improve the quality of cake. As suggested in a +previous Home Project, score your product, determine the cause of any +undesirable quality, and then avoid your error at the next baking. + +(2) To compare homemade and baker's cake. Determine the weight and cost of +homemade and baker's cake. Compare like kinds of cake, _i.e._ plain, +chocolate, etc. Compute the cost per pound of each. If possible compare +the flavor, grain, and texture of each. What are the advantages of +homemade over baker's cake? + + + + +DIVISION FIFTEEN + +PASTRY + +LESSON CLIII + +PIE WITH UNDER CRUST + + +PASTRY.--Good pastry is: (_a_) light, (_b_) flaky or friable, +and (_c_) tender. The _lightness_ of pastry is largely dependent +upon the temperature of the ingredients. All the materials should be cold, +so that the expansion in baking may be as great as possible. In order to +keep the ingredients cold and the fats solid, a knife (instead of the +fingers) should be used in mixing. It is well to chill pastry by placing +it on the ice before rolling out. The lightness of pastry is dependent +somewhat upon quick and deft manipulations. A little baking powder also +increases the lightness of pastry. + +_Flaky_ pastry results when the ingredients are mixed so as to form +layers. To accomplish this, solid fat is used and it is not cut fine into +the dry ingredients, but is left in pieces. Thus, when rolled, there are +layers of flour and fat. Pastry is sometimes made by cutting part of the +fat into the flour mixture, then moistening and rolling it out; adding the +remainder of the fat in small bits, folding and rolling out again. + +_Friable_ pastry usually results when oil is used instead of solid +fat. The following fats may be used alone or in combination: butter, +oleomargarine, lard, vegetable oil or fat, lard substitutes. + +To make pastry _tender_ and not tough, the least possible moisture +should be used. The quantity of fat used also determines its tenderness. +The more fat used, the less the amount of water required. Less moisture is +required when oil rather than solid fat is used. For this reason, many +persons can produce more tender pastry by using a cooking oil. The fact +that the moisture is decreased when oil is used may also account for the +decreased quantity of oil given in the recipe for pastry. Less oil than +solid fat will produce the same degree of tenderness, provided less water +is used. + +PIE WITH THE UNDER CRUST.--Pastry is somewhat difficult of digestion; but +a crust that is brittle and easily crumbled is more readily digested than +one that is moist and pasty. Pie crust should crumble as finely as a +cracker. To prevent moist and pasty pie crust, it is advisable to bake +"one crust" pie. If an under crust only is used, it should be baked before +adding the filling. The filling should be cooked and sweetened before +adding it to the crust. + +PLAIN PASTRY (2 crusts) + +1 1/2 cupfuls flour +1 teaspoonful baking powder +1/2 teaspoonful salt +1/4 to 1/2 cupful fat _or_ 1/6 to 1/3 cupful oil +Ice water + + +Mix the dry ingredients, cut in the fat slightly; then add just enough +water to hold the ingredients together. Chill; then roll out (one crust at +a time). + +Pastry should be baked in a hot oven. A pastry shell containing no filling +should be baked at 400 degrees F., for 15 to 20 minutes. + +Bake a one crust pie on the outside of a pie pan; it should be pricked +with a fork before baking. + +The pastry trimmings should be utilized. They may be made into tarts or +cheese straws. + +LEMON PIE + +3 tablespoonfuls flour +3 tablespoonfuls corn-starch +1 cupful sugar +2 cupfuls boiling water +2 egg yolks +Juice and grated rind of 1 lemon +1 tablespoonful butter +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +MERINGUE + +2 egg whites +2 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar + +Mix the sugar, flour, and corn-starch, add the boiling water. Stir and +cook on the back of the range, or over an asbestos mat, for 15 minutes. +Add the egg yolks and cook at simmering temperature, until the eggs +thicken. Add the remaining ingredients. Cool and place in a baked crust. +Cover with a meringue. Bake until the meringue is a light brown, +_i.e._ at 300 degrees F., 10 to 15 minutes. + +Note that the lemon is added to the mixture after cooking. Cooking a +starchy material with a small amount of acid, dextrinizes the starch. +Since dextrin has less thickening power than starch, the starch mixture +would become thinner if cooked for some time with lemon. + +SCORE CARD FOR PIE,--DETERMINING ITS QUALITY + +Flavor 30 +Tenderness 20 +Lightness 10 +Flakiness 10 +Appearance (color and thickness) 10 +Filling (flavor and consistency) 20 + --- +Total 100 + +QUESTIONS + +Why should not the fingers be used to mix the fat with the dry ingredients +in pastry making? + +Why is it easier to roll out pastry, if it has been chilled after mixing? + +Why should a lower crust, when used alone, be baked before adding the +filling? + +What is the purpose of pricking the lower crust with a fork before baking? + +Compare the filling for Lemon Pie with that for Cream Puffs. How do they +differ in moisture, method of preparation, and length of time in cooking? +Give the reason for these differences. + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of butter (see Figure 63), oleomargarine, lard, +lard substitute, and vegetable oil. What is the price per pound of each? + +Which furnishes more fat,--a pound of butter or a pound of lard? If lard, +lard substitute, or vegetable oil were substituted for butter in a cake or +other quick bread, should the same quantity be used? Explain. + + + + +LESSON CLIV + +PIES WITH UPPER CRUST + + +DIGESTION OF PASTRY.--As previously mentioned (see _Frying and +Digestion_), when fats are heated to a high temperature, they +decompose. The products of this decomposition are less readily digested +than is fat before it is decomposed. Hence in fried foods, the fat is made +somewhat indigestible. Thus it is much better to spread uncooked fat over +hot potatoes than to combine the two foods by frying the potatoes. + +Fat is the most slowly digested of all foodstuffs. Hence a combination of +fat and carbohydrates is more slowly digested than carbohydrate. For this +reason, foods consisting of fat and flour such as pastry may remain in the +digestive tract for a long time and cause disturbances. Distressing +effects are less likely to result, however, when a person's work is out of +doors. Since fatty foods remain in the stomach longer than others, they +may serve to allay the feeling of hunger which is caused by the +contracting of an empty stomach. + +PIE WITH THE UPPER CRUST.--In the previous lesson (see _Pie with Under +Crust_), it was mentioned that "pasty" pie crust was not readily +digested. For this reason, fresh fruit pie may be made with an upper crust +only. Such pie should be baked in a pan of granite, glass, or similar +material. The fruit is placed in the pie pan, then a half-inch strip of +pastry is placed over the rim of the pie pan; the strip is moistened and +the crust placed over the top. The strip of pastry and the upper crust are +pressed together, then the edges of the latter are trimmed. The upper +crust should be cut in several places for the escape of steam. + +RHUBARB PIE + +2 cupfuls rhubarb, cut in small pieces +1 egg +4 tablespoonfuls flour +1 cupful sugar +Salt +Lemon rind + +Mix the sugar, salt, lemon rind, and flour; beat the egg. Add the rhubarb +and flour mixture to the egg. Turn into an earthenware dish or a granite +pan, and cover with pastry as directed above. Bake until the rhubarb is +tender and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425 degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes. + +Rhubarb contains such a large percentage of moisture that it is well to +use but one crust. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why it is that baked potatoes and butter are more readily digested +than fried potatoes. + +What is the advantage of using only a top crust for fresh fruit pie? + +What is the purpose of egg and flour in Rhubarb Pie? Why is it desirable +to use these ingredients with rhubarb? + +Why should the flour in Rhubarb Pie be mixed with sugar? + +How much water is there in apples and rhubarb (see _U. S. Department of +Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28 and Figure 70)? + + + + +LESSON CLV + +TWO-CRUST PIES + + +TWO CRUSTS.--If both upper and lower crusts are used in making a pie, the +lower crust should be placed inside the pan. The filling should be added, +the edge of the crust moistened, and the upper crust placed over the pie +and pressed around the edges. Then the edges should be trimmed. As was +mentioned before, upper crusts should always be cut in several places for +the escape of steam. + +Sometimes a half-inch strip of pastry is placed around the edge of the +under crust before placing the upper crust. This is thought to aid in +preventing the escape of the moisture of the filling. + +APPLE PIE + +Cut 4 or 5 apples into slices, and for each apple use 2 tablespoonfuls (or +more) of sugar. If the apples are not juicy, add from 1/2 to 1 +tablespoonful of water for each apple. Flavor with 1 teaspoonful each of +lemon juice and rind, 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon or nutmeg, and 1/8 +teaspoonful salt. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, pour in the +apple mixture. Add bits of butter, and cover with pastry as directed +above. Bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425 +degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes. + +Apple sauce may be used as a filling for a baked crust. Such a pie is +sometimes covered with meringue or strips of pastry. + +FRUIT PIE WITH TWO CRUSTS + +2 cupfuls fruit +1/2 to 1 cupful sugar +3 tablespoonfuls flour + +If the fruit is fresh, wash and drain it well. Mix the sugar and flour. +Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, add half of the sugar and flour +mixture. Add the fruit, and then the remainder of the sugar and flour. +Cover with a top crust according to the directions above. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why pie with only one crust, if properly made, is more desirable +than that with two crusts (see _Pie with Under Crust_). + +Why should fresh fruit, for fruit pie with two crusts, be well drained +after washing? + +Give three ways of preventing the juice from boiling over, in a pie with +two crusts. + +Compare pastry that is made with lard, lard substitutes, vegetable oils +and butter, as to taste, appearance, flakiness or friability, and +tenderness. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CLVI + +INFANT FEEDING + + +PERFECT FOOD FOR INFANTS.--Nature in her wisdom provides ideal food for +the infant,--mother's milk. No perfect substitute has been found for it. +It is most unfortunate when a child is denied this food. + +It has been found [Footnote 117: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz +Rose, Ph.D., p. 98.] that babies fed with mother's milk are much less +likely to contract disease and much more apt to grow to maturity. A +mother's milk is adapted to the needs of her child. It agrees with the +infant and nourishes it well. A practical advantage of a healthy mother's +milk is that it is sterile and of the proper temperature. + +MODIFIED MILK.--In case it is necessary to give the infant artificial +diet, the greatest care should be taken to provide clean, easily digested +food. Cow's milk is the basis of the food generally chosen. The way babies +digest cow's milk shows the necessity of changing or _modifying_ it +to meet the needs of an infant. Cow's milk is modified sometimes by +diluting it to make it digest easier and adding other ingredients to it. +In order to increase the fuel value of diluted milk, carbohydrate food of +some soluble, easily digested kind is added. Sometimes gruel or cereal +water is used as one of the constituents of modified milk. + +Formulas for modified milk vary with the individual infant. A physician +should be consulted regarding the formula for food for a baby. + +(_a_) _Utensils_ for measuring and preparing the ingredients of +modified milk should be kept very clean. Before using, all glass and metal +utensils used for measuring and holding the milk should be covered with +cold water, then the water should be heated and allowed to boil for twenty +minutes. Just before using rubber nipples, place them in boiling water for +a few minutes. After using, they should be rinsed in cold water and then +carefully washed inside and out with soap and water. When not in use, +nipples should be kept in a clean covered jar or jelly glass. (The jar and +cover should be sterilized daily.) After using the milk bottles (have as +many bottles as there are feedings a day), rinse them in cold water, and +then fill them with water and add a pinch of baking soda. Before filling +the bottle with milk, wash with soap and water--using a bottle brush--and +then sterilize in boiling water for twenty minutes (as directed above). +Bacteria cannot pass through cotton, hence it is used for stoppering the +filled milk bottles. It should be clean, however. Paper caps are also +used. + +(_b_)_ Ingredients_.--(1) _Milk_.--The selection of milk +for an infant is an important consideration. _Clean milk_ is most +essential. Milk is considered clean when it comes from dairy farms where +clean milkers work under sanitary conditions, approved by a medical milk +commission (see _Care of Milk_). Such milk contains few bacteria and +is called _certified milk_. This is by far the safest milk for infant +diet, but it is expensive. It usually costs almost twice as much as +ordinary milk. Milk is _pasteurized_ commercially by heating it to +150 degrees F., keeping it at that temperature for about thirty minutes, +and then quickly cooling it. While pasteurizing kills most of the +disease-producing germs, it does not destroy all the spores (see +_Microorganisms in theSpore Form_). The taste of milk is not affected +by pasteurizing. Milk is _sterilized_--all germ life destroyed--by +heating at 212 degrees F. from one to one and one half hours. + +Since the value of milk as an infant food depends upon its cleanliness, it +is difficult to state just how old milk may be before it is unsafe for +infant feeding. It is safest to use only _fresh_ milk. Bacteria in +milk may develop so rapidly that it is unfit to use a few hours after it +has been drawn from the cow. Unless milk is certified, it should not be +used in summer after it is twenty-four hours old, and in winter, after it +is forty-eight hours old. _Bottled_ milk should be used for infants. +According to most plans for modifying milk, _whole milk_ is used. + +(2) _Sugar._--Several kinds of sugar are used in modified milk. These +are: + +Milk sugar or lactose. +Malt sugar combined with dextrin or dextrimaltose. +Granulated sugar or cane sugar. + +The advice of a physician should be consulted regarding the kind of sugar +best suited to the needs of the particular infant. The first two kinds of +sugar can be obtained at a drug store. Granulated sugar is too sweet for +general use. + +(3) _Water or Cereal Water._--If plain water is to be used with milk, +it should be boiled before adding to the other ingredients. + +In some cases, gruel or cereal water is added. Usually rolled oats or +barley flour is the grain used. To prepare either of these use: + +4 tablespoonfuls rolled oats _or_ +3 tablespoonfuls barley flour +1 quart cold water + +Mix and boil gently until the mixture is reduced to a pint. Then strain +through a fine wire strainer or muslin. + +[Illustration: Figure 87.--Graduated Measure and Dipper for Measuring the +Ingredients of Modified Milk.] + +(_c_) _Method of Mixing_.--Measure the sugar. This ingredient is +usually measured in ounces, tablespoonfuls, or teaspoonfuls. (1 1/2 +dipperfuls (Figure 87) of milk sugar weigh 1 ounce.) In the graduated +measure (Figure 87), measure the water or cereal water for diluting the +milk and dissolve the sugar in it. Stir the mixture until the sugar is +completely dissolved. Then pour it into the mixing pitcher. Measure the +milk (and other ingredients if required) and pour into pitcher. Mix +thoroughly. While stirring, turn the proper quantity of food into as many +sterilized bottles as are required for a day's feeding. Stopper with +cotton or cap. If the milk used is certified, place in a clean +refrigerator until used for feeding. If the milk is not certified, it may +be pasteurized. + +PASTEURIZING MILK AT HOME.--Place the bottles of milk in a wire basket. +Then place the basket in a kettle. Pour water in the kettle so that the +water is a little higher outside of the bottles than the surface of the +milk inside. Heat the water and let it boil for 5 minutes. (Do not begin +to count the time until the water reaches the boiling point.) At once cool +the milk by allowing a stream of cold water to displace the hot water. Do +not allow the cold water to run directly on the hot bottles. When the milk +is cooled, place the bottles immediately in a clean refrigerator. + +PREPARATION OF MILK BEFORE FEEDING.--At feeding time, milk should be +heated to about 98 degrees F. Place the bottle in a pan of warm water. +Test the milk for proper temperature. Use the method described in +Junket "Custard", for testing the temperature of the milk. Shake the +bottle before feeding. + +OTHER FOODS GIVEN TO INFANTS.--In addition to modified milk, boiled water +should be given to infants. A few other foods--egg yolk or vegetable +juices and orange juice--may often be given during the first year. The egg +yolk should be soft-cooked. This food supplies iron and increases the +Calorific value of the diet. Orange juice (strained through muslin) may be +usually given at five or six months of age. It is especially necessary to +give orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized. Its +use prevents constipation and scurvy. + +ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF AN INFANT.--The energy requirement of an infant is +greater than one would suppose. Growth and development are going on at a +rapid rate. Like the adult, a baby asleep needs energy to carry on the +involuntary activities of its body. When awake such muscular activities as +crying, kicking, and throwing of arms require energy. An infant's energy +requirement is usually based upon its body weight. According to generally +accepted standards [Footnote 118: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz +Rose, Ph.D., p. 103.] an infant's average energy requirement is: + +1st to 3d months 50 Calories per pound per day +4th to 6th months 45 Calories per pound per day +7th to 9th months 40 Calories per pound per day +10th to 12th months 35 Calories per pound per day + +QUANTITY OF FOOD.--When a baby must be given artificial food entirely or +as a supplement to natural food, it is safest and most satisfactory to +follow the advice of a physician. It is said, however, that an infant +requires an average of 1 1/2 ounces of milk per day for every pound of +body weight. After the eighth month, this quantity of milk is usually +decreased first to 1 1/3 and then to 1 1/4 ounces for every pound of body +weight per day. + +The amount of artificial food found satisfactory for the infant during the +first few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as many +Calories as given in the table above. But while the baby is adjusting +itself to artificial feeding, it is especially necessary that the stomach +be not overtaxed. As the infant develops, the quantity of food can be +increased and the deficiency made up later. + +QUESTIONS + +Define certified, pasteurized, sterilized, modified, and top milk. + +Give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk. + +In preparing modified milk why is milk diluted? Why is sugar added? + +What is the price per quart of certified milk? + + + + +LESSON CLVII + +MODIFYING MILK + + +Modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician or +baby's dispensary. Pasteurize milk. + + + + +LESSON CLVIII + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Baked Sweet Potatoes or Scalloped Potatoes +Apple Dumpling (made with pastry or biscuit dough) + +See Lesson XIV, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CLIX + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 119: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If pies are served in your home, bake at least +one pie a week. In case pies are not used, bake cake in which different +quantities of fat are used. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare One- and Two-crust Pies. Prepare each kind. +Determine the difference in cost, time of preparation, and quality of the +crust of each. Which kinds of pies do you consider more successful in +regard to quality? Which is cheaper? Which kind meets the approval of +other members of your home? + +(2) To compare Cake Containing Little and Much Fat. Follow the recipe for +One-egg or Plain Cake. Vary the quantity of fat from 1/8 to 1/2 cupful. +Make comparisons regarding cost, texture, grain, and flavor. Which amount +do you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture, grain, and +flavor? + + + + +DIVISION SIXTEEN + +FROZEN DESSERTS + +LESSON CLX + +METHOD OF FREEZING--WATER ICE + +EXPERIMENT 79: MIXTURES FOR FREEZING.--Prepare 2 cupfuls of cracked ice. +Place 1 cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls. To one bowl of ice +add 1/3 cupful of rock salt, and mix thoroughly. Insert thermometers into +both bowls and note temperature. What effect does the salt have upon the +temperature of the ice? + +Allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes, then observe the difference +in the condition of the ice in the two bowls. Besides lowering the +temperature, what does the salt do to the ice? + +FREEZING WITH ICE AND SALT.--When a solid substance is changed to a +liquid, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. When solid ice +liquefies, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Salt makes ice +liquefy at a lower temperature, thus absorbing more heat from its +surroundings. Since foods must be cooled, i.e. heat drawn from them, in +order to freeze them, a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used in +freezing. + +If ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen, +from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form? +Explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt, rather than ice alone, +is used to freeze a dessert. + +CONDUCTORS OF HEAT.--In Experiment 2 and in, _The Principle of Fireless +Cookery_, it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heat +than others. Which is a better conductor of heat, wood or metal? Explain +why it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outer +bucket of wood. A few freezers have an outside metal bucket. Such freezing +devices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied around +the outer metal bucket. + +COOLING BY EVAPORATION.--If a few drops of alcohol, ether, or gasoline are +poured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate, the hand feels +cold. During evaporation, the liquid takes heat from the hand. When any +liquid evaporates, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Water may +be cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze. + +When there is no ice, this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporation +of a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods. Wrap +butter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar. +Place the crock in a draft; put a bowl of water beside it. Wrap a wet +cloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water. The +continuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool. + +PREPARING AND PACKING THE FREEZER.--Scald the can, the cover, and the +dasher of the freezer; cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen is +placed in it. Adjust the can carefully in the bucket; put in the dasher; +pour in the mixture, cover; adjust the crank. Crush the ice for freezing +by placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet. Mix +the ice with rock salt in the proportion given below. Then pour the ice +and salt mixture around the can of the freezer. The ice and salt mixture +should be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside. + +For _freezing_ ice creams and most ices use _three_ parts of +cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt. If ice of coarse grain is desired, +use a greater quantity of salt. The less salt in + +proportion to ice used, the finer the grain; the process of freezing, +however, takes place very slowly when little salt is used. + +For mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but are +not stirred, such as mousse or parfait, use _two_ parts of cracked +ice to _one_ of rock salt. + +For packing frozen mixtures after freezing, use _four_ parts of +cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt. + +FREEZING.--If a dessert of fine texture is desired, turn the crank slowly +and steadily until the mixture is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. In +making water ices, it is considered advisable by some to turn the crank +steadily for 5 minutes, then allow to stand 5 minutes, turn again 5 +minutes, and continue until freezing is completed. Do not draw off the +salt water while freezing the mixture, unless the salt water stands so +high that there is danger of its getting into the can. + +When the mixture is frozen, remove the ice and salt around the top of the +can; wipe the cover and top; uncover; and remove the dasher. Then stir the +frozen mixture thoroughly; place thin paper or paraffin paper over the +can; cover; place a cork in the hole of the cover. Drain off all the water +which has collected in freezing; repack the freezer with ice and salt +mixture in the proportion given above; cover with carpet, blanket, or +newspapers; and allow to stand in a cold place several hours. + +FRUIT ICE + +4 cupfuls water +2 3/4 cupfuls sugar +3 oranges +3 lemons +3 bananas +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +Make a sirup of the sugar and water, and then cool it. Extract the juice +from the lemons and oranges; crush the peeled and scraped bananas with a +wooden potato masher. Mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup. +Freeze _at once_. When frozen, remove the dasher and repack as +directed above. + +A less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using 3 +pints of water (instead of 4 cupfuls). When the greater quantity of water +is used, 3 1/4 cupfuls (instead of 2 3/4 cupfuls) of sugar should be used. + +These recipes for Fruit Ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed +"Five Threes." + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why it is necessary to scald the can, cover, and dasher of an ice +cream freezer (see _Care of Milk_). + +What harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelessly +prepared? + +Why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing +(see Experiment 79)? + +What is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozen +mixture? + +What is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet, blanket, +or newspapers (see _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_)? + +Why is it well to tie heavy paper around an _outside metal_ bucket of +a freezer? + +Why should "Fruit Ice" mixture be frozen _at once_ after preparing the +fruit? + +Heat aids chemical action. Can you explain why acid mixtures are not acted +upon by the metal and consequently discolored when _frozen_ in a tin +or iron can? + + + + +LESSON CLXI + +FROZEN CREAMS + + +Frozen desserts consist of: + +1. CREAM MIXTURES: + +(_a_) _Plain Ice Cream_.--Cream, sugar, and flavoring. This is +sometimes called Philadelphia Ice Cream. + +(_b_) _French Ice Cream_.--Custard, cream, and flavoring. On the +continent, this frozen mixture is called Neapolitan Ice Cream. In this +country, three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what is +termed Neapolitan Ice Cream. + +(_c_) _Mousse_.--Whipped cream, folded into various sweetened +and flavored mixtures, placed in a mold, and packed in ice and salt, but +not beaten. + +2. WATER MIXTURES: + +(_a_) _Water Ice._--Fruit juice, water, and sugar. + +(_b_) _Sherbet._--Water ice with the addition of dissolved +gelatine or beaten whites of eggs. + +(_c_) _Frappe._--Water ice of coarse texture. + +(_d_) _Granite._--Water ice to which fruit is added after +freezing. + +3. FROZEN PUDDINGS: + +Various sweet mixtures. + +METHOD OF MIXING FROZEN FOODS.--The sugar of a frozen dessert should +always be dissolved. To accomplish this a sirup should be made of the +sugar and water (see Experiment 11). For mixtures that contain no eggs, +but in which cream or milk is used, the cream or milk may be scalded, and +the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid. If eggs are used to thicken ice +cream, they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as for +a soft custard. + +In sherbets, whites of eggs are often used. They are usually beaten stiff, +and added uncooked to the mixture. If fruit juice is to be used with milk +or cream, the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit. Fruits +that are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushed +thoroughly. Small fruits, or large fruits cut in pieces, are + +sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen, thereby preventing the +fruit from freezing and becoming hard. All frozen mixtures should stand +several hours before serving, in order to ripen. + +PLAIN ICE CREAM + +1 quart cream +3/4 cupful sugar +1 tablespoonful vanilla + + +Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods._ + +CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM + +1 quart cream +1 cupful sugar +2 ounces chocolate +1/3 cupful boiling water +Salt +1 teaspoonful vanilla + +Scald the cream; add the sugar to it. Prepare the chocolate in the usual +way, by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed +(see _Chocolate_). Add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream. Cool, +add salt and vanilla, and freeze. + +FRENCH ICE CREAM + +1 quart cream +1 pint milk +3 egg yolks +Salt +1 cupful sugar +1 tablespoonful vanilla + +Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_. + +FRUIT ICE CREAM + +2 cupfuls fruit juice, _or_ 3 cupfuls crushed fruit +1 quart cream +2 cupfuls sugar + +Prepare and freeze according to the _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_. + +For Frozen Fruit or Water Ice, use water instead of cream. + +The flavor of most fruits is improved by adding 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon +juice to the water mixture. + +QUESTIONS + +For Fruit Ice Cream, why is it necessary to chill the cream before adding +the fruit juice or crushed fruit (see Experiment 61)? + +Why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture? + +How much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts of +custard, according to the recipe for Soft Custard? Compare this with the +quantity of sugar used for French Ice Cream. How do extremely cold +beverages affect the sense of taste? From this, account for the difference +in the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts. Also compare +the quantity of sugar and vanilla used in Chocolate Ice Cream and +Chocolate Beverage. Account for the difference. + +Approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of Ice +Cream? What is the cost of ice per hundred pounds? + +How many persons does one quart of ice cream serve? + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CLXII + +DIET FOR YOUNG CHILDREN + + +SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CHILDREN (2 to 12 years).--Although solid food is +included in the diet of a child after the first year, the baby is by no +means ready for the food of adults. Childhood differs essentially from +maturity in that it is a period of growth. In proportion to weight a child +is much more active than an adult. A child has not the reserve power of a +grown-up person. His organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate. +Because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those of +the adult, diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child. A +consideration of foods for young children follows: + +(1) _Milk_.--Since milk is the food provided for young animals, it +should be used generously all through childhood. The nutritive value of +milk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilate +it. The average child with good digestion should take from one and one +half pints to one quart daily until the tenth year. In this amount is +included not only the milk that is used as a beverage, but the milk served +with cereals and vegetables and that used in soups, custards, blanc mange, +rice and bread puddings, and other easily digested desserts. + +(2) _Cereals and Breads_.--Well-cooked cereals are among the +essential foods of childhood. "Ready-to-serve" breakfast cereals are +undesirable as staples for young children. Cereals should be _cooked_ +from _one_ to _three hours_. For very young children (under +eighteen months) all cereals must be strained. For older children, +unstrained cereals may be used, provided they are thoroughly cooked. +Frequent use of the whole grains, as rolled oats and wheat, is +recommended. These cereals contain more protein and ash than the finer +cereals and hence may be better body-builders, but they also contain much +bran. Usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked. +But if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either be +strained or the cereals containing less bran, as cream of wheat, farina, +and arrowroot, should be used. Cereals should be served with milk or +cream, but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to a +serving. + +Carefully made toast, "zwieback," and stale bread may be given to young +children. On account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads, they are +excluded from children's diet. + +(3) _Eggs_ are especially good foods for children, provided they are +fresh and properly cooked. They should be cooked in some way which leaves +them soft such as soft-cooking or poaching. Only soft-cooked egg yolks +should be given to children under three years. One whole egg per day may +be included in the diet of older children. + +(4) _Broth and Meat_.--There is some difference of opinion regarding +the use of meat in children's diet. Some authorities advise beef broth and +the more easily digested meats for young children. Others say that if a +generous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet, it is +well not to give them meat before eight years. In the diets for children +from two to eight years, neither broth nor meat is included. It is +possible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs. Doubtless, as +with adults, most young children would be benefited by much less meat than +is generally given them or by none at all. If meat is given to young +children, it should be scraped (see Experiment 50) and pan-broiled (see +_Pan-Broiling_), as it is somewhat difficult to masticate. + +(5) _Fresh Vegetables_ should be included in children's diet. For +very young children select mild vegetables such as spinach, asparagus +tips, string beans, and peas. Cook until very soft and press through a +sieve or mash. Later, such cooked vegetables as potatoes (baked or +mashed), beets, carrots, cauliflower, and squash may be added. No uncooked +vegetables should be given to young children. + +(6) _Fruits and Sugar_.--Fruits are especially valuable for children. +Care should be taken, however, in selecting fruits. It is said that until +a child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruits +should be given. For very young children the juice of orange or the pulp +of cooked prunes should be given daily, because they contain valuable +nutrients and possess laxative properties. For older children the cooked +food fruits (see _Kinds of Fruits_) such as dates, figs, and raisins +(without seeds), and bananas (baked) are desirable. Apples, peaches, and +apricots, baked or made into sauces, are also suggested. + +Fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar. Sweets in the form of +sweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children under +six years. After six years, very little candy or sweet chocolate may be +given at the end of a meal, not between meals. It is a mistake to give +children candy just because they want it (see _The Use of Candy in +Diet_.) + +(7) _Desserts_.--Fruits selected and prepared as given in the +previous section, very plain cakes--sponge cake and those containing +little fat--and easily digested desserts made of eggs, milk, cereals, +etc., are the only desserts suitable for young children. + +(8) _Water and Other Beverages_.--"Pure" water in generous quantities +is needed for children. Water and milk are the only beverages (if milk can +be considered a beverage) that should be given to children under six +years. After that age, cocoa made with much milk may be given, but not +tea, coffee, or any carbonated drinks. + +THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER DIET FOR CHILDREN cannot be over-emphasized. It +is a child's right to be "hardy." Good food in proper quantity given at +the right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body. +The child's future health, usefulness, and happiness depend much upon the +nourishment he receives. If insufficient food, or food lacking in +foodstuffs for growth, is given to children, a wasting away of brain cells +and muscle may take place and stunted growth will result. The additional +care in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worth +making; its compensation is inestimable. If from babyhood a child is given +his own special diet, it is possible to satisfy him at the table with food +that differs from that of the rest of the family. Habits of eating plain +food should be established in childhood. Mrs. Richards says: "Habit rather +than instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food." Likes or +dislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children. +Such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritive +value. + +_Regularity in feeding_ children is most important. There should be +no lunches between meals. It is important also that a child be taught to +_masticate_ food thoroughly. + +ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES.--It is difficult to +write definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given to +children. As with adults, some children require more than others. The +personal factor enters largely into this question. In Lesson CXXIV the +energy requirements of children of different ages are given (see +_Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement_). As stated there, +these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size, +development, and activity. Note that in the menus given below the Calories +derived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total Calories +(see _Daily Protein Requirement_). + +The following menus [Footnote 120: Prepared by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., +Assistant Professor of Nutrition, School of Household Arts, Teachers +College, Columbia University (see Teachers College Bulletin, "The Feeding +of Young Children," pp. 6-9).] for children from two to twelve years were +prepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limited +income. + +MEALS FOR ONE DAY + +_Child 2-4 Years Old_ + +Breakfast: 7:30 A.M. Oatmeal Mush 0.8 ounce dry cereal + Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls + Stale Bread 1 slice + Orange Juice 4 tablespoonfuls + +Lunch: 11 A.M. Milk 1 cupful + Stale Bread 1 slice + Butter 1 teaspoonful + +Dinner: 1 P.M. Baked Potato 1 + Boiled Onion (Mashed) 1 + Bread and Butter 1 slice + Milk to Drink 1 cupful + Baked Apple 1 + +Supper: 5:30 P.M. Boiled Rice 1 cupful + Milk 3/4 cupful + Bread and Butter 1 slice + + +Fuel Value, 1313 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 191.2. + +Substitutes or Additions: + +For Rolled Oats or Rice: Other cereals, such as rolled wheat, wheaten +grits, farina, hominy, and corn-meal. + +For Orange Juice and Baked Apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce. + +For Onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower +tips. + +An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or +three times a week. + +These changes will alter the cost somewhat. + +_Child 4-8 Years Old_ + +Breakfast: Oatmeal 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal + Top Milk 4 ounces + Stewed Prunes 4 or 5 + Toast 1 slice + Milk to Drink 6 ounces + +Dinner: Pea Soup 1 cupful + Croutons 1 slice bread + Boiled Onions 2 small + Baked Potato 1 large + Molasses Cookies 2 + +Supper: Cream Toast 2 slices bread + Rice Pudding with + Milk and Sugar 1 cupful + Milk to Drink 5 ounces + + +Fuel Value, 1892 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 261.6. + +Substitutes or Additions: + +For Rolled Oats: Other cereals, as suggested on previous page. + +For Onions and Peas: Strained dried beans; other vegetables carefully +cooked; fresh lettuce. + +For Prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well +cooked. + +For Rice Pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc manges, bread puddings, and +other very simple desserts. + +For Cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or very plain cookies. + +_Child 8-12 Years Old_ + +Breakfast: Oatmeal Mush 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal + Top Milk 6 ounces + Stewed Prunes 6 or 7 + Toast 2 slices + Milk to Drink 6 ounces + +Luncheon: Pea Soup 1 cupful + Boiled Onions 2 small + Baked Potato 1 large + Bread and Butter 2 slices bread + Molasses Cookies 3 cookies + +Dinner: Baked Haddock small serving (2 ounces) + Creamed Hashed Potato 3/4 cupful + Spinach 1/2 cupful + Bread and Butter 2 slices + Rice Pudding--Milk + and Sugar 1 cupful + + +Fuel Value, 2420 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 345.6. + +Substitutes or Additions: + +For Rolled Oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked. + +For Haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish, +especially white varieties. + +For Prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked. + +For Onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or Spinach: +Turnips or cauliflower. + +_Suggestive Dietary for Child who will not Drink Milk, Age 5 Years_ + +(1 quart milk concealed in the menu.) + +Breakfast: + 7 A.M. Oatmeal 1/4 cup cereal cooked in 1 cupful + milk + Creamy Egg on Toast 1 egg yolk with 1/2 slice bread + and 1/4 cupful milk + Cocoa 1 teaspoonful cocoa and 1/4 cupful + milk + +10 A.M. "Zwieback" and Cream 1 piece "zwieback" and 1 + tablespoonful cream + +1:30 P.M. Spinach Soup 4 ounces + Baked Potato with 1 potato and 2 tablespoonfuls + Cream cream + Bread and Butter 1 slice + Caramel Junket 1 1/2 cupfuls + +5:30 P.M. Rice and Prunes 2 tablespoonfuls rice cooked in + 1/2 cupful milk, and 5 prunes + "Zwieback" 1 slice + +Total Calories, 1431; Calories from protein, 207.6. + +QUESTIONS + +Give at least three reasons why young children should have different food +from adults. + +Why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for young +children? + +What are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food? + +Why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children? + +Why is not meat a desirable food for most young children? + +Why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children? + + + +LESSON CLXIII + +PLANNING AND PREPARING MENUS FOR CHILDREN + + +Plan [Footnote 121: See Footnote 72.] a day's feeding for a child of five +years, meeting the total energy and the protein requirements. Prepare +these foods. + + + + +LESSON CLXIV + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Creamed Vegetable +Apricot Dainty +Coffee + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CLXV + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 122: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan a week's diet for a small sister, +brother, or other child in whom you are interested. (Follow suggestions +given in Lesson CLXII.) Calculate the total Calorific value and Calories +derived from protein. Does your menu consist of foods which furnish the +proper Calorific value and Calories derived from protein? + +SUPPOSED AIMS: (1) If your menus do not conform to the requirements, to +change them so as to meet the requirements of the young child. + +(2) If possible, to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to the +child, assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and in +the feeding of the child. + + + + + DIVISION SEVENTEEN + +FOOD PRESERVATION + +LESSON CLXVI + +THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD + + +WHY FOODS SPOIL.--Most foods spoil or change readily,--fruits decay, milk +sours, butter becomes rancid, and meat putrefies. Knowledge concerning the +spoiling of foods makes it possible for the housekeeper to preserve foods +from one season to another; it gives her the assurance that her preserved +fruit will "keep." + +The decay of foods is due largely to the existence of minute vegetable +organisms or microorganisms. These microorganisms are molds, yeasts, and +bacteria. The molds (see Figure 88) are visible to the naked eye, the +yeasts (see Figure 86) and bacteria (see Figure 89) are microscopic in +size. These plants exist everywhere, and in everything (except those +things in which the organisms have been destroyed and prevented from +reentering),--in the air, in and on foods, and all over our bodies. Like +all plants, these organisms require warmth, moisture, and food for their +most rapid growth. Oxygen is necessary for the growth of some of these +plants. + +Many foods constitute nourishment for these organisms. It is because these +plants exist in foods and live upon them that changes in foods result. The +mold on bread and fruit, the odor from decaying meat and eggs, the +liquefaction of decayed eggs, and the gas from fermenting canned fruit are +caused by microorganisms existing and growing in these foods. The +following experiments show the growth of molds on food and other +materials: + +EXPERIMENT 80: EFFECT OF AIR, LIGHT, AND DRYING UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS. +--Place a piece of bread on a saucer. Allow it to remain uncovered, in a +light place, at room temperature, for several days. Examine. What is the +condition (moist or dry) of the bread? Have molds grown upon the bread? + +[Illustration: From Household Bacteriology, by Buchanan. FIGURE 88.--SOME +SPECIES OF MOLDS.] + +EXPERIMENT 81: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LIGHT UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- +Sprinkle a thick piece of bread with water, place it on a saucer, and +cover with a jelly glass or any glass dish. Leave in a light place at room +temperature for several days. Examine. Is the bread moist or dry? Have +molds grown upon the bread? + +From the results of Experiments 80 and 81 what would you say has caused +the molds to grow? What conclusion can you draw + +from this concerning the growth of molds upon foods in damp and dry places +and in damp and dry weather? How should bread be stored in dry weather? In +damp weather? Give the reason for storing Dried Bread Crumbs as directed +in Lesson L. + +EXPERIMENT 82: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND DARKNESS UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- +Repeat Experiment 81, except the method of covering. Cover with an earthen +dish so that the light is excluded. Let it remain at room temperature for +the same length of time as given in Experiment 81. Have molds grown? How +does the growth compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81? + +EXPERIMENT 83: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LOW TEMPERATURES UPON THE GROWTH OF +MOLDS.--Repeat Experiment 81, but place the bread on the lower shelf of +the refrigerator. After several days, examine. Have molds grown? How do +they compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81? What conclusion can +you draw from this concerning the temperature at which food liable to mold +should be kept? + +EXPERIMENT 84: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CUT FRUIT.--Place pieces of apple, +banana, lemon, or other fruits on separate saucers and cover each with a +glass dish. Place some lemon or other fruit juice in a test tube and allow +it to stand. After two days examine. Have molds grown on all the fruits? +Do you notice any difference in the quantity of the molds on the different +fruits? Have molds grown on the fruit juice? + +EXPERIMENT 85: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON WHOLE FRUITS.--Place whole fruits, +such as apples and lemons, on saucers and cover with glass. After two days +examine. Have molds grown upon the whole fruits? If so, how do the molds +compare in quantity to those growing on cut fruit? Account for this +difference. Apply the results of Experiments 84 and 85 to the "keeping" of +fresh fruits. + +EXPERIMENT 86: GROWTH OF MOLDS ON OTHER FOODS.--Place a piece of cheese +and a piece of meat on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish. +After two days examine. Have molds grown upon these foods? Account for the +growth of molds upon these foods when no moisture was added to them. +Devise a method for keeping cheese free from mold. Give the reasons for +your method. + +EXPERIMENT 87: GROWTH OF MOLD UPON WOOD.--Soak a bit of wood in water for +at least 15 minutes. Cover it with an earthen dish and let it stand at +room temperature for several days. Examine. Have molds grown upon the +wood? What has caused the molds to grow upon the wood? From this give +directions for the care of the wooden part of the dasher of an ice cream +freezer. Draw conclusions concerning the care of pastry and bread boards +and butter paddles after scrubbing. Draw conclusions concerning the +scrubbing, drying, and airing of wooden floors. + +EXPERIMENT 88: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CLOTH.--Sprinkle a bit of cloth with +water. Cover with an earthen dish. Let stand a few days at room +temperature. Examine. Have molds (mildew) grown upon the cloth? What +caused the molds to grow? From this draw a conclusion concerning the care +of washed clothes, wet dish-cloths, towels, and wash-cloths. + +EXPERIMENT 89: CONTAMINATION OF FRESH FOOD BY MEANS OF MOLDY FOOD.--Dip a +piece of bread in water and place it on a saucer. With a knitting needle, +place bits of mold at several points on the surface of the bread. Cover +with a glass dish. After several days examine. At what points on the bread +have the molds started to grow? What conclusion can you draw from this +concerning the placing of moldy food with fresh food? When fruit is +falling to the ground, tell how an orchard should be cared for. Explain. + +The following experiments show the growth of bacteria on food: + +EXPERIMENT 90: GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Into test tubes put one of the +following foods: (1) bit of uncooked meat; (2) small quantity of egg; (3) +piece of bread; (4) crushed peas or beans; (5) sugar or syrup. Add a +little water to each tube. Set aside in a warm place. After several days, +examine. What change in appearance do you note? What has caused the foods +to spoil? + +EXPERIMENT 91: EFFECT OF BOILING ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Place a +little chopped meat in two test tubes. Add lukewarm water to each. Boil +the contents of one of the tubes for several minutes. Set both aside. +After 24 hours, examine. What difference is there in the condition of the +meat in each tube? Explain this difference. From the result of this +Experiment draw conclusions regarding the boiling of food to prevent +spoiling. + +EXPERIMENT 92: EFFECT OF PRESERVATIVES ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Beat +slightly an egg white. Add to it 1/2 cupful of water. Pour a little of +the diluted egg white into four test tubes. To three of the test tubes add +one of the following: (1) salt; (2) sugar; (3) vinegar. Put all of the +tubes in a warm place. After several days, examine. What is the condition +of the egg white in each tube? Explain. Draw inferences regarding the use +of "safe" preservatives to prevent foods from spoiling. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD.--Food may be preserved by opposing the +growth of microorganisms or by destroying them. Low temperatures, certain +preservatives, and drying destroy microorganisms or retard their growth. + +[Illustration: From Household Bacteriology, by Buchanan + +FIGURE 89.-THE FOUR TYPES OF BACTERIA. A, cocci; B, bacilli; C, spirilla; +D, branched filamentous organism.] + +Drying is effective in preserving such foods as fruits, certain +vegetables, fish, and meats. The drying of fruit and vegetables may be +done in the home. This process of food preservation is often advisable +when there is an excessive supply of fruit or vegetables in the orchard or +garden. + +Substances known as _preservatives_ are used in food preservation. +Some of these are harmless, as sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices. Others +are harmful, as formaldehyde, boric, salicylic, benzoic, and sulphurous +acids, with their related compounds. Saltpeter and smoke are also +preservatives. There is some doubt concerning the harmlessness of these +latter preserving agents. Foods preserved with harmful materials should +never be used. Good food materials can be preserved without the use of +harmful preservatives. + +The destruction of microorganisms by _heat_ is the basic principle of +preserving much food, especially fruit and vegetables. In order to +preserve fruits it is necessary to _process_ them, _i.e._ to +apply heat in such a way as to insure preservation and secure the maximum +of good quality. To do this, the fruit must be cooked well, packed in cans +which have been boiled, and sealed to exclude the air from them. It is +necessary, also, to sterilize all utensils which come in contact with the +foods in the processes of cooking and sealing. + +If canned fruits do not "keep," some microorganisms either in the fruit, +on the can, or on the utensils used in canning, have not been destroyed, +or the can has not been securely sealed. Slight flaws in the can or +rubbers which were not detected at the time of sealing may cause the +spoiling of carefully canned fruit. In the preservation of fruit, every +effort should be made to secure sound fruit, perfect jars, and good +rubbers, and to have the fruit and utensils perfectly processed, and the +jars securely sealed. Failure to accomplish these ends may result in much +loss of materials and time. + +KINDS OF SPOILAGE.--As mentioned previously, canned foods spoil either +from imperfect processing or sealing. Different organisms growing in +preserved foods cause different kinds of spoilage. A discussion [Footnote +123: Adapted from Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (July, 1918), pp. 329- +331, "A Consideration of the Canning Problem," by Elizabeth F. Genung.] of +the various kinds of spoilage follows: + +(_a_) FERMENTATION OR "SWELL."--When canned foods spoil with a +production of gas, fermentation of the food is taking place. The visible +indications of such spoilage are gas bubbles in the jar and a bulging of +the lid of a jar or a distending of the top and bottom of a can. Because +of the latter condition, the term "swell" is used in the commercial +canning industry to designate this kind of spoilage. When fermentation +takes place, the lid of a jar may become loosened instead of bulged. + +This type of spoilage is caused by the action either of yeast or of a +certain kind of bacterium which thrives best without air. It is usually +due to imperfect sterilization. Fermentation can usually be detected by +the presence of bubbles of gas in the jar and a loosening of the sealed +cover. + +(_b_) Flat Sour is a kind of spoilage in which no gas is formed, but +acid is produced, giving the food a sour taste. In some cases of flat +sour, a milky deposit appears in the bottom of the jar which can be +detected if the container is glass. In other cases, no change in the +appearance of the jar and its contents takes place. + +Little is known of the kind of organism producing flat sour. Whether or +not food thus spoiled is injurious also has not been determined. + +Flat sour is probably due to imperfect sterilization. + +(_c_) PUTREFACTION.--When putrefaction takes place, food decays and +disintegrates, or decay takes place with the production of a gas of a +disagreeable odor. This type of spoilage is readily detected. Food thus +affected is unfit for use. + +Putrefaction is usually caused by imperfect sealing. It may result, +however, from imperfect sterilization. + +(_d_) BOTULISM.--A bacillus termed _botulinus_ sometimes grows +on canned foods, especially those rich in protein or lacking in acid. This +organism produces a violent poison in the food. But fortunately, the +poison may be destroyed by boiling the food for ten minutes. Hence, it is +advisable to _boil_ canned food at least 30 minutes before using. +This should be done even though the food is to be served cold. It may +easily be cooled after boiling. When there is the least suspicion that +food is spoiled, it should be discarded. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why boiled milk keeps sweet for a longer time than uncooked milk. +Why do foods need to be sealed to preserve them? + +Why does cooked meat "keep" longer than uncooked meat? + + + + +LESSON CLXVII + +PROCESSING WITH LITTLE OR NO SUGAR--CANNED FRUIT + + +JARS FOR CANNED FRUIT.--There are many types of fruit jars. Glass jars +rather than metal cans should be used for home canning. Jars should be +constructed so that there is no contact of the fruit with metal, hence a +jar having a glass cover is desirable. A large opening, simple +construction, ease in cleaning, and perfect sealing are characteristics of +good fruit jars. + +Glass jars should be _tested_ before using: Partly fill the jar with +water, adjust the rubber and cover, seal, invert the jar. Examine +carefully for leakage. + +RUBBER RINGS.--Soft, elastic rubbers should be chosen. It is poor economy +to use old rubbers. Rubber after usage becomes hard and inelastic; it may +cause imperfect sealing and hence decay of the fruit. + +In certain processes of canning, it is necessary to subject the jars +provided with rubber rings and covers to long periods of boiling or to the +intense heat of a pressure or steam cooker. When such a method is followed +it is especially necessary that rubber rings of good quality be used. To +meet this requirement, the United States Department of Agriculture advises +that rubber rings conform to the following: + +1. Inside diameter of 2 1/4 inches (for the jar of standard size). + +2. Width of ring or flange from 1/4 to 12/32 of an inch. + +3. Thickness of 1/12 of an inch. + +4. Tensile strength sufficient to "stretch considerably and return +promptly to place without changing the inside diameter." + +5. Firm enough so that no crease or break shows after it has been tightly +folded. + +SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FRUIT FOR CANNING.--Select solid, and not +over-ripe, fruit. It is better to have underripe than over-ripe fruit. +Fresh fruits--if possible picked on the same day they are to be used--are +desirable for canning. + +Most fruits should be washed before using. Quinces should be rubbed with a +coarse towel before they are washed. Berries and small fruits should be +washed before they are hulled or stemmed. Most small fruits contain so +much water that it is not necessary to add water for cooking. Hence such +fruits should be drained thoroughly after washing. If there are any +decayed or bruised spots on fruit, the damaged portion should be removed +completely. + +Peaches and tomatoes may be peeled instead of pared. This is done by +placing the fruit in a wire basket and then immersing the basket in a +kettle of boiling water for 3 minutes. Remove the basket of fruit from the +hot water and plunge it for a moment in cold water. Drain, then peel the +fruit. If desired, cut into halves, quarters, or slices. After fruit is +peeled or pared, it can be kept from discoloring by covering with cold +water. + +METHODS OF CANNING FRUIT + +Several methods may be used for canning fruit: + +(_a_) OPEN KETTLE.--This method consists of cooking the fruit in +water or sirup and pouring it into jars and sealing. The entire process of +sterilization takes place in the kettle before the food is poured into the +jars. Hence the name of the process,--_Open Kettle_. + +For this method it is necessary to _boil the jars and rubbers_ before +placing the food in them. This is done as follows: + +Fill and surround jars with cold water. Cover lids and rubbers with cold +water. Gradually heat the water and allow it to boil for at least 15 +minutes. Allow the jars, covers, and rubbers to remain in the boiling +water until just ready to use them. Do not touch the inside of the jars +and covers with your fingers. Immerse spoons, cups, knives, skewers, or +knitting needles used for testing fruits, in boiling water before using +them in contact with the foods. If corks are used for sealing bottles, +scald them also. + +[Illustration: Courtesy of _Merrill School _ FIGURE 90--CANNING +FOODS.] + +If small juicy fruits are preserved by the open kettle method, no water +should be added. Add the sugar to them and allow them to stand until some +of the juice is drawn from them, then cook. + +If tough fruits are canned by this method, first steam, then cook in +sirup, or first cook them in clear water, add the sugar, and finish +cooking. + +Fruit may be canned with or without sugar. Usually some sugar is used. +However, some housekeepers contend that the fresh-fruit flavor is retained +better by reheating the fruit and adding the sugar just before it is +served. Different quantities of sugar may be used. If the fruit breaks +into pieces readily, cook in a thick sirup. The quantity of water used +with the sugar varies with the juiciness of the fruit. _For each pound +of fruit use from 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar with from 1/8 to 1 cupful of +water_. + +After cooking the fruit, adjust the rubber on the sterilized jar, fill the +jar (to overflowing) with the hot fruit and sirup, cover at once, and +seal. Invert the can and let it stand until cool. + +(_b_) COLD PACK.--This method is followed by placing the prepared +food in a clean, tested, hot jar, covering the food with water or sirup, +adjusting the rubber ring and cover to the jar, and processing both the +jar and its contents in boiling water or steam. + +Before placing the food in the jar, it may be _blanched_, _i.e._ +subjected to boiling water or steam. After blanching, the food is _cold- +dipped_, _i.e._ plunged into cold water. After the preliminary +steps, such as washing, paring, and cutting into pieces, foods may be +_blanched_ and _cold-dipped_ as follows: + +Place the food in a cheese-cloth bag or in a wire basket and immerse it in +boiling water. Certain fruits are allowed to remain in the water from 1 to +5 minutes (see Table). (The time is dependent upon the kind of fruit.) +Then remove the product from the boiling water, dip it immediately in cold +water, remove at once, and drain for a few minutes. These two processes +are used for large firm fruits. Berries and all soft fruits are canned +without blanching and cold-dipping. + +Whether the fruit is blanched and cold-dipped or not, place it in hot jars +to 1/2 inch of the top. If a sirup is desired, it may be made by using 1/4 +_to_ 1 _cupful of sugar for each quart jar with from 2 to 3 cupfuls +of water._ Adjust a new, wet rubber on the jar; fill the jar to 1/4 +inch of the top with sirup or with boiling water. Place the cover on the +jar, but do not seal it tightly. If a screw top jar is used, screw on the +lid by grasping it with the thumb and little finger. If the jar has a bail +top, adjust the top bail only,--not the lower bail. Then process the jars +and their contents by placing in: + +[Illustration: FIGURE 91.--RACK FOR HOLDING JARS. Note that the rack is +shaped to fit a wash boiler.] + +(1) Kettle or clothes boiler provided with a rack (see Figure 91) or some +sort of false bottom such as strips of wood, straw, paper, or wire-netting +of one half inch mesh. + +(2) Steam cooker (see Figure 18). + +(3) Pressure cooker (see Figure 17). + +If the kettle or wash boiler is used, rest the jars on the rack in the +container, fill the latter with enough hot water so that it extends to a +depth of one inch above the covers of the jars. Then boil the water. Count +the time of processing when the water begins to boil. Keep the water at +boiling temperature for the length of time given in the Table below. + +If the steam cooker is used, place the filled jars in the cooker and steam +for a few minutes longer than when the jar is immersed in boiling water +(see Table below). + +If the pressure cooker is used, process according to the length of time +stated in the Table given below. + +After sterilizing fruit by any of these methods, remove the jars from the +container, seal, invert, and set them aside to cool in a place free from +draft. When cool, wash the outside of the jars, and label. Store in a +cool, dark cupboard. Wrapping each jar in paper before storing is advised. + +Bail top jars may be tested for perfect sealing by loosening the top bail, +and lifting the jar by grasping its lid with the fingers. If the jar is +securely sealed, the lid will not come off, because of internal suction. +In case the lid comes off, remove the rubber, replace it with a new, wet +one, adjust the cover and again process for at least 1/3 of the original +processing period or not less than 10 minutes. + +A DISCUSSION OF METHODS OF CANNING.--(_a_) While the open kettle is +not as safe a method of canning as the cold pack from the standpoint of +perfect processing, it is desirable for small watery fruits, especially +strawberries, since evaporation of some of the water takes place. It is +also generally used for fruits preserved with much sugar, such as +preserves, jams, conserves, etc. Many housekeepers find this method +desirable for canning tomatoes and beets. The skins may be removed from +the latter after cooking, thereby losing less coloring of the vegetable. + +(_b_) The cold pack method of canning is very satisfactory for most +fruits and all vegetables. It is especially desirable for whole fruits or +for fruits in large pieces. The shape of the fruit may be preserved better +by this method than by the open kettle process. It is also a safer method +as far as satisfactory processing is concerned. Many housekeepers find it +easier than the open kettle method. + +The blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables and fruits which may be one +of the steps in the cold pack method is thought to accomplish several +things: + +1. To remove objectionable acids and flavors. + +2. To make the foods more pliable for packing in the jars. + +It was formerly thought that blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables +destroyed some of the bacteria and aided in processing the food. Recent +experimentation shows that these processes do not affect the bacteria and +have no value as far as the preservation of the food is concerned. + +TABLE FOR CANNING FRUITS BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 124: +Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and +Vegetables," Revised August, 1922.] + + TIME OF PROCESSING IN PINT OR + FOOD TIME OF QUART JARS IN: + BLANCHING (_a_) (_b_) + Water Bath at Pressure + 12 degrees F. or Steam Cooker 5 Pounds + Cooker + Minutes Minutes Minutes + +Apples, + cut in pieces 1 1/2 20 to 30 +Apricots 1 to 2 30 10 +Blackberries, + Blueberries None 10 to 20 10 +Cherries 1/4 25 10 +Currants, + Dewberries, + Gooseberries None 10 to 20 10 +Pears 4-8 in boiling sirup 20 to 30 10 + [Footnote 125: Do not cold dip after blanching in boiling sirup. + Use the longer time of processing in the water bath for large + pears.] +Peaches 1 or until skin + is loosened 20 to 30 10 +Plums None 20 to 30 12 +Pineapples None 30 10 +Raspberries None 10 to 20 10 +Rhubarb None 20 to 30 10 to 15 +Strawberries None 10 to 20 10 + +NOTE.--Use only fresh, sound fruits for canning. + +Do not begin to count the time of processing in a water bath until the +water reaches the boiling point. + +When different times of processing are given, as 20 to 30 minutes, use the +longer time for quart glass jars and the shorter for tin cans. + +For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 +per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes it may be +best to use a pressure cooker for certain fruits. + +If fruits are packed tightly, time of processing should be increased. + +DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENT DEVICES USED IN THE COLD PACK PROCESS.--(1) +The kettle or wash boiler provided with a rack is an inexpensive device. +It is satisfactory for processing fruits and acid vegetables; there is a +question whether non-acid vegetables may be processed in the hot water +bath even though they are processed on three successive days. It is +thought by some that the flavor of foods canned at low temperature, +_i.e._ not above 212 degrees F., is superior to that canned at a +higher temperature. + +(2) The steam cooker is a convenient and satisfactory equipment to use for +canning fruits and some vegetables. It is more expensive, however, than +the kettle having a rack, but less fuel is required when using it. + +(3) The pressure cooker is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of +processing. It is especially satisfactory for vegetables and meat, since a +much higher temperature than that of boiling water is maintained during +the processing period. The higher temperature also makes it possible to +process foods in a shorter time. However, it is thought by some that the +flavor of foods canned above 212 degrees F. is inferior to that canned at a +lower temperature. Moreover, the pressure cooker is a more expensive device +than either of the other two. + +QUESTIONS + +Why should processed jars, covers, and rubbers remain in boiling water +until just ready for use? + +Why not touch the inside of jars and covers with the fingers? + +Why should berries and small fruits be washed before hulling or stemming? + +Why should decayed or bruised spots on fruits be removed completely before +canning the fruit? + +Why is it that the cold pack method of canning is safer from the +standpoint of processing than the open kettle method? + +Why should the jar containing fruit that is to be processed by the + +cold pack method be filled to 1/4 inch of the top with sirup rather than +to overflowing? + +Why should the covers of jars not be sealed tightly before placing in the +kettle or steamer used for processing? + +Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to dislodge air bubbles in jars +containing food processed by the cold pack process? + +When food is processed by immersing the jars in boiling water, why should +the water extend above the covers of the jars to a depth of one inch? + + + + +LESSON CLXVIII + +PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR--PRESERVES, JAMS, AND CONSERVES + + +EXPERIMENT 93: THE USE OF SUGAR AS A PRESERVATIVE.--Place 2 thin slices of +fresh fruit in a sauce dish. Sprinkle one of the slices generously with +sugar. Set the sauce dish aside for at least 24 hours. Examine. What +change has taken place in the fruit without sugar? What has caused the +change? Compare the sugared fruit with that without sugar. What conclusion +can be drawn concerning the use of sugar in preserving fruit? + +PRESERVES + +Sugar was mentioned as one of the preservatives used in the preservation +of food (see _The Principles of Preserving Food_). Sugar in large +quantity is unfavorable to germ life and hence is a most effective +preservative. _Preserves_ are made by cooking fruit in a thick sirup +as in the _Method of Canning_ (_a_) Open Kettle. A large +quantity of sugar is desirable as far as preservation is concerned; but +for flavor less sugar is usually to be preferred. Only a few fruits are +better when preserved with considerable sugar. Fruits best adapted for +preserving are strawberries, sour cherries, sour plums, quinces, currants, +and raspberries. For preserves, use 3/4 to 1 pound of sugar for 1 pound of +fruit. The less quantity of sugar should be used for peaches, plums, +quinces, currants, and raspberries; the greater quantity, for strawberries +and cherries. Use the quantity of water given in _Method of Canning_ +(_a_) Open Kettle. Cook and seal as canned fruit. + +JAMS + +Jam is made as follows: Clean the fruit. If large fruits are used, pare or +peel them and cut into small pieces. If small fruits,--berries or grapes, +--are used, mash them. Cook the fruit in as little water as possible. When +the fruit is soft, measure it and add the sugar,--use 3/4 to 1 part of +sugar to 1 part of cooked fruit. Cook until thick, stirring to prevent +burning. Test the thickness by dropping from a spoon. If it falls in heavy +drops, the jam is sufficiently cooked. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses. +Cover the glasses with clean cloth or paper and set aside to cool and +stiffen. Melt paraffin. Pour it (hot) over the cold jam. Allow the +paraffin to harden and then cover the glasses with the lids. Wipe the +outside of the glasses, label, and store. + +Fruit that is too soft or too ripe for canning or preserving may be used +for making jam. + +MARMALADES + +Marmalades are made much as jams. However, usually only the pulp and +juices of fruits are used. The fruit is first cooked, and the skins and +seeds removed before adding the sugar. In Orange Marmalade, the rind is +used. + +CONSERVES + +Conserves consist of a combination of two or more fruits. Nuts and other +materials are sometimes added. Conserves may be prepared as preserves, +_i.e._ cooking the ingredients with sugar, until thick; or as jam, +_i.e._ cooking the ingredients until tender, then adding the sugar +and cooking until thick. It is thought by some that the latter method +produces a finer flavor; it makes a product less tough and less sticky. In +the special recipes for conserves given in this text, the latter method is +followed. + +ORANGE MARMALADE (I) + +1 dozen oranges +1 grapefruit +6 lemons +Sugar + +Weigh the fruit, slice it. To each pound of fruit add 1 quart of cold +water. Let the mixture stand for 24 hours. Then cook slowly for 2 hours. +Weigh the cooked fruit. Add an equal weight of sugar. Cook for 1 hour or +until it stiffens. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses, seal, and cover as +directed for Jams. + +ORANGE MARMALADE (II) + +1 dozen oranges +3 pounds sugar +2 quarts rhubarb +Rind of 6 oranges + +Wash the fruit. Slice the oranges and cut the rhubarb into pieces. (Do not +peel the rhubarb.) Cook the oranges and rhubarb for 30 minutes. Add the +sugar and cook slowly for 2 hours or until thick. Pour into sterilized +glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams. + +CARROT MARMALADE + +1 pound carrots +3 cupfuls sugar +2 lemons +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Wash, scrape, and chop the carrots. Extract the juice from the lemons. Put +the carrots and lemon rinds through a food chopper, cover them with water, +and cook until tender. Add the lemon juice, salt, and sugar to the cooked +mixture. Cook until it is thickened. Turn into sterilized jelly glasses. +Let stand until cool. Then cover with melted paraffin. + +STRAWBERRY AND PINEAPPLE CONSERVE + +Use equal quantities of strawberries and shredded pineapple. Cook the +shredded pineapple in the least possible quantity of water. When tender, +add the strawberries and cook until they are soft. Measure the fruit and +add three fourths as much sugar as fruit and a small quantity of salt. +Cook until thick (see _Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. Seal and +cover as directed for Jams. + +CRANBERRY CONSERVE + +1 quart cranberries +1 1/2 cupfuls water +1/4 pound raisins +1/2 pound California walnuts, chopped +1 orange,--juice and grated rind +1 1/2 pounds sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Wash the fruit. Cook the cranberries in the water until the berries burst. +Strain. Add the remaining ingredients and cook 25 minutes or until the +mixture is thick (see _Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. When +cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams. + +GRAPE CONSERVE + +1/2 peck grapes +2 oranges,--juice and rind +2 lemons,--juice and rind +1 cupful chopped nuts +Sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Wash the fruit. Remove the grapes from the stems; remove the skins from +the pulp. Cook the pulp until soft; strain, to remove the seeds. Place the +strained pulp and skins in a preserving kettle. Extract the juice from the +oranges and lemons, then put the rinds through a food-chopper. Add the +lemon and orange juice and rind to the grape mixture and cook for 1 hour. +Measure the mixture. Then add an equal quantity of sugar and the nuts and +salt. Continue cooking until thick (_see Jams_). Pour into sterilized +glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams. + +APRICOT CONSERVE + +1 pound dried apricots +1 1/2 quarts water +Sugar +2 pineapples _or_ +1 large can shredded pineapple +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Wash the dried apricots and soak them in the water. In the water in which +they were soaked, cook the apricots until tender. Press through a +colander. If fresh pineapples are used, shred them and cook, in as little +water as possible, until tender. Combine the cooked fruits and measure. +Add 1/2 as much sugar and the salt. Cook until thick (see _Jams_). +Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for +Jams. + +PLUM CONSERVE + +1 pound (1 1/2 dozen) plums +1/4 cupful chopped nuts +1 cupful seeded raisins +2 oranges +1 cupful water +1 1/4 cupfuls sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Wash the plums, stone, and cut into pieces. Extract the juice from the +oranges. Put the rind through a food chopper. Mix the plums, raisins, +orange rind, and water. Simmer until the fruits and peel are tender. Add +the orange juice, sugar, nuts, and salt, and continue cooking until the +mixture has the consistency of marmalade. Pour into sterilized glasses. +When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams. + +QUESTIONS + +How do Preserves differ from Canned Fruit? + +How does Jam differ from Preserves? + +How does Jam differ from Fruit Sauce? + +Why does Jam "keep" better than Fruit Sauce? + +Give method of sealing Canned Fruit and method of sealing Jam. Explain why +different methods are used. + + + + +LESSON CLXIX + +PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR--JELLIES + +EXPERIMENT 94: PECTIN IN FRUIT JUICE.--Put a few grapes, slices of apple, +or cranberries in a small saucepan, and add enough water to cover and cook +until the fruit is tender and soft enough to mash. Strain the cooked fruit +through cheese-cloth. + +Put 1 teaspoonful of the extracted fruit juice in a saucer, add an equal +quantity of alcohol. [Footnote 126: Either grain (ethyl), wood (methyl), or +denatured alcohol may be used. _Both wood and denatured alcohol are +poisonous_. If they are used for testing, they should be handled and +stored away with caution.] Mix by gently rotating the saucer. Let the +mixture stand for 5 minutes. Then examine. What change has taken place in +the fruit juice? + +The formation of a solid mass in the mixture of fruit juice and alcohol +which has stood for 5 minutes indicates that the fruit juice contains +pectin,--a vegetable gelatine. + +EXPERIMENT 95: PECTIN IN THE INNER PORTION OF ORANGE OR LEMON PEEL.--Cut +away the yellow portion from orange or lemon rind. Cut or chop the white +portion of the rind in small pieces. Cover with water and soak several +hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for 1/2 hour. Strain and set aside to +cool. To 1 teaspoonful of this liquid add an equal quantity of alcohol, +and proceed as in Experiment 94. Does the lemon or orange rind contain +pectin? + +THE PRINCIPLE OF JELLY MAKING.--When the juices of certain fruits are +extracted and cooked with sugar, the mixture stiffens when cool. This +property of stiffening is due to the presence in fruit of two materials,-- +a certain carbohydrate, called _pectin_, and an acid. Pectin is like +starch in that it stiffens when cold; but like sugar, in that it is +soluble. Not all fruits contain pectin. + +Jelly is most easily prepared from fruits which are rich in pectin and +contain some acid. Unless pectin is contained in the fruit, the addition +of sugar to fruit juice will not cause the juice to jelly. But jelly may +be made from a fruit lacking in pectin, if it is combined with a fruit +rich in pectin. + +Certain fruits contain pectin, but are lacking in acid, hence are not good +for jelly making. These fruits can be used for jelly, however, if acid is +added. + +SELECTION OF FRUITS FOR JELLY MAKING.--For jelly making, choose fruits +which contain considerable pectin and some acid. The fruits should be +fresh and not over-ripe. Some "green" fruits make fine jelly. Currant, +crabapple, grape, apple, and plum are good jelly-making fruits. + +If it is desirable to use a fruit containing little pectin, as +strawberries, add a fruit rich in pectin, as currants. If about 10 per +cent of the fruit which contain much pectin is added to the other fruit, +the flavor of the foundation fruit is not much altered. + +If it is desired to use a fruit containing pectin but deficient in acid, +as sweet apple and quince, add tartaric or citric acid. Since the acidity +of fruits varies, no definite quantity of acid can be stated. It has been +suggested [Footnote 127: See University of Illinois Bulletin, "Principles +of Jelly Making," p. 249.] that enough acid should be added to make the +fruit juice about as acid to taste as good tart apples. At least one +teaspoonful of acid is required for one quart of fruit juice. Dissolve the +acid in the fruit juice, then taste the mixture. If necessary, add more +acid to produce the acidity indicated above. Jelly may be prepared from +strawberries, peaches, and pears by the addition of these acids, but the +flavor is somewhat impaired. + +The suggestion has been made also [Footnote 128: _Idem_, p. 25.] that +the inner white portion of lemon or orange peel be used as a source of +pectin with fruit deficient in pectin. Remove the yellow portion of the +rind, put the white portion through a food chopper, and soak in water for +several hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for several hours. Strain out +the solid portion. Add the liquid to the fruit juice deficient in pectin +and use for jelly making. The rind of lemons and oranges may be dried for +use in jelly making. When desired for use, soak and cook as directed +above. + +GENERAL METHOD OF JELLY MAKING + +Wash and pick over the fruit; remove the stems, but use the skin and seeds +and thus retain as much of the fruit as possible. The skin of fruit +usually adds color to jelly. If large fruit is used, cut it in pieces. +Cook the fruit slowly in water. Use very little water for juicy fruits, +such as currants and raspberries,--_1 cupful of water to 4 or 5 quarts +of fruit_. Crush the fruits during cooking. + +To cook large fruits requires water. A general proportion is _half as +much water, by measure, as prepared fruit_. A little less water may be +used for peaches and plums and a little more for winter apples. A fair +estimate is 3 quarts of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and 4 quarts +of water. If the quantity of juice is greater than this, it should be +boiled down to 3 quarts before adding the sugar. + +When the fruit is cooked until it is very soft, it is ready for straining. +For straining, make a bag of double cheesecloth or flannel. Wring the +jelly bag out of hot water and suspend it from a strong support. Pour the +cooked fruit into the bag and let the juice drip into a bowl. If +transparent jelly is desired, do not press the juice through the bag; let +the juice drip for several hours or overnight. + +Measure the clear fruit juice and heat it. The time of cooking depends +upon the per cent of pectin and the acidity of the juice; the more pectin +and acid, the less the time of cooking. The time varies from 8 to 30 +minutes. Skim the juice when necessary. While the juice is cooking, +_measure three fourths as much sugar_ [Footnote 129: The quantity of +sugar used in jelly making depends upon the quantity of pectin in fruit +juice,--the more pectin, the more sugar. A most satisfactory method of +determining the quantity of pectin and consequently the quantity of sugar +to use with fruit juice is suggested by the Bulletin of the National War +Garden Commission. The test follows: To a tablespoonful of fruit juice +which has been boiled and cooled, add 1 tablespoonful of alcohol (see +footnote 126.). Mix by gently rotating and then let stand. If a solid mass +forms, _use equal parts of fruit juice and sugar_. If 2 or 3 masses +form, _use 2/3 to 3/4 as much sugar as juice._ If several small solid +particles form, _use 1/2 as much sugar as juice_. If no solid +particles form, the fruit juice should be enriched by the addition of some +pectin-rich fruit juice.] _as fruit juice_ and heat the sugar. For +currants and green or under-ripe grapes, use equal quantities of sugar and +fruit juice. Add the hot sugar to the boiling sirup and cook. The +following are _tests for sufficient cooking of jelly._ + +(_a_) Coats the spoon. + +(_b_) Falls from the spoon in heavy drops. [Footnote 130: Two drops +forming side by side along the edge of the spoon has been found to be a +reliable test.] + +(_c_) Stiffens when dropped on a cold dish and allowed to cool. + +The first two tests are more satisfactory than the last, since the cooking +process may be carried too far while the "test-jelly" is cooling. + +Seal as Jam or shred paraffin and place it in the bottom of sterilized +jelly glasses. Pour the hot jelly into the glasses and set aside to +stiffen. Then cover and store. It is well to store jelly in a cool, dry, +and dark place. The color of fruit sometimes fades when kept in a light +place. + +Long cooking of pectin changes it into substances which do not have the +property of jellying, hence, make jelly in as short a time as possible. +The purpose of heating the sugar is to hasten the process of jelly making. +The addition of cold sugar would cool the mixture and thus prolong the +process. + +The addition of too much sugar is often the cause of unsuccessful jelly +making. Crystallization of the sugar from the jelly may result from an +excess of sugar. + +The _fruit pulp left in the jelly bag_ should be utilized. Marmalade +may be made from it, or more jelly can be prepared from it. To accomplish +the latter, add water to the fruit pulp (enough to cover), mix, and heat +slowly until the boiling point is reached. Strain and prepare jelly from +the juice. However, more cooking of the juice before the sugar is added is +required for the second extraction, since the juice contains so much +water. The juice extracted for a third time from most fruits will contain +enough pectin for jelly making. It has been found that more desirable +jelly can be obtained by this method than by pressing the juice from the +bag and thus obtaining what is termed "second quality" jelly. + +FRUIT JUICES WITHOUT SUGAR.--Extract the juice from fruit as directed in +_General Method of Jelly Making_. Do not add sugar to the juice. Can +it as directed in (_a_) or (_b_). + +(_a_) Reheat until the boiling temperature is reached, then pour into +sterilized jars. Fill to overflowing and seal. + +(_b_) Place the juice in sterilized jars. Partially seal and place in +a water bath having the water reach the neck of the jar. Let it cook at a +simmering temperature from 20 to 30 minutes. Remove from the water bath, +and seal securely. + +In the winter time or when desired for use, this fruit juice may be made +into jelly as directed in _General Method of Jelly Making_, or it may +be sweetened, diluted if necessary, and used as a beverage. This method of +preserving fruit juice is especially desirable when there is a scarcity of +sugar. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 92--THE COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. +(Revised edition.)] + +QUESTIONS + +Note the difference in the quantity of carbohydrates in Canned Fruit and +Fruit Jelly (see Figure 92). What kind of carbohydrate is present in +greatest quantity in these foods? + +To what is the difference in flavor of Canned Fruit and Fruit Jelly +largely due? + +What is the chief difference in the processes of jam making and jelly +making? + +What is the result if too much sugar is used in jelly making? + +What is the result if jelly is cooked too long? + +Note the difference in the methods of sealing jams and jellies. Explain. + + + + +LESSON CLXX + +PROCESSING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES--RELISHES + + +SPICES AND VINEGAR ARE PRESERVATIVES OF FOODS. Not all spices, however, +have equal preservative power. It has been found that cinnamon and cloves +aid in food preservation, but that pepper and ginger have very little, if +any, preservative power. In the lesson on _Flavoring Materials: Food +Adjuncts_, it was mentioned that spices and condiments should be used +sparingly in the diet, hence spiced fruits and pickles should have only +occasional use. There is no doubt that lemon juice or other tart fruit +juices are better sources of acid-satisfying materials than vinegar. + +SPICED PEARS + +1/2 peck pears +3 pounds sugar +1 pint vinegar +1/2 ounce ginger root +Rind of 1/2 lemon +Whole allspice +Stick cinnamon +Whole cloves + +Cut the pears in halves, remove the seeds, and pare. Into each piece of +pear stick two or three cloves. Make a sirup of the vinegar and sugar. +Divide the cinnamon, allspice, and ginger into two parts, tie in cheese- +cloth bags, and add to the sirup. When the sirup begins to simmer, add the +pears and lemon rind; bring to the boiling point, remove from the fire, +and turn into a stone jar. Cover and stand in a cool place overnight. Next +day bring the mixture to the boiling point, again place in the stone jar +and stand overnight. The following day heat as before. Do this for five +consecutive days. The last day, remove the fruit from the sirup, heat the +sirup and evaporate it until there is just enough to cover the fruit. Add +the fruit to the hot sirup, heat to the boiling point, then put in stone +or glass jars or tumblers. + +The pears may be finished in one day as follows: Cook the fruit until +tender, then remove it, evaporate the sirup, add the fruit, reheat again, +and finish as above. Fruit prepared by the first method has a finer +flavor. + +TOMATO CATSUP + +12 ripe tomatoes +2 large onions +2 green peppers +2 tablespoonfuls salt +4 tablespoonfuls brown sugar +2 tablespoonfuls ginger +1 tablespoonful cinnamon +1 tablespoonful mustard +1 nutmeg grated +1 pint vinegar + +Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers fine. Cook all +the ingredients together for 3 hours, or until soft and broken. Stir +frequently. Bottle and seal while hot. The mixture may be strained before +bottling. + +CELERY SAUCE + +20 large ripe tomatoes +6 large onions +4 large stalks celery +3/4 cupful sugar +1 large red pepper +4 tablespoonfuls salt +2 cupfuls vinegar + +Chop the vegetables, add the salt and vinegar, and cook for 2 hours. Then +add the sugar. Allow it to reach the boiling point again. Turn into +sterilized bottles or jars, and seal. + +OIL PICKLES + +2 dozen small cucumbers +2 dozen small onions +1/2 cupful olive oil +1/4 cupful sugar +1 pint vinegar +1/3 cupful salt +1/4 cupful mustard seed +1 pint vinegar +1 teaspoonful celery seed + +Scrub the cucumbers. Cut them (without paring) into thin slices. Wash and +cut the onions into thin slices. Mix the salt with these vegetables (to +extract moisture), and let the mixture stand over night. Then drain the +moisture from the vegetables so that the vinegar may not be diluted. + +Mix the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture over the onions and +cucumbers. Mix well, cover, and set aside for a few hours. Then pour into +sterilized jars. Fill the jar with liquid. (If necessary, more vinegar may +be used.) To drive out the air, place the jars (with covers loosely +adjusted) in a water bath at simmering temperature (180 degrees F.) and +heat at this temperature for 15 minutes. Remove from the water bath and +seal. + +TO SEAL BOTTLES.--Melt together, over hot water, equal parts of +shoemaker's wax and resin. When liquefied, dip the tops of corked bottles +into it. Corks in bottles may be dipped also in hot paraffin. Dip several +times. + +QUESTIONS + +What is the objection to excessive use of spiced foods? + +Name some substitutes for pickles. Why is an excessive or continuous use +of pickles objectionable in diet? + + + + +LESSON CLXXI + +CANNED VEGETABLES + + +MICROORGANISMS IN THE SPORE FORM.--Many microorganisms are destroyed by +heating them for a few minutes to boiling temperature. However, some +microorganisms have a peculiar power of retaining life under most adverse +conditions. When subjected to extreme heat or cold, intense drying, or +when there is lack of food, certain microorganisms assume a spore form, +_i.e._ they cease growing and reproducing, and are able to undergo +conditions which would readily kill microorganisms in the active form. +Some microorganisms in the spore form are able to resist the temperature +of boiling water for an hour or longer. Then as soon as the adverse +conditions mentioned above are removed, the microorganisms assume active +form and begin to grow and reproduce. In the growing state, their +destruction is not so difficult. + +Some of the microorganisms in certain foods, especially vegetables and +fruits grown in a dry season, are capable of spore formation. When +microorganisms in spore form do exist in foods that are to be canned, or +the microorganisms change into spore form during the canning process, the +microorganisms may not be destroyed by the time the ordinary process of +canning is completed. If such is the case, when the canned foods are +cooled and the conditions are favorable for growth, the microorganisms +assume active form, begin to grow, and cause the decomposition of food. +Twenty-four hours is sufficient time for the microorganisms to change from +the spore to the active form. Hence the canned foods must be heated again, +if they are to be preserved. For foods difficult to process (for the +reason given above) processing should be carried on for three successive +days. This is called _intermittent processing_. + +Destruction of microorganisms in the spore form can be accomplished in a +short time by subjecting them to very intense heat. In canning factories +this is done by processing at a temperature higher than that of boiling +water. In the home this may be accomplished by processing in the pressure +cooker. According to one authority processing intermittently, _i.e._ +on three successive days, does not insure satisfactory processing of +materials containing spores. + +SINGLE PERIOD AND INTERMITTENT PROCESSING.--The acid of tomatoes and +fruits aids in the destruction of microorganisms. Hence intermittent +processing is unnecessary for these. Processing tomatoes and fruits in a +hot water bath for one period has proved very satisfactory and certain. + +There is some question, however, regarding the safety of canning all +vegetables by one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees +F., _especially in regions where botulism is known to occur and where +Foods cannot be stored in a cool place_. In Farmers' Bulletin 1211, +"Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," revised August, 1922, one period +of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F. is not advised in +climates where the storage conditions are trying for the following +vegetables: corn, beans, asparagus, okra, spinach and other greens, and +peas (especially if at all mature). For processing these vegetables, a +higher temperature than that obtained in the boiling water bath is +recommended. Processing at a high temperature (from 228 degrees F. to 250 +degrees F.) can be accomplished conveniently by means of a _pressure +cooker_. This is especially recommended for vegetable canning in high +altitudes and in localities where botulism has occurred. + +It is thought that in some places the above mentioned vegetables may be +_processed intermittently_ with safety. For vegetables difficult to +can, pint jars only are recommended for both intermittent and single +period processing in the water bath. Heat penetrates more rapidly to the +center of the small jars than to the center of the large jars. + +SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES AND CANNING.--Young vegetables, +especially those that have grown quickly, are most desirable for canning. +If possible, vegetables, especially corn, should be canned immediately +after picking. + +Vegetables for canning should be thoroughly washed, pared, scraped, or cut +into pieces in the same manner as when they are cooked and served +immediately. If the vegetables vary in size, it is well to sort them and +fill jars with those of uniform size. If there is much difference in +ripeness, sort the mature and young vegetables. + +METHOD OF CANNING VEGETABLES.--The method of canning vegetables for a +_single period_ does not differ greatly from the method of canning +fruits. The chief difference is that jars containing fruit are filled with +sirup, while those holding vegetables are filled with water and salt is +added. Blanch and cold-dip vegetables as directed previously, for the +length of time given. Greens and vegetables of delicate flavor are +blanched most successfully by steaming either in a colander placed over +boiling water or in a steamer. (Steaming greens prevents the escape of +volatile oils and other materials.) Pack the vegetables in jars to within +1/2 inch of the top. It is well not to pack spinach and other greens too +solidly in jars. Since lima beans, corn, and peas swell during processing, +they should be packed only to about 1 inch of the top of the jar. To each +jar add salt,--1 teaspoonful to each quart jar. Fill each jar to 1/2 inch +of the top with boiling water. Put a new rubber on the jar, partly seal +the cover, and proceed as directed for fruit (see Table below for the +length of time for processing). + +When vegetables are processed _intermittently_, jars with glass tops +and spring clamps are recommended. In processing vegetables for three +successive periods, the same method of processing and sealing is followed +as for the single period. At the beginning of the second and third +periods, raise the clamps of the jars to allow for expansion, then fasten +the clamps at the close of processing period (see Table for the length of +time of processing on each of the three successive days). + +FOOD PRESERVATION + +TABLE FOR CANNING FRESH, SOUND, AND FIRM VEGETABLES BY ONE PERIOD OF +PROCESSING [Footnote 131: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211. Revised +August, 1922.] + + + TIME OF PROCESSING + TIME OF +VEGETABLE BLANCHING OR (_a_) (_b_) Steam Pressure + Water (Pressure Cooker) + COOKING Bath at (1) 5lb (2) 10lb (3) 15lb + 212 deg. F. 228 deg. F. 240 deg. F. 250 deg. F. + Minutes Hours Minutes Minutes Minutes +Asparagus 4 - - 30 to 40 +Corn 1 to 5 - - 90 60 to 90 +Lima beans 3 to 5 - - 45 to 60 +Okra 6 to 8 - - 30 +Peas 3 to 8 - - 40 to 50 +Spinach 4 in water or + 15 in steam - - 90 35 +String beans. 3 to 5 - - 40 to 50 +Tomatoes 1 to 1 1/2 to + loosen skins 1/2 15 10 + +[Footnote for Asparagus: Scrape off tough outer skin of _asparagus_. +Tie into bundles for blanching. Blanch tough ends 2 minutes and entire +bundle 2 minutes longer.] + +[Footnote for Corn: Blanch _corn_ on the cob, then cold dip and cut +from the cob. For each pint jar, use 1 pint of cut corn, 1 cupful boiling +water, and 1/2 tea-spoonful each of salt and sugar. Cook the mixture in +a saucepan until it boils and pour immediately into a hot, sterilized +jar.] + +[Footnote for Okra: Cold dip _okra_ in _salt_ water (1 +tablespoonful salt to 1 quart water).] + +[Footnote for Spinach: To loosen grit, cover _spinach_ with scalding +water, let stand 1 or 2 minutes. Then wash in several cold waters. Do not +cold dip after blanching.] + +[Footnote for Tomatoes: Pack _tomatoes_ whole in jars, then fill the +jars with cooked and strained tomato pulp. Tomatoes cut into pieces may be +packed closely in jars. When this is done, no liquid need be added.] + +NOTE.--Processing in the hot water bath is not advised for non-acid +vegetables such as asparagus, corn, lima beans, okra, peas, spinach, and +string beans. + +Count time of processing in a water bath after the water boils. + +When two different times of processing are given, use the longer time for +quart glass jars, the shorter time for tin cans. + +If the jar is packed tightly, increase the time of processing. + +For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 +per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes, the +pressure cooker rather than the hot water bath should be used. + +TIME TABLE FOR CANNING VEGETABLES BY INTERMITTENT PROCESSING [Footnote +132: See statements previously] + +VEGETABLE TIME OF TIME OF PROCESSING IN WATER BATH + BLANCHING AT 212 F. 12 TO 18 HOUR + INTERVALS BETWEEN PERIODS + (_a_) First Day (_b_) Second + and Third Day + +Asparagus 10 to 15 60 60 +Corn 5 to 10 90 90 +Lima Beans 3 to 5 90 90 +Peas 5 90 90 +String Beans 3 to 5 90 90 + +[Footnote 133: (For Asparagus, Corn, and Lima Beans) Process in _pint +jars only_. See footnotes for Asparagus and Okra, above.] + +USE OF CANNED VEGETABLES.--Open the can and if it is tin, empty its +contents at once. If the vegetable is surrounded by liquid, use the water +in cooking the vegetable, as it contains valuable materials. There are +some who contend, however, that the flavor of certain vegetables such as +peas and string beans is improved if the vegetable water is drained from +them and they are cooked in fresh water. If this is done, the vegetable +water should not be wasted. It should be used in making soup or sauce. If +possible, let the vegetable stand exposed to the air for an hour or +longer. + +If the vegetable is to be served plain, turn into a saucepan. Cook in its +own liquor at boiling temperature, for at least 30 minutes. (Cooking at +boiling temperature for this length of time is advised to remove any +possible danger of botulism.) When cooked, the liquid should be almost +entirely evaporated. Add butter, salt, and, if desired, a very little +sugar, and serve hot. + +A White Sauce may also be used with a vegetable that has been heated as +above. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why vegetables (except tomatoes) are more difficult to can +successfully than fruits. + +What foodstuffs does the water in which vegetables are canned contain? +From this explain why the water should not be drained from vegetables when +removing them from the cans. + +What is the purpose of cooking canned vegetables at boiling temperature? + + + + +LESSON CLXXII + +DRIED VEGETABLES + + +ADVANTAGES OF DRYING FOODS.--While preserving foods by drying does not +take the place of canning foods and storing them in jars or cans, it has +certain advantages, viz.: + +1. Little storage space is required for dried foods. + +2. Dried foods can be stored in containers that cannot be used for +canning. + +When foods are dried, they may be reduced in bulk as much as 90 per cent; +for example, 10 pounds of fresh food may be reduced to 1 pound of dried +food. By this reduction no food value is lost, and the flavor is not +greatly changed. + +Dried foods may be stored in paper bags and boxes which are much less +expensive containers than glass jars or tin cans. Hence if space is +limited and glass or tin containers are difficult to secure or are +expensive, drying may prove a very satisfactory method of preserving food. + +METHODS OF DRYING AND DRIERS.--Food may be dried by: + +1. Sun. + +2. Steam (placing food on a specially constructed tray (see Figure 93) +which is heated with steam). + +3. Stove or oven drying (placing food above a stove or in the oven). + +4. Fan drying (placing an electric fan near the food). + +A combination of these methods, especially the two latter, is often used +in drying foods. + +Plates or dishes may serve as driers when the drying is done in the oven. +Trays for drying may be constructed at home or they may be purchased. Most +of them consist of a wood or metal frame over which wire netting is +tacked. Single trays or a series of trays one placed above the other may +serve as driers. When drying is accomplished by heat from a stove, the +drier is hung over a stove or it rests on the top of the stove. In the +latter case, it is necessary that the frame of the tray be constructed so +that the bottom tray does not rest directly on the stove. In case the +drying is done over a kerosene stove, the bottom of the tray must be of +tin or galvanized iron to protect the food from kerosene fumes. The lowest +tray must be placed at least 4 inches above the metal bottom. + +SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES FOR DRYING.--To secure the best +results, select mature but fresh vegetables. They should be in good +condition, free from blemish. + +Certain foods, such as berries, cherries, peas, lima and shell beans, are +dried whole. Most vegetables should be cut into slices from 1/8 to 1/4 +inch in thickness. The slicing may be done with a paring or kitchen knife, +or it may be done by means of a slaw-cutter or a rotary chopper. Foods are +sometimes cut into pieces for drying by means of the food chopper. It is +necessary that all knives and cutting devices be clean. There should be no +discoloration of the vegetable from the cutting utensil. It has been found +advisable to blanch most vegetables before drying. The method of blanching +given previously can be used in drying vegetables as well as canning them. +Foods are not cold-dipped, however, after blanching when they are to be +dried. Fruits are usually not blanched before drying. + +FOOD PRESERVATION + +METHOD OF DRYING FOODS.--Place the prepared food on drying trays. Unless +the drying is done in the oven, cover the food with cheese-cloth. If +possible, tack the cloth to the frame so that no dust or insects can come +in contact with the food. Stir or turn foods once or twice a day while +they are drying. This is especially necessary when foods are dried in the +sun. + +_If the food is to be dried in the sun_, place the tray containing +the food in the sun, where there is a breeze. If it rains, take the trays +indoors. Also bring the trays indoors just before sunset. + +_If food is to be dried by means of steam_, a special device is +needed (see Figure 93). The device consists of a large pan for holding +water and a hollow tray. The under surface of the tray has an opening +about the size of the diameter of the pan. To this opening is fastened a +collar which fits snugly into the pan. The pan filled with water is placed +over a burner. When the water boils, the steam rises and fills the hollow +tray and escapes by means of the small pipe in the upper surface of the +tray. The food is placed on the upper surface and is dried by steam heat. + +_If the food is to be dried in the oven_, place the food on suitable +trays. Oven drying is much more satisfactorily done if the oven is +provided with a thermometer. The temperature for drying foods is much less +than that of boiling water,--it varies from 115 degrees to 175 degrees F. +It is often necessary to keep the oven door open so that the temperature +does not become too high. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 93.---DRIER FOR VEGETABLES OR FRUITS.] + +_If food is dried over a stove in a series of trays_ one placed above +the other, the position of the trays should be changed so that the food +may be uniformly dried. + +_If food is dried by means of an electric fan_, the fan should be so +placed that the current of air is directed along the trays lengthwise. The +drying will be most rapid nearest the fan; hence it is necessary to change +the position of the tray or of the food every few hours. Foods may be +dried in less than 24 hours by means of an electric fan. A few foods such +as sliced string beans may be dried in a few hours. Before drying by means +of a fan, food should be blanched. It is also necessary to heat food dried +in this way in an oven at 180 degrees F. for 10 or 15 minutes before +storing. + +Testing for Sufficient Drying and Conditioning.--The time for drying +varies with the method of drying and the kind of food. A definite time of +drying cannot be stated. There are some tests which may be applied in +determining when a food is sufficiently dried. The following is quoted +from the Bulletin of the _National War Garden Commission_, Victory +Edition, p. 22: + +"When first taken from the drier, vegetables should be rather brittle and +fruits rather leathery and pliable. One method of determining whether +fruit is dry enough is to squeeze a handful; if the fruit separates when +the hand is opened, it is dry enough. Another way is to press a single +piece; if no moisture comes to the surface the piece is sufficiently dry. +Berries are dry enough if they stick to the hand but do not crush when +squeezed." + +When the food is judged to be sufficiently dried, it should be placed in +boxes or bowls and covered with clean cloths. The dried foods should be +stirred or poured from one container to another once a day for 10 days or +two weeks. If at the end of this time the food is found to be moist, it +must be subjected to the drying process for a short time. After the second +drying, it should be treated as directed above. If the food is observed +for several days and found to be dry, it may be stored away. This process +of testing and making them sufficiently dry after removing from the drier +is termed _conditioning_. + +DRIED CORN + +Select such sweet corn for drying as you would for immediate table use. +Blanch the corn (on the cob) for 8 to 12 minutes in boiling water. Drain +thoroughly. Then cut the corn from the cob as directed in Lesson IV. Dry +by subjecting to a temperature of 130 degrees F. gradually increased to +140 degrees F. Stir the corn often. It is sufficiently dried when it is +hard and semi-transparent. + +(Adapted from _Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory +Edition_.) + +TABLE FOR BLANCHING AND DRYING [Footnote 134: From Bulletin of the +_National War Garden Commission_, Victory Edition] + +The following table shows blanching time for vegetables and the +temperatures to be used in drying by artificial heat. + +VEGETABLES BLANCHING TEMPERATURE + TIME (FAHRENHEIT) + Minutes Degrees + +Beets 2 120 to 145 +Cabbage 3 to 4 115 to 135 +Carrots 2 120 to 145 +Cauliflower 4 to 6 120 to 130 +Celery 2 to 3 135 +Figs 120 to 140 +Garden peas 3 to 5 115 to 140 +Green string beans 5 to 8 130 to 145 +Lima beans 3 150 +Okra 3 115 to 135 +Onions 140 +Parsnips 2 120 to 145 +Potatoes 2 to 3 125 to 150 +Prunes - 130 to 175 +Pumpkin and winter squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 +Spinach 2 130 +Summer squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 +Sweet corn 8 to 12 130 to 140 +Sweet potatoes 6 to 8 145 to 165 +Tomatoes 1 1/2 120 to 140 +Turnips 1 to 2 135 to 165 +Wax beans 3 150 + +Fruits + +Apples 130 to 175 +Apricots 130 to 165 +Berries 130 to 155 +Cherries 120 to 150 +Peaches 130 to 165 +Pears 130 to 175 +Plums 130 to 165 + +QUESTIONS + +Under what conditions do you think it would be advisable to dry foods +rather than can them? + +Name the advantages of dried over canned foods and the advantages of +canned over dried. + +From what you have learned regarding the cooking of dried fruits and dried +peas and beans, how would you cook home-dried vegetables? + +Give a reason for each step of the process. + +Why is it necessary to stir foods occasionally while drying? + +Why is oven drying of foods much more satisfactory when the oven is +provided with a thermometer? + +Explain why it is necessary to condition dried foods before storing. + + + + +RELATED WORK + +LESSON CLXXIII + +THE SICK-ROOM TRAY + + +SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE SICK.--Methods of preparation of food for the +sick differ somewhat from methods of preparation of food for those in +health. The chief difference is in the _selection_ of the foods to be +prepared. In severe illness the physician prescribes definitely the diet +of the patient. In the absence of a trained nurse, it is the home-keeper's +work to follow the physician's directions and to prepare such foods as can +readily be digested. + +Often the home-keeper not only prepares, but selects the foods for the +indisposed members of the household. In any case of feeding the sick, the +following suggestions should be kept in mind: + +(_a_) Choose easily digested foods and prepare them in such a way +that they will be easily digested. Liquid or easily liquefied foods are +digested with the least effort, hence the use of milk, broths, soups, and +gruels in sick-room diet. Such semisolid foods as eggs (uncooked or soft +cooked), cereals, softened toast, etc., are also easily digested. Avoid +foods that are digested with difficulty, as pastry, fried foods, "rich" +sauces, pork, veal, lobster, and baked beans. + +(_b_) Give special attention to the selection of foods that appeal to +the appetite. When foods are served, even though they are selected +according to the physician's directions, likes and dislikes of the patient +should be observed. If food suitable for the patient is distasteful to +him, substitutions should be made or distasteful foods should be +disguised. Eggs, for example, are most valuable foods for the sick. If +disliked by the patient they may be slipped into such foods as cocoa or +gruels. Appeal to the appetite can be made by changing the methods of +preparing foods. The selection and preparation of food for the sick call +for ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the homekeeper. + +(_c_) Prepare less food for the sick than for those in health. +Sometimes a lessened quantity of easily digested food is all that is +needed to effect recovery from an indisposed condition. Some energy is +needed to carry on the involuntary activities of the body, such as the +beating of the heart, and the movements of the lungs (see _Table of +Energy Requirements_). For the very sick patient, food served in small +quantities, but served often, is necessary. + +SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE CONVALESCENT.--In recovery from severe illness, +there is often the problem of building up an emaciated body. Knowledge of +the proper quantity and the kind of food aids greatly in solving this +problem. + +The basic principles of the selection of food _to increase weight_ +were discussed previously (see _Daily Carbohydrate and Fat +Requirement_). The use of concentrated foods, _i.e._ those whose +fuel value is high, such as eggs, cream or top milk, and butter, is +usually advisable. These foods can be added to foods of less fuel value +such as vegetables. A generous use of whole milk is also effective in +gaining weight. This can be used to advantage not only at meal times but +between meals and at bed time. Milk is one of the few foods which can be +used effectively between meals. Because it is bland in flavor, it does not +"spoil the appetite" for the following meal. Bread and other grain foods +and starch-rich vegetables are useful foods for gaining weight. + +Many of the suggestions for the selection of foods for the sick apply to +the selection of foods for the convalescent. + +PREPARATION OF SPECIAL FOODS FOR THE SICK AND FOR THE CONVALESCENT.--(1) +_Milk_.--Milk is one of the most important foods for an invalid +because it is a liquid containing valuable nutrients. It is used in a +partially predigested condition in Junket "Custard", peptonized milk, and +malted milk. Buttermilk, kumiss, and matzoon are often agreeable and +beneficial to the sick; by some, they are more easily digested than whole +milk. Frozen desserts made of milk or cream are popular foods for the +sick. + +(2) _Eggs_.--Since eggs are both high in nutrients and easily +digested, they serve as a most important article of diet for the sick. The +variety of ways in which eggs can be cooked and served also adds to their +value as a sick-room food. Eggs combined with milk (egg-nog, custards), +with cereals (rice pudding, gruels), and with toast make suitable foods +for the sick and convalescent. The principles used in the preparation of +custards (see Lesson LI) should be applied in combining eggs with hot +liquids. + +(3) _Gruels_.--The principle of preparing breakfast cereals may be +applied to the preparation of gruels. In the making of gruels less cereal +and more liquid are used, _i.e._ mix 1 tablespoonful of cereal with 1 +cupful of liquid. The finished product is strained. A gruel may be +prepared by diluting a cooked cereal and straining. Gruels should be of +the consistency of cream soups. Corn-meal, oatmeal, barley, rice, flour-- +especially graham, whole wheat, and gluten--arrowroot, and crushed +crackers--especially graham and oatmeal--are suitable cereals for gruels. +Water or a combination of water and milk is used for the liquid. When both +water and milk are used, the method of cooking Rice Pudding should be +followed. + +The seasoning and flavoring of gruels are most important. Distaste for +gruels is often due to improper seasoning. "High" seasoning is not +desirable for the sick or convalescent. Usually a patient does not care +for highly seasoned food. But some seasoning is necessary to make a tasty +gruel. Gruels may be flavored with whole spices, meat extract, fruits, +such as raisins, cranberries, etc., and lemon peel. The flavor of whole +spices and fruits is extracted by cooking them with the gruel. If nutmeg +is used, it is grated over the surface of the cooked food. The identity of +this spice can thus be recognized. Sugar is used sparingly for the sick. + +(4) _Broth and Meat_.--Although there is little nourishment contained +in meat broths (see _Protein in Meat_), beef tea is often used as +food for the sick, especially when liquid diet is necessary. It is +appetizing and tasty. + +To make _beef tea_, soak chopped meat in water for at least one hour. +(Use 1 pint of water to 1 pound of lean beef.) Then cook the mixture +_slightly_, over hot water (until it becomes reddish brown in color), +and stir constantly. Strain through a _coarse_ strainer, season, and +serve at once. + +Sometimes the _juice of beef_ without any dilution with water is +served to the sick. The meat is cut into pieces and heated slightly; then +by means of a lemon "squeezer" or a meat press the juice is extracted. + +Meats such as chicken (white meat preferably), lamb, broiled or roasted +beef, can be used for convalescents. Scraped meat, _i.e._ meat from +which the tough tissue is removed (see Experiment 50), can often be given +to an invalid when solid meats are denied. The scraped meat contains more +nutriment than beef juice (see _Protein in Meat_). It should be made +into balls and pan-broiled (see _Pan-broiling_). + +PREPARING THE TRAY.--Attractive serving of foods may make a stronger +appeal to the appetite than choice selection or skilful preparation of +foods. It should be remembered that the foods are to be carried from the +kitchen to the sick room. For this reason, it is well to place foods, +especially liquids, in deep dishes suitable for transit. All hot foods +should be placed in covered dishes, that they may be hot when the bedside +is reached. + +For serving sick-room foods, the daintiest china available should be used. +The tray should be spread with a clean napkin or doily. In the case of a +contagious disease, a paper napkin or doily may be used. It should be +destroyed at once after using. + +A bedside stand which supports the tray without any effort of the patient +is a comfort. + +For contagious diseases, burn any remaining bits of food and sterilize the +dishes,--cover with cold water, heat, and boil. + +QUESTIONS + +Keeping in mind that the requisite for food for the sick is ease of +digestion, make a list of liquid, semisolid, and solid foods suitable for +the sick room. + +Explain why it is that liquid foods are invariably prescribed for the +sick. + +Give a variety of ways of cooking and serving eggs for the sick. + +Keeping in mind the suggestions given in the chapter on _Menu-making_ +and in the present chapter, write several menus for an indisposed or +convalescent patient. + + + + +LESSON CLXXIV + +PREPARING TRAYS FOR THE SICK AND CONVALESCENT + + +Plan [Footnote 135: See Footnote 72.] menus for the sick and for the +convalescent. Prepare the foods and arrange them on trays. + + + + +LESSON CLXXV + +REVIEW--MEAL COOKING + + +MENU + +Cream of Potato Soup +Croutons +Baked Custard + +See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson. + + + + +LESSON CLXXVI + +HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 136: See Lesson IX.] + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Can fruit or vegetables, or make marmalades, +jellies, etc. If possible, select the fruits or vegetables at market. + +SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare home-canned and factory-canned products. +Determine the difference in cost per pint or quart. Compare the difference +in flavor and appearance. + +(2) To compare the yield of fruit made into jam or conserve and jelly. +Note the weight of the fruit, sugar, and other ingredients before +preserving. How many glasses of jam or conserve does each five pounds of +material yield? State the advantages of preparing jelly from fruit and of +preparing jam or conserve. + + + + +DIVISION EIGHTEEN + +SUPPLEMENTARY + +LESSON I + +THANKSGIVING SAUCE + + +CRANBERRY SAUCE + +1 quart (1 pound) cranberries +2 cupfuls water +2 cupfuls sugar +Salt + +Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they are soft +and the skins are broken. Remove from the fire; strain if desired, add the +sugar and salt, and stir until dissolved. Set aside to cool. + +CRANBERRY "JELLY" + +1 quart (1 pound) cranberries +1 cupful water +2 cupfuls sugar +Salt + +Prepare and cook the cranberries in water, as for Cranberry Sauce. Press +through a strainer, add the sugar and salt, and mix well. Without further +cooking pour the mixture into molds which have been rinsed in cold water. +Set aside to cool and stiffen. + +QUESTIONS + +Give a practical method of washing cranberries. How does Cranberry Sauce +differ from Cranberry Jelly? If you desired to make _clear_ Cranberry +Jelly what change would you make in the method given above? + + + + +LESSON II + +THANKSGIVING DESSERTS + + +PLUM PUDDING + +2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs +1/4 teaspoonful baking soda +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/8 teaspoonful cloves +1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon +1/4 teaspoonful salt +1/2 cupful suet +1/2 cupful molasses +1 egg +3/4 cupful milk +1/2 cupful currants +1/2 cupful raisins + +To prevent suet from sticking while being chopped, sprinkle it with a +little flour. Use a meat grinder, or a chopping bowl and knife, to chop +the suet. Beat the eggs lightly and add the milk to them. The currants and +raisins should be cleaned as directed previously, and sprinkled with +flour. Mix the ingredients in the order given. Steam in an oiled pudding +mold for at least 2 hours. Serve with Hard Sauce I or II, Yellow Sauce, or +Vanilla Sauce. + +VEGETABLE PLUM PUDDING + +2 cupfuls flour +1 pound seeded raisins +1 cupful potatoes +1 cupful carrots +1 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful salt +1 teaspoonful baking soda +1 tablespoonful cold water +1 cupful suet +2 oranges--juice and grated rind +1 lemon--juice and grated rind + +Mix the flour and raisins. Put the potatoes, carrots, and suet through a +food chopper. Mix the baking soda and water. Combine these three mixtures. +Then add the remaining ingredients. Turn into a greased mold and steam +three hours. Serve hot with Lemon Sauce or with Hard or Yellow Sauce. + +HARD SAUCE II + +3/4 cupful brown sugar +1/3 cupful butter +2 tablespoonfuls cream or milk +1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1 teaspoonful lemon juice and 1/2 +teaspoonful +vanilla + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix thoroughly. Add the +cream or milk gradually. Add the flavoring. Chill; serve over hot +puddings. + +YELLOW SAUCE + +2 eggs +1/2 cupful powdered sugar +1 tablespoonful milk or cream +1/2 teaspoonful vanilla +Salt + +Separate the eggs; beat the whites until they are stiff and dry. Add the +yolks and continue beating until the mixture is very light. Then add the +powdered sugar and beat again. Continue beating and add the milk or cream +gradually; finally add the vanilla and salt. Serve at once over hot +puddings. + +CRANBERRY FRAPPE + +1 quart (1 pound) cranberries +2 1/2 cupfuls sugar +4 cupfuls water +Juice 1 large lemon +Salt + +Cook the cranberries and water slowly, until soft. Force through a sieve, +and add the sugar, lemon juice, and salt. When cool, freeze (see +_Preparing and Packing the Freezer_ and _Freezing_). + +Serve with roast chicken or turkey, or as a dessert. + +QUESTIONS + +What are the leavening materials used in Plum Pudding? Explain their +action. + +Why are raisins and currants sprinkled with flour before adding to the +pudding? + +How should pudding molds be prepared for pour batters (see _General +Suggestions for Steamed Quick-bread Mixtures_)? If it is desired to use +left-over steamed pudding, how should it be reheated? + +What is the price per pound of suet? How much by weight is required to +make one half cupful? + +See Figure 63 and tabulate the percentage composition of beef suet and +butter. Which contains the more fat? + +How many persons does the Plum Pudding recipe serve? + +How many persons does the Cranberry Frappe recipe serve? + + + + +LESSON III + +CHRISTMAS SWEETS + + +THE USE OF CANDY IN DIET.--Candy is an energy-giving food, but, +unfortunately perhaps, it is not (at all times) a most desirable energy- +giving food. Sugar exists in candy in concentrated form. As stated +previously, such sugar is irritating to the organs of digestion. Sugar is +contained in large quantity in some fruits, especially in dried fruits, +figs, dates, prunes, etc. These fruits are a much better source of sweets +for children than is candy, because they do not contain as much sugar, and +have, in addition, valuable food materials in the form of ash. (See +Figures 92 and 94. Note the large quantity of carbohydrates and ash in +raisins. Also note the large quantity of carbohydrates--which are in the +form of sugar--in stick candy.) + +Candy should never be used to excess or at the wrong time. A little eaten +at the end of a meal is not harmful to the normal person. At that time the +sugar is diluted because it is mixed with other foods. When diluted it +does not irritate the digestive tract to the extent that it would if eaten +between meals with no other foods. It is well to drink a generous quantity +of water when eating candy or other sweets. Since molasses, honey, and +maple sirup are not so concentrated as is sugar (see Figure 94), they are +desirable sweets for children,--provided they are used moderately, at the +right time, and are mixed with other foods. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 94--THE COMPOSITION OF SUGAR AND SIMILAR FOODS +(Revised edition)] + +PARISIAN SWEETS + +Chop equal parts of figs, dates, or raisins, and nuts together. Knead on a +board dredged with confectioner's sugar, until well blended. Roll to 1/3 +inch thickness, cut into cubes or rounds, and dip each piece in +confectioner's sugar. Store in tin boxes. + +STUFFED FRUITS + +Cover _prunes_ with cold water, and let them soak for 30 minutes. +Then heat and cook at boiling temperature for 15 minutes. Now drain off +the water and place prunes in the top part of a double boiler and cook +over boiling water for 45 minutes. Or put the prunes in a tightly covered +pan and place in the fireless cooker for several hours. Cool and remove +the stones and fill the open space with a nut or a mixture of chopped +dates or raisins, figs, and nuts. Press the prunes into symmetrical shape, +then roll them in fine granulated sugar. (The Parisian Sweet mixture may +be used for stuffing prunes.) Prunes may also be stuffed with +marshmallows. One half of a marshmallow should be inserted in each cooked +and seeded prune. + +_Dates_ stuffed with chopped nuts, peanut butter, or candied ginger +are tasty sweets. They may be rolled in granulated sugar after stuffing. + +DATE BARS + +1 egg +1 cupful sugar +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1 cupful flour +2 teaspoonfuls baking powder +1/4 teaspoonful salt +3/4 cupful dates, seeded and cut into pieces +1 cupful nuts, chopped +1/2 cupful milk + +Mix as Date Pudding. Turn into an oblong or square pan about 9 by 9 +inches. Bake at 350 degrees F., for from 30 to 40 minutes. When +sufficiently baked, remove from the pan and place on a cake cooler for +a few minutes. Then cut the cake into halves, and cut each half into +narrow strips about 1 inch wide and 4 1/2 inches long. Roll each strip in +powdered sugar. Store in a tightly covered tin box. These cakes have a +finer flavor after they have been stored for a few days. + +Raisins may be substituted for dates. + +POP-CORN BALLS + +1 cupful molasses +1/4 teaspoonful baking soda +1 cupful corn sirup or sugar +1/2 teaspoonful salt + +Mix the molasses and sirup or sugar and cook them to the crack stage. Then +add the soda and salt and pour the mixture over popped corn,--about six +quarts. Stir the corn while pouring the sirup. Let the sweetened corn +stand a few minutes. Then dip the hands into cold water, shake off the +water, and with the two hands press some corn into a ball. Repeat until +all the corn is shaped into balls. + +QUESTIONS + +Explain why Parisian Sweets and Stuffed Fruits are a more desirable sweet +food than candy. + +When is the best time to eat candy? Explain your answer. + +Why are mints served at the close, rather than at the beginning of a meal? + +Why is it advisable to drink a generous quantity of water when eating +candy or sweets? + +Compare the recipes for Date Pudding and Date Bars. Account for the +greater quantity of flour, sugar, and milk in Date Bars. + +Why is it necessary to dip the hands in cold water before shaping Pop-corn +Balls? + + + + +LESSON IV + +CHRISTMAS CANDY + + +SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.--Granulated sugar and glucose differ in taste and +composition. Granulated sugar is crystalline in structure, while +commercial glucose exists in the form of a heavy sirup, _i.e._ is +non-crystalline in form. + +In many candies, a creamy consistency is desired. This is not possible, if +all the sugar of the candy exists in coarse crystalline form. Hence in the +making of candy from granulated sugar, it is desirable to add glucose or +sirup to granulated sugar or to change some of the crystallized sugar to a +sugar which crystallizes with difficulty, _i.e._ _invert sugar_. +This can be accomplished by boiling granulated sugar with acid. + +Recent experimentation [Footnote 137: See Journal of Home Economics, +February, 1919 (Vol. XI), p. 65, "Factors Influencing the Amount of Invert +Sugar in Fondant," by Daniels and Cook.] with sugars, however, shows that +the quantity of acid required varies with the degree of hardness or the +alkalinity of the water,--the more alkaline the water, the greater the +quantity of acid needed. This experimental work also shows that unless +soft water is used in boiling sugar to which acid is added, more constant +and satisfactory results may be secured by adding glucose rather than acid +to sugar. + +COOKING SIRUPS.--Sugar and water are boiled to different degrees of +temperature for making different kinds of candy. The thicker the sirup, +the higher the temperature. Tests for sirups of different consistencies +are: + +(_a_) Thread,--when dropped from a spoon, the sirup forms a thread +about two inches long (230 degrees F.). [Footnote 138: These temperatures +apply to sirups made from cane sugar. The addition of glucose to cane +sugar lowers the temperatures of the sirups at the various stages. See +Note to the Teacher, Lesson CXVI, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit +scale of temperature.] + +(_b_) Soft ball,--when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms a +soft ball if rolled between the fingers (236 degrees F.). + +(_c_) Hard ball,--when dropped into cold water, the sirup forms a +firm ball (252 degrees F.). + +(_d_) Crack,--when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomes brittle +(270 degrees F.). + +(_e_) Hard crack,--when dropped into cold water, the sirup becomes +very hard and brittle (293 degrees F.). + +(_f_) Caramel,--when sugar (without addition of water) liquefies when +hot and becomes very hard and brittle when cold (310 degrees F.). + +FUDGE + +2 cupfuls sugar +1/2 cupful water or milk +1/2 cupful corn sirup +2 ounces chocolate +2 tablespoonfuls butter +1 teaspoonful vanilla +1/4 teaspoonful salt + +Mix the sugar with the liquid. Add the chocolate and sirup. Boil +_gently_ to a "soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire, +add the butter. Cool, then beat the mixture until it thickens. Add the +vanilla and salt and pour into a buttered pan. Cut into squares; when cool +the fudge is ready for serving. + +The butter may be omitted. + +PANOCHA + +2 cupfuls light brown sugar +1/2 cupful milk +1/8 teaspoonful cream of tartar +2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute +1/2 pound nuts +1/8 teaspoonful salt + +Mix the sugar with the milk. Add the cream of tartar, and boil gently to a +"soft ball" stage. Just before removing from the fire, add the butter and +salt. Cool and beat until the mixture thickens. Add nuts that have been +cut into pieces; pour into a buttered pan; cut into squares. When cool, +the Panocha is ready for serving. + +Sour milk or cream may be substituted for sweet milk and cream of tartar. +When sour cream is used, omit the butter or substitute. + +BUTTERSCOTCH + +1/2 cupful water +3 cupfuls light brown sugar +Juice of 1 lemon _or_ +1/4 cupful vinegar +2 to 4 tablespoonfuls butter + +Mix the sugar and liquids thoroughly. Boil gently to the "crack" stage. +Add the butter. Pour into buttered pans. When almost cool, cut into +squares with a chopping knife. Break into pieces when cold. + +The butter may be omitted. If this is done, add 1/8 teaspoonful of salt. + +CINNAMON BALLS + +1 cupful sirup +2 cupfuls sugar +1 tablespoonful butter +1/8 teaspoonful salt +1 tablespoonful water +1 tablespoonful vinegar +1 tablespoonful ground cinnamon _or_ +2 drops of oil of cinnamon + +Put all the ingredients except oil of cinnamon into a saucepan and boil to +the crack stage. If oil of cinnamon is used for flavoring, add it to the +mixture after cooking. Pour into a greased pan. When cool enough to +handle, take a small portion and shape it into a ball. If the candy +becomes too stiff to shape, it may be placed in an oven until it is soft +enough to handle. + +Oil of cinnamon produces a more pleasing flavor than ground cinnamon. +However, the former is expensive. If it is added, the use of a medicine +dropper prevents its waste. + +QUESTIONS + +What ingredient does corn sirup contain that would make it effective in +preparing creamy candy? + +Explain the use of corn sirup, cream of tartar, sour milk, and vinegar in +these candies. In Fudge, why is the butter added just before removing the +candy from the fire (see _Frying and Digestion_)? + +Why are not the nuts cooked in the Panocha mixture? + +Why is butter or substitute omitted in Panocha if sour cream is +substituted for sweet milk? + +If a thermometer is used for testing sirups, what precaution should be +taken against breaking? + +From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the +percentage composition of granulated (see Figure 94), powdered, brown, and +maple sugars. What is the price per pound of each? + +How many cupfuls in a pound of brown sugar? + +Considering the percentage of carbohydrates, and the price per pound of +granulated and brown sugar, which is the cheaper? + +Tabulate the percentage composition of honey, of molasses, and of maple +sirup. + +How much fudge, by weight, does 1 pound of sugar make? + +What is the cost per pound of homemade fudge? + + + + +APPENDIX + +SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING + + +In using this text, the teacher may follow the _order_ of +_presenting_ a lesson which she considers most satisfactory. She may +prefer to preface processes of cooking with a discussion of foods and +reasons for the steps involved in the processes, or she may consider it +advisable to have the pupils do the cooking and discuss foods and methods +later. In case both the so-called "theory" and practical work are +undertaken in the same lesson, the time required to cook the food often +determines the order of the lesson. In either case, this text may be used +to advantage. + +Although recipes in definitely stated form appear in the book, the teacher +need not refer to them in class, or place them upon the board previous to +the lesson. She may prefer to lead the pupils to develop a recipe. The +latter method is valuable in training pupils to know the proper quantity +of food materials to combine for practical _recipe making_, and to +know how to _substitute_ one food material for another. + +The _relation_ of one recipe to another is shown in this text and +should be constantly emphasized. The pupils should be made to understand +that there are a few basic recipes from which many may be developed. + +Much attention should be given to the _cost_ of foods. At frequent +intervals, pupils should be required to compute the cost of particular +dishes or of entire meals. The _buying_ of foods by the pupils is +most valuable. In table service lessons, it is advisable to have the +pupils not only plan and cook foods but, when possible, buy them. + +In teaching _table service lessons_, the greatest care should be +taken to adapt the lessons to the standard of living of the pupils. In +communities where the equipment for serving foods is most meagre, a +special effort should be made to make the best use of such dishes and +furnishings as are found in the homes of the pupils. Serving meals in a +more pleasing way with more adequate (but not elaborate) equipment should +also be taught. Methods of serving without a maid meet best the needs of +most pupils of the public schools. + +The cooking of foods by each pupil in _family quantity_ rather than +in individual amount is valuable. To do this some practical way of +disposing of the cooked products must be arranged. The lunch rooms of the +school may serve as the means of disposal. In case the pupils of a school +cook for the lunch room, the greatest care needs to be exercised by the +teacher to place the responsibility of preparing a salable product upon +the pupil. Too much assistance on the part of the teacher in directing the +pupils' work and in deciding when a food is sufficiently cooked or baked, +may interfere in developing initiative in pupils,--one of the aims to be +accomplished in education. The plan of having each pupil prepare a food +for the first time in individual quantity and then later in family +quantity for the lunch room has proved satisfactory in some cases. + +This text furnishes material for a _year's_ work, if five lessons per +week (at least ninety minutes in length) are given; or for _two +years'_ work, if the curriculum provides for but two or three lessons +per week. If it is necessary to arrange a shorter course, certain lessons +may be omitted or assigned for home work, or lessons may be combined. + +If the teacher wishes to _correlate_ food study with some other +subject such as general science, or physiology, chemistry, or physics, the +time may be extended, or the order of work may be changed to fit the +particular requirements. Because many of the lessons of the first eight +divisions treat of the uses of the foods in the body, they are especially +good for correlation with physiology. The remaining lessons, many of which +emphasize food composition, may be correlated to advantage with chemistry. + +If for any reason an entire semester's work is to be devoted to table +service, including the planning, buying, cooking, and serving of foods and +determining the cost and computing the calorific value of the foods, the +material found in _Related Work_--the lessons placed at the end of +each division--will be found adequate for such a course. + +BOOKS FOR REFERENCE + +_Bevier and Van Meter_: Selection and Preparation of Food. +_Brechner_: Household Physics. +_Brownlee and Others_: Chemistry of Common Things. +_Buchanan_: Household Bacteriology. +_Child Health Organization of America_: Pamphlets. +_Cooley and Others_: Teaching Home Economics. +_Conn_: Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. +_Department of Household Science, University of Illinois_: +Principles of Jelly-Making (Bulletin). +_Farmer_: Food and Cookery for the Sick and the Convalescent. +_Farmer_: The Boston Cooking School Cook Book. +_Hill_: Cooking for Two. +_Hill_: The Up-To-Date Waitress. +_Holt_: The Care and Feeding of Children. +_Holt and Sedgwick_: The Human Mechanism. +_Holt and Shaw_: Save the Babies, Pamphlet. +_Kansas Agricultural College_: Table Etiquette and Table Service +(Bulletin). +_Lincoln and Barrows_: Home Science Cook Book. +_Lusk_: Elements of the Science of Nutrition. +_Lusk_: Fundamental Basis of Nutrition. +_McCollum_: The American Home Diet. +_Mitchell_: Fireless Cook Book. +_Pattee_: Practical Dietetics. +_Richards, Ellen H._: The Cost of Food. +_Rose_: Feeding the Family. +_Rose_: Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics. +_Sherman_: Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Second Edition. +_Sherman_: Food Products. +_Styles_: Human Physiology. +_Taber_: The Business of the Household. +_U. S. Department of Agriculture_: Bulletins. +_Van Rensselaer and Others_: A Manual of Home-Making. +_Vulte_: Household Chemistry. +_Vulte and Vanderbilt_: Food Industries. + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's School and Home Cooking, by Carlotta C. Greer + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING *** + +This file should be named 6912.txt or 6912.zip + +Produced by Clare Elliott, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +https://gutenberg.org or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext03 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext03 + +Or /etext02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655-4109 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information online at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this eBook's header and trailer may be reprinted only +when distributed free of all fees. Copyright (C) 2001, 2002 by +Michael S. Hart. Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be +used in any sales of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be +they hardware or software or any other related product without +express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + diff --git a/6912.zip b/6912.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..768c00a --- /dev/null +++ b/6912.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e46b58 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #6912 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6912) |