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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..62b7349 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69134 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69134) diff --git a/old/69134-0.txt b/old/69134-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f05d40c..0000000 --- a/old/69134-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6762 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Coal and the coal mines, by Homer -Greene - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Coal and the coal mines - -Author: Homer Greene - -Illustrator: Homer Greene - -Release Date: October 11, 2022 [eBook #69134] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Donald Cummings with images made available by the - HathiTrust Digital Library. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COAL AND THE COAL MINES *** - - - - - - The Riverside Library for Young People - - - Number 5 - - COAL AND THE COAL MINES - - By HOMER GREENE - - [Illustration] - - - - - COAL AND THE COAL MINES - - BY - HOMER GREENE - - _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS BY - THE AUTHOR_ - - - [Illustration] - - - BOSTON AND NEW YORK - HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY - The Riverside Press, Cambridge - 1898 - - - - - Copyright, 1889. - - BY HOMER GREENE. - - - _All rights reserved._ - - - _The Riverside Press, Cambridge, U. S. A._: - Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company. - - - - - To - MY SON, - - GILES POLLARD GREENE, - - WHO WAS BORN ON THE DAY THIS BOOK WAS BEGUN, - AND WHOSE SMILES AND TEARS - THROUGH HALF A YEAR - HAVE BEEN A DAILY INSPIRATION IN THE WORK, - This Completed Task - IS NOW DEDICATED - BY - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - -[Illustration] - -In treating of so large a theme in so small a compass it is impossible -to do more than make an outline sketch. It has been the aim of the -author to give reliable information free from minute details and -technicalities. That information has been, for the most part, gathered -through personal experience in the mines. The literature of this -special subject is very meagre, and the author is unable to acknowledge -any real indebtedness to more than half a dozen volumes. First among -these is the valuable treatise on “Coal Mining,” by H. M. Chance of the -Pennsylvania Geological Survey. Other volumes from which the author has -derived considerable information are the State geological reports of -Pennsylvania, the mine inspector’s reports of the same State, and the -“Coal Trade Annuals,” issued by Frederick E. Saward of New York. - -The author desires also to acknowledge his indebtedness for valuable -assistance in the preparation of this work to John B. Law and Andrew -Bryden, mining superintendents, and George Johnson, real estate agent, -all of the Pennsylvania Coal Company, at Pittston, Pennsylvania, and to -the officers of the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society of Wilkes -Barre, Pennsylvania. - - HOMER GREENE. - - Honesdale, Pa., - _May 15, 1889_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - -[Illustration] - - - CHAPTER PAGE - I. IN THE BEGINNING 1 - II. THE COMPOSITION OF COAL 6 - III. WHEN COAL WAS FORMED 14 - IV. HOW THE COAL BEDS LIE 22 - V. THE DISCOVERY OF COAL 35 - VI. THE INTRODUCTION OF COAL INTO USE 51 - VII. THE WAY INTO THE MINES 75 - VIII. A PLAN OF A COAL MINE 94 - IX. THE MINER AT WORK 112 - X. WHEN THE MINE ROOF FALLS 127 - XI. AIR AND WATER IN THE MINES 147 - XII. THE DANGEROUS GASES 159 - XIII. THE ANTHRACITE COAL BREAKER 176 - XIV. IN THE BITUMINOUS COAL MINES 192 - XV. THE BOY WORKERS AT THE MINES 204 - XVI. MINERS AND THEIR WAGES 222 - - - - -COAL AND THE COAL MINES. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -IN THE BEGINNING. - - -Every one knows that mineral coal is dug out from the crust of the -earth. But the question frequently is asked concerning it, How and -under what conditions was it formed? In order to answer this inquiry it -is necessary to have recourse to the science of geology. - -A brief review of the geological history of the earth’s crust will be -of prime importance, and it will not be inappropriate to go back to the -origin of the earth itself. But no man can begin at the beginning; that -is too far back in the eternal mists; only the Infinite Mind can reach -to it. There is a point, however, to which speculation can journey, -and from which it has brought back brilliant theories to account for -the existence of the planet on which we live. The most philosophic of -these theories, as it certainly is the most popular, is the one known -as the Nebular Hypothesis, propounded by Laplace, the great French -astronomer, in 1796. This theory accords so well with the laws of -physics, and with the human knowledge of the age, that most of the -great astronomers have adopted it as the best that has been given to -us, and the world of science may be said to have accepted it as final. -Let us suppose, then, in accordance with this theory, that our earth -was, at one time, a ball of liquid fire, revolving on its axis, and -moving, in its orbit, around the parent sun with the motion imparted to -it in the beginning. As cooling and condensation went on, a crust was -formed on its surface, and water was formed on the crust. The waters, -however, were no sooner spread out than they were tossed by the motion -of the atmosphere into waves, and these waves, by constant friction -against the rock crust of the earth, wore it down into pebbles, sand, -and mud. The silt thus made being washed up on to the primitive rock -and left there by the receding waters became again as hard and firm -as before. Occasionally a subsidence, due to the contraction of the -earth’s body, would take place and the sea would again sweep over the -entire surface, depositing another layer of silt on the one already -formed, or possibly washing that again into sand and pebbles. This -process continued through an indefinite period of time, forming layer -upon layer of stratified rock, or excavating great hollows in the -surface already formed. - -That period in the history of the earth’s crust before stratification -began is known as Archean time. This was followed by the period known -as Paleozoic time, which is divided into three ages. The first is -the age of Invertebrates. It was during this age that life made its -advent on the earth. The waters were the first to bring it forth, but -before the close of the age it began also to appear on the land, in -isolated spots, in the simplest forms of vegetation. The next age is -known as the age of Fishes, during which vegetable life became more -varied and abundant, winged insects floated in the air, and great -sharks and gars swam in the seas. Then came the Carboniferous age or -age of Coal Plants, in which vast areas of what are now the Middle, -Southern, and Western States were covered with low marshes and shallow -seas, and were rich and rank with multitudinous forms of vegetation. -But these marshes were again and again submerged and covered with -material washed up by the waves before the final subsidence of the -waters left them as a continuing portion of the dry land. It was at the -close of the Carboniferous age that great disturbances took place in -the earth’s crust. Before this the rock strata had been comparatively -level; now they were folded, flexed, broken, rounded into hills, pushed -resistlessly up into mountain ranges. It was at this time that the -upheaval of the great Appalachian Range in North America took place. -Following this came Mesozoic time, which had but one age, the age of -Reptiles. It was during this age that the type of reptiles reached -its culmination. The land generally brought forth vegetation, though -not with the prolific richness and luxury of the Carboniferous age. -Birds, insects, and creeping things were abundant, and monsters of the -saurian tribe swam in the seas, roamed through the marshes, crawled -on the sandy shores, and took short flights through the air. The last -great division is known as Cenozoic time, and covers two ages, the age -of Mammals and the age of Man. It was during the mammalian age that -trees of modern types, such as oak, maple, beech, etc., first made -their appearance, and mammalian animals of great variety and size, both -herbivorous and carnivorous, roamed through the forests. True birds -flew in the air, true snakes crawled upon the ground, and in the waters -were whales and many kinds of fishes of the present day. But the marine -monsters and the gigantic and ferocious saurians of an earlier age had -disappeared. So the world became fitted to be the dwelling-place of the -human race. Then began the age of Man, an age which is yet not complete. - -Such, in brief, is the history of the earth as the rocks have told -it to us. Without their help we could know but little of the story. -Through all the periods of time and all the ages, they were being -formed, layer upon layer, of sand and silt, of mud and pebbles, -hardening with the passing of the centuries. But while they were -still soft they received impressions of the feet of birds and of -beasts, they were marked by the waves and were cracked in the fierce -heat of the sun, and their surfaces were pitted by the rain-drops of -passing showers. Shells, corals, and sponges were imbedded in them; -the skeletons of fishes and the bones of animals that walked or crept -upon the land or flew in the air were covered over by them; they caught -and held the drooping fern, the falling leaf and twig and nut; they -closed around the body of the tree itself and buried it from sight; -and as the soil hardened into rock, bone and shell, leaf and stem, -hardened with it and became part of it. To-day we find these fossil -remains, sometimes near the surface of the earth, sometimes hundreds -or thousands of feet below it. We uncover them from the soil, we break -them from the rock, we blast them out in the quarries, we dig them -from the mines of coal and ore. It is by them and by the structure of -the rock which contains them that we read the history of the earth, a -history covering so long a period of time from the beginning of the -stratification of the rocks to the age when man appeared upon the globe -that no one has yet dared to reckon the millions upon millions of years -which intervened, and give the result of his computation to the world -as true. - -[Illustration: COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE COMPOSITION OF COAL. - - -The first question that would naturally be asked concerning the subject -with which we are dealing is, What is coal? - -In reply it may be said that it is a mineral. It is black or brown -in color, solid, heavy, and amorphous. The specific gravity of the -average Pennsylvania anthracite is about 1.6, and of the bituminous -coal about 1.4. There are four varieties of mineral coal, namely: -anthracite, bituminous, lignite or brown coal, and cannel coal. To -this list it would not be improper to add peat, since it partakes -of most of the characteristics of mineral coal, and would doubtless -develop into such coal if the process of transformation were allowed to -continue undisturbed. The principal element contained in each of these -different kinds of coal is carbon. An analysis of an average piece of -Pennsylvania anthracite would show the following chemical composition:―― - - Fixed carbon 86.4 - Ash 6.2 - Water 3.7 - Volatile matter 3.1 - Sulphur .6 - ――――― - Total 100 - -The composition of the bituminous coals of Pennsylvania, as represented -by the gas coal of Westmoreland County, is shown by analysis to be as -follows:―― - - Fixed carbon 55. - Volatile matter 37.5 - Ash 5.4 - Water 1.4 - Sulphur .7 - ――――― - Total 100 - -An analysis of coal from the Pittsburgh region would show its percentage -of carbon to be from 58 to 64, and of volatile matter and ash to be -proportionately less. - -There is no strict line of demarcation between the anthracite and the -bituminous coals. They are classed generally, according to the amount -of carbon and volatile matter contained in them, as:―― - - Hard-dry Anthracites, - Semi-Anthracite, - Semi-Bituminous, - Bituminous. - -Coals of the first class contain from 91 to 98 per cent, of carbon, and -of the second class from 85 to 90 per cent. The volatile matter in the -third class is usually less than 18 per cent., and in the fourth class -more than 18 per cent. of its composition. - -The anthracite coal is hard and brittle, and has a rich black color -and a metallic lustre. It ignites with difficulty, and at first burns -with a small blue flame of carbonic oxide. This disappears, however, -when ignition is complete. No smoke is given off during combustion. -Semi-anthracite coal is neither so hard, so dense, nor so brilliant in -lustre as the anthracite, though when once fully ignited it has all -the characteristic features of the latter in combustion. It is found -principally at the western ends of the anthracite coal basins. - -Bituminous coal is usually deep black in color, with little or no -lustre, having planes of cleavage which run nearly at right angles with -each other, so that when the coal is broken it separates into cubical -fragments. It ignites easily and burns with a yellowish flame. It gives -off smoke and leaves a large percentage of ashes after combustion. That -variety of it known as caking or coking coal is the most important. -This is quite soft, and will not bear much handling. During combustion -it swells, fuses, and finally runs together in large porous masses. - -Following the question of the composition of coal comes the question -of its origin, of which, indeed, there is no longer any serious doubt. -It is generally conceded that coal is a vegetable product, and there -are excellent reasons for this belief. The fragments of which coal is -composed have been greatly deformed by compression and decomposition. -But when one of those fragments is made so thin that it will transmit -light, and is then subjected to a powerful microscope, its vegetable -structure may readily be distinguished; that is, the fragments are seen -to be the fragments of plants. Immediately under every separate seam of -coal there is a stratum of what is known as fire clay. It may, under -the beds of softer coals, be of the consistency of clay; but under the -coal seams of the harder varieties it is usually in the form of a slaty -rock. This fire clay stratum is always present, and contains in great -abundance the fossil impressions of roots and stems and twigs, showing -that it was once the soil from which vegetation grew luxuriantly. It -is common also to find fossil tree-stems lying mashed flat between the -layers of black slate which form the roof of the coal mines, also the -impressions of the leaves, nuts, and seeds which fell from these trees -while they were living. In some beds of cannel coal whole trees have -been found, with roots, branches, leaves, and seeds complete, and all -converted into the same quality of coal by which they were surrounded. -In short, the strata of the coal measures everywhere are full of the -fossil impressions of plants, of great variety both in kind and size. - -If a piece of wood be subjected to heat and great pressure, a substance -is obtained which strongly resembles mineral coal. - -That coal contains a very large proportion of carbon in its composition -has already been noted. If, therefore, it is a vegetable product, the -vegetation from which it was formed must have been subjected to some -process by which a large part of its substance was eliminated, since -wood or woody fibre contains only from 20 to 25 per cent. of carbon. -But wood can be transformed, by combustion, into charcoal, a material -containing in its composition 98 per cent, of carbon, or a greater -percentage than the best anthracite contains. This cannot be done, -however, by burning wood in an open fire, for in that case its carbon -unites with atmospheric oxygen and passes invisibly into the air. It -must be subjected to a process of smothered combustion; free access -of air must be denied to it while it is burning. Then the volatile -matter will be freed and expelled, and, since the carbon cannot come -in contact with the oxygen of the air, it will be retained, together -with a small percentage of ash. The result will be charcoal, or coal -artificially made. The principle on which this transformation is based -is combustion or decomposition out of contact with atmospheric air. -But Nature is as familiar with this principle as is man, and she may -not only be discovered putting it in practice, but the entire process -may be watched from beginning to end. One must go, for this purpose, -first, to a peat bed. This is simply an accumulation of the remains of -plants which grew and decayed on the spot where they are now found. As -these remains were deposited each year, every layer became buried under -its succeeding layer, until finally a great thickness was obtained. -When we remove the upper layer we find peat with its 52 to 66 per -cent. of carbon, and the deeper we go the better is the quality of the -substance. It may be cut out in blocks with sharp spades, the water may -be pressed from the blocks, and they may be stacked up, covered and -dried, and used for fuel. In most peat bogs the process of growth is -going on, and may be watched. There is a certain kind of moss called -_sphagnum_, which in large part makes up the peat-producing vegetation. -Its roots die annually, but from the living top new roots are sent out -each year. The workmen who dig peat understand that if this surface -is destroyed the growth of the bed must stop; consequently in many -instances they have removed the sod carefully, and after taking out -a stratum of peat have replaced the sod in order that the bed may be -renewed. There is little doubt that if these beds of peat could lie -undisturbed and covered over through many ages they would take on all -the characteristics of mineral coal. - -A step farther back in geological history we reach the period of the -latest formations of lignite or brown coal. This coal is first found in -the strata of the glacial period, or first period in the age of Man. -But it is found there in an undeveloped state. The woody fibre has not -yet undergone the complete transformation into coal. The trunks and -branches of trees have indeed become softened to the consistence of -soap, but they still retain their natural color. Going back, however, -to the strata of the Miocene or second period of the Tertiary age or -age of Mammals, we find that this wood has become black, though it -has not yet hardened. But when we reach the upper cretaceous or last -period of the age of Reptiles, the transformation into coal has become -complete. The woody fibre is now black, hard, and compact, though it -may still be easily disaggregated by atmospheric action, and we have -the true lignite, so called because of its apparent woody structure. - -The next step takes us back to the bituminous coal of the Carboniferous -age, the character and consistency of which has already been noted, -and finally we reach the complete development in anthracite. It is, -however, the opinion of the best geologists that the bituminous and -anthracite coals are of the same age, and were originally of the same -formation and character. That is, they were all bituminous; but during -the violent contortions and upheavals of the earth’s crust at the time -of the Appalachian revolution at the close of the Carboniferous age, -the bituminous coals involved in that disturbance were changed by heat, -pressure, and motion, and the consequent expulsion of volatile matter, -from bituminous to anthracite. - -Cannel coal is a variety of bituminous coal, burning with great -freedom, the flame of which affords considerable light. It was called -“candle coal” by the English people who first used it, as it often -served as a substitute for that household necessity. But the name soon -became corrupted to “cannel,” and has so remained. It is duller and -more compact than the ordinary bituminous coal, and it can be wrought -in a lathe and polished. A certain variety of it, found in the lower -oölitic strata of Yorkshire in England, is manufactured into a kind of -jewelry, well known by its popular name of _jet_. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -WHEN COAL WAS FORMED. - - -It becomes of interest now to examine briefly into the causes and -process of the transformation from vegetable substance into coal, to -note the character of the vegetation which went to make up the coal -beds, and to glance at the animal life of the period. - -As has already been said, the plants of the Carboniferous age were -exceedingly abundant and luxuriant. They grew up richly from the clayey -soil, and formed dense jungles in the vast marshes which covered so -large an area of the earth’s surface. Ferns, mosses, and tufts of -surface vegetation, and the leaves, branches, and trunks of trees fell -and decayed on the place where they grew, only to make the soil more -fertile and the next growth richer and more luxuriant. Year after -year, century after century, this process of growth and decay went on, -until the beds of vegetable matter thus deposited had reached a great -thickness. But condensation was still in progress in the earth’s body, -and in consequence of it her crust, of necessity, at times contracted -and fell. When it did so the land sank throughout vast areas, these -beds of incipient coal went down, and over the great marshes the waters -swept again, bringing drift of vegetation from higher levels to add -to that already buried. Then over these deposits of vegetable matter -the sand and mud and gravel were laid up anew, and the clayey soil -from which the next rich growth should spring was spread out upon the -surface. This process was repeated again and again, as often, indeed, -as we find seams of coal in any coal bed. Thus the final condition for -the formation of coal was met, the exclusion of atmospheric air from -this mass of decaying vegetation was complete, and under the water -of the ocean, under the sand and silt of the shore, under the new -deposits of succeeding ages, the transformation went on, the wood of -the Carboniferous era became the coal of to-day, while above and below -it the sand and clay were hardened into rock and shale. - -The remarkable features of the vegetation of the coal era were the -size and abundance of its plants. Trees of that time whose trunks -were from one to three feet in diameter, and which grew to a height -of from forty to one hundred feet, are represented in our day by mere -stems a fraction of an inch in diameter and but one or two feet high. -A comparison of quantity would show differences as great as does the -comparison of size. - -But at that time all the conditions were favorable for the rapid and -enormous growth of vegetation. The air was laden with carbon, which -is the principal food for plants; so laden, indeed, that man, who is -eminently an oxygen-breathing animal, could not have lived in it. The -great humidity of the atmosphere was another element favorable to -growth. Vegetation never lacked for an abundance of moisture either at -root or leaf. Then, too, the climate was universally warm. Over the -entire surface of the earth the heat was greater than it is to-day at -the torrid zone. It must be remembered that the internal fires of the -globe have been constantly cooling and receding, and that the earth, in -the Carboniferous age, was subjected to the greater power of a larger -sun than shines upon us to-day. - -With all these circumstances in its favor, warmth, moisture, and an -atmosphere charged heavily with carbon, vegetation could not help but -flourish. That it did flourish amazingly is abundantly shown by its -fossil remains. The impressions of more than five hundred different -species of plants that grew in the Carboniferous era have been found -in the coal measures. There are few of them that bear any direct -analogy to existing species, and these few have their counterparts -only in the torrid zone. The most abundant of the plants of the coal -era were the ferns. Their fossil remains are found in great profusion -and variety in most of the rocks of the coal-bearing strata. There was -also the plant known as the tree fern, which attained a height of -twenty or thirty feet and carried a single tuft of leaves radiating -from its top. Probably the species next in abundance, as it certainly -is next in importance, to the ferns is that of the Lepidodendrids. It -doubtless contributed the greatest proportion of woody material to the -composition of coal. The plants of this species were forest trees, -but are supposed to have been analogous to the low club mosses of the -present. Fossil trunks of Lepidodendrids have been found measuring from -one hundred to one hundred and thirty feet in length, and from six to -ten feet in diameter. - -Similar in appearance to the Lepidodendrids were the Sigillariæ, which -were also very abundant. The Conifers were of quite a different species -from those already named, and probably grew on higher ground. They were -somewhat analogous to the modern pine. - -The Calamites belonged to the horsetail family. They grew up with long, -reed-like, articulated stems to a height of twenty feet or more, and -with a diameter of ten or twelve inches. They stood close together in -the muddy ground, forming an almost impenetrable thicket, and probably -made up a very large percentage of the vegetation which was transformed -into coal. - -One of the most abundant species of plants of the coal era is that of -Stigmaria. Stout stems, from two to four inches in diameter, branched -downward from a short trunk, and then grew out in long root-like -processes, floating in the water or trailing on the mud to distances of -twenty or thirty feet. These are the roots with which the under clay of -every coal seam is usually filled. - -The plants which have been described, together with their kindred -species, formed the largest and most important part of the vegetation -of the Carboniferous age. But of the hundreds of varieties which then -abounded, the greater portion reached their highest stage of perfection -in the coal era, and became extinct before the close of Paleozoic -time. Other types were lost during Mesozoic time, and to-day there is -scarcely a counterpart in existence of any of the multitude of forms of -plant life that grew and flourished in that far-off age of the world. - -The animal life of the Carboniferous era was confined almost entirely -to the water. The dry land had not yet begun to produce in abundance -the higher forms of living things. There were spiders there, however, -and scorpions, and centipedes, and even cockroaches. There were also -land snails, beetles, locusts, and mayflies. Reptiles, with clumsy -feet and dragging tails, prowled about on the wet sands of the shore, -leaving footprints that were never effaced by time or the elements, and -are found to-day in the layers of the rocks, almost as perfect as when -they were formed, millions of years ago. But the waters teemed with -animal life. On the bottom of the shallow seas lay shells and corals -in such abundance and variety that from the deposits of their remains -great beds of limestone have been formed. Broken into minute fragments -by the action of the waves and washed up by the sea during periods of -submergence, they were spread over the beds of carboniferous deposits, -and became the rock strata through which the drills and shafts of -to-day are sunk to reach the veins of mineral coal. - -Fishes were numerous. Some of them, belonging to species allied to the -modern shark, were of great size, with huge fin spines fully eighteen -inches in length. These spines have been found as fossils, as have also -the scales, teeth, and bones. Complete skeletons of smaller fishes of -the ganoid order were preserved in the rock as it hardened, and now -form fossil specimens which are unequaled in beauty and perfection. - -Besides the fishes, there were the swimming reptiles; amphibian -monsters, allied to the ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs which were so -abundant during the Reptilian age that followed. These animals are -known as enaliosaurs. They attained great size, being from twenty-five -to fifty feet in length; they had air-breathing apparatus, and -propelled themselves through the water with paddles like the paddles -of whales. Their enormous jaws were lined with rows of sharp, pointed -teeth, and their food was fish, shell-fish, and any other kind of -animal life that came within their reach. They devoured even their own -species. Living mostly in the open seas or fresh-water lagoons, they -sometimes chased their prey far up the rivers, and sometimes basked in -the sunshine on the sands of the shore. Frightful in aspect, fierce, -and voracious, they were the terror and the tyrants of the seas. - -Such were the animals, such were the plants, that lived and died, that -flourished and decayed, in the age when coal was being formed and -fashioned and hidden away in the crust of the earth. That the fauna and -flora of to-day have few prototypes among them should be little cause -for regret. There was, indeed, hardly a feature in the landscape of the -coal era that would have had a familiar look to an inhabitant of the -world in its present age. In place of the hills and valleys as we have -them now, there were great plains sloping imperceptibly to the borders -of the sea. There were vast marshes, shallow fresh-water lakes, and -broad and sluggish rivers. Save by isolated peaks the Rocky Mountains -had not yet been uplifted from the face of the deep, and the great West -of to-day was a waste of waters. In the wide forests no bird’s song was -ever heard, no flashing of a wing was ever seen, no serpent trailed -its length upon the ground, no wild beast searched the woods for prey. -The spider spun his web in silence from the dew-wet twigs, the locust -hopped drowsily from leaf to leaf, the mayfly floated lightly in the -heavy air, the slow-paced snail left his damp track on the surfaces of -the rocks, and the beetles, lifting the hard coverings from their gauzy -wings, flew aimlessly from place to place. In seas and lakes and swampy -pools strange fishes swam, up from the salt waters odd reptiles crawled -to sun themselves upon the sandy shore or make their way through -the dense jungles of the swamps, and out where the ocean waves were -dashing, fierce monsters of the sea darted on their prey, or churned -the water into foam in savage fights with each other. - -But in all the world there were no flowers. Stems grew to be trunks, -branches were sent out, leaves formed and fell, the land was robed and -wrapped in the richest, most luxuriant foliage, yet the few buds that -tried to blossom were scentless and hidden, and earth was still void of -the beauty and the fragrance of the flowers. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -HOW THE COAL BEDS LIE. - - -The process of growth, deposition, submergence, and burial, described -in the preceding chapter, continued throughout the Carboniferous age. -Each period of inundation and of the covering over of beds of vegetable -deposit by sand and silt is marked by the layers of stratified rock -that intervene between, and that overlie the separate seams of coal in -the coal measures of to-day. The number of these coal seams indicates -the number of periods during which the growth and decay of vegetation -was uninterrupted. This number, in the anthracite coal regions, varies -from ten to thirty or thereabouts, but in the bituminous regions it -scarcely ever exceeds eight or ten. The thickness of the separate -coal seams also varies greatly, ranging from a fraction of an inch up -to sixty or seventy feet. Indeed, there are basins of small extent -in the south of France and in India where the seam is two hundred -feet thick. It is seldom, however, that workable seams of anthracite -exceed twenty feet in thickness, and by far the largest number of -them do not go above eight or ten, while the seams of bituminous coal -do not even average these last figures in thickness. Neither is the -entire thickness of a seam made up of pure coal. Bands of slate called -“partings” usually run horizontally through a seam, dividing it into -“benches.” These partings vary from a fraction of an inch to several -feet in thickness, and make up from one fifth to one seventh of the -entire seam. - -The rock strata between the coal seams range from three feet to three -hundred feet in thickness, and in exceptional cases go as high as five -or six hundred feet. Perhaps a fair average would be from eighty to one -hundred feet. These rock intervals are made up mostly of sandstones -and shales. The combined average thickness of the coal seams of -Pennsylvania varies from twenty-five feet at Pittsburgh in the western -bituminous region to one hundred and twenty feet at Pottsville in the -eastern anthracite district, and may be said to average about one -fiftieth of the entire thickness of the coal measures, which is placed -at 4,000 feet. - -Some conception may be had of the enormous vegetable deposits of the -Carboniferous era by recalling the fact that the resultant coal in -each seam is only from one ninth to one sixteenth in bulk of the woody -fibre from which it has been derived, the loss being mainly in oxygen -and hydrogen. It is probable that the coal seams as well as the rock -strata had attained a comparative degree of hardness before the close -of the Carboniferous age. It was at the close of this age that those -profound disturbances of the earth’s crust throughout eastern North -America took place which have already been referred to. Hitherto, -through the long ages of Paleozoic time, there had been comparative -quiet. As cooling and contraction of the earth’s body were still going -on, there were doubtless oscillations of surface and subsidence of -strata in almost continuous progress. But these movements were very -slow, amounting, perhaps, to not more than a foot in a century. Yet -in Pennsylvania and Virginia the sinking of the crust up to the close -of the Carboniferous age amounted to 35,000 or 40,000 feet. That the -subsidence was quiet and unmarked by violent movement is attested by -the regularity of strata, especially of the carboniferous measures, -which alone show a sinking of 3,000 or 4,000 feet. Neither were the -disturbances which followed violent, nor were the changes paroxysmal. -Indeed, the probability is that they took place gradually through -long periods of time. They were, nevertheless, productive of enormous -results in the shape of hills, peaks, and mountain ranges. These -movements in the earth’s crust were due, as always, to contractions -in the earth’s body or reductions in its bulk. On the same principle -by which the skin of an apple that has dried without decay is thrown -into folds and wrinkles, the earth’s crust became corrugated. There -is this difference, however: the crust, being hard and unyielding, -has often been torn and broken in the process of change. Naturally -these ridges in the earth’s surface have been lifted along the lines -of least resistance, and these lines seem to have been, at the time of -the Appalachian revolution, practically parallel to the line of the -Atlantic coast, though long spurs were thrown out in other directions, -isolated dome-shaped elevations were raised up, and bowl-shaped valleys -were hollowed out among the hills. - -The anthracite coal beds were in the regions of greatest disturbance, -and, together with the rock strata above and below them, assumed new -positions, which were inclined at all angles to their old ones of -horizontality. More than this, the heat and pressure of that period -exerted upon these beds of coal, which up to this time had been -bituminous in character, resulted in the expulsion of so large a -portion of the volatile matter still remaining in them as to change -their character from bituminous to anthracite. Although the strata, -in the positions to which they have been forced, are at times broken -and abrupt, yet as a rule they rise and fall in wave-like folds or -ridges. These ridges are called _anticlinals_, because the strata slope -in opposite directions from a common plane. The valleys between the -ridges are called _synclinals_, because the strata slope from opposite -directions toward a common plane. One result of this great force of -compression exerted on the earth’s crust was to make rents in it across -the lines of strata. These rents are called _fissures_. Sometimes -the faces of a fissure are parallel and sometimes they inclose a -wedge-shaped cavity. This cavity, whatever its shape, is usually filled -either with igneous rock that has come up from the molten mass below, -or with surface drift or broken rock fragments that have been deposited -there from above. Where there is displacement as well as fracture, that -is when the strata on one side of a fissure have been pushed up or have -fallen below the corresponding strata on the other side, we have what -is known as a _fault_. Sometimes the displacement seems to have been -accomplished with little disturbance to the sides of the fissure; at -other times we find, along the line of fracture, evidences of great -destruction caused by the pushing up of strata in this way. A fault -may reach a comparatively short distance, or it may traverse a country -for miles. The vertical displacement may be only a few inches, or it -may amount to hundreds or thousands of feet. In the bituminous coal -regions, where the strata lie comparatively undisturbed, faults are -but little known. In the anthracite districts they are common, but not -great. - -[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH SOUTHERN COAL FIELD.] - -[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH NORTHERN COAL FIELD.] - -Besides the great folds into which the earth’s crust was crowded, there -are usually smaller folds corrugating the slopes of the greater -ones, sometimes running parallel with them, oftener stretching across -them at various angles. A marked instance of this formation is found in -the Wyoming coal basin, the general coal bed of which is in the shape -of a canoe, about fifty miles long, from two to six miles broad, and -with a maximum depth of perhaps one thousand feet. Running diagonally -across this basin, in practically parallel lines from one extremity to -the other, is a series of gentle anticlinals, dividing the basin into -some thirty smaller synclinal valleys or sub-basins. - -The irregularities produced by folds, fissures, faults, and partings -are not the only ones with which the miner has to deal. So far we -have supposed the coal seams to have been laid down in horizontal -layers of uniform thickness, with smooth and regular under and upper -surfaces. This is true only in a large sense. As a matter of fact -each separate seam varies greatly in thickness, and its roof and -floor are often broken and irregular. The beds of clay on which the -deposits were laid were pushed up unevenly by the exuberant growth -of vegetation from them. The action of waves and ocean currents made -hollows in them, and laid down ridges and mounds of sand on them, -around and over which the decaying vegetation rose and hardened. The -same forces, together with the action of running streams, made channels -and hollows in the upper surfaces of these beds of incipient coal, -which cavities became filled by sand and gravel, and this also hardened -into rock. These irregularities are found by the miner of to-day in -the floor and roof of the coal seam, and are called _rolls_, _horses_, -or _horse-backs_. When the coal seam thins out so rapidly that the -floor and roof come nearly together, this state of things is called a -_pinch_, or _squeeze_, though the latter term is more properly applied -to the settling of the roof rock after the coal has been mined out. -The inequalities of a coal seam that have now been mentioned, although -perhaps but a small portion of those that are daily met with in the -process of mining, are neverthless characteristic of the whole. - -The hills and mountain ranges that were thrown up at the close of the -Carboniferous age were many times higher and broader then than they -are to-day. Heat and cold and the storms of a thousand centuries, -working by disintegration and erosion, have worn away their substance, -the valleys and low lands are filled with it, and the rivers are -always carrying it down to the sea. The peaks and the crests have -been the portions of the elevations that have suffered most. It is -often as though the tops of the anticlinal folds had been sliced off -for the purpose of filling the valleys with them to the level of the -decapitated hills. A great part of the coal measures have thus wasted -away; in some portions of the anthracite district by far the greater -part, including many valuable coal seams. - -When a fold or flexure of the earth’s crust has been decapitated in -the manner mentioned, the exposed edge of any stratum of rock or -coal is called its _outcrop_. The angle of inclination at which any -stratum descends into the earth is called its _dip_. The direction of -a horizontal line drawn along the face of a stratum of rock or coal is -its _strike_. It is obvious that the strike must always be at right -angles to the dip. That is, if the dip is downward toward the east or -toward the west, the direction of the strike must be north and south. -It is now apparent that if one begins at the outcrop of a coal seam -and traces the course of the seam downward along the line of dip, his -path will lie down the inclination for a longer or shorter distance, -until the bottom of the synclinal valley is reached. This is known as -the _basin_ or _swamp_. Here the seam may be comparatively level for -a short distance; more often it has a mild vertical curve, and starts -up the dip on the other side of the valley, which inclination may be -followed till the outcrop is reached. If now the decapitated portion of -the fold could be replaced in its natural position, we could trace the -same seam up to and over the anticlinal axis and down upon the other -side. As it is, we must cross on the surface from the outcrop to the -place where the corresponding seam enters the earth. In the southern -and eastern anthracite coal districts of Pennsylvania decapitation of -folds to a point below the coal measures is general; the coal seams -dip into the earth with a very sharp pitch, and the coal basins are -often very deep and very narrow, striking into the earth almost like -a wedge. In the northern or Wyoming district decapitation is not so -general, the angle of inclination of strata is mild, and the basins are -wide and comparatively shallow. In the bituminous districts, where the -disturbance to the earth’s crust has been slight, the coal beds lie -very nearly as they were formed, the dip seldom exceeding an angle of -five degrees with the horizon. The exposures here are due generally to -the erosive action of water. - -[Illustration: OLD OPENING INTO AN OUT-CROP OF THE BALTIMORE VEIN.] - -The carboniferous measures are the highest and latest geological -formation in the great coal fields of the United States. Therefore -where the strata have not been disturbed by flexure the coal seams -lie near the surface. This is generally the case in the bituminous -districts, and it is also partially true in the northern anthracite -coal field. Deep mining is necessary only in the middle and southern -anthracite coal fields, where the folds are close and precipitous, -and the deep and narrow basins formed by them have been filled with -deposits of a later geologic age. - -Some of the difficulties to be met and overcome in mining coal will by -this time have been appreciated by the reader. But some of them only. -The inequalities of roof and floor, the pitching seams, the folds -and faults and fissures, all the accidents and irregularities of -formation and of location, make up but a few of the problems which -face the mining engineer. But the intellect and ingenuity of men have -overcome most of the obstacles which Nature placed in the way of -successful mining when she hardened the rocks above her coal beds, -crowded the earth’s crust into folds, and lifted the mountain ranges -into the air. - -It will not be out of place at this time to make mention of those -localities in which coal is found. Indeed, there are few countries on -the globe in which there are not carboniferous deposits of greater -or less extent. Great Britain, with Ireland, has about 12,000 square -miles of them. In England alone there is an area of 8,139 square miles -of workable coal beds. In continental Europe the coal fields are -numerous, but the character of the deposit is inferior. Coal is found -also in the Asiatic countries, in Australia, and in South America; and -in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there is an area of 18,000 square -miles of coal measures. The combined areas of coal measures in the -United States amount to about 185,000 square miles. The Appalachian -or Alleghany region contains about 60,000 square miles, included in -the States of Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, -Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. The Illinois and Missouri -region contains also about 60,000 square miles, and has areas not only -in the States named, but also in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Kansas, -and Arkansas. Michigan has about 5,000 and Rhode Island about 500 -square miles. There are also small areas in Utah and Texas, and in the -far West there are workable coal fields in Colorado, Dakota, Indian -Territory, Montana, New Mexico, Washington, Wyoming Territory, Oregon, -and California. The entire coal area of the United States, with the -exception of that in Rhode Island and a few outlying sections in -Pennsylvania, contains coal of the bituminous variety only. Both the -area and supply are therefore practically without limit. In the coal -regions of Rhode Island the disturbances affecting the earth’s crust -have been very violent. The motion, heat, and compression have been so -great as to give the rocks associated with the coal measures a true -metamorphic or crystalline structure, and to transform the coal itself -into an extremely hard anthracite; in some places, indeed, it has -been altered to graphite. The flexures of the coal formation are very -abrupt and full of faults, and the coal itself is greatly broken and -displaced. Its condition is such that it cannot be mined with great -profit, and but little of it is now sent to market. The only areas -of readily workable anthracite in the United States are therefore in -Pennsylvania. These are all east of the Alleghany Mountains, and are -located in four distinct regions. The first or Southern Coal Field -extends from the Lehigh River at Mauch Chunk, southwest to within a -few miles of the Susquehanna River, ending at this extremity in the -form of a fish’s tail. It is seventy-five miles in length, averages -somewhat less than two miles in breadth, and has an area of one hundred -and forty square miles. It lies in Carbon, Schuylkill, and Dauphin -counties. The second or Western Middle field, known also as the Mahanoy -and Shamokin field, lies between the eastern headwaters of the Little -Schuylkill River and the Susquehanna River. It has an area of about -ninety square miles, and is situated in the counties of Schuylkill, -Columbia, and Northumberland. It lies just north of the Southern field, -and the two together are frequently spoken of as the Schuylkill Region. -The Eastern Middle or Upper Lehigh field lies northeast of the first -two fields, and is separated into nine distinct parallel canoe-shaped -basins. These extend from the Lehigh River on the east to the Catawissa -Creek on the west, and comprise an area of about forty miles. They -are principally in Luzerne County, but extend also into Carbon, -Schuylkill, and Columbia counties. The Northern or Wyoming field is a -crescent-shaped basin about fifty miles long and from two to six miles -broad, with an area of about two hundred square miles. Its westerly -cusp is just north of the Eastern Middle field, and it extends from -that point northeasterly through Luzerne and Lackawanna counties, just -cutting into Wayne and Susquehanna counties with its northern cusp. It -lies in the valleys of the Susquehanna and Lackawanna rivers, and in -it are situated the mining towns of Plymouth, Wilkes Barre, Pittston, -Scranton, and Carbondale. There is also a fifth district, known as -the Loyalsock and Mehoopany coal field, lying in Sullivan and Wyoming -counties. It is from twenty to twenty-five miles northwest of the -Wyoming and Lackawanna field, its area is limited, and its coals are -not true anthracite. - -It will thus be seen that aside from this last field the anthracite -coal area of Pennsylvania contains about four hundred and seventy -square miles. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE DISCOVERY OF COAL. - - -Although it has been within comparatively recent times that coal has -come into general use as a fuel, yet there can be no doubt that it was -discovered, and that its qualities were known, many centuries ago. To -prove its use by the ancients, mention is sometimes made of a passage -from the writings of Theophrastus, a pupil and friend of Aristotle -and for many years the head of the peripatetic school of philosophy. -This passage dates back to about 300 B. C., and is as follows: “Those -substances that are called coals and are broken for use are earthy, but -they kindle and burn like wooden coals. They are found in Liguria where -there is amber, and in Elis over the mountains toward Olympus. They are -used by the smiths.” - -The word “coal,” however, as used in the Bible and other ancient -books, usually means charcoal, or burning wood. It is claimed, and -not without plausibility, that coal was mined in Britain prior to the -Roman invasion. The cinder heaps found among ruins of the time of Roman -supremacy in the island point to quite an extensive use of coal by the -people of that age. But no writings have been found recording the use -of coal prior to 852 A. D. In that year twelve cartloads of “fossil -fuel,” or “pit coal,” were received by the abbey of Peterborough in -England, and the receipt was recorded. It is said that coal first began -to be systematically mined in Great Britain about the year 1180. - -It is certain that by the end of the thirteenth century the exportation -of coal from Newcastle was considerable, and the new fuel had come -to be largely used in London. But the people of that city conceived -the idea that its use was injurious to the health of the inhabitants -generally. The coal, being of the bituminous variety, burned with -considerable flame and gave off a good deal of smoke, and the ignorance -of the people led them into the belief that the air was contaminated -and poisoned by the products of combustion. So they presented a -petition to Parliament asking that the burning of coal be prohibited in -the city of London. Not only was the prayer of the petitioners granted, -but in order to render the prohibition effectual an act was passed -making it a capital offense to burn the dreaded fuel. This was in the -reign of Edward I., and is characteristic of the policy of that strong, -unyielding king, whose ends, great and just perhaps, were too often -attained by harsh and cruel means. - -The coal industry was checked, but it was not destroyed; for, half -a century later, we find Edward III. granting a license to the -inhabitants of Newcastle “to dig coals and stones in the common soil of -the town without the walls thereof in the place called the Castle Field -and the Forth.” Afterward this town, owing to the fine coal beds in its -vicinity, became one of the great centres of the British coal trade, -from which fact doubtless arose that ancient saying concerning useless -trouble or labor, that it is like “carrying coals to Newcastle.” - -In Scotland coal was mined in the twelfth century and in Germany in -the thirteenth, and the Chinese had already become familiar with its -use. But in Paris the same prejudice was excited against it that had -prevailed in London, and it did not come into use in that city as a -household fuel until about the middle of the sixteenth century. This -was also the date of its introduction into Wales, Belgium, and other -European countries. - -That coal was familiar, in appearance at least, to the natives of -America, long before the feet of white men ever pressed American -soil, cannot well be doubted. They must have seen it at its numerous -outcrops; perhaps they took pieces of it in their hard hands, handled -it, broke it, powdered it, or cast it away from them as useless. -Indeed, it is not improbable that they should have known something -of its qualities as a fuel. But of this there is no proof. The -first record we have of the observation of coal in this country was -made by Father Hennepin, a French explorer, in 1679. On a map of his -explorations he marked the site of a coal mine on the bank of the -Illinois River above Fort Crevecœur, near the present town of Ottawa. -In his record of travel he states that in the country then occupied -by the Pimitoui or Pimitwi Indians “there are mines of coal, slate, -and iron.” The oldest coal workings in America are doubtless those in -what is known as the Richmond or Chesterfield coal bed, near Richmond -in Chesterfield and Powhatan counties in the State of Virginia. It is -supposed that coal was discovered and mined there as early as 1750. -But by whom and under what circumstances the discovery was made we -have only tradition to inform us. This says that one day, during -the year last named, a certain boy, living in that vicinity, went -out into an unfrequented district on a private and personal fishing -excursion. Either the fish bit better than he had thought they would, -or for some other cause his supply of bait ran out, and it became -necessary for him to renew it. Hunting around in the small creeks and -inlets for crawfish with which to bait his hook, he chanced to stumble -upon the outcrop of a coal bed which crosses the James River about -twelve miles above Richmond. He made his discovery known, and further -examination disclosed a seam of rich bituminous coal, which has since -been conceded to be a formation of Mesozoic time rather than of the -Carboniferous age. Mining operations were soon begun, and were carried -on so successfully that by the year 1775 the coal was in general use -in the vicinity for smithing and domestic purposes. It played a part -in the war for independence by entering into the manufacture of cannon -balls, and by 1789 it had achieved so much of a reputation that it -was being shipped to Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, and sold in -those markets. But the mines were operated by slave labor, and mining -was carried on in the most primitive fashion for three quarters of a -century. So late as 1860 the improved systems of mining, long in use in -the North, were still comparatively unknown at the Virginia mines. - -During the war of the rebellion these mines were seized by the -Confederate government and operated by it, in order to obtain directly -the necessary fuel for purposes of modern warfare; and upon the -cessation of hostilities the paralysis which had fallen upon all other -Southern industries fell also upon this. But with the revival of -business, mining was again begun in the Richmond field, and from 1874 -to the present time the industry has prospered and grown, and Virginia -has furnished to the country at large a considerable amount of an -excellent quality of bituminous coal. This coal bed covers an area of -about 180 square miles, and has an average thickness of twenty-four -feet. It is supposed to contain about 50,000,000 of tons yet unmined. - -Another of the early discoveries of coal in the United States was that -of the Rhode Island anthracite bed in 1760. Mines began to be regularly -worked here in 1808, but only about 750,000 tons, all told, have been -taken from them. For reasons which have been already given these mines -cannot be profitably worked in competition with the anthracite mines of -Pennsylvania, in which the location and formation of the coal beds are -greatly superior. - -It is impossible to say when the coal of the great bituminous district -of Pennsylvania and Ohio was first seen by white men. In the summer of -1755 General Braddock led his army through western Pennsylvania by a -military road to that terrible defeat and slaughter in which he himself -received his death wound. This road, laid out by the army’s engineers -and graded by its men, was so well built that its course can still be -traced, and it is seen to have crossed the outcrop of the Pittsburgh -coal seam in many places. It is not improbable that a large number of -the soldiers in the English army were familiar with the appearance of -coal, and knew how to mine it and use it. Indeed, Colonel James Burd, -who was engaged in the construction of the road, claims to have burned -about a bushel of this coal on his camp-fire at that time. - -Some of the English soldiers who survived that terrible disaster to -their arms afterward returned and purchased lands in the vicinity, and -it is reasonable to suppose that the coal was dug and put to use by -them. A lease, still in existence, dated April 11, 1767, making a grant -of lands on “Coal Pitt Creek,” in Westmoreland County, indicates that -there were coal openings there at that date. Captain Thomas Hutchins, -who visited Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) in 1760, mentions the fact that -he found an open coal mine on the opposite side of the Monongahela -River, from which coal was being taken for the use of the garrison. - -From 1770 to 1777 it was common for maps of certain portions of the -Ohio River country to have marked on them sites of coal beds along the -shores of that stream in regions which are now known to contain seams -of the great bituminous deposit. - -Probably the Susquehanna River region was the first in which this coal -was dug systematically and put to use. It was burned by blacksmiths -in their forges, and as early as 1785 the river towns were supplied -with it by Samuel Boyd, who shipped it from his mines in arks. In 1813 -Philip Karthaus took a quantity of coal to Fort Deposit, and sent it -thence by canal to Philadelphia. After this he sent cargoes regularly -to Philadelphia and Baltimore, and sold them readily at the rate of -thirty-three cents per bushel. This trade was stopped, however, by -the building of dams across the Susquehanna, and it was not until many -years afterward that the mineral resources of this section of the coal -field were developed again through the introduction of railroads. - -In the Pittsburgh region the demand for coal increased with the -increase of population, and at the beginning of the present century -it was in general use, not only in the manufacturing industries but -also as a domestic fuel, throughout that section of country. The -first coal sent from Pittsburgh to an eastern market was shipped to -Philadelphia in 1803. It was carried by the Louisiana, a boat of 350 -tons burden, and was sold at the rate of thirty-seven and a half cents -per bushel. From that time the increase in the mining of bituminous -coal in the Pittsburgh region has been steady and enormous. Its -presence, its quality and abundance, have induced the establishment -of great manufacturing enterprises in that section of the State, and -many millions of tons of it are sent every year to the markets of the -seaboard. - -Pennsylvania was a region much in favor with the North American -Indians, and it is more than probable that they were aware, to some -extent, of the existence of mineral wealth beneath her soil, long -before white men ever came among them. - -Besides the numerous outcroppings of coal which, in their journeyings, -they must have crossed and recrossed for centuries, there were -many places where the coal seams, having been cut through by creeks -and rivers, were exposed fully to view. In this way, in the Wyoming -district, the seven feet vein along the Nanticoke Creek had been -disclosed, and the nine feet vein on Ransom’s Creek at Plymouth; -while at Pittston the Susquehanna River had bared the coal seams in -the faces of its rocky banks, and up the Lackawanna the black strata -were frequently visible. But whatever knowledge the Indians had on the -subject was, with proverbial reticence, kept to themselves. It is said -that about the year 1750 a party of Indians brought a bag of coal to a -gunsmith living near Nazareth in Pennsylvania, but refused to say where -they had obtained it. The gunsmith burned it successfully in the forge -which he used for the purpose of repairing their guns. - -The presumption that the Indians knew something of the uses of coal, -and actually mined it, is borne out by the following incident: In the -year 1766 a trader by the name of John Anderson was settled at Wyoming, -and carried on a small business as a shopkeeper, trading largely with -the red men. In September of that year a company of six Nanticoke, -Conoy, and Mohican Indians visited the governor at Philadelphia, and -made to him the following address:―― - -“Brother,――As we came down from Chenango we stopped at Wyoming, where -we had a mine in two places, and we discovered that some white people -had been at work in the mine, and had filled three canoes with the ore; -and we saw their tools with which they had dug it out of the ground, -where they had made a hole at least forty feet long and five or six -feet deep. It happened formerly that some white people did take, now -and then, only a small bit and carry it away, but these people have -been working at the mine, and have filled their canoes. We desire that -you will tell us whether you know anything of this matter, or if it be -done by your consent. We inform you that there is one John Anderson, a -trader, now living at Wyoming, and we suspect that he, or somebody by -him, has robbed our mine. This man has a store of goods there, and it -may happen when the Indians see their mine robbed they will come and -take away his goods.” - -There is little doubt that the mines referred to were coal mines. -The presence of coal on the same side of the river a few miles below -Wyoming was certainly known, if not at that time then very soon -afterward; for in 1768 Charles Stewart made a survey of the Manor of -Sunbury opposite Wilkes Barre for the “Proprietaries’” government, and -on the original map of the survey “stone coal” is noted as appearing on -the site of what is now called Rosshill. - -This valley of Wyoming, the seat of such vast mineral wealth, was -first settled by people from Connecticut in 1762, and in the fall of -that year they reported the discovery of coal. - -These energetic, enterprising Yankee settlers could not fail to know -the location of the coal beds before they had been long in the valley. -Some of them were probably familiar with the English bituminous coals, -which were then being exported in small quantities to America under the -name of “sea coal;” and from the fact that our anthracite was known -to them as “stone coal” it is probable that there were those among -them who knew that the English people had a very hard coal which they -could not burn, and to which they had given the name “stone coal.” -Specimens of this Wyoming valley stone coal had already been gathered -and sent to England for examination. Indeed, there is no doubt that the -first anthracite coal ever found by white men in the United States was -discovered in this valley. But these Yankee settlers could not make -their stone coal burn. Repeated trials met with repeated failures. -There was one among them, however, Obadiah Gore, a blacksmith, who -would not be discouraged. In 1769 he took a quantity of these coals to -the blacksmith’s shop conducted by him and his brother, put them in -his forge, and continued his efforts and experiments until finally the -black lumps yielded to his persistency, and he had the satisfaction of -seeing the blue flames dart from them, and the red color creep over -them, and of feeling the intense heat sent out by their combustion. But -their ignition and burning were dependent upon the strong air current -sent through them by the bellows; without that he could do nothing with -them. - -So this Yankee blacksmith, who was afterwards one of the associate -judges of the courts of Luzerne County, became, so far as is known, the -first white man to demonstrate practically the value of anthracite coal -as a fuel. The success of Gore’s experiments soon became known, other -smiths began to recognize the merits of the lately despised stone coal, -and it was not long before the forge fires of nearly every smithy in -the region were ablaze with anthracite. - -The fame of the new fuel soon spread beyond the limits of the valley, -and if the difficulties of transportation checked its use elsewhere, -the knowledge of how to use it in forges and furnaces was not uncommon. -The demand for it overcame, at times, even the obstacles in the way of -shipment, and it was sent to points at long distances from the mines. - -In 1776 the proprietary government of Pennsylvania had an armory at -Carlisle in that State, in which they were manufacturing firearms to be -used by the Continental troops in the war with Great Britain; and the -first coal ever sent out from the Wyoming valley was shipped by them -to Carlisle during that year and the succeeding years of the war, for -use in their armory. - -The next discoveries of anthracite were made in what is now known -as the Southern coal field. It had long been a matter of tradition -among the stolid German farmers of Pennsylvania that coal existed -in the rugged hills along the Lehigh River, but no one succeeded in -finding it there until the year 1791. It was then discovered by one -Philip Ginther, a hunter and backwoodsman, who had built a rough -cabin in the forest near the Mauch Chunk mountain, and there gave to -himself and his family a precarious support by killing game, large -and small, carrying it to the nearest settlement, and exchanging it -at the village store for the necessaries of life. Telling the story -afterward, himself, he said that at one time the supply of food in -his cabin chanced to run out, and he started into the woods with his -gun in quest of something which should satisfy the hunger of those -who were at home. It was a most unsuccessful hunting expedition. The -morning passed, the afternoon went by, night approached, but his -game-bag was still empty. He was tired, hungry, and sadly disappointed. -A drizzling rain set in as he started homeward across the Mauch Chunk -mountain, darkness was coming rapidly on, and despondency filled his -mind as he thought of the expectant faces of little ones at home to -whom he was returning empty-handed. Making his way slowly through -the thick, wet undergrowth, and still looking about him, if perchance -something in the way of game might yet come within the range of his -gun, his foot happened to strike a hard substance which rolled away -before him. He looked down at it, and then bent over and picked it up, -and saw by the deepening twilight that it was black. He was familiar -with the traditions of the country concerning the existence of stone -coal in this region, and he began to wonder if this, indeed, was not -a specimen of it. He carried the black lump home with him that night, -and the next day he set out with it to find Colonel Jacob Weiss at -Fort Allen, now Weissport, to whom he exhibited what he had found. -Colonel Weiss became deeply interested in the matter, and brought the -specimen to Philadelphia, where he submitted it to the inspection of -John Nicholson, Michael Hillegas, and Charles Cist. These men, after -assuring themselves that it was really anthracite coal, authorized -Colonel Weiss to make such a contract with Ginther as would induce -him to point out the exact spot where the mineral was found. It -happened that the hunter coveted a vacant piece of land in the vicinity -containing a fine water-power and mill-site, and on Colonel Weiss -agreeing to obtain a patent for him from the State for the desired lot -of land, he very readily gave all the information in his possession -concerning the “stone coal.” - -In the Pottsville district of the Southern anthracite region coal was -discovered at about the same time as in the Mauch Chunk field. This -discovery too was made by accident, and the discoverer in this case -also was a hunter, Nicholas Allen. He had been out with his gun all -day, and at nightfall had found himself too far away from his home -to make the attempt to reach it. He accordingly built a fire under a -projecting ledge at the foot of Broad Mountain, and, lying down by -it, soon fell asleep. He was wakened in the night by a strong light -shining on his eyes, and by the sensation of great heat. Springing -to his feet, he discovered that the ledge itself was burning, or, as -he afterward expressed it, “that the mountain was on fire.” He could -not understand the phenomenon, and remained in the vicinity until -morning, when he saw, by daylight, that what he had thought to be a -ledge of rocks was really a projecting outcrop of mineral coal, which -had become ignited from his camp-fire of sticks. Whether this story is -or is not authentic, it is certain that no practical results attended -the discovery of coal in this region. It was not until twenty-six -years after Obadiah Gore’s experiments in the Wyoming valley that coal -was successfully burned here in a blacksmith’s forge. The attempt -was made by one Whetstone, and met with the same marked success that -had attended the earlier effort. But owing to the difficulty still -ordinarily experienced in combustion, the coal of this region was not -generally used until after the year 1806. In that year David Berlin, -another blacksmith, experimented with it in his forge, with such -complete success that a new impetus was given to the coal trade, mining -was resumed, and the new fuel came into general use in the blacksmiths’ -shops of the vicinity. - -In the Middle anthracite district coal was not discovered until 1826. -This discovery also was made by a hunter, John Charles. On one of his -hunting expeditions he chanced to find a groundhog’s hole, and, laying -down his rifle, he began to dig for his game. In the course of the -excavation he uncovered a projecting shelf of stone coal. He made his -discovery known, further explorations were set on foot, the coal bed -was located, and a company called the Hazleton Coal Company was formed -to work the field. - -From these several points of discovery the search for anthracite coal -was extended in all directions, the limits of the beds were eventually -defined, and each field was surveyed and mapped with much care. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE INTRODUCTION OF COAL INTO USE. - - -At the beginning of the present century the anthracite or stone coal -was in general use, in all the districts where it was found, as a fuel -for the blacksmith’s fire and the iron worker’s forge. This, however, -was the limit of its utility. It was thought to be necessary to force a -strong artificial air current up through it to make it burn, and since -this could not well be done in grates, stoves, or furnaces, there was -no demand for coal for domestic use, or for the great manufacturing -industries. Efforts were indeed made to overcome this difficulty. -Schemes without number were set on foot and abandoned. It was proposed, -at one time, to force air through a tube to the under part of the grate -by means of clockwork operated by a weight or by a spring. But the cost -of such an arrangement made it impracticable. - -It seems, however, that Weiss, Cist, and Hillegas, who were developing -the discovery made by Ginther in the Mauch Chunk mountain, also solved -the problem of burning the stone coal without an artificial draft. They -had sent specimens of their coals to Philadelphia, and presumably had -accompanied them with instructions as to the proper method of burning -them. This presumption is borne out by certain letters sent to Jacob -Cist of Wilkes Barre, a son of Charles Cist the printer, who was in -company with Weiss and Hillegas. Two of these letters are now in the -possession of the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society at Wilkes -Barre. An extract from one of them reads as follows:―― - - “I have experienced the use of them” (the Lehigh coals) “in - a close stove and also in a fireplace that may be closed and - opened at pleasure, so constructed, as to cause a brisk current - of air to pass up through a small contracted grate on which - they were laid. I find them more difficult to be kindled than - the Virginia coal, yet a small quantity of dry wood laid on - the grate under them is sufficient to ignite them, which being - done, they continue to burn while a sufficient amount be added - to keep up the combustion, occasionally stirring them to keep - down the ashes. They produce no smoke, contain no sulphur, and - when well ignited exhibit a vivid bright appearance, all which - render them suitable for warming rooms.” - -This letter is dated “Philadelphia, Feb. 15^th 1803,” and is signed -“Oliver Evans.” - -The second letter is similar in its recommendation and report of -success, and states that the writer, “Fred^k Graff, clerk of the -Water Works of Phil^a ... made a trial of the Lehigh coals in the -year 1802 in the large stove at the Pennsylvania Bank in Phil^a.” - -So far as is known these are the first recorded instances of any -successful attempts to burn anthracite coal in grates and stoves. Dr. -James of Philadelphia has also left on record the fact that he made -constant use of anthracite coal for heating purposes from the year 1804. - -These well-authenticated instances of the use of anthracite appear to -destroy the commonly accepted belief that Judge Jesse Fell of Wilkes -Barre was the first person whose attempts to burn this coal in an open -grate were rewarded with complete success. Nevertheless the value of -Judge Fell’s experiments cannot be questioned, nor can he be deprived -of the full measure of credit due to him for bringing those experiments -to a successful issue. - -Until the year 1808 all efforts in the Wyoming valley to burn the -“stone coal” of the region without an artificial air blast had utterly -failed. People did not believe that it could be done. The successes -of Evans and Graff in this direction were either not known or not -credited. It is certain that Judge Fell had not heard of them. His -opinion that this coal could be made to burn in an open fireplace was -based wholly on the reasoning of his own mind. He was a member of the -Society of Friends, and had come to Wilkes Barre some years before -from Berks County. He was a blacksmith by trade, the proprietor of the -best hotel in town, and he came afterward to be one of the associate -judges of Luzerne County. When he had fully considered the matter of -burning the stone coal, and had reached definite conclusions, he began -to experiment. At first he constructed a grate of green hickory sticks, -and the presumption is that the fire he kindled in it was a success; -for he began, immediately afterward, to make an iron grate similar to -the grates now in use. The work was done by his nephew Edward Fell and -himself in the blacksmith shop of the former, and was completed in a -single day. Judge Fell took the grate home late in the afternoon and -set it with brick in the fireplace of his bar-room. In the evening -he kindled in it, with oak wood, a glowing coal fire, and invited a -large number of the most respected citizens of the place to come in -and see the stone coal burn. Only a few came, however, in response -to his invitation; they believed his theory to be impracticable, and -feared that they might be made the victims of a hoax. But to those -who came the fire was a revelation. It cleared the way for immense -possibilities. Judge Fell himself realized the importance of his -discovery, and thought the incident worthy of record. Being a devoted -member of the order of Free and Accepted Masons, he chose from his -library a book entitled “The Free Mason’s Monitor,” and wrote on the -fly-leaf, in a clear, bold hand, this memorandum:―― - - “Fe’b 11^th, of Masonry 5808. Made the experiment of burning - the common stone coal of the valley in a grate in a common fire - place in my house, and find it will answer the purpose of fuel; - making a clearer and better fire, at less expense, than burning - wood in the common way. - - [Signed] JESSE FELL. - - “BOROUGH OF WILKESBARRE, - _February 11^th 1808_.” - -The complete success of Judge Fell’s experiment was soon noised abroad, -and a new era of usefulness for anthracite coal set in. From Wilkes -Barre up and down the entire Wyoming valley fireplaces for wood were -discarded and grates were set for the burning of the new domestic fuel. -This was followed, not long after, by the introduction of stoves, so -that by 1820, says Stewart Pearce in his “Annals of Luzerne County,” -grates and coal stoves were in general use throughout the valley, coal -for domestic purposes selling at three dollars per ton. At the time of -Judge Fell’s experiment there was no outside market for the product -of the mines of the Wyoming valley. The distances to the large cities -and manufacturing centres were too great, the means of transportation -too rude, and the knowledge of the use of anthracite too limited, to -warrant any serious effort to create a foreign market for it. The -attempt had nevertheless been made in 1807 by Abijah Smith, who -shipped an ark-load of coal down the Susquehanna River to Columbia, and -was obliged to leave it there unsold. - -In 1808 the experiment was repeated by Abijah and his brother John, -who, profiting by the success of Judge Fell’s late experiment, took -with them an iron grate, set it up at Columbia, and proceeded to -demonstrate to the doubting inhabitants the practical value of their -coal as a domestic fuel. The venture proved successful, and after this -they found no difficulty in selling at the river towns all the coal -they could mine. After 1812 they extended their trade by running their -coal to Havre de Grace, and sending it thence by schooner to New York. - -The success which attended the efforts of the Smiths appears to have -been an inducement to other enterprising citizens of the Wyoming valley -to embark in the coal trade, and in 1813 and 1814 Colonel George M. -Hollenback, Colonel Lord Butler, Joseph Wright, Esq., and Crandal -Wilcox all engaged in the mining and shipping of coal. They sent the -product of the mines down the river in arks, and up to 1830 85,000 -tons had been mined in the valley for such shipment. After that year -coal was sent by the North Branch Canal just completed to Nanticoke, -and in 1846 the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad pierced the valley, -and opened a new era in transportation. So it came about that this -region, which in 1807 opened the anthracite coal trade with a shipment -of fifty-five tons, sent to market in 1887 a grand total of 19,684,929 -tons. - -[Illustration: - - MAP - _SHOWING_ - ·ANTHRACITE·COAL·FIELDS· - -_OF_- - ·PENNSYLVANIA·] - -In the mean time Weiss, Cist, and Hillegas pushed their coal enterprise -on the Mauch Chunk mountain, opening what was afterward known as the -Great Summit Mine, and in 1803 started six ark-loads of coal down the -Lehigh River, to be floated to its junction with the Delaware, and -thence to Philadelphia. Only two of the arks reached their destination, -the others having met with disaster on the way, owing to swift currents -and unskillful navigation. Of the two cargoes that arrived safely -at Philadelphia not a lump could be sold. The owners made strenuous -efforts to find a market for it, but people did not wish to purchase -a fuel that they could not make burn. At last the city authorities -were appealed to, and, after some hesitation, they agreed to take the -coal and try to make use of it for a steam-engine employed at the city -waterworks. This they did; but all their attempts to make the alleged -fuel burn proved unavailing. They finally gave up the task in disgust, -declared the coal to be a nuisance, and caused what remained of it -to be broken up and spread on the footpaths of the public grounds, -in place of gravel. This was indeed a most ignominious failure. It -caused a sudden cessation of mining operations at Summit Hill, and for -several years the Lehigh Mine Company, utterly discouraged, made no -effort to retrieve its fallen fortunes. William Turnbull attempted to -revive the project a few years later, but his effort also met with a -dismal failure. - -In 1813 Charles Miner, Jacob Cist, and John W. Robinson, all of Wilkes -Barre, renewed the enterprise at Summit Hill with great energy, and -on the 9th of August, 1814, started their first ark-load of coal down -the river to Philadelphia. Before it had gone eighty rods from the -place of starting it struck a ledge which tore a hole in the bow of the -boat, “and,” Mr. Miner says, “the lads stripped themselves nearly naked -to stop the rush of water with their clothes.” After many and varied -adventures on the swift currents of the rivers the ark reached its -destination on the following Sunday morning at eight o’clock, having -been five days on the way. Its arrival had been anticipated by its -owners, and they had called public attention to its cargo by means of -handbills printed in both English and German, and distributed freely -throughout the city. These handbills, besides advertising the coal, -gave information as to the method of burning it in grates, stoves, and -smith’s forges. They were also accompanied by printed certificates -from blacksmiths and others attesting the value and availability of -the Lehigh coal as a fuel. The owners of the ark went still farther. -They put up stoves in conspicuous public places in the city, built -coal fires in them, and invited the people to stop and inspect them. -They went to private houses and prevailed on the inmates to be allowed -to kindle anthracite fires in the grates which had been built for the -use of Liverpool coals. They attended at blacksmith’s shops, and even -bribed the journeymen to give their coals a fair trial in the forge. -Thus, by persistent and industrious, nay by presumptuous, efforts, -these men succeeded in awakening public interest in their enterprise, -and in creating a demand for their wares. The proprietors of the Lehigh -coals gave particular attention also to the instruction of the people -in the matter of igniting the new fuel. Having once disabused them -of the idea that a strong artificial air current was necessary, the -next step was to prevent them from disturbing the coals constantly by -poking, punching, and raking them, a proceeding which the uninitiated -seemed to consider of prime importance, in order to induce them to -ignite. And, strange as it may seem, this fallacy was the hardest to -overcome. Among the purchasers of the Lehigh coals in 1814 was the -firm of White & Hazard, manufacturers of iron wire at the falls of the -Schuylkill. They had been told by Mr. Joshua Malin, proprietor of a -rolling mill, that he had succeeded in using the new fuel, and as the -Virginia coal was very scarce at that time, White & Hazard decided to -test the qualities of the anthracite. They purchased a cart-load of -it, paying a dollar a bushel for it, and took it to their works. Here -they tried to build a fire with it in their furnace, giving it what -they considered the most skillful manipulation and the most assiduous -attention. Their efforts were in vain. The entire cart-load was wasted -in a futile attempt to make the coals burn. Nothing daunted, they -obtained another cartload, and determined to spend the night, if need -should be, in the work of building a coal fire. And they did spend -the night. But when morning came they were apparently as far from -the attainment of their object as ever. They had poked and punched -and raked; they had labored incessantly; but notwithstanding the -most constant manipulation, the coals above the burning wood would -not sufficiently ignite. By this time the men were disheartened and -disgusted, and slamming the door of the furnace, they left the mill in -despair, and went to breakfast. It happened that one of them had left -his jacket in the furnace room, and returning for it about half an -hour later, he discovered that the furnace door was red-hot. In great -surprise he flung the door open and found the interior glowing with -intense white heat. The other hands were immediately summoned, and four -separate parcels of iron were heated and rolled by the same fire before -it required renewing. Seeking for the cause of this unexpected result -the men came to the conclusion that it was due to simply letting the -fire alone, a theory the correctness of which they afterward abundantly -proved. Thus, by chance, these men hit upon the secret of success in -the matter of building a fire of anthracite coals. That secret is -simply to throw the coals loosely on the burning wood, and then _let -them alone_. The incident at White & Hazard’s mills becoming generally -known, people learned more from it about the process of building a coal -fire than they had learned from all their previous instruction. - -Nevertheless the enterprise of the Lehigh operators was still not -destined to meet with success. They had embarked in the coal trade in -1814, while the war with Great Britain was still in progress, when it -was impossible to procure coal from England, and when coal from the -Richmond district was very scarce. They were therefore able to obtain -fourteen dollars per ton for the Lehigh coal, but even at this price -the cost and risk of mining and shipping was so great that the business -was barely a paying one. In 1815, however, peace was concluded with -Great Britain, the market was again opened to the reception of foreign -coals, and the Lehigh operators, being unable to compete with the -sellers of soft coal, were obliged to abandon the field. - -Notwithstanding the efforts and energy of these proprietors the Summit -Hill mining industry did not pay, and in 1817 the mines passed into -the hands of Josiah White and Erskine Hazard. They perfected a system -of slack-water navigation on the Lehigh, and in 1820 made their first -shipment of 365 tons. The tables commonly printed showing the growth -of the anthracite coal trade usually make that trade begin with this -shipment of Lehigh coal in 1820. This, however, is not quite correct, -as we have seen that coal was sent to market from the Wyoming region -at a much earlier date. It is remarkable that, whereas in 1820 the 365 -tons of Lehigh coal stocked the market, in 1831, the year in which the -system of slack water navigation was superseded by shipment on the -Delaware division of the Pennsylvania Canal, this region sent down -40,966 tons. And in 1887 there was sent to market from the Lehigh -district a total of 4,347,061 tons, an amount which would have been -much greater had not a prolonged strike of coal miners seriously -interfered with the output. - -In the Schuylkill region of the Southern coal field similar obstacles -to the introduction of coal were encountered. Nicholas Allen, the -discoverer of coal in that region, had formed a partnership with -Colonel George Shoemaker, and the firm had purchased a tract of coal -land near Pottsville, on which they began mining operations in the year -1812. They raised several wagon loads of coal, and offered it for sale -in the vicinity, but with the exception of a few blacksmiths, who had -been taught its value as a fuel by Colonel Shoemaker, no one could -be found to purchase it. Allen soon became disheartened and sold his -entire interest in the property to his partner, who, still persisting -in the enterprise, mined a considerable quantity of the coal, filled -ten wagons with it, and took it to Philadelphia in quest of a market. -But it did not meet with a ready sale. People looked at the coals -curiously, considered them to be nothing more than black stones, and, -seeing no reason why they should burn better than stones of any other -color, would not buy them. - -Colonel Shoemaker sounded the praises of his wares so vigorously and -persistently, however, that at last a few purchasers were induced to -take them in small quantities, just for trial. The trials, as usual, -proved to be unsuccessful, and the people who had purchased the coals, -believing they had been victimized, denounced Colonel Shoemaker as a -cheat and a swindler; while one person, whose wrath rose to a high -pitch, procured a warrant for the colonel’s arrest, on the charge that -he was a common impostor. At this stage of the proceedings, Colonel -Shoemaker, believing discretion to be the better part of valor, quietly -left the city and started toward his home by a circuitous route, -driving, it is said, some thirty miles out of his way, in order to -avoid the officer of the law holding the warrant for his arrest. - -This was indeed a discouraging beginning for the Schuylkill coal -trade. Fortunately, however, not all of the colonel’s customers at -Philadelphia had met with failure in the effort to burn his coal. -Messrs. Mellen & Bishop, a firm of iron factors in Delaware County, -at the earnest solicitation of Colonel Shoemaker, made the experiment -with the small quantity of coals purchased by them, and finding that -the fuel burned successfully they announced that fact through the -Philadelphia newspapers. Other iron workers were thus induced to try -the coal, and finally all the furnaces along the Schuylkill had open -doors for it. Eventually it came into use for the purpose of generating -steam, the experiments of John Price Wetherill in that direction having -been only partially satisfactory, but those at the Phœnixville iron -works in 1825 meeting with complete success. - -Still the prices which coal commanded in the Philadelphia market -were not sufficient to pay for the labor of mining it and the cost -of shipping it. So that, prior to 1818, nearly all the coal mined in -the Schuylkill region was sold to the blacksmiths of the surrounding -country. In that year, however, the improvements of the Schuylkill -navigation were completed, and afforded an additional, though not by -any means safe or sufficient, outlet for the products of the mines. By -1826 and 1827 the growing importance of the coal trade became manifest, -the Schuylkill navigation system was placed in excellent repair, -and the mining business of the district grew rapidly to enormous -proportions. - -The northeasterly extension of the Wyoming coal basin, leaving the -Susquehanna River at Pittston, follows the valley of the Lackawanna -up to a point seven miles beyond Carbondale, where it cuts slightly -into the counties of Wayne and Susquehanna, and there runs out. This -extension is known as the Lackawanna region. Coal was dug up and -experimented with here at the beginning of the present century. Its -outcrop at the river bank was noted by Preston, a surveyor, in 1804. -In 1812 it was mined at Providence and burned in a rude grate by H. -C. L. Von Storch. About this time the brothers William and Maurice -Wurts, having been attracted by the mineral wealth of the region, came -there from Philadelphia and began explorations for the purpose of -ascertaining the location, area, and quality of the beds of anthracite -coal. William, the younger brother, in the course of his wanderings -through the rugged hills and thick forests of the country, chanced to -meet a hunter by the name of David Nobles, who, having fled from the -adjoining county of Wayne to avoid imprisonment for debt, was leading a -precarious existence in the woods. Nobles was well acquainted with the -country, knew where the outcroppings of coal were, and having entered -into the service of Wurts, rendered him most valuable assistance. - -Their investigations having proved the presence of large bodies of -coal, the Wurts brothers next procured title to the lands containing -it, and then turned their attention to the problem of finding an -outlet to market. They decided finally to ship coal on rafts by the -Wallenpaupack Creek to the Lackawaxen, by the Lackawaxen to the -Delaware, and thence to Philadelphia. This method was experimented -on from 1814 to 1822 with varying degrees of disaster. In the year -last mentioned they succeeded in taking to Philadelphia 100 tons of -coal, only to find the market flooded with 2,240 tons of Lehigh coal. -Competition was apparently hopeless; but instead of abandoning the -enterprise, as men of less energy and perseverance would now have done, -Maurice Wurts turned his attention to a new project. This was nothing -less than to make an outlet to the New York market by building a canal -which should reach from the Hudson River at Rondout, across to the -Delaware at Port Jervis, and thence up that stream and the Lackawaxen -to the nearest practicable point east of the coal beds. But when that -point should be reached there would still be the Moosic Mountain, -with its towering heights and precipitous bluffs, lying between the -boats and the mines. The Wurts brothers did not acknowledge this to -be a serious obstacle. They proposed to overcome this difficulty by -building across the mountains a railroad, which should consist largely -of inclined planes, the cars to be drawn up and let down these planes -by means of stationary steam-engines, and to move along the stretches -between the planes by force of gravity. Having formed their plans they -set to work to carry them out. They procured the necessary legislation -from the States of New York and Pennsylvania, they secured a charter -in 1823–25 for a corporation known as the Delaware and Hudson Canal -Company, and by dint of supreme personal effort they succeeded in -obtaining capital enough to begin and carry on the work. In 1828 the -canal was completed to its terminus at Honesdale, the gravity railroad -having been already constructed from the coal fields to that point, -and in 1829 the company began to ship coal to tide-water on the -Hudson. It was a bold and ingenious scheme, and for those days it was -an enterprise of immense proportions. That these two men conceived -it and earned it out in the face of great difficulties and against -overwhelming odds entitles them to a place in those higher orders of -genius that are touched with the light of the heroic. The Lackawanna -region has been pierced by many other lines of railway, and to-day by -these great highways a vast amount of Lackawanna coal is sent to the -eastern cities and the seaboard. - -But as a rule, men who invested their money in coal lands in the early -days after the discovery of coal lost the amount of the investment. -They, with prophetic vision, saw the comfort, the commerce, the -manufactures, of a nation dependent on the products of the coal mines, -but the people at large could not see so far. These pioneers made -ready to supply an anticipated demand, but it did not come. Talking -did not bring it. Exhibitions of the wonderful utility of the black -coals served to arouse but a passing interest. No other product of the -globe which has obtained a position of equal importance ever had to -fight its way into public favor with such persistent effort through so -many years. But when at last its worth became generally recognized, -when the people had reached the conclusion that they wanted it, and -its value in dollars had become fixed and permanent, then the pioneers -of the industry had vanished from the field; they were disheartened, -destitute, or dead; new hands and brains took up the work, matured -the plans of the elders, and reaped the fortunes of which former -generations had sown the seed. - -In the beginning the coal lands were mostly divided into small -tracts, and held by persons many of whom thought to open mines on -their property and carry on the business of mining as an individual -enterprise. This plan of work was partially successful so long as -coal could be dug from the outcrop and carted away like stones from -a quarry; but when it became necessary, as it soon did, to penetrate -more deeply into the earth for the article of trade, then the cost -of shafting, tunneling, and mining in general usually exceeded the -resources of the individual operator, and either he succumbed to -financial distress, or disposed of his mining interests to men or firms -with more money. As the art of mining advanced with its necessities, -it was learned, sometimes after bitter experience, that the business -was profitable only when a large amount of capital was behind it. -Therefore men who had invested a few thousand dollars transferred -their interests to men who had a few hundred thousand to invest, and -these, in turn, associating other capitalists with them, doubled or -trebled the investment or ran it into the millions, forming companies -or corporations to accomplish with their more perfect organization -that which would be impossible to the individual. So it has come about -that in these later days the individual operators have given place -largely to the corporations; those who still remain in the field often -operating their mines on a small capital at great disadvantage. In the -bituminous regions, however, this rule does not hold good. There the -coal lies near the surface, is accessible, and easily mined. It needs -only to be carried to the river bank and screened as it is loaded into -boats and started on its way to market. Compared with the anthracite -regions, it requires but a small capital here to sustain an extensive -plant, and produce a large quantity of coal. Therefore we find, as we -should expect to find, that in the bituminous districts the bulk of -the coal is produced by individuals, firms, and small companies. In the -anthracite regions, however, this rule is reversed. Of the 36,204,000 -tons of anthracite produced in the year 1887, 16,109,387 tons, or -nearly one half, were mined by five great companies; namely: The -Philadelphia and Reading; Delaware and Hudson; Delaware, Lackawanna, -and Western; Lehigh Valley; and Pennsylvania Coal Company. The immense -out-put of as many more large corporations left but a very small -proportion of the total product to the small companies, firms, and -individuals. - -It follows, as a matter of course, that the acreage of coal lands held -by these companies bears the same proportion to the total acreage that -their coal out-put bears to the entire coal out-put. That is, they -either own or hold under lease the great bulk of the coal beds of the -anthracite regions. The value of coal lands varies with the number, -thickness, and accessibility of the coal seams contained in it. In the -very early days of anthracite mining these lands were purchased from -farmers and others at from twenty and thirty dollars to one hundred -dollars per acre. Before 1850 the price had advanced, in the Wyoming -region, to from seventy-five dollars to two hundred dollars per acre. -Recently a piece of coal land was sold in this region for $1,200 per -acre, and another piece, containing thirty-six acres, was sold at the -rate of $1,500 per acre. Perhaps from $800 to $1,000 per acre might -be considered an average price. In the Middle and Southern anthracite -regions the coal lands are of still greater value; not because the -quality of the mineral is better, nor because the market for it is more -accessible, but because the coal seams dip at a greater angle, and, -therefore, a given number of acres contains a larger amount of coal. - -The system of leasing coal lands to coal operators is a very common -one, especially in the Wyoming valley, where the surface is so richly -adapted to agricultural uses. The proprietor can, in this way, retain -the use of the soil, and at the same time reap a handsome profit from -the development of the mineral deposits beneath it. He invests no -capital, runs no risk, and is sure of a steady income. As it is usual -to work leased coal seams, wherever convenient, from openings made on -the adjoining lands owned by the company, it is not often that the -surface of leased property is interfered with, or if it is, but a -comparatively small area of it is taken. The contract of lease usually -stipulates that a certain royalty shall be paid to the lessor for each -ton of coal mined, and it binds the lessee to mine not less than a -certain number of tons each year; or at least to pay royalties on not -less than a certain number of tons each year, whether that number is -or is not mined. Twenty years or more ago coal lands in the Wyoming -district could be leased at the rate of ten cents per ton. Lately a -large body of coal land was rented to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company -at forty-five cents per ton, and it is said that one proprietor at -Kingston has been offered a lease at fifty cents per ton, and has -refused it. Perhaps from twenty-five cents to thirty-five cents per ton -would be an average rate. - -As an example of the immense purchases made by these companies, it may -be noted that the Philadelphia and Reading Company, in 1871, purchased -one hundred thousand acres of coal lands in the Schuylkill region, at -a cost of forty millions of dollars. And as an example of the amount -of business done in a year, it may be noted that the Delaware and -Hudson Canal Company paid in 1887 $5,019,147.16 for the single item of -mining coal, and that their coal sales for the same year amounted to -$10,100,118.69. - -This concentration of coal lands and coal mining in the hands of great -corporations, aside from its tendency to stifle healthy competition, -is productive of many benefits. Coal can be mined much cheaper when -the mining is done on a large scale. This is the rule, indeed, in -all productive industries. An enterprise backed by the combined -capital of many individuals is more certain to become successful and -permanent than an enterprise inaugurated by, and carried on with, -the entire capital of a single individual. Especially is this the -rule in a business attended with as much risk as is the business of -coal mining. One person may put his entire fortune of two or three -hundred thousand dollars into a single colliery. A depression in -the coal trade, a strike among the miners, an explosion, or a fire -would be very apt to bring financial ruin on him. A company, with its -great resources and its elastic character, can meet and recover from -an adverse incident of this kind with scarcely a perceptible shock -to its business. It is simply one of the items of loss which it is -prepared to cover with a larger item of profit. There is also the -additional assurance that all work that is done will be well done. The -most careful observations and calculations are made of the amount and -quality of included coal in any tract of land before it is purchased, -and the best surveyors are employed to mark out the boundary lines of -lands. The services of the most skillful mining engineers are retained, -at salaries which no individual operator could afford to pay. Their -forces are well organized, their mining operations are conducted with -system and economy, and they are able to keep abreast of the age in -all inventions and appliances that insure greater facility in mining -and manufacturing, and greater safety to the workmen. Their employees -are paid promptly at stated periods, and the possibility of a workman -losing his wages by reason of neglect or failure on the part of his -employer is reduced to a minimum. - -In general, it may be said that the control of the anthracite coal -business by the great corporations, rather than by individual operators, -is an undoubted benefit, not only to all the parties in direct interest, -but to commerce and society as a whole. The only danger to be feared is -from an abuse of the great powers to which these companies have -attained; a danger which, thus far, has not seriously menaced the -community. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE WAY INTO THE MINES. - - -A wise coal operator never begins to open a mine for the purpose of -taking out coal until he knows the character of the bed and the quality -of the mineral. This knowledge can only be obtained by an exhaustive -search for, and a careful examination of, all surface indications, -and by drilling or boring holes down to and through the strata of -coal. This is called “prospecting.” The examiner in a new field will -first look for outcrops. He will follow up the valleys and inspect -the ledges and the banks of streams. If he be so fortunate as to find -an exposure of the coal seams, or of any one of them, he will measure -its thickness, will calculate its dip and strike, and will follow its -outcrop. He will also study and make careful note of the rock strata -with which it is associated, for by this means he may be able to -determine the probability of other seams lying above or below it. This -examination of the rock strata he will make, whether coal is visible -or not visible. It will be of much service to him. For instance, it is -known that the great Baltimore vein in the Wyoming valley is usually -overlaid by a coarse red sandstone. If the examiner finds rock of this -character in that section, he has good reason to hope that coal lies -beneath it. Under the lowest coal seam of the anthracite beds there -is found, as a rule, a rock known as the conglomerate. If, therefore, -the explorer finds an outcrop of conglomerate, he will know that, as -a rule, he need not look for coal beyond it. This rock, coming to the -surface on the westerly side of the Moosic range of mountains, marks -the limit of the Lackawanna coal field toward the east. No one, having -once studied the conglomerate rock, could mistake it for any other, -though its composition is very simple. It is nothing more than white, -water-worn quartz pebbles, held together by a firm, lead-colored -cement. But it is a rock of unusual hardness and durability. It is -proof against the erosive action of water, grows harder by exposure -to the air, and has a consistency that approximates to that of iron. -In the coal districts it is used largely for building purposes, where -heavy walls and foundations are required. Experience has taught that -there are no coal seams below the conglomerate, so that wherever this -is found as a surface rock, or wherever it is pierced by the drill, -it is usually unnecessary to explore below it. If no coal outcrop is -found, the bed of a stream is searched for fragments of the mineral, -and, if any are discovered, they are traced to their source. Coal is -sometimes exposed where a tree has been uprooted by the wind, and -pieces of it have been found in the soil thrown out at a groundhog’s -burrow. - -Wagon roads crossing the country may be scanned for traces of the -“smut” or “blossom.” This is the decomposed outcrop, which has become -mingled with the soil, and may be more readily distinguished in the -bed of a traveled road than elsewhere. Other surface indications -failing, the topographical features of this section of country should -be studied. Wherever the coal seams come to the surface, being softer -than the rock strata above and below them, they are disintegrated and -eroded more rapidly by the action of the atmosphere and the elements. -This wearing away of the exposed coal leaves the surface outline in -the form of a bench or terrace, which follows the line of the outcrop. -And this form is retained even with a thick deposit of soil over the -edges of the strata. Small shafts may be sunk or tunnels driven through -this thickness of earth, and the outcrop explored in this way. This -process of examination is of more value in the bituminous than in the -anthracite regions, since the bituminous coal, being soft, is more -rapidly eroded, and the terrace formation resulting from such erosion -is more distinct and certain. In these days, in the anthracite coal -fields, there is hardly an area of any great extent in which mines have -not been actually opened. These mines, therefore, in the facilities -they afford for studying exposed strata and developed coal seams, -offer the best means of acquiring knowledge concerning the coal beds -of adjoining tracts. In a country where no surface indications of coal -are found over a large area, it is hardly worth while to explore for it -by boring. In the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania the limits of the -coal beds are now so accurately defined that it is seldom necessary to -bore for the purpose of testing the presence of coal. But it is always -advisable, before opening a mine in a new field, to test the depth, -dip, and quality of the coal and the character of the seams by sinking -one or more bore holes. Surface measurements of a seam are, at best, -very uncertain, as indications of its continuing character. The angle -of dip may change radically before a depth of one hundred feet shall be -reached. And coal undergoes so great deterioration by long exposure to -the atmosphere that, in order to judge the quality of a coal bed, it is -necessary to have a specimen fragment from it that has been hidden away -in the rocks. Hence the necessity of boring. - -Hand drills were generally used in the early days of prospecting, and -a sand pump drew out the sludge or borings for examination. This was -superseded by the spring pole method, which in turn gave way to the -rope method in use in the oil regions, the borings in each case being -carefully preserved for inspection. The diamond drill is the one now -in common use in the coal regions. Its cutting end is in the form of a -circle set with black, amorphous diamonds. It cuts an annular groove in -the rock as it descends, forming a core, which is withdrawn with the -drill, and which may be examined in vertical section. The sludge is -washed out by a stream of water which passes down through the centre of -the drill rod, and is forced back to the surface between the rod and -the face of the bore hole. The invention of this rotary cutting drill -is due to Leschot of Geneva, and the method of flushing the hole to -Flauvelle. - -After having obtained all possible information concerning his coal -property, and, if he be wise, embodying it in the form of maps, the -coal operator must decide where he shall make an opening for mining -purposes, and what kind of an opening he shall make. The answers to -these two questions are, to a certain extent, dependent on each other, -as certain kinds of openings must be located at certain places. When -coal was first gathered for experiment or observation, it was taken -up loosely from the ground, where it had fallen or been broken down -from the outcrop of some seam. As it came into demand for practical -purposes, it was quarried from this outcrop backward and downward, as -stones for building purposes are now quarried, the seam being uncovered -as the work proceeded. This process was followed along the line of the -outcrop, but excavations were not made to any considerable depth, owing -to the great expense of uncovering the coal. - -The open quarry system of mining coal has been successfully practiced -in America in but a few places. One of these was the great Summit -Hill open mine, near Mauch Chunk, where the Lehigh coal was first -discovered. Here, on a hill-top, was a horizontal coal bed, some -sixty acres in extent, and varying in thickness from fifteen to fifty -feet. Over this was a covering of rock, slate, and earth from three -to fifteen feet in thickness. This bed was mined by simply removing -the covering and taking the coal out as from a quarry. Other examples -of this method are seen at Hollywood Colliery, and at Hazleton No. 6 -Colliery, both near Hazleton, in Luzerne County. There are isolated -instances of this method of stripping elsewhere in the anthracite -regions, but as a rule the conditions are not favorable for it. -Ordinarily there are four methods of making an entrance into a mine -for the purpose of taking out coal. These are known as the drift, the -tunnel, the slope, and the shaft. - -To the early miners the drift was the favorite mode of entry. Finding -an exposed seam of coal in the face of a ledge or cliff, they would -dig in on it and bring the coal out from the opening in wheelbarrows. -A place was selected, if possible, where a creek or river ran at -the base of the ledge, and the coal was dumped from the wheelbarrow -directly into a boat. In default of a water way a wagon road was built -at the foot of the hill or cliff, a platform extended out over it, and -the coal was thus loaded from the wheelbarrow into the wagon. - -[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF DRIFT OR GANGWAY WITH TIMBERS AND -LAGGING.] - -The modern drift, though fashioned on an improved plan, is the simplest -and least expensive way of making an entrance into a coal mine. The -outline of the proposed opening is first marked out on the edge of the -exposed coal seam. From fifteen to eighteen feet is an ordinary width -to accommodate two tracks, and ten feet will readily accommodate one. -Seven feet is an average height, though, if the seam be comparatively -flat, the coal will be taken down until the rock is reached, even -though a greater height should be attained. With this width and height -the opening is cut into the hill through the coal seam. The floor of -the drift must have a constant upward grade as it progresses inward, in -order that the water may run out, and that loaded cars may be hauled -more easily. The mouth of the drift must be above the level of the -adjacent valley or stream, so that the water may be carried away, and -the drift is therefore what is known as a water-level opening. It is -usually necessary to support the roof and sides of the drift by timbers -joined together in the form of a bent, and placed more or less closely -to each other. These timbers are also sometimes lined by sticks placed -behind and over them horizontally, and known as “lagging.” It will be -seen that the conditions under which the opening by drift may be made -place a serious limitation on the use of this method. It will also -now be seen why the drift is the simplest and most economical mode of -making an entrance to a mine. In this method there is no expense for -removing earth or for cutting through rock, nor any cost at any time of -pumping water or of hoisting coal. When the fact is remembered that it -sometimes costs from $50,000 to $100,000 to sink a deep shaft through -hard rock, and that to this amount must be added the cost of buildings, -machinery, and repairs, and the perpetual cost of pumping water and of -hoisting coal, the economy of the drift method will be appreciated. But -the day of drift mining in the anthracite regions has gone by. Those -portions of the coal beds lying above water level have been largely -mined out, and the areas of coal that are now accessible by drift are -very limited. In the bituminous districts, however, where the seams lie -comparatively flat and the coal is mostly above water level, the method -by drift is still almost universally used. - -Next to a drift, the tunnel is the simplest and most economical method, -under certain circumstances, of making an entrance into a mine. This -is a passage driven across the measures, and at right angles to the -seam, in order to reach coal which at the point of opening is not -exposed. The tunnel is usually driven into the side of a hill. The -earth is first dug away until the rock is exposed, or, if the soil be -too deep for that, only enough of it is taken to make a vertical face -for the mouth of the tunnel. The opening is then driven into the hill -at about the same width and height that a drift would be made, and in -practically the same manner. If there is a section of earth tunneling -at the mouth, the timbering must be close, and the lagging will be of -heavy planks. When the solid rock is reached, however, it is not often -that any timbering is necessary, the sides and roof being so hard and -firm as not to need support. This passage is driven against the face -of a coal seam, and when the coal is finally reached the tunnel proper -ends, a passage is opened to the right and one to the left along the -strike of the seam, and from these gangways the coal is mined. The -tunnel, like the drift, must be above water level, and its floor must -have a descending grade toward the mouth, to carry off water. The -expense of the tunnel, and its superiority to the slope or shaft, will -depend upon the distance through which the rock must be pierced before -coal is reached. It is especially advisable, therefore, before opening -a tunnel, to have an accurate map of the location and dip of the coal -seams to be struck by it, otherwise no approximate calculation can be -made of the extent or cost of the work. - -In the anthracite districts, where the seams are sharply pitching, -tunnels are driven in the interior of a mine from the workings of -a seam already opened across the intervening measures to strike an -adjacent seam. In this way two, three, or more coal seams can be -worked, and the coal can all be brought out at one surface opening. -This is virtually the only kind of tunneling that is now done in the -anthracite regions; for, as has already been explained, the coal that -lay above water level and was thus accessible by tunnel has now been -mostly mined out. - -If there is an outcrop of coal on the tract to be mined, and the dip -of the seam is more than twenty degrees, it is usually advisable to -enter the mine by means of a slope. This is a passage which, beginning -at the outcrop, follows the coal seam down until the necessary depth -is reached. It is driven in the coal. The distinction between the -drift and the slope is that the drift is driven from the surface on -the strike of the seam while the slope is driven on its dip. Where -the coal seam comes within a moderate distance of the surface, as at -an anticlinal ridge, a slope may be driven through the rock until the -coal is reached at the axis, and from that point follow the seam down. -Sometimes a shaft is sunk to the top of an anticlinal ridge, and from -its foot two slopes are driven, one down each side of the roll, in -opposite directions. If the seam is very irregular, or if it is much -broken by faults, there may be a great deal of rock cutting to be done -in order to preserve the uniformity of grade necessary for the slope. -The cost may, indeed, in this case, amount to more than would have been -sufficient to sink a shaft to the same depth, although, as a rule, the -entrance by slope should cost only about one fourth of that by shaft. - -[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF SLOPE WITH DOUBLE TRACK.] - -The same methods are employed in sinking a slope as are used in driving -a drift, except that generally the timbering need not be so heavy. The -minimum height of the slope is about 6½ feet, the width at the top, or -collar, about 8 feet, and the width at the bottom, or spread, about 12 -feet. If a double track is desired the spread should be 18 feet and -the collar 14 feet. In the Wyoming region, where the dip is usually -less than twenty degrees, with infrequent outcrops, the slope is not in -general use; but in the Southern coal field, where the dip varies from -twenty degrees to the vertical, the slope is the most common method of -entering a mine. There the opening is driven down for a distance of 300 -feet, at which point gangways are started out to right and left, along -the strike, and chambers driven from them back toward the surface. This -is called the first lift. The slope is then continued downward for -another distance of 300 feet, new gangways and chambers are laid off, -and this is called the second lift. This process is continued until the -synclinal basin is reached. - -Where the dip of the slope is less than thirty degrees the coal is -brought to the surface in the car into which it was first loaded in the -mine. At a greater angle than this the ordinary mine car is superseded -by a car or carriage especially adapted to carrying coal up a steep -incline. - -Where there is no outcrop in the tract to be mined, and the coal -lies below water level, the best mode of making an entrance to it is -by shaft. In the Wyoming region, since the upper veins have been so -generally mined out, nearly all the openings are by shaft. The location -of the shaft at the surface should be such that when it is completed -its foot shall be at the bottom, or nearly at the bottom, of the -synclinal valley into which it is sunk. As will be more readily seen -hereafter, this is necessary in order to carry the water of the mine -to the foot of the shaft, to facilitate the transportation of coal -under ground, and to get room to open up the greatest possible working -area. The depth to which a shaft must be sunk depends on the seam to -be reached, and on the district in which it is located. At Carbondale, -in the northeasterly extremity of the Wyoming basin, the average depth -to the conglomerate or bed of the lowest coal seam is 250 feet. From -Scranton to Pittston it is from 500 to 600 feet. At Wilkes Barre it is -1,200 feet. It reaches its greatest average depth a mile northeast of -Nanticoke, where it is from 1,500 to 1,600 feet. - -This will be the limit of depth for shafts in the Wyoming region. At -present the average depth is from 300 to 400 feet, and there are few -that are more than 800 feet deep. The red-ash vein to which most of -the shafts are now being sunk is, at Pittston in the middle of the -general basin, from 450 to 650 feet below the surface. In the southern -anthracite region the average depth of shafts is somewhat greater, the -maximum depth being reached in the vicinity of Pottsville, where the -Pottsville deep shafts are about 1,600 feet in depth. - -In beginning to open a shaft a rectangular space is staked out on the -ground from four to eight feet wider and longer than the proposed -dimensions of the shaft; and the soil and loose stones are thrown out -from this larger area until bed rock is reached, which is usually done, -except in the river bottom lands, within a depth of twenty feet. - -From this rock as a foundation a cribbing of solid timber, twelve -inches square, is built up to the surface on the four sides of the -opening to prevent the earth from caving in. Sometimes heavy walls of -masonry are built up instead of the timber cribbing, and though the -original cost is greater, the purpose is far better answered by the -stone curbing. When this has been completed, sinking through the rock -goes on by the ordinary process of blasting, plumb lines being hung at -the corners of the shaft to keep the opening vertical. - -An act of the Pennsylvania legislature, approved June 30, 1885, -regulates the conduct of coal mining in the State so far as the safety -of persons employed in and about the mines is concerned. Former acts -are consolidated and revised in this, and new provisions are added. -By virtue of this act both the anthracite and bituminous coal fields -are divided into districts, each of which is placed in charge of -an inspector, whose duty it is to see that the provisions of the -law are carried out, and to make annual report to the Secretary of -Internal Affairs of such facts and statistics as the law requires -to be made. As there will be frequent occasion hereafter to refer -to various provisions of this act of assembly, it will be mentioned -simply as the act of 1885. The matter is brought up here in order -that the rules relating to the sinking of shafts, as laid down in the -act, may be referred to. These rules provide the manner in which the -necessary structures at the mouth of the opening shall be erected, what -precautions shall be taken to prevent material from falling into the -pit, how the ascent and descent shall be made, that all blasts during -the process of sinking shall be exploded by an electric battery, etc. -All these rules have but one object, the safety of the workmen. - -The horizontal dimensions of the modern shaft average about twelve feet -in width by thirty feet in length. This space is divided crosswise, -down the entire depth of the shaft, into compartments of which there -are usually four. The first of these compartments is the pump way, a -space devoted to the pipes, pump-rod, and other appliances connected -with the pumping system. To this six feet in breadth is allowed. Then -come, in succession, the two carriage ways, each of which may be seven -feet wide, and, finally, the air passage through which the foul air is -exhausted from the mine, and to which ten feet is appropriated. The -partitions between these compartments are made of oak sticks six inches -square, called buntons. The ends of the buntons are let into the rock -sides of the shaft, and they are placed horizontally at a vertical -distance from each other of about four feet. These bunton partitions -are then closely boarded down the entire distance. The partition -between the hoisting compartment and the airway is not only boarded up, -but the boards are matched and are rabbeted together. It is necessary -to make as nearly air-tight as possible this way for the passage of -air, and where the edges of the boarding meet the rock sides of the -shaft the irregularities are carefully filled in with brick and mortar. - -Fastened to the buntons at each side of each hoisting compartment -are continuous strips of hard wood, from four to six inches square, -reaching from the top of the shaft to its bottom. These are the -“guides.” To each side of the carriage, which raises and lowers men and -materials, is fastened an iron shoe, shaped like a small rectangular -box without top or ends. This shoe fits loosely on to the guide, -slides up and down it, and serves to keep the carriage steady while -it is ascending or descending. This invention is due to John Curr of -Sheffield, England, who introduced it as early as 1798. The ordinary -carriage consists of a wooden platform with vertical posts at the -middle of the sides united by a cross-beam at the top, and all solidly -built and thoroughly braced. The posts are just inside of the guides -when the carriage is in place, and are kept parallel to them by the -shoes already mentioned. To the middle of the cross-beam is attached -the end of a wire cable, from which the carriage is suspended, and by -which it is raised and lowered. On the floor of the platform, which -is planked over, a track is built uniform with the track at the foot -and head of the shaft, and continuous with it when the carriage is at -rest at either place. The mine car is pushed on to the platform of the -carriage and fastened there by a device which clings to the axle or -blocks the wheels. - -[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION AT FOOT OF SHAFT, WITH ASCENDING -CARRIAGE.] - -At the mouth of the shaft and projecting into it are the “wings,” -“keeps,” or “cage rests,” which are pressed against the sides of the -shaft by the ascending carriage, but spring back into place underneath -it and support it while it is at rest. When the carriage is ready to -descend the wings are withdrawn by hand levers. - -The safety carriage is now in general use in at least one hoisting -compartment of every shaft. This carriage is built of wrought iron -instead of wood; it has a bonnet or roof as a protection against -objects falling down the shaft, and it has safety clutches or dogs to -stop the carriage and hold it in place in case of accident by breaking -ropes or machinery. Operators are required by the act of 1885 to -provide safety carriages for the use of their employees, and also to -keep movable gates or covers at the mouth of each shaft to prevent -persons and materials from falling into the opening. - -Where mining is done by shaft there is seldom any other way provided -for the passage of workmen in and out than the way by the carriage. -A small shaft for the admission of air is sometimes driven down to -the highest part of the seam, and ladders are placed in the opening -on which men may climb up and down, but these ladders are seldom used -save in an emergency. It is made obligatory upon operators, by the act -of 1885, to provide two openings to every seam of coal that is being -worked; these openings to be at least sixty feet apart underground, -and one hundred and fifty feet apart at the surface. The object of this -rule is to provide a way of escape for workmen in case of accident to -the main outlet. - -It is seldom necessary, however, in these days, to sink a separate shaft -in order to comply with this provision of the law; the underground -workings of the mines having such extensive connections that often not -only two but many openings are accessible from each seam. - -As to the comparative cost of the different methods of entry, the drift -is of course the cheapest. In this method the very first blow of the -pick brings down a fragment of coal that may be sent to market and -sold. For this reason the sinking of a slope is less expensive than -tunneling or shafting, because the excavation is made in the coal. It -may be said to cost from twenty-five to fifty dollars per linear yard -to sink an ordinary double track slope, from fifty to seventy-five -dollars per linear yard to drive a tunnel of average cross-section to -accommodate two tracks, and from three hundred to five hundred dollars -per linear yard to sink a shaft with four compartments. Of course -circumstances, especially the character of strata, may greatly increase -or lessen these limits of cost. Indeed, it has happened that a shaft in -process of sinking, which had already cost many thousands of dollars, -has been necessarily abandoned because an intractable bed of quicksand -has been encountered. - -The experienced coal operator, knowing the advantages and disadvantages -of each of these methods of entering a mine, and the adaptability of -each to his particular coal bed, will find no difficulty in making a -selection from them. Indeed, there may be, and usually is, practically, -no choice. The selection of a site for the opening is ordinarily -attended with but little more freedom of choice. The outcrop, if there -be one, the topography of the surface, the outline of the coal seam, -the accessibility of the spot, the location of the breaker, all govern -in the selection of the site, and usually all point to the one most -available spot. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -A PLAN OF A COAL MINE. - - -The progress that has been made in the science of mining coal within -the last half century bears favorable comparison with the progress -that has been made in the other industrial sciences. To-day the ripest -experience and the best engineering skill in the land are brought -to bear upon the problems connected with coal mining. In comparison -with the marked ability employed and the marked success attained in -the mining enterprises of to-day, the efforts of the early miners are -almost amusing. The pick and the wedge were the chief instruments used -in getting out coal. Powder was not thought to be available until John -Flanigan, a miner for Abijah Smith, introduced it into the mines in -1818. It is said that when openings were first made for coal in the -vicinity of Pottsville shallow shafts were sunk, and the coal was -hoisted in a large vessel by means of a common windlass. As soon as the -water became troublesome, which was usually as soon as the shaft had -reached a depth of twenty or thirty feet, this opening was abandoned, a -new shaft sunk, and the process repeated. - -The mine operator of to-day, having decided upon the shaft as the best -method of entry into his mine, sinks it to the bottom of the coal -bed, so that its longest dimension shall be with the dip of the seam. -Then from each side of the shaft, and at right angles to it, he cuts -a passage out through the coal with a width of from ten to fourteen -feet. These are the beginnings of the “gangways.” Then from each end -of the rectangular foot of the shaft he cuts another passage, at right -angles to the first one, about six or eight feet wide, and extending -to a distance of from fifteen to thirty feet. These are the first -“cross-headings.” At the extremities of the cross-headings passages are -now driven parallel to the gangways. These last passages are called -“airways.” When the gangways and airways have reached a distance of -from sixty to one hundred feet from the foot of the shaft they are -united by new cross-headings. - -It is now apparent that two pillars of coal, each from fifteen to -thirty feet wide and from sixty to one hundred feet long are left on -each side of the shaft. Larger pillars than these may be left if the -roof about the shaft should need more support. It is also apparent, -the coal seam being inclined, that the level of one of the airways is -higher than the level of the gangway, and the level of the other airway -is lower. - -It will be remembered that the design was to sink the shaft so that its -foot should be nearly to the bottom of the synclinal valley or basin. -If this has been done, then it is possible that the passage below the -foot of the shaft parallel to the gangway actually runs along the -synclinal axis. But if the bottom of the valley is still lower, the -cross-headings will be driven farther down and a new parallel passage -made, and, if necessary, still another. These openings now slope from -the foot of the shaft downward, and in them is collected not only the -water that may fall from the shaft, but, as the work advances, all the -water that comes from all parts of the mine. This basin which is thus -made to receive the mine water is called the “sump,” and from it the -water is pumped up through the shaft and discharged at the surface. -If the mine happens to be a very wet one it will require the constant -labor of the most powerful pumping engine to keep the level of the -water in the sump lower than the foot of the shaft. In some cases, in -older workings, a section of the mine which has been worked out and -abandoned is used for a sump, and then the water may cover an area many -acres in extent. When a shaft has been newly sunk, the openings for -the sump are the only ones that are made below the level of the foot -of the shaft or below the level of the gangway. Henceforth all the -workings will be made on the upper side of the gangway, extending up -the slope of the seam, until such time as it may be deemed advisable to -sink an inside slope to open a new set of workings on a lower level. -The main gangway on one side of the shaft and the airway above it are -now carried along simultaneously, and parallel with each other, and -are united at distances of from forty to sixty feet by cross-headings. -As soon as the last cross-heading is opened the one which immediately -preceded it is walled up as tightly as possible. This is to insure -ventilation. A current of air comes down the hoisting-way of the shaft, -passes into the gangway and along it to the last cross-heading, where -it crosses up into the airway and traverses the airway back to the -cross-heading that was driven up from the upper end of the foot of the -shaft. Passing down this cross-heading it comes to the air compartment -of the shaft, and is drawn out to the surface by a powerful fan. This -is the ventilating system of the mine in its simplest form. It is -apparent that if any of the cross-headings nearer to the shaft than the -last one should be left open, the air current would take a short course -through it up to the airway, and so back to the shaft, without going to -the extremity of the gangway at all. This gangway is the main artery of -the mine; it is the highway by which all the empty cars go in to the -working faces, and by which all the loaded cars come out to the foot -of the shaft; it is the general watercourse by which the entire mine -above it is drained, and by which the water is carried to the sump. In -comparatively flat seams its height is the height of the slate or rock -roof of the coal bed, but in steep pitching seams it is made seven or -eight feet high with a roof wholly or partly of coal. In some cases -the roof and sides are so firm that no timbering is required, and in -other cases the timbering must be close and heavy in order to give -the necessary support and security. The floor of the gangway must be -given a constantly ascending grade, usually from six inches to one foot -in every hundred feet, as it is driven inward. This is to facilitate -drainage and the movement of loaded cars. - -Where the strata are horizontal, or nearly so, as in many of the -bituminous mines, the gangway may, and usually does, take a perfectly -straight course. This is also true where the line of strike has but a -single direction, no matter how steep the pitch of the seam may be. But -both of these conditions are so rare in the anthracite regions that -one seldom finds a gangway driven for any considerable distance in -one direction. The surface of an inclined coal seam is not dissimilar -to the surface of one side of a range of small hills. Any one who has -seen a railroad track winding in and out along such a range, keeping -to the surface of the ground and preserving a uniformity of grade, can -understand why, for the same reasons, the gangway must often change -direction in following the seam of coal. It must curve in around the -valleys and hollows that indent the seam in the same manner that a -surface railroad curves in around the depression where some hillside -brook runs down to meet the stream, the course of which the railroad -tries to follow; and it must strike out around the projections of the -seam in the same way in which a surface railroad bends out around the -projecting spurs of the hill range along which it runs. But the coal -seam is more irregular and more uncertain in its outline than the -hillside, and the curves in it are sharper and more varied. The surface -railroad too may shorten its route and relieve its curves by bridging -its small valleys and cutting through its narrow ridges. For the -gangway this cannot be done. As a rule the coal seam must be followed, -no matter where it leads. And it often leads in strange courses,――in -courses that at times curve back on themselves like a horseshoe and -point toward the foot of the shaft. The mining superintendent or -engineer never knows in advance just what tortuous course his main -artery may take. He cannot go over the ground and stake out his line -as a civil engineer does for a surface railway; he must build as he -advances, not knowing what the rock and coal may hide in the next -foot ahead of him. He must be prepared to encounter faults, fissures, -streams of water, diluvial deposits, and every other obstacle known to -mining engineers. - -There are several systems of laying out a mine for actual working -after the gangway has been driven a sufficient distance. The one most -commonly in use in the anthracite region is known as the “pillar and -breast” system. In the bituminous mines it is called the “pillar and -room,” and in the mines of Great Britain the “bord and pillar.” It will -be borne in mind that the mine which is now being described is in the -Wyoming region, where the seams are comparatively flat, the entrance -usually by shaft, and the method of working is the pillar and breast -system. The gangway and airway are not driven far, not more than two -or three hundred feet, perhaps, before the openings are made for the -larger production of coal. Beginning on the upper side of the airway, -at such a distance from the shaft as will leave a reasonably large -sustaining pillar, perhaps from sixty to one hundred feet, an opening -is made and driven up the seam at right angles to the airway. This -opening is called a “chamber” or “breast.” In the bituminous districts -it is known as a “room.” The chamber is usually about twenty-four -feet wide, though where the roof is exceptionally good its width may -be increased to thirty-six feet. It is not often opened the full -width at the airway. Instead of this a narrow passage, large enough -to accommodate the mine car track, is driven up to a distance not -exceeding fifteen feet, and it is from this point that the chamber is -driven up at its full width. This narrow opening can be more easily -closed in case it is desired to prevent the passage of air through -it, and besides a greater proportion of coal is left in pillars along -the airway to prevent the passage from becoming blockaded by falls. -When the first chamber has been driven up a distance equal to its -width, a new chamber is begun parallel to it and on the side farthest -from the shaft. These two chambers are now separated by a wall of coal -from fourteen to twenty feet thick. If, however, the workings are -deep and there is danger from the weight of superincumbent strata, -the wall should be made as thick as the chamber is wide. When the new -chamber has been driven to a distance of twenty-five feet, or, if the -mine is free from gas and the ventilation is good, to a distance of -forty or sixty feet, the wall between the two chambers is pierced by -an opening from six to ten feet wide. This is called a cross-heading -or “entrance.” A partition is now built across the airway between the -openings to the two chambers, and the air current is thus forced up -into the last chamber, across through the entrance into the first, down -it to the airway again, and so in its regular course back to the foot -of the shaft. In the mean time progress has been made in the first -chamber, and by the time the second chamber has been driven another -distance of thirty or sixty feet, the entrance which will then be cut -through the wall will find the first chamber still in advance. The -inner extremity of the chamber is called the “face.” It is sometimes -spoken of also as the “breast,” though this last name is properly -that of the chamber as a whole. The wall of coal at the side of the -chamber is called the “rib.” A third chamber is now begun and driven up -parallel to the other two, then a fourth, a fifth, and so on; as many -chambers, indeed, as can be laid off in this way without deviating too -greatly from a right angle to the airway. But the face of the first -chamber is kept in advance of the face of the second, the face of the -second in advance of the face of the third, and so on, until the limit -of length is reached. This limit is determined, to some extent, by the -dip of the seam. In comparatively flat workings a set of chambers may -be driven in to a distance of five hundred, or even six hundred feet. -Where the pitch is steep, however, two hundred or three hundred feet is -the greatest length at which chambers can be economically worked. The -limit of length of chambers is sometimes determined also by an outcrop, -an anticlinal axis, a fault, or a boundary line. The wall of coal left -between any two chambers is divided by the entrances cut through it -into a line of pillars nearly uniform in size. As soon as the second -entrance from the airway is cut through the wall the first entrance is -blocked tightly up, and as soon as the third entrance is cut through -the second is closed, and so on to the extremity of the line of -pillars. This is to compel the air current to pass up to the very face -of the chamber before it can find a way across to the other chambers -and down again into the airway. If the air of the mine is bad, or if -the coal is giving off deleterious gases with rapidity, a “brattice” or -rude board partition is built from the lower side of the last entrance -diagonally up toward the face of the chamber to force the air to the -very point where men are working before it finds its way out through an -open entrance. These boards are sometimes replaced by a sheet of coarse -canvas, called brattice cloth, which is lighter, more easily handled, -and answers the same purpose. - -[Illustration: A PLAN OF AN ANTHRACITE MINE WITH A SHAFT ENTRANCE.] - -From the mine car track in the gangway a branch track is built, -crossing the airway and running up each chamber to its face. Up this -branch track a mule draws the empty car, and when it is loaded it is -let down to the gangway by the miner’s laborer. If the dip of the -chamber is too steep――more than ten degrees――for a mule to draw the -car up, a light car, used only in the chamber and called a “buggy,” is -pushed up by hand, and when the dip is too steep for this the coal is -pushed or allowed to slide down to the foot of the chamber. Chambers -are often driven up obliquely in order to reduce the grade, or are -curved in their course for the same reason. - -When, on account of the steepness of pitch or a change in the direction -of the gangway, or for any other reason, one set of parallel chambers -is brought to a close, a new set is begun farther along with a -different course. - -The direction in which a gangway, airway, or chamber is to be driven is -fixed by the mine boss. His bearings are obtained with a small miner’s -compass, and he marks on the roof, near the face of the opening, a -chalk line in the direction desired. The miner, sighting back on this -line, is thus able to take his course and to keep his opening straight. - -Sets of chambers similar to those described are driven up from the -gangway along its entire length. This length may be limited by various -causes. A boundary line of property, a fault, a thinning out of the -coal seam, are some of them. They are usually driven, however, as far -as strict principles of economy will allow. A gangway that requires no -timbering and is easily kept in good working condition may be driven -to a distance of three or four miles. But where these conditions are -reversed, a mile may be as great a distance as coal can be hauled -through with economy. Beyond that limit it will be cheaper to sink -a new shaft or slope than to increase the distance for underground -haulage. - -As the main gangway progresses inward it may separate into two -branches, each following a depression in the coal seam, and these -branches may separate into others; so that there may be a number of -gangways all keeping the same general level, from each of which sets -of chambers are driven. When the chambers tributary to a gangway -have reached their limit of length, and there is still an area of -coal above them to be mined, a new gangway is opened along the faces -of the chambers, or is driven just above them in the solid coal, and -from this, which is called a “counter-gangway,” new sets of chambers -are driven up the seam. It is often necessary to raise and lower cars -passing from one gangway to the other on an inclined plane, on which -the loaded cars, descending, and attached to one end of a rope, pull -up the light cars, ascending and attached to the other end, the rope -itself winding around a revolving drum at the head of the plane. This -system can be put into use on any incline where the gradient is one in -thirty, or steeper. - -By this general system of gangways, counter-gangways, airways, -chambers, and planes, the area of coal lying on the upper side of the -main gangway and on both sides of the shaft is mined out, hauled by -mules to the foot of the shaft, and raised to the surface. On long -straight gangways the mule is sometimes replaced by a small mine -locomotive, and in these later days the electric engine has been -introduced into the mines as a hauling agent. - -So far, however, in this mine which we are supposed to be working, not -a tap of a drill nor a blow of a pick has been made into the coal on -the lower side of the gangway save where the sump was excavated at the -foot of the shaft. If this shaft has been sunk nearly to the bottom -of the basin or synclinal axis, a short tunnel may be driven from the -main gangway through the rock or upper bench of coal across the valley -to the rise of the seam on the other side. A new gangway may here be -driven right and left, and this area of coal be made tributary to the -shaft already sunk. It often happens that a large body of coal lies -between the main gangway and the synclinal axis, for these two lines -may diverge greatly as they recede from the shaft. But chambers cannot -be driven down from the main gangway owing to the difficulties of -transportation and drainage. It therefore becomes necessary, in order -to work this area, to sink a slope from the main gangway down to or -toward the synclinal axis, and from the foot of this slope to drive a -new gangway. From this new gangway chambers will be opened extending up -the seam to the line of the main gangway, but not generally breaking -through into it. The coal is run down to the lower level gangway, -hauled to the foot of the slope, and hoisted up it to the main gangway. -It is apparent, however, that the inclined plane system cannot work -here; the conditions are reversed; the loaded cars are drawn up and -the light ones are let down. To do this work it is necessary to bring -into use a small steam stationary engine, or one working by compressed -air. A common method is to locate the steam engine on the surface -vertically above the head of the underground slope, and to carry power -to the sheaves below by wire ropes running down through bore holes -drilled for that purpose. - -The system of slope mining by lifts, which is in common use in the -Middle and Southern anthracite districts, has been explained in a -preceding chapter. In this system the sump is always made by extending -the slope a short distance below the level of the gangway. This gangway -is driven from the foot of the slope to the right and left in the same -manner as in the Wyoming region, except that, the seam being so greatly -inclined, the gangway roof, or a part of it at least, will usually be -of coal instead of slate or rock, and in very steep pitching seams the -airway will be almost vertically above the gangway. The gangway is not -usually so crooked as where the workings are flat, and having been -started only three hundred feet down the slope from the surface, it -often follows the coal to some low point on the line of outcrop, and is -then known as a water level gangway, which is practically the same as a -drift. - -The system of opening and working breasts differs somewhat from that -in use in the Northern field. Beginning at such a distance from the -foot of the slope as will leave a good thick slope pillar for its -protection, a narrow shute is driven up from the gangway into the coal -to a distance of perhaps thirty feet, at a height of six feet, and -with a width of from six to nine feet. It is then opened out to its -full width as a breast and continued up the seam toward the outcrop, -not often breaking through to daylight unless an airway or manway is -to be made. Parallel breasts are then laid off and worked out by the -usual pillar and breast system. If the dip is less than twelve or -fifteen degrees, the coal may be run down from the working face in a -buggy, dumped on to a platform or into the shute, and loaded thence -into a mine car standing on the gangway. If the dip is more than -fifteen degrees the pieces of coal will slide down the breast to the -shute, though if it is under twenty-five or thirty degrees the floor of -the breast should be laid with sheet iron to lessen the friction and -give greater facility in movement. In a steep-pitching breast a plank -partition is built across the shute just above the gangway, to hold -back the coal until it is desired to load a car with it. This partition -is called a “battery,” or, if there is a similar partition to hold the -coal in the breast, a “check battery.” In this partition there is an -opening through which the coal may be drawn when desired, and through -which the men may also go to their work, though a separate manway is -often provided. In these steep-pitching breasts the miner works by -standing on the coal which he has already mined, and which is held back -by the battery, in order to reach the uncut coal above him. There are -various systems of shutes, batteries, man ways, etc., in use, but -all are based on the same principles. - -[Illustration: GROUND PLAN AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CHAMBER.] - -When the gangway of the first lift has reached its limit in both -directions, and the breasts from it have been worked up to their limit, -the slope is sunk to another distance of three hundred feet, and the -process is repeated. From the gangway of the second lift the breasts -are not extended up far enough to break through into the gangway -above; a wall of coal is left between that gangway and the faces of -the breasts, from fifteen to forty feet in thickness, known as the -“chain-pillar.” This is for the protection of the upper gangway against -falls and crushes, and is also necessary to hold back water from -escaping into the lower level. These lifts will continue, at distances -of about three hundred feet apart, until the synclinal valley is -reached. - -When the method of opening the mine by a shaft is employed in these -steep-pitching seams, the shaft is sunk to the lowest level, and the -successive sets of gangways and breasts are laid off as the work -progresses upwards; that is, the slope method of extending the lifts -downwards is simply reversed. - -The method of mining by tunnel and drift, and by slope in the flat -workings, is not different from the method already described for -shafts. So soon as the drift, tunnel, or slope has extended far enough -into the coal seam it becomes a gangway, chambers are laid off from -it, and mining goes on in the familiar mode. - -Various modifications of the pillar and breast system are employed in -the anthracite coal mines, but no system is in use which is radically -different. - -In the “long wall system,” common in Great Britain, and used to some -extent in the bituminous mines of Pennsylvania and the Western States, -the process of cutting coal is carried on simultaneously along an -extended face. The roof is allowed to fall, back of the workers, roads -being preserved to the gangway, and the roof at the face is temporarily -supported by an abundance of wooden props. - -The descriptions of underground workings that have now been given have, -of necessity, been very general in their character. It is impossible, -in a limited space, to describe the various methods and modifications -of methods which are in use. No two mines, even in the same district, -are worked exactly alike. Sometimes they differ widely in plan and -operation. That system must be employed in each one which will best -meet its peculiar requirements. There is large scope here for the play -of inventive genius. There is scarcely a mine of any importance in -the entire coal region in which one cannot find some new contrivance, -some ingenious scheme, some masterpiece of invention devised to meet -some special emergency which may have arisen for the first time in -the history of mining. Yet the general features of all coal mining -methods must of necessity be the same in underground workings. No one -reasonably familiar with them could ever mistake a map of a coal mine -for a map of anything else under the sun. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE MINER AT WORK. - - -The number of persons employed in a single mine in the anthracite -regions varies from a dozen in the newest and smallest mines to seven -hundred or eight hundred in the largest and busiest. The average would -probably be between two hundred and three hundred. In the bituminous -districts the average is not so large. - -First among those who go down into the mine is the mine boss, or, as -he is sometimes called, the “inside boss.” It is his duty “to direct -and generally supervise the whole working of the mine.” All the workmen -are under his control, and everything is done in obedience to his -orders. He reports to, and receives instructions from, the general -superintendent of the mines. - -Next in authority is the fire boss. It is his duty to examine, every -morning before the men come to their work, every place in the mine -where explosive gas is evolved or likely to be evolved, and to give -the necessary instructions to the workmen regarding the same. He also -has general oversight of the ventilating system, and sees that all -stoppings, doors, brattices, and airways are kept in proper condition. -The driver boss has charge of the driver boys and door boys, and sees -that the mules are properly cared for and are not abused. Each driver -boy has charge of a mule, and the mule draws the empty cars in along -the gangway and up to the faces of the chambers, and draws the loaded -cars out to the foot of the shaft. The door boy must stay at his post -all day and open and close the door for the cars to pass in and out. -The use and necessity of these doors will be explained in a subsequent -chapter. Then there are the footmen, carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, -and tracklayers, whose occupations in the mines are apparent from the -names which indicate their several callings. - -Finally we have the miners and the miners’ laborers, and it now becomes -a matter of especial interest to inquire into the character of their -work and their manner of performing it. To drive a gangway or airway -is much the same as driving a chamber, except that the gangway is -only about one third the width of a chamber, and must be driven on a -slightly ascending grade. Gangway driving is special work, for which -the miner receives special wages, it being impossible in this work to -send out as much coal with the same amount of labor as can be sent out -in chamber work. And since the great bulk of coal is taken from the -chambers, it will be better to observe in one of them the processes of -mining. - -There are usually four workmen, two miners and two laborers, employed -in each chamber. The miners are employed by, or are under contract -with, the coal company, and the laborers are employed by the miners, -subject to the approval of the mining superintendent. The two miners -divide their profits or wages equally with each other, and are called -“butties.” A miner’s butty is the man who works the chamber with him on -halves. A laborer’s butty is the man who is associated with him in the -employ of the same miners. Between the miner and the laborer there is -a well-defined and strictly observed line of social demarcation. The -miner belongs to the aristocracy of underground workers; the laborer -is of a lower order, whose great ambition it is to be elevated, at an -early day, to that height on which his employer stands. - -Now as to the work done by these four men. Before the chamber has -progressed a pillar’s length above the airway, propping will usually -be necessary to sustain the roof, so large an area of which has been -left without support. Hardwood props about nine inches in diameter -are used for the purpose. They are purchased by the mining companies -in large quantities, and are usually cut and hauled to the railroad -in the winter time to be shipped at any season to the mines. By the -law of 1885 the person or company operating a mine is obliged to -furnish to the miner, at the face of his chamber, as many props of the -required length as he may need. Having received the props the miner -himself sets them on each side of the middle line of the chamber at -such points as he thinks require them, or at such points as the mine -boss designates. He drives the prop to its place by means of a large -flat wedge inserted between the top of it and the roof, thus making -the stick tight and firm and also giving it a larger bearing against -the roof. Some chambers require very few props; others must be well -lined with them. Their necessity depends upon the character of the -roof. If it is soft, slaty, and loose it must be supported at frequent -intervals. It very rarely occurs that a chamber, worked to its limit, -has needed no propping from its foot to its face. Usually a good part -of the miner’s time is occupied in setting props as his work at the -face advances. - -Every seam has its top and bottom bench of coal, divided about midway -by a thin slate partition, and one bench is always taken out to a -horizontal depth of four or five feet before the other one is mined. -If the upper bench contains the best and cleanest coal, with the -smoothest plane of cleavage at the roof, that is first taken out; but -if the choice coal lies at the bottom, then the lower bench is first -mined. The reason for this is that a shot heavy enough to blast out -effectually the section of rough, bony, or slaty coal which sticks to -the roof or floor would be heavy enough to shatter the adjoining bench -of clean brittle coal, and make a large part of it so fine as to be -useless. - -Let us now suppose that the miner has a clean, vertical wall of coal -at the face of his chamber in which to begin work. Making sure that -his tools and materials are all at hand, he first takes up his drill. -This is a round or hexagonal iron bar about one and an eighth inches in -diameter, and about five and a half feet long, tipped at the working -end with steel. This end is flattened out into a blade or chisel, -having a slight concave curve on its edge, and being somewhat wider at -its extremity than the diameter of the bar. At the other end of the -drill the diameter is increased to one and a half inches, forming a -circular ridge at the extremity of the bar, in one side of which ridge -a semicircular notch is cut into the face of the drill. The use of this -notch will be subsequently explained. This, then, is the tool with -which the miner begins his work. Selecting the bench to be first mined -he chooses a point a few feet to the right or left of the middle line -of the face and delivers upon it the first stroke with the sharp edge -of his drill; and as he strikes successive blows he rotates the drill -in his hands in order to make the hole round. The drill is never struck -on the head with sledges. Its cutting force depends on the momentum -given to it in the hands of the miner, and the stroke made by it is a -jumping or elastic stroke. - -Instead of the bar drill, which has been described, many of the miners -use a machine hand-drill for boring holes. This machine works upon the -same principle that the jackscrew does. It is operated by hand by means -of a crank, and an auger-like projection forces its way into the coal. -The work of turning the crank is more laborious than that of drilling -with the bar-drill, but the extra labor is much more than compensated -for by the greater speed at which boring is done. It is probably due -to the spirit of conservatism among miners that this machine is not -in general use by them. Coal-cutting machines, working by steam or -compressed air, are not used in the anthracite mines. The character of -the coal, the thickness of the seams, and the inclination of the strata -make their employment impracticable. - -When the hole has been drilled to a depth of about four and a half -feet it is carefully cleaned out with a scraper. This is a light iron -rod with a handle on one end of it and a little spoon, turned up like -a mustard spoon, on the other end. Then the cartridge is inserted and -pushed in to the farther extremity of the hole. The cartridge is simply -a tube made of heavy manila paper formed over a cartridge stick, filled -with black powder, and folded at the ends. Dynamite and other high -explosives are not used, because they create too much waste. Ready-made -cartridges in jointed sections are largely used, but as a rule the -miner makes his own cartridge as he needs it. - -The miner’s needle is an iron rod about five and one half feet in -length, with a handle at one end. It is about five eighths of an inch -in diameter at the handle end, and tapers to a point at the other end. -When the cartridge has been pushed in to the extreme end of the bore -hole, the needle is inserted also, the point of it piercing the outer -end of the cartridge. The needle is then allowed to rest on the bottom -or at the side of the drill hole while the miner gathers fine dirt from -the floor of the mine, dampens it slightly if it is dry, and pushes -it into the hole alongside. This dirt is then forced in against the -cartridge with the head of the drill. More dirt is put in and driven -home, and still more, until, by the time the hole is filled to its -outer extremity, the packing is hard and firm. This process is called -tamping. It can now be seen that the semicircular notch on the rim of -the blunt end of the drill is for the purpose of allowing the drill -to slip along over the needle, which still retains its position, and -at the same time to fill the diameter of the hole. The tamping being -finished the miner takes hold of the needle by the handle, turns it -once or twice gently in its bed, and then slowly withdraws it. A round, -smooth channel is thus left from the outside directly in to the powder -of the cartridge, and into this channel the squib is inserted. The -squib is simply an elongated fire-cracker. It has about the diameter -of a rye straw, is about four inches in length, and its covering -projects an inch or two at one end and is twisted up for a fuse. The -covering of the squib may indeed be of straw, sometimes it is of hempen -material, but more often, in these days, it is made of paper. It is -filled with powder and is then dipped into a resinous mixture to make -it water-proof, to coat over the open end so that the powder shall not -run out, and to make the wick at the other end mildly inflammable. If -the bore hole should be very wet an iron or copper tube, through which -the needle is run, is laid to the cartridge before the hole is tamped, -and when the needle is withdrawn the squib is inserted into the mouth -of the tube. If inflammable gases are exuding from the coal through the -bore hole, or if for any other reason it is feared that the cartridge -will be exploded too quickly, a short piece of cotton wick, dipped in -oil, is attached to the fuse of the squib to lengthen it, and this -extra section of fuse is allowed to hang down from the mouth of the -bore hole against the face of coal. - -When all is ready the tools are removed to a safe distance, a lighted -lamp is touched to the fuse, the men cry “Fire!” to warn all who may -be in the vicinity, and, retreating down the chamber, they take refuge -behind some convenient pillar. The fuse burns so slowly that the men -have ample time in which to get out of harm’s way, if ordinary care is -taken. When the fire reaches the powder in the squib the same force -that propels a fire-cracker or a rocket acts upon the squib and sends -it violently through the channel or tube into contact with the powder -of the cartridge. The explosion that results throws out a section of -coal from the face, breaking it into large pieces. So soon as the -place has settled after the firing of the shot the men go back to the -face to note the result. The broken coal is pushed to one side, and -preparations are made for drilling the next hole. It usually takes five -shots to break down a single bench. When both benches of coal have been -blasted out the length of the chamber has been increased by five or six -feet. In blasting, the miner must take advantage of such conditions as -are presented to him at the face of the working, and he will bore his -hole and fire his shot where, in his judgment, the best result will -be attained. He cannot always take one position at his drilling; it -is rarely that he finds a comfortable one. Sometimes he must hold the -drill at arm’s length above his head, at other times he must rest on -his knees while working, still oftener he is obliged to lie on his back -or side on the wet floor of the mine, and work in that position, with -occasional respite, for hours at a time. - -In nearly every chamber the miner has a powder chest which he keeps -locked, and which is stored at some safe and convenient place, not too -close to the face. In this chest he keeps, besides his powder, his -cartridge paper, cartridge pin, squibs, lamp-wick, chalk, and such -other little conveniences and necessaries as every workingman must -have at hand. The other tools are usually at the face. He has there a -mining pick. This pick is straight and pointed, and from the head or -eye, where the handle enters, it will measure about nine inches to each -end. It is used for bringing down slate and coal from roof, ribs, and -face. The bottom pick is used by the laborer for breaking up the coal -after it is down. This pick measures about two feet from tip to tip, -and is curved slightly upward at the points. Each miner has two drills, -and perhaps a hand machine-drill. He has also a steel crowbar for -prying down loose portions of the roof, and for turning heavy pieces of -slate or coal. He has an eight-pound steel hammer, with a handle two -feet and four inches in length, which he uses in setting props; and he -has a heavy sledge for breaking rock and coal. The list is completed by -three large scoop shovels, used generally to shovel the smaller pieces -of broken coal from the floor of the chamber into the mine car. - -[Illustration: MINER’S TOOLS.] - -The miner must furnish his own tools. His powder, fuse, and oil he gets -from the company that employs him, and they are charged to him in the -account that is stated between them monthly. It will not do to omit -the miner’s lamp from the list of appliances used in his calling; it -is too great a necessity. Without it he could do absolutely nothing; -he could not even find his way to his chamber. Formerly candles were -much used in the mines; in Great Britain they are still common; but the -anthracite miner invariably uses a lamp. This is a round, flat-bottomed -tin box, about the size of a small after-dinner coffee cup. It has a -hinged lid on top, a spout on one side, and a handle shaped like a hook -with the point down on the opposite side. By this hooked handle the -lamp is fastened to the front of the miner’s cap, and he wears it so at -his labor, removing it only for the purpose of renewing the material in -it, or of approaching the powder chest, or of examining more closely -some portion of his work. In the lamp he burns crude petroleum, which -is fed from a cotton wick emerging from the spout. Very recently -electricity has been introduced into the gangways of some large mines, -for lighting purposes, and has given great satisfaction. Perhaps the -day is not far distant when an electric light will swing from the roof -at the face of every working chamber. - -When the coal has been blasted down and the props have been set the -miner’s work is done; the rest belongs to the laborers. They must -break up the coal, load it into the cars, run it down to the gangway, -pile up the refuse, and clear the chamber for the next day’s work. The -mine carpenters have laid a track, consisting of wooden rails set into -caps or notched ties, as far up the chamber as the working at the face -would permit. Up this track the mule and driver boy have brought the -empty car and left it at the face. The laborers throw into it first -the smaller pieces of coal which they shovel up from the floor of the -chamber, then huge chunks are tumbled in and piled skillfully on top -until the car is almost overbalanced with its load. It is then pushed -out to the gangway to await the coming of the driver boy, who attaches -it to his trip of loads and takes it to the shaft. - -The mine car is usually but a smaller edition of the coal cars that can -be seen any day on the surface railways of the country. The running -portion is of iron, and the box is stoutly built of hardwood, braced -and stiffened by iron tie-rods, bolts, and shoes. At the end of the car -is a vertical swinging door, hung from the top by an iron rod, which -crosses the box. This door is latched on the outside near the bottom, -and the coal is dumped from the car by tipping it up and letting the -unlatched door swing outward. The size of the car depends greatly on -the size and character of the workings in which it is used. Perhaps -an average size would be ten feet long, five feet wide, and five feet -high from the rail. Such a car would contain about one hundred cubic -feet, and would hold from two and one half to three tons of coal. The -track gauges in common use vary by three inch widths from two feet and -six inches to four feet. The miner and laborer start to their work -in the morning at six o’clock. If they enter the mine by shaft they -must go down before seven o’clock, for at that hour the engineer stops -lowering men and begins to hoist coal. Immediately after arriving at -the face of his chamber the miner begins to cut coal. If the vein is -thick and clean, if his shots are all effective, and if he has good -luck generally, he will cut his allowance of coal for the day by ten -or eleven o’clock in the forenoon. It will be understood that by the -system in use by most of the coal companies not more than a certain -number of carloads may be sent out from each chamber per day. And when -the miner has blasted down enough coal to make up that number of loads -his day’s work is done. It is very seldom indeed that he is not through -before two o’clock in the afternoon. But he never stays to assist the -laborer. It is beneath his dignity as a miner to help break up and -load the coal which has been brought down by means of his judgment and -skill. So the laborer is always last in the chamber. His work is seldom -done before four or five o’clock in the afternoon. He has just so much -coal to break up, load, and push down to the gangway, no matter how -successful the miner may have been. He consoles himself, however, by -looking forward to the time when he shall himself become a miner. - -Blasting is always a dangerous occupation, and the law in Pennsylvania, -embodied in the act of 1885, has recognized its especial danger in the -mines, by making certain provisions concerning it for the protection -of life and limb. The rules laid down are strict and complete, yet, -in spite of them, accidents from powder explosions and premature -blasts are frequent and destructive. But it must be said that these -accidents are due, in most part, to violations of these rules. It is -impossible for colliery authorities to keep constant watch over the -workmen in every chamber. The conduct of these men must be largely -governed by themselves, and the frequency of accidents, both serious -and fatal, as a result of carelessness on the part of workmen, does -not seem to deter other workmen from constantly running the same -risks. The most prevalent and the most serious source of danger to -the miner is not, however, in blasting, but in falls of coal, slate, -and rock from the roof, ribs, and face of the chamber. Material that -has become loosened by blasting is pulled down carelessly, or falls -without warning. In many cases the roof is insufficiently propped, -and large sections of it give way. Men are caught under these falling -masses every day, and are either killed outright or seriously injured. -Yet, as in the case of blasting, their injuries are largely the result -of their own carelessness. Any one who reads the reports of these -cases cannot fail to be convinced of this fact. The mine inspector’s -reports of Pennsylvania show that during the year 1887 there were in -the anthracite district three hundred and thirteen fatal accidents -which occurred in and about the mines. Of this number one hundred and -forty-seven were due to falls of roof and coal, while only twenty-one -were caused by explosions of blasting material. These figures indicate -plainly the direction in which the skill and supervision of operators -and the care and watchfulness of workmen should be exerted for the -protection of life. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -WHEN THE MINE ROOF FALLS. - - -A first visit to a coal mine will be prolific of strange sights and -sounds and of novel sensations. If one enters the mine by a shaft, -the first noteworthy experience will be the descent on the cage or -carriage. The visitor will probably be under the care of one of the -mine foremen, without whose presence or authority he would not be -allowed to descend, and indeed would not wish to. From the head to the -foot of every shaft a speaking tube extends, and signaling apparatus, -which is continued to the engine-room. These appliances are required -by law. In these days the signals are often operated by electricity. -At the head of the shaft is stationed a headman and at the foot of the -shaft a footman, whose assistants aid in pushing cars on and off the -carriages. The footman is notified of your coming, and you take your -place on the empty safety carriage. It swings slightly as you step on -to it, just enough to make you realize that you have passed from the -stable to the unstable, and that besides the few inches of planking -under your feet, there is nothing between you and the floor of the -mine, five hundred feet or more below you. When all is ready the -foreman cries: “Slack off!” the signal to the engineer is given, the -carriage is slightly raised, the wings are withdrawn, and the descent -begins. If the carriage goes down as rapidly as it ordinarily does -your first sensation will be that of falling. It will seem as though -that on which you were standing has been suddenly removed from beneath -your feet, and your impulse will be to grasp for something above you. -You will hardly have recovered from this sensation when it will seem -to you that the motion of the carriage has been reversed, and that -you are now going up more rapidly than you were at first descending. -There will be an alternation of these sensations during the minute or -two occupied in the descent, until finally the motion of the carriage -becomes suddenly slower, and you feel it strike gently at the bottom -of the shaft. As you step out into the darkness nothing is visible to -you except the shifting flames of the workmen’s lamps; you cannot even -see distinctly the men who carry them. You are given a seat on the -footman’s bench near by until your eyes have accommodated themselves to -the situation. After a few minutes you are able to distinguish objects -that are ten or fifteen feet away. You can see through the murky -atmosphere the rough walls of solid coal about you, the flat, black, -moist roof overhead, the mine car tracks at your feet. The carriages -appear and disappear, and are loaded and unloaded at the foot of the -shaft, while the passage, at one side of which you sit, is filled with -mine cars, mules, and driver boys in apparently inextricable confusion. -The body of a mule looms up suddenly in front of you; you catch a -glimpse of a boy hurrying by; a swarthy face, lighted up by the flame -of a lamp gleams out of the darkness, but the body that belongs to it -is in deep shadow, you cannot see it. Bare, brawny arms become visible -and are withdrawn, men’s voices sound strange, there is a constant -rumbling of cars, a regular clicking sound as the carriage stops and -starts, incessant shouting by the boys; somewhere the sound of falling -water. Such are the sights and sounds at the shaft’s foot. If now you -pass in along the gangway, you will be apt to throw the light of your -lamp to your feet to see where you are stepping. You will experience a -sense of confinement in the narrow passage with its low roof and close, -black walls. Occasionally you will have to crowd against the rib to -let a trip of mine cars, drawn by a smoking mule, in charge of a boy -with soiled face and greasy clothes, pass by. Perhaps you walk up one -of the inclined planes to a counter gangway. You are lucky if you are -in a mine where the roof is so high that you need not bend over as you -walk. The men whom you meet have little lamps on their caps, smoking -and flaring in the strong air current. You can see little of these -persons except their soiled faces. Everything here is black and dingy; -there is no color relief to outline the form of any object. Now you -come to a door on the upper side of the gangway. A small boy jumps up -from a bench and pulls the door open for the party to pass through. As -it closes behind you the strong current of air nearly extinguishes your -lamp. You walk along the airway for a little distance, and then you -come to the foot of a chamber. Up somewhere in the darkness, apparently -far away, you see lights twinkling, four of them. They appear and -disappear, they bob up and down, they waver from side to side, till -you wonder what strange contortions the people who carry them must be -going through to give them such erratic movements. By and by there is -a cry of “Fire!” the cry is repeated several times, three lights move -down the chamber toward you and suddenly disappear, then the fourth -one approaches apparently with more action, and disappears also. The -men who carry them have hidden behind pillars. You wait one, two, -three minutes, looking into darkness. Then there is a sudden wave-like -movement in the air; it strikes your face, you feel it in your ears; -the flame of your lamp is blown aside. Immediately there is the sound -of an explosion and the crash of falling blocks of coal. The waves of -disturbed air still touch your face gently. Soon the lights reappear, -all four of them, and advance toward the face. In a minute they are -swallowed up in the powder smoke that has rolled out from the blast; -you see only a faint blur, and their movements are indistinct. But when -the smoke has reached and passed you the air is clearer again, and the -lights twinkle and dance as merrily as they did before the blast was -fired. Now you go up the chamber, taking care not to stumble over the -high caps, into the notches of which the wooden rails of the track are -laid. On one side of you is a wall, built up with pieces of slate and -bony coal and the refuse of the mine, on the other you can reach out -your hand and touch the heavy wooden props that support the roof, and -beyond the props there is darkness, or if the rib of coal is visible it -is barely distinct. Up at the face there is a scene of great activity. -Bare-armed men, without coat or vest, are working with bar and pick -and shovel, moving the fallen coal from the face, breaking it, loading -it into the mine car which stands near by. The miners are at the face -prying down loose pieces of coal. One takes his lamp in his hand and -flashes its light along the black, broken, shiny surface, deciding upon -the best point to begin the next drill hole, discussing the matter with -his companion, giving quick orders to the laborers, acting with energy -and a will. He takes up his drill, runs his fingers across the edge -of it professionally, balances it in his hands, and strikes a certain -point on the face with it, turning it slightly at each stroke. He has -taken his position, lying on his side perhaps, and then begins the -regular tap, tap, of the drill into the coal. The laborers have loaded -the mine car, removed the block from the wheel, and now, grasping the -end of it firmly, hold back on it as it moves by gravity down the -chamber to the gangway. You may follow it out, watch the driver boy as -he attaches it to his trip, and go with him back to the foot of the -shaft. - -You have seen something of the operation of taking out coal, something -of the ceaseless activity which pervades the working portions of the -mine. But your visit to the mine has been at a time when hundreds of -men are busy around you, when the rumble, the click, the tap, the noise -of blasting, the sound of human voices, are incessant. If you were -there alone, the only living being in the mine, you would experience a -different set of sensations. If you stood or sat motionless you would -find the silence oppressive. One who has not had this experience can -have no adequate conception of the profound stillness of a deserted -mine. On the surface of the earth one cannot find a time nor a place -in which the ear is not assailed by noises; the stirring of the -grasses in the field at midnight sends sound-waves traveling through -space. Wherever there is life there is motion, and wherever there is -motion there is sound. But down here there is no life, no motion, no -sound. The silence is not only oppressive, it is painful, it becomes -unbearable. No person could be long subjected to it and retain his -reason; it would be like trying to live in an element to which the -human body is not adapted. Suppose you are not only in silence but in -darkness. There is no darkness on the surface of the earth that is at -all comparable with the darkness of the mine. On the surface the eyes -can grow accustomed to the deepest gloom of night. Clouds cannot shut -out every ray of light from hidden moon or stars. But down in the mine, -whether in night-time or daytime, there is no possible lightening up -of the gloom by nature; she cannot send her brightest sunbeam through -three hundred feet of solid rock. If one is in the mines without a -light, he has before him, behind him, everywhere, utter blackness. To -be lost in this way, a mile from any opening to day, in the midst of a -confusion of galleries, in an abandoned mine, and to be compelled to -feel one’s way to safety, is a painful experience, is one indeed which -the writer himself has had. - -There comes a time in the history of every mine when it is pervaded -only by silence and darkness. All the coal that can be carried from it -by the shaft or slope or other outlet has been mined and taken out, -and the place is abandoned. But before this comes to pass the work -of robbing the pillars must be done. This work consists in breaking -from the pillars as much coal as can possibly be taken without too -great risk to the workmen. The process is begun at the faces of -the chambers, at the farthest extremity of the mine, and the work -progresses constantly toward the shaft or other opening by which the -coal thus obtained is taken out. It can readily be seen that robbing -pillars is a dangerous business. For so soon as the column becomes -too slender to support the roof it will give way and the slate and -rock will come crashing down into the chamber. The workmen must be -constantly on the alert, watchful for every sign of danger, but at the -best some will be injured, some will perhaps be killed, by the falling -masses from the roof. Yet this work must be done, otherwise coal -mining would not be profitable, the waste would be too great. The coal -that can be taken out under the prevailing systems will average only -fifty per cent. of the whole body in the mine, and at least ten per -cent. more will be lost in waste at the breaker, so that it behooves -a company to have its pillars robbed as closely as possible. It is -after all this has been done, and all tools and appliances have been -removed from the mine, that it is abandoned. Perhaps the lower levels -of it become filled with water. It is a waste of crushed pillars, -fallen rock, and blocked passages. Indeed, it is difficult to conceive -of anything more weird and desolate than an abandoned mine. To walk -or climb or creep through one is like walking with Dante through -the regions of the lost. There are masses of rock piled up in great -confusion to the jagged roof, dull surfaces of coal and slate, rotting -timbers patched here and there with spots of snow-white fungus, black -stretches of still water into which a bit of falling slate or coal -will strike and send a thousand echoes rattling through the ghostly -chambers. For a noise which on the surface of the earth will not break -the quiet of a summer night, down here will almost make your heart -stand still with fear, so startling is it in distinctness. - -But it is not only in abandoned mines that falls of roof take place, -nor yet alone at the unpropped face of breast or gangway. They are -liable to occur at almost any point in any mine. Sometimes only a small -piece of slate, not larger perhaps than a shingle, will come down; -again the roof of an entire chamber will fall. It is possible that two -or more chambers will be involved in the disturbance, and instances -occasionally occur in a working mine where a fall covers an area -many acres in extent. The falls that are limited in extent, that are -confined to a single chamber or the face of a chamber, do not interfere -with the pillars and can be readily cleared away. They are due to lack -of support for the roof, to insufficient propping and injudicious -blasting, and may, to a great extent, be guarded against successfully -by care and watchfulness. But to foresee or prevent the more extended -falls is often impossible. They are due to the general pressure of -overlying strata over a considerable area, and both props and pillars -give way under so great a strain. Sometimes they come without a -moment’s warning; usually, however, their approach is indicated by -unmistakable signs days or even weeks in advance of the actual fall. -There will be cracks in the roof, small pieces of slate will drop to -the floor, the distance between floor and roof will grow perceptibly -less, pillars will bulge in the middle and little fragments of coal -not larger than peas will break from them with a crackling sound and -fall to the floor, until a deposit of fine coal is thus formed at -the base of each pillar in the infected district. This crackling and -falling is known as “working,” and this general condition is called -a “crush” or a “squeeze.” If one stands quite still in a section of -a mine where there is a squeeze, he will hear all about him, coming -from the “working” pillars, these faint crackling noises, like the -snapping of dry twigs under the feet. Sometimes the floor of underclay -or the roof of shale is so soft that the pillar, instead of bulging or -breaking, enters the strata above or below as the roof settles. When -this occurs it is called “creeping.” In the steep-pitching veins the -tendency of the pillars on the approach of a squeeze is to “slip,” -that is, to move perceptibly down the incline. When these indications -occur the workmen are withdrawn from the portion of the mine which is -“working,” and vigorous measures are taken to counteract the pressure, -by props and other supports placed under the roof. Sometimes this work -is effectual, sometimes it is of no avail whatever. Often the fall -comes before the first prop can be set; and when it comes the crash is -terrible, the destruction is great. However, not many feet in thickness -of the roof strata can come down; the slate and rock which first fall -are broken and heaped in such irregular masses on the floor that they -soon extend up to the roof and afford it new and effectual support. -It is therefore only near the outcrop, or where the mine is not deep, -that a fall in it disturbs the earth at the surface. But in the -mining of the upper veins such disturbances were frequent. In passing -through the coal regions one will occasionally see a depression, or a -series of depressions, in the earth’s surface to which his attention -will be attracted on account of their peculiar shape. They are not -often more than ten or fifteen feet in depth, and though of irregular -outline their approximate diameter seldom exceeds sixty feet. They -are the surface indications of a fall in shallow mines, and are known -as “caves” or “cave holes.” A section of country one or more acres -in extent may, however, be so strewn with them as to make the land -practically valueless. - -When the upper vein in the Wyoming region was being mined, buildings -on the surface were occasionally disturbed by these falls, but not -often. If houses had been erected over a shallow mine before the coal -was taken out, strong pillars were left under them to support the -roof, and if the mining had already been done and the pillars robbed, -no one would risk the erection of a building over a place liable to -fall, for these places were known, and points above them on the surface -could be definitely located. Sensational stories are sometimes started -concerning a mining town or city that it is liable any night, while -its inhabitants are asleep, to be engulfed in the depths of some mine, -the vast cavities of which are spread out beneath it. It is almost -unnecessary to say that such dangers are purely imaginary. There is -probably not a town or city in the mining districts so located that a -single stone of it in the populated portion would be disturbed by a -fall in the mines underneath it, supposing there were mines underneath -it, and that a fall is liable to take place in them. The areas of -surface which could possibly be disturbed by a fall are too limited in -extent, and are too well known, to make such a general catastrophe at -all within the possibilities. The mines in the upper coal seams have -for the most part been worked out and abandoned long ago, and the roof -rock has settled into permanent position and rigidity. In the deep -mines of the present day no fall, however extensive, could be felt -at the surface. The broken masses of roof rock that come down first -would have filled up the cavities and supported the strata above them, -long before any perceptible movement could have reached the surface. -The conditions that lead to surface falls in the Middle and Southern -regions are somewhat different from those that prevail in the Wyoming -field. In the first-mentioned districts steep-pitching coal seams are -the rule, and they all come to the surface in lines of outcrop. In -driving breasts up from the gangway of the first level, it is intended -to leave from ten to twelve yards of coal between the face of the -breast and the outcrop; while over the outcrop will be from twelve -to twenty feet of soil. Any experienced miner can tell when the face -of the breast is approaching the outcrop; the coal becomes softer, -changes in color, breaks into smaller pieces, sometimes water runs -down through. It is obviously unsafe to erect buildings on the line -of this outcrop, or immediately inside of it, where the roof is thin. -There is no assurance that the body of coal left will not slip down the -breast; and the pillars of coal near the surface are so soft that any -disturbance of this kind may cause them to give way and let down the -entire thickness of strata above them. This was what occurred at the -Stockton mines near Hazleton on December 18, 1869. Two double tenement -houses were situated over the face of a worked-out breast, near the -outcrop. About five o’clock in the morning the roof fell, carrying -both houses down with it a distance of about eighty feet into the old -breast. The inhabitants of one of the houses escaped from it a moment -before it went down, those in the other house, ten in number, were -carried into the mine, and were killed. The buildings in the pit took -fire almost immediately, and rescue of the bodies crushed there among -the débris was impossible. - -[Illustration: GANGWAY IN KOHINOOR COLLIERY, NEAR SHENANDOAH, PA.] - -Accidents of this class are happily very rare. The exercise of ordinary -judgment is sufficient to prevent them. The list of disasters due to -falls of roof at the faces of chambers might, as has already been -explained, be greatly reduced by the same means. But it is often -impossible to prevent, or even to guard against, those falls which -cover a large area, though their coming may be heralded for days by -the working of pillars and all the indications of a squeeze. This was -the case at the fall in the Carbondale mines in 1846, one of the most -extensive falls that has ever been known. It covered an area of from -forty to fifty acres, fourteen persons were killed by it, and the -bodies of eight of them were never recovered. Although this disaster -occurred more than forty years ago, the writer had the privilege, -in the summer of 1888, of hearing an account of it from one of the -survivors, Mr. Andrew Bryden. Mr. Bryden is now, and has been for many -years, one of the general mining superintendents for the Pennsylvania -Coal Company, with headquarters at Pittston, Pennsylvania. His story -of the fall is as follows: “This disaster occurred on the twelfth day -of January, 1846, at about eight o’clock in the forenoon. It was -in Drifts No. 1 and No. 2 of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company’s -mines at Carbondale. The part of the mine in which the caving in was -most serious was on the plane heading, at the face of which I was -at work. We heard the fall; it came like a thunderclap. We felt the -concussion distinctly, and the rush of air occasioned by it put out -our lights. I and those who were working with me knew that the fall -had come, and we thought it better to try immediately to find our way -out, although we had no idea that the fall had been so extensive or -the calamity so great. We did not doubt but that we should be able to -make our way along the faces of the chambers, next to the solid coal, -to an opening at the outcrop; so we relighted our lamps and started. We -had gone but a little way before we saw the effects of the tremendous -rush of air. Loaded cars had been lifted and thrown from the track, -and the heavy walls with which entrances were blocked had been torn -out and the débris scattered through the chambers. We began then to -believe that the fall had been a large one, but before we reached the -line of it we met a party of twenty-five or thirty men. They were -much frightened, and were running in toward the face of the heading, -the point from which we had just come. They said that the entire mine -had caved in; that the fall had extended close up to the faces of the -chambers along the line of solid coal, leaving no possible means of -escape in the direction we were going; and that the only safe place in -the entire section was the place which we were leaving, at the face of -the heading. This heading having been driven for some distance into -the solid coal, the fall could not well reach in to the face of it. We -were greatly discouraged by the news that these men told us, and we -turned back and went with them in to the face of the heading. We had -little hope of being able to get out through the body of the fall,――the -way in which we did finally escape,――for we knew that the mine had -been working, and that the roof had been breaking down that morning -in the lower level. Indeed, we could hear it at that moment cracking, -crashing, and falling with a great noise. We felt that the only safe -place was at the face of the heading where we were, and most of the -party clung closely to it. Some of us would go out occasionally to the -last entrance to listen and investigate, but the noise of the still -falling roof was so alarming that no one dared venture farther. After -a long time spent thus in waiting I suggested that we should start out -in parties of three or four, so that we should not be in each other’s -way, and so that all of us should not be exposed to the same particular -danger, and try to make our way through the fall. But the majority of -the men were too much frightened to accede to this proposition; they -were determined that we should all remain together. So when some of -us started out the whole body rushed out after us, and followed along -until we came to the line of the fall. We had succeeded in picking our -way but a short distance through the fallen portion of the mine when -we met my father, Alexander Bryden, coming toward us. He was foreman -of the mine. We heard him calling us out before he reached us, and -you may be sure that no more welcome sound ever struck upon our ears. -He was outside when the fall came, but the thunder of it had scarcely -ceased before he started in to learn its extent, and to rescue, if -possible, the endangered men. He had not gone far when he met three men -hastening toward the surface, who told him how extensive and dreadful -the calamity had been, and urged him not to imperil his life by going -farther. But my father was determined to go, and he pushed on. He made -his way over hills of fallen rock, he crawled under leaning slabs of -slate, he forced his body through apertures scarcely large enough to -admit it, he hurried under hanging pieces of roof that crashed down in -his path the moment he had passed; and finally he came to us. I have -no doubt that he was as glad to find us and help us as we were to see -him. Then he led us back through the terrible path by which he had -come, and brought us every one beyond the fall to a place of safety. -When we were there my father asked if any person had been left inside. -He was told that one, Dennis Farrell, was at the face of his chamber, -so badly injured across his spine that he could not walk. The miners -in their retreat to the face of our heading had found him lying under -a heavy piece of coal. They had rolled it off from him, but seeing -that he could not walk they set him up in the corner of his chamber, -thinking it might be as safe a place as the one to which they were -going, and gave him a light and left him. My father asked if any one -would go in with him and help carry Dennis out, but none of them dared -to go; it was too dangerous a journey. So my father made his way back -alone through the fallen mine, and found the crippled and imprisoned -miner. The man was totally helpless, and my father lifted him to his -back and carried him as far as he could. He drew him gently through the -low and narrow passages of the fall, he climbed with him over the hills -of broken rock, and finally he brought him out to where the other men -were. They carried him to the surface, a mile farther, and then to his -home. Dennis and his brother John were working the chamber together, -and when the piece of coal fell upon Dennis his brother ran into the -next chamber for help. He had scarcely got into it when the roof of the -chamber fell and buried him, and he was never seen again, alive or dead. - -“It was only a little while after we got out before the roof fell in on -the way we had come and closed it up, and it was not opened again for -a year afterward. But we knew there were others still in the mine, and -after we got Farrell out my father organized a rescuing party, and kept -up the search for the imprisoned miners night and day. - -“John Hosie was in the mine when the fall came. He was one of the -foremen, and he and my father were friends. Two days had passed in -unavailing search for him, and it was thought that he must have been -crushed under the rock with the rest. But on the morning of the third -day my father met him face to face in one of the desolate fallen -portions of the mine. He was in darkness, he was almost exhausted, his -clothing was in rags, and his fingers were torn and bleeding. When he -saw my father he could give utterance to only two words: ‘Oh, Bryden!’ -he said, and then his heart failed him and he cried like a child. He -had been caught in the fall and had lost his light, and though he -was familiar with the passages of the mine he could not find his way -along them on account of the débris with which they were filled, and -the utter confusion into which everything had been thrown. He had -wandered about for two days and nights in the fallen mine, clambering -over jagged hills of rock, digging his way, with torn fingers, through -masses of wreckage, in constant peril from falling roof and yawning -pit, hungry, thirsty, and alone in the terrible darkness. What wonder -that his heart gave way in the moment of rescue! - -“The bodies of some of those who were shut in by the fall, or buried -under it, were found when the drift was again opened, but for others -the mine has been an undisturbed grave for more than forty years.” - - NOTE ADDED IN 1898.――The latest disaster resulting from a - squeeze or fall in the mines occurred June 28, 1896, at the - Twin Shaft of The Newton Coal Mining Company at Pittston, - Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. This mine had been working for - some days, and when the fall came the Superintendent, together - with his foremen and workmen, were engaged in timbering or - propping the affected region, in order, if possible, to prevent - a fall. The effort was useless, however, and these officials - and workmen were caught while at their work, and perished - in the disaster. There were fifty-eight of them. Superhuman - efforts were put forth to rescue them, but the attempt was - useless, and later on it was found utterly impossible even to - recover their bodies, owing to the extent and magnitude of the - fall. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -AIR AND WATER IN THE MINES. - - -Man is an air-breathing animal. So soon as his supply of air is cut -off he dies. In proportion as that supply is lessened or vitiated, -his physical and mental energies fail. One of the first requisites, -therefore, in all mining operations is that the ventilation shall be -good. To accomplish this end an air current must be established. It is -true that into any accessible cavity atmospheric air will rush, but -if it be allowed to remain in that cavity without any replacement it -becomes dead and unfit to breathe. If, in addition to this, it takes -up deleterious gases, like those which escape from the coal measures, -it becomes poisoned and dangerous to human life. Hence the necessity -of a continuous current. Provisions for such a current are made with -the opening into every mine. The separate air compartment of a shaft -has already been noticed. In drifts, tunnels, and slopes a part of the -opening is partitioned off for an airway, or, what is more common, a -separate passage is driven parallel with, and alongside of, the main -one. In drifts and tunnels, since the mines there are not deep, air -shafts are often driven at some other point above the workings, or -slopes are sunk from the outcrop to accommodate the return air from the -mine. It is due to the necessity of maintaining an air current that -all passages and chambers are driven in pairs or sets in the manner -already explained. It has also been explained how the fresh air going -in at the carriage ways of the shaft, or other openings, passes along -the gangway to its extremity, back along the airway, up to and across -the faces of each set of chambers, and then down into the airway again, -to be carried to the foot of the shaft and up by the air passage to -the surface. But in the larger mines there are many passages besides -the main gangway that must be supplied with air, and the current must -therefore be divided or split to accommodate them; so these separate -currents, taken in this way from the main current, and themselves often -divided and subdivided, are called “splits.” The air channels thus -branching, uniting, crossing, and recrossing form a most complicated -system of ventilation. But the current goes nowhere by chance. Every -course is marked out for it. On the fact that it follows that given -path depends the lives of the workmen and the successful operation -of the mine. Sometimes it becomes necessary to carry two currents of -air through the same passage in opposite directions. In that case the -passage will either be partitioned along its length, or a wooden box -laid through it to conduct one of the air currents. If one air course -crosses another, as is often the case, a channel will be cut in the -roof of one of the passages, and the lower side of the channel will be -closed tightly by masonry, to prevent any possible intermingling of the -currents, a circumstance which might prove disastrous. Entrances and -cross-headings cut through between parallel passages for purposes of -ventilation are closed as soon as the next cross-heading is made, for -reasons already explained. This closing is usually done by building up -in the aperture a wall of slate, rock, and coal, and filling the chinks -with dirt from the floor of the mine. Sometimes wooden partitions are -put in instead, and between principal air passages the cross-headings -are closed by heavy walls of masonry. When it is necessary to turn the -air from any traveling way, or to prevent it from further following -such traveling way, a partition is built across the passage, and in -the opening left in the partition a door is swung. If this is across a -way through which mine cars pass, a boy will be stationed at the door -to open it when the cars come and close it as soon as they have gone -through. He is called a “door boy.” All doors are so hung as to swing -open against the current of air, and are therefore self-closing. The -law directs that this shall be done. There are several patented devices -for giving an automatic movement to mine doors; but few if any of them -are in practical operation in the anthracite mines. The conditions here -are not favorable for the use of self-acting doors, and besides this -the act of 1885 provides that all main doors shall have an attendant. -The law is very explicit on this subject of ventilation; it is a matter -of the utmost importance in operating a mine. A failure of the air -current for even an hour might, in some mines, result in the death of -all those who chanced to be inside. For this current not only supplies -air for breathing purposes, but it takes up the smoke, the dust, the -dangerous and the poisonous gases, and carries them to the surface. -In the same way pure air is drawn into the lungs, loaded with the -refuse matter brought there by the blood, and then expelled. So life is -preserved in both cases. - -In order to create this circulation of air and make it continuous, -artificial means are ordinarily used. The earliest method of creating -an artificial air current which should be constant, and one still -in use to a limited extent, is that by the open furnace. This is an -ordinary fireplace with grate bars, built near the foot of an opening -into the mine, and having a bricked-in smoke-flue which leads into the -air passage of that opening at some little distance above the floor of -the mine. The volume of heat thus passing into the airway will rarefy -the air therein, and so create and maintain a strong, invariable, -upward current. Sometimes the furnace is placed at the foot of an air -shaft a long distance from the main opening, thus making it an upcast -shaft. The reverse, however, is usually the case. All air that enters -the mine by any opening is usually drawn out at the main shaft or other -main entrance. But as the air returning from the working places of -the mine is often laden with inflammable gases, it is not allowed to -come into contact with the fire of the furnace, but is carried into -the shaft by a channel cut into the rock above the roof of the mine. -Furnace ventilation in mines in which explosive gases are generated is -dangerous at the best, and is now prohibited by the act of 1885. - -The modern and most common method of creating and maintaining a -circulation of air in a mine is by a fan built at the mouth of the air -compartment of the shaft or slope. The fan exhausts the air from the -mine by the airway, and fresh air rushes in by the carriage way, or -any other opening to the surface to restore the equilibrium. Sometimes -the fan is used as a blower and forces air into the mine instead of -exhausting it. The advantage of this method is that it gives better air -to the workmen at the faces of chambers and headings, but the objection -to it is that it brings all the smoke and gases out by the main -gangway. This is a serious objection, not only making this principal -passage unfit to see or breathe in, but making it dangerous also by the -presence of inflammable gases. The fan is therefore commonly used as an -exhauster. - -There are various kinds of fans in use at the mines, but the kind -generally employed is patterned after Guibal’s invention. It is simply -a great wheel without a rim, and instead of spokes it has blades -like those of a windmill. It is run by a steam-engine, makes forty -revolutions per minute at an average rate of speed, and sends from one -hundred thousand to two hundred thousand cubic feet of fresh air per -minute into the mine. - -The act of 1885 requires the mine operator to furnish two hundred cubic -feet of air per minute to every man in the mine. This is the maximum -amount necessary for perfect respiration. In the larger workings -perhaps six hundred men and boys are employed. For this number one -hundred and twenty thousand cubic feet of air per minute would be -required by law. A large fan would supply this amount by running at -almost its minimum rate of speed. So long, therefore, as the fan and -air passages are in good working condition there need be no fear of -lack of proper ventilation. But to give absolutely pure air to the -workers in the mine is an utter impossibility under any system that has -yet been devised. The outer atmosphere that is drawn into the mines -has hardly got beyond the light of the sun before it has taken up a -certain percentage of impurities. As it passes by the working faces -of the chambers it carries along with it the gases evolved from the -coal; principally the carbonic acid gas or black damp, and the light -carbureted hydrogen or fire damp. It also takes up and carries along -the powder smoke, the organic matter contained in the exhalations of -men and animals, the products of decaying timber, and the dust which -is always in the air. Nor is this the only deterioration which this -air current undergoes. The proportion of oxygen in it is diminished by -the burning of many lamps, by the respiration of many men, and by the -constant decay of wood. It is seen, therefore, that the air in which -the miner must breathe is far from being the pure oxygen and nitrogen -of the outside atmosphere. It follows also that the longer the route is -of any particular current, and the more working faces it passes in its -course, the more heavily laden will it be with impurities, and the more -poisonous for those men who last breathe it on its return to the upcast -air shaft. - -This evil, however, is limited in extent by the act of 1885, which -provides that no more than seventy-five persons shall be employed at -the same time in any one split or current of air. - -The wonder is that the health of these mine workers does not sooner -fail them, especially when we take into consideration the wet condition -of many of the mines. It is a fact, however, that miners as a class are -not more subject to disease than other workmen. The decimation in their -ranks is due mostly to accidents producing bodily injuries and death, -not to diseases which attack them as a result of their occupation. - -Next in importance to the matter of ventilation in mines is the matter -of drainage. The first difficulty experienced from water is while the -shaft or slope is in process of sinking. It is usually necessary to -hold the water in one side of the opening while work is going on in -the other side. A small pumping engine is generally sufficient to keep -the pit clear until the bottom is reached, but occasionally the amount -of water is such that a large engine and pumping appliances have to be -put in place at once. In Europe much trouble is often experienced from -the excessive flow of water while sinking the shaft, and a watertight -casing has frequently to follow the shaft downward in order that work -may go on at all. Such appliances are not as a rule necessary in this -country, though much difficulty has been encountered in sinking shafts -through the quicksand deposits of the Susquehanna basin in the Wyoming -valley. - -The general principle of mine drainage has been already explained. It -is, in brief, that the floor of the mine shall be so graded that all -water will gravitate to a certain point. That point is near the foot -of the shaft or slope, and is at the mouth of the drift or tunnel. -But from the sump of the shaft or slope the water must be raised by -artificial means. A powerful steam pumping engine, located at the -surface, is employed to do this work, and one compartment of the shaft -or slope, known as the pump-way, is set aside for the accommodation -of pipe, pump-rods, and supporting timbers, which extend from the top -to the bottom of the shaft. The most powerful of these pumps will -throw out a volume of twelve hundred gallons of water per minute. It -is seldom that the tonnage of water pumped from a mine falls below -the tonnage of coal hoisted, and in some of the wet collieries of the -Lehigh district eight or ten tons of water are pumped out for every ton -of coal hoisted. In the Wyoming district a thousand tons of water a day -is not an unusual amount to be thrown out of a mine by a single pump. - -In driving gangways or chambers toward abandoned workings that have -been allowed to fill with water much care is necessary, especially if -the new mine is on a lower level, which is usually the case. The act of -1885 provides that “whenever a place is likely to contain a dangerous -accumulation of water, the working approaching such place shall not -exceed twelve feet in width, and there shall constantly be kept, at a -distance of not less than twenty feet in advance, at least one bore -hole near the centre of the working, and sufficient flank bore holes on -each side.” It often happened, before accurate surveys of mines were -required to be made and filed, that operators would drive chambers -or gangways toward these reservoirs of water in ignorance of their -whereabouts. The firing of a blast, the blow of a pick, perhaps, would -so weaken the barrier pillar that it would give way and the water -breaking through would sweep into the lower workings with irresistible -force, carrying death to the workmen in its path and destruction to the -mine. Some very distressing accidents have occurred in this way. It -is customary now for operators, when approaching with their workings -a boundary line of property, to leave a barrier pillar at least one -hundred feet thick between that line and the outer rib or face of their -workings; and this whether the area on the other side of the line is -or is not worked out. Under the present system of accurate surveying -and mapping, accidents resulting from flooding by mine water should be -rare, since the location of boundary lines may be calculated almost to -the inch, as well as the location of all workings in their relation to -each other. - -But accidents due to a flooding by surface water are not always to -be obviated. Sometimes when a stream crosses the line of outcrop the -water will break through into the mine and flood the lower levels in -an incredibly short space of time; and this too when good judgment and -prudence have been used in leaving sufficient coal for protection. -The continuity and character of the strata lying between the earth’s -surface and the coal face cannot always be determined. It is not often -that accidents from flooding occur while mining is going on under large -bodies of water. The precautionary measures taken in presence of a -known danger are sufficient to reduce that danger to a minimum. - -Disasters occur occasionally as the result of a peculiarly deceptive -condition of the overlying strata, whereby a rush of earth, quicksand, -or mud into a mine causes loss of life and destruction of property. -The bed of a stream cut deep into the rocks in some former geological -period, and then filled to the level of the surrounding country -with drift in some later age, leaves a dangerous and unsuspected -depression in the strata which the miner’s drill may pierce or his -blast break into at any time with disastrous results. One of the most -characteristic of this class of accidents occurred at Nanticoke in -the Wyoming region on the 18th of December, 1885, in a mine operated -by the Susquehanna Coal Company. A miner by the name of Kiveler broke -into a depression of this kind while blasting, and immediately through -the aperture a great volume of water, quicksand, and culm came rushing -down. It filled up that entire portion of the mine, burying twenty-six -men and boys beyond possible hope of rescue and endangering the lives -of hundreds of others. Energetic efforts were made to tunnel through -the masses of sand and culm packed in the passages of the mine in -order to reach those whose avenues of escape had been cut off, many -believing that they had been able to reach high enough ground to escape -the flood. These efforts, lasting through many weeks, were wholly -unsuccessful. The men were never reached. Bore holes, drilled into the -chambers where they were imprisoned, both from the inside and from the -surface, proved conclusively that the passages were crowded full of -sand and culm, and that the men must have perished immediately upon the -occurrence of the disaster. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE DANGEROUS GASES. - - -One of the chief dangers to which workmen in the mines are subject -arises from the gases given off by minerals and metals. Though these -deleterious gases are commonly found in more or less abundance in -the coal mines, and are usually considered in connection with such -mines, they are, nevertheless, not confined to the coal measures. -They have been noticed also in mines of lead, sulphur, salt, and -other substances. It is said that anthracite contains a much larger -proportion of these gases than do bituminous or other coals, but that -being hard it holds them more tenaciously, and is therefore worked -with less risk. The soft coals, on the contrary, being porous as well -as soft, allow the gases to escape from them much more readily, and -so increase the danger at the working faces of the mines. The gas -given out most abundantly by the coal is light carbureted hydrogen, -known as marsh gas, from the fact that being a product of vegetable -decomposition under water, bubbles of it rise to the surface on -stirring the waters of a marsh. This is the gas that is known to miners -as fire damp. The French call it grisou. Marsh gas, in its simple -form, consists of four parts of hydrogen to one of carbon. It is about -one half the weight of air, and therefore rises and gathers at the -roof of a mine chamber, extending downward as it accumulates. When it -is mixed with from four to twelve times its volume of atmospheric air -it becomes violently explosive. If the mixture is above or below this -proportion it is simply inflammable, burning without explosive force, -with a pale blue flame. The value of a perfect ventilating current -across the faces of chambers which are making gas rapidly can now be -appreciated. It is not only necessary that the supply of air should -be sufficient to make the gas non-explosive, but that it should be -sufficient to dilute it beyond even the point of inflammability. For -to its inflammable more than to its explosive quality is due most of -the disasters with which it is accredited. A peculiar and dangerous -feature of this gas is that it does not always escape from the coal at -a uniform rate, but often comes out suddenly in large compact bodies. -These are called “blowers.” They are found most commonly in faults, in -cracks in the coal seams, or in open spots in the body of coal, where -they have opportunity to accumulate. They contain, besides marsh gas, -less than one per cent. of carbonic acid, and from one to four per -cent. of nitrogen. It is impossible to anticipate their coming; the -miner’s drill may strike into one and free it at any time without a -moment’s warning. It may even burst through the face by its own power. -In such cases danger is imminent, disaster is most common. - -When the naked light of the miner comes into contact with any -considerable quantity of fire damp in an explosive state the shock that -follows is terrific. Men and mules, cars and coal, are hurled together -to destruction. Walls are swept out, iron rails are bent double, doors -are torn from their fastenings, the mine is laid waste. The damage -which results from an explosion of gas is of course much greater than -that which is due to mere ignition and burning without the explosive -force. In the latter case, however, the danger to the miner is but -slightly diminished. He is liable to receive injuries which may prove -immediately fatal. His burning lamp no sooner touches the body of fire -damp than it bursts into flame, which, propelled by expansive force, -passes swiftly down along the roof of the chamber. Taking up enough -oxygen from the atmospheric air to make combustion more fierce, it -returns to the face of the chamber with a violent contractile surge, -scorching everything in its path, and then, perhaps after another brief -sally, it burns itself out. - -The miner who accidentally fires a block of fire damp falls suddenly -flat on his face on the floor of the mine, burying his mouth, nose, -and eyes in the dirt to protect them from the flame and intense heat. -Then he clasps his hands over the back of his head and neck to protect -these parts from injury, and lies waiting for the minute or two to pass -before the fire shall have burned itself out. But he must not wait too -long. The fatal after damp follows quick upon the heels of the flame, -and his only safety from certain death lies now in immediate flight. - -The danger from inflammable gases was known and appreciated very early -in the history of mining. But it was long thought to be an unavoidable -danger. Light must be had or no work could be done, and the only light -that could be obtained was from the flame produced by combustion. -Candles were commonly used. They were stuck into a ball of clay and -fastened to the sides of the working places at the most advantageous -points. The bituminous mines of England were peculiarly prolific of -inflammable gases; accidents were almost of daily occurrence. On the -25th of May, 1812, a great disaster occurred at Felling Colliery, -near Newcastle, in which eighty-nine persons lost their lives by -explosion of fire damp, and public attention and the public conscience -were directed to the matter of safety in mines more intensely than -ever. Sir Humphrey Davy was then in the zenith of his fame. In April, -1815, he returned to London after a triumphal tour through France and -Italy, in which his progress had been marked by a series of brilliant -experiments. He had no sooner reached home than he was asked by Mr. -Buddie, a well-known colliery owner of that day, to turn his attention -toward improved methods of lighting the mines. Specimens of the -dangerous gas were sent to him from Newcastle, and he experimented with -them. He found that the flame from them would not pass through a small -tube, nor through a set of small tubes standing side by side. He found -also that the length of the tube was immaterial. He therefore shortened -them until they were mere sections, until his set of parallel tubes -became simply wire gauze. The proper proportion between the substance -of the wire and the size of the aperture was found to be twenty-eight -wires to the linear inch, and seven hundred and eighty-four apertures -to the square inch, a proportion that is still in use. This wire gauze -was then made into the form of a cylindrical tube about six inches long -and one and one half inches in diameter, with a flat gauze top. To the -bottom of this tube was fastened a small cylindrical oil vessel, and to -the top a ring handle. The wick extended up from the oil vessel inside -the tube. - -When Sir Humphrey had perfected his lamp to a point of safety he took -it and went with Mr. Buddie down to Newcastle, and together they -traversed with impunity some of the most dangerous parts of the Bentham -seam, at that time one of the most fiery coal beds known. At about the -same time the celebrated George Stephenson also invented a safety lamp -similar in most respects to the Davy, so also, later, did Clanny and -Museler, and all four kinds are in general use. Other styles have been -invented also, but for the purposes to which a safety lamp is properly -applied the Davy doubtless still excels all others. Those purposes are -principally the investigation of workings to discover the presence -of gas, and to aid in the erection of proper appliances for driving -it out. It is not necessary, in these days of powerful ventilating -machinery, to allow dangerous gases to remain in working places and -to mine the coal there by the light of safety lamps. It is far safer, -and better in every way, to sweep the chambers clean from foul air by -strong ventilating currents, so that the miner may work by the light -of his naked and most convenient common tin lamp. The objection, -therefore, to the Davy lamp, that the light given out by it is too dim, -need not be considered a serious one. The size of the flame cannot be -increased without destroying the proportion between it and the gauze -cylinder, and the size of the cylinder cannot be increased without -making a dangerously large chamber for the accommodation of explosive -gas. Therefore the light given out must, of necessity, be dim. - -But the safety lamp itself must be used with care and prudence, -otherwise it may become no less an instrument of danger than the naked -lamp. When it is carried into a chamber that contains fire damp the -gas enters freely through the gauze into the cylindrical chamber, and -is there ignited and consumed without communicating its flame to the -outside body. The presence of gas is indicated by the conduct of the -flame of the lamp. If the percentage of marsh gas is small the flame -simply elongates and becomes smoky. If it is mixed with from eight to -twelve or fourteen times its volume of atmospheric air the flame of -the wick disappears entirely, and the interior of the cylinder becomes -filled with the blue flame of burning gas. It will not do to hold the -lamp long in this mixture, the wires will become red with heat, and the -outer gas may then become ignited from them. Neither will it do to hold -the lamp in a current of gaseous air moving at a greater rate of speed -than six or eight feet per second, since in that case the flame is apt -to be driven through the gauze and to set fire to the gas outside. -There is also danger if the lamp be thrust suddenly into an explosive -mixture that the force of the explosion inside the wire-gauze cylinder -will force the flame through the mesh. It will be seen, therefore, that -even the safety lamp is not an absolute protection against danger from -explosive and inflammable gases. - -The position and duties of the fire boss at each colliery have already -been referred to. He goes into the mine about four o’clock in the -morning and makes his round before the men arrive. If gas has been -found in an inflammable or explosive condition the workmen are not -allowed to enter the place until it has been cleared out by the -erection of brattices and other ventilating appliances. If only an -insignificant quantity has been found in any chamber, the miner who -works the place is warned of its existence and told to brush it out. In -obedience to this order he goes to the working face, sets his lamp on -the floor, and removing his coat swings that garment vigorously over -his head, thus mixing and diluting the gas and driving it down into the -current. - -It is not in the working chambers, however, that the most dangerous -accumulations of fire damp are found, but in the worked out and -abandoned portions of the mine. Here it may collect unnoticed until -large bodies of it are formed, and then when some one blunders into it -with a naked lamp a terrific explosion is the inevitable result. The -act of 1885 recognizes this especial danger, and makes it obligatory -on operators to keep old workings free of dangerous bodies of gas; and -to this end it directs that they shall be inspected at least once a -week by the fire boss or his assistant. Where it is known that such -gas exists, or is liable to accumulate in old workings, the entrances -to such places are barred across, and the word “Fire!” is written -conspicuously at the opening to them. But notwithstanding all rules -and precautions, ignitions and explosions of fire damp are still -dangerously common. Among the thousands of mine workers there is always -some one who is careless, some one who blunders; the lessons of -perfect watchfulness and obedience are hard lessons to be learned. - -As has already been intimated, the danger which results from the -burning of fire damp lies not alone in the fierce flame given forth, -but also, and perhaps in a still greater degree, in the product of its -combustion. This product is known to the miner as “after damp,” and -consists principally of carbonic acid gas with some nitrogen. It is -irrespirable, and a single inhalation of it, in its pure state, will -produce immediate insensibility and speedy death. It is heavier than -atmospheric air and therefore falls to the bottom of the mine as soon -as it is formed from the combustion of the light carbureted hydrogen. -It is for this reason that the miner, who has fallen on his face on the -floor of the mine to escape the flame of the burning fire damp, rises -as soon as that flame has disappeared and hastens, if he is able, to a -place of safety. Indeed, it is easier to protect one’s self from the -surging fire above than from the invisible and insidious gas below, so -quickly does it form, so deadly is it in effect. - -One of the most characteristic disasters of recent times, resulting -from the explosion of fire damp and the accumulation of after damp, -occurred on Monday, August 14, 1871, at the Eagle Shaft, situated about -a mile below the town of Pittston, in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. -At nine o’clock on the morning of that day a driver boy by the name -of Martin Mangan was passing along an upper gangway, driving a mule -with a trip of mine cars. Just above him lay a section of the mine -that had been worked out and abandoned, in the old chambers of which -a large body of fire damp had been allowed to accumulate. At the hour -mentioned there came a sudden and extensive fall of roof in these old -workings. The impulse given to the air by this fall drove it out into -the working galleries, and with it the inflammable gas. When the fire -damp reached the heading and touched the flame of Martin Mangan’s -lighted lamp there was a terrific explosion. At the mouth of the shaft -timbers were cracked, clouds of dust poured out, and débris from the -mine was thrown violently into the outer air. People who were a mile -away heard the noise of the explosion and hastened to the scene. Mining -experts knew at once what had occurred. As soon as sufficient repairs -could be made to the shaft a rescuing party, led by Superintendent -Andrew Bryden of the Pennsylvania Coal Company’s mines, descended into -the mine and began to search for victims. Those workmen who were on -the other side of the shaft from where the explosion took place were -rescued and brought out alive. But little progress could be made, -however, toward the region of the trouble on account of the after damp -which had accumulated. Up to two o’clock on Tuesday morning five dead -bodies had been discovered, and during that day twelve more were taken -out; all who had worked in that section of the mine. The positions of -these bodies showed that the men had fallen where they chanced to be -when the explosion occurred. The first wave of after damp that touched -them had made them insensible, and death speedily followed. They died -from asphyxia. - -“Black damp” is pure carbonic acid gas, containing two parts of oxygen -to one of carbon. It is the principal constituent of after damp, which -may, indeed, contain no other elements in appreciable quantities. The -two mixtures are therefore often spoken of as being the same, and the -miners apply the term “choke damp” indiscriminately to either. - -Black damp is also given off by the coal in the same manner that fire -damp is, and frequently the two mixtures are evolved together. Carbonic -acid gas is also one of the products of burning coal, of burning oil, -and of the respiration of man and beast. It is about one and a half -times as heavy as air, and is therefore always found next to the floor -of the mine. This gas is not inflammable. Its presence may be detected -by the conduct of the flame of the lamp. In an atmosphere containing -but a small percentage of it the lamp light will grow dim, and, as the -proportion of gas increases, will become more and more feeble until -it is finally extinguished. An atmosphere containing from eight to -ten per cent. of this gas may be breathed without immediate danger; -it will simply occasion dullness of intellect and numbness of body. -This condition changes into one of insensibility as the inhalation -continues, or as the percentage of gas is increased, and to enter an -undiluted body of it means sudden death. It is stated that the workmen -in the Creuzot mine, in France, descended the shaft one morning, -on their way to work, not knowing that carbonic acid had formed in -the mine during the night. Following one after another along the -main passage, they had reached a point not far from the foot of the -shaft when the leader suddenly entered into a body of black damp and -fell, stricken with asphyxia, before he could utter a cry. The man -following him fell also. The third, bending over to draw his comrade -out of danger, was himself prostrated, and the fourth, by reason of a -similar effort, shared the fate of the others. But the fifth, being -an experienced master miner, turned quickly in his tracks and obliged -those behind him to ascend the shaft. The black damp is thus quick -and terrible in its effect. The greatest danger from it, however, -exists, not at the working faces, where it is usually swept away in -the ventilating current, but in abandoned workings, where it often -accumulates unnoticed. - -“White damp” is a more dangerous gas than either of the others, but -is not so frequently found. It is carbonic oxide, and consists of -equal portions of carbon and oxygen. It is a very little lighter than -air, and has a tendency to rise. When present in a sufficiently pure -state it burns with a blue flame, but ordinarily it is incombustible -and produces no effect upon the flame of the lamp. It is tasteless -and odorless, and its presence cannot be detected before it has done -its dangerous work. To breathe an atmosphere containing a very small -percentage of it will speedily produce a fatal result. It acts on the -system as a narcotic, and its effect is produced even more quickly than -is that of black damp. It is not thought to be given off in appreciable -quantities by the coal at the open faces; but it is formed when the -carbonic acid passes through any ignited carbonaceous material, or -when steam passes over burning coal. It is therefore produced most -frequently by smouldering gob fires, by burning wood in the mines, or -by a shaft on fire, and may exist as one of the results of an explosion -of fire damp or of blasting powder. It is the most to be dreaded of any -of the gases which the miner has to encounter. He may possibly avoid -the surging flame of the fire damp, he may escape from the falling -after damp, and make his way unharmed through bodies of black damp -lying thick about his feet, but if he has still to encounter this -terrible white damp his good fortune will have been of little avail; -death will almost surely seize him. - -In connection with this may be mentioned the fact that under certain -conditions coal dust may become violently explosive. When it is mixed -with air, with or without the presence of fire damp, and is set into -sudden and intense vibration by a heavy powder blast, a fall of roof, -or other means, it may explode with greater destructive force than even -fire damp is capable of. Happily such explosions are not frequent, all -the conditions necessary being rarely present at the same time. It is -obvious, moreover, that an accident of this kind could occur only in -a very dry mine. It is true also that the dust of bituminous coals is -much more liable to be explosive than the dust of anthracite. No well -authenticated instances of coal dust explosions have been reported -from the anthracite regions, while in mining soft coals they have -undoubtedly occurred. Two cases of this kind were reported from France, -one in 1875 and one in 1877. No longer ago than November 9, 1888, a -terrible explosion of coal dust occurred in a bituminous coal mine at -Pittsburg, Kansas, by which more than one hundred lives were lost. - -In some mines the inflammable and poisonous gases are given off in such -abundance by the coal that it is dangerous to remain in them for even -an hour after ventilation has been stopped. At such collieries when, on -account of accident, or for any reason, the fan stops running, the men -are called out immediately, and are not allowed to enter again until a -new circulating current has been established. One of the most notable -mine disasters of recent years was caused by the quick accumulation -of black damp and white damp in a mine, the ventilating system of -which had been destroyed and the shaft burned out by fire. This was at -Avondale, near Plymouth, in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, on the 6th -of September, 1869. There were three conditions here, the presence and -coöperation of which made this calamity possible. First, the mine was -ventilated by a furnace at the foot of the shaft; second, the breaker -was built over the mouth of the shaft; and, third, the shaft was the -only outlet from the mine. The partition of the ventilating flue took -fire from the furnace draught. At ten o’clock in the forenoon a young -man by the name of Palmer Steele stepped on the carriage with a load of -hay to take to the inside stables. Half way down the shaft the hay took -fire from the burning buntons. The engineer saw the flames rise from -the mouth and let the carriage, with the young man on it, as quickly -as possible to the bottom. There were then in the mine one hundred and -eight men. Not one of them came out from it alive. In an incredibly -short space of time the flames leaped to the top of the breaker, one -hundred feet from the ground, and by the middle of the afternoon the -great building was a mass of ruins, covering over and blocking up -the only entrance to the mine. It was far into the night before the -débris had been sufficiently cleared away to permit of descent into the -shaft. Then two men, Thomas W. Williams and David Jones, went down to -search for the imprisoned miners. They were scarcely beyond the foot -of the shaft when they stumbled into a body of white damp and were -stricken with death. The fire occurred on Monday. It was not until ten -o’clock Tuesday morning that a sufficient ventilating current had been -established to make it safe for men to descend. The greatest distance -that it was possible to go from the foot of the shaft on Tuesday was -seventy-five feet. Beyond that point the danger from suffocation was -still imminent. Only three bodies had been thus far found. - -Wednesday morning a rescuing party went up the plane at some distance -from the foot of the shaft, and at the head of the plane they found a -barrier across the gangway. It had been formed by placing a mine car in -position and packing the space between it and the walls with clothing -and refuse. This barrier was broken down, but there was no one behind -it. Later another party was able to go a little farther, and came to -a second barrier. Outside of this lay the dead body of John Bowen. He -had come out for some purpose from behind the barricade, leaving open -an aperture through which to crawl back, but before he could do so he -had died from asphyxia. This barrier was broken down, and behind it -lay the victims, one hundred and five of them, all dead, suffocated -by the foul gases of the mine. The story of their experiences, their -struggles, their sufferings, can never be known. - -The disaster which occurred at the West Pittston mine on May 27, 1871, -was similar in many respects to that at Avondale. In this case also the -breaker, built over the shaft, the only opening to the mine, took fire -and burned to the ground, closing the avenue of escape to thirty-six -men and boys. These prisoners shut themselves into a chamber, building -a barricade across the foot of it to keep out the foul gases; but when -the rescuing party broke in to them on the following day fourteen of -them were found dead and the rest were unconscious. Of those who were -brought out alive four died soon after reaching the surface. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE ANTHRACITE COAL BREAKER. - - -In the act of 1885 it is provided that “no inflammable structure other -than a frame to sustain pulleys or sheaves shall be erected over the -entrance of any opening connecting the surface with the underground -workings of any mine, and no breaker or other inflammable structure -for the preparation or storage of coal shall be erected nearer than -two hundred feet to any such opening.” This was for the purpose of -preventing, if possible, such lamentable disasters as those of Avondale -and West Pittston. The results of this legislation in providing greater -security to the employees in mines is invaluable. Formerly it had -been the custom to build not only the shaft-house over the opening -into the mine, but the breaker itself, wherever there was one, was -usually erected over the mouth of the shaft. This was convenient and -economical, since the coal could be hoisted directly from the mine to -the top of the breaker, without the delay of a horizontal transfer at -the surface of the earth. Many of the shaft houses and breakers that -had thus been built at the time of the passage of the act are still -in operation, and will so remain until the time of their utility is -passed. But all new buildings are erected in accordance with the law. - -[Illustration: THE SLOAN COAL BREAKER, HYDE PARK, PA.] - -At the mouth of the shaft heavy upright timbers are set up, inclosing -the opening. These are united by cross-beams, and the whole structure -is well braced. In this head-frame are set the sheaves, at a distance -from the ground of from thirty to fifty feet, although, when the entire -surface plant was under one cover, they were set much lower. These -sheaves are huge upright wheels sixteen feet in diameter, over which -the ropes pass that connect with the cages. A sheave similar in form to -the bicycle wheel is now coming rapidly into use; it is found to bear a -greater strain in comparison with its weight than does any other form. - -The hoisting engine must be in the immediate vicinity of the shaft, and -the rooms for this and the boiler, furnace, and pump are usually all -under one roof. The iron or steel wire ropes extend from the sheaves -in the head frame to the drum in the engine-room, around which they -are coiled in such a manner that as one is being wound up the other is -being unwound. Therefore as one carriage ascends the other descends by -virtue of the same movement of the engine. - -Since the breaker may receive coal from two or more openings it must be -so located as to be convenient to both or all of them. If the ground -slopes sufficiently the breaker may be so built that its head will be -on a level with the head of the shaft. This will save breaker hoisting. -When coal is brought out by a slope the track and grade of the slope -are usually continued, by an open trestlework, from the mouth of the -opening to the head of the breaker. Wherever it is possible to do so, -the loaded cars are run by gravity from the mouth of the opening to the -breaker, and the empty ones are drawn back by mules. Sometimes they -are hauled both ways by mules, and sometimes a small steam locomotive -engine is employed to draw them back and forth. - -The coal breaker is an institution that is peculiar to the anthracite -coal fields of Pennsylvania. Its need was made manifest early in the -history of anthracite mining, its development was rapid, and it has now -come to be wholly indispensable in the preparation of anthracite coal -for the market. It is very seldom indeed that one sees this coal in the -shape and size in which it was mined. All anthracite coal for domestic -use is now broken, screened, and separated into grades of uniform size -before being placed upon the market, and this work is done in the coal -breakers. - -Previous to the year 1844 these breakers were unknown. Several -experiments had been made in the matter of breaking coal by machinery, -but there had been no practical results, and the breaking still -continued to be done by hand. In that year, however, a breaker after -the modern plan was erected at the mines of Gideon Bast, in Schuylkill -County, by J. & S. Battin of Philadelphia. It was started on the 28th -of February, 1844. There were two cast-iron rollers in it, each about -thirty inches long and thirty inches in diameter, and on the surface -of these rollers were set iron teeth or projections about two and one -half inches long and four inches from centre to centre. These rollers -were placed horizontally, side by side, and were so geared that, as -they revolved, their upper surfaces turned toward each other, and the -teeth on one roller were opposite to the spaces on the other. These -rolls were afterward improved by being perforated between the teeth, -thus presenting less of solid surface to the coal, and causing less -crushing. Another set of rollers was afterward added, being placed -above the first set, and having the teeth larger and wider apart, -so that large lumps of coal might first be broken into pieces small -enough to be crushed readily by the lower set. After the perfecting -of the rolls came the perfecting of the screens for the purpose of -separating the broken coal into grades according to size. Before the -introduction of coal breakers a hand screen was used. This screen was -set in a frame, was cylindrical in form, and was slightly inclined from -the horizontal. It was turned by a crank at one end, in the manner of -a grindstone. The screen placed in the breaker was of much the same -pattern, except that instead of being from five to eight feet long the -length was increased to twenty feet, and the diameter correspondingly -enlarged. Mr. Henry Jenkins of Pottsville then invented a method of -weaving thick wire into screen plates about three feet wide, having -the proper curve. These curved plates being joined together formed the -necessary hollow cylinder. These separate plates are called jackets, -and when one of them wears out it may be taken from the cylinder and -replaced, with but little trouble and delay. The screen is set in heavy -framework, and is inclined slightly from the horizontal. The first -segment at the upper end of the screen is made of wire woven into a -mesh so fine that only the smallest particles of coal will pass through -it; the mesh of the next segment is larger, and that of the next larger -still. The screen may contain from two to five segments in its length. -Now the coal, being poured in on top of the revolving rolls, comes out -from under them broken into small pieces, and passes immediately into -the upper or highest end of the hollow cylindrical screen as it would -pass into a barrel. But, as the screen revolves on its axis, the finer -particles of coal fall out through the fine mesh of the first segment, -and are carried away in an inclined trough, while the rest of the coal -slides on to the next segment. Here the next smallest particles fall -through and are carried away, and the process is continued until the -lower end of the screen is reached, out of which end all the coal that -was too large to pass through the mesh of the last segment is now -poured. It will be seen that by this means the different sizes of coal -have been separated from each other and can be carried by separate -shutes to the loading place. This is the principle of the rolls and -screens which are the main features of every coal breaker, though each -breaker usually contains two or more sets of rolls and from eight to -twelve screens. The Woodward breaker recently erected near Kingston, -Pennsylvania, has six pairs of rollers and twenty screens. Some of -these screens are double; that is, they have a larger outside screen -surrounding the smaller one, and the coal that passes through the inner -screen is caught by the outer one and again divided by means of a -smaller mesh. - -Before the days of breakers and screens coal was sent to market in -the lump, as it came from the mine, and it was generally broken and -prepared for use by the consumer. But when the separation of coal in -the breaker became reduced to a system, the four smaller sizes than -lump coal were soon graded. They were known as steamboat, egg, stove, -and chestnut. It was thought at the time that no finer grade of coal -than chestnut could be burned to advantage. But it was not long before -a smaller size, known as pea coal, was separated, placed on the market, -and readily sold; and now, within recent years, another still smaller -size called buckwheat has been saved from the refuse and has come into -general use. Everything smaller than this is culm and goes to the waste -pile. The names of the different sizes of marketable coal and the -spaces over and through which they pass in the process of separation -are given in the following table, taken from Saward’s “Coal Trade -Annual,” for 1888:―― - - ───────────────────┬──────────┬────────── - │ OVER. │ THROUGH. - │ Inches. │ Inches. - ───────────────────┼──────────┼────────── - Lump coal bars │ 4½ to 9 │ - Steamboat “ │ 3½ to 5 │ 7 - Broken mesh │ 2⅜ to 2⅞ │ 3¼ to 4½ - Egg “ │ 1¾ to 2¼ │ 2⅜ to 2⅞ - Large stove “ │ 1¼ to 1⅞ │ 1¾ to 2¼ - Small stove “ │ 1 to 1¼ │ 1¼ to 1½ - Chestnut “ │ ⅝ to ¾ │ 1 to 1¼ - Pea “ │ ⅜ to ⅝ │ ⅝ to ⅞ - Buckwheat “ │³∕₁₆ to ⅜ │ ⅜ to ⅝ - Dirt “ │ │³∕₁₆ to ⅜ - ───────────────────┴──────────┴────────── - -The necessity which controls the form and construction of the breaker -building is that the unbroken and unscreened coal must first be -taken to a point in the building sufficiently high to allow of its -passage, by gradual descent, with slow movement, through successive -rolls, screens, shutes, and troughs until, thoroughly broken and fully -cleaned and separated, it reaches the railroad cars, standing under -the pockets, and is loaded into them for shipment. It is sometimes -possible, as has already been intimated, to locate a breaker on the -side of a hill so that the coal may be run into the head of it from the -mine by a surface track without the necessity of hoisting. In this case -the building will hug the hill, extending for a long distance down the -slope of it, but without rising at any point to a great height from -the surface of the ground. In these days, however, the breaker is more -frequently erected in the valley. The general results are thought to be -better, and the special convenience to railroad outlets to market is -certainly greater. Besides this, the necessities of the case in shaft -mining seem to demand it. - -A peculiar and characteristic feature of a breaker so built is the -great vertical height to which one portion of the building is run -up. This is the portion that contains the shaft up which the coal is -hoisted, and from the top of which it starts on its long descending -route to the surface again. From one hundred to one hundred and fifty -feet is not an unusual height for this portion of the building. From -this topmost part of the structure the roof slopes down by stages, on -one or two sides, widening out, running off at an angle to cover a -wing, spreading by a projection here and there until, by the time the -last ten feet in height are reached, the ground space covered by the -building has come to be very great. Under the last or lowest portion -of the structure are the railroad sidings on which the cars stand to -be loaded from the many pockets in which the shutes have terminated. -Two engines are necessary at the breaker, one a winding engine to -hoist coal from the surface to the top of the breaker, and the other a -breaker engine to move the rolls, screens, and other breaker machinery. -The winding engine is usually put on the opposite side of the shaft -tower from the rolls and screens, and the ropes from it, either exposed -or under cover of a long sloping roof, reach up to the sheaves in the -head frame. The breaker engine is usually housed in a wing at one -side of the main building, while the several nests of boilers, under -a separate cover, are required by the act of 1885 to be at least one -hundred feet away from the breaker. - -No one, having once seen and examined an anthracite coal breaker, could -ever mistake one for a building erected for any other purpose. These -breakers have a character peculiarly their own. They are the most -prominent features in the landscape of every anthracite coal region, -where they tower up black, majestic, many-winged, and many-windowed, in -the range of almost every outlook. - -When the mine car full of coal is hoisted to the head of the breaker it -is run by two headmen from the carriage across the scale platform to -the dump shute bars on to which it is dumped. These are long, sloping, -parallel iron bars, set two and one half inches apart. The dirt and all -the coal that is small enough falls through these bars into a hopper, -from which it is fed into a pair of screens, one on each side. These -separate the dirt in the manner already described, and divide the clean -coal into sizes smaller than, and including, egg. Each size as it falls -through the segment of, or out at the end of, the screen, is caught in -a separate shute and carried to a second set of revolving screens where -it is again cleaned and separated, passing from these screens into the -picking shutes. All the shutes or troughs in which the coal is carried -have a sufficient inclination to make the material move by gravity, -and, to decrease the amount of friction, the bottom and sides of each -shute are lined with sheet iron. The large coals which passed over the -dump shute bars now slide down to a second set of bars, set four and -one half inches apart, called steamboat bars; all coal falling through -these being separated by still a third set of bars into steamboat and -egg, and eventually finding its way to the picking shutes or to the -rolls which break the prepared coal. All coal which passed over the -steamboat bars is lump coal, and, after having the slate and bony coal -removed from it by hand as it passes, is carried into the lump-coal -shute and sent down to the loading place; or else it is carried, by -another shute, into the heavy rolls and crushed. As it emerges, -broken, from these rolls, it passes into revolving screens, and the -same process of screening and separating goes on that has been already -described in the case of coal falling through the first or dump-shute -bars. But all this broken, screened, and separated coal finds its way -eventually into the picking shutes. These are narrow troughs down which -the separate grades of coal pass slowly in shallow streams. Across the -top of each trough, at two or more points in its route through the -picking-room, narrow seats are placed on which boys sit facing up the -shute. These boys are called slate pickers. It is their duty to pick -out the pieces of slate, stone, or bone, from the stream of coal which -passes under them, and throw this refuse into a trough at the side of -the shute, from which point it slides rapidly away. The coal as it -comes from the mine is full of waste material, so that the boy who -sits first or highest on the shute has no trouble in finding plenty to -do, and, work as hard as he may, much of the unfit material must still -escape him. The boy who sits below him on the shute is able to give the -passing stream a closer inspection and more careful treatment, and, -should there be one still below, he must have sharp eyes and skillful -fingers to detect worthless pieces that have been left by his comrades. -The boys often put their feet in the shute and dam the coal back for -a moment to give them time to throw out the abundance of slate that -they may see, but no matter how careful they are, nor how many hands -the coal may pass through in the picking process, a certain percentage -of slate and bone is sure to remain. The slate pickers are not all -stationed in one room, though the picking-room usually holds the -greater number of them. They are put at the shutes in any part of the -breaker where their services may be useful or necessary. Indeed, there -are pickers who sit at the refuse shutes to pick out the pieces of good -coal which have been inadvertently thrown in by the other pickers. In -some breakers the coal passes from the shute across a gently sloping -platform, by the side of which the boy sits to pick out the waste. - -[Illustration: SCREEN-ROOM IN BREAKER, SHOWING SCREEN AND SHUTES.] - -But the time is undoubtedly coming when the occupation of the picker -boy will be gone. The inventive genius of the age has already devised -machinery which does its work faster, better, and with greater -certainty than the most conscientious breaker boy could hope to do it. -The great collieries are, one by one, adopting the new methods, and the -army of breaker boys is gradually but surely decreasing. - -Nearly all the slate-picking machines are based on the fact that the -specific gravity of coal is lighter than that of slate or stone. One -method brings the principle of friction into play. A section, a few -feet in length, of the floor of the shute down which the coal passes -is made of stone. At the end of this stone section is a narrow slot -cut in the floor, crosswise of the shute, and beyond the slot the iron -bottom is continued as before. Now when the shallow stream of broken -coal strikes the stone bottom the friction between that bottom and -the pieces of slate and stone is so great that these particles are -impeded in their progress, and by the time they reach the slot they -have not impetus enough to cross it and must therefore drop into it and -be carried away. But the friction between coal and stone is slight in -comparison, and the pieces of coal retain enough of their impetus to -carry them safely across the slot and on down the shute. This is not a -perfect separation, and the coal and slate which it divides has usually -to be looked over again, to insure satisfactory results. The best and -most practicable invention thus far brought into use is that of Mr. -Charles W. Ziegler, picker boss at the Von Storch colliery, Scranton. -This machine acts somewhat upon the method last described, though by -a system of rollers, levers, and screens in connection with it and -attached to it, it is able to make quite perfect separation of the coal -and slate. Two or three of these machines placed on a single shute -should do the work required of them very thoroughly. - -The experience of domestic buyers of coal would seem to indicate, -either that the picker boys do not do their whole duty or that the -picking machines have not yet been made perfect. But it must be -remembered that the separation of slate and bony coal from good -material is made only in a rough and general way in the mine, and that -a very large percentage of the output, as it reaches the breaker, -is unfit for use. To clean and separate this material thoroughly, -therefore, requires much labor, and extreme care and skill. - -After these separate streams of coal have passed the scrutiny of the -picker boys or the test of the picking machine, the shutes in which -they run are narrowed into pockets or bins, closed at the end by a -gate. The pocket projects over the car track high enough from it for a -railroad coal car to stand beneath, and the coal is then fed from the -pocket into the car at will. - -There is also a loading place for the rock and slate which have been -separated from the coal on its way through the breaker; and there are -two or three points where the coal dirt is gathered from its pockets -to be taken away. All this refuse is run out by separate tracks to a -convenient distance from the breaker and there dumped. - -It is estimated that sixteen per cent. of the material which goes -into the breaker to be prepared comes out as waste, and is sent to -the refuse dump. It can readily be supposed, therefore, that in the -course of a few years these waste heaps will grow to an enormous size; -and as a matter of fact they do. The dirt or culm, which includes all -material finer than buckwheat coal, is usually dumped on a separate -pile from the rock, slate, and bony coal, since it is not wholly -without at least prospective value. It has been used frequently in -the coal regions to fill in beneath railroad tracks supported by -trestle-work, and it is valuable as a foundation on which to lay -stone flagging for footwalks, since it does not yield readily to -the action of frost. Culm has also been utilized by adding to it a -certain percentage of mucilaginous or pitchy material and compressing -it into bricks for fuel. In some European countries a large amount of -waste is burned in this way, but in America the cost of preparation -is still too great to permit of competition with prepared anthracite. -The most characteristic feature of scenery in the anthracite coal -regions, aside from the breakers themselves, is the presence of these -great, bare, black hills of culm, shining in the sunlight, smoothly -white under the snows of winter. Sometimes these culm banks take fire, -either spontaneously or as the result of carelessness or accident. If -the pile is near enough to the breaker to menace it, or near enough -to an outcrop to carry combustion into the coal of the mine, the fire -must be extinguished, and this is sometimes done with much labor and -at great expense. If no danger is apprehended, the fire is allowed to -smoulder until it burns out, a process which may take months or even -years, during which time little blue flames flicker on the surface of -the bank, the sky above it is tinged with red at night, and the whole -black hillside is finally covered with great blotches of white ash. To -the poor people who live in the vicinity of the breakers these heaps -of refuse coal are an unmixed blessing. Pieces of good coal are always -being thrown out inadvertently with the waste, and the bony coal that -is discarded is not by any means without value as a fuel; indeed it -makes a very respectable fire. So, too, one can obtain, with a screen, -from the culm heap quite a little percentage of material that will -burn. Thus it comes about that every day women and children and old -men go to these black hills with hammer and screen and gather fuel for -their fires, and carry it home in bags, or wheelbarrows, or little -handcarts. It is the old story over again of the gleaners in the field. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -IN THE BITUMINOUS COAL MINES. - - -A brief history of the discovery and introduction into use of the -bituminous coals of Pennsylvania has already been given; but only -casual reference has been made to the methods of mining in the -bituminous regions. It is true that of the one hundred and twenty -thousand square miles of workable coal beds in the United States less -than five hundred square miles are of anthracite coal. It is true, -also, that more than two thirds of the coal produced in the United -States during the year 1887 was of the bituminous variety, and that -the income from bituminous coal during that year was nearly twice as -much as the income from anthracite. Yet it is obvious that in any -description of coal mining methods the anthracite mines should be -used as the chief examples. This is not only because of the greater -commercial importance of anthracite, and of its greater familiarity -as a domestic fuel, but it is principally because of the far greater -skill, judgment, and ingenuity required in mining it and preparing it -for market. In the bituminous regions the coal is soft, lies flat and -near the surface, and is mined by the simplest methods. The reader -is already familiar with some of the complications, obstacles, and -problems that meet and beset the operator in the anthracite regions, -and with the great labor, vast expenditures, and high degree of skill -necessary to reach, take out, and prepare the anthracite coal. In -view of these facts no excuse is necessary for attaching the greater -importance to the description of methods in the anthracite region. But -a brief outline of the systems in vogue at the bituminous mines will -not be uninteresting, so far at least as they differ from those in use -at the anthracite mines. - -In the year 1887 a little more than one third of the bituminous -coal output of the United States came from the Pennsylvania mines. -Pittsburgh is the centre of the soft coal trade of that state, and -the principal coal seam of the region is known as the “Pittsburgh -bed.” It is included in an area about fifty miles square, and varies -in thickness from two or three feet in the northwestern part, and six -feet at Pittsburgh, to ten feet up the Monongahela River, and twelve -feet up the Youghiogeny. The exhaustion of so vast a coal bed is a -practical impossibility, and the questions that engage the attention of -the mining engineer in these regions are not so much questions of the -economy of coal as they are questions of the economy of labor. The coal -lies near the surface, and the outcrops on the flanks of the hills and -banks of the rivers are so numerous that most of the mining can be, -and is, done by drift above water level. The outlay of capital required -in opening a mine is therefore very small, marketable coal being -obtained at almost the first blow of the pick. - -Before mining operations are begun a complete survey is made of all -outcroppings, and their differences in level are obtained. From this -data a comparatively accurate knowledge may be had of the position of -the coal bed under ground, as the dip of the seams is very moderate and -uniform, and but few faults and other irregularities are encountered. -It is then decided where to locate the mouth of the drift so that the -entry can be driven in on the rise of the coal and the mine become -self-draining. It is important, however, to have the opening at a -convenient point near the river or railroad, and it is usually so made -if possible, even though the dip should be away from the opening. -The inclination is always so slight as not to interfere greatly with -the hauling of cars, and it is not much of a task to make a separate -opening for drainage. The coal seam is divided by vertical cleavage -planes, running at right angles to each other, one of which is known -as the _butt_ cleavage and the other as the _face_ cleavage. The -main entries are driven in, if possible, on the face cleavage, as -are also the chambers, or “rooms” as they are called here; while the -entries from which the rooms are turned are always driven on the butt -cleavage. The drift, or main entry, has an airway running parallel -with it; sometimes it has one on each side of it. It is driven eight -or nine feet in width, except where two tracks are necessary, in which -case it is made from twelve to fifteen feet wide. These double or -treble entries are parallel to each other, and are separated by a wall -of coal from twenty-five to forty feet in width. Through this wall, -at about every thirty yards, entrances, or, as they are called here, -“break-throughs,” are made, having the same width as the entry. The -height of roof in the entries of the Pittsburgh seam is usually five -and one half or six feet in the clear. At right angles to the main -entry butt entries are driven in pairs, parallel to each other and -about thirty or forty feet apart, with break-throughs or cross-cuts -for the passage of air, as on the main entries. From each of these -butt entries, at right angles to them, and in opposite directions, -the rooms are driven. They are made about twenty-one feet wide, with -pillars between them twelve feet thick, and are not often more than -eighty yards in length. They are usually driven to meet the faces of -the rooms which are being worked from the next parallel butt entry, or -are extended to that butt entry itself. At the point where the room -turns off from the butt entry it is made only seven feet wide for a -distance of from fifteen to twenty-one feet, then the room is widened -out to its full width of twenty-one feet. The track on which the mine -wagon runs is laid straight up the side of the room from the opening -at the entry, occupying a clear space about seven feet wide. The rest -of the room is well filled with the refuse which has been separated -from the coal as mining has progressed, and the roof is supported by an -abundance of props, or “posts” as they are here called. In one room, -with an ordinary roof, about six hundred and fifteen posts would be -necessary. The pillars are long, the distances between break-throughs -averaging thirty yards. This is known as the “double entry” system, -to distinguish it from the single entry system which was formerly in -general use. The method by single entry consisted in driving the butt -entries singly, about one hundred and sixty yards apart, and the face -entries the same distance apart, at right angles to the butt entries, -thus laying off the mine in large square blocks which were then mined -out. The difficulty with this system was that from twenty-five to fifty -per cent. of the pillars were necessarily lost, while by the double -entry system, which now prevails, all or nearly all the pillars can be -taken out. - -Of course the features in the plan of each mine vary according to the -special necessities of that mine, but in general they do not differ -greatly from those that have been described. - -[Illustration: PLAN OF A BITUMINOUS COAL MINE.] - -The method of cutting coal here is also peculiar to the soft coal -mines. The miner has a pick with sharp, pointed ends, and with this -he cuts a horizontal groove or channel, from two and a half to three -and a half feet deep across the entire width of the entry or room. -This groove is cut in that horizontal section of the face known as the -bearing-in section. It may be in the bottom layer of coal, or it may -be one or two feet above the bottom. The process itself is known as -“bearing in,” “under cutting,” “holing,” or “undermining.” While he -is at this work the miner must lie on the floor of the room, partly -on his side, but with hands and arms free. When the horizontal groove -has been completed a vertical groove similar to it in size and shape -is made at one side of the face. These channels are sometimes cut -with mining machines having compressed air for a motive power. This -machine is small but powerful. It is placed on a low inclined platform -at the face of coal, and is operated by a man called a “runner.” The -inclination of the platform causes the machine, which is on wheels, to -gravitate constantly toward, and to press against, the face of coal. -The compressed air cylinder drives a piston-rod to which is attached -a steel bit two inches in diameter projecting from the front of the -machine. This bit strikes the coal with sharp, swift blows, chipping -it out in small fragments, and eats its way rapidly into the seam. -The compressed air is carried to the machine in an iron pipe from the -compressing engine, which is located at the mouth of the mine. When -a machine is used, seven men usually work three rooms. Three of these -men are contractors or partners, three of them are laborers employed -by the contractors, and one of them, called the “scraper,” is a -laborer employed by the coal company. When the channel has been cut a -sufficient depth and distance the coal above it is brought down either -by wedging or blasting. If blasting is to be resorted to it will be -unnecessary to cut the vertical groove. If the bearing-in channel was -cut above the floor, the bottom coal is then lifted by wedging, and -broken up. The miners do the cutting and blasting, the laborers break -up the coal and load it into the mine wagons, and the scraper is kept -busy cleaning the cuttings away from the channels and attending to the -lamps. - -The mine car track that is extended up into the room is of wooden -rails, and the empty wagon is pushed in to the face by the laborers, -and loaded and run out by them to the entry. Each wagon will hold a -little more than a ton, and a mule will draw four wagons to the mouth -of the drift. The wheels of the mine car are set close to each other, -near the middle of the car, to facilitate its movement around sharp -curves; the doors at the ends of the car are swung from a bar hinge at -the top, and the cars are dumped in the same manner as those in the -anthracite region. In some of the bituminous mines a small locomotive -is used to draw the trains of mine wagons from the working parts of -the mine to the opening. It will draw from twelve to sixteen wagons -at a time, and will do the work of twenty mules. There is usually a -separate split of the air current to supply the locomotive road in -order to keep the smoke out of the working rooms. - -When a set of rooms has been driven to its limit the miners then -“draw back the rib;” that is, take out the pillars between the rooms, -beginning at the face and working back. Posts must be used freely to -support the roof while this work is in progress, about sixty or seventy -being necessary in drawing a rib. - -Ventilation here is obtained by both the fan and the furnace systems. -In mines that are worked below water level fire damp often accumulates, -but where the coal does not descend at any point below the water-level -line, there is no probability that mine gases will be found. - -As has already been said, the usual method of entry into the bituminous -mines has been, and still is, by drift. But as the working faces of the -mines recede farther and farther from the general lines of outcrop, it -often becomes necessary to resort to the method of entry by shaft, and -this latter method will doubtless in time supersede the former almost -entirely. The main shaft, as it is now constructed, is usually about -twenty feet long by nine feet wide, and has three compartments, two for -hoisting and one for ventilation and pumping. It rarely exceeds two -hundred feet in depth. The hoisting apparatus is much like that in use -in the anthracite districts. Air shafts from fifty to one hundred feet -deep, sunk for purposes of ventilation and drainage, are frequent, and -stair shafts in which are fixed ladders for the purpose of ascent and -descent, and which may be used as air shafts also, are not uncommon. -Slopes, like those in the anthracite regions, are not usual here; the -coal seams do not dip sufficiently to make them practicable. Narrow -rock slopes are sometimes driven diagonally through the strata, at an -inclination of twenty degrees or less, to strike the coal bed, but they -are used only as air ways, as traveling ways for men and mules, and to -serve as the “second opening” required by the mine law. - -In the bituminous regions coal breakers are unnecessary and are -unknown. As the vertical planes of cleavage of the coal are at right -angles to each other, and as the stratification is nearly horizontal, -the coal when broken takes a cubical form, large blocks of it being -made up of smaller cubes, and these of still smaller, to an almost -microscopic limit. All slate is separated from the coal as it is mined, -and the refuse is piled up in the room. - -The mine wagon is loaded only with good coal, and is taken directly -from the mine to a building which, with its appliances, is called a -“tipple.” It is here dumped into a screen, it runs from the screen -into a car or boat, and is then ready to be hauled or floated to market. - -If the opening of the mine is practically on the same level as the -tipple the arrangements are very simple, as no extra motive power is -required to get the cars to the dumping place. It is usual, however, to -find the opening at a higher point than the tipple, since the latter -must always be at the railroad track or on the bank of a river. It -becomes necessary, therefore, in this case, to raise and lower the cars -between the opening of the mine and the tipple. This is usually done by -the inclined plane system, in which the loaded cars descending draw the -light ones up. The same system is much used in the anthracite mines, -and has already been explained. - -The railroad tipple consists simply of a frame building from forty to -sixty feet long, fifteen feet high, and from eighteen to thirty feet -wide. This structure is set upon four or five plain timber bents, -and its floor is usually twenty-seven feet higher than the top of -the track rails which run beneath the outer end of it. A platform on -this floor is so adjusted by a single shaft that, when a loaded car -is pushed on it, it tips forward to an angle of about thirty degrees. -The end gate of the wagon is then opened and the coal runs out on to -the screen. This screen is simply a set of longitudinal iron bars -inclined outwardly at distances apart of one and one half inches. All -coal that passes over these bars is called “lump coal” and is run -into a sheet-iron pan suspended from the scales platform, where it is -weighed, and it is then dropped directly into a car standing on the -track below it. The coal which passed through the first set of bars -has, in the mean time, fallen on to a second screen with bars only -three quarters of an inch apart. The coal that passes over these bars -is called nut coal, and is also weighed and dropped into the cars, -while the coal that passes through the bars is called “slack.” This is -dropped into a shute, is carried by it into a car on the slack track, -and is run thence to the dumping ground. When all three kinds of coal -are loaded together it is called “run of mine,” while lump and nut coal -together make “three quarter coal.” These tipples may, of course, be -built with two sets of screens and platforms, and thus be made to do -double work, and some of them are so built. Under the projecting end -of the tipple there are usually four tracks; the first or outside one -for box-cars, the next for lump-coal cars, the next for nut-coal cars, -and the last for cars for slack. Four men operate a single railroad -tipple; two dump and weigh the coal above, while the others trim and -move the railroad cars on the track below. To this number a helper is -often added, both above and below. Besides these men a boy is usually -employed to rake the nut coal from the lower screening bars where it -sticks and prevents the slack from passing through. Sometimes it takes -two boys to do this work properly. Boys are also employed to push the -slack with a scraper down the shutes into the car on the slack track -when the elevation of the tipple above the rails is not sufficient to -afford the necessary grade. Bars are being largely superseded now by -revolving screens for separating slack from nut coal; they do the work -far better, and make the employment of a raking boy unnecessary. - -The river tipple is operated in much the same way as the railroad -tipple, except that its apparatus must be so arranged as to accommodate -itself to high or low water. The floor of the river tipple is usually -placed from forty to fifty feet above low-water mark, and the weighing -pan is held in position by a counter-weight, which may be raised or -lowered at pleasure. A small stationary engine, or a hand windlass, -draws the empty boat or barge into position under that end of the -tipple which projects over the water. About twice as many men are -required to operate a river tipple as are necessary to operate a -railroad tipple, and while the railroad tipple costs but from two -thousand to four thousand dollars the river tipple is built at an -expense of from four thousand to ten thousand dollars. But even this -latter figure is small when compared with the cost of an anthracite -breaker, which may run anywhere from twenty thousand to one hundred -thousand dollars. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE BOY WORKERS AT THE MINES. - - -In the coal mines of the United States boys are employed at two kinds -of labor: to attend the doors on the traveling roads, and to drive the -mules. This is known as inside work. Their outside work consists in -picking slate at the breaker, and in driving the mules that draw mine -cars on the surface. No one of these different kinds of employment is -such as to overtax the physical strength of boys of a proper age, but -they are all confining, some are dangerous, and some are laborious. Yet -the system of child labor in the coal mines of America has never been -comparable to that which was formerly in vogue in Great Britain. The -British “Coal Mines Regulation Act” of 1872 remedied the then existing -evils to a considerable extent; but the hardships still to be endured -by children in the British mines are greater than those which their -American brothers must suffer. The act of 1872, just referred to, -provides that boys under ten years of age shall not be employed under -ground, and that boys between ten and twelve years of age shall be -allowed to work only in thin mines. It is the duty of these children -to push the cars, or trams as they are called, from the working faces -to the main road and back. Boys who are thus employed are called -“hurriers” or “putters.” They are often obliged to crawl on their hands -and knees, pushing the car ahead of them, because the roof of the -excavation is so low. That is why boys who are so young are allowed -to work here; because, being small, they can the more readily crawl -through the passages cut in these thin seams, which often do not have a -vertical measurement of more than from twenty to twenty-eight inches. -The act of 1872 forbids the employment of females in the British mines; -but formerly not only boys but girls and women also worked underground. -There was then no restriction as to age, and girls were sent into the -mines to labor at an earlier age than were boys, because they were -credited with being smarter and more obedient. It was common to find -children of both sexes not more than six years old working underground; -and girls of five years were employed at the same tasks as boys of six -or eight. They took the coal from the working faces in the thin mines -to the foot of the pit. Sometimes they carried it, sometimes they drew -it in little carts. The older children and young women had a sort of -sledge, called a “corve,” on which they dragged the coal, but sometimes -they preferred to carry it in baskets on their backs. They were called -“pannier women.” The girls tucked their hair up under their caps, -dressed like their brothers, and in the darkness of the mine could -scarcely be distinguished from boys. And the girls and boys not only -dressed alike, but worked alike, lived alike, and were treated alike at -their tasks, and that treatment was rough and harsh at the very best. -As the girls grew they were given harder work to do. On one occasion -Mr. William Hunter, the mine foreman at Ormiston Colliery said that -in the mines women always did the lifting or heavy part of the work, -and that neither they nor the children were treated like human beings. -“Females,” he said, “submit to work in places in which no man nor lad -could be got to labor. They work on bad roads, up to their knees in -water, and bent nearly double. The consequence of this is that they are -attacked with disease, drag out a miserable existence, or are brought -prematurely to the grave.” Says Robert Bold, the eminent miner: “In -surveying the workings of an extensive colliery underground a married -woman came forward, groaning under an excessive weight of coals, -trembling in every nerve, and almost unable to keep her knees from -sinking under her. On coming up she said in a plaintive, melancholy -voice: ‘Oh, sir! this is sore, sore, sore work. I would to God that the -first woman who tried to bear coals had broken her back and none ever -tried it again.’” - -One cannot read of such things as these, of a slavery that condemned -even the babes to a life of wretched toil in the blackness of the -mines, and then wonder that the great heart of Mrs. Browning should -have been wrenched by the contemplation of such sorrow until she gave -voice to her feeling in that most pathetic and wonderful of all her -poems, “The Cry of the Children.” - - “Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers! - Ere the sorrow comes with years? - They are leaning their young heads against their mothers, - And _that_ cannot stop their tears. - The young lambs are bleating in the meadows, - The young birds are chirping in their nest, - The young fawns are playing with the shadows, - The young flowers are blooming toward the west. - But the young, young children, O my brothers! - They are weeping bitterly; - They are weeping in the playtime of the others, - In the country of the free. - - “‘For, oh!’ say the children, ‘we are weary, - And we cannot run or leap; - If we cared for any meadows, it were merely - To drop down in them and sleep. - Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping, - We fall upon our faces trying to go, - And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping, - The reddest flower would look as pale as snow. - For all day we drag our burden tiring, - Through the coal dark underground, - Or all day we drive the wheels of iron - In the factories round and round.’ - - “‘How long,’ they say, ‘how long, O cruel nation! - Will you stand to move the world on a child’s heart, - Stifle down, with a mailed heel, its palpitation, - And tread onward to your throne amid the mart? - Our blood splashes upward, O gold heaper! - And your purple shows your path; - But the child’s sob in the silence curses deeper - Than the strong man in his wrath.’” - -In the United States neither girls nor women have ever been employed -in or about the mines. The legislative prohibition of such employment, -enacted in Pennsylvania in 1885, was therefore unnecessary but not -inappropriate. - -The general mine law of Pennsylvania of 1870, which was the first to -limit the employment of boys in the mines according to their age, fixed -twelve years as the age under which a boy might not work underground; -but maintained silence as to the age at which he might work at a -colliery outside. This provision was amended and enlarged by the act of -1885, which prohibited the employment of boys under fourteen years of -age inside the mines, and of boys under twelve years of age in or about -the outside structures or workings of a colliery. - -The duties of a driver boy are more laborious than those of a -door-tender, but less monotonous and tiresome than those of a slate -picker or breaker-boy. When the mules are kept in the mines night -and day, as they frequently are in deep workings, the driver must -go down the shaft before seven o’clock, get his mule from the mine -stable, bring him to the foot of the shaft, and hitch him to a trip -of empty cars. He usually takes in to the working faces four empty -cars and brings out four loaded ones. When he is ready to start in -with his trip, he climbs into the forward car, cracks his whip about -the beast’s head, and goes off shouting. His whip is a long, braided -leather lash, attached to a short stout stick for a handle. He may -have a journey of a mile or more before reaching the foot of the -first chamber he is to supply; but when he comes to it he unfastens -the first car from the others and drives the mule up the chamber with -it, leaving it at a convenient distance from the face. He continues -this process at each of the chambers in succession, until his supply -of empty cars is exhausted. At the foot of the last chamber which -he visits he finds a loaded car to which he attaches his mule, and -picking up other loaded cars on his way back, he makes up his return -trip, and is soon on the long, unbroken journey to the shaft. There -are sidings at intervals along the heading, where trips going in the -opposite direction are met and passed, and where there is opportunity -to stop for a moment and talk with or chaff some other driver boy. -If there be a plane on the main road, either ascending or descending -from the first level, two sets of driver boys and mules are necessary, -one set to draw cars between the breasts and the plane, and the other -set to draw them between the plane and the shaft. Of course, in steep -pitching seams, all cars are left at the foot of the chamber and are -loaded there. There are two dangers to which driver boys are chiefly -subjected; one is that of being crushed between cars, or between cars -and pillars or props, and the other is that of being kicked or bitten -by vicious mules. The boy must not only learn to drive, but he must -learn to govern his beast and keep out of harm’s way. He is generally -sufficiently skillful and agile to do this, but it is not unusual to -read of severe injuries to boys, given by kicking, bucking, or biting -mules. - -If the mine in which the boy works is entered by drift or tunnel, -his duties lie partly outside of it, since he must bring every trip -of cars not only to the mouth of the opening but to the breaker or -other dumping place, which may be located at a considerable distance -from the entrance to the mine. So that for a greater or less number -of times each day he has from ten minutes to half an hour in the open -air. In the summer time, when the weather is pleasant, this occasional -glimpse of out-of-doors is very gratifying to him. He likes to be in -the sunlight, to look out over the woods and fields, to feel the fresh -wind blowing in his face, and to breathe an unpolluted atmosphere. But -in the winter time, when it is cold, when the storms are raging, when -the snow and sleet are whirled savagely into his face, then the outside -portion of his trip is not pleasant. In the mine he finds a uniform -temperature of about sixty degrees Fahrenheit. To go from this, within -ten minutes, without additional clothing, into an atmosphere in which -the mercury stands at zero, and where the wind is blowing a hurricane, -is necessarily to suffer. It cannot be otherwise. So there is no -lagging outside on winter days; the driver boy delivers his loads, gets -his empty cars, and hastens back to the friendly shelter of the mine. -At such openings as these the mine stable is outside, and the boy must -go there in the morning to get his mule, and must leave him there when -he quits work at night. Sometimes, when the mining is done by shaft -or slope, there is a separate entrance for men and mules, a narrow -tunnel or slope, not too steep, and in this case, though his duties lie -entirely in the mine, the driver boy must take the mule in from the -outside stable in the morning and bring him back at night. - -One afternoon I chanced to be in a certain mine in the Wyoming -district, in company with the fire boss. We were standing in a -passage that led to one of these mule ways. In the distance we heard -a clattering of hoofs, growing louder as it came nearer, and, as we -stepped aside, a mule went dashing by with a boy lying close on his -back, the flame from the little lamp in the boy’s cap just a tiny -backward streak of blue that gave no light. They had appeared from the -intense darkness and had disappeared into it again almost while one -could draw a breath. I looked at the fire boss inquiringly. - -“Oh! that’s all right,” he said, “they’ve got through work and they’re -going out, and the mule is in just as much of a hurry as the boy is.” - -“But the danger,” I suggested, “of racing at such speed through narrow, -winding passages, in almost total darkness!” - -“Oh!” he replied, “that beast knows the way out just as well as I do, -and he can find it as easy as if he could see every inch of it, and I -don’t know but what he can. Anyway the boy ain’t afraid if the mule -ain’t.” - -In deep mines, as has already been said, it is customary to build -stables not far from the foot of the shaft, and to keep the mules there -except when for any reason there is a long suspension of work. At many -mines, however, the greater convenience of having the stables on the -surface induces the operators to have the mules hoisted from the shaft -every night and taken down every morning. They step on the carriage -very demurely, and ascend or descend without making trouble. They are -especially glad to go up to their stables at night. Where mules are -fed in the mine, and especially in those mines that have stables in -them, rats are usually found. How they get down a shaft is a mystery. -The common explanation is that they go with the hay. But they take up -their quarters in the mine, live, thrive, increase rapidly, and grow -to an enormous size. They are much like the wharf rats that infest the -wharves of great cities, both in size and ugliness. They are very bold -and aggressive, and when attacked will turn on their enemy, whether man -or beast, and fight to the death. There is a superstition among miners -to the effect that when the rats leave a mine some great disaster is -about to take place in it; probably an extensive fall. Rats are hardly -to be credited, however, with an instinct that would lead them to -forecast such an event with more certainty than human experience and -skill can do. - -But it is not improbable that the driver boy and his mule will be -superseded, at no distant day, by electricity. In one instance at least -this new motive power has already been put into use. This is at the -Lykens Valley Colliery of the Lykens Valley Coal Company, in Dauphin -County, Pennsylvania. - -The duty of an outside driver boy is to take the loaded cars from the -head of the shaft or slope to the breaker, and to bring the empty ones -back; his work being all done in the open air. Of late this service, -especially where the distance is considerable, is performed by a small -locomotive, which draws trains of as many cars as can well be held -together. The wages paid to inside driver boys by the Pennsylvania Coal -Company in 1888 were from one dollar to one dollar and ten cents a day, -and to outside driver boys eighty-eight cents a day. - -The door boys are usually younger and smaller than the driver boys, -and though their duty is not so laborious as that of the latter class, -it is far more monotonous and tiresome. The door boy must be at his -post when the first trip goes in in the morning, and must remain there -till the last one comes out at night. He is alone all day, save when -other boys and men pass back and forth through his door, and he has but -little opportunity for companionship. He fashions for himself a rude -bench to sit on; sometimes he has a rope or other contrivance attached -to his door by which he can open it without rising; but usually he is -glad to move about a little to break the monotony of his task. There is -little he can do to entertain himself, except perhaps to whittle. He -seldom tries to read; indeed, the light given forth by a miner’s lamp -is too feeble to read by. In rare cases the door boy extinguishes his -light, on the score of economy, and sits in darkness, performing his -duties by the light of the lamps of those who pass. But there are few -who can endure this. It is hard enough to bear the oppressive silence -that settles down on the neighborhood when no cars are passing; if -darkness be added to this the strain becomes too great, the effect too -depressing, a child cannot bear it. The wages of the door boy are about -sixty-five cents per day. - -Although the duties of the breaker boy or slate picker are more -laborious and more monotonous than those of either driver boy or door -tender, he does not receive so high a rate of wages as either of them. -His daily compensation is only from fifty to sixty-five cents, and he -works ten hours a day. At seven o’clock in the morning he must have -climbed the dark and dusty stairway to the screen room, and taken his -place on the little bench across the long shute. The whistle screams, -the ponderous machinery is set in motion, the iron-teethed rollers -begin to revolve heavily, crunching the big lumps of coal as they turn, -the deafening noise breaks forth, and then the black, shallow streams -of broken coal start on their journey down the iron-sheathed shutes, to -be screened and cleaned, and picked and loaded. - -At first glance it would not seem to be a difficult task to pick -slate, but there are several things to be taken into consideration -before a judgment can properly be made up in the matter. To begin -with, the work is confining and monotonous. The boy must sit on his -bench all day, bending over constantly to look down at the coal that -is passing beneath him. His tender hands must become toughened by long -and harsh contact with sharp pieces of slate and coal, and after many -cuts and bruises have left marks and scars on them for a lifetime. -He must breathe an atmosphere thick with the dust of coal, so thick -that one can barely see across the screen room when the boys are -sitting at their tasks. It is no wonder that a person long subjected -to the irritating presence of this dust in his bronchial tubes and -on his lungs is liable to suffer from the disease known as “miner’s -consumption.” In the hot days of summer the screen-room is a stifling -place. The sun pours its rays upon the broad, sloping roof of the -breaker, just overhead; the dust-laden atmosphere is never cleared -or freshened by so much as a breath of pure sweet air, and the very -thought of green fields and blossoming flowers and the swaying branches -of trees renders the task here to be performed more burdensome. Yet -even this is not so bad as it is to work here in the cold days of -winter. It is almost impossible to heat satisfactorily by any ordinary -method so rambling a structure as a breaker necessarily is, and it is -quite impossible to divide the portion devoted to screening and picking -into closed rooms. The screen-rooms are, therefore, always cold. Stoves -are often set up in them, but they radiate heat through only a limited -space, and cannot be said to make the room warm. Notwithstanding the -presence of stoves, the boys on the benches shiver at their tasks, and -pick slate with numb fingers, and suffer from the extreme cold through -many a winter day. But science and the progress of ideas are coming to -their aid. In some breakers, recently erected, steam-heating pipes have -been introduced into the screen-rooms with great success; the warmth -and comfort given by them to the little workers is beyond measurement. -Fans have been put into the breakers, also, to collect and carry -away the dust and keep the air of the picking-room clean and fresh, -and electric lamps have been swung from the beams to be lighted in the -early mornings and late afternoons, that the young toilers may see -to do their work. Indeed, such improvements as these pass beyond the -domain of science and progress into that of humanitarianism. - -[Illustration: SLATE PICKERS AT WORK.] - -When night comes no laborer is more rejoiced at leaving his task than -is the breaker boy. One can see his eyes shine and his white teeth -gleam as he starts out into the open air, while all else, hands, -face, clothing, are thickly covered with coal dust, are black and -unrecognizable. But he is happy because his day’s work is done and he -is free, for a few hours at least, from the tyranny of the “cracker -boss.” For, in the estimation of the picker boys, the cracker boss is -indeed the most tyrannical of masters. How else could they regard a man -whose sole duty it is to be constantly in their midst, to keep them -at their tasks, to urge them to greater zeal and care, to repress all -boyish freaks, to rule over them almost literally with a rod of iron? -But, alas! the best commentary on the severity of his government is -that it is necessary. - -As has already been said, the day is evidently not far distant when the -work which the breaker boy now does will be performed almost wholly by -machinery. And this will be not alone because the machine does its -work better, more surely, more economically, than the breaker boy has -done his, but it will be also because the requisite number of boys for -breaker work will not be obtainable. Even now it is more than difficult -to keep the ranks of the slate pickers full. Parents in the coal -regions of to-day have too much regard for the health, the comfort, -the future welfare of their children, to send them generally to such -grinding tasks as these. This is one of the signs of that advancing -civilization which has already lifted girls and women from this, for -them, exhausting and degrading labor at the collieries; which is -lessening, one by one, the hardships of the boys who still toil there; -which, it is fondly hoped, will in the course of time give to all -children the quiet of the school-room, the freedom of the play-ground, -and the task that love sets, in place of that irksome toil that stunts -the body and dwarfs the soul. It is now mainly from the homes of the -very poor that the child-workers at the collieries are recruited, and -the scant wages that they earn may serve to keep bread in the mouths -of the younger children of their households and clothing on their own -backs. - -Accidents to boys employed at the mines are of frequent occurrence. -Scarcely a day passes but the tender flesh of some poor little fellow -is cut or bruised, or his bones, twisted and broken. It is only -the more serious of these accidents that reach the notice of the -mine inspector and are returned in his annual report. Yet, to the -humanitarian and the lover of children, these annual returns tell a -sad story. The mine inspector’s reports for 1887 show that in the -anthracite region alone during that year eighteen boys fifteen years -of age and under were killed while fulfilling the duties of their -employment in and about the coal mines, and that seventy-three others -were seriously injured, many of them doubtless maimed for life. These -figures tell their own story of sorrow and of suffering. - -Yet with all their hardships it cannot be said that the boys who work -in the collieries are wholly unhappy. It is difficult, indeed, to -so limit, confine, and gird down a boy that he will not snatch some -enjoyment from his life; and these boys seek to get much. - -One who has been long accustomed to them can generally tell the nature -of their several occupations by the way in which they try to amuse -themselves. The driver boys are inclined to be rude and boisterous in -their fun, free and impertinent in their manner, and chafe greatly -under restraint. The slate pickers, confined all day at their tasks, -with no opportunity for sport of any kind, are inclined to bubble over -when night and freedom come, but, as a rule, they are too tired to -display more than a passing effort at jocularity. Door boys are quiet -and contemplative. Sitting so long alone in the darkness they become -thoughtful, sober, sometimes melancholy. They go silently to their -homes when they leave the mine; they do not stop to play tricks or -to joke with their fellows; they do not run, nor sing, nor whistle. -Darkness and silence are always depressing, and so much of it in -these young lives cannot help but sadden without sweetening them. We -shall never see, in America, those horrors of child slavery that drew -so passionate a protest from the great-hearted Mrs. Browning, but -certainly, looking at the progress already made, it is not too much to -hope for that the day will come when no child’s hand shall ever again -be soiled by the labor of the mine. - -It will be a fitting close to this chapter, and will be an act of -justice to the memory of a brave and heroic boy, to relate the story -of Martin Crahan’s sacrifice at the time of the disaster at the West -Pittston shaft. Martin was a driver boy, of humble parentage, poor and -unlearned. He was in the mine when the fire in the breaker broke out, -and he ran, with others, to the foot of the shaft. But just as he was -about to step on the carriage that would have taken him in safety to -the surface he bethought him of the men on the other side of the shaft, -who might not have heard of the fire, and his brave heart prompted him -to go to them with the alarm. He asked another boy to go with him, but -that boy refused. He did not stop to parley; he started at once alone. -But while he ran through the dark passage on his errand of mercy, the -carriage went speeding, for the last time, up the burning shaft. He -gave the alarm and returned, in breathless haste, with those whom he -had sought; but it was too late, the cage had already fallen. When the -party was driven away from the foot of the shaft by the smoke and the -gas, he, in some unexplained way, became separated from the rest, and -wandered off alone. The next day a rescuing party found him in the -mine-stable, dead. He lay there beside the body of his mule. Deprived -of the presence of human beings in the hours of that dreadful night, he -had sought the company of the beast that had long been his companion in -daily labor――and they died together. - -But he had thought of those who were dear to him, for on a rough board -near by he had written with chalk the name of his father and of his -mother, and of a little cousin who had been named for him. He was only -twelve years old when he died, but the title of hero was never more -fairly earned than it was by him. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -MINERS AND THEIR WAGES. - - -A good miner may be called a “skilled workman,” and, as such, he -is entitled to greater compensation for his labor than an ordinary -workman. He expects it and gets it. There are two principal systems by -which payments are made to miners. The first is according to the number -of cubic yards of coal cut, and the second is according to the number -of tons of coal mined and sent out. The first, which is prevalent in -the regions of steep-pitching seams, is followed because the coal may -remain in the chamber for an indefinite time after being cut. The -second, which in the Wyoming region is almost universal, is somewhat -more complicated. A chamber is taken by two miners, but the account -on the books of the coal company is usually kept in the name of only -one of them, who is held to be the responsible member of the firm. For -instance, “Patrick Collins & Co.” work a chamber in Law Shaft, and -the firm is so designated. The first thing they do is to adopt some -distinctive mark which may be chalked on the sides of their loaded cars -to distinguish them from the loaded cars from other chambers. The -letters of the alphabet are frequently used by miners, but, in default -of these, some simple design that cannot readily be mistaken for any -other is put into service. The triangle ∆ is a very common symbol with -them, so is the long, horizontal line, crossed by short vertical ones, -thus: ――|――|――――|――. The miners call this a candle. When a car has -been loaded the symbol is chalked on the side of it, together with a -number which tells how many cars have been sent from the chamber during -the day. For instance, when a mine car appears at the surface marked -“∆ 5” it means that the car is from a certain chamber designated by -that symbol, and that this is the fifth car which has been sent from -that chamber during the day. On its way from the head of the breaker -to the dumping cradle, the loaded car passes over the platform of the -weighing scales and registers its weight on the scale beam. This weight -is quickly read by the weigh-master, is transferred to his book, and -goes to make up the daily report. In some districts a system in which -tickets are used instead of chalk marks is in vogue, and in other -districts duplicate checks are employed, but everywhere the general -features remain the same. - -In order to get a chamber from any of the large mining corporations, a -miner must apply in person to the mining superintendent. He must come -well recommended, or he must be known as a skillful, industrious, and -temperate workman. The responsibility of driving a chamber properly is -not a small one, and mining companies choose to take as little risk as -possible in the selection of their men. Having accepted an applicant -for a chamber, the company makes a contract with him, usually a verbal -one, to pay him at a certain rate per ton or yard for the coal mined -by him. The rate, though not wholly uniform, on account of the greater -or less difficulty of cutting coal at the different collieries, is -practically the same throughout an entire district. - -A miner working at full time and in a good seam will send out enough -coal each month to amount, at the contract price, to $150. But his -expenses for laborers’ wages, powder, oil, fuse, etc., will amount to -$75 per month, leaving him a net income of $75 per month. The laborer -is also paid according to the number of tons of coal sent out, and his -wages will probably average $2 per day. It is not often in these days -of thin seams that these rates of income are exceeded. And when the -mines are in operation only a portion of the time, as is now often the -case, these figures are seriously reduced. - -The subject of wages frequently has been under discussion between -miners and operators, and the differences of opinion on it have been -prolific of many strikes. By some corporations and at some collieries -a sliding scale has been adopted. That is, the miner has been paid, -not at a fixed rate, but at a rate which constantly adjusts itself to -the market price of coal. The objection to this method is said to be -that the great companies who practically control the anthracite coal -business form syndicates, fix the market price of their coal for a -certain period of time, and then limit the output of each member of the -syndicate to a certain number of tons during that period. - -It is certain that no scheme of payment has yet been devised which is -perfectly satisfactory to the great body of workers in the mines. But -it is true also that employer and employee are working together more -harmoniously now than they have worked at any time in the past, and -that long and stubborn strikes of miners are growing, year by year, -less frequent. It is to be hoped that the time will come when even the -strike will not be considered necessary as a weapon of defense for the -workman. As a rule strikes result in loss, and in loss only, to both -capital and labor; and, as a rule also, labor suffers from them more -than does capital, and this is the saddest feature of the case. Hon. -Carroll D. Wright, the National Commissioner of Labor, has compiled the -statistics of miners’ strikes in Pennsylvania for the years 1881 to -1886 inclusive. His tables show that of 880 such strikes, which was the -total number that occurred during the period named, 186 succeeded, 52 -partly succeeded, and 642 failed. The loss to employers resulting from -these strikes was $1,549,219; the loss to employees was $5,850,382; and -the assistance given to the strikers during the periods of suspension -amounted to $101,053. These figures form the best commentary to be had -on the subject of strikes; they are eloquent with tales of hardship, of -suffering, and of despair. - -In those regions which have had long immunity from strikes, and in -which work at full time has been the rule, the mine-workers are not -only comfortable, but frequently are prosperous. They rarely occupy -rooms in the cheap tenement houses of the towns, even if such occupancy -would be to their convenience. They prefer to live in the outlying -districts, where they can have homes of their own and gardens that -they may cultivate. In the colliery villages the lots are usually laid -out and sold or rented by the mining company to its workmen. Rent is -not high, and, in case of sale, a long term contract is given, so that -payments are in easy installments. The miner prefers to own his house -and lot. Such ownership has a tendency to impress any man with the -importance and responsibility of his duty as a citizen, and the miner -is no exception to the rule. He is apt to waste neither his time nor -his money when he has property and a family to care for. He tries, too, -to lay by something for a rainy day; he knows that the probabilities -are that either he or his family will eventually need it. As his hours -of labor are comparatively short he has considerable leisure which he -may spend profitably or foolishly as he will. Many of the men spend -this leisure working in their gardens or about their premises. It is -seldom that any of them go so far as to have regular extra employment -to occupy their time while out of the mines. Indeed the prevailing -tendency among miners is to do as little work as possible outside of -the mines. The opinion seems to be prevalent among them that when a -miner has cut his coal he has done his full duty for the day, and is -entitled then to rest and recreation. He does not take kindly to other -kinds of work. He rarely deserts his occupation of mining to take up -any other calling, and it may be said that after he has passed middle -age he never does. There is a fascination to the old miner about the -dark chambers, the black walls, the tap of the drill, the crash of -falling coal, the smell of powder smoke in the air, a fascination that -is irresistible. He would almost rather die in the familiar gloom of -the mine than live and toil in the sunlight on the surface. Years of -walking under the low mine roofs have bent his back, have thrown his -head and shoulders forward, have given him that long swinging stride -characteristic of old miners. His face is always pale; this is due, no -doubt, to the absence of sunlight in his working place; but, as a rule, -his general health is good; except when he has worked for a long time -in dry and dusty mines. In that case he is apt to find himself, sooner -or later, a victim to the disease known as “miner’s consumption.” The -miner’s appearance, as he passes along the street or road on his way -home from his work, is, to eyes unaccustomed to the sight, anything but -favorable. He wears heavy, hobnailed shoes or boots, flannel shirt, -coarse jacket and pantaloons, all of them black with coal dirt and -saturated with oil. He has a habit, when he comes from his work, of -throwing his coat loosely about his shoulders, and wearing it so as -he goes to his home. He usually wears a cap on his head, sometimes a -slouch hat, rarely the helmet or fireman’s hat with which artists are -accustomed to picture him. This latter is too heavy and clumsy for -common use; he only puts it on when working in places where water comes -down freely on his head. Hooked to the front of his cap is the little -tin lamp already described. When he goes to or comes from his work in -the dark he allows it to burn and light him on his way. His face and -hands are also black with coal dirt and powder smoke, and his features -are hardly recognizable. The predominating race among the mine workers -is the Irish, next in point of numbers comes the Welsh, then follow the -Scotch and English, and, finally, the German. Of late years, however, -Hungarian, Italian, and Russian laborers have come to the mines in -large numbers, especially in the southern districts. These people can -hardly be compared with the English or German speaking races; they -do not become citizens of the country, have in the main no family -life, and are, in a certain sense, slaves whose masters are their own -countrymen. - -In speaking of the characteristics of the mine workers as a class, it -may be well, and it certainly is just, to correct a misapprehension -concerning them which has become prevalent. From reading the -descriptions given by newspaper correspondents and by certain writers -of fiction, many people have come to think that all miners are little -less than outlaws, that they are rude, ignorant, brutal in their -instincts, and blind in their passions and animosities. This is very -far indeed from the truth. Mine workers, as a class, are peaceful, -law-abiding, intelligent citizens. That they are economical and -industrious is well attested by the comfortable appearance of their -homes, and the modest deposits that are made, in large numbers, in -the numerous miner’s savings banks of the different districts. There -are, indeed, among them those who are intemperate, those who are -coarse and violent, a disgrace to themselves and a menace to society. -These are always the ones who come to the surface at a time when -strained relations exist between employers and employees, and by their -harsh language and unlawful conduct in the name of oppressed labor -call down just retribution on themselves, but unjust condemnation -on the true mine workers, who compose ninety-nine one hundredths of -the class, but who do not go about drinking, ranting, destroying -property, and inciting to crime. The proportion of “good-for-naughts” -among the miners, however, is no greater than it is among any other -class of workmen having the same numbers, and the same advantages -and disadvantages. With the exception of the Hungarians, Russians, -Italians, and Poles, of whom mention has already been made, the miners -and their families compare favorably with any class of workers in -the same grade of labor in America. Many of them indeed attain to -prominent and responsible positions in business and society. Not a -few of the clerks, merchants, contractors, mining engineers, bankers, -lawyers, preachers, of the coal regions of to-day have stepped into -those positions from the chambers of the mines, and have filled them -admirably. The miner is fond of his family; his children are dear -to him, and, whenever the grim necessities of life permit, he sends -them to the schools instead of to the mines or breakers. He wishes -to prepare them for a larger enjoyment of life than he himself has -had, even though that life should be spent in the occupation which he -himself has followed. And, indeed, there are few other occupations in -which the possibilities of advancement are so great and so favorable. -There must be mine bosses, mine inspectors, mine superintendents, and -many of them, and they are, as a rule, promoted from the ranks. Young -men of character, skill, and judgment are almost sure to step into the -higher places. - -If it were not for two evils that constantly menace and hamper him, the -coal miner of to-day would be the most favored of workmen. These twin -evils are strikes and lockouts. Abolish them and there would be no more -comfortable, happy, and generally prosperous class of people in America -than the workers in the coal mines. - - - - -GLOSSARY OF MINING TERMS. - - -_After damp._ The mixture of gases resulting from the burning of fire -damp. - -_Air shaft._ A vertical opening into a mine for the passage of air. - -_Airway._ Any passage in the mine along which an air current passes; -but the term is commonly applied to that passage which is driven, for -ventilating purposes, parallel to and simultaneously with the gangway. - -_Anticlinal._ A fold of strata in which the inclination of the sides of -the fold is from the axis downward. - - -_Barrier pillars._ Large pillars of coal left at a boundary line, or on -the outskirts of a squeeze. - -_Basin._ The hollow formed by a fold of the seam; any large area of -included coal. - -_Battery_. In steep-pitching seams, a wooden structure built across the -shute to hold the mined coal back. - -_Bearing in._ Cutting a horizontal groove at the bottom or side of the -face of a breast. - -_Bed._ Any separate stratum of rock or coal. - -_Bench._ A horizontal section of the coal seam, included between -partings of slate or shale. - -_Black damp._ Carbonic acid gas; known also as choke damp. - -_Blossom._ Decomposed coal, indicating the presence of an outcrop. - -_Blower._ A forcible and copious discharge of gas from a cavity in the -coal seam. - -_Bony coal._ Coal containing in its composition slaty or argillaceous -material. - -_Bore-hole._ A hole of small diameter drilled or bored, either -vertically or horizontally, through the measures or in the coal; -usually, a hole drilled vertically for prospecting purposes. - -_Brattice._ A partition made of boards or of brattice cloth, and put up -to force the air current to the face of the workings. - -_Breaker._ A building, with its appliances, used in the preparation of -anthracite coal for the market. - -_Break-through._ A cross-heading or entrance, used in the bituminous -mines. - -_Breast._ The principal excavation in the mine from which coal is -taken; known also as chamber. - -_Broken coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Buckwheat coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Buggy._ A small car or wagon used for transporting coal from the -working face to the gangway. - -_Buntons._ The timbers placed crosswise of a shaft down its entire -depth, dividing it into vertical compartments. - -_Butt._ In bituminous coal seams, the vertical planes of cleavage at -right angles to the face cleavage. - -_Butty._ A comrade; a fellow-worker in the same chamber. - - -_Cage._ See Carriage. - -_Carriage._ The apparatus on which coal is hoisted in a shaft. - -_Cartridge pin._ A round stick of wood on which the paper tube for the -cartridge is formed. - -_Cave-hole._ A depression at the surface, caused by a fall of roof in -the mine. - -_Chain pillars._ Heavy pillars of coal, lining one or both sides of -the gangway, and left for the protection of that passage. - -_Chamber._ See Breast. - -_Chestnut coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Choice damp._ See After-damp. - -_Cleavage._ The property of splitting on a certain plane. - -_Collar._ The upper horizontal crosspiece uniting the legs in the -timbering of a drift, tunnel, slope, or gangway. - -_Colliery._ All the workings of one mine, both underground and at the -surface. - -_Conglomerate._ The rock strata lying next beneath the coal measures. - -_Counter-gangway._ A gangway which is tributary to the main gangway, -and from which a new section of coal is worked. - -_Cracker boss._ The officer in charge of the screen room in a breaker. - -_Creep._ A crush in which the pillars are forced down into the floor or -up into the roof of the mine. - -_Cribbing._ The timber lining of a shaft, extending usually from the -surface to bed-rock. - -_Crop-fall._ A caving in of the surface at the outcrop. - -_Cross-heading._ A narrow opening for ventilation, driven through a -wall of coal separating two passages or breasts. - -_Crush._ A settling downward of the strata overlying a portion of an -excavated coal seam. - -_Culm._ All coal refuse finer than buckwheat size. - - -_Dip._ The angle which any inclined stratum makes with a horizontal -line. - -_Door boy._ A boy who opens and shuts the door placed across any -passageway in the mines to control the direction of the ventilating -current. - -_Double entry._ One of the systems by which openings into the bituminous -coal mines are made. - -_Downcast._ The passage or way through which air is drawn into a mine. - -_Drift._ A water-level entrance to a mine, driven in from the surface -on the coal. - -_Drill._ Any tool used for boring holes in the rock or coal. - -_Driving._ Excavating any horizontal passage in or into the mines. - -_Drum._ A revolving cylinder, at the head of any hoisting-way, on which -the winding rope is coiled. - - -_Egg coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Entrance._ See Cross-heading. - -_Entry._ The main entrance and traveling road in bituminous mines. - - -_Face._ The end wall at the inner or working extremity of any excavation -in or into the mines. In bituminous mines the vertical plane of cleavage -at right angles to the butt cleavage. - -_Fan._ A machine used to force a ventilating current of air through a -mine. - -_Fault._ A displacement of strata in which the measures on one side of -a fissure are pushed up above the corresponding measures on the other -side. - -_Fire-board._ A blackboard, fixed near the main entrance of a mine, on -which the fire boss indicates each morning the amount and location of -dangerous gases. - -_Fire boss._ An official whose duty it is to examine the workings for -accumulations of dangerous gases. - -_Fire clay._ The geological formation which is usually found immediately -underlying a coal bed. - -_Fire damp._ Light carbureted hydrogen. - -_Fissure._ A separation of rock or coal across the measures. - -_Floor._ The upper surface of the stratum immediately underlying a coal -seam. - - -_Gangway._ An excavation or passageway, driven in the coal, at a slight -grade, forming the base from which the other workings of the mine are -begun. - -_Gas._ Fire damp. - -_Gob._ The refuse separated from the coal and left in the mine. - -_Guides._ Narrow vertical strips of timber at each side of the carriage -way in shafts, to steady and guide the carriage in its upward or -downward movement. - -_Gunboat._ A car used for hoisting coal on steep slopes. - - -_Head-frame._ The frame erected at the head of a shaft to support the -sheaves and hold the carriage. - -_Heading._ Synonymous with gangway. Any separate continuous passage -used as a traveling way or as an airway. - -_Hopper._ A feeding shute or pocket in a breaker. - -_Horseback._ A small ridge in the roof or floor of a coal seam. - - -_Inside slope._ An inclined plane in a mine, on which coal is hoisted -from a lower to a higher level. - - -_Jacket._ One of the sections or frames of wire mesh of which a -revolving screen is made up. - - -_Keeps._ Projections of wood or iron on which the carriage rests while -it is in place at the head of the shaft. - - -_Lagging._ Small timbers or planks driven in behind the legs and over -the collars to give additional support to the sides and roof of the -passage. - -_Legs._ The inclined sticks on which the collar rests in gangway, -tunnel, drift, and slope timbering. - -_Lift._ All the workings driven from one level in a steep-pitching -seam. - -_Loading place._ The lowest extremity of the breaker, where prepared -coal is loaded into railway cars. - -_Lump coal._ The largest size of prepared anthracite. - - -_Manway._ A passageway in or into the mine, used as a footway for -workmen. - -_Mouth._ The opening, at the surface, of any way into the mines. - - -_Needle._ An instrument used in blasting coal, with which a channel is -formed through the tamping for the entrance of the squib. - -_Nut coal._ One of the regular sizes of bituminous coal. - - -_Opening._ Any excavation in or into a mine. - -_Operator._ The person, firm, or corporation working a colliery. - -_Outcrop._ That portion of any geological stratum which appears at the -surface. - -_Output._ The amount of coal produced from any mine, or from any area -of country. - - -_Parting._ The layer of slate or bony coal which separates two benches -of a coal seam. - -_Pea coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Picking shute._ A shute in the breaker from which the pieces of slate -are picked out by a boy as they pass down with the coal. - -_Pillar._ A column or body of coal left unmined to support the roof. - -_Pillar and breast._ The name of a common mining method. - -_Pinch._ See Crush. - -_Pitch._ See Dip. - -_Plane._ Any incline on which a track is laid for the purpose of -lowering or hoisting coal. - -_Pockets._ Receptacles at the lower ends of shutes, in breakers, from -which coal is loaded into railway cars. - -_Post._ A wooden prop to support the roof in bituminous mines. - -_Prop._ A timber set at right angles to the seam, in anthracite mines, -to support the roof. - -_Prospecting._ Searching for indications of coal on the surface, and -testing coal seams from the surface. - -_Pump way._ That compartment of a shaft or slope down which the pump -rods and pipes are extended. - - -_Rib._ The side of an excavation as distinguished from the end or face. - -_Rob._ To mine coal from the pillars after the breasts are worked out. - -_Rock tunnel._ A tunnel driven through rock strata. - -_Rolls._ In breakers, heavy iron or steel cylinders set with teeth, -used for breaking coal. - -_Roof._ The stratum immediately overlying a coal seam. The rock or coal -overhead in any excavation. - -_Room._ Synonymous with breast or chamber; used in bituminous mines. - - -_Safety lamp._ A lamp that can be carried into inflammable gases -without igniting them. - -_Scraper._ A tool used for cleaning out bore holes in blasting. - -_Screen._ Any apparatus used for separating coal into different sizes; -usually, the revolving cylinder of wire mesh in a breaker. - -_Seam._ A stratum of coal. - -_Separator._ A machine for picking slate. - -_Shaft._ A vertical entrance into a mine. - -_Sheave._ The wheel in the head-frame that supports the winding rope. - -_Shift._ The time during which a miner or laborer works continuously, -alternating with some other similar period. - -_Shute._ A narrow passageway through which coal descends by gravity -from the foot of the breast to the gangway; an inclined trough, in a -breaker, down which coal slides by gravity. - -_Single entry._ One of the systems by which bituminous mines are -entered. - -_Slack._ The dirt from bituminous coal. - -_Slate picker._ A boy who picks slate from coal. A machine used for the -same purpose. - -_Slope._ An entrance to a mine driven down through an inclined coal -seam. Inside slope: a passage in the mine driven down through the seam, -by which to bring coal up from a lower level. - -_Slope carriage._ A platform on wheels on which cars are raised and -lowered in steep slopes. - -_Smut._ See Blossom. - -_Split._ A branch of a ventilating air current. - -_Spread._ The bottom width of a slope, drift, tunnel, or gangway -between the legs of the timbering. - -_Squeeze._ See Crush. - -_Squib._ A powder cracker used for igniting the cartridge in blasting. - -_Steamboat coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Stopping._ A wall built across an entrance or any passage to control -the ventilating current. - -_Stove coal._ One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite. - -_Strike._ The direction of a line drawn horizontally along any stratum. - -_Stripping._ Mining coal by first removing the surface down to the coal -bed; open working. - -_Sump._ A basin in mines entered by a slope or shaft, in which the -water of the mine is collected to be pumped out. - -_Swamp._ A depression in the seam. - -_Synclinal._ A fold of strata in which the inclination of the sides is -from the axis upward. - - -_Tipple._ In the bituminous regions, a building in which coal is -dumped, screened, and loaded into boats or cars. - -_Trapper._ See Door boy. - -_Traveling way._ A passageway for men and mules in or into the mines. - -_Trip._ The number of cars less than enough to constitute a train drawn -at one time by any motive power. - -_Tunnel._ An opening into a mine driven horizontally across the -measures. - - -_Under-clay._ See Fire clay. - -_Underholing._ See Bearing in. - -_Upcast._ An opening from a mine through which air is taken out. - - -_Vein._ Used (improperly) synonymously with seam, bed, or stratum. - - -_Wagon._ A mine car. - -_Waste._ Gob; coal dirt. - -_Water level._ An entrance into or passage in a mine, driven with just -sufficient grade to carry off water. - -_White damp._ Carbonic oxide. - -_Wings._ See Keeps. - -_Work._ To mine. - -_Working face._ A face at which mining is being done. - -_Workings._ The excavations of a mine, taken as a whole; or, more -particularly, that portion of the mine in which mining is being done. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Accidents resulting from falls, 126; - to boys, 218. - - Act of 1885, 88. - - After damp, composition of, etc., 167. - - Air currents in mines, 148, 149. - - Air, deterioration of, in mines, 147, 152. - - Airways, beginning of, 95. - - Allen, Nicholas, 49, 62. - - Ancients, use of coal by, 35. - - Animal life of Carboniferous era, 18. - - Anthracite coal, analysis of, 6; - commercial sizes of, 181; - description of, 8; - ignition of, 59; - of bituminous origin, 25; - skill in mining, 192. - - Anticlinals, 25. - - Appalachian Range, 3. - - Archean time, 3. - - Areas of coal measures, 31; - of Pennsylvania coal fields, 33, 34. - - Avondale Mine, disaster at, 173. - - - Baltimore vein, 75. - - Basin in a coal seam, 29. - - Battery in steep chambers, 108. - - Bearing in, in bituminous mines, 197. - - Benches in coal seams, 23–115. - - Bituminous coal, analysis of, 7; - description of, 8; - process of mining, 194. - - Black damp, composition, etc., 169. - - Blasting in mines, 119, 120, 125, 131. - - Blossom of coal, 77. - - Blower of gas, 160. - - Boys, accidents to, 218; - amusements of, 219; - at tipple work, 202; - characteristics of, 217; - duties of, at breaker, 215; - in British coal mines, 205. - - Boy door-tenders, duties of, 214. - - Boy drivers, duties of, 210. - - Braddock’s road, 40. - - Brattice at face of chamber, 103. - - Breaker, description of, 179; - location of, 178, 183; - passage of coal through, 185; - picking shutes in, 186; - structure and appearance of, 184. - - Break through, in bituminous mines, 195. - - Breast. See Chamber. - - Bryden, Alexander, 143. - - Bryden, Andrew, 140, 168. - - Buildings at mouth of shaft, 176. - - Buntons in shaft, 89. - - Butler, Col. Lord, 56. - - Butt cleavage in bituminous mines, 194. - - Butty, 114. - - - Calamites, 17. - - Candles, use of, in mines, 162. - - Cannel coal, 6, 13. - - Carbondale Mines, fall in, 140. - - Carboniferous age, 3. - - Carboniferous era, animal life of, 18. - - Carboniferous plants, 14–16. - - Carriage in shaft, 90. - - Cartridge, how made and used, 117. - - Cave holes, 137. - - Cenozoic time, 4. - - Chain pillars, 109. - - Chamber, car track in, 103; - description of, 100; - length of, 102; - scene at face of, 131. - - Charcoal, process of formation, 10. - - Charles, John, 50. - - Chest, miner’s, 120. - - Choke damp, 169. - - Cist, Charles, 48. - - Cist, Jacob, 52, 58. - - Coal, classification of, 7; - originally all bituminous, 12; - origin of, 8; - production, by corporations, 70; - specific gravity of, what is it? 6. - - Coal dust, explosive quality of, 172. - - Coal lands, division of, 69; - investments in, 68; - leasing of, 71; - value of, 70. - - Coal mining by corporations, 72. - - Coal plants, age of, 3. - - Coal seams, number and thickness of, 22, 23. - - Coal-waste, heaps of, 191. - - Conglomerate, 76. - - Conifers, 17. - - Corve, in British coal mines, 205. - - Cost of different methods of entry, 92. - - Counter-gangway, 105. - - Crahan, Martin, story of, 220. - - Creeping pillars, 136. - - Creuzot Mine, accident at, 170. - - Crop falls, 139. - - Cross-headings, 95. - - Crowbar, miner’s tool, 121. - - Crust of earth, subsidence of, etc., 24. - - “Cry of the Children,” Mrs. Browning’s, 207. - - Culm, its disposition and use, 190. - - Curr, John, 90. - - - Davy, Sir Humphrey, experiments of, 162. - - Decapitation of coal seams, 29. - - Delaware and Hudson gravity railroad, 66; - canal, 66. - - Diamond drill, 79. - - Dip of strata, 29. - - Door boy, duties of, etc., 149, 214. - - Doors in mines, 149. - - Drainage in mines, 154. - - Drift, as a mode of entry, 80. - - Drilling, by diamond drill, 79; - by hand, 78; - by rope method, 78; - by spring pole method, 78. - - Drill, machine hand, 116; - miner’s, 116. - - Driver boss, his duties, etc., 113. - - Driver boy, duties of, etc., 113, 210, 213. - - Dump shute bars in breaker, 185. - - - Eagle Shaft, disaster at, 168. - - Early mining methods, 94. - - Eastern middle coal field, 33. - - Electricity in breakers, 217; - in mines, 105, 122, 127, 213. - - Enaliosaurs, 20. - - Entrances in mines, 101. - - Entries in bituminous mines, 195, 196. - - Evans, Oliver, 52. - - Experiments with anthracite, 52, 53. - - - Face cleavage in bituminous mines, 194. - - Face of chamber, 101. - - Falls of roof and coal, 125, 135. - - Fan for ventilation, 151. - - Fault in strata, 26. - - Felling Colliery, disaster at, 162. - - Fell, Judge Jesse, 53. - - Females in British coal mines, 206. - - Ferns of coal era, 16. - - Fire boss, duties of, etc., 112, 166. - - Fire damp, characteristics of, 160; - explosions of, 161; - in abandoned workings, 166. - - Fishes, age of, 3; - of Carboniferous age, 19. - - Fissures in strata, 26. - - Flanigan, John, 94. - - Flowers in Carboniferous age, 21. - - - Gangways, beginning of, 95; - description of, 97; - direction of, 98; - driving, 113; - length of, 104; - walking in, 129. - - Gases not confined to coal measures, 159. - - Germany, mining of coal in, 37. - - Ginther, Philip, 47. - - Girls in British coal mines, 205. - - Gore, Obadiah, experiments of, 45. - - Graff, Frederick, 52. - - Great Summit Mine, 57. - - Guibal, inventor of fan, 152. - - Guides in shaft, 90. - - - Hammer, miner’s, 121. - - Head-frame at mouth of shaft, 177. - - Health of mine workers, 153. - - Hennepin, Father, explorer, 38. - - Hillegas, Michael, 48. - - Hoisting apparatus at shaft, 177. - - Hollenback, Colonel George M., 56. - - Horsebacks in coal seams, 28. - - Hosie, John, adventure of, 145. - - Hurrier in British mines, 205. - - - Inclined planes in mines, 105. - - Indians, coal known to, 37, 43, 44. - - Inside slopes, 106. - - Invertebrates, age of, 3. - - Investments in coal lands, 68. - - - Jenkins, Henry, 180. - - - Laborers, duties of, etc., 114, 122. - - Lackawanna region, early coal trade in, 65. - - Lagging, its use, etc., 82. - - Lamp, miner’s, 121. - - Laplace, astronomer, 1. - - Lehigh coal, early trade in, 57, 58, 62. - - Lepidodendrids, 17. - - Leschot, inventor, 79. - - Lift mining, 85, 107. - - Light carbureted hydrogen, 159. - - Lignite, 6, 11. - - Loading place in breaker, 189. - - Localities in which coal is found, 31, 32. - - Locomotives in mines, 199. - - London, burning of coal in, 36. - - Long wall mining system, 110. - - Loyalsock coal field, 31. - - Lump coal, bituminous, 202. - - - Machine for mining soft coal, 197. - - Mammals, age of, 4, 12. - - Man, age of, 4. - - Marsh gas, composition of, etc., 160. - - Mellen and Bishop, experimenters, 64. - - Mesozoic time, 4. - - Mine, anthracite, number of employees in, 112. - - Mine boss, duties, etc., 112. - - Mine car, 123. - - Mine, darkness in a, 133; - in an abandoned, 134; - silence in a deserted, 132. - - Mine law of 1870 and 1885, 208. - - Miner, Charles, 58. - - Miner, appearance of, 227; - character and ambition of, 230; - clothing of, 228; - duties of, etc., 114, 122, 124; - home and outside occupation of, 226; - nativity of, 228. - - Mines, flooding of, 156. - - Miocene period, 12. - - Mules in mines, 212. - - - Nanticoke, accident at, 157. - - Nebular Hypothesis, 1. - - Needle, miner’s, 117. - - Newcastle, carrying coals to, 37. - - Nobles, David, hunter, 65. - - Northern coal field, 33. - - Nut coal, bituminous, 202. - - - Open quarry mining, 80. - - Outcrop of strata, 29, 75. - - - Paleozoic time, 3. - - Pannier women in British mines, 205. - - Paris, burning of coal in, 37. - - Partings in coal seams, 23. - - Peat, 6, 11. - - Pennsylvania, coal fields of, 32, 33, 34. - - Picking machine in breaker, 187. - - Picking shute in breaker, 186. - - Pick, miner’s, 121. - - Pillar and breast mining system, 99. - - Pillars at foot of shaft, 95; - creeping, 136; - robbing of, 133; - slipping, 136. - - Pinch in a coal mine, 28. - - Pittsburgh, coal beds near, 193; - coal trade of, 42; - discovery of coal near, 41. - - Pittsburg, Kansas, disaster at, 172. - - Pockets in breaker, 189. - - Props, use and setting of, 114. - - Prospecting for coal, 75. - - Pump mining, 155. - - Pumpway in shaft, 155. - - Putter, in British mines, 205. - - - Rats in mines, 212. - - Reptiles, age of, 4, 12. - - Rhode Island, coal in, 32, 40. - - Rib of coal, 101. - - Richmond coal field, 38. - - Robbing pillars, 133. - - Robinson, John W., 58. - - Rocky Mountains, 20. - - Rolls in breaker, 179. - - Rolls in coal seams, 28. - - Rooms in bituminous mines, 195. - - Run of mine, bituminous coal, 202. - - - Safety carriage, 91. - - Safety lamps, how to use, 165; - invention of, 163. - - Schuylkill region, early coal trade in, 62, 64. - - Scotland, mining of coal in, 37. - - Scraper, in bituminous mines, 198. - - Scraper, use of, 117. - - Screen, revolving, in breaker, 180. - - Semi-anthracite coal, 8. - - Shaft, compartments of, 89; - descending a, 128; - foot of, 128; - in bituminous mines, 199; - in steep-pitching seams, 109; - location and depth of, 86; - sinking of, 87; - water in, while sinking, 154. - - Sheaves in head-frame, 177. - - Shoemaker, Colonel George, 62. - - Shovel, miner’s, 121. - - Sigillariæ, 17. - - Slack, bituminous waste, 202. - - Slate picker’s duties, etc., 186. - - Sledge, miner’s, 121. - - Slipping pillars, 136. - - Slope, dimensions of, 85; - entrance by, 84; - in steep-pitching seams, 85. - - Smith, Abijah, 56. - - Smith, John, 56. - - Smut of coal, 77. - - Southern coal field, 32. - - Sphagnum, 11. - - Splits of the air current, 148. - - Squeeze in a mine, 28, 136. - - Squib, use of, 118. - - Stair shaft in bituminous mines, 200. - - States in which coal is found, 31, 32. - - Steep-pitching seams, raining in, 107. - - Stigmaria, 18. - - Stockton Mines, accident at, 139. - - Strike of strata, 29. - - Strikes among miners, 225. - - Summit Hill Mine, 80. - - Sump in mine, 96. - - Surface, disturbance of, by falls, 138. - - Susquehanna River, coal trade, 41. - - Swamp in mines, 29. - - Symbols marked on cars, 223. - - Synclinals, 25. - - - Tamping, process of, 118. - - Temperature in mines, 210. - - Terrace in coal outcrop, 77. - - Theophrastus, 35. - - Tipple, at the bituminous mines, 201, 203. - - Tunnel, entrance by, 82. - - Tunnels in mine interiors, 84, 106. - - Turnbull, William, 58. - - - Ventilation by fan, 151; - by open furnace, 150; - in bituminous mines, 199; - principle of, in mines, 97, 148. - - Von Storch, H. C. L., 65. - - - Wages of miners, 224; - computing and payment of, 222; - of boys, 213–215; - sliding scale for computing, 224. - - Waste in coal mining, 134; - of the coal measures, 28. - - Water, driving workings toward, 155; - in mine, 96; - tonnage of, hoisted, 155. - - Weighing coal, 223. - - Weiss, Colonel Jacob, 48. - - Western middle coal field, 33. - - West Pittston, disaster at, 175. - - White & Hazard, coal trade of, 62; - experiments of, 60. - - Wilcox, Crandal, 56. - - Wings in shaft, 91. - - Woodward breaker, 121. - - Working pillars, 136. - - Wright, Joseph, 56. - - Wurts, William and Maurice, 65. - - Wyoming coal field, 33. - - Wyoming valley, discovery of coal in, 45; - early coal trade of, 56. - - - Ziegler, Charles W., 188. - - - * * * * * - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - ――Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). Superscripted - characters follow a caret (Fred^k, 11^th) - - ――Obvious printer’s, punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were - silently corrected. - - ――Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved. - - ――Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COAL AND THE COAL MINES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Coal and the coal mines</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Homer Greene</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Illustrator: Homer Greene</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 11, 2022 [eBook #69134]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Donald Cummings with images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COAL AND THE COAL MINES ***</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="cover"> - <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" title="cover" /> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="noic oldenglish">The Riverside Library for Young People</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_deco01"> - <img class="illowe3" src="images/i_deco01.jpg" - alt="half title decoration" title="half title decoration" /> -</div> - -<p class="noic smcap">Number 5</p> - -<p class="noi adauthor">COAL AND THE COAL MINES</p> - -<p class="noic smcap">By HOMER GREENE</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_deco02"> - <img class="illowe1" src="images/i_deco02.jpg" - alt="half title decoration" title="half title decoration" /> -</div> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1>COAL AND THE COAL MINES</h1> - -<p class="p2 noic">BY</p> - -<p class="noi author">HOMER GREENE</p> - -<p class="p2 noic"><i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM DRAWINGS BY<br /> -THE AUTHOR</i></p> - -<div class="pad4"> -<div class="figcenter"> - <img class="illowe6" src="images/logo.jpg" alt="logo" title="logo" /> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noic">BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br /> -HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY<br /> -<span class="oldenglish">The Riverside Press, Cambridge</span><br /> -1898</p> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="noic">Copyright, 1889.</p> - -<p class="noic smcap">By HOMER GREENE.</p> - -<p class="p2 noic"><i>All rights reserved.</i></p> - -<p class="p4 noic"><i>The Riverside Press, Cambridge, U. S. A.</i>:</p> - -<p class="noic">Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.</p> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="noic">To</p> - -<p class="noi author">MY SON,</p> - -<p class="noi subtitle">GILES POLLARD GREENE,</p> - -<p class="noic">WHO WAS BORN ON THE DAY THIS BOOK WAS BEGUN,</p> - -<p class="noic">AND WHOSE SMILES AND TEARS</p> - -<p class="noic">THROUGH HALF A YEAR</p> - -<p class="noic">HAVE BEEN A DAILY INSPIRATION IN THE WORK,</p> - -<p class="noic oldenglish">This Completed Task</p> - -<p class="noic">IS NOW DEDICATED</p> - -<p class="noic">BY</p> - -<p class="noi author">THE AUTHOR.</p> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p>In treating of so large a theme in so small a -compass it is impossible to do more than make an -outline sketch. It has been the aim of the author -to give reliable information free from minute -details and technicalities. That information has -been, for the most part, gathered through personal -experience in the mines. The literature of this -special subject is very meagre, and the author is -unable to acknowledge any real indebtedness to -more than half a dozen volumes. First among -these is the valuable treatise on “Coal Mining,” -by H. M. Chance of the Pennsylvania Geological -Survey. Other volumes from which the author -has derived considerable information are the State -geological reports of Pennsylvania, the mine inspector’s -reports of the same State, and the “Coal -Trade Annuals,” issued by Frederick E. Saward -of New York.</p> - -<p>The author desires also to acknowledge his indebtedness<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> -for valuable assistance in the preparation -of this work to John B. Law and Andrew -Bryden, mining superintendents, and George -Johnson, real estate agent, all of the Pennsylvania -Coal Company, at Pittston, Pennsylvania, -and to the officers of the Wyoming Historical -and Geological Society of Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p class="right">HOMER GREENE.</p> - -<p class="noi works"><span class="smcap">Honesdale</span>, Pa.,<br /> -<span class="ident2"><i>May 15, 1889</i>.</span></p> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table> -<colgroup> - <col style="width: 20%;" /> - <col style="width: 70%;" /> - <col style="width: 10%;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr> - <th class="pr smfontr">CHAPTER</th> - <th class="tdl"> </th> - <th class="smfontr">PAGE</th> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">In the Beginning</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">The Composition of Coal</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">When Coal was Formed</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">14</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">How the Coal Beds Lie</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">22</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">The Discovery of Coal</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">35</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">The Introduction of Coal into Use</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">51</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">The Way into the Mines</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">75</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">A Plan of a Coal Mine</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">94</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">The Miner at Work</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">112</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">X.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">When the Mine Roof Falls</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">127</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Air and Water in the Mines</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">147</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">The Dangerous Gases</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">159</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XIII.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">The Anthracite Coal Breaker</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">176</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XIV.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">In the Bituminous Coal Mines</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">192</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XV.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">The Boy Workers at the Mines</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">204</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">XVI.</td> - <td class="tdl smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Miners and their Wages</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">222</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table> -<colgroup> - <col style="width: 90%;" /> - <col style="width: 10%;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr> - <th> </th> - <th class="smfontr">PAGE</th> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp004">COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp026a">VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH SOUTHERN -COAL FIELD</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">26</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp026b">VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH NORTHERN -COAL FIELD</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">26</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp030">OLD OPENING INTO AN OUT-CROP OF THE -BALTIMORE VEIN</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">30</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp056">MAP SHOWING ANTHRACITE COAL FIELDS -OF PENNSYLVANIA</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">57</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp080">CROSS SECTION OF DRIFT OR GANGWAY -WITH TIMBERS AND LAGGING</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">81</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp084">CROSS SECTION OF SLOPE WITH DOUBLE -TRACK</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">85</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp090">VERTICAL SECTION AT FOOT OF SHAFT, WITH -ASCENDING CARRIAGE</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">90</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp100">A PLAN OF AN ANTHRACITE MINE WITH A SHAFT -ENTRANCE</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">103</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp108">GROUND PLAN AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF -CHAMBER</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">109</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp122">MINER’S TOOLS</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">121</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp140">GANGWAY IN KOHINOOR COLLIERY, NEAR -SHENANDOAH, PA.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">140</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp176">THE SLOAN COAL BREAKER, HYDE PARK, PA.</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">177</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp186">SCREEN-ROOM IN BREAKER, SHOWING SCREEN -AND SHUTES</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">187</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp196">PLAN OF A BITUMINOUS COAL MINE</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">196</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl illhang"><a href="#i_fp216">SLATE PICKERS AT WORK</a></td> - <td class="tdrb">217</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<p class="noi title">COAL AND THE COAL MINES.</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>IN THE BEGINNING.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Every one knows that mineral coal is dug out -from the crust of the earth. But the question -frequently is asked concerning it, How and under -what conditions was it formed? In order to answer -this inquiry it is necessary to have recourse -to the science of geology.</p> - -<p>A brief review of the geological history of the -earth’s crust will be of prime importance, and it -will not be inappropriate to go back to the origin -of the earth itself. But no man can begin at the -beginning; that is too far back in the eternal -mists; only the Infinite Mind can reach to it. -There is a point, however, to which speculation -can journey, and from which it has brought back -brilliant theories to account for the existence of -the planet on which we live. The most philosophic -of these theories, as it certainly is the most -popular, is the one known as the Nebular Hypothesis, -propounded by Laplace, the great French<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -astronomer, in 1796. This theory accords so well -with the laws of physics, and with the human -knowledge of the age, that most of the great -astronomers have adopted it as the best that has -been given to us, and the world of science may -be said to have accepted it as final. Let us suppose, -then, in accordance with this theory, that -our earth was, at one time, a ball of liquid fire, -revolving on its axis, and moving, in its orbit, -around the parent sun with the motion imparted -to it in the beginning. As cooling and condensation -went on, a crust was formed on its surface, -and water was formed on the crust. The waters, -however, were no sooner spread out than they -were tossed by the motion of the atmosphere into -waves, and these waves, by constant friction -against the rock crust of the earth, wore it down -into pebbles, sand, and mud. The silt thus made -being washed up on to the primitive rock and left -there by the receding waters became again as hard -and firm as before. Occasionally a subsidence, -due to the contraction of the earth’s body, would -take place and the sea would again sweep over the -entire surface, depositing another layer of silt on -the one already formed, or possibly washing that -again into sand and pebbles. This process continued -through an indefinite period of time, forming -layer upon layer of stratified rock, or excavating -great hollows in the surface already formed.</p> - -<p>That period in the history of the earth’s crust<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> -before stratification began is known as Archean -time. This was followed by the period known as -Paleozoic time, which is divided into three ages. -The first is the age of Invertebrates. It was during -this age that life made its advent on the earth. -The waters were the first to bring it forth, but -before the close of the age it began also to appear -on the land, in isolated spots, in the simplest forms -of vegetation. The next age is known as the age -of Fishes, during which vegetable life became -more varied and abundant, winged insects floated -in the air, and great sharks and gars swam in the -seas. Then came the Carboniferous age or age -of Coal Plants, in which vast areas of what are -now the Middle, Southern, and Western States -were covered with low marshes and shallow seas, -and were rich and rank with multitudinous forms -of vegetation. But these marshes were again -and again submerged and covered with material -washed up by the waves before the final subsidence -of the waters left them as a continuing portion -of the dry land. It was at the close of the -Carboniferous age that great disturbances took -place in the earth’s crust. Before this the rock -strata had been comparatively level; now they -were folded, flexed, broken, rounded into hills, -pushed resistlessly up into mountain ranges. It -was at this time that the upheaval of the great -Appalachian Range in North America took place. -Following this came Mesozoic time, which had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -but one age, the age of Reptiles. It was during -this age that the type of reptiles reached its culmination. -The land generally brought forth vegetation, -though not with the prolific richness and -luxury of the Carboniferous age. Birds, insects, -and creeping things were abundant, and monsters -of the saurian tribe swam in the seas, roamed -through the marshes, crawled on the sandy shores, -and took short flights through the air. The last -great division is known as Cenozoic time, and -covers two ages, the age of Mammals and the age -of Man. It was during the mammalian age that -trees of modern types, such as oak, maple, beech, -etc., first made their appearance, and mammalian -animals of great variety and size, both herbivorous -and carnivorous, roamed through the forests. -True birds flew in the air, true snakes crawled -upon the ground, and in the waters were whales -and many kinds of fishes of the present day. But -the marine monsters and the gigantic and ferocious -saurians of an earlier age had disappeared. -So the world became fitted to be the dwelling-place -of the human race. Then began the age of Man, -an age which is yet not complete.</p> - -<p>Such, in brief, is the history of the earth as -the rocks have told it to us. Without their help -we could know but little of the story. Through -all the periods of time and all the ages, they -were being formed, layer upon layer, of sand and -silt, of mud and pebbles, hardening with the passing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -of the centuries. But while they were still -soft they received impressions of the feet of birds -and of beasts, they were marked by the waves -and were cracked in the fierce heat of the sun, -and their surfaces were pitted by the rain-drops -of passing showers. Shells, corals, and sponges -were imbedded in them; the skeletons of fishes -and the bones of animals that walked or crept -upon the land or flew in the air were covered -over by them; they caught and held the drooping -fern, the falling leaf and twig and nut; they -closed around the body of the tree itself and -buried it from sight; and as the soil hardened -into rock, bone and shell, leaf and stem, hardened -with it and became part of it. To-day we find -these fossil remains, sometimes near the surface -of the earth, sometimes hundreds or thousands -of feet below it. We uncover them from the -soil, we break them from the rock, we blast them -out in the quarries, we dig them from the mines -of coal and ore. It is by them and by the structure -of the rock which contains them that we -read the history of the earth, a history covering so -long a period of time from the beginning of the -stratification of the rocks to the age when man -appeared upon the globe that no one has yet dared -to reckon the millions upon millions of years -which intervened, and give the result of his computation -to the world as true.</p> - -<div class="figcenter2" id="i_fp004"> - <img src="images/i_fp004.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">COLUMNAR SECTION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>THE COMPOSITION OF COAL.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The first question that would naturally be -asked concerning the subject with which we are -dealing is, What is coal?</p> - -<p>In reply it may be said that it is a mineral. -It is black or brown in color, solid, heavy, and -amorphous. The specific gravity of the average -Pennsylvania anthracite is about 1.6, and of the -bituminous coal about 1.4. There are four varieties -of mineral coal, namely: anthracite, bituminous, -lignite or brown coal, and cannel coal. -To this list it would not be improper to add peat, -since it partakes of most of the characteristics of -mineral coal, and would doubtless develop into -such coal if the process of transformation were -allowed to continue undisturbed. The principal -element contained in each of these different kinds -of coal is carbon. An analysis of an average piece -of Pennsylvania anthracite would show the following -chemical composition:—</p> - -<table> -<colgroup> - <col style="width: auto;" /> - <col style="width: auto;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Fixed carbon</td><td class="tdrnp">86.4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Ash</td><td class="tdrnp">6.2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Water</td><td class="tdrnp">3.7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Volatile matter</td><td class="tdrnp">3.1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Sulphur</td><td class="tdrnp">.6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp"></td><td class="tdrnp">——</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp ident1">Total</td><td class="tdrnp">100   </td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p>The composition of the bituminous coals of -Pennsylvania, as represented by the gas coal of -Westmoreland County, is shown by analysis to be -as follows:—</p> - -<table> -<colgroup> - <col style="width: auto;" /> - <col style="width: auto;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Fixed carbon</td><td class="tdrnp">55.  </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Volatile matter</td><td class="tdrnp">37.5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Ash</td><td class="tdrnp">5.4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Water</td><td class="tdrnp">1.4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp">Sulphur</td><td class="tdrnp">.7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp"></td><td class="tdrnp">——</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdlnp ident1">Total</td><td class="tdrnp">100   </td></tr> -</table> - -<p>An analysis of coal from the Pittsburgh region -would show its percentage of carbon to be from -58 to 64, and of volatile matter and ash to be proportionately -less.</p> - -<p>There is no strict line of demarcation between -the anthracite and the bituminous coals. They -are classed generally, according to the amount of -carbon and volatile matter contained in them, -as:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="noi">Hard-dry Anthracites,<br /> -Semi-Anthracite,<br /> -Semi-Bituminous,<br /> -Bituminous.<br /></p> -</div> - -<p>Coals of the first class contain from 91 to 98 -per cent, of carbon, and of the second class from -85 to 90 per cent. The volatile matter in the -third class is usually less than 18 per cent., and in -the fourth class more than 18 per cent. of its -composition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> - -<p>The anthracite coal is hard and brittle, and -has a rich black color and a metallic lustre. It -ignites with difficulty, and at first burns with a -small blue flame of carbonic oxide. This disappears, -however, when ignition is complete. No -smoke is given off during combustion. Semi-anthracite -coal is neither so hard, so dense, nor so -brilliant in lustre as the anthracite, though when -once fully ignited it has all the characteristic features -of the latter in combustion. It is found -principally at the western ends of the anthracite -coal basins.</p> - -<p>Bituminous coal is usually deep black in color, -with little or no lustre, having planes of cleavage -which run nearly at right angles with each other, -so that when the coal is broken it separates into -cubical fragments. It ignites easily and burns -with a yellowish flame. It gives off smoke and -leaves a large percentage of ashes after combustion. -That variety of it known as caking or coking -coal is the most important. This is quite soft, -and will not bear much handling. During combustion -it swells, fuses, and finally runs together -in large porous masses.</p> - -<p>Following the question of the composition of -coal comes the question of its origin, of which, -indeed, there is no longer any serious doubt. It -is generally conceded that coal is a vegetable product, -and there are excellent reasons for this belief. -The fragments of which coal is composed have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -greatly deformed by compression and decomposition. -But when one of those fragments is made -so thin that it will transmit light, and is then subjected -to a powerful microscope, its vegetable -structure may readily be distinguished; that is, the -fragments are seen to be the fragments of plants. -Immediately under every separate seam of coal -there is a stratum of what is known as fire clay. It -may, under the beds of softer coals, be of the consistency -of clay; but under the coal seams of the -harder varieties it is usually in the form of a slaty -rock. This fire clay stratum is always present, and -contains in great abundance the fossil impressions -of roots and stems and twigs, showing that it was -once the soil from which vegetation grew luxuriantly. -It is common also to find fossil tree-stems -lying mashed flat between the layers of black -slate which form the roof of the coal mines, also -the impressions of the leaves, nuts, and seeds -which fell from these trees while they were living. -In some beds of cannel coal whole trees have been -found, with roots, branches, leaves, and seeds complete, -and all converted into the same quality of -coal by which they were surrounded. In short, -the strata of the coal measures everywhere are full -of the fossil impressions of plants, of great variety -both in kind and size.</p> - -<p>If a piece of wood be subjected to heat and -great pressure, a substance is obtained which -strongly resembles mineral coal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p> - -<p>That coal contains a very large proportion of -carbon in its composition has already been noted. -If, therefore, it is a vegetable product, the vegetation -from which it was formed must have been -subjected to some process by which a large part -of its substance was eliminated, since wood or -woody fibre contains only from 20 to 25 per cent. -of carbon. But wood can be transformed, by -combustion, into charcoal, a material containing -in its composition 98 per cent, of carbon, or a -greater percentage than the best anthracite contains. -This cannot be done, however, by burning -wood in an open fire, for in that case its carbon -unites with atmospheric oxygen and passes invisibly -into the air. It must be subjected to a process -of smothered combustion; free access of air -must be denied to it while it is burning. Then -the volatile matter will be freed and expelled, and, -since the carbon cannot come in contact with the -oxygen of the air, it will be retained, together -with a small percentage of ash. The result will be -charcoal, or coal artificially made. The principle -on which this transformation is based is combustion -or decomposition out of contact with atmospheric -air. But Nature is as familiar with this -principle as is man, and she may not only be discovered -putting it in practice, but the entire process -may be watched from beginning to end. One -must go, for this purpose, first, to a peat bed. -This is simply an accumulation of the remains of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -plants which grew and decayed on the spot where -they are now found. As these remains were deposited -each year, every layer became buried under -its succeeding layer, until finally a great thickness -was obtained. When we remove the upper -layer we find peat with its 52 to 66 per cent. of -carbon, and the deeper we go the better is the -quality of the substance. It may be cut out in -blocks with sharp spades, the water may be -pressed from the blocks, and they may be stacked -up, covered and dried, and used for fuel. In most -peat bogs the process of growth is going on, and -may be watched. There is a certain kind of moss -called <em>sphagnum</em>, which in large part makes up -the peat-producing vegetation. Its roots die annually, -but from the living top new roots are sent out -each year. The workmen who dig peat understand -that if this surface is destroyed the growth -of the bed must stop; consequently in many instances -they have removed the sod carefully, and -after taking out a stratum of peat have replaced -the sod in order that the bed may be renewed. -There is little doubt that if these beds of peat could -lie undisturbed and covered over through many -ages they would take on all the characteristics of -mineral coal.</p> - -<p>A step farther back in geological history we -reach the period of the latest formations of lignite -or brown coal. This coal is first found in the -strata of the glacial period, or first period in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -age of Man. But it is found there in an undeveloped -state. The woody fibre has not yet undergone -the complete transformation into coal. -The trunks and branches of trees have indeed become -softened to the consistence of soap, but they -still retain their natural color. Going back, however, -to the strata of the Miocene or second period -of the Tertiary age or age of Mammals, we find -that this wood has become black, though it has -not yet hardened. But when we reach the upper -cretaceous or last period of the age of Reptiles, -the transformation into coal has become complete. -The woody fibre is now black, hard, and -compact, though it may still be easily disaggregated -by atmospheric action, and we have the true -lignite, so called because of its apparent woody -structure.</p> - -<p>The next step takes us back to the bituminous -coal of the Carboniferous age, the character and -consistency of which has already been noted, and -finally we reach the complete development in anthracite. -It is, however, the opinion of the best -geologists that the bituminous and anthracite coals -are of the same age, and were originally of the -same formation and character. That is, they were -all bituminous; but during the violent contortions -and upheavals of the earth’s crust at the time of -the Appalachian revolution at the close of the -Carboniferous age, the bituminous coals involved -in that disturbance were changed by heat, pressure,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -and motion, and the consequent expulsion of -volatile matter, from bituminous to anthracite.</p> - -<p>Cannel coal is a variety of bituminous coal, -burning with great freedom, the flame of which -affords considerable light. It was called “candle -coal” by the English people who first used it, as -it often served as a substitute for that household -necessity. But the name soon became corrupted -to “cannel,” and has so remained. It is duller -and more compact than the ordinary bituminous -coal, and it can be wrought in a lathe and polished. -A certain variety of it, found in the lower -oölitic strata of Yorkshire in England, is manufactured -into a kind of jewelry, well known by its -popular name of <em>jet</em>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>WHEN COAL WAS FORMED.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>It becomes of interest now to examine briefly -into the causes and process of the transformation -from vegetable substance into coal, to note the -character of the vegetation which went to make -up the coal beds, and to glance at the animal life -of the period.</p> - -<p>As has already been said, the plants of the -Carboniferous age were exceedingly abundant -and luxuriant. They grew up richly from the -clayey soil, and formed dense jungles in the vast -marshes which covered so large an area of the -earth’s surface. Ferns, mosses, and tufts of surface -vegetation, and the leaves, branches, and -trunks of trees fell and decayed on the place where -they grew, only to make the soil more fertile and -the next growth richer and more luxuriant. Year -after year, century after century, this process of -growth and decay went on, until the beds of vegetable -matter thus deposited had reached a great -thickness. But condensation was still in progress -in the earth’s body, and in consequence of it her -crust, of necessity, at times contracted and fell. -When it did so the land sank throughout vast<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -areas, these beds of incipient coal went down, and -over the great marshes the waters swept again, -bringing drift of vegetation from higher levels to -add to that already buried. Then over these -deposits of vegetable matter the sand and mud and -gravel were laid up anew, and the clayey soil from -which the next rich growth should spring was -spread out upon the surface. This process was -repeated again and again, as often, indeed, as we -find seams of coal in any coal bed. Thus the final -condition for the formation of coal was met, the -exclusion of atmospheric air from this mass of decaying -vegetation was complete, and under the -water of the ocean, under the sand and silt of the -shore, under the new deposits of succeeding ages, -the transformation went on, the wood of the Carboniferous -era became the coal of to-day, while -above and below it the sand and clay were hardened -into rock and shale.</p> - -<p>The remarkable features of the vegetation of -the coal era were the size and abundance of its -plants. Trees of that time whose trunks were -from one to three feet in diameter, and which -grew to a height of from forty to one hundred -feet, are represented in our day by mere stems a -fraction of an inch in diameter and but one or two -feet high. A comparison of quantity would show -differences as great as does the comparison of size.</p> - -<p>But at that time all the conditions were favorable -for the rapid and enormous growth of vegetation.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -The air was laden with carbon, which is -the principal food for plants; so laden, indeed, -that man, who is eminently an oxygen-breathing -animal, could not have lived in it. The great -humidity of the atmosphere was another element -favorable to growth. Vegetation never lacked for -an abundance of moisture either at root or leaf. -Then, too, the climate was universally warm. Over -the entire surface of the earth the heat was greater -than it is to-day at the torrid zone. It must be -remembered that the internal fires of the globe -have been constantly cooling and receding, and -that the earth, in the Carboniferous age, was subjected -to the greater power of a larger sun than -shines upon us to-day.</p> - -<p>With all these circumstances in its favor, -warmth, moisture, and an atmosphere charged -heavily with carbon, vegetation could not help -but flourish. That it did flourish amazingly is -abundantly shown by its fossil remains. The impressions -of more than five hundred different -species of plants that grew in the Carboniferous -era have been found in the coal measures. There -are few of them that bear any direct analogy -to existing species, and these few have their -counterparts only in the torrid zone. The most -abundant of the plants of the coal era were the -ferns. Their fossil remains are found in great -profusion and variety in most of the rocks of the -coal-bearing strata. There was also the plant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -known as the tree fern, which attained a height of -twenty or thirty feet and carried a single tuft of -leaves radiating from its top. Probably the species -next in abundance, as it certainly is next in -importance, to the ferns is that of the Lepidodendrids. -It doubtless contributed the greatest proportion -of woody material to the composition of -coal. The plants of this species were forest trees, -but are supposed to have been analogous to the -low club mosses of the present. Fossil trunks of -Lepidodendrids have been found measuring from -one hundred to one hundred and thirty feet in -length, and from six to ten feet in diameter.</p> - -<p>Similar in appearance to the Lepidodendrids -were the Sigillariæ, which were also very abundant. -The Conifers were of quite a different species -from those already named, and probably -grew on higher ground. They were somewhat -analogous to the modern pine.</p> - -<p>The Calamites belonged to the horsetail family. -They grew up with long, reed-like, articulated -stems to a height of twenty feet or more, and with -a diameter of ten or twelve inches. They stood -close together in the muddy ground, forming an -almost impenetrable thicket, and probably made -up a very large percentage of the vegetation which -was transformed into coal.</p> - -<p>One of the most abundant species of plants of -the coal era is that of Stigmaria. Stout stems, from -two to four inches in diameter, branched downward<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -from a short trunk, and then grew out in long -root-like processes, floating in the water or trailing -on the mud to distances of twenty or thirty -feet. These are the roots with which the under -clay of every coal seam is usually filled.</p> - -<p>The plants which have been described, together -with their kindred species, formed the largest and -most important part of the vegetation of the Carboniferous -age. But of the hundreds of varieties -which then abounded, the greater portion -reached their highest stage of perfection in the -coal era, and became extinct before the close of -Paleozoic time. Other types were lost during -Mesozoic time, and to-day there is scarcely a -counterpart in existence of any of the multitude -of forms of plant life that grew and flourished in -that far-off age of the world.</p> - -<p>The animal life of the Carboniferous era was -confined almost entirely to the water. The dry -land had not yet begun to produce in abundance -the higher forms of living things. There were -spiders there, however, and scorpions, and centipedes, -and even cockroaches. There were also -land snails, beetles, locusts, and mayflies. Reptiles, -with clumsy feet and dragging tails, prowled -about on the wet sands of the shore, leaving footprints -that were never effaced by time or the elements, -and are found to-day in the layers of the -rocks, almost as perfect as when they were -formed, millions of years ago. But the waters<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -teemed with animal life. On the bottom of the -shallow seas lay shells and corals in such abundance -and variety that from the deposits of their -remains great beds of limestone have been formed. -Broken into minute fragments by the action of the -waves and washed up by the sea during periods of -submergence, they were spread over the beds of -carboniferous deposits, and became the rock strata -through which the drills and shafts of to-day are -sunk to reach the veins of mineral coal.</p> - -<p>Fishes were numerous. Some of them, belonging -to species allied to the modern shark, were of -great size, with huge fin spines fully eighteen -inches in length. These spines have been found -as fossils, as have also the scales, teeth, and bones. -Complete skeletons of smaller fishes of the ganoid -order were preserved in the rock as it hardened, -and now form fossil specimens which are unequaled -in beauty and perfection.</p> - -<p>Besides the fishes, there were the swimming -reptiles; amphibian monsters, allied to the ichthyosaurs -and plesiosaurs which were so abundant -during the Reptilian age that followed. These -animals are known as enaliosaurs. They attained -great size, being from twenty-five to fifty feet in -length; they had air-breathing apparatus, and propelled -themselves through the water with paddles -like the paddles of whales. Their enormous jaws -were lined with rows of sharp, pointed teeth, and -their food was fish, shell-fish, and any other kind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -of animal life that came within their reach. They -devoured even their own species. Living mostly -in the open seas or fresh-water lagoons, they sometimes -chased their prey far up the rivers, and sometimes -basked in the sunshine on the sands of the -shore. Frightful in aspect, fierce, and voracious, -they were the terror and the tyrants of the seas.</p> - -<p>Such were the animals, such were the plants, -that lived and died, that flourished and decayed, -in the age when coal was being formed and fashioned -and hidden away in the crust of the earth. -That the fauna and flora of to-day have few prototypes -among them should be little cause for -regret. There was, indeed, hardly a feature in the -landscape of the coal era that would have had a -familiar look to an inhabitant of the world in its -present age. In place of the hills and valleys as -we have them now, there were great plains sloping -imperceptibly to the borders of the sea. There -were vast marshes, shallow fresh-water lakes, and -broad and sluggish rivers. Save by isolated -peaks the Rocky Mountains had not yet been uplifted -from the face of the deep, and the great -West of to-day was a waste of waters. In the -wide forests no bird’s song was ever heard, no -flashing of a wing was ever seen, no serpent trailed -its length upon the ground, no wild beast searched -the woods for prey. The spider spun his web in -silence from the dew-wet twigs, the locust hopped -drowsily from leaf to leaf, the mayfly floated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -lightly in the heavy air, the slow-paced snail left -his damp track on the surfaces of the rocks, and -the beetles, lifting the hard coverings from their -gauzy wings, flew aimlessly from place to place. -In seas and lakes and swampy pools strange fishes -swam, up from the salt waters odd reptiles crawled -to sun themselves upon the sandy shore or make -their way through the dense jungles of the swamps, -and out where the ocean waves were dashing, -fierce monsters of the sea darted on their prey, or -churned the water into foam in savage fights with -each other.</p> - -<p>But in all the world there were no flowers. -Stems grew to be trunks, branches were sent out, -leaves formed and fell, the land was robed and -wrapped in the richest, most luxuriant foliage, yet -the few buds that tried to blossom were scentless -and hidden, and earth was still void of the beauty -and the fragrance of the flowers.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<small>HOW THE COAL BEDS LIE.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The process of growth, deposition, submergence, -and burial, described in the preceding -chapter, continued throughout the Carboniferous -age. Each period of inundation and of the covering -over of beds of vegetable deposit by sand -and silt is marked by the layers of stratified rock -that intervene between, and that overlie the separate -seams of coal in the coal measures of to-day. -The number of these coal seams indicates the -number of periods during which the growth and -decay of vegetation was uninterrupted. This -number, in the anthracite coal regions, varies from -ten to thirty or thereabouts, but in the bituminous -regions it scarcely ever exceeds eight or ten. The -thickness of the separate coal seams also varies -greatly, ranging from a fraction of an inch up to -sixty or seventy feet. Indeed, there are basins of -small extent in the south of France and in India -where the seam is two hundred feet thick. It is -seldom, however, that workable seams of anthracite -exceed twenty feet in thickness, and by far -the largest number of them do not go above eight -or ten, while the seams of bituminous coal do not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -even average these last figures in thickness. -Neither is the entire thickness of a seam made -up of pure coal. Bands of slate called “partings” -usually run horizontally through a seam, -dividing it into “benches.” These partings vary -from a fraction of an inch to several feet in thickness, -and make up from one fifth to one seventh -of the entire seam.</p> - -<p>The rock strata between the coal seams range -from three feet to three hundred feet in thickness, -and in exceptional cases go as high as five or six -hundred feet. Perhaps a fair average would be -from eighty to one hundred feet. These rock -intervals are made up mostly of sandstones and -shales. The combined average thickness of the -coal seams of Pennsylvania varies from twenty-five -feet at Pittsburgh in the western bituminous -region to one hundred and twenty feet at Pottsville -in the eastern anthracite district, and may -be said to average about one fiftieth of the entire -thickness of the coal measures, which is placed at -4,000 feet.</p> - -<p>Some conception may be had of the enormous -vegetable deposits of the Carboniferous era by -recalling the fact that the resultant coal in each -seam is only from one ninth to one sixteenth in -bulk of the woody fibre from which it has been -derived, the loss being mainly in oxygen and -hydrogen. It is probable that the coal seams as -well as the rock strata had attained a comparative<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -degree of hardness before the close of the Carboniferous -age. It was at the close of this age -that those profound disturbances of the earth’s -crust throughout eastern North America took -place which have already been referred to. -Hitherto, through the long ages of Paleozoic -time, there had been comparative quiet. As cooling -and contraction of the earth’s body were still -going on, there were doubtless oscillations of surface -and subsidence of strata in almost continuous -progress. But these movements were very -slow, amounting, perhaps, to not more than a foot -in a century. Yet in Pennsylvania and Virginia -the sinking of the crust up to the close of the -Carboniferous age amounted to 35,000 or 40,000 -feet. That the subsidence was quiet and unmarked -by violent movement is attested by the -regularity of strata, especially of the carboniferous -measures, which alone show a sinking of 3,000 -or 4,000 feet. Neither were the disturbances -which followed violent, nor were the changes paroxysmal. -Indeed, the probability is that they -took place gradually through long periods of time. -They were, nevertheless, productive of enormous -results in the shape of hills, peaks, and mountain -ranges. These movements in the earth’s crust -were due, as always, to contractions in the earth’s -body or reductions in its bulk. On the same -principle by which the skin of an apple that has -dried without decay is thrown into folds and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -wrinkles, the earth’s crust became corrugated. -There is this difference, however: the crust, being -hard and unyielding, has often been torn and -broken in the process of change. Naturally -these ridges in the earth’s surface have been -lifted along the lines of least resistance, and these -lines seem to have been, at the time of the Appalachian -revolution, practically parallel to the -line of the Atlantic coast, though long spurs were -thrown out in other directions, isolated dome-shaped -elevations were raised up, and bowl-shaped -valleys were hollowed out among the hills.</p> - -<p>The anthracite coal beds were in the regions of -greatest disturbance, and, together with the rock -strata above and below them, assumed new positions, -which were inclined at all angles to their -old ones of horizontality. More than this, the -heat and pressure of that period exerted upon -these beds of coal, which up to this time had been -bituminous in character, resulted in the expulsion -of so large a portion of the volatile matter still -remaining in them as to change their character -from bituminous to anthracite. Although the -strata, in the positions to which they have been -forced, are at times broken and abrupt, yet as a -rule they rise and fall in wave-like folds or ridges. -These ridges are called <em>anticlinals</em>, because the -strata slope in opposite directions from a common -plane. The valleys between the ridges are called -<em>synclinals</em>, because the strata slope from opposite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -directions toward a common plane. One result -of this great force of compression exerted on the -earth’s crust was to make rents in it across the -lines of strata. These rents are called <em>fissures</em>. -Sometimes the faces of a fissure are parallel and -sometimes they inclose a wedge-shaped cavity. -This cavity, whatever its shape, is usually filled -either with igneous rock that has come up from -the molten mass below, or with surface drift or -broken rock fragments that have been deposited -there from above. Where there is displacement -as well as fracture, that is when the strata on one -side of a fissure have been pushed up or have -fallen below the corresponding strata on the other -side, we have what is known as a <em>fault</em>. Sometimes -the displacement seems to have been accomplished -with little disturbance to the sides of -the fissure; at other times we find, along the line -of fracture, evidences of great destruction caused -by the pushing up of strata in this way. A fault -may reach a comparatively short distance, or it -may traverse a country for miles. The vertical -displacement may be only a few inches, or it may -amount to hundreds or thousands of feet. In -the bituminous coal regions, where the strata lie -comparatively undisturbed, faults are but little -known. In the anthracite districts they are common, -but not great.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp026a"> - <img src="images/i_fp026a.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH SOUTHERN COAL FIELD.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp026b"> - <img class="p2" src="images/i_fp026b.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH NORTHERN COAL FIELD.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Besides the great folds into which the earth’s -crust was crowded, there are usually smaller folds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -corrugating the slopes of the greater ones, sometimes -running parallel with them, oftener stretching -across them at various angles. A marked -instance of this formation is found in the Wyoming -coal basin, the general coal bed of which is in -the shape of a canoe, about fifty miles long, from -two to six miles broad, and with a maximum -depth of perhaps one thousand feet. Running -diagonally across this basin, in practically parallel -lines from one extremity to the other, is a series -of gentle anticlinals, dividing the basin into some -thirty smaller synclinal valleys or sub-basins.</p> - -<p>The irregularities produced by folds, fissures, -faults, and partings are not the only ones with -which the miner has to deal. So far we have supposed -the coal seams to have been laid down in horizontal -layers of uniform thickness, with smooth and -regular under and upper surfaces. This is true -only in a large sense. As a matter of fact each -separate seam varies greatly in thickness, and its -roof and floor are often broken and irregular. The -beds of clay on which the deposits were laid were -pushed up unevenly by the exuberant growth of -vegetation from them. The action of waves and -ocean currents made hollows in them, and laid down -ridges and mounds of sand on them, around and -over which the decaying vegetation rose and hardened. -The same forces, together with the action -of running streams, made channels and hollows in -the upper surfaces of these beds of incipient coal,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -which cavities became filled by sand and gravel, -and this also hardened into rock. These irregularities -are found by the miner of to-day in the floor -and roof of the coal seam, and are called <em>rolls</em>, -<em>horses</em>, or <em>horse-backs</em>. When the coal seam thins -out so rapidly that the floor and roof come nearly -together, this state of things is called a <em>pinch</em>, or -<em>squeeze</em>, though the latter term is more properly -applied to the settling of the roof rock after the -coal has been mined out. The inequalities of a -coal seam that have now been mentioned, although -perhaps but a small portion of those that are daily -met with in the process of mining, are neverthless -characteristic of the whole.</p> - -<p>The hills and mountain ranges that were thrown -up at the close of the Carboniferous age were -many times higher and broader then than they are -to-day. Heat and cold and the storms of a thousand -centuries, working by disintegration and erosion, -have worn away their substance, the valleys -and low lands are filled with it, and the rivers are -always carrying it down to the sea. The peaks and -the crests have been the portions of the elevations -that have suffered most. It is often as though the -tops of the anticlinal folds had been sliced off for -the purpose of filling the valleys with them to the -level of the decapitated hills. A great part of the -coal measures have thus wasted away; in some -portions of the anthracite district by far the -greater part, including many valuable coal seams.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>When a fold or flexure of the earth’s crust has -been decapitated in the manner mentioned, the exposed -edge of any stratum of rock or coal is called -its <em>outcrop</em>. The angle of inclination at which any -stratum descends into the earth is called its <em>dip</em>. -The direction of a horizontal line drawn along the -face of a stratum of rock or coal is its <em>strike</em>. It -is obvious that the strike must always be at right -angles to the dip. That is, if the dip is downward -toward the east or toward the west, the direction -of the strike must be north and south. It is -now apparent that if one begins at the outcrop of -a coal seam and traces the course of the seam -downward along the line of dip, his path will lie -down the inclination for a longer or shorter distance, -until the bottom of the synclinal valley is -reached. This is known as the <em>basin</em> or <em>swamp</em>. -Here the seam may be comparatively level for a -short distance; more often it has a mild vertical -curve, and starts up the dip on the other side of -the valley, which inclination may be followed till -the outcrop is reached. If now the decapitated -portion of the fold could be replaced in its natural -position, we could trace the same seam up to and -over the anticlinal axis and down upon the other -side. As it is, we must cross on the surface from -the outcrop to the place where the corresponding -seam enters the earth. In the southern and -eastern anthracite coal districts of Pennsylvania -decapitation of folds to a point below the coal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -measures is general; the coal seams dip into the -earth with a very sharp pitch, and the coal basins -are often very deep and very narrow, striking into -the earth almost like a wedge. In the northern -or Wyoming district decapitation is not so general, -the angle of inclination of strata is mild, and -the basins are wide and comparatively shallow. -In the bituminous districts, where the disturbance -to the earth’s crust has been slight, the coal beds -lie very nearly as they were formed, the dip seldom -exceeding an angle of five degrees with the horizon. -The exposures here are due generally to the -erosive action of water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp030"> - <img src="images/i_fp030.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">OLD OPENING INTO AN OUT-CROP OF THE BALTIMORE VEIN.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The carboniferous measures are the highest -and latest geological formation in the great coal -fields of the United States. Therefore where the -strata have not been disturbed by flexure the coal -seams lie near the surface. This is generally the -case in the bituminous districts, and it is also partially -true in the northern anthracite coal field. -Deep mining is necessary only in the middle and -southern anthracite coal fields, where the folds are -close and precipitous, and the deep and narrow -basins formed by them have been filled with deposits -of a later geologic age.</p> - -<p>Some of the difficulties to be met and overcome -in mining coal will by this time have been appreciated -by the reader. But some of them only. -The inequalities of roof and floor, the pitching -seams, the folds and faults and fissures, all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -accidents and irregularities of formation and of -location, make up but a few of the problems which -face the mining engineer. But the intellect and -ingenuity of men have overcome most of the -obstacles which Nature placed in the way of successful -mining when she hardened the rocks above -her coal beds, crowded the earth’s crust into folds, -and lifted the mountain ranges into the air.</p> - -<p>It will not be out of place at this time to make -mention of those localities in which coal is found. -Indeed, there are few countries on the globe in -which there are not carboniferous deposits of -greater or less extent. Great Britain, with Ireland, -has about 12,000 square miles of them. In -England alone there is an area of 8,139 square -miles of workable coal beds. In continental -Europe the coal fields are numerous, but the character -of the deposit is inferior. Coal is found -also in the Asiatic countries, in Australia, and in -South America; and in Nova Scotia and New -Brunswick there is an area of 18,000 square miles -of coal measures. The combined areas of coal -measures in the United States amount to about -185,000 square miles. The Appalachian or Alleghany -region contains about 60,000 square miles, -included in the States of Pennsylvania, Virginia, -West Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, -Georgia, and Alabama. The Illinois and -Missouri region contains also about 60,000 square -miles, and has areas not only in the States named,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -but also in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Kansas, and -Arkansas. Michigan has about 5,000 and Rhode -Island about 500 square miles. There are also -small areas in Utah and Texas, and in the far -West there are workable coal fields in Colorado, -Dakota, Indian Territory, Montana, New Mexico, -Washington, Wyoming Territory, Oregon, and -California. The entire coal area of the United -States, with the exception of that in Rhode Island -and a few outlying sections in Pennsylvania, -contains coal of the bituminous variety only. -Both the area and supply are therefore practically -without limit. In the coal regions of Rhode -Island the disturbances affecting the earth’s -crust have been very violent. The motion, heat, -and compression have been so great as to give -the rocks associated with the coal measures a -true metamorphic or crystalline structure, and to -transform the coal itself into an extremely hard -anthracite; in some places, indeed, it has been -altered to graphite. The flexures of the coal -formation are very abrupt and full of faults, and -the coal itself is greatly broken and displaced. -Its condition is such that it cannot be mined with -great profit, and but little of it is now sent to -market. The only areas of readily workable anthracite -in the United States are therefore in Pennsylvania. -These are all east of the Alleghany -Mountains, and are located in four distinct regions. -The first or Southern Coal Field extends from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -Lehigh River at Mauch Chunk, southwest to -within a few miles of the Susquehanna River, ending -at this extremity in the form of a fish’s tail. -It is seventy-five miles in length, averages somewhat -less than two miles in breadth, and has an -area of one hundred and forty square miles. It -lies in Carbon, Schuylkill, and Dauphin counties. -The second or Western Middle field, known also as -the Mahanoy and Shamokin field, lies between the -eastern headwaters of the Little Schuylkill River -and the Susquehanna River. It has an area of -about ninety square miles, and is situated in the -counties of Schuylkill, Columbia, and Northumberland. -It lies just north of the Southern field, -and the two together are frequently spoken of as -the Schuylkill Region. The Eastern Middle or -Upper Lehigh field lies northeast of the first two -fields, and is separated into nine distinct parallel -canoe-shaped basins. These extend from the Lehigh -River on the east to the Catawissa Creek on -the west, and comprise an area of about forty -miles. They are principally in Luzerne County, -but extend also into Carbon, Schuylkill, and -Columbia counties. The Northern or Wyoming -field is a crescent-shaped basin about fifty miles -long and from two to six miles broad, with an area -of about two hundred square miles. Its westerly -cusp is just north of the Eastern Middle field, and -it extends from that point northeasterly through -Luzerne and Lackawanna counties, just cutting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -into Wayne and Susquehanna counties with its -northern cusp. It lies in the valleys of the Susquehanna -and Lackawanna rivers, and in it are situated -the mining towns of Plymouth, Wilkes Barre, -Pittston, Scranton, and Carbondale. There is -also a fifth district, known as the Loyalsock and -Mehoopany coal field, lying in Sullivan and Wyoming -counties. It is from twenty to twenty-five -miles northwest of the Wyoming and Lackawanna -field, its area is limited, and its coals are -not true anthracite.</p> - -<p>It will thus be seen that aside from this last -field the anthracite coal area of Pennsylvania -contains about four hundred and seventy square -miles.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<small>THE DISCOVERY OF COAL.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Although it has been within comparatively -recent times that coal has come into general use -as a fuel, yet there can be no doubt that it was -discovered, and that its qualities were known, -many centuries ago. To prove its use by the -ancients, mention is sometimes made of a passage -from the writings of Theophrastus, a pupil and -friend of Aristotle and for many years the head -of the peripatetic school of philosophy. This -passage dates back to about 300 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, and is as -follows: “Those substances that are called coals -and are broken for use are earthy, but they kindle -and burn like wooden coals. They are found in -Liguria where there is amber, and in Elis over -the mountains toward Olympus. They are used -by the smiths.”</p> - -<p>The word “coal,” however, as used in the Bible -and other ancient books, usually means charcoal, -or burning wood. It is claimed, and not without -plausibility, that coal was mined in Britain prior -to the Roman invasion. The cinder heaps found -among ruins of the time of Roman supremacy in -the island point to quite an extensive use of coal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -by the people of that age. But no writings have -been found recording the use of coal prior to -852 <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> In that year twelve cartloads of -“fossil fuel,” or “pit coal,” were received by the -abbey of Peterborough in England, and the receipt -was recorded. It is said that coal first -began to be systematically mined in Great Britain -about the year 1180.</p> - -<p>It is certain that by the end of the thirteenth -century the exportation of coal from Newcastle -was considerable, and the new fuel had come to -be largely used in London. But the people of -that city conceived the idea that its use was injurious -to the health of the inhabitants generally. -The coal, being of the bituminous variety, burned -with considerable flame and gave off a good deal -of smoke, and the ignorance of the people led -them into the belief that the air was contaminated -and poisoned by the products of combustion. -So they presented a petition to Parliament -asking that the burning of coal be prohibited in -the city of London. Not only was the prayer of -the petitioners granted, but in order to render the -prohibition effectual an act was passed making -it a capital offense to burn the dreaded fuel. This -was in the reign of Edward I., and is characteristic -of the policy of that strong, unyielding king, -whose ends, great and just perhaps, were too often -attained by harsh and cruel means.</p> - -<p>The coal industry was checked, but it was not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -destroyed; for, half a century later, we find Edward -III. granting a license to the inhabitants of Newcastle -“to dig coals and stones in the common -soil of the town without the walls thereof in the -place called the Castle Field and the Forth.” -Afterward this town, owing to the fine coal beds -in its vicinity, became one of the great centres of -the British coal trade, from which fact doubtless -arose that ancient saying concerning useless -trouble or labor, that it is like “carrying coals to -Newcastle.”</p> - -<p>In Scotland coal was mined in the twelfth century -and in Germany in the thirteenth, and the -Chinese had already become familiar with its use. -But in Paris the same prejudice was excited -against it that had prevailed in London, and it -did not come into use in that city as a household -fuel until about the middle of the sixteenth century. -This was also the date of its introduction -into Wales, Belgium, and other European countries.</p> - -<p>That coal was familiar, in appearance at least, -to the natives of America, long before the feet -of white men ever pressed American soil, cannot -well be doubted. They must have seen it at its -numerous outcrops; perhaps they took pieces of -it in their hard hands, handled it, broke it, powdered -it, or cast it away from them as useless. -Indeed, it is not improbable that they should have -known something of its qualities as a fuel. But<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -of this there is no proof. The first record we -have of the observation of coal in this country -was made by Father Hennepin, a French explorer, -in 1679. On a map of his explorations he marked -the site of a coal mine on the bank of the Illinois -River above Fort Crevecœur, near the present -town of Ottawa. In his record of travel he -states that in the country then occupied by the -Pimitoui or Pimitwi Indians “there are mines of -coal, slate, and iron.” The oldest coal workings -in America are doubtless those in what is known -as the Richmond or Chesterfield coal bed, near -Richmond in Chesterfield and Powhatan counties -in the State of Virginia. It is supposed that -coal was discovered and mined there as early as -1750. But by whom and under what circumstances -the discovery was made we have only -tradition to inform us. This says that one day, -during the year last named, a certain boy, living -in that vicinity, went out into an unfrequented -district on a private and personal fishing excursion. -Either the fish bit better than he had -thought they would, or for some other cause his -supply of bait ran out, and it became necessary -for him to renew it. Hunting around in the -small creeks and inlets for crawfish with which -to bait his hook, he chanced to stumble upon the -outcrop of a coal bed which crosses the James -River about twelve miles above Richmond. He -made his discovery known, and further examination<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -disclosed a seam of rich bituminous coal, -which has since been conceded to be a formation -of Mesozoic time rather than of the Carboniferous -age. Mining operations were soon begun, and -were carried on so successfully that by the year -1775 the coal was in general use in the vicinity -for smithing and domestic purposes. It played -a part in the war for independence by entering -into the manufacture of cannon balls, and by -1789 it had achieved so much of a reputation -that it was being shipped to Philadelphia, New -York, and Boston, and sold in those markets. -But the mines were operated by slave labor, and -mining was carried on in the most primitive fashion -for three quarters of a century. So late as -1860 the improved systems of mining, long in use -in the North, were still comparatively unknown -at the Virginia mines.</p> - -<p>During the war of the rebellion these mines -were seized by the Confederate government and -operated by it, in order to obtain directly the necessary -fuel for purposes of modern warfare; and -upon the cessation of hostilities the paralysis -which had fallen upon all other Southern industries -fell also upon this. But with the revival -of business, mining was again begun in the Richmond -field, and from 1874 to the present time -the industry has prospered and grown, and Virginia -has furnished to the country at large a considerable -amount of an excellent quality of bituminous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -coal. This coal bed covers an area of -about 180 square miles, and has an average thickness -of twenty-four feet. It is supposed to contain -about 50,000,000 of tons yet unmined.</p> - -<p>Another of the early discoveries of coal in the -United States was that of the Rhode Island -anthracite bed in 1760. Mines began to be regularly -worked here in 1808, but only about 750,000 -tons, all told, have been taken from them. -For reasons which have been already given these -mines cannot be profitably worked in competition -with the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania, in -which the location and formation of the coal beds -are greatly superior.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to say when the coal of the -great bituminous district of Pennsylvania and -Ohio was first seen by white men. In the summer -of 1755 General Braddock led his army -through western Pennsylvania by a military road -to that terrible defeat and slaughter in which he -himself received his death wound. This road, -laid out by the army’s engineers and graded by its -men, was so well built that its course can still be -traced, and it is seen to have crossed the outcrop -of the Pittsburgh coal seam in many places. It -is not improbable that a large number of the soldiers -in the English army were familiar with the -appearance of coal, and knew how to mine it and -use it. Indeed, Colonel James Burd, who was -engaged in the construction of the road, claims to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -have burned about a bushel of this coal on his -camp-fire at that time.</p> - -<p>Some of the English soldiers who survived that -terrible disaster to their arms afterward returned -and purchased lands in the vicinity, and it is reasonable -to suppose that the coal was dug and put -to use by them. A lease, still in existence, dated -April 11, 1767, making a grant of lands on “Coal -Pitt Creek,” in Westmoreland County, indicates -that there were coal openings there at that date. -Captain Thomas Hutchins, who visited Fort Pitt -(now Pittsburgh) in 1760, mentions the fact that -he found an open coal mine on the opposite side -of the Monongahela River, from which coal was -being taken for the use of the garrison.</p> - -<p>From 1770 to 1777 it was common for maps of -certain portions of the Ohio River country to have -marked on them sites of coal beds along the shores -of that stream in regions which are now known to -contain seams of the great bituminous deposit.</p> - -<p>Probably the Susquehanna River region was the -first in which this coal was dug systematically and -put to use. It was burned by blacksmiths in their -forges, and as early as 1785 the river towns were -supplied with it by Samuel Boyd, who shipped it -from his mines in arks. In 1813 Philip Karthaus -took a quantity of coal to Fort Deposit, and sent -it thence by canal to Philadelphia. After this he -sent cargoes regularly to Philadelphia and Baltimore, -and sold them readily at the rate of thirty-three<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -cents per bushel. This trade was stopped, -however, by the building of dams across the Susquehanna, -and it was not until many years afterward -that the mineral resources of this section of -the coal field were developed again through the -introduction of railroads.</p> - -<p>In the Pittsburgh region the demand for coal -increased with the increase of population, and at -the beginning of the present century it was in -general use, not only in the manufacturing industries -but also as a domestic fuel, throughout that -section of country. The first coal sent from Pittsburgh -to an eastern market was shipped to Philadelphia -in 1803. It was carried by the Louisiana, -a boat of 350 tons burden, and was sold at the -rate of thirty-seven and a half cents per bushel. -From that time the increase in the mining of bituminous -coal in the Pittsburgh region has been -steady and enormous. Its presence, its quality -and abundance, have induced the establishment of -great manufacturing enterprises in that section of -the State, and many millions of tons of it are sent -every year to the markets of the seaboard.</p> - -<p>Pennsylvania was a region much in favor with -the North American Indians, and it is more than -probable that they were aware, to some extent, of -the existence of mineral wealth beneath her soil, -long before white men ever came among them.</p> - -<p>Besides the numerous outcroppings of coal -which, in their journeyings, they must have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -crossed and recrossed for centuries, there were -many places where the coal seams, having been -cut through by creeks and rivers, were exposed -fully to view. In this way, in the Wyoming -district, the seven feet vein along the Nanticoke -Creek had been disclosed, and the nine feet vein -on Ransom’s Creek at Plymouth; while at Pittston -the Susquehanna River had bared the coal -seams in the faces of its rocky banks, and up the -Lackawanna the black strata were frequently -visible. But whatever knowledge the Indians had -on the subject was, with proverbial reticence, kept -to themselves. It is said that about the year -1750 a party of Indians brought a bag of coal to -a gunsmith living near Nazareth in Pennsylvania, -but refused to say where they had obtained it. -The gunsmith burned it successfully in the forge -which he used for the purpose of repairing their -guns.</p> - -<p>The presumption that the Indians knew something -of the uses of coal, and actually mined it, is -borne out by the following incident: In the year -1766 a trader by the name of John Anderson was -settled at Wyoming, and carried on a small business -as a shopkeeper, trading largely with the red -men. In September of that year a company of -six Nanticoke, Conoy, and Mohican Indians visited -the governor at Philadelphia, and made to him -the following address:—</p> - -<p>“Brother,—As we came down from Chenango<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -we stopped at Wyoming, where we had a mine in -two places, and we discovered that some white -people had been at work in the mine, and had -filled three canoes with the ore; and we saw their -tools with which they had dug it out of the ground, -where they had made a hole at least forty feet -long and five or six feet deep. It happened formerly -that some white people did take, now and -then, only a small bit and carry it away, but these -people have been working at the mine, and have -filled their canoes. We desire that you will tell -us whether you know anything of this matter, or -if it be done by your consent. We inform you -that there is one John Anderson, a trader, now -living at Wyoming, and we suspect that he, or -somebody by him, has robbed our mine. This -man has a store of goods there, and it may happen -when the Indians see their mine robbed they will -come and take away his goods.”</p> - -<p>There is little doubt that the mines referred to -were coal mines. The presence of coal on the -same side of the river a few miles below Wyoming -was certainly known, if not at that time then very -soon afterward; for in 1768 Charles Stewart -made a survey of the Manor of Sunbury opposite -Wilkes Barre for the “Proprietaries’” government, -and on the original map of the survey -“stone coal” is noted as appearing on the site of -what is now called Rosshill.</p> - -<p>This valley of Wyoming, the seat of such vast<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -mineral wealth, was first settled by people from -Connecticut in 1762, and in the fall of that year -they reported the discovery of coal.</p> - -<p>These energetic, enterprising Yankee settlers -could not fail to know the location of the coal -beds before they had been long in the valley. -Some of them were probably familiar with the -English bituminous coals, which were then being -exported in small quantities to America under the -name of “sea coal;” and from the fact that our -anthracite was known to them as “stone coal” -it is probable that there were those among them -who knew that the English people had a very -hard coal which they could not burn, and to which -they had given the name “stone coal.” Specimens -of this Wyoming valley stone coal had already -been gathered and sent to England for examination. -Indeed, there is no doubt that the first -anthracite coal ever found by white men in the -United States was discovered in this valley. But -these Yankee settlers could not make their stone -coal burn. Repeated trials met with repeated -failures. There was one among them, however, -Obadiah Gore, a blacksmith, who would not be -discouraged. In 1769 he took a quantity of these -coals to the blacksmith’s shop conducted by him -and his brother, put them in his forge, and continued -his efforts and experiments until finally the -black lumps yielded to his persistency, and he had -the satisfaction of seeing the blue flames dart<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -from them, and the red color creep over them, -and of feeling the intense heat sent out by their -combustion. But their ignition and burning were -dependent upon the strong air current sent -through them by the bellows; without that he -could do nothing with them.</p> - -<p>So this Yankee blacksmith, who was afterwards -one of the associate judges of the courts of Luzerne -County, became, so far as is known, the first -white man to demonstrate practically the value -of anthracite coal as a fuel. The success of -Gore’s experiments soon became known, other -smiths began to recognize the merits of the lately -despised stone coal, and it was not long before the -forge fires of nearly every smithy in the region -were ablaze with anthracite.</p> - -<p>The fame of the new fuel soon spread beyond -the limits of the valley, and if the difficulties of -transportation checked its use elsewhere, the -knowledge of how to use it in forges and furnaces -was not uncommon. The demand for it overcame, -at times, even the obstacles in the way of -shipment, and it was sent to points at long distances -from the mines.</p> - -<p>In 1776 the proprietary government of Pennsylvania -had an armory at Carlisle in that State, -in which they were manufacturing firearms to be -used by the Continental troops in the war with -Great Britain; and the first coal ever sent out -from the Wyoming valley was shipped by them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -to Carlisle during that year and the succeeding -years of the war, for use in their armory.</p> - -<p>The next discoveries of anthracite were made -in what is now known as the Southern coal field. -It had long been a matter of tradition among the -stolid German farmers of Pennsylvania that coal -existed in the rugged hills along the Lehigh River, -but no one succeeded in finding it there until -the year 1791. It was then discovered by one -Philip Ginther, a hunter and backwoodsman, who -had built a rough cabin in the forest near the -Mauch Chunk mountain, and there gave to himself -and his family a precarious support by killing -game, large and small, carrying it to the nearest -settlement, and exchanging it at the village store -for the necessaries of life. Telling the story -afterward, himself, he said that at one time the -supply of food in his cabin chanced to run out, -and he started into the woods with his gun in quest -of something which should satisfy the hunger of -those who were at home. It was a most unsuccessful -hunting expedition. The morning passed, the -afternoon went by, night approached, but his game-bag -was still empty. He was tired, hungry, and -sadly disappointed. A drizzling rain set in as he -started homeward across the Mauch Chunk mountain, -darkness was coming rapidly on, and despondency -filled his mind as he thought of the -expectant faces of little ones at home to whom -he was returning empty-handed. Making his way<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -slowly through the thick, wet undergrowth, and -still looking about him, if perchance something -in the way of game might yet come within the -range of his gun, his foot happened to strike a -hard substance which rolled away before him. He -looked down at it, and then bent over and picked -it up, and saw by the deepening twilight that it -was black. He was familiar with the traditions -of the country concerning the existence of stone -coal in this region, and he began to wonder if -this, indeed, was not a specimen of it. He carried -the black lump home with him that night, -and the next day he set out with it to find Colonel -Jacob Weiss at Fort Allen, now Weissport, -to whom he exhibited what he had found. Colonel -Weiss became deeply interested in the matter, -and brought the specimen to Philadelphia, -where he submitted it to the inspection of John -Nicholson, Michael Hillegas, and Charles Cist. -These men, after assuring themselves that it was -really anthracite coal, authorized Colonel Weiss -to make such a contract with Ginther as would -induce him to point out the exact spot where the -mineral was found. It happened that the hunter -coveted a vacant piece of land in the vicinity -containing a fine water-power and mill-site, and -on Colonel Weiss agreeing to obtain a patent for -him from the State for the desired lot of land, -he very readily gave all the information in his -possession concerning the “stone coal.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<p>In the Pottsville district of the Southern anthracite -region coal was discovered at about the -same time as in the Mauch Chunk field. This -discovery too was made by accident, and the discoverer -in this case also was a hunter, Nicholas -Allen. He had been out with his gun all day, -and at nightfall had found himself too far away -from his home to make the attempt to reach it. -He accordingly built a fire under a projecting -ledge at the foot of Broad Mountain, and, lying -down by it, soon fell asleep. He was wakened in -the night by a strong light shining on his eyes, -and by the sensation of great heat. Springing -to his feet, he discovered that the ledge itself was -burning, or, as he afterward expressed it, “that -the mountain was on fire.” He could not understand -the phenomenon, and remained in the vicinity -until morning, when he saw, by daylight, that -what he had thought to be a ledge of rocks was -really a projecting outcrop of mineral coal, which -had become ignited from his camp-fire of sticks. -Whether this story is or is not authentic, it is certain -that no practical results attended the discovery -of coal in this region. It was not until twenty-six -years after Obadiah Gore’s experiments in the -Wyoming valley that coal was successfully burned -here in a blacksmith’s forge. The attempt was -made by one Whetstone, and met with the same -marked success that had attended the earlier -effort. But owing to the difficulty still ordinarily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> -experienced in combustion, the coal of this region -was not generally used until after the year 1806. -In that year David Berlin, another blacksmith, -experimented with it in his forge, with such complete -success that a new impetus was given to the -coal trade, mining was resumed, and the new fuel -came into general use in the blacksmiths’ shops -of the vicinity.</p> - -<p>In the Middle anthracite district coal was not -discovered until 1826. This discovery also was -made by a hunter, John Charles. On one of his -hunting expeditions he chanced to find a groundhog’s -hole, and, laying down his rifle, he began to -dig for his game. In the course of the excavation -he uncovered a projecting shelf of stone coal. -He made his discovery known, further explorations -were set on foot, the coal bed was located, and a -company called the Hazleton Coal Company was -formed to work the field.</p> - -<p>From these several points of discovery the -search for anthracite coal was extended in all directions, -the limits of the beds were eventually -defined, and each field was surveyed and mapped -with much care.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<small>THE INTRODUCTION OF COAL INTO USE.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>At the beginning of the present century the -anthracite or stone coal was in general use, in all -the districts where it was found, as a fuel for the -blacksmith’s fire and the iron worker’s forge. -This, however, was the limit of its utility. It was -thought to be necessary to force a strong artificial -air current up through it to make it burn, and since -this could not well be done in grates, stoves, or furnaces, -there was no demand for coal for domestic -use, or for the great manufacturing industries. -Efforts were indeed made to overcome this difficulty. -Schemes without number were set on foot -and abandoned. It was proposed, at one time, -to force air through a tube to the under part of -the grate by means of clockwork operated by a -weight or by a spring. But the cost of such an -arrangement made it impracticable.</p> - -<p>It seems, however, that Weiss, Cist, and Hillegas, -who were developing the discovery made by Ginther -in the Mauch Chunk mountain, also solved -the problem of burning the stone coal without -an artificial draft. They had sent specimens of -their coals to Philadelphia, and presumably had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -accompanied them with instructions as to the -proper method of burning them. This presumption -is borne out by certain letters sent to Jacob -Cist of Wilkes Barre, a son of Charles Cist the -printer, who was in company with Weiss and -Hillegas. Two of these letters are now in the -possession of the Wyoming Historical and Geological -Society at Wilkes Barre. An extract from -one of them reads as follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“I have experienced the use of them” (the -Lehigh coals) “in a close stove and also in a fireplace -that may be closed and opened at pleasure, -so constructed, as to cause a brisk current of air -to pass up through a small contracted grate on -which they were laid. I find them more difficult -to be kindled than the Virginia coal, yet a small -quantity of dry wood laid on the grate under -them is sufficient to ignite them, which being -done, they continue to burn while a sufficient -amount be added to keep up the combustion, occasionally -stirring them to keep down the ashes. -They produce no smoke, contain no sulphur, and -when well ignited exhibit a vivid bright appearance, -all which render them suitable for warming -rooms.”</p> -</div> - -<p>This letter is dated “Philadelphia, Feb. 15<sup class="works">th</sup> -1803,” and is signed “Oliver Evans.”</p> - -<p>The second letter is similar in its recommendation -and report of success, and states that the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>writer, “Fred<sup class="works">k</sup> Graff, clerk of the Water -Works of Phil<sup class="works">a</sup> ... made a trial of the Lehigh -coals in the year 1802 in the large stove at the -Pennsylvania Bank in Phil<sup class="works">a</sup>.”</p> - -<p>So far as is known these are the first recorded -instances of any successful attempts to burn anthracite -coal in grates and stoves. Dr. James of -Philadelphia has also left on record the fact that -he made constant use of anthracite coal for heating -purposes from the year 1804.</p> - -<p>These well-authenticated instances of the use -of anthracite appear to destroy the commonly -accepted belief that Judge Jesse Fell of Wilkes -Barre was the first person whose attempts to burn -this coal in an open grate were rewarded with -complete success. Nevertheless the value of -Judge Fell’s experiments cannot be questioned, -nor can he be deprived of the full measure of -credit due to him for bringing those experiments -to a successful issue.</p> - -<p>Until the year 1808 all efforts in the Wyoming -valley to burn the “stone coal” of the region without -an artificial air blast had utterly failed. -People did not believe that it could be done. The -successes of Evans and Graff in this direction -were either not known or not credited. It is -certain that Judge Fell had not heard of them. -His opinion that this coal could be made to burn -in an open fireplace was based wholly on the -reasoning of his own mind. He was a member of -the Society of Friends, and had come to Wilkes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -Barre some years before from Berks County. He -was a blacksmith by trade, the proprietor of the -best hotel in town, and he came afterward to be -one of the associate judges of Luzerne County. -When he had fully considered the matter of burning -the stone coal, and had reached definite conclusions, -he began to experiment. At first he -constructed a grate of green hickory sticks, and -the presumption is that the fire he kindled in it -was a success; for he began, immediately afterward, -to make an iron grate similar to the grates -now in use. The work was done by his nephew -Edward Fell and himself in the blacksmith shop -of the former, and was completed in a single day. -Judge Fell took the grate home late in the afternoon -and set it with brick in the fireplace of his -bar-room. In the evening he kindled in it, with -oak wood, a glowing coal fire, and invited a large -number of the most respected citizens of the -place to come in and see the stone coal burn. -Only a few came, however, in response to his invitation; -they believed his theory to be impracticable, -and feared that they might be made the victims -of a hoax. But to those who came the fire -was a revelation. It cleared the way for immense -possibilities. Judge Fell himself realized the importance -of his discovery, and thought the incident -worthy of record. Being a devoted member of -the order of Free and Accepted Masons, he chose -from his library a book entitled “The Free Mason’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -Monitor,” and wrote on the fly-leaf, in a -clear, bold hand, this memorandum:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Fe’b 11<sup class="works">th</sup>, of Masonry 5808. Made the experiment -of burning the common stone coal of -the valley in a grate in a common fire place in my -house, and find it will answer the purpose of fuel; -making a clearer and better fire, at less expense, -than burning wood in the common way.</p> - -<p class="right">[Signed] <span class="smcap">Jesse Fell.</span></p> - -<p class="noi">“<span class="smcap">Borough of Wilkesbarre</span>,<br /> -<span class="ident2"><i>February 11<sup class="works">th</sup> 1808</i>.”</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The complete success of Judge Fell’s experiment -was soon noised abroad, and a new era of usefulness -for anthracite coal set in. From Wilkes -Barre up and down the entire Wyoming valley -fireplaces for wood were discarded and grates were -set for the burning of the new domestic fuel. -This was followed, not long after, by the introduction -of stoves, so that by 1820, says Stewart -Pearce in his “Annals of Luzerne County,” -grates and coal stoves were in general use throughout -the valley, coal for domestic purposes selling -at three dollars per ton. At the time of Judge -Fell’s experiment there was no outside market for -the product of the mines of the Wyoming valley. -The distances to the large cities and manufacturing -centres were too great, the means of transportation -too rude, and the knowledge of the use -of anthracite too limited, to warrant any serious -effort to create a foreign market for it. The attempt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -had nevertheless been made in 1807 by -Abijah Smith, who shipped an ark-load of coal -down the Susquehanna River to Columbia, and -was obliged to leave it there unsold.</p> - -<p>In 1808 the experiment was repeated by Abijah -and his brother John, who, profiting by the success -of Judge Fell’s late experiment, took with -them an iron grate, set it up at Columbia, and proceeded -to demonstrate to the doubting inhabitants -the practical value of their coal as a domestic fuel. -The venture proved successful, and after this they -found no difficulty in selling at the river towns all -the coal they could mine. After 1812 they extended -their trade by running their coal to Havre -de Grace, and sending it thence by schooner to -New York.</p> - -<p>The success which attended the efforts of the -Smiths appears to have been an inducement to -other enterprising citizens of the Wyoming valley -to embark in the coal trade, and in 1813 and -1814 Colonel George M. Hollenback, Colonel -Lord Butler, Joseph Wright, Esq., and Crandal -Wilcox all engaged in the mining and shipping -of coal. They sent the product of the mines -down the river in arks, and up to 1830 85,000 -tons had been mined in the valley for such shipment. -After that year coal was sent by the -North Branch Canal just completed to Nanticoke, -and in 1846 the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad -pierced the valley, and opened a new era in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -transportation. So it came about that this region, -which in 1807 opened the anthracite coal trade -with a shipment of fifty-five tons, sent to market -in 1887 a grand total of 19,684,929 tons.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp056"> - <img src="images/i_fp056.jpg" alt="map" title="map" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">MAP<br /> - <i>SHOWING</i><br /> - ·ANTHRACITE·COAL·FIELDS·<br /> - -<i>OF</i>-<br /> - ·PENNSYLVANIA·</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>In the mean time Weiss, Cist, and Hillegas -pushed their coal enterprise on the Mauch Chunk -mountain, opening what was afterward known as -the Great Summit Mine, and in 1803 started six -ark-loads of coal down the Lehigh River, to be -floated to its junction with the Delaware, and -thence to Philadelphia. Only two of the arks -reached their destination, the others having met -with disaster on the way, owing to swift currents -and unskillful navigation. Of the two cargoes -that arrived safely at Philadelphia not a lump -could be sold. The owners made strenuous efforts -to find a market for it, but people did not wish -to purchase a fuel that they could not make burn. -At last the city authorities were appealed to, and, -after some hesitation, they agreed to take the coal -and try to make use of it for a steam-engine employed -at the city waterworks. This they did; -but all their attempts to make the alleged fuel -burn proved unavailing. They finally gave up -the task in disgust, declared the coal to be a nuisance, -and caused what remained of it to be -broken up and spread on the footpaths of the -public grounds, in place of gravel. This was indeed -a most ignominious failure. It caused a -sudden cessation of mining operations at Summit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -Hill, and for several years the Lehigh Mine Company, -utterly discouraged, made no effort to retrieve -its fallen fortunes. William Turnbull attempted -to revive the project a few years later, -but his effort also met with a dismal failure.</p> - -<p>In 1813 Charles Miner, Jacob Cist, and John -W. Robinson, all of Wilkes Barre, renewed the -enterprise at Summit Hill with great energy, and -on the 9th of August, 1814, started their first -ark-load of coal down the river to Philadelphia. -Before it had gone eighty rods from the place of -starting it struck a ledge which tore a hole in the -bow of the boat, “and,” Mr. Miner says, “the -lads stripped themselves nearly naked to stop the -rush of water with their clothes.” After many -and varied adventures on the swift currents of the -rivers the ark reached its destination on the following -Sunday morning at eight o’clock, having -been five days on the way. Its arrival had been -anticipated by its owners, and they had called -public attention to its cargo by means of handbills -printed in both English and German, and distributed -freely throughout the city. These handbills, -besides advertising the coal, gave information as -to the method of burning it in grates, stoves, and -smith’s forges. They were also accompanied by -printed certificates from blacksmiths and others -attesting the value and availability of the Lehigh -coal as a fuel. The owners of the ark went still -farther. They put up stoves in conspicuous public<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -places in the city, built coal fires in them, and invited -the people to stop and inspect them. They -went to private houses and prevailed on the inmates -to be allowed to kindle anthracite fires in -the grates which had been built for the use of -Liverpool coals. They attended at blacksmith’s -shops, and even bribed the journeymen to give -their coals a fair trial in the forge. Thus, by -persistent and industrious, nay by presumptuous, -efforts, these men succeeded in awakening public -interest in their enterprise, and in creating a demand -for their wares. The proprietors of the -Lehigh coals gave particular attention also to the -instruction of the people in the matter of igniting -the new fuel. Having once disabused them of -the idea that a strong artificial air current was -necessary, the next step was to prevent them from -disturbing the coals constantly by poking, punching, -and raking them, a proceeding which the uninitiated -seemed to consider of prime importance, -in order to induce them to ignite. And, strange -as it may seem, this fallacy was the hardest to -overcome. Among the purchasers of the Lehigh -coals in 1814 was the firm of White & Hazard, -manufacturers of iron wire at the falls of the -Schuylkill. They had been told by Mr. Joshua -Malin, proprietor of a rolling mill, that he had succeeded -in using the new fuel, and as the Virginia -coal was very scarce at that time, White & Hazard -decided to test the qualities of the anthracite.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -They purchased a cart-load of it, paying a dollar -a bushel for it, and took it to their works. Here -they tried to build a fire with it in their furnace, -giving it what they considered the most skillful -manipulation and the most assiduous attention. -Their efforts were in vain. The entire cart-load -was wasted in a futile attempt to make the coals -burn. Nothing daunted, they obtained another -cartload, and determined to spend the night, if -need should be, in the work of building a coal -fire. And they did spend the night. But when -morning came they were apparently as far from -the attainment of their object as ever. They had -poked and punched and raked; they had labored -incessantly; but notwithstanding the most constant -manipulation, the coals above the burning -wood would not sufficiently ignite. By this time -the men were disheartened and disgusted, and -slamming the door of the furnace, they left the -mill in despair, and went to breakfast. It happened -that one of them had left his jacket in the -furnace room, and returning for it about half an -hour later, he discovered that the furnace door was -red-hot. In great surprise he flung the door open -and found the interior glowing with intense white -heat. The other hands were immediately summoned, -and four separate parcels of iron were -heated and rolled by the same fire before it required -renewing. Seeking for the cause of this -unexpected result the men came to the conclusion<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -that it was due to simply letting the fire alone, a -theory the correctness of which they afterward -abundantly proved. Thus, by chance, these men -hit upon the secret of success in the matter of -building a fire of anthracite coals. That secret is -simply to throw the coals loosely on the burning -wood, and then <em>let them alone</em>. The incident -at White & Hazard’s mills becoming generally -known, people learned more from it about the -process of building a coal fire than they had -learned from all their previous instruction.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless the enterprise of the Lehigh operators -was still not destined to meet with success. -They had embarked in the coal trade in 1814, while -the war with Great Britain was still in progress, -when it was impossible to procure coal from England, -and when coal from the Richmond district -was very scarce. They were therefore able to obtain -fourteen dollars per ton for the Lehigh coal, -but even at this price the cost and risk of mining -and shipping was so great that the business was -barely a paying one. In 1815, however, peace -was concluded with Great Britain, the market was -again opened to the reception of foreign coals, and -the Lehigh operators, being unable to compete with -the sellers of soft coal, were obliged to abandon -the field.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the efforts and energy of these -proprietors the Summit Hill mining industry did -not pay, and in 1817 the mines passed into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -hands of Josiah White and Erskine Hazard. -They perfected a system of slack-water navigation -on the Lehigh, and in 1820 made their first shipment -of 365 tons. The tables commonly printed -showing the growth of the anthracite coal trade -usually make that trade begin with this shipment -of Lehigh coal in 1820. This, however, is not -quite correct, as we have seen that coal was sent to -market from the Wyoming region at a much earlier -date. It is remarkable that, whereas in 1820 -the 365 tons of Lehigh coal stocked the market, -in 1831, the year in which the system of slack -water navigation was superseded by shipment on -the Delaware division of the Pennsylvania Canal, -this region sent down 40,966 tons. And in 1887 -there was sent to market from the Lehigh district -a total of 4,347,061 tons, an amount which would -have been much greater had not a prolonged strike -of coal miners seriously interfered with the output.</p> - -<p>In the Schuylkill region of the Southern coal -field similar obstacles to the introduction of coal -were encountered. Nicholas Allen, the discoverer -of coal in that region, had formed a partnership -with Colonel George Shoemaker, and the firm had -purchased a tract of coal land near Pottsville, on -which they began mining operations in the year -1812. They raised several wagon loads of coal, -and offered it for sale in the vicinity, but with -the exception of a few blacksmiths, who had been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -taught its value as a fuel by Colonel Shoemaker, -no one could be found to purchase it. Allen soon -became disheartened and sold his entire interest -in the property to his partner, who, still persisting -in the enterprise, mined a considerable quantity -of the coal, filled ten wagons with it, and took it -to Philadelphia in quest of a market. But it did -not meet with a ready sale. People looked at the -coals curiously, considered them to be nothing -more than black stones, and, seeing no reason why -they should burn better than stones of any other -color, would not buy them.</p> - -<p>Colonel Shoemaker sounded the praises of his -wares so vigorously and persistently, however, that -at last a few purchasers were induced to take them -in small quantities, just for trial. The trials, as -usual, proved to be unsuccessful, and the people -who had purchased the coals, believing they had -been victimized, denounced Colonel Shoemaker as -a cheat and a swindler; while one person, whose -wrath rose to a high pitch, procured a warrant for -the colonel’s arrest, on the charge that he was a -common impostor. At this stage of the proceedings, -Colonel Shoemaker, believing discretion to -be the better part of valor, quietly left the city and -started toward his home by a circuitous route, -driving, it is said, some thirty miles out of his -way, in order to avoid the officer of the law holding -the warrant for his arrest.</p> - -<p>This was indeed a discouraging beginning for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -the Schuylkill coal trade. Fortunately, however, -not all of the colonel’s customers at Philadelphia -had met with failure in the effort to burn his coal. -Messrs. Mellen & Bishop, a firm of iron factors -in Delaware County, at the earnest solicitation of -Colonel Shoemaker, made the experiment with -the small quantity of coals purchased by them, -and finding that the fuel burned successfully they -announced that fact through the Philadelphia -newspapers. Other iron workers were thus induced -to try the coal, and finally all the furnaces -along the Schuylkill had open doors for it. Eventually -it came into use for the purpose of generating -steam, the experiments of John Price Wetherill -in that direction having been only partially -satisfactory, but those at the Phœnixville iron -works in 1825 meeting with complete success.</p> - -<p>Still the prices which coal commanded in the -Philadelphia market were not sufficient to pay for -the labor of mining it and the cost of shipping it. -So that, prior to 1818, nearly all the coal mined in -the Schuylkill region was sold to the blacksmiths -of the surrounding country. In that year, however, -the improvements of the Schuylkill navigation -were completed, and afforded an additional, -though not by any means safe or sufficient, outlet -for the products of the mines. By 1826 and 1827 -the growing importance of the coal trade became -manifest, the Schuylkill navigation system was -placed in excellent repair, and the mining business<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -of the district grew rapidly to enormous -proportions.</p> - -<p>The northeasterly extension of the Wyoming -coal basin, leaving the Susquehanna River at -Pittston, follows the valley of the Lackawanna up -to a point seven miles beyond Carbondale, where -it cuts slightly into the counties of Wayne and -Susquehanna, and there runs out. This extension -is known as the Lackawanna region. Coal was -dug up and experimented with here at the beginning -of the present century. Its outcrop at the -river bank was noted by Preston, a surveyor, in -1804. In 1812 it was mined at Providence and -burned in a rude grate by H. C. L. Von Storch. -About this time the brothers William and Maurice -Wurts, having been attracted by the mineral -wealth of the region, came there from Philadelphia -and began explorations for the purpose of -ascertaining the location, area, and quality of the -beds of anthracite coal. William, the younger -brother, in the course of his wanderings through -the rugged hills and thick forests of the country, -chanced to meet a hunter by the name of -David Nobles, who, having fled from the adjoining -county of Wayne to avoid imprisonment for debt, -was leading a precarious existence in the woods. -Nobles was well acquainted with the country, -knew where the outcroppings of coal were, and -having entered into the service of Wurts, rendered -him most valuable assistance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span></p> - -<p>Their investigations having proved the presence -of large bodies of coal, the Wurts brothers next -procured title to the lands containing it, and then -turned their attention to the problem of finding -an outlet to market. They decided finally to ship -coal on rafts by the Wallenpaupack Creek to the -Lackawaxen, by the Lackawaxen to the Delaware, -and thence to Philadelphia. This method -was experimented on from 1814 to 1822 with varying -degrees of disaster. In the year last mentioned -they succeeded in taking to Philadelphia -100 tons of coal, only to find the market flooded -with 2,240 tons of Lehigh coal. Competition was -apparently hopeless; but instead of abandoning -the enterprise, as men of less energy and perseverance -would now have done, Maurice Wurts turned -his attention to a new project. This was nothing -less than to make an outlet to the New York market -by building a canal which should reach from -the Hudson River at Rondout, across to the Delaware -at Port Jervis, and thence up that stream -and the Lackawaxen to the nearest practicable -point east of the coal beds. But when that point -should be reached there would still be the Moosic -Mountain, with its towering heights and precipitous -bluffs, lying between the boats and the mines. -The Wurts brothers did not acknowledge this to -be a serious obstacle. They proposed to overcome -this difficulty by building across the mountains a -railroad, which should consist largely of inclined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -planes, the cars to be drawn up and let down these -planes by means of stationary steam-engines, and -to move along the stretches between the planes by -force of gravity. Having formed their plans they -set to work to carry them out. They procured -the necessary legislation from the States of New -York and Pennsylvania, they secured a charter in -1823–25 for a corporation known as the Delaware -and Hudson Canal Company, and by dint of supreme -personal effort they succeeded in obtaining -capital enough to begin and carry on the work. -In 1828 the canal was completed to its terminus -at Honesdale, the gravity railroad having been -already constructed from the coal fields to that -point, and in 1829 the company began to ship -coal to tide-water on the Hudson. It was a bold -and ingenious scheme, and for those days it was -an enterprise of immense proportions. That these -two men conceived it and earned it out in the -face of great difficulties and against overwhelming -odds entitles them to a place in those higher orders -of genius that are touched with the light of the -heroic. The Lackawanna region has been pierced -by many other lines of railway, and to-day by these -great highways a vast amount of Lackawanna coal -is sent to the eastern cities and the seaboard.</p> - -<p>But as a rule, men who invested their money -in coal lands in the early days after the discovery -of coal lost the amount of the investment. They, -with prophetic vision, saw the comfort, the commerce,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -the manufactures, of a nation dependent on -the products of the coal mines, but the people at -large could not see so far. These pioneers made -ready to supply an anticipated demand, but it did -not come. Talking did not bring it. Exhibitions -of the wonderful utility of the black coals served to -arouse but a passing interest. No other product -of the globe which has obtained a position of -equal importance ever had to fight its way into -public favor with such persistent effort through -so many years. But when at last its worth became -generally recognized, when the people had -reached the conclusion that they wanted it, and -its value in dollars had become fixed and permanent, -then the pioneers of the industry had vanished -from the field; they were disheartened, destitute, -or dead; new hands and brains took up the -work, matured the plans of the elders, and reaped -the fortunes of which former generations had -sown the seed.</p> - -<p>In the beginning the coal lands were mostly -divided into small tracts, and held by persons -many of whom thought to open mines on their -property and carry on the business of mining as -an individual enterprise. This plan of work was -partially successful so long as coal could be dug -from the outcrop and carted away like stones from -a quarry; but when it became necessary, as it soon -did, to penetrate more deeply into the earth for -the article of trade, then the cost of shafting, tunneling,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -and mining in general usually exceeded the -resources of the individual operator, and either he -succumbed to financial distress, or disposed of his -mining interests to men or firms with more money. -As the art of mining advanced with its necessities, -it was learned, sometimes after bitter experience, -that the business was profitable only when a large -amount of capital was behind it. Therefore men -who had invested a few thousand dollars transferred -their interests to men who had a few hundred -thousand to invest, and these, in turn, associating -other capitalists with them, doubled or -trebled the investment or ran it into the millions, -forming companies or corporations to accomplish -with their more perfect organization that which -would be impossible to the individual. So it has -come about that in these later days the individual -operators have given place largely to the corporations; -those who still remain in the field often -operating their mines on a small capital at great -disadvantage. In the bituminous regions, however, -this rule does not hold good. There the coal -lies near the surface, is accessible, and easily -mined. It needs only to be carried to the river -bank and screened as it is loaded into boats and -started on its way to market. Compared with the -anthracite regions, it requires but a small capital -here to sustain an extensive plant, and produce a -large quantity of coal. Therefore we find, as we -should expect to find, that in the bituminous districts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -the bulk of the coal is produced by individuals, -firms, and small companies. In the anthracite -regions, however, this rule is reversed. Of the -36,204,000 tons of anthracite produced in the year -1887, 16,109,387 tons, or nearly one half, were -mined by five great companies; namely: The Philadelphia -and Reading; Delaware and Hudson; -Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western; Lehigh Valley; -and Pennsylvania Coal Company. The immense -out-put of as many more large corporations -left but a very small proportion of the total product -to the small companies, firms, and individuals.</p> - -<p>It follows, as a matter of course, that the acreage -of coal lands held by these companies bears -the same proportion to the total acreage that their -coal out-put bears to the entire coal out-put. -That is, they either own or hold under lease the -great bulk of the coal beds of the anthracite -regions. The value of coal lands varies with the -number, thickness, and accessibility of the coal -seams contained in it. In the very early days of -anthracite mining these lands were purchased -from farmers and others at from twenty and thirty -dollars to one hundred dollars per acre. Before -1850 the price had advanced, in the Wyoming -region, to from seventy-five dollars to two hundred -dollars per acre. Recently a piece of coal land -was sold in this region for $1,200 per acre, and -another piece, containing thirty-six acres, was sold -at the rate of $1,500 per acre. Perhaps from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -$800 to $1,000 per acre might be considered an -average price. In the Middle and Southern anthracite -regions the coal lands are of still greater -value; not because the quality of the mineral is -better, nor because the market for it is more accessible, -but because the coal seams dip at a greater -angle, and, therefore, a given number of acres -contains a larger amount of coal.</p> - -<p>The system of leasing coal lands to coal operators -is a very common one, especially in the -Wyoming valley, where the surface is so richly -adapted to agricultural uses. The proprietor can, -in this way, retain the use of the soil, and at the -same time reap a handsome profit from the development -of the mineral deposits beneath it. He -invests no capital, runs no risk, and is sure of a -steady income. As it is usual to work leased coal -seams, wherever convenient, from openings made -on the adjoining lands owned by the company, it -is not often that the surface of leased property is -interfered with, or if it is, but a comparatively -small area of it is taken. The contract of lease -usually stipulates that a certain royalty shall be -paid to the lessor for each ton of coal mined, and -it binds the lessee to mine not less than a certain -number of tons each year; or at least to pay royalties -on not less than a certain number of tons -each year, whether that number is or is not mined. -Twenty years or more ago coal lands in the Wyoming -district could be leased at the rate of ten<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -cents per ton. Lately a large body of coal land -was rented to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company at -forty-five cents per ton, and it is said that one -proprietor at Kingston has been offered a lease -at fifty cents per ton, and has refused it. Perhaps -from twenty-five cents to thirty-five cents -per ton would be an average rate.</p> - -<p>As an example of the immense purchases made -by these companies, it may be noted that the Philadelphia -and Reading Company, in 1871, purchased -one hundred thousand acres of coal lands -in the Schuylkill region, at a cost of forty millions -of dollars. And as an example of the amount of -business done in a year, it may be noted that the -Delaware and Hudson Canal Company paid in -1887 $5,019,147.16 for the single item of mining -coal, and that their coal sales for the same year -amounted to $10,100,118.69.</p> - -<p>This concentration of coal lands and coal mining -in the hands of great corporations, aside from -its tendency to stifle healthy competition, is productive -of many benefits. Coal can be mined -much cheaper when the mining is done on a large -scale. This is the rule, indeed, in all productive -industries. An enterprise backed by the combined -capital of many individuals is more certain -to become successful and permanent than an enterprise -inaugurated by, and carried on with, the -entire capital of a single individual. Especially -is this the rule in a business attended with as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -much risk as is the business of coal mining. One -person may put his entire fortune of two or three -hundred thousand dollars into a single colliery. -A depression in the coal trade, a strike among the -miners, an explosion, or a fire would be very apt -to bring financial ruin on him. A company, with -its great resources and its elastic character, can -meet and recover from an adverse incident of this -kind with scarcely a perceptible shock to its business. -It is simply one of the items of loss which -it is prepared to cover with a larger item of profit. -There is also the additional assurance that all -work that is done will be well done. The most -careful observations and calculations are made of -the amount and quality of included coal in any -tract of land before it is purchased, and the best -surveyors are employed to mark out the boundary -lines of lands. The services of the most skillful -mining engineers are retained, at salaries which -no individual operator could afford to pay. Their -forces are well organized, their mining operations -are conducted with system and economy, and they -are able to keep abreast of the age in all inventions -and appliances that insure greater facility in -mining and manufacturing, and greater safety to -the workmen. Their employees are paid promptly -at stated periods, and the possibility of a workman -losing his wages by reason of neglect or failure -on the part of his employer is reduced to a -minimum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span></p> - -<p>In general, it may be said that the control of -the anthracite coal business by the great corporations, -rather than by individual operators, is an -undoubted benefit, not only to all the parties in -direct interest, but to commerce and society as a -whole. The only danger to be feared is from an -abuse of the great powers to which these companies -have attained; a danger which, thus far, -has not seriously menaced the community.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<small>THE WAY INTO THE MINES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>A wise coal operator never begins to open a -mine for the purpose of taking out coal until he -knows the character of the bed and the quality of -the mineral. This knowledge can only be obtained -by an exhaustive search for, and a careful examination -of, all surface indications, and by drilling -or boring holes down to and through the strata of -coal. This is called “prospecting.” The examiner -in a new field will first look for outcrops. He -will follow up the valleys and inspect the ledges -and the banks of streams. If he be so fortunate -as to find an exposure of the coal seams, or of any -one of them, he will measure its thickness, will -calculate its dip and strike, and will follow its -outcrop. He will also study and make careful -note of the rock strata with which it is associated, -for by this means he may be able to determine the -probability of other seams lying above or below -it. This examination of the rock strata he will -make, whether coal is visible or not visible. It -will be of much service to him. For instance, it -is known that the great Baltimore vein in the -Wyoming valley is usually overlaid by a coarse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -red sandstone. If the examiner finds rock of this -character in that section, he has good reason to -hope that coal lies beneath it. Under the lowest -coal seam of the anthracite beds there is found, -as a rule, a rock known as the conglomerate. If, -therefore, the explorer finds an outcrop of conglomerate, -he will know that, as a rule, he need -not look for coal beyond it. This rock, coming to -the surface on the westerly side of the Moosic -range of mountains, marks the limit of the Lackawanna -coal field toward the east. No one, having -once studied the conglomerate rock, could mistake -it for any other, though its composition is -very simple. It is nothing more than white, -water-worn quartz pebbles, held together by a -firm, lead-colored cement. But it is a rock of -unusual hardness and durability. It is proof -against the erosive action of water, grows harder -by exposure to the air, and has a consistency -that approximates to that of iron. In the coal -districts it is used largely for building purposes, -where heavy walls and foundations are required. -Experience has taught that there are no coal -seams below the conglomerate, so that wherever -this is found as a surface rock, or wherever it is -pierced by the drill, it is usually unnecessary to -explore below it. If no coal outcrop is found, the -bed of a stream is searched for fragments of the -mineral, and, if any are discovered, they are traced -to their source. Coal is sometimes exposed where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -a tree has been uprooted by the wind, and pieces -of it have been found in the soil thrown out at a -groundhog’s burrow.</p> - -<p>Wagon roads crossing the country may be -scanned for traces of the “smut” or “blossom.” -This is the decomposed outcrop, which has become -mingled with the soil, and may be more readily -distinguished in the bed of a traveled road than -elsewhere. Other surface indications failing, the -topographical features of this section of country -should be studied. Wherever the coal seams -come to the surface, being softer than the rock -strata above and below them, they are disintegrated -and eroded more rapidly by the action of -the atmosphere and the elements. This wearing -away of the exposed coal leaves the surface outline -in the form of a bench or terrace, which follows -the line of the outcrop. And this form is -retained even with a thick deposit of soil over the -edges of the strata. Small shafts may be sunk -or tunnels driven through this thickness of earth, -and the outcrop explored in this way. This process -of examination is of more value in the bituminous -than in the anthracite regions, since the -bituminous coal, being soft, is more rapidly eroded, -and the terrace formation resulting from such erosion -is more distinct and certain. In these days, -in the anthracite coal fields, there is hardly an -area of any great extent in which mines have not -been actually opened. These mines, therefore, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -the facilities they afford for studying exposed -strata and developed coal seams, offer the best -means of acquiring knowledge concerning the coal -beds of adjoining tracts. In a country where no -surface indications of coal are found over a large -area, it is hardly worth while to explore for it by -boring. In the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania -the limits of the coal beds are now so accurately -defined that it is seldom necessary to bore -for the purpose of testing the presence of coal. -But it is always advisable, before opening a mine -in a new field, to test the depth, dip, and quality -of the coal and the character of the seams by -sinking one or more bore holes. Surface measurements -of a seam are, at best, very uncertain, -as indications of its continuing character. The -angle of dip may change radically before a depth -of one hundred feet shall be reached. And coal -undergoes so great deterioration by long exposure -to the atmosphere that, in order to judge the quality -of a coal bed, it is necessary to have a specimen -fragment from it that has been hidden away -in the rocks. Hence the necessity of boring.</p> - -<p>Hand drills were generally used in the early -days of prospecting, and a sand pump drew out -the sludge or borings for examination. This was -superseded by the spring pole method, which in -turn gave way to the rope method in use in the -oil regions, the borings in each case being carefully -preserved for inspection. The diamond<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -drill is the one now in common use in the coal -regions. Its cutting end is in the form of a circle -set with black, amorphous diamonds. It cuts an -annular groove in the rock as it descends, forming -a core, which is withdrawn with the drill, and -which may be examined in vertical section. The -sludge is washed out by a stream of water which -passes down through the centre of the drill rod, -and is forced back to the surface between the rod -and the face of the bore hole. The invention of -this rotary cutting drill is due to Leschot of Geneva, -and the method of flushing the hole to -Flauvelle.</p> - -<p>After having obtained all possible information -concerning his coal property, and, if he be wise, -embodying it in the form of maps, the coal operator -must decide where he shall make an opening -for mining purposes, and what kind of an opening -he shall make. The answers to these two -questions are, to a certain extent, dependent on -each other, as certain kinds of openings must be -located at certain places. When coal was first -gathered for experiment or observation, it was -taken up loosely from the ground, where it had -fallen or been broken down from the outcrop of -some seam. As it came into demand for practical -purposes, it was quarried from this outcrop -backward and downward, as stones for building -purposes are now quarried, the seam being uncovered -as the work proceeded. This process was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -followed along the line of the outcrop, but excavations -were not made to any considerable depth, -owing to the great expense of uncovering the -coal.</p> - -<p>The open quarry system of mining coal has -been successfully practiced in America in but a -few places. One of these was the great Summit -Hill open mine, near Mauch Chunk, where -the Lehigh coal was first discovered. Here, on -a hill-top, was a horizontal coal bed, some sixty -acres in extent, and varying in thickness from -fifteen to fifty feet. Over this was a covering of -rock, slate, and earth from three to fifteen feet in -thickness. This bed was mined by simply removing -the covering and taking the coal out as from -a quarry. Other examples of this method are -seen at Hollywood Colliery, and at Hazleton -No. 6 Colliery, both near Hazleton, in Luzerne -County. There are isolated instances of this -method of stripping elsewhere in the anthracite -regions, but as a rule the conditions are not favorable -for it. Ordinarily there are four methods of -making an entrance into a mine for the purpose -of taking out coal. These are known as the drift, -the tunnel, the slope, and the shaft.</p> - -<p>To the early miners the drift was the favorite -mode of entry. Finding an exposed seam of coal -in the face of a ledge or cliff, they would dig in -on it and bring the coal out from the opening in -wheelbarrows. A place was selected, if possible,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -where a creek or river ran at the base of the -ledge, and the coal was dumped from the wheelbarrow -directly into a boat. In default of a -water way a wagon road was built at the foot of -the hill or cliff, a platform extended out over it, -and the coal was thus loaded from the wheelbarrow -into the wagon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp080"> - <img src="images/i_fp080.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">CROSS SECTION OF DRIFT OR GANGWAY WITH TIMBERS AND LAGGING.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The modern drift, though fashioned on an improved -plan, is the simplest and least expensive -way of making an entrance into a coal mine. The -outline of the proposed opening is first marked -out on the edge of the exposed coal seam. From -fifteen to eighteen feet is an ordinary width to -accommodate two tracks, and ten feet will readily -accommodate one. Seven feet is an average -height, though, if the seam be comparatively flat, -the coal will be taken down until the rock is -reached, even though a greater height should be -attained. With this width and height the opening -is cut into the hill through the coal seam. The -floor of the drift must have a constant upward -grade as it progresses inward, in order that the -water may run out, and that loaded cars may be -hauled more easily. The mouth of the drift must -be above the level of the adjacent valley or stream, -so that the water may be carried away, and the -drift is therefore what is known as a water-level -opening. It is usually necessary to support the -roof and sides of the drift by timbers joined together -in the form of a bent, and placed more or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -less closely to each other. These timbers are also -sometimes lined by sticks placed behind and over -them horizontally, and known as “lagging.” It -will be seen that the conditions under which the -opening by drift may be made place a serious limitation -on the use of this method. It will also -now be seen why the drift is the simplest and most -economical mode of making an entrance to a mine. -In this method there is no expense for removing -earth or for cutting through rock, nor any cost at -any time of pumping water or of hoisting coal. -When the fact is remembered that it sometimes -costs from $50,000 to $100,000 to sink a deep -shaft through hard rock, and that to this amount -must be added the cost of buildings, machinery, -and repairs, and the perpetual cost of pumping -water and of hoisting coal, the economy of the drift -method will be appreciated. But the day of drift -mining in the anthracite regions has gone by. -Those portions of the coal beds lying above water -level have been largely mined out, and the areas -of coal that are now accessible by drift are very -limited. In the bituminous districts, however, -where the seams lie comparatively flat and the -coal is mostly above water level, the method by -drift is still almost universally used.</p> - -<p>Next to a drift, the tunnel is the simplest and -most economical method, under certain circumstances, -of making an entrance into a mine. This -is a passage driven across the measures, and at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -right angles to the seam, in order to reach coal -which at the point of opening is not exposed. -The tunnel is usually driven into the side of a -hill. The earth is first dug away until the rock is -exposed, or, if the soil be too deep for that, only -enough of it is taken to make a vertical face for -the mouth of the tunnel. The opening is then -driven into the hill at about the same width and -height that a drift would be made, and in practically -the same manner. If there is a section of -earth tunneling at the mouth, the timbering must -be close, and the lagging will be of heavy planks. -When the solid rock is reached, however, it is not -often that any timbering is necessary, the sides -and roof being so hard and firm as not to need -support. This passage is driven against the face -of a coal seam, and when the coal is finally reached -the tunnel proper ends, a passage is opened to the -right and one to the left along the strike of the -seam, and from these gangways the coal is mined. -The tunnel, like the drift, must be above water -level, and its floor must have a descending grade -toward the mouth, to carry off water. The expense -of the tunnel, and its superiority to the -slope or shaft, will depend upon the distance -through which the rock must be pierced before -coal is reached. It is especially advisable, therefore, -before opening a tunnel, to have an accurate -map of the location and dip of the coal seams to -be struck by it, otherwise no approximate calculation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -can be made of the extent or cost of the -work.</p> - -<p>In the anthracite districts, where the seams are -sharply pitching, tunnels are driven in the interior -of a mine from the workings of a seam already -opened across the intervening measures to strike -an adjacent seam. In this way two, three, or -more coal seams can be worked, and the coal can -all be brought out at one surface opening. This -is virtually the only kind of tunneling that is now -done in the anthracite regions; for, as has already -been explained, the coal that lay above water level -and was thus accessible by tunnel has now been -mostly mined out.</p> - -<p>If there is an outcrop of coal on the tract to be -mined, and the dip of the seam is more than -twenty degrees, it is usually advisable to enter the -mine by means of a slope. This is a passage -which, beginning at the outcrop, follows the coal -seam down until the necessary depth is reached. -It is driven in the coal. The distinction between -the drift and the slope is that the drift is driven -from the surface on the strike of the seam while -the slope is driven on its dip. Where the coal -seam comes within a moderate distance of the surface, -as at an anticlinal ridge, a slope may be -driven through the rock until the coal is reached -at the axis, and from that point follow the seam -down. Sometimes a shaft is sunk to the top of an -anticlinal ridge, and from its foot two slopes are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -driven, one down each side of the roll, in opposite -directions. If the seam is very irregular, or if it is -much broken by faults, there may be a great deal -of rock cutting to be done in order to preserve the -uniformity of grade necessary for the slope. The -cost may, indeed, in this case, amount to more -than would have been sufficient to sink a shaft to -the same depth, although, as a rule, the entrance -by slope should cost only about one fourth of that -by shaft.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp084"> - <img src="images/i_fp084.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">CROSS SECTION OF SLOPE WITH DOUBLE TRACK.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The same methods are employed in sinking a -slope as are used in driving a drift, except that -generally the timbering need not be so heavy. -The minimum height of the slope is about 6½ feet, -the width at the top, or collar, about 8 feet, and -the width at the bottom, or spread, about 12 feet. -If a double track is desired the spread should be -18 feet and the collar 14 feet. In the Wyoming -region, where the dip is usually less than twenty -degrees, with infrequent outcrops, the slope is not -in general use; but in the Southern coal field, -where the dip varies from twenty degrees to the -vertical, the slope is the most common method of -entering a mine. There the opening is driven -down for a distance of 300 feet, at which point -gangways are started out to right and left, along -the strike, and chambers driven from them back -toward the surface. This is called the first lift. -The slope is then continued downward for another -distance of 300 feet, new gangways and chambers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -are laid off, and this is called the second lift. This -process is continued until the synclinal basin is -reached.</p> - -<p>Where the dip of the slope is less than thirty -degrees the coal is brought to the surface in the -car into which it was first loaded in the mine. -At a greater angle than this the ordinary mine -car is superseded by a car or carriage especially -adapted to carrying coal up a steep incline.</p> - -<p>Where there is no outcrop in the tract to be -mined, and the coal lies below water level, the -best mode of making an entrance to it is by shaft. -In the Wyoming region, since the upper veins -have been so generally mined out, nearly all the -openings are by shaft. The location of the shaft -at the surface should be such that when it is completed -its foot shall be at the bottom, or nearly -at the bottom, of the synclinal valley into which -it is sunk. As will be more readily seen hereafter, -this is necessary in order to carry the -water of the mine to the foot of the shaft, to facilitate -the transportation of coal under ground, -and to get room to open up the greatest possible -working area. The depth to which a shaft -must be sunk depends on the seam to be reached, -and on the district in which it is located. At -Carbondale, in the northeasterly extremity of the -Wyoming basin, the average depth to the conglomerate -or bed of the lowest coal seam is 250 -feet. From Scranton to Pittston it is from 500<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -to 600 feet. At Wilkes Barre it is 1,200 feet. -It reaches its greatest average depth a mile northeast -of Nanticoke, where it is from 1,500 to 1,600 -feet.</p> - -<p>This will be the limit of depth for shafts in the -Wyoming region. At present the average depth -is from 300 to 400 feet, and there are few that -are more than 800 feet deep. The red-ash vein -to which most of the shafts are now being sunk -is, at Pittston in the middle of the general basin, -from 450 to 650 feet below the surface. In the -southern anthracite region the average depth of -shafts is somewhat greater, the maximum depth -being reached in the vicinity of Pottsville, where -the Pottsville deep shafts are about 1,600 feet in -depth.</p> - -<p>In beginning to open a shaft a rectangular space -is staked out on the ground from four to eight feet -wider and longer than the proposed dimensions -of the shaft; and the soil and loose stones are -thrown out from this larger area until bed rock is -reached, which is usually done, except in the river -bottom lands, within a depth of twenty feet.</p> - -<p>From this rock as a foundation a cribbing of -solid timber, twelve inches square, is built up to -the surface on the four sides of the opening to -prevent the earth from caving in. Sometimes -heavy walls of masonry are built up instead of -the timber cribbing, and though the original cost -is greater, the purpose is far better answered by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -the stone curbing. When this has been completed, -sinking through the rock goes on by the -ordinary process of blasting, plumb lines being -hung at the corners of the shaft to keep the opening -vertical.</p> - -<p>An act of the Pennsylvania legislature, approved -June 30, 1885, regulates the conduct of -coal mining in the State so far as the safety of -persons employed in and about the mines is concerned. -Former acts are consolidated and revised -in this, and new provisions are added. By virtue -of this act both the anthracite and bituminous coal -fields are divided into districts, each of which is -placed in charge of an inspector, whose duty it -is to see that the provisions of the law are carried -out, and to make annual report to the Secretary -of Internal Affairs of such facts and statistics -as the law requires to be made. As there -will be frequent occasion hereafter to refer to -various provisions of this act of assembly, it will -be mentioned simply as the act of 1885. The -matter is brought up here in order that the rules -relating to the sinking of shafts, as laid down -in the act, may be referred to. These rules provide -the manner in which the necessary structures -at the mouth of the opening shall be erected, -what precautions shall be taken to prevent material -from falling into the pit, how the ascent and -descent shall be made, that all blasts during the -process of sinking shall be exploded by an electric<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -battery, etc. All these rules have but one object, -the safety of the workmen.</p> - -<p>The horizontal dimensions of the modern shaft -average about twelve feet in width by thirty feet -in length. This space is divided crosswise, down -the entire depth of the shaft, into compartments -of which there are usually four. The first of these -compartments is the pump way, a space devoted -to the pipes, pump-rod, and other appliances connected -with the pumping system. To this six feet -in breadth is allowed. Then come, in succession, -the two carriage ways, each of which may be seven -feet wide, and, finally, the air passage through -which the foul air is exhausted from the mine, -and to which ten feet is appropriated. The partitions -between these compartments are made of -oak sticks six inches square, called buntons. The -ends of the buntons are let into the rock sides of -the shaft, and they are placed horizontally at a -vertical distance from each other of about four -feet. These bunton partitions are then closely -boarded down the entire distance. The partition -between the hoisting compartment and the airway -is not only boarded up, but the boards are -matched and are rabbeted together. It is necessary -to make as nearly air-tight as possible this -way for the passage of air, and where the edges of -the boarding meet the rock sides of the shaft the -irregularities are carefully filled in with brick and -mortar.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></p> - -<p>Fastened to the buntons at each side of each -hoisting compartment are continuous strips of hard -wood, from four to six inches square, reaching -from the top of the shaft to its bottom. These are -the “guides.” To each side of the carriage, which -raises and lowers men and materials, is fastened an -iron shoe, shaped like a small rectangular box without -top or ends. This shoe fits loosely on to the -guide, slides up and down it, and serves to keep the -carriage steady while it is ascending or descending. -This invention is due to John Curr of Sheffield, -England, who introduced it as early as 1798. -The ordinary carriage consists of a wooden platform -with vertical posts at the middle of the sides -united by a cross-beam at the top, and all solidly -built and thoroughly braced. The posts are just -inside of the guides when the carriage is in place, -and are kept parallel to them by the shoes already -mentioned. To the middle of the cross-beam is -attached the end of a wire cable, from which the -carriage is suspended, and by which it is raised -and lowered. On the floor of the platform, which -is planked over, a track is built uniform with the -track at the foot and head of the shaft, and continuous -with it when the carriage is at rest at -either place. The mine car is pushed on to the -platform of the carriage and fastened there by a -device which clings to the axle or blocks the -wheels.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp090"> - <img src="images/i_fp090.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">VERTICAL SECTION AT FOOT OF SHAFT, WITH ASCENDING CARRIAGE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>At the mouth of the shaft and projecting into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -it are the “wings,” “keeps,” or “cage rests,” -which are pressed against the sides of the shaft -by the ascending carriage, but spring back into -place underneath it and support it while it is at -rest. When the carriage is ready to descend the -wings are withdrawn by hand levers.</p> - -<p>The safety carriage is now in general use in at -least one hoisting compartment of every shaft. -This carriage is built of wrought iron instead of -wood; it has a bonnet or roof as a protection -against objects falling down the shaft, and it has -safety clutches or dogs to stop the carriage and -hold it in place in case of accident by breaking -ropes or machinery. Operators are required by -the act of 1885 to provide safety carriages for the -use of their employees, and also to keep movable -gates or covers at the mouth of each shaft to prevent -persons and materials from falling into the -opening.</p> - -<p>Where mining is done by shaft there is seldom -any other way provided for the passage of workmen -in and out than the way by the carriage. -A small shaft for the admission of air is sometimes -driven down to the highest part of the -seam, and ladders are placed in the opening on -which men may climb up and down, but these -ladders are seldom used save in an emergency. -It is made obligatory upon operators, by the act -of 1885, to provide two openings to every seam -of coal that is being worked; these openings to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -be at least sixty feet apart underground, and one -hundred and fifty feet apart at the surface. The -object of this rule is to provide a way of escape -for workmen in case of accident to the main -outlet.</p> - -<p>It is seldom necessary, however, in these days, -to sink a separate shaft in order to comply with -this provision of the law; the underground workings -of the mines having such extensive connections -that often not only two but many openings -are accessible from each seam.</p> - -<p>As to the comparative cost of the different -methods of entry, the drift is of course the cheapest. -In this method the very first blow of the -pick brings down a fragment of coal that may be -sent to market and sold. For this reason the -sinking of a slope is less expensive than tunneling -or shafting, because the excavation is made -in the coal. It may be said to cost from twenty-five -to fifty dollars per linear yard to sink an ordinary -double track slope, from fifty to seventy-five -dollars per linear yard to drive a tunnel of average -cross-section to accommodate two tracks, and -from three hundred to five hundred dollars per -linear yard to sink a shaft with four compartments. -Of course circumstances, especially the -character of strata, may greatly increase or lessen -these limits of cost. Indeed, it has happened that -a shaft in process of sinking, which had already -cost many thousands of dollars, has been necessarily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -abandoned because an intractable bed of -quicksand has been encountered.</p> - -<p>The experienced coal operator, knowing the -advantages and disadvantages of each of these -methods of entering a mine, and the adaptability -of each to his particular coal bed, will find no -difficulty in making a selection from them. Indeed, -there may be, and usually is, practically, no -choice. The selection of a site for the opening -is ordinarily attended with but little more freedom -of choice. The outcrop, if there be one, the topography -of the surface, the outline of the coal -seam, the accessibility of the spot, the location of -the breaker, all govern in the selection of the site, -and usually all point to the one most available -spot.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<small>A PLAN OF A COAL MINE.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The progress that has been made in the science -of mining coal within the last half century bears -favorable comparison with the progress that has -been made in the other industrial sciences. To-day -the ripest experience and the best engineering -skill in the land are brought to bear upon the -problems connected with coal mining. In comparison -with the marked ability employed and the -marked success attained in the mining enterprises -of to-day, the efforts of the early miners are almost -amusing. The pick and the wedge were the chief -instruments used in getting out coal. Powder -was not thought to be available until John Flanigan, -a miner for Abijah Smith, introduced it into -the mines in 1818. It is said that when openings -were first made for coal in the vicinity of Pottsville -shallow shafts were sunk, and the coal was -hoisted in a large vessel by means of a common -windlass. As soon as the water became troublesome, -which was usually as soon as the shaft had -reached a depth of twenty or thirty feet, this -opening was abandoned, a new shaft sunk, and the -process repeated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span></p> - -<p>The mine operator of to-day, having decided -upon the shaft as the best method of entry into -his mine, sinks it to the bottom of the coal bed, so -that its longest dimension shall be with the dip of -the seam. Then from each side of the shaft, and -at right angles to it, he cuts a passage out through -the coal with a width of from ten to fourteen feet. -These are the beginnings of the “gangways.” -Then from each end of the rectangular foot of the -shaft he cuts another passage, at right angles to -the first one, about six or eight feet wide, and extending -to a distance of from fifteen to thirty feet. -These are the first “cross-headings.” At the extremities -of the cross-headings passages are now -driven parallel to the gangways. These last passages -are called “airways.” When the gangways -and airways have reached a distance of from sixty -to one hundred feet from the foot of the shaft they -are united by new cross-headings.</p> - -<p>It is now apparent that two pillars of coal, each -from fifteen to thirty feet wide and from sixty to -one hundred feet long are left on each side of the -shaft. Larger pillars than these may be left if the -roof about the shaft should need more support. -It is also apparent, the coal seam being inclined, -that the level of one of the airways is higher than -the level of the gangway, and the level of the -other airway is lower.</p> - -<p>It will be remembered that the design was to -sink the shaft so that its foot should be nearly to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -the bottom of the synclinal valley or basin. If -this has been done, then it is possible that the passage -below the foot of the shaft parallel to the -gangway actually runs along the synclinal axis. -But if the bottom of the valley is still lower, the -cross-headings will be driven farther down and a -new parallel passage made, and, if necessary, still -another. These openings now slope from the foot -of the shaft downward, and in them is collected -not only the water that may fall from the shaft, -but, as the work advances, all the water that comes -from all parts of the mine. This basin which is -thus made to receive the mine water is called the -“sump,” and from it the water is pumped up -through the shaft and discharged at the surface. -If the mine happens to be a very wet one it will -require the constant labor of the most powerful -pumping engine to keep the level of the water in -the sump lower than the foot of the shaft. In -some cases, in older workings, a section of the mine -which has been worked out and abandoned is used -for a sump, and then the water may cover an area -many acres in extent. When a shaft has been -newly sunk, the openings for the sump are the -only ones that are made below the level of the -foot of the shaft or below the level of the gangway. -Henceforth all the workings will be made -on the upper side of the gangway, extending up -the slope of the seam, until such time as it may be -deemed advisable to sink an inside slope to open<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -a new set of workings on a lower level. The -main gangway on one side of the shaft and the -airway above it are now carried along simultaneously, -and parallel with each other, and are united -at distances of from forty to sixty feet by cross-headings. -As soon as the last cross-heading is -opened the one which immediately preceded it is -walled up as tightly as possible. This is to -insure ventilation. A current of air comes down -the hoisting-way of the shaft, passes into the -gangway and along it to the last cross-heading, -where it crosses up into the airway and traverses -the airway back to the cross-heading that was -driven up from the upper end of the foot of the -shaft. Passing down this cross-heading it comes -to the air compartment of the shaft, and is drawn -out to the surface by a powerful fan. This is the -ventilating system of the mine in its simplest form. -It is apparent that if any of the cross-headings -nearer to the shaft than the last one should be -left open, the air current would take a short -course through it up to the airway, and so back to -the shaft, without going to the extremity of the -gangway at all. This gangway is the main artery -of the mine; it is the highway by which all the -empty cars go in to the working faces, and by which -all the loaded cars come out to the foot of the -shaft; it is the general watercourse by which the -entire mine above it is drained, and by which the -water is carried to the sump. In comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -flat seams its height is the height of the slate or -rock roof of the coal bed, but in steep pitching -seams it is made seven or eight feet high with a -roof wholly or partly of coal. In some cases the -roof and sides are so firm that no timbering is -required, and in other cases the timbering must -be close and heavy in order to give the necessary -support and security. The floor of the gangway -must be given a constantly ascending grade, usually -from six inches to one foot in every hundred -feet, as it is driven inward. This is to facilitate -drainage and the movement of loaded cars.</p> - -<p>Where the strata are horizontal, or nearly so, as -in many of the bituminous mines, the gangway -may, and usually does, take a perfectly straight -course. This is also true where the line of strike -has but a single direction, no matter how steep the -pitch of the seam may be. But both of these conditions -are so rare in the anthracite regions that -one seldom finds a gangway driven for any considerable -distance in one direction. The surface -of an inclined coal seam is not dissimilar to the -surface of one side of a range of small hills. -Any one who has seen a railroad track winding in -and out along such a range, keeping to the surface -of the ground and preserving a uniformity of -grade, can understand why, for the same reasons, -the gangway must often change direction in following -the seam of coal. It must curve in around -the valleys and hollows that indent the seam in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> -the same manner that a surface railroad curves in -around the depression where some hillside brook -runs down to meet the stream, the course of which -the railroad tries to follow; and it must strike out -around the projections of the seam in the same -way in which a surface railroad bends out around -the projecting spurs of the hill range along which -it runs. But the coal seam is more irregular and -more uncertain in its outline than the hillside, and -the curves in it are sharper and more varied. -The surface railroad too may shorten its route -and relieve its curves by bridging its small valleys -and cutting through its narrow ridges. For the -gangway this cannot be done. As a rule the coal -seam must be followed, no matter where it leads. -And it often leads in strange courses,—in courses -that at times curve back on themselves like a -horseshoe and point toward the foot of the shaft. -The mining superintendent or engineer never -knows in advance just what tortuous course his -main artery may take. He cannot go over the -ground and stake out his line as a civil engineer -does for a surface railway; he must build as he -advances, not knowing what the rock and coal -may hide in the next foot ahead of him. He -must be prepared to encounter faults, fissures, -streams of water, diluvial deposits, and every -other obstacle known to mining engineers.</p> - -<p>There are several systems of laying out a mine -for actual working after the gangway has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -driven a sufficient distance. The one most commonly -in use in the anthracite region is known as -the “pillar and breast” system. In the bituminous -mines it is called the “pillar and room,” -and in the mines of Great Britain the “bord and -pillar.” It will be borne in mind that the mine -which is now being described is in the Wyoming -region, where the seams are comparatively flat, -the entrance usually by shaft, and the method of -working is the pillar and breast system. The -gangway and airway are not driven far, not more -than two or three hundred feet, perhaps, before -the openings are made for the larger production of -coal. Beginning on the upper side of the airway, -at such a distance from the shaft as will leave a -reasonably large sustaining pillar, perhaps from -sixty to one hundred feet, an opening is made and -driven up the seam at right angles to the airway. -This opening is called a “chamber” or “breast.” -In the bituminous districts it is known as a -“room.” The chamber is usually about twenty-four -feet wide, though where the roof is exceptionally -good its width may be increased to thirty-six -feet. It is not often opened the full width at the -airway. Instead of this a narrow passage, large -enough to accommodate the mine car track, is -driven up to a distance not exceeding fifteen feet, -and it is from this point that the chamber is -driven up at its full width. This narrow opening -can be more easily closed in case it is desired to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -prevent the passage of air through it, and besides -a greater proportion of coal is left in pillars -along the airway to prevent the passage from becoming -blockaded by falls. When the first -chamber has been driven up a distance equal to -its width, a new chamber is begun parallel to it -and on the side farthest from the shaft. These -two chambers are now separated by a wall of coal -from fourteen to twenty feet thick. If, however, -the workings are deep and there is danger from -the weight of superincumbent strata, the wall -should be made as thick as the chamber is wide. -When the new chamber has been driven to a -distance of twenty-five feet, or, if the mine is free -from gas and the ventilation is good, to a distance -of forty or sixty feet, the wall between the two -chambers is pierced by an opening from six to -ten feet wide. This is called a cross-heading or -“entrance.” A partition is now built across the -airway between the openings to the two chambers, -and the air current is thus forced up into the last -chamber, across through the entrance into the -first, down it to the airway again, and so in its -regular course back to the foot of the shaft. In -the mean time progress has been made in the first -chamber, and by the time the second chamber has -been driven another distance of thirty or sixty feet, -the entrance which will then be cut through the -wall will find the first chamber still in advance. -The inner extremity of the chamber is called the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -“face.” It is sometimes spoken of also as the -“breast,” though this last name is properly that -of the chamber as a whole. The wall of coal at -the side of the chamber is called the “rib.” A -third chamber is now begun and driven up parallel -to the other two, then a fourth, a fifth, and so on; -as many chambers, indeed, as can be laid off in -this way without deviating too greatly from a right -angle to the airway. But the face of the first -chamber is kept in advance of the face of the second, -the face of the second in advance of the face -of the third, and so on, until the limit of length is -reached. This limit is determined, to some extent, -by the dip of the seam. In comparatively -flat workings a set of chambers may be driven in -to a distance of five hundred, or even six hundred -feet. Where the pitch is steep, however, two -hundred or three hundred feet is the greatest -length at which chambers can be economically -worked. The limit of length of chambers is sometimes -determined also by an outcrop, an anticlinal -axis, a fault, or a boundary line. The wall of -coal left between any two chambers is divided by -the entrances cut through it into a line of pillars -nearly uniform in size. As soon as the second -entrance from the airway is cut through the wall -the first entrance is blocked tightly up, and as -soon as the third entrance is cut through the second -is closed, and so on to the extremity of the -line of pillars. This is to compel the air current<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -to pass up to the very face of the chamber before -it can find a way across to the other chambers and -down again into the airway. If the air of the -mine is bad, or if the coal is giving off deleterious -gases with rapidity, a “brattice” or rude board -partition is built from the lower side of the last -entrance diagonally up toward the face of the -chamber to force the air to the very point where -men are working before it finds its way out -through an open entrance. These boards are -sometimes replaced by a sheet of coarse canvas, -called brattice cloth, which is lighter, more easily -handled, and answers the same purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp100"> - <img src="images/i_fp100.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">A PLAN OF AN ANTHRACITE MINE WITH A SHAFT ENTRANCE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>From the mine car track in the gangway a -branch track is built, crossing the airway and running -up each chamber to its face. Up this branch -track a mule draws the empty car, and when -it is loaded it is let down to the gangway by the -miner’s laborer. If the dip of the chamber is -too steep—more than ten degrees—for a mule -to draw the car up, a light car, used only in the -chamber and called a “buggy,” is pushed up by -hand, and when the dip is too steep for this the -coal is pushed or allowed to slide down to the foot -of the chamber. Chambers are often driven up -obliquely in order to reduce the grade, or are -curved in their course for the same reason.</p> - -<p>When, on account of the steepness of pitch or -a change in the direction of the gangway, or for -any other reason, one set of parallel chambers is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -brought to a close, a new set is begun farther -along with a different course.</p> - -<p>The direction in which a gangway, airway, or -chamber is to be driven is fixed by the mine boss. -His bearings are obtained with a small miner’s -compass, and he marks on the roof, near the face of -the opening, a chalk line in the direction desired. -The miner, sighting back on this line, is thus able -to take his course and to keep his opening straight.</p> - -<p>Sets of chambers similar to those described are -driven up from the gangway along its entire -length. This length may be limited by various -causes. A boundary line of property, a fault, a -thinning out of the coal seam, are some of them. -They are usually driven, however, as far as strict -principles of economy will allow. A gangway -that requires no timbering and is easily kept in -good working condition may be driven to a distance -of three or four miles. But where these -conditions are reversed, a mile may be as great a -distance as coal can be hauled through with economy. -Beyond that limit it will be cheaper to -sink a new shaft or slope than to increase the distance -for underground haulage.</p> - -<p>As the main gangway progresses inward it may -separate into two branches, each following a depression -in the coal seam, and these branches may -separate into others; so that there may be a number -of gangways all keeping the same general -level, from each of which sets of chambers are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -driven. When the chambers tributary to a gangway -have reached their limit of length, and there -is still an area of coal above them to be mined, -a new gangway is opened along the faces of the -chambers, or is driven just above them in the -solid coal, and from this, which is called a -“counter-gangway,” new sets of chambers are -driven up the seam. It is often necessary to raise -and lower cars passing from one gangway to the -other on an inclined plane, on which the loaded -cars, descending, and attached to one end of a rope, -pull up the light cars, ascending and attached to -the other end, the rope itself winding around a -revolving drum at the head of the plane. This -system can be put into use on any incline where -the gradient is one in thirty, or steeper.</p> - -<p>By this general system of gangways, counter-gangways, -airways, chambers, and planes, the area -of coal lying on the upper side of the main gangway -and on both sides of the shaft is mined out, -hauled by mules to the foot of the shaft, and raised -to the surface. On long straight gangways the -mule is sometimes replaced by a small mine locomotive, -and in these later days the electric engine -has been introduced into the mines as a hauling -agent.</p> - -<p>So far, however, in this mine which we are supposed -to be working, not a tap of a drill nor a -blow of a pick has been made into the coal on the -lower side of the gangway save where the sump<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -was excavated at the foot of the shaft. If this -shaft has been sunk nearly to the bottom of the -basin or synclinal axis, a short tunnel may be -driven from the main gangway through the rock -or upper bench of coal across the valley to the rise -of the seam on the other side. A new gangway -may here be driven right and left, and this area of -coal be made tributary to the shaft already sunk. -It often happens that a large body of coal lies between -the main gangway and the synclinal axis, -for these two lines may diverge greatly as they -recede from the shaft. But chambers cannot be -driven down from the main gangway owing to the -difficulties of transportation and drainage. It -therefore becomes necessary, in order to work this -area, to sink a slope from the main gangway down -to or toward the synclinal axis, and from the foot -of this slope to drive a new gangway. From this -new gangway chambers will be opened extending -up the seam to the line of the main gangway, but -not generally breaking through into it. The coal -is run down to the lower level gangway, hauled to -the foot of the slope, and hoisted up it to the main -gangway. It is apparent, however, that the inclined -plane system cannot work here; the conditions -are reversed; the loaded cars are drawn up -and the light ones are let down. To do this work -it is necessary to bring into use a small steam stationary -engine, or one working by compressed air. -A common method is to locate the steam engine on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -the surface vertically above the head of the underground -slope, and to carry power to the sheaves -below by wire ropes running down through bore -holes drilled for that purpose.</p> - -<p>The system of slope mining by lifts, which is in -common use in the Middle and Southern anthracite -districts, has been explained in a preceding -chapter. In this system the sump is always made -by extending the slope a short distance below the -level of the gangway. This gangway is driven -from the foot of the slope to the right and left in -the same manner as in the Wyoming region, except -that, the seam being so greatly inclined, -the gangway roof, or a part of it at least, will -usually be of coal instead of slate or rock, and in -very steep pitching seams the airway will be almost -vertically above the gangway. The gangway is -not usually so crooked as where the workings are -flat, and having been started only three hundred -feet down the slope from the surface, it often follows -the coal to some low point on the line of outcrop, -and is then known as a water level gangway, -which is practically the same as a drift.</p> - -<p>The system of opening and working breasts differs -somewhat from that in use in the Northern -field. Beginning at such a distance from the foot -of the slope as will leave a good thick slope pillar -for its protection, a narrow shute is driven up from -the gangway into the coal to a distance of perhaps -thirty feet, at a height of six feet, and with a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -width of from six to nine feet. It is then opened -out to its full width as a breast and continued up -the seam toward the outcrop, not often breaking -through to daylight unless an airway or manway -is to be made. Parallel breasts are then laid -off and worked out by the usual pillar and -breast system. If the dip is less than twelve or -fifteen degrees, the coal may be run down from -the working face in a buggy, dumped on to a -platform or into the shute, and loaded thence into -a mine car standing on the gangway. If the dip -is more than fifteen degrees the pieces of coal -will slide down the breast to the shute, though -if it is under twenty-five or thirty degrees the -floor of the breast should be laid with sheet iron -to lessen the friction and give greater facility in -movement. In a steep-pitching breast a plank -partition is built across the shute just above the -gangway, to hold back the coal until it is desired -to load a car with it. This partition is called a -“battery,” or, if there is a similar partition to hold -the coal in the breast, a “check battery.” In this -partition there is an opening through which the -coal may be drawn when desired, and through -which the men may also go to their work, though -a separate manway is often provided. In these -steep-pitching breasts the miner works by standing -on the coal which he has already mined, and -which is held back by the battery, in order to -reach the uncut coal above him. There are various<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -systems of shutes, batteries, man ways, etc., in -use, but all are based on the same principles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp108"> - <img src="images/i_fp108.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">GROUND PLAN AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CHAMBER.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>When the gangway of the first lift has reached -its limit in both directions, and the breasts from it -have been worked up to their limit, the slope is -sunk to another distance of three hundred feet, -and the process is repeated. From the gangway -of the second lift the breasts are not extended up -far enough to break through into the gangway -above; a wall of coal is left between that gangway -and the faces of the breasts, from fifteen to -forty feet in thickness, known as the “chain-pillar.” -This is for the protection of the upper gangway -against falls and crushes, and is also necessary to -hold back water from escaping into the lower level. -These lifts will continue, at distances of about -three hundred feet apart, until the synclinal valley -is reached.</p> - -<p>When the method of opening the mine by a -shaft is employed in these steep-pitching seams, -the shaft is sunk to the lowest level, and the successive -sets of gangways and breasts are laid off as -the work progresses upwards; that is, the slope -method of extending the lifts downwards is simply -reversed.</p> - -<p>The method of mining by tunnel and drift, and -by slope in the flat workings, is not different from -the method already described for shafts. So soon -as the drift, tunnel, or slope has extended far -enough into the coal seam it becomes a gangway,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -chambers are laid off from it, and mining goes on -in the familiar mode.</p> - -<p>Various modifications of the pillar and breast -system are employed in the anthracite coal mines, -but no system is in use which is radically different.</p> - -<p>In the “long wall system,” common in Great -Britain, and used to some extent in the bituminous -mines of Pennsylvania and the Western States, the -process of cutting coal is carried on simultaneously -along an extended face. The roof is allowed to -fall, back of the workers, roads being preserved -to the gangway, and the roof at the face is temporarily -supported by an abundance of wooden props.</p> - -<p>The descriptions of underground workings that -have now been given have, of necessity, been very -general in their character. It is impossible, in a -limited space, to describe the various methods and -modifications of methods which are in use. No -two mines, even in the same district, are worked -exactly alike. Sometimes they differ widely in -plan and operation. That system must be employed -in each one which will best meet its peculiar -requirements. There is large scope here for -the play of inventive genius. There is scarcely a -mine of any importance in the entire coal region -in which one cannot find some new contrivance, -some ingenious scheme, some masterpiece of invention -devised to meet some special emergency which -may have arisen for the first time in the history of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -mining. Yet the general features of all coal mining -methods must of necessity be the same in -underground workings. No one reasonably familiar -with them could ever mistake a map of a -coal mine for a map of anything else under the -sun.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<small>THE MINER AT WORK.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The number of persons employed in a single -mine in the anthracite regions varies from a dozen -in the newest and smallest mines to seven hundred -or eight hundred in the largest and busiest. The -average would probably be between two hundred -and three hundred. In the bituminous districts -the average is not so large.</p> - -<p>First among those who go down into the mine -is the mine boss, or, as he is sometimes called, the -“inside boss.” It is his duty “to direct and generally -supervise the whole working of the mine.” -All the workmen are under his control, and everything -is done in obedience to his orders. He -reports to, and receives instructions from, the -general superintendent of the mines.</p> - -<p>Next in authority is the fire boss. It is his duty -to examine, every morning before the men come -to their work, every place in the mine where explosive -gas is evolved or likely to be evolved, and -to give the necessary instructions to the workmen -regarding the same. He also has general oversight -of the ventilating system, and sees that all -stoppings, doors, brattices, and airways are kept<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -in proper condition. The driver boss has charge -of the driver boys and door boys, and sees that the -mules are properly cared for and are not abused. -Each driver boy has charge of a mule, and the -mule draws the empty cars in along the gangway -and up to the faces of the chambers, and draws -the loaded cars out to the foot of the shaft. The -door boy must stay at his post all day and open -and close the door for the cars to pass in and out. -The use and necessity of these doors will be explained -in a subsequent chapter. Then there are -the footmen, carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, and -tracklayers, whose occupations in the mines are -apparent from the names which indicate their several -callings.</p> - -<p>Finally we have the miners and the miners’ -laborers, and it now becomes a matter of especial -interest to inquire into the character of their work -and their manner of performing it. To drive a -gangway or airway is much the same as driving a -chamber, except that the gangway is only about -one third the width of a chamber, and must be -driven on a slightly ascending grade. Gangway -driving is special work, for which the miner receives -special wages, it being impossible in this -work to send out as much coal with the same -amount of labor as can be sent out in chamber -work. And since the great bulk of coal is taken -from the chambers, it will be better to observe -in one of them the processes of mining.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span></p> - -<p>There are usually four workmen, two miners -and two laborers, employed in each chamber. -The miners are employed by, or are under contract -with, the coal company, and the laborers are employed -by the miners, subject to the approval of the -mining superintendent. The two miners divide -their profits or wages equally with each other, and -are called “butties.” A miner’s butty is the man -who works the chamber with him on halves. A -laborer’s butty is the man who is associated with -him in the employ of the same miners. Between -the miner and the laborer there is a well-defined -and strictly observed line of social demarcation. -The miner belongs to the aristocracy of underground -workers; the laborer is of a lower order, -whose great ambition it is to be elevated, at an early -day, to that height on which his employer stands.</p> - -<p>Now as to the work done by these four men. -Before the chamber has progressed a pillar’s -length above the airway, propping will usually be -necessary to sustain the roof, so large an area of -which has been left without support. Hardwood -props about nine inches in diameter are used for -the purpose. They are purchased by the mining -companies in large quantities, and are usually cut -and hauled to the railroad in the winter time to be -shipped at any season to the mines. By the law -of 1885 the person or company operating a mine -is obliged to furnish to the miner, at the face of -his chamber, as many props of the required length<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -as he may need. Having received the props the -miner himself sets them on each side of the middle -line of the chamber at such points as he thinks -require them, or at such points as the mine boss -designates. He drives the prop to its place by -means of a large flat wedge inserted between the -top of it and the roof, thus making the stick tight -and firm and also giving it a larger bearing -against the roof. Some chambers require very -few props; others must be well lined with them. -Their necessity depends upon the character of the -roof. If it is soft, slaty, and loose it must be supported -at frequent intervals. It very rarely occurs -that a chamber, worked to its limit, has needed -no propping from its foot to its face. Usually a -good part of the miner’s time is occupied in setting -props as his work at the face advances.</p> - -<p>Every seam has its top and bottom bench of coal, -divided about midway by a thin slate partition, -and one bench is always taken out to a horizontal -depth of four or five feet before the other one is -mined. If the upper bench contains the best and -cleanest coal, with the smoothest plane of cleavage -at the roof, that is first taken out; but if the choice -coal lies at the bottom, then the lower bench is -first mined. The reason for this is that a shot -heavy enough to blast out effectually the section of -rough, bony, or slaty coal which sticks to the roof -or floor would be heavy enough to shatter the adjoining -bench of clean brittle coal, and make a -large part of it so fine as to be useless.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span></p> - -<p>Let us now suppose that the miner has a clean, -vertical wall of coal at the face of his chamber in -which to begin work. Making sure that his tools -and materials are all at hand, he first takes up his -drill. This is a round or hexagonal iron bar about -one and an eighth inches in diameter, and about -five and a half feet long, tipped at the working -end with steel. This end is flattened out into a -blade or chisel, having a slight concave curve on -its edge, and being somewhat wider at its extremity -than the diameter of the bar. At the other -end of the drill the diameter is increased to one -and a half inches, forming a circular ridge at the -extremity of the bar, in one side of which ridge -a semicircular notch is cut into the face of the -drill. The use of this notch will be subsequently -explained. This, then, is the tool with which the -miner begins his work. Selecting the bench to -be first mined he chooses a point a few feet to the -right or left of the middle line of the face and delivers -upon it the first stroke with the sharp edge -of his drill; and as he strikes successive blows he -rotates the drill in his hands in order to make the -hole round. The drill is never struck on the head -with sledges. Its cutting force depends on the -momentum given to it in the hands of the miner, -and the stroke made by it is a jumping or elastic -stroke.</p> - -<p>Instead of the bar drill, which has been described, -many of the miners use a machine hand-drill<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -for boring holes. This machine works upon -the same principle that the jackscrew does. It -is operated by hand by means of a crank, and an -auger-like projection forces its way into the coal. -The work of turning the crank is more laborious -than that of drilling with the bar-drill, but the -extra labor is much more than compensated for -by the greater speed at which boring is done. It -is probably due to the spirit of conservatism -among miners that this machine is not in general -use by them. Coal-cutting machines, working by -steam or compressed air, are not used in the anthracite -mines. The character of the coal, the -thickness of the seams, and the inclination of the -strata make their employment impracticable.</p> - -<p>When the hole has been drilled to a depth of -about four and a half feet it is carefully cleaned -out with a scraper. This is a light iron rod with -a handle on one end of it and a little spoon, turned -up like a mustard spoon, on the other end. Then -the cartridge is inserted and pushed in to the -farther extremity of the hole. The cartridge is -simply a tube made of heavy manila paper formed -over a cartridge stick, filled with black powder, -and folded at the ends. Dynamite and other high -explosives are not used, because they create too -much waste. Ready-made cartridges in jointed -sections are largely used, but as a rule the miner -makes his own cartridge as he needs it.</p> - -<p>The miner’s needle is an iron rod about five and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -one half feet in length, with a handle at one end. -It is about five eighths of an inch in diameter at -the handle end, and tapers to a point at the other -end. When the cartridge has been pushed in to -the extreme end of the bore hole, the needle is inserted -also, the point of it piercing the outer end -of the cartridge. The needle is then allowed to -rest on the bottom or at the side of the drill hole -while the miner gathers fine dirt from the floor -of the mine, dampens it slightly if it is dry, and -pushes it into the hole alongside. This dirt is -then forced in against the cartridge with the head -of the drill. More dirt is put in and driven home, -and still more, until, by the time the hole is filled -to its outer extremity, the packing is hard and -firm. This process is called tamping. It can now -be seen that the semicircular notch on the rim of -the blunt end of the drill is for the purpose of -allowing the drill to slip along over the needle, -which still retains its position, and at the same -time to fill the diameter of the hole. The tamping -being finished the miner takes hold of the -needle by the handle, turns it once or twice gently -in its bed, and then slowly withdraws it. A round, -smooth channel is thus left from the outside directly -in to the powder of the cartridge, and into -this channel the squib is inserted. The squib is -simply an elongated fire-cracker. It has about the -diameter of a rye straw, is about four inches in -length, and its covering projects an inch or two at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -one end and is twisted up for a fuse. The covering -of the squib may indeed be of straw, sometimes -it is of hempen material, but more often, in -these days, it is made of paper. It is filled with -powder and is then dipped into a resinous mixture -to make it water-proof, to coat over the open end -so that the powder shall not run out, and to make -the wick at the other end mildly inflammable. If -the bore hole should be very wet an iron or copper -tube, through which the needle is run, is laid to -the cartridge before the hole is tamped, and when -the needle is withdrawn the squib is inserted into -the mouth of the tube. If inflammable gases are -exuding from the coal through the bore hole, or if -for any other reason it is feared that the cartridge -will be exploded too quickly, a short piece of cotton -wick, dipped in oil, is attached to the fuse of -the squib to lengthen it, and this extra section of -fuse is allowed to hang down from the mouth of -the bore hole against the face of coal.</p> - -<p>When all is ready the tools are removed to a -safe distance, a lighted lamp is touched to the -fuse, the men cry “Fire!” to warn all who may be -in the vicinity, and, retreating down the chamber, -they take refuge behind some convenient pillar. -The fuse burns so slowly that the men have ample -time in which to get out of harm’s way, if ordinary -care is taken. When the fire reaches the -powder in the squib the same force that propels a -fire-cracker or a rocket acts upon the squib and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -sends it violently through the channel or tube into -contact with the powder of the cartridge. The -explosion that results throws out a section of coal -from the face, breaking it into large pieces. So -soon as the place has settled after the firing of the -shot the men go back to the face to note the result. -The broken coal is pushed to one side, and preparations -are made for drilling the next hole. It -usually takes five shots to break down a single -bench. When both benches of coal have been -blasted out the length of the chamber has been increased -by five or six feet. In blasting, the miner -must take advantage of such conditions as are presented -to him at the face of the working, and he -will bore his hole and fire his shot where, in his -judgment, the best result will be attained. He -cannot always take one position at his drilling; it -is rarely that he finds a comfortable one. Sometimes -he must hold the drill at arm’s length above -his head, at other times he must rest on his knees -while working, still oftener he is obliged to lie on -his back or side on the wet floor of the mine, and -work in that position, with occasional respite, for -hours at a time.</p> - -<p>In nearly every chamber the miner has a powder -chest which he keeps locked, and which is stored -at some safe and convenient place, not too close -to the face. In this chest he keeps, besides his -powder, his cartridge paper, cartridge pin, squibs, -lamp-wick, chalk, and such other little conveniences<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -and necessaries as every workingman must -have at hand. The other tools are usually at the -face. He has there a mining pick. This pick is -straight and pointed, and from the head or eye, -where the handle enters, it will measure about -nine inches to each end. It is used for bringing -down slate and coal from roof, ribs, and face. The -bottom pick is used by the laborer for breaking -up the coal after it is down. This pick measures -about two feet from tip to tip, and is curved -slightly upward at the points. Each miner has -two drills, and perhaps a hand machine-drill. He -has also a steel crowbar for prying down loose -portions of the roof, and for turning heavy pieces -of slate or coal. He has an eight-pound steel -hammer, with a handle two feet and four inches in -length, which he uses in setting props; and he has -a heavy sledge for breaking rock and coal. The -list is completed by three large scoop shovels, used -generally to shovel the smaller pieces of broken -coal from the floor of the chamber into the mine -car.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp122"> - <img src="images/i_fp122.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">MINER’S TOOLS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The miner must furnish his own tools. His -powder, fuse, and oil he gets from the company -that employs him, and they are charged to him in -the account that is stated between them monthly. -It will not do to omit the miner’s lamp from the -list of appliances used in his calling; it is too -great a necessity. Without it he could do absolutely -nothing; he could not even find his way to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -his chamber. Formerly candles were much used -in the mines; in Great Britain they are still common; -but the anthracite miner invariably uses a -lamp. This is a round, flat-bottomed tin box, -about the size of a small after-dinner coffee cup. -It has a hinged lid on top, a spout on one side, -and a handle shaped like a hook with the point -down on the opposite side. By this hooked -handle the lamp is fastened to the front of the -miner’s cap, and he wears it so at his labor, removing -it only for the purpose of renewing the -material in it, or of approaching the powder chest, -or of examining more closely some portion of his -work. In the lamp he burns crude petroleum, -which is fed from a cotton wick emerging from the -spout. Very recently electricity has been introduced -into the gangways of some large mines, for -lighting purposes, and has given great satisfaction. -Perhaps the day is not far distant when an -electric light will swing from the roof at the face -of every working chamber.</p> - -<p>When the coal has been blasted down and the -props have been set the miner’s work is done; the -rest belongs to the laborers. They must break up -the coal, load it into the cars, run it down to the -gangway, pile up the refuse, and clear the chamber -for the next day’s work. The mine carpenters -have laid a track, consisting of wooden rails set -into caps or notched ties, as far up the chamber as -the working at the face would permit. Up this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -track the mule and driver boy have brought the -empty car and left it at the face. The laborers -throw into it first the smaller pieces of coal -which they shovel up from the floor of the chamber, -then huge chunks are tumbled in and piled -skillfully on top until the car is almost overbalanced -with its load. It is then pushed out to the -gangway to await the coming of the driver boy, -who attaches it to his trip of loads and takes it to -the shaft.</p> - -<p>The mine car is usually but a smaller edition of -the coal cars that can be seen any day on the surface -railways of the country. The running portion -is of iron, and the box is stoutly built of hardwood, -braced and stiffened by iron tie-rods, bolts, -and shoes. At the end of the car is a vertical -swinging door, hung from the top by an iron rod, -which crosses the box. This door is latched on -the outside near the bottom, and the coal is -dumped from the car by tipping it up and letting -the unlatched door swing outward. The size of -the car depends greatly on the size and character -of the workings in which it is used. Perhaps an -average size would be ten feet long, five feet wide, -and five feet high from the rail. Such a car would -contain about one hundred cubic feet, and would -hold from two and one half to three tons of coal. -The track gauges in common use vary by three inch -widths from two feet and six inches to four feet. -The miner and laborer start to their work in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> -morning at six o’clock. If they enter the mine by -shaft they must go down before seven o’clock, for -at that hour the engineer stops lowering men and -begins to hoist coal. Immediately after arriving -at the face of his chamber the miner begins to cut -coal. If the vein is thick and clean, if his shots -are all effective, and if he has good luck generally, -he will cut his allowance of coal for the day by ten -or eleven o’clock in the forenoon. It will be -understood that by the system in use by most of -the coal companies not more than a certain number -of carloads may be sent out from each chamber -per day. And when the miner has blasted down -enough coal to make up that number of loads his -day’s work is done. It is very seldom indeed that -he is not through before two o’clock in the afternoon. -But he never stays to assist the laborer. -It is beneath his dignity as a miner to help break -up and load the coal which has been brought -down by means of his judgment and skill. So the -laborer is always last in the chamber. His work -is seldom done before four or five o’clock in the -afternoon. He has just so much coal to break -up, load, and push down to the gangway, no matter -how successful the miner may have been. He -consoles himself, however, by looking forward to -the time when he shall himself become a miner.</p> - -<p>Blasting is always a dangerous occupation, and -the law in Pennsylvania, embodied in the act of -1885, has recognized its especial danger in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> -mines, by making certain provisions concerning -it for the protection of life and limb. The rules -laid down are strict and complete, yet, in spite of -them, accidents from powder explosions and premature -blasts are frequent and destructive. But -it must be said that these accidents are due, in -most part, to violations of these rules. It is impossible -for colliery authorities to keep constant -watch over the workmen in every chamber. The -conduct of these men must be largely governed by -themselves, and the frequency of accidents, both -serious and fatal, as a result of carelessness on the -part of workmen, does not seem to deter other -workmen from constantly running the same risks. -The most prevalent and the most serious source of -danger to the miner is not, however, in blasting, -but in falls of coal, slate, and rock from the roof, -ribs, and face of the chamber. Material that has -become loosened by blasting is pulled down carelessly, -or falls without warning. In many cases -the roof is insufficiently propped, and large sections -of it give way. Men are caught under these -falling masses every day, and are either killed -outright or seriously injured. Yet, as in the case -of blasting, their injuries are largely the result of -their own carelessness. Any one who reads the -reports of these cases cannot fail to be convinced -of this fact. The mine inspector’s reports of -Pennsylvania show that during the year 1887 -there were in the anthracite district three hundred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> -and thirteen fatal accidents which occurred -in and about the mines. Of this number one hundred -and forty-seven were due to falls of roof and -coal, while only twenty-one were caused by explosions -of blasting material. These figures indicate -plainly the direction in which the skill and supervision -of operators and the care and watchfulness -of workmen should be exerted for the protection -of life.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<small>WHEN THE MINE ROOF FALLS.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>A first visit to a coal mine will be prolific of -strange sights and sounds and of novel sensations. -If one enters the mine by a shaft, the first noteworthy -experience will be the descent on the -cage or carriage. The visitor will probably be -under the care of one of the mine foremen, without -whose presence or authority he would not be -allowed to descend, and indeed would not wish to. -From the head to the foot of every shaft a speaking -tube extends, and signaling apparatus, which -is continued to the engine-room. These appliances -are required by law. In these days the signals are -often operated by electricity. At the head of the -shaft is stationed a headman and at the foot of the -shaft a footman, whose assistants aid in pushing -cars on and off the carriages. The footman is -notified of your coming, and you take your place -on the empty safety carriage. It swings slightly -as you step on to it, just enough to make you realize -that you have passed from the stable to the unstable, -and that besides the few inches of planking -under your feet, there is nothing between you and -the floor of the mine, five hundred feet or more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -below you. When all is ready the foreman cries: -“Slack off!” the signal to the engineer is given, -the carriage is slightly raised, the wings are withdrawn, -and the descent begins. If the carriage -goes down as rapidly as it ordinarily does your -first sensation will be that of falling. It will seem -as though that on which you were standing has -been suddenly removed from beneath your feet, -and your impulse will be to grasp for something -above you. You will hardly have recovered from -this sensation when it will seem to you that the -motion of the carriage has been reversed, and that -you are now going up more rapidly than you were -at first descending. There will be an alternation -of these sensations during the minute or two occupied -in the descent, until finally the motion of -the carriage becomes suddenly slower, and you feel -it strike gently at the bottom of the shaft. As -you step out into the darkness nothing is visible -to you except the shifting flames of the workmen’s -lamps; you cannot even see distinctly the men -who carry them. You are given a seat on the -footman’s bench near by until your eyes have accommodated -themselves to the situation. After -a few minutes you are able to distinguish objects -that are ten or fifteen feet away. You can see -through the murky atmosphere the rough walls of -solid coal about you, the flat, black, moist roof -overhead, the mine car tracks at your feet. The -carriages appear and disappear, and are loaded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -and unloaded at the foot of the shaft, while the -passage, at one side of which you sit, is filled with -mine cars, mules, and driver boys in apparently -inextricable confusion. The body of a mule -looms up suddenly in front of you; you catch a -glimpse of a boy hurrying by; a swarthy face, -lighted up by the flame of a lamp gleams out of -the darkness, but the body that belongs to it is -in deep shadow, you cannot see it. Bare, brawny -arms become visible and are withdrawn, men’s -voices sound strange, there is a constant rumbling -of cars, a regular clicking sound as the carriage -stops and starts, incessant shouting by the boys; -somewhere the sound of falling water. Such are -the sights and sounds at the shaft’s foot. If now -you pass in along the gangway, you will be apt to -throw the light of your lamp to your feet to see -where you are stepping. You will experience a -sense of confinement in the narrow passage with -its low roof and close, black walls. Occasionally -you will have to crowd against the rib to let a trip -of mine cars, drawn by a smoking mule, in charge -of a boy with soiled face and greasy clothes, pass -by. Perhaps you walk up one of the inclined -planes to a counter gangway. You are lucky if -you are in a mine where the roof is so high that -you need not bend over as you walk. The men -whom you meet have little lamps on their caps, -smoking and flaring in the strong air current. -You can see little of these persons except their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> -soiled faces. Everything here is black and dingy; -there is no color relief to outline the form of any -object. Now you come to a door on the upper -side of the gangway. A small boy jumps up from -a bench and pulls the door open for the party to -pass through. As it closes behind you the strong -current of air nearly extinguishes your lamp. You -walk along the airway for a little distance, and -then you come to the foot of a chamber. Up -somewhere in the darkness, apparently far away, -you see lights twinkling, four of them. They -appear and disappear, they bob up and down, they -waver from side to side, till you wonder what -strange contortions the people who carry them must -be going through to give them such erratic movements. -By and by there is a cry of “Fire!” the -cry is repeated several times, three lights move -down the chamber toward you and suddenly disappear, -then the fourth one approaches apparently -with more action, and disappears also. The men -who carry them have hidden behind pillars. You -wait one, two, three minutes, looking into darkness. -Then there is a sudden wave-like movement -in the air; it strikes your face, you feel it in your -ears; the flame of your lamp is blown aside. Immediately -there is the sound of an explosion and -the crash of falling blocks of coal. The waves of -disturbed air still touch your face gently. Soon -the lights reappear, all four of them, and advance -toward the face. In a minute they are swallowed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -up in the powder smoke that has rolled out from -the blast; you see only a faint blur, and their movements -are indistinct. But when the smoke has -reached and passed you the air is clearer again, and -the lights twinkle and dance as merrily as they did -before the blast was fired. Now you go up the -chamber, taking care not to stumble over the high -caps, into the notches of which the wooden rails of -the track are laid. On one side of you is a wall, -built up with pieces of slate and bony coal and the -refuse of the mine, on the other you can reach out -your hand and touch the heavy wooden props that -support the roof, and beyond the props there is -darkness, or if the rib of coal is visible it is barely -distinct. Up at the face there is a scene of great -activity. Bare-armed men, without coat or vest, -are working with bar and pick and shovel, moving -the fallen coal from the face, breaking it, loading -it into the mine car which stands near by. The -miners are at the face prying down loose pieces of -coal. One takes his lamp in his hand and flashes -its light along the black, broken, shiny surface, -deciding upon the best point to begin the next -drill hole, discussing the matter with his companion, -giving quick orders to the laborers, acting -with energy and a will. He takes up his drill, -runs his fingers across the edge of it professionally, -balances it in his hands, and strikes a certain -point on the face with it, turning it slightly at -each stroke. He has taken his position, lying on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -his side perhaps, and then begins the regular tap, -tap, of the drill into the coal. The laborers have -loaded the mine car, removed the block from the -wheel, and now, grasping the end of it firmly, hold -back on it as it moves by gravity down the chamber -to the gangway. You may follow it out, watch -the driver boy as he attaches it to his trip, and go -with him back to the foot of the shaft.</p> - -<p>You have seen something of the operation of -taking out coal, something of the ceaseless activity -which pervades the working portions of the mine. -But your visit to the mine has been at a time when -hundreds of men are busy around you, when the -rumble, the click, the tap, the noise of blasting, -the sound of human voices, are incessant. If you -were there alone, the only living being in the -mine, you would experience a different set of sensations. -If you stood or sat motionless you would -find the silence oppressive. One who has not had -this experience can have no adequate conception of -the profound stillness of a deserted mine. On the -surface of the earth one cannot find a time nor a -place in which the ear is not assailed by noises; -the stirring of the grasses in the field at midnight -sends sound-waves traveling through space. -Wherever there is life there is motion, and wherever -there is motion there is sound. But down -here there is no life, no motion, no sound. The -silence is not only oppressive, it is painful, it becomes -unbearable. No person could be long subjected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> -to it and retain his reason; it would be like -trying to live in an element to which the human -body is not adapted. Suppose you are not only in -silence but in darkness. There is no darkness on -the surface of the earth that is at all comparable -with the darkness of the mine. On the surface the -eyes can grow accustomed to the deepest gloom of -night. Clouds cannot shut out every ray of light -from hidden moon or stars. But down in the -mine, whether in night-time or daytime, there is no -possible lightening up of the gloom by nature; she -cannot send her brightest sunbeam through three -hundred feet of solid rock. If one is in the mines -without a light, he has before him, behind him, -everywhere, utter blackness. To be lost in this -way, a mile from any opening to day, in the midst -of a confusion of galleries, in an abandoned mine, -and to be compelled to feel one’s way to safety, is a -painful experience, is one indeed which the writer -himself has had.</p> - -<p>There comes a time in the history of every mine -when it is pervaded only by silence and darkness. -All the coal that can be carried from it by the -shaft or slope or other outlet has been mined and -taken out, and the place is abandoned. But before -this comes to pass the work of robbing the -pillars must be done. This work consists in breaking -from the pillars as much coal as can possibly -be taken without too great risk to the workmen. -The process is begun at the faces of the chambers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -at the farthest extremity of the mine, and the -work progresses constantly toward the shaft or -other opening by which the coal thus obtained is -taken out. It can readily be seen that robbing -pillars is a dangerous business. For so soon as the -column becomes too slender to support the roof it -will give way and the slate and rock will come -crashing down into the chamber. The workmen -must be constantly on the alert, watchful for every -sign of danger, but at the best some will be injured, -some will perhaps be killed, by the falling -masses from the roof. Yet this work must be -done, otherwise coal mining would not be profitable, -the waste would be too great. The coal that -can be taken out under the prevailing systems -will average only fifty per cent. of the whole body -in the mine, and at least ten per cent. more will -be lost in waste at the breaker, so that it behooves -a company to have its pillars robbed as closely as -possible. It is after all this has been done, and -all tools and appliances have been removed from -the mine, that it is abandoned. Perhaps the lower -levels of it become filled with water. It is a waste -of crushed pillars, fallen rock, and blocked passages. -Indeed, it is difficult to conceive of anything -more weird and desolate than an abandoned -mine. To walk or climb or creep through one is -like walking with Dante through the regions of -the lost. There are masses of rock piled up in -great confusion to the jagged roof, dull surfaces of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -coal and slate, rotting timbers patched here and -there with spots of snow-white fungus, black -stretches of still water into which a bit of falling -slate or coal will strike and send a thousand -echoes rattling through the ghostly chambers. -For a noise which on the surface of the earth will -not break the quiet of a summer night, down here -will almost make your heart stand still with fear, -so startling is it in distinctness.</p> - -<p>But it is not only in abandoned mines that falls -of roof take place, nor yet alone at the unpropped -face of breast or gangway. They are liable to -occur at almost any point in any mine. Sometimes -only a small piece of slate, not larger perhaps -than a shingle, will come down; again the -roof of an entire chamber will fall. It is possible -that two or more chambers will be involved in the -disturbance, and instances occasionally occur in a -working mine where a fall covers an area many -acres in extent. The falls that are limited in extent, -that are confined to a single chamber or the -face of a chamber, do not interfere with the pillars -and can be readily cleared away. They are due -to lack of support for the roof, to insufficient -propping and injudicious blasting, and may, to a -great extent, be guarded against successfully by -care and watchfulness. But to foresee or prevent -the more extended falls is often impossible. They -are due to the general pressure of overlying strata -over a considerable area, and both props and pillars<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -give way under so great a strain. Sometimes -they come without a moment’s warning; -usually, however, their approach is indicated by -unmistakable signs days or even weeks in advance -of the actual fall. There will be cracks in the -roof, small pieces of slate will drop to the floor, -the distance between floor and roof will grow perceptibly -less, pillars will bulge in the middle and -little fragments of coal not larger than peas will -break from them with a crackling sound and fall -to the floor, until a deposit of fine coal is thus -formed at the base of each pillar in the infected -district. This crackling and falling is known as -“working,” and this general condition is called a -“crush” or a “squeeze.” If one stands quite still -in a section of a mine where there is a squeeze, he -will hear all about him, coming from the “working” -pillars, these faint crackling noises, like the -snapping of dry twigs under the feet. Sometimes -the floor of underclay or the roof of shale is so soft -that the pillar, instead of bulging or breaking, -enters the strata above or below as the roof settles. -When this occurs it is called “creeping.” In the -steep-pitching veins the tendency of the pillars on -the approach of a squeeze is to “slip,” that is, to -move perceptibly down the incline. When these -indications occur the workmen are withdrawn from -the portion of the mine which is “working,” and -vigorous measures are taken to counteract the -pressure, by props and other supports placed under<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -the roof. Sometimes this work is effectual, sometimes -it is of no avail whatever. Often the fall -comes before the first prop can be set; and when it -comes the crash is terrible, the destruction is great. -However, not many feet in thickness of the roof -strata can come down; the slate and rock which -first fall are broken and heaped in such irregular -masses on the floor that they soon extend up to the -roof and afford it new and effectual support. It -is therefore only near the outcrop, or where the -mine is not deep, that a fall in it disturbs the -earth at the surface. But in the mining of the -upper veins such disturbances were frequent. In -passing through the coal regions one will occasionally -see a depression, or a series of depressions, -in the earth’s surface to which his attention will -be attracted on account of their peculiar shape. -They are not often more than ten or fifteen feet in -depth, and though of irregular outline their approximate -diameter seldom exceeds sixty feet. They -are the surface indications of a fall in shallow -mines, and are known as “caves” or “cave holes.” -A section of country one or more acres in extent -may, however, be so strewn with them as to make -the land practically valueless.</p> - -<p>When the upper vein in the Wyoming region -was being mined, buildings on the surface were -occasionally disturbed by these falls, but not often. -If houses had been erected over a shallow mine -before the coal was taken out, strong pillars were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -left under them to support the roof, and if the -mining had already been done and the pillars -robbed, no one would risk the erection of a building -over a place liable to fall, for these places were -known, and points above them on the surface -could be definitely located. Sensational stories -are sometimes started concerning a mining town -or city that it is liable any night, while its inhabitants -are asleep, to be engulfed in the depths of -some mine, the vast cavities of which are spread -out beneath it. It is almost unnecessary to say -that such dangers are purely imaginary. There is -probably not a town or city in the mining districts -so located that a single stone of it in the populated -portion would be disturbed by a fall in the mines -underneath it, supposing there were mines underneath -it, and that a fall is liable to take place in -them. The areas of surface which could possibly -be disturbed by a fall are too limited in extent, -and are too well known, to make such a general -catastrophe at all within the possibilities. The -mines in the upper coal seams have for the most -part been worked out and abandoned long ago, and -the roof rock has settled into permanent position -and rigidity. In the deep mines of the present -day no fall, however extensive, could be felt at the -surface. The broken masses of roof rock that -come down first would have filled up the cavities -and supported the strata above them, long before -any perceptible movement could have reached the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -surface. The conditions that lead to surface falls -in the Middle and Southern regions are somewhat -different from those that prevail in the Wyoming -field. In the first-mentioned districts steep-pitching -coal seams are the rule, and they all come to -the surface in lines of outcrop. In driving breasts -up from the gangway of the first level, it is intended -to leave from ten to twelve yards of coal -between the face of the breast and the outcrop; -while over the outcrop will be from twelve to -twenty feet of soil. Any experienced miner can -tell when the face of the breast is approaching the -outcrop; the coal becomes softer, changes in color, -breaks into smaller pieces, sometimes water runs -down through. It is obviously unsafe to erect -buildings on the line of this outcrop, or immediately -inside of it, where the roof is thin. There is -no assurance that the body of coal left will not -slip down the breast; and the pillars of coal near -the surface are so soft that any disturbance of this -kind may cause them to give way and let down the -entire thickness of strata above them. This was -what occurred at the Stockton mines near Hazleton -on December 18, 1869. Two double tenement -houses were situated over the face of a -worked-out breast, near the outcrop. About five -o’clock in the morning the roof fell, carrying both -houses down with it a distance of about eighty feet -into the old breast. The inhabitants of one of the -houses escaped from it a moment before it went<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -down, those in the other house, ten in number, -were carried into the mine, and were killed. The -buildings in the pit took fire almost immediately, -and rescue of the bodies crushed there among the -débris was impossible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp140"> - <img src="images/i_fp140.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">GANGWAY IN KOHINOOR COLLIERY, NEAR SHENANDOAH, PA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Accidents of this class are happily very rare. -The exercise of ordinary judgment is sufficient to -prevent them. The list of disasters due to falls of -roof at the faces of chambers might, as has already -been explained, be greatly reduced by the same -means. But it is often impossible to prevent, or -even to guard against, those falls which cover a -large area, though their coming may be heralded -for days by the working of pillars and all the indications -of a squeeze. This was the case at the -fall in the Carbondale mines in 1846, one of the -most extensive falls that has ever been known. It -covered an area of from forty to fifty acres, fourteen -persons were killed by it, and the bodies of -eight of them were never recovered. Although -this disaster occurred more than forty years ago, -the writer had the privilege, in the summer of -1888, of hearing an account of it from one of the -survivors, Mr. Andrew Bryden. Mr. Bryden is -now, and has been for many years, one of the general -mining superintendents for the Pennsylvania -Coal Company, with headquarters at Pittston, -Pennsylvania. His story of the fall is as follows: -“This disaster occurred on the twelfth day of -January, 1846, at about eight o’clock in the forenoon.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -It was in Drifts No. 1 and No. 2 of the -Delaware and Hudson Canal Company’s mines at -Carbondale. The part of the mine in which the -caving in was most serious was on the plane heading, -at the face of which I was at work. We -heard the fall; it came like a thunderclap. We -felt the concussion distinctly, and the rush of air -occasioned by it put out our lights. I and those -who were working with me knew that the fall had -come, and we thought it better to try immediately -to find our way out, although we had no idea that -the fall had been so extensive or the calamity so -great. We did not doubt but that we should be -able to make our way along the faces of the chambers, -next to the solid coal, to an opening at the -outcrop; so we relighted our lamps and started. -We had gone but a little way before we saw the -effects of the tremendous rush of air. Loaded -cars had been lifted and thrown from the track, -and the heavy walls with which entrances were -blocked had been torn out and the débris scattered -through the chambers. We began then to believe -that the fall had been a large one, but before we -reached the line of it we met a party of twenty-five -or thirty men. They were much frightened, and -were running in toward the face of the heading, -the point from which we had just come. They -said that the entire mine had caved in; that the -fall had extended close up to the faces of the -chambers along the line of solid coal, leaving no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -possible means of escape in the direction we were -going; and that the only safe place in the entire -section was the place which we were leaving, at -the face of the heading. This heading having -been driven for some distance into the solid coal, -the fall could not well reach in to the face of it. -We were greatly discouraged by the news that -these men told us, and we turned back and went -with them in to the face of the heading. We had -little hope of being able to get out through the -body of the fall,—the way in which we did finally -escape,—for we knew that the mine had been -working, and that the roof had been breaking -down that morning in the lower level. Indeed, we -could hear it at that moment cracking, crashing, -and falling with a great noise. We felt that the -only safe place was at the face of the heading -where we were, and most of the party clung closely -to it. Some of us would go out occasionally to the -last entrance to listen and investigate, but the -noise of the still falling roof was so alarming that -no one dared venture farther. After a long time -spent thus in waiting I suggested that we should -start out in parties of three or four, so that we -should not be in each other’s way, and so that all -of us should not be exposed to the same particular -danger, and try to make our way through the fall. -But the majority of the men were too much frightened -to accede to this proposition; they were determined -that we should all remain together. So<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -when some of us started out the whole body rushed -out after us, and followed along until we came to -the line of the fall. We had succeeded in picking -our way but a short distance through the -fallen portion of the mine when we met my father, -Alexander Bryden, coming toward us. He was -foreman of the mine. We heard him calling us -out before he reached us, and you may be sure that -no more welcome sound ever struck upon our ears. -He was outside when the fall came, but the thunder -of it had scarcely ceased before he started in -to learn its extent, and to rescue, if possible, the -endangered men. He had not gone far when he -met three men hastening toward the surface, who -told him how extensive and dreadful the calamity -had been, and urged him not to imperil his life -by going farther. But my father was determined -to go, and he pushed on. He made his way over -hills of fallen rock, he crawled under leaning slabs -of slate, he forced his body through apertures -scarcely large enough to admit it, he hurried under -hanging pieces of roof that crashed down in his -path the moment he had passed; and finally he -came to us. I have no doubt that he was as glad -to find us and help us as we were to see him. -Then he led us back through the terrible path by -which he had come, and brought us every one beyond -the fall to a place of safety. When we were -there my father asked if any person had been left -inside. He was told that one, Dennis Farrell, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -at the face of his chamber, so badly injured across -his spine that he could not walk. The miners in -their retreat to the face of our heading had found -him lying under a heavy piece of coal. They had -rolled it off from him, but seeing that he could not -walk they set him up in the corner of his chamber, -thinking it might be as safe a place as the one to -which they were going, and gave him a light and -left him. My father asked if any one would go -in with him and help carry Dennis out, but none -of them dared to go; it was too dangerous a journey. -So my father made his way back alone -through the fallen mine, and found the crippled -and imprisoned miner. The man was totally helpless, -and my father lifted him to his back and carried -him as far as he could. He drew him gently -through the low and narrow passages of the fall, -he climbed with him over the hills of broken rock, -and finally he brought him out to where the other -men were. They carried him to the surface, a mile -farther, and then to his home. Dennis and his -brother John were working the chamber together, -and when the piece of coal fell upon Dennis his -brother ran into the next chamber for help. He -had scarcely got into it when the roof of the chamber -fell and buried him, and he was never seen -again, alive or dead.</p> - -<p>“It was only a little while after we got out before -the roof fell in on the way we had come and -closed it up, and it was not opened again for a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -year afterward. But we knew there were others -still in the mine, and after we got Farrell out -my father organized a rescuing party, and kept -up the search for the imprisoned miners night and -day.</p> - -<p>“John Hosie was in the mine when the fall came. -He was one of the foremen, and he and my father -were friends. Two days had passed in unavailing -search for him, and it was thought that he must -have been crushed under the rock with the rest. -But on the morning of the third day my father -met him face to face in one of the desolate fallen -portions of the mine. He was in darkness, he -was almost exhausted, his clothing was in rags, -and his fingers were torn and bleeding. When he -saw my father he could give utterance to only two -words: ‘Oh, Bryden!’ he said, and then his heart -failed him and he cried like a child. He had -been caught in the fall and had lost his light, and -though he was familiar with the passages of the -mine he could not find his way along them on -account of the débris with which they were filled, -and the utter confusion into which everything had -been thrown. He had wandered about for two -days and nights in the fallen mine, clambering -over jagged hills of rock, digging his way, with -torn fingers, through masses of wreckage, in constant -peril from falling roof and yawning pit, -hungry, thirsty, and alone in the terrible darkness. -What wonder that his heart gave way in the -moment of rescue!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span></p> - -<p>“The bodies of some of those who were shut in -by the fall, or buried under it, were found when -the drift was again opened, but for others the mine -has been an undisturbed grave for more than forty -years.”</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note added in 1898.</span>—The latest disaster resulting -from a squeeze or fall in the mines occurred June 28, 1896, -at the Twin Shaft of The Newton Coal Mining Company at -Pittston, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. This mine had -been working for some days, and when the fall came the -Superintendent, together with his foremen and workmen, -were engaged in timbering or propping the affected region, -in order, if possible, to prevent a fall. The effort was useless, -however, and these officials and workmen were caught -while at their work, and perished in the disaster. There -were fifty-eight of them. Superhuman efforts were put -forth to rescue them, but the attempt was useless, and -later on it was found utterly impossible even to recover -their bodies, owing to the extent and magnitude of the -fall.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<small>AIR AND WATER IN THE MINES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Man is an air-breathing animal. So soon as -his supply of air is cut off he dies. In proportion -as that supply is lessened or vitiated, his physical -and mental energies fail. One of the first requisites, -therefore, in all mining operations is that the -ventilation shall be good. To accomplish this end -an air current must be established. It is true that -into any accessible cavity atmospheric air will rush, -but if it be allowed to remain in that cavity without -any replacement it becomes dead and unfit to -breathe. If, in addition to this, it takes up deleterious -gases, like those which escape from the coal -measures, it becomes poisoned and dangerous to -human life. Hence the necessity of a continuous -current. Provisions for such a current are made -with the opening into every mine. The separate air -compartment of a shaft has already been noticed. -In drifts, tunnels, and slopes a part of the opening -is partitioned off for an airway, or, what is more -common, a separate passage is driven parallel with, -and alongside of, the main one. In drifts and -tunnels, since the mines there are not deep, air -shafts are often driven at some other point above<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -the workings, or slopes are sunk from the outcrop -to accommodate the return air from the mine. It is -due to the necessity of maintaining an air current -that all passages and chambers are driven in pairs -or sets in the manner already explained. It has -also been explained how the fresh air going in at -the carriage ways of the shaft, or other openings, -passes along the gangway to its extremity, back -along the airway, up to and across the faces of -each set of chambers, and then down into the airway -again, to be carried to the foot of the shaft -and up by the air passage to the surface. But in -the larger mines there are many passages besides -the main gangway that must be supplied with air, -and the current must therefore be divided or split -to accommodate them; so these separate currents, -taken in this way from the main current, and -themselves often divided and subdivided, are called -“splits.” The air channels thus branching, uniting, -crossing, and recrossing form a most complicated -system of ventilation. But the current goes -nowhere by chance. Every course is marked out -for it. On the fact that it follows that given path -depends the lives of the workmen and the successful -operation of the mine. Sometimes it becomes -necessary to carry two currents of air through the -same passage in opposite directions. In that case -the passage will either be partitioned along its -length, or a wooden box laid through it to conduct -one of the air currents. If one air course crosses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -another, as is often the case, a channel will be cut -in the roof of one of the passages, and the lower -side of the channel will be closed tightly by masonry, -to prevent any possible intermingling of the -currents, a circumstance which might prove disastrous. -Entrances and cross-headings cut through -between parallel passages for purposes of ventilation -are closed as soon as the next cross-heading is -made, for reasons already explained. This closing -is usually done by building up in the aperture a -wall of slate, rock, and coal, and filling the chinks -with dirt from the floor of the mine. Sometimes -wooden partitions are put in instead, and between -principal air passages the cross-headings are closed -by heavy walls of masonry. When it is necessary -to turn the air from any traveling way, or to prevent -it from further following such traveling way, -a partition is built across the passage, and in the -opening left in the partition a door is swung. If -this is across a way through which mine cars pass, -a boy will be stationed at the door to open it when -the cars come and close it as soon as they have -gone through. He is called a “door boy.” All -doors are so hung as to swing open against the -current of air, and are therefore self-closing. The -law directs that this shall be done. There are -several patented devices for giving an automatic -movement to mine doors; but few if any of them -are in practical operation in the anthracite mines. -The conditions here are not favorable for the use of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -self-acting doors, and besides this the act of 1885 -provides that all main doors shall have an attendant. -The law is very explicit on this subject of -ventilation; it is a matter of the utmost importance -in operating a mine. A failure of the air -current for even an hour might, in some mines, -result in the death of all those who chanced to be -inside. For this current not only supplies air for -breathing purposes, but it takes up the smoke, the -dust, the dangerous and the poisonous gases, and -carries them to the surface. In the same way pure -air is drawn into the lungs, loaded with the refuse -matter brought there by the blood, and then expelled. -So life is preserved in both cases.</p> - -<p>In order to create this circulation of air and -make it continuous, artificial means are ordinarily -used. The earliest method of creating an artificial -air current which should be constant, and one still -in use to a limited extent, is that by the open furnace. -This is an ordinary fireplace with grate bars, -built near the foot of an opening into the mine, -and having a bricked-in smoke-flue which leads -into the air passage of that opening at some little -distance above the floor of the mine. The volume -of heat thus passing into the airway will rarefy the -air therein, and so create and maintain a strong, invariable, -upward current. Sometimes the furnace -is placed at the foot of an air shaft a long distance -from the main opening, thus making it an upcast -shaft. The reverse, however, is usually the case.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -All air that enters the mine by any opening is -usually drawn out at the main shaft or other main -entrance. But as the air returning from the working -places of the mine is often laden with inflammable -gases, it is not allowed to come into contact -with the fire of the furnace, but is carried into the -shaft by a channel cut into the rock above the roof -of the mine. Furnace ventilation in mines in -which explosive gases are generated is dangerous -at the best, and is now prohibited by the act of -1885.</p> - -<p>The modern and most common method of creating -and maintaining a circulation of air in a mine -is by a fan built at the mouth of the air compartment -of the shaft or slope. The fan exhausts the -air from the mine by the airway, and fresh air -rushes in by the carriage way, or any other opening -to the surface to restore the equilibrium. -Sometimes the fan is used as a blower and forces -air into the mine instead of exhausting it. The -advantage of this method is that it gives better -air to the workmen at the faces of chambers and -headings, but the objection to it is that it brings -all the smoke and gases out by the main gangway. -This is a serious objection, not only making this -principal passage unfit to see or breathe in, but -making it dangerous also by the presence of inflammable -gases. The fan is therefore commonly -used as an exhauster.</p> - -<p>There are various kinds of fans in use at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> -mines, but the kind generally employed is patterned -after Guibal’s invention. It is simply a -great wheel without a rim, and instead of spokes -it has blades like those of a windmill. It is run -by a steam-engine, makes forty revolutions per -minute at an average rate of speed, and sends from -one hundred thousand to two hundred thousand -cubic feet of fresh air per minute into the mine.</p> - -<p>The act of 1885 requires the mine operator to -furnish two hundred cubic feet of air per minute -to every man in the mine. This is the maximum -amount necessary for perfect respiration. In the -larger workings perhaps six hundred men and boys -are employed. For this number one hundred and -twenty thousand cubic feet of air per minute would -be required by law. A large fan would supply this -amount by running at almost its minimum rate of -speed. So long, therefore, as the fan and air passages -are in good working condition there need be -no fear of lack of proper ventilation. But to give -absolutely pure air to the workers in the mine is an -utter impossibility under any system that has yet -been devised. The outer atmosphere that is drawn -into the mines has hardly got beyond the light of -the sun before it has taken up a certain percentage -of impurities. As it passes by the working -faces of the chambers it carries along with it the -gases evolved from the coal; principally the carbonic -acid gas or black damp, and the light carbureted -hydrogen or fire damp. It also takes up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -and carries along the powder smoke, the organic -matter contained in the exhalations of men and -animals, the products of decaying timber, and the -dust which is always in the air. Nor is this the -only deterioration which this air current undergoes. -The proportion of oxygen in it is diminished -by the burning of many lamps, by the respiration -of many men, and by the constant decay of -wood. It is seen, therefore, that the air in which -the miner must breathe is far from being the pure -oxygen and nitrogen of the outside atmosphere. -It follows also that the longer the route is of any -particular current, and the more working faces it -passes in its course, the more heavily laden will it -be with impurities, and the more poisonous for -those men who last breathe it on its return to the -upcast air shaft.</p> - -<p>This evil, however, is limited in extent by the -act of 1885, which provides that no more than -seventy-five persons shall be employed at the same -time in any one split or current of air.</p> - -<p>The wonder is that the health of these mine -workers does not sooner fail them, especially when -we take into consideration the wet condition of -many of the mines. It is a fact, however, that -miners as a class are not more subject to disease -than other workmen. The decimation in their -ranks is due mostly to accidents producing bodily -injuries and death, not to diseases which attack -them as a result of their occupation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span></p> - -<p>Next in importance to the matter of ventilation -in mines is the matter of drainage. The first difficulty -experienced from water is while the shaft -or slope is in process of sinking. It is usually -necessary to hold the water in one side of the -opening while work is going on in the other side. -A small pumping engine is generally sufficient to -keep the pit clear until the bottom is reached, but -occasionally the amount of water is such that a -large engine and pumping appliances have to be -put in place at once. In Europe much trouble is -often experienced from the excessive flow of water -while sinking the shaft, and a watertight casing has -frequently to follow the shaft downward in order -that work may go on at all. Such appliances are -not as a rule necessary in this country, though -much difficulty has been encountered in sinking -shafts through the quicksand deposits of the Susquehanna -basin in the Wyoming valley.</p> - -<p>The general principle of mine drainage has been -already explained. It is, in brief, that the floor -of the mine shall be so graded that all water will -gravitate to a certain point. That point is near -the foot of the shaft or slope, and is at the mouth -of the drift or tunnel. But from the sump of the -shaft or slope the water must be raised by artificial -means. A powerful steam pumping engine, located -at the surface, is employed to do this work, and -one compartment of the shaft or slope, known as -the pump-way, is set aside for the accommodation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -of pipe, pump-rods, and supporting timbers, which -extend from the top to the bottom of the shaft. -The most powerful of these pumps will throw out -a volume of twelve hundred gallons of water per -minute. It is seldom that the tonnage of water -pumped from a mine falls below the tonnage of -coal hoisted, and in some of the wet collieries of -the Lehigh district eight or ten tons of water are -pumped out for every ton of coal hoisted. In the -Wyoming district a thousand tons of water a day -is not an unusual amount to be thrown out of a -mine by a single pump.</p> - -<p>In driving gangways or chambers toward abandoned -workings that have been allowed to fill with -water much care is necessary, especially if the new -mine is on a lower level, which is usually the case. -The act of 1885 provides that “whenever a place -is likely to contain a dangerous accumulation of -water, the working approaching such place shall -not exceed twelve feet in width, and there shall -constantly be kept, at a distance of not less than -twenty feet in advance, at least one bore hole near -the centre of the working, and sufficient flank bore -holes on each side.” It often happened, before -accurate surveys of mines were required to be -made and filed, that operators would drive chambers -or gangways toward these reservoirs of water -in ignorance of their whereabouts. The firing of -a blast, the blow of a pick, perhaps, would so -weaken the barrier pillar that it would give way<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -and the water breaking through would sweep into -the lower workings with irresistible force, carrying -death to the workmen in its path and destruction -to the mine. Some very distressing accidents have -occurred in this way. It is customary now for -operators, when approaching with their workings -a boundary line of property, to leave a barrier -pillar at least one hundred feet thick between that -line and the outer rib or face of their workings; -and this whether the area on the other side of the -line is or is not worked out. Under the present -system of accurate surveying and mapping, accidents -resulting from flooding by mine water should -be rare, since the location of boundary lines may -be calculated almost to the inch, as well as the -location of all workings in their relation to each -other.</p> - -<p>But accidents due to a flooding by surface -water are not always to be obviated. Sometimes -when a stream crosses the line of outcrop the -water will break through into the mine and flood -the lower levels in an incredibly short space of -time; and this too when good judgment and prudence -have been used in leaving sufficient coal for -protection. The continuity and character of the -strata lying between the earth’s surface and the -coal face cannot always be determined. It is not -often that accidents from flooding occur while mining -is going on under large bodies of water. The -precautionary measures taken in presence of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -known danger are sufficient to reduce that danger -to a minimum.</p> - -<p>Disasters occur occasionally as the result of a -peculiarly deceptive condition of the overlying -strata, whereby a rush of earth, quicksand, or -mud into a mine causes loss of life and destruction -of property. The bed of a stream cut deep into -the rocks in some former geological period, and -then filled to the level of the surrounding country -with drift in some later age, leaves a dangerous -and unsuspected depression in the strata which the -miner’s drill may pierce or his blast break into at -any time with disastrous results. One of the most -characteristic of this class of accidents occurred at -Nanticoke in the Wyoming region on the 18th of -December, 1885, in a mine operated by the Susquehanna -Coal Company. A miner by the name -of Kiveler broke into a depression of this kind -while blasting, and immediately through the aperture -a great volume of water, quicksand, and culm -came rushing down. It filled up that entire portion -of the mine, burying twenty-six men and boys -beyond possible hope of rescue and endangering -the lives of hundreds of others. Energetic efforts -were made to tunnel through the masses of sand -and culm packed in the passages of the mine in -order to reach those whose avenues of escape had -been cut off, many believing that they had been -able to reach high enough ground to escape the -flood. These efforts, lasting through many weeks,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -were wholly unsuccessful. The men were never -reached. Bore holes, drilled into the chambers -where they were imprisoned, both from the inside -and from the surface, proved conclusively that the -passages were crowded full of sand and culm, and -that the men must have perished immediately -upon the occurrence of the disaster.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<small>THE DANGEROUS GASES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>One of the chief dangers to which workmen in -the mines are subject arises from the gases given -off by minerals and metals. Though these deleterious -gases are commonly found in more or less -abundance in the coal mines, and are usually considered -in connection with such mines, they are, -nevertheless, not confined to the coal measures. -They have been noticed also in mines of lead, -sulphur, salt, and other substances. It is said -that anthracite contains a much larger proportion -of these gases than do bituminous or other coals, -but that being hard it holds them more tenaciously, -and is therefore worked with less risk. The soft -coals, on the contrary, being porous as well as soft, -allow the gases to escape from them much more -readily, and so increase the danger at the working -faces of the mines. The gas given out most -abundantly by the coal is light carbureted hydrogen, -known as marsh gas, from the fact that being -a product of vegetable decomposition under water, -bubbles of it rise to the surface on stirring the -waters of a marsh. This is the gas that is known -to miners as fire damp. The French call it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -grisou. Marsh gas, in its simple form, consists -of four parts of hydrogen to one of carbon. It is -about one half the weight of air, and therefore -rises and gathers at the roof of a mine chamber, -extending downward as it accumulates. When it -is mixed with from four to twelve times its volume -of atmospheric air it becomes violently explosive. -If the mixture is above or below this proportion -it is simply inflammable, burning without -explosive force, with a pale blue flame. The value -of a perfect ventilating current across the faces of -chambers which are making gas rapidly can now -be appreciated. It is not only necessary that the -supply of air should be sufficient to make the gas -non-explosive, but that it should be sufficient to -dilute it beyond even the point of inflammability. -For to its inflammable more than to its explosive -quality is due most of the disasters with which -it is accredited. A peculiar and dangerous feature -of this gas is that it does not always escape from -the coal at a uniform rate, but often comes out -suddenly in large compact bodies. These are -called “blowers.” They are found most commonly -in faults, in cracks in the coal seams, or in open -spots in the body of coal, where they have opportunity -to accumulate. They contain, besides -marsh gas, less than one per cent. of carbonic -acid, and from one to four per cent. of nitrogen. -It is impossible to anticipate their coming; the -miner’s drill may strike into one and free it at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> -any time without a moment’s warning. It may even -burst through the face by its own power. In such -cases danger is imminent, disaster is most common.</p> - -<p>When the naked light of the miner comes into -contact with any considerable quantity of fire -damp in an explosive state the shock that follows -is terrific. Men and mules, cars and coal, are -hurled together to destruction. Walls are swept -out, iron rails are bent double, doors are torn from -their fastenings, the mine is laid waste. The damage -which results from an explosion of gas is of -course much greater than that which is due to mere -ignition and burning without the explosive force. -In the latter case, however, the danger to the miner -is but slightly diminished. He is liable to receive -injuries which may prove immediately fatal. His -burning lamp no sooner touches the body of fire -damp than it bursts into flame, which, propelled -by expansive force, passes swiftly down along the -roof of the chamber. Taking up enough oxygen -from the atmospheric air to make combustion more -fierce, it returns to the face of the chamber with -a violent contractile surge, scorching everything -in its path, and then, perhaps after another brief -sally, it burns itself out.</p> - -<p>The miner who accidentally fires a block of fire -damp falls suddenly flat on his face on the floor of -the mine, burying his mouth, nose, and eyes in the -dirt to protect them from the flame and intense -heat. Then he clasps his hands over the back of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -his head and neck to protect these parts from -injury, and lies waiting for the minute or two to -pass before the fire shall have burned itself out. -But he must not wait too long. The fatal after -damp follows quick upon the heels of the flame, -and his only safety from certain death lies now in -immediate flight.</p> - -<p>The danger from inflammable gases was known -and appreciated very early in the history of mining. -But it was long thought to be an unavoidable -danger. Light must be had or no work could -be done, and the only light that could be obtained -was from the flame produced by combustion. -Candles were commonly used. They were stuck -into a ball of clay and fastened to the sides of the -working places at the most advantageous points. -The bituminous mines of England were peculiarly -prolific of inflammable gases; accidents were -almost of daily occurrence. On the 25th of May, -1812, a great disaster occurred at Felling Colliery, -near Newcastle, in which eighty-nine persons lost -their lives by explosion of fire damp, and public -attention and the public conscience were directed -to the matter of safety in mines more intensely -than ever. Sir Humphrey Davy was then in the -zenith of his fame. In April, 1815, he returned -to London after a triumphal tour through France -and Italy, in which his progress had been marked -by a series of brilliant experiments. He had no -sooner reached home than he was asked by Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -Buddie, a well-known colliery owner of that day, -to turn his attention toward improved methods of -lighting the mines. Specimens of the dangerous -gas were sent to him from Newcastle, and he experimented -with them. He found that the flame -from them would not pass through a small tube, -nor through a set of small tubes standing side by -side. He found also that the length of the tube -was immaterial. He therefore shortened them -until they were mere sections, until his set of parallel -tubes became simply wire gauze. The proper -proportion between the substance of the wire and -the size of the aperture was found to be twenty-eight -wires to the linear inch, and seven hundred -and eighty-four apertures to the square inch, a -proportion that is still in use. This wire gauze -was then made into the form of a cylindrical tube -about six inches long and one and one half inches -in diameter, with a flat gauze top. To the bottom -of this tube was fastened a small cylindrical oil -vessel, and to the top a ring handle. The wick -extended up from the oil vessel inside the tube.</p> - -<p>When Sir Humphrey had perfected his lamp to -a point of safety he took it and went with Mr. -Buddie down to Newcastle, and together they -traversed with impunity some of the most dangerous -parts of the Bentham seam, at that time one -of the most fiery coal beds known. At about the -same time the celebrated George Stephenson also -invented a safety lamp similar in most respects to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -the Davy, so also, later, did Clanny and Museler, -and all four kinds are in general use. Other styles -have been invented also, but for the purposes to -which a safety lamp is properly applied the Davy -doubtless still excels all others. Those purposes -are principally the investigation of workings to discover -the presence of gas, and to aid in the erection -of proper appliances for driving it out. It -is not necessary, in these days of powerful ventilating -machinery, to allow dangerous gases to remain -in working places and to mine the coal there -by the light of safety lamps. It is far safer, and -better in every way, to sweep the chambers clean -from foul air by strong ventilating currents, so -that the miner may work by the light of his naked -and most convenient common tin lamp. The -objection, therefore, to the Davy lamp, that the -light given out by it is too dim, need not be considered -a serious one. The size of the flame cannot -be increased without destroying the proportion -between it and the gauze cylinder, and the size of -the cylinder cannot be increased without making -a dangerously large chamber for the accommodation -of explosive gas. Therefore the light given -out must, of necessity, be dim.</p> - -<p>But the safety lamp itself must be used with -care and prudence, otherwise it may become no -less an instrument of danger than the naked lamp. -When it is carried into a chamber that contains -fire damp the gas enters freely through the gauze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -into the cylindrical chamber, and is there ignited -and consumed without communicating its flame to -the outside body. The presence of gas is indicated -by the conduct of the flame of the lamp. -If the percentage of marsh gas is small the flame -simply elongates and becomes smoky. If it is -mixed with from eight to twelve or fourteen times -its volume of atmospheric air the flame of the wick -disappears entirely, and the interior of the cylinder -becomes filled with the blue flame of burning -gas. It will not do to hold the lamp long in this -mixture, the wires will become red with heat, and -the outer gas may then become ignited from them. -Neither will it do to hold the lamp in a current of -gaseous air moving at a greater rate of speed than -six or eight feet per second, since in that case the -flame is apt to be driven through the gauze and to -set fire to the gas outside. There is also danger -if the lamp be thrust suddenly into an explosive -mixture that the force of the explosion inside the -wire-gauze cylinder will force the flame through -the mesh. It will be seen, therefore, that even the -safety lamp is not an absolute protection against -danger from explosive and inflammable gases.</p> - -<p>The position and duties of the fire boss at each -colliery have already been referred to. He goes -into the mine about four o’clock in the morning -and makes his round before the men arrive. If -gas has been found in an inflammable or explosive -condition the workmen are not allowed to enter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -the place until it has been cleared out by the erection -of brattices and other ventilating appliances. -If only an insignificant quantity has been found -in any chamber, the miner who works the place is -warned of its existence and told to brush it out. -In obedience to this order he goes to the working -face, sets his lamp on the floor, and removing his -coat swings that garment vigorously over his head, -thus mixing and diluting the gas and driving it -down into the current.</p> - -<p>It is not in the working chambers, however, that -the most dangerous accumulations of fire damp are -found, but in the worked out and abandoned portions -of the mine. Here it may collect unnoticed -until large bodies of it are formed, and then when -some one blunders into it with a naked lamp a -terrific explosion is the inevitable result. The -act of 1885 recognizes this especial danger, and -makes it obligatory on operators to keep old workings -free of dangerous bodies of gas; and to this -end it directs that they shall be inspected at least -once a week by the fire boss or his assistant. -Where it is known that such gas exists, or is liable -to accumulate in old workings, the entrances to -such places are barred across, and the word -“Fire!” is written conspicuously at the opening -to them. But notwithstanding all rules and precautions, -ignitions and explosions of fire damp are -still dangerously common. Among the thousands -of mine workers there is always some one who is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -careless, some one who blunders; the lessons of -perfect watchfulness and obedience are hard lessons -to be learned.</p> - -<p>As has already been intimated, the danger -which results from the burning of fire damp lies -not alone in the fierce flame given forth, but also, -and perhaps in a still greater degree, in the product -of its combustion. This product is known to -the miner as “after damp,” and consists principally -of carbonic acid gas with some nitrogen. It -is irrespirable, and a single inhalation of it, in -its pure state, will produce immediate insensibility -and speedy death. It is heavier than atmospheric -air and therefore falls to the bottom of the mine -as soon as it is formed from the combustion of the -light carbureted hydrogen. It is for this reason -that the miner, who has fallen on his face on the -floor of the mine to escape the flame of the burning -fire damp, rises as soon as that flame has disappeared -and hastens, if he is able, to a place of -safety. Indeed, it is easier to protect one’s self -from the surging fire above than from the invisible -and insidious gas below, so quickly does it -form, so deadly is it in effect.</p> - -<p>One of the most characteristic disasters of recent -times, resulting from the explosion of fire -damp and the accumulation of after damp, occurred -on Monday, August 14, 1871, at the Eagle -Shaft, situated about a mile below the town of -Pittston, in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. At<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -nine o’clock on the morning of that day a driver -boy by the name of Martin Mangan was passing -along an upper gangway, driving a mule with a -trip of mine cars. Just above him lay a section -of the mine that had been worked out and abandoned, -in the old chambers of which a large body -of fire damp had been allowed to accumulate. At -the hour mentioned there came a sudden and extensive -fall of roof in these old workings. The impulse -given to the air by this fall drove it out into the -working galleries, and with it the inflammable gas. -When the fire damp reached the heading and -touched the flame of Martin Mangan’s lighted -lamp there was a terrific explosion. At the -mouth of the shaft timbers were cracked, clouds -of dust poured out, and débris from the mine was -thrown violently into the outer air. People who -were a mile away heard the noise of the explosion -and hastened to the scene. Mining experts knew -at once what had occurred. As soon as sufficient -repairs could be made to the shaft a rescuing party, -led by Superintendent Andrew Bryden of the -Pennsylvania Coal Company’s mines, descended -into the mine and began to search for victims. -Those workmen who were on the other side of the -shaft from where the explosion took place were -rescued and brought out alive. But little progress -could be made, however, toward the region of the -trouble on account of the after damp which had -accumulated. Up to two o’clock on Tuesday<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -morning five dead bodies had been discovered, and -during that day twelve more were taken out; all -who had worked in that section of the mine. The -positions of these bodies showed that the men -had fallen where they chanced to be when the -explosion occurred. The first wave of after damp -that touched them had made them insensible, -and death speedily followed. They died from -asphyxia.</p> - -<p>“Black damp” is pure carbonic acid gas, containing -two parts of oxygen to one of carbon. It -is the principal constituent of after damp, which -may, indeed, contain no other elements in appreciable -quantities. The two mixtures are therefore -often spoken of as being the same, and the -miners apply the term “choke damp” indiscriminately -to either.</p> - -<p>Black damp is also given off by the coal in the -same manner that fire damp is, and frequently the -two mixtures are evolved together. Carbonic acid -gas is also one of the products of burning coal, of -burning oil, and of the respiration of man and -beast. It is about one and a half times as heavy -as air, and is therefore always found next to the -floor of the mine. This gas is not inflammable. -Its presence may be detected by the conduct of -the flame of the lamp. In an atmosphere containing -but a small percentage of it the lamp light -will grow dim, and, as the proportion of gas increases, -will become more and more feeble until<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -it is finally extinguished. An atmosphere containing -from eight to ten per cent. of this gas -may be breathed without immediate danger; it -will simply occasion dullness of intellect and numbness -of body. This condition changes into one -of insensibility as the inhalation continues, or as -the percentage of gas is increased, and to enter -an undiluted body of it means sudden death. It -is stated that the workmen in the Creuzot mine, in -France, descended the shaft one morning, on their -way to work, not knowing that carbonic acid had -formed in the mine during the night. Following -one after another along the main passage, they -had reached a point not far from the foot of the -shaft when the leader suddenly entered into a -body of black damp and fell, stricken with asphyxia, -before he could utter a cry. The man following -him fell also. The third, bending over -to draw his comrade out of danger, was himself -prostrated, and the fourth, by reason of a similar -effort, shared the fate of the others. But the -fifth, being an experienced master miner, turned -quickly in his tracks and obliged those behind him -to ascend the shaft. The black damp is thus -quick and terrible in its effect. The greatest -danger from it, however, exists, not at the working -faces, where it is usually swept away in the -ventilating current, but in abandoned workings, -where it often accumulates unnoticed.</p> - -<p>“White damp” is a more dangerous gas than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -either of the others, but is not so frequently found. -It is carbonic oxide, and consists of equal portions -of carbon and oxygen. It is a very little lighter -than air, and has a tendency to rise. When present -in a sufficiently pure state it burns with a blue -flame, but ordinarily it is incombustible and produces -no effect upon the flame of the lamp. It is -tasteless and odorless, and its presence cannot be -detected before it has done its dangerous work. -To breathe an atmosphere containing a very small -percentage of it will speedily produce a fatal result. -It acts on the system as a narcotic, and its -effect is produced even more quickly than is that -of black damp. It is not thought to be given off -in appreciable quantities by the coal at the open -faces; but it is formed when the carbonic acid -passes through any ignited carbonaceous material, -or when steam passes over burning coal. It is -therefore produced most frequently by smouldering -gob fires, by burning wood in the mines, or by -a shaft on fire, and may exist as one of the results -of an explosion of fire damp or of blasting powder. -It is the most to be dreaded of any of the gases -which the miner has to encounter. He may -possibly avoid the surging flame of the fire damp, -he may escape from the falling after damp, and -make his way unharmed through bodies of black -damp lying thick about his feet, but if he has still -to encounter this terrible white damp his good -fortune will have been of little avail; death will -almost surely seize him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span></p> - -<p>In connection with this may be mentioned the -fact that under certain conditions coal dust may -become violently explosive. When it is mixed -with air, with or without the presence of fire damp, -and is set into sudden and intense vibration by a -heavy powder blast, a fall of roof, or other means, -it may explode with greater destructive force than -even fire damp is capable of. Happily such explosions -are not frequent, all the conditions necessary -being rarely present at the same time. It is -obvious, moreover, that an accident of this kind -could occur only in a very dry mine. It is true -also that the dust of bituminous coals is much -more liable to be explosive than the dust of anthracite. -No well authenticated instances of coal -dust explosions have been reported from the anthracite -regions, while in mining soft coals they -have undoubtedly occurred. Two cases of this -kind were reported from France, one in 1875 and -one in 1877. No longer ago than November 9, -1888, a terrible explosion of coal dust occurred -in a bituminous coal mine at Pittsburg, Kansas, -by which more than one hundred lives were lost.</p> - -<p>In some mines the inflammable and poisonous -gases are given off in such abundance by the coal -that it is dangerous to remain in them for even an -hour after ventilation has been stopped. At such -collieries when, on account of accident, or for any -reason, the fan stops running, the men are called -out immediately, and are not allowed to enter again<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -until a new circulating current has been established. -One of the most notable mine disasters of -recent years was caused by the quick accumulation -of black damp and white damp in a mine, the ventilating -system of which had been destroyed and -the shaft burned out by fire. This was at Avondale, -near Plymouth, in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, -on the 6th of September, 1869. There -were three conditions here, the presence and coöperation -of which made this calamity possible. -First, the mine was ventilated by a furnace at the -foot of the shaft; second, the breaker was built -over the mouth of the shaft; and, third, the shaft -was the only outlet from the mine. The partition -of the ventilating flue took fire from the furnace -draught. At ten o’clock in the forenoon a young -man by the name of Palmer Steele stepped on -the carriage with a load of hay to take to the inside -stables. Half way down the shaft the hay -took fire from the burning buntons. The engineer -saw the flames rise from the mouth and let -the carriage, with the young man on it, as quickly -as possible to the bottom. There were then in -the mine one hundred and eight men. Not one of -them came out from it alive. In an incredibly -short space of time the flames leaped to the top of -the breaker, one hundred feet from the ground, and -by the middle of the afternoon the great building -was a mass of ruins, covering over and blocking up -the only entrance to the mine. It was far into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -night before the débris had been sufficiently cleared -away to permit of descent into the shaft. Then -two men, Thomas W. Williams and David Jones, -went down to search for the imprisoned miners. -They were scarcely beyond the foot of the shaft -when they stumbled into a body of white damp -and were stricken with death. The fire occurred -on Monday. It was not until ten o’clock Tuesday -morning that a sufficient ventilating current had -been established to make it safe for men to descend. -The greatest distance that it was possible -to go from the foot of the shaft on Tuesday was -seventy-five feet. Beyond that point the danger -from suffocation was still imminent. Only three -bodies had been thus far found.</p> - -<p>Wednesday morning a rescuing party went up -the plane at some distance from the foot of the -shaft, and at the head of the plane they found a -barrier across the gangway. It had been formed -by placing a mine car in position and packing the -space between it and the walls with clothing and -refuse. This barrier was broken down, but there -was no one behind it. Later another party was -able to go a little farther, and came to a second -barrier. Outside of this lay the dead body of -John Bowen. He had come out for some purpose -from behind the barricade, leaving open an aperture -through which to crawl back, but before he -could do so he had died from asphyxia. This -barrier was broken down, and behind it lay the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -victims, one hundred and five of them, all dead, -suffocated by the foul gases of the mine. The -story of their experiences, their struggles, their -sufferings, can never be known.</p> - -<p>The disaster which occurred at the West Pittston -mine on May 27, 1871, was similar in many -respects to that at Avondale. In this case also -the breaker, built over the shaft, the only opening -to the mine, took fire and burned to the ground, -closing the avenue of escape to thirty-six men and -boys. These prisoners shut themselves into a -chamber, building a barricade across the foot of -it to keep out the foul gases; but when the rescuing -party broke in to them on the following day -fourteen of them were found dead and the rest -were unconscious. Of those who were brought -out alive four died soon after reaching the surface.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<small>THE ANTHRACITE COAL BREAKER.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the act of 1885 it is provided that “no inflammable -structure other than a frame to sustain -pulleys or sheaves shall be erected over the -entrance of any opening connecting the surface -with the underground workings of any mine, -and no breaker or other inflammable structure -for the preparation or storage of coal shall be -erected nearer than two hundred feet to any such -opening.” This was for the purpose of preventing, -if possible, such lamentable disasters as those -of Avondale and West Pittston. The results of -this legislation in providing greater security to -the employees in mines is invaluable. Formerly -it had been the custom to build not only the -shaft-house over the opening into the mine, but the -breaker itself, wherever there was one, was usually -erected over the mouth of the shaft. This was -convenient and economical, since the coal could be -hoisted directly from the mine to the top of the -breaker, without the delay of a horizontal transfer -at the surface of the earth. Many of the shaft -houses and breakers that had thus been built at -the time of the passage of the act are still in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -operation, and will so remain until the time of -their utility is passed. But all new buildings are -erected in accordance with the law.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp176"> - <img src="images/i_fp176.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">THE SLOAN COAL BREAKER, HYDE PARK, PA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>At the mouth of the shaft heavy upright timbers -are set up, inclosing the opening. These are -united by cross-beams, and the whole structure is -well braced. In this head-frame are set the -sheaves, at a distance from the ground of from -thirty to fifty feet, although, when the entire surface -plant was under one cover, they were set -much lower. These sheaves are huge upright -wheels sixteen feet in diameter, over which the -ropes pass that connect with the cages. A sheave -similar in form to the bicycle wheel is now coming -rapidly into use; it is found to bear a greater -strain in comparison with its weight than does any -other form.</p> - -<p>The hoisting engine must be in the immediate -vicinity of the shaft, and the rooms for this and -the boiler, furnace, and pump are usually all -under one roof. The iron or steel wire ropes extend -from the sheaves in the head frame to the -drum in the engine-room, around which they are -coiled in such a manner that as one is being -wound up the other is being unwound. Therefore -as one carriage ascends the other descends by -virtue of the same movement of the engine.</p> - -<p>Since the breaker may receive coal from two or -more openings it must be so located as to be convenient -to both or all of them. If the ground<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -slopes sufficiently the breaker may be so built -that its head will be on a level with the head -of the shaft. This will save breaker hoisting. -When coal is brought out by a slope the track and -grade of the slope are usually continued, by an -open trestlework, from the mouth of the opening to -the head of the breaker. Wherever it is possible -to do so, the loaded cars are run by gravity from -the mouth of the opening to the breaker, and the -empty ones are drawn back by mules. Sometimes -they are hauled both ways by mules, and sometimes -a small steam locomotive engine is employed -to draw them back and forth.</p> - -<p>The coal breaker is an institution that is peculiar -to the anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania. -Its need was made manifest early in the history of -anthracite mining, its development was rapid, and -it has now come to be wholly indispensable in the -preparation of anthracite coal for the market. It -is very seldom indeed that one sees this coal in the -shape and size in which it was mined. All anthracite -coal for domestic use is now broken, screened, -and separated into grades of uniform size before -being placed upon the market, and this work is -done in the coal breakers.</p> - -<p>Previous to the year 1844 these breakers were -unknown. Several experiments had been made -in the matter of breaking coal by machinery, but -there had been no practical results, and the breaking -still continued to be done by hand. In that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> -year, however, a breaker after the modern plan -was erected at the mines of Gideon Bast, in Schuylkill -County, by J. & S. Battin of Philadelphia. -It was started on the 28th of February, 1844. -There were two cast-iron rollers in it, each about -thirty inches long and thirty inches in diameter, -and on the surface of these rollers were set iron -teeth or projections about two and one half inches -long and four inches from centre to centre. -These rollers were placed horizontally, side by -side, and were so geared that, as they revolved, -their upper surfaces turned toward each other, and -the teeth on one roller were opposite to the spaces -on the other. These rolls were afterward improved -by being perforated between the teeth, -thus presenting less of solid surface to the coal, -and causing less crushing. Another set of rollers -was afterward added, being placed above the first -set, and having the teeth larger and wider apart, -so that large lumps of coal might first be broken -into pieces small enough to be crushed readily by -the lower set. After the perfecting of the rolls -came the perfecting of the screens for the purpose -of separating the broken coal into grades according -to size. Before the introduction of coal -breakers a hand screen was used. This screen -was set in a frame, was cylindrical in form, and -was slightly inclined from the horizontal. It was -turned by a crank at one end, in the manner of a -grindstone. The screen placed in the breaker was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -of much the same pattern, except that instead of -being from five to eight feet long the length was -increased to twenty feet, and the diameter correspondingly -enlarged. Mr. Henry Jenkins of -Pottsville then invented a method of weaving thick -wire into screen plates about three feet wide, having -the proper curve. These curved plates being -joined together formed the necessary hollow cylinder. -These separate plates are called jackets, -and when one of them wears out it may be taken -from the cylinder and replaced, with but little -trouble and delay. The screen is set in heavy -framework, and is inclined slightly from the horizontal. -The first segment at the upper end of -the screen is made of wire woven into a mesh so -fine that only the smallest particles of coal will -pass through it; the mesh of the next segment -is larger, and that of the next larger still. The -screen may contain from two to five segments in -its length. Now the coal, being poured in on top -of the revolving rolls, comes out from under them -broken into small pieces, and passes immediately -into the upper or highest end of the hollow cylindrical -screen as it would pass into a barrel. But, -as the screen revolves on its axis, the finer particles -of coal fall out through the fine mesh of the -first segment, and are carried away in an inclined -trough, while the rest of the coal slides on to the -next segment. Here the next smallest particles -fall through and are carried away, and the process<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -is continued until the lower end of the screen -is reached, out of which end all the coal that was -too large to pass through the mesh of the last segment -is now poured. It will be seen that by this -means the different sizes of coal have been separated -from each other and can be carried by separate -shutes to the loading place. This is the -principle of the rolls and screens which are the -main features of every coal breaker, though each -breaker usually contains two or more sets of rolls -and from eight to twelve screens. The Woodward -breaker recently erected near Kingston, -Pennsylvania, has six pairs of rollers and twenty -screens. Some of these screens are double; that -is, they have a larger outside screen surrounding -the smaller one, and the coal that passes through -the inner screen is caught by the outer one and -again divided by means of a smaller mesh.</p> - -<p>Before the days of breakers and screens coal -was sent to market in the lump, as it came from -the mine, and it was generally broken and prepared -for use by the consumer. But when the -separation of coal in the breaker became reduced -to a system, the four smaller sizes than lump coal -were soon graded. They were known as steamboat, -egg, stove, and chestnut. It was thought at -the time that no finer grade of coal than chestnut -could be burned to advantage. But it was not -long before a smaller size, known as pea coal, was -separated, placed on the market, and readily sold;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -and now, within recent years, another still smaller -size called buckwheat has been saved from the refuse -and has come into general use. Everything -smaller than this is culm and goes to the waste -pile. The names of the different sizes of marketable -coal and the spaces over and through which -they pass in the process of separation are given in -the following table, taken from Saward’s “Coal -Trade Annual,” for 1888:—</p> - -<table> -<colgroup> - <col style="width: 40%;" /> - <col style="width: 20%;" /> - <col style="width: 20%;" /> - <col style="width: 20%;" /> -</colgroup> -<tr> - <th> </th> - <th> </th> - <th><span class="smcap">Over.</span><br />Inches.</th> - <th><span class="smcap">Through.</span><br />Inches.</th> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlnp">Lump coal</td> - <td class="tdcnp">bars</td> - <td class="tdlnp">4½ to 9</td> - <td class="tdlnp"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlnp">Steamboat</td> - <td class="tdcnp">“</td> - <td class="tdlnp">3½ to 5</td> - <td class="tdlnp">7</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlnp">Broken</td> - <td class="tdcnp">mesh</td> - <td class="tdlnp">2⅜ to 2⅞</td> - <td class="tdlnp">3¼ to 4½</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlnp">Egg</td> - <td class="tdcnp">“</td> - <td class="tdlnp">1¾ to 2¼</td> - <td class="tdlnp">2⅜ to 2⅞</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlnp">Large stove</td> - <td class="tdcnp">“</td> - <td class="tdlnp">1¼ to 1⅞</td> - <td class="tdlnp">1¾ to 2¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlnp">Small stove</td> -<td class="tdcnp">“</td> -<td class="tdlnp">1    to 1¼</td> -<td class="tdlnp">1¼ to 1½</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlnp">Chestnut</td> -<td class="tdcnp">“ </td> -<td class="tdlnp">  ⅝ to   ¾</td> -<td class="tdlnp">1    to 1¼</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlnp">Pea</td> -<td class="tdcnp">“</td> -<td class="tdlnp">  ⅜ to   ⅝</td> -<td class="tdlnp">  ⅝ to   ⅞</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlnp">Buckwheat</td> -<td class="tdcnp">“</td> -<td class="tdlnp"> ³∕₁₆ to   ⅜</td> -<td class="tdlnp">  ⅜ to   ⅝</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdlnp">Dirt</td> -<td class="tdcnp">“</td> -<td class="tdlnp"> </td> -<td class="tdlnp"> ³∕₁₆ to   ⅜</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The necessity which controls the form and construction -of the breaker building is that the unbroken -and unscreened coal must first be taken to -a point in the building sufficiently high to allow -of its passage, by gradual descent, with slow movement, -through successive rolls, screens, shutes, -and troughs until, thoroughly broken and fully -cleaned and separated, it reaches the railroad cars,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -standing under the pockets, and is loaded into -them for shipment. It is sometimes possible, as -has already been intimated, to locate a breaker on -the side of a hill so that the coal may be run into -the head of it from the mine by a surface track -without the necessity of hoisting. In this case the -building will hug the hill, extending for a long -distance down the slope of it, but without rising -at any point to a great height from the surface of -the ground. In these days, however, the breaker -is more frequently erected in the valley. The -general results are thought to be better, and the -special convenience to railroad outlets to market is -certainly greater. Besides this, the necessities of -the case in shaft mining seem to demand it.</p> - -<p>A peculiar and characteristic feature of a -breaker so built is the great vertical height to -which one portion of the building is run up. This -is the portion that contains the shaft up which -the coal is hoisted, and from the top of which it -starts on its long descending route to the surface -again. From one hundred to one hundred and -fifty feet is not an unusual height for this portion -of the building. From this topmost part of the -structure the roof slopes down by stages, on one or -two sides, widening out, running off at an angle to -cover a wing, spreading by a projection here and -there until, by the time the last ten feet in height -are reached, the ground space covered by the -building has come to be very great. Under the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -last or lowest portion of the structure are the railroad -sidings on which the cars stand to be loaded -from the many pockets in which the shutes have -terminated. Two engines are necessary at the -breaker, one a winding engine to hoist coal from -the surface to the top of the breaker, and the -other a breaker engine to move the rolls, screens, -and other breaker machinery. The winding -engine is usually put on the opposite side of the -shaft tower from the rolls and screens, and the -ropes from it, either exposed or under cover of a -long sloping roof, reach up to the sheaves in the -head frame. The breaker engine is usually -housed in a wing at one side of the main building, -while the several nests of boilers, under a -separate cover, are required by the act of 1885 to -be at least one hundred feet away from the -breaker.</p> - -<p>No one, having once seen and examined an -anthracite coal breaker, could ever mistake one -for a building erected for any other purpose. -These breakers have a character peculiarly their -own. They are the most prominent features in -the landscape of every anthracite coal region, -where they tower up black, majestic, many-winged, -and many-windowed, in the range of almost every -outlook.</p> - -<p>When the mine car full of coal is hoisted to the -head of the breaker it is run by two headmen from -the carriage across the scale platform to the dump<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -shute bars on to which it is dumped. These are -long, sloping, parallel iron bars, set two and one -half inches apart. The dirt and all the coal that -is small enough falls through these bars into a hopper, -from which it is fed into a pair of screens, -one on each side. These separate the dirt in the -manner already described, and divide the clean -coal into sizes smaller than, and including, egg. -Each size as it falls through the segment of, or out -at the end of, the screen, is caught in a separate -shute and carried to a second set of revolving -screens where it is again cleaned and separated, -passing from these screens into the picking shutes. -All the shutes or troughs in which the coal is -carried have a sufficient inclination to make the -material move by gravity, and, to decrease the -amount of friction, the bottom and sides of each -shute are lined with sheet iron. The large coals -which passed over the dump shute bars now slide -down to a second set of bars, set four and one half -inches apart, called steamboat bars; all coal falling -through these being separated by still a third -set of bars into steamboat and egg, and eventually -finding its way to the picking shutes or to the -rolls which break the prepared coal. All coal -which passed over the steamboat bars is lump coal, -and, after having the slate and bony coal removed -from it by hand as it passes, is carried into the -lump-coal shute and sent down to the loading -place; or else it is carried, by another shute, into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> -the heavy rolls and crushed. As it emerges, -broken, from these rolls, it passes into revolving -screens, and the same process of screening and -separating goes on that has been already described -in the case of coal falling through the first or -dump-shute bars. But all this broken, screened, -and separated coal finds its way eventually into -the picking shutes. These are narrow troughs -down which the separate grades of coal pass -slowly in shallow streams. Across the top of -each trough, at two or more points in its route -through the picking-room, narrow seats are placed -on which boys sit facing up the shute. These boys -are called slate pickers. It is their duty to pick -out the pieces of slate, stone, or bone, from the -stream of coal which passes under them, and -throw this refuse into a trough at the side of the -shute, from which point it slides rapidly away. -The coal as it comes from the mine is full of -waste material, so that the boy who sits first or -highest on the shute has no trouble in finding -plenty to do, and, work as hard as he may, much -of the unfit material must still escape him. The -boy who sits below him on the shute is able to -give the passing stream a closer inspection and -more careful treatment, and, should there be one -still below, he must have sharp eyes and skillful -fingers to detect worthless pieces that have been -left by his comrades. The boys often put their -feet in the shute and dam the coal back for a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -moment to give them time to throw out the abundance -of slate that they may see, but no matter -how careful they are, nor how many hands the -coal may pass through in the picking process, a -certain percentage of slate and bone is sure to -remain. The slate pickers are not all stationed in -one room, though the picking-room usually holds -the greater number of them. They are put at the -shutes in any part of the breaker where their -services may be useful or necessary. Indeed, -there are pickers who sit at the refuse shutes to -pick out the pieces of good coal which have been -inadvertently thrown in by the other pickers. In -some breakers the coal passes from the shute -across a gently sloping platform, by the side of -which the boy sits to pick out the waste.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp186"> - <img src="images/i_fp186.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">SCREEN-ROOM IN BREAKER, SHOWING SCREEN AND SHUTES.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>But the time is undoubtedly coming when the -occupation of the picker boy will be gone. The -inventive genius of the age has already devised -machinery which does its work faster, better, and -with greater certainty than the most conscientious -breaker boy could hope to do it. The great collieries -are, one by one, adopting the new methods, -and the army of breaker boys is gradually but -surely decreasing.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the slate-picking machines are based -on the fact that the specific gravity of coal is -lighter than that of slate or stone. One method -brings the principle of friction into play. A section, -a few feet in length, of the floor of the shute<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -down which the coal passes is made of stone. At -the end of this stone section is a narrow slot cut in -the floor, crosswise of the shute, and beyond the -slot the iron bottom is continued as before. Now -when the shallow stream of broken coal strikes the -stone bottom the friction between that bottom and -the pieces of slate and stone is so great that these -particles are impeded in their progress, and by -the time they reach the slot they have not impetus -enough to cross it and must therefore drop into it -and be carried away. But the friction between -coal and stone is slight in comparison, and the -pieces of coal retain enough of their impetus to -carry them safely across the slot and on down the -shute. This is not a perfect separation, and the -coal and slate which it divides has usually to be -looked over again, to insure satisfactory results. -The best and most practicable invention thus far -brought into use is that of Mr. Charles W. Ziegler, -picker boss at the Von Storch colliery, Scranton. -This machine acts somewhat upon the method last -described, though by a system of rollers, levers, and -screens in connection with it and attached to it, it -is able to make quite perfect separation of the coal -and slate. Two or three of these machines placed -on a single shute should do the work required of -them very thoroughly.</p> - -<p>The experience of domestic buyers of coal -would seem to indicate, either that the picker boys -do not do their whole duty or that the picking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> -machines have not yet been made perfect. But it -must be remembered that the separation of slate -and bony coal from good material is made only in -a rough and general way in the mine, and that a -very large percentage of the output, as it reaches -the breaker, is unfit for use. To clean and separate -this material thoroughly, therefore, requires -much labor, and extreme care and skill.</p> - -<p>After these separate streams of coal have passed -the scrutiny of the picker boys or the test of the -picking machine, the shutes in which they run are -narrowed into pockets or bins, closed at the end -by a gate. The pocket projects over the car track -high enough from it for a railroad coal car to -stand beneath, and the coal is then fed from the -pocket into the car at will.</p> - -<p>There is also a loading place for the rock and -slate which have been separated from the coal on -its way through the breaker; and there are two -or three points where the coal dirt is gathered -from its pockets to be taken away. All this refuse -is run out by separate tracks to a convenient -distance from the breaker and there dumped.</p> - -<p>It is estimated that sixteen per cent. of the material -which goes into the breaker to be prepared -comes out as waste, and is sent to the refuse dump. -It can readily be supposed, therefore, that in the -course of a few years these waste heaps will grow -to an enormous size; and as a matter of fact they -do. The dirt or culm, which includes all material<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> -finer than buckwheat coal, is usually dumped on a -separate pile from the rock, slate, and bony coal, -since it is not wholly without at least prospective -value. It has been used frequently in the coal -regions to fill in beneath railroad tracks supported -by trestle-work, and it is valuable as a foundation -on which to lay stone flagging for footwalks, since -it does not yield readily to the action of frost. -Culm has also been utilized by adding to it a certain -percentage of mucilaginous or pitchy material -and compressing it into bricks for fuel. In some -European countries a large amount of waste is -burned in this way, but in America the cost of -preparation is still too great to permit of competition -with prepared anthracite. The most characteristic -feature of scenery in the anthracite coal -regions, aside from the breakers themselves, is -the presence of these great, bare, black hills of -culm, shining in the sunlight, smoothly white -under the snows of winter. Sometimes these -culm banks take fire, either spontaneously or as -the result of carelessness or accident. If the pile -is near enough to the breaker to menace it, or -near enough to an outcrop to carry combustion -into the coal of the mine, the fire must be extinguished, -and this is sometimes done with much -labor and at great expense. If no danger is apprehended, -the fire is allowed to smoulder until it -burns out, a process which may take months or -even years, during which time little blue flames<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> -flicker on the surface of the bank, the sky above -it is tinged with red at night, and the whole black -hillside is finally covered with great blotches of -white ash. To the poor people who live in the -vicinity of the breakers these heaps of refuse coal -are an unmixed blessing. Pieces of good coal are -always being thrown out inadvertently with the -waste, and the bony coal that is discarded is not by -any means without value as a fuel; indeed it makes -a very respectable fire. So, too, one can obtain, -with a screen, from the culm heap quite a little -percentage of material that will burn. Thus it -comes about that every day women and children -and old men go to these black hills with hammer -and screen and gather fuel for their fires, and -carry it home in bags, or wheelbarrows, or little -handcarts. It is the old story over again of the -gleaners in the field.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<small>IN THE BITUMINOUS COAL MINES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>A brief history of the discovery and introduction -into use of the bituminous coals of Pennsylvania -has already been given; but only casual reference -has been made to the methods of mining in -the bituminous regions. It is true that of the one -hundred and twenty thousand square miles of -workable coal beds in the United States less than -five hundred square miles are of anthracite coal. -It is true, also, that more than two thirds of the -coal produced in the United States during the -year 1887 was of the bituminous variety, and that -the income from bituminous coal during that year -was nearly twice as much as the income from anthracite. -Yet it is obvious that in any description -of coal mining methods the anthracite mines -should be used as the chief examples. This is not -only because of the greater commercial importance -of anthracite, and of its greater familiarity as a -domestic fuel, but it is principally because of the -far greater skill, judgment, and ingenuity required -in mining it and preparing it for market. In the -bituminous regions the coal is soft, lies flat and -near the surface, and is mined by the simplest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> -methods. The reader is already familiar with -some of the complications, obstacles, and problems -that meet and beset the operator in the anthracite -regions, and with the great labor, vast expenditures, -and high degree of skill necessary to reach, -take out, and prepare the anthracite coal. In -view of these facts no excuse is necessary for attaching -the greater importance to the description -of methods in the anthracite region. But a brief -outline of the systems in vogue at the bituminous -mines will not be uninteresting, so far at least as -they differ from those in use at the anthracite -mines.</p> - -<p>In the year 1887 a little more than one third of -the bituminous coal output of the United States -came from the Pennsylvania mines. Pittsburgh is -the centre of the soft coal trade of that state, and -the principal coal seam of the region is known as -the “Pittsburgh bed.” It is included in an area -about fifty miles square, and varies in thickness -from two or three feet in the northwestern part, -and six feet at Pittsburgh, to ten feet up the Monongahela -River, and twelve feet up the Youghiogeny. -The exhaustion of so vast a coal bed is a -practical impossibility, and the questions that engage -the attention of the mining engineer in these -regions are not so much questions of the economy -of coal as they are questions of the economy of -labor. The coal lies near the surface, and the -outcrops on the flanks of the hills and banks of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -rivers are so numerous that most of the mining -can be, and is, done by drift above water level. -The outlay of capital required in opening a mine -is therefore very small, marketable coal being -obtained at almost the first blow of the pick.</p> - -<p>Before mining operations are begun a complete -survey is made of all outcroppings, and their differences -in level are obtained. From this data a -comparatively accurate knowledge may be had of -the position of the coal bed under ground, as the -dip of the seams is very moderate and uniform, -and but few faults and other irregularities are encountered. -It is then decided where to locate the -mouth of the drift so that the entry can be driven -in on the rise of the coal and the mine become -self-draining. It is important, however, to have -the opening at a convenient point near the river -or railroad, and it is usually so made if possible, -even though the dip should be away from the -opening. The inclination is always so slight as -not to interfere greatly with the hauling of cars, -and it is not much of a task to make a separate -opening for drainage. The coal seam is divided -by vertical cleavage planes, running at right -angles to each other, one of which is known as the -<em>butt</em> cleavage and the other as the <em>face</em> cleavage. -The main entries are driven in, if possible, on -the face cleavage, as are also the chambers, or -“rooms” as they are called here; while the entries -from which the rooms are turned are always driven<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -on the butt cleavage. The drift, or main entry, -has an airway running parallel with it; sometimes -it has one on each side of it. It is driven -eight or nine feet in width, except where two -tracks are necessary, in which case it is made from -twelve to fifteen feet wide. These double or treble -entries are parallel to each other, and are separated -by a wall of coal from twenty-five to forty -feet in width. Through this wall, at about every -thirty yards, entrances, or, as they are called here, -“break-throughs,” are made, having the same -width as the entry. The height of roof in the -entries of the Pittsburgh seam is usually five -and one half or six feet in the clear. At right -angles to the main entry butt entries are driven -in pairs, parallel to each other and about thirty or -forty feet apart, with break-throughs or cross-cuts -for the passage of air, as on the main entries. -From each of these butt entries, at right angles to -them, and in opposite directions, the rooms are -driven. They are made about twenty-one feet -wide, with pillars between them twelve feet thick, -and are not often more than eighty yards in -length. They are usually driven to meet the faces -of the rooms which are being worked from the -next parallel butt entry, or are extended to that -butt entry itself. At the point where the room -turns off from the butt entry it is made only seven -feet wide for a distance of from fifteen to twenty-one -feet, then the room is widened out to its full<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -width of twenty-one feet. The track on which -the mine wagon runs is laid straight up the side -of the room from the opening at the entry, occupying -a clear space about seven feet wide. The -rest of the room is well filled with the refuse -which has been separated from the coal as mining -has progressed, and the roof is supported by an -abundance of props, or “posts” as they are here -called. In one room, with an ordinary roof, about -six hundred and fifteen posts would be necessary. -The pillars are long, the distances between break-throughs -averaging thirty yards. This is known -as the “double entry” system, to distinguish it -from the single entry system which was formerly -in general use. The method by single entry consisted -in driving the butt entries singly, about one -hundred and sixty yards apart, and the face entries -the same distance apart, at right angles to the butt -entries, thus laying off the mine in large square -blocks which were then mined out. The difficulty -with this system was that from twenty-five to fifty -per cent. of the pillars were necessarily lost, while -by the double entry system, which now prevails, -all or nearly all the pillars can be taken out.</p> - -<p>Of course the features in the plan of each mine -vary according to the special necessities of that -mine, but in general they do not differ greatly -from those that have been described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp196"> - <img src="images/i_fp196.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">PLAN OF A BITUMINOUS COAL MINE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The method of cutting coal here is also peculiar -to the soft coal mines. The miner has a pick with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -sharp, pointed ends, and with this he cuts a horizontal -groove or channel, from two and a half to -three and a half feet deep across the entire width -of the entry or room. This groove is cut in that -horizontal section of the face known as the bearing-in -section. It may be in the bottom layer of coal, -or it may be one or two feet above the bottom. -The process itself is known as “bearing in,” -“under cutting,” “holing,” or “undermining.” -While he is at this work the miner must lie on the -floor of the room, partly on his side, but with -hands and arms free. When the horizontal groove -has been completed a vertical groove similar to it -in size and shape is made at one side of the face. -These channels are sometimes cut with mining -machines having compressed air for a motive -power. This machine is small but powerful. It is -placed on a low inclined platform at the face of -coal, and is operated by a man called a “runner.” -The inclination of the platform causes the machine, -which is on wheels, to gravitate constantly toward, -and to press against, the face of coal. The compressed -air cylinder drives a piston-rod to which is -attached a steel bit two inches in diameter projecting -from the front of the machine. This bit -strikes the coal with sharp, swift blows, chipping -it out in small fragments, and eats its way rapidly -into the seam. The compressed air is carried to -the machine in an iron pipe from the compressing -engine, which is located at the mouth of the mine.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -When a machine is used, seven men usually work -three rooms. Three of these men are contractors -or partners, three of them are laborers employed -by the contractors, and one of them, called the -“scraper,” is a laborer employed by the coal company. -When the channel has been cut a sufficient -depth and distance the coal above it is brought -down either by wedging or blasting. If blasting -is to be resorted to it will be unnecessary to cut -the vertical groove. If the bearing-in channel -was cut above the floor, the bottom coal is then -lifted by wedging, and broken up. The miners do -the cutting and blasting, the laborers break up -the coal and load it into the mine wagons, and the -scraper is kept busy cleaning the cuttings away -from the channels and attending to the lamps.</p> - -<p>The mine car track that is extended up into the -room is of wooden rails, and the empty wagon is -pushed in to the face by the laborers, and loaded -and run out by them to the entry. Each wagon -will hold a little more than a ton, and a mule will -draw four wagons to the mouth of the drift. The -wheels of the mine car are set close to each other, -near the middle of the car, to facilitate its movement -around sharp curves; the doors at the ends -of the car are swung from a bar hinge at the top, -and the cars are dumped in the same manner as -those in the anthracite region. In some of the -bituminous mines a small locomotive is used to -draw the trains of mine wagons from the working<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -parts of the mine to the opening. It will draw -from twelve to sixteen wagons at a time, and will -do the work of twenty mules. There is usually a -separate split of the air current to supply the locomotive -road in order to keep the smoke out of the -working rooms.</p> - -<p>When a set of rooms has been driven to its -limit the miners then “draw back the rib;” that -is, take out the pillars between the rooms, beginning -at the face and working back. Posts must -be used freely to support the roof while this work -is in progress, about sixty or seventy being necessary -in drawing a rib.</p> - -<p>Ventilation here is obtained by both the fan -and the furnace systems. In mines that are -worked below water level fire damp often accumulates, -but where the coal does not descend at -any point below the water-level line, there is no -probability that mine gases will be found.</p> - -<p>As has already been said, the usual method of -entry into the bituminous mines has been, and -still is, by drift. But as the working faces of the -mines recede farther and farther from the general -lines of outcrop, it often becomes necessary to resort -to the method of entry by shaft, and this latter -method will doubtless in time supersede the -former almost entirely. The main shaft, as it is -now constructed, is usually about twenty feet long -by nine feet wide, and has three compartments, -two for hoisting and one for ventilation and pumping.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -It rarely exceeds two hundred feet in depth. -The hoisting apparatus is much like that in use in -the anthracite districts. Air shafts from fifty to -one hundred feet deep, sunk for purposes of ventilation -and drainage, are frequent, and stair shafts -in which are fixed ladders for the purpose of -ascent and descent, and which may be used as air -shafts also, are not uncommon. Slopes, like those -in the anthracite regions, are not usual here; the -coal seams do not dip sufficiently to make them -practicable. Narrow rock slopes are sometimes -driven diagonally through the strata, at an inclination -of twenty degrees or less, to strike the coal -bed, but they are used only as air ways, as traveling -ways for men and mules, and to serve as the -“second opening” required by the mine law.</p> - -<p>In the bituminous regions coal breakers are -unnecessary and are unknown. As the vertical -planes of cleavage of the coal are at right angles -to each other, and as the stratification is nearly -horizontal, the coal when broken takes a cubical -form, large blocks of it being made up of smaller -cubes, and these of still smaller, to an almost microscopic -limit. All slate is separated from the -coal as it is mined, and the refuse is piled up in -the room.</p> - -<p>The mine wagon is loaded only with good coal, -and is taken directly from the mine to a building -which, with its appliances, is called a “tipple.” It -is here dumped into a screen, it runs from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -screen into a car or boat, and is then ready to be -hauled or floated to market.</p> - -<p>If the opening of the mine is practically on the -same level as the tipple the arrangements are very -simple, as no extra motive power is required to -get the cars to the dumping place. It is usual, -however, to find the opening at a higher point -than the tipple, since the latter must always be at -the railroad track or on the bank of a river. It -becomes necessary, therefore, in this case, to raise -and lower the cars between the opening of the -mine and the tipple. This is usually done by the -inclined plane system, in which the loaded cars -descending draw the light ones up. The same -system is much used in the anthracite mines, and -has already been explained.</p> - -<p>The railroad tipple consists simply of a frame -building from forty to sixty feet long, fifteen feet -high, and from eighteen to thirty feet wide. This -structure is set upon four or five plain timber -bents, and its floor is usually twenty-seven feet -higher than the top of the track rails which run -beneath the outer end of it. A platform on this -floor is so adjusted by a single shaft that, when a -loaded car is pushed on it, it tips forward to an -angle of about thirty degrees. The end gate of -the wagon is then opened and the coal runs out on -to the screen. This screen is simply a set of longitudinal -iron bars inclined outwardly at distances -apart of one and one half inches. All coal that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -passes over these bars is called “lump coal” and -is run into a sheet-iron pan suspended from the -scales platform, where it is weighed, and it is then -dropped directly into a car standing on the track -below it. The coal which passed through the first -set of bars has, in the mean time, fallen on to a -second screen with bars only three quarters of an -inch apart. The coal that passes over these bars -is called nut coal, and is also weighed and dropped -into the cars, while the coal that passes through -the bars is called “slack.” This is dropped into -a shute, is carried by it into a car on the slack -track, and is run thence to the dumping ground. -When all three kinds of coal are loaded together -it is called “run of mine,” while lump and nut -coal together make “three quarter coal.” These -tipples may, of course, be built with two sets of -screens and platforms, and thus be made to do -double work, and some of them are so built. -Under the projecting end of the tipple there are -usually four tracks; the first or outside one for -box-cars, the next for lump-coal cars, the next for -nut-coal cars, and the last for cars for slack. -Four men operate a single railroad tipple; two -dump and weigh the coal above, while the others -trim and move the railroad cars on the track -below. To this number a helper is often added, -both above and below. Besides these men a boy -is usually employed to rake the nut coal from the -lower screening bars where it sticks and prevents<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -the slack from passing through. Sometimes it -takes two boys to do this work properly. Boys -are also employed to push the slack with a scraper -down the shutes into the car on the slack track -when the elevation of the tipple above the rails is -not sufficient to afford the necessary grade. Bars -are being largely superseded now by revolving -screens for separating slack from nut coal; they -do the work far better, and make the employment -of a raking boy unnecessary.</p> - -<p>The river tipple is operated in much the same -way as the railroad tipple, except that its apparatus -must be so arranged as to accommodate itself -to high or low water. The floor of the river -tipple is usually placed from forty to fifty feet -above low-water mark, and the weighing pan is -held in position by a counter-weight, which may -be raised or lowered at pleasure. A small stationary -engine, or a hand windlass, draws the -empty boat or barge into position under that end -of the tipple which projects over the water. -About twice as many men are required to operate -a river tipple as are necessary to operate a railroad -tipple, and while the railroad tipple costs -but from two thousand to four thousand dollars -the river tipple is built at an expense of from four -thousand to ten thousand dollars. But even this -latter figure is small when compared with the cost -of an anthracite breaker, which may run anywhere -from twenty thousand to one hundred thousand -dollars.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<small>THE BOY WORKERS AT THE MINES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the coal mines of the United States boys are -employed at two kinds of labor: to attend the -doors on the traveling roads, and to drive the -mules. This is known as inside work. Their outside -work consists in picking slate at the breaker, -and in driving the mules that draw mine cars on -the surface. No one of these different kinds of -employment is such as to overtax the physical -strength of boys of a proper age, but they are all -confining, some are dangerous, and some are laborious. -Yet the system of child labor in the coal -mines of America has never been comparable to -that which was formerly in vogue in Great -Britain. The British “Coal Mines Regulation -Act” of 1872 remedied the then existing evils to -a considerable extent; but the hardships still to -be endured by children in the British mines are -greater than those which their American brothers -must suffer. The act of 1872, just referred to, -provides that boys under ten years of age shall not -be employed under ground, and that boys between -ten and twelve years of age shall be allowed to -work only in thin mines. It is the duty of these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -children to push the cars, or trams as they are -called, from the working faces to the main road -and back. Boys who are thus employed are called -“hurriers” or “putters.” They are often obliged -to crawl on their hands and knees, pushing the car -ahead of them, because the roof of the excavation -is so low. That is why boys who are so young are -allowed to work here; because, being small, they -can the more readily crawl through the passages -cut in these thin seams, which often do not have a -vertical measurement of more than from twenty to -twenty-eight inches. The act of 1872 forbids the -employment of females in the British mines; but -formerly not only boys but girls and women also -worked underground. There was then no restriction -as to age, and girls were sent into the mines -to labor at an earlier age than were boys, because -they were credited with being smarter and more -obedient. It was common to find children of -both sexes not more than six years old working -underground; and girls of five years were employed -at the same tasks as boys of six or eight. -They took the coal from the working faces in the -thin mines to the foot of the pit. Sometimes they -carried it, sometimes they drew it in little carts. -The older children and young women had a sort -of sledge, called a “corve,” on which they dragged -the coal, but sometimes they preferred to carry it -in baskets on their backs. They were called -“pannier women.” The girls tucked their hair up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> -under their caps, dressed like their brothers, and -in the darkness of the mine could scarcely be distinguished -from boys. And the girls and boys -not only dressed alike, but worked alike, lived -alike, and were treated alike at their tasks, and -that treatment was rough and harsh at the very -best. As the girls grew they were given harder -work to do. On one occasion Mr. William -Hunter, the mine foreman at Ormiston Colliery -said that in the mines women always did the lifting -or heavy part of the work, and that neither -they nor the children were treated like human -beings. “Females,” he said, “submit to work in -places in which no man nor lad could be got to -labor. They work on bad roads, up to their knees -in water, and bent nearly double. The consequence -of this is that they are attacked with disease, -drag out a miserable existence, or are -brought prematurely to the grave.” Says Robert -Bold, the eminent miner: “In surveying the -workings of an extensive colliery underground a -married woman came forward, groaning under an -excessive weight of coals, trembling in every nerve, -and almost unable to keep her knees from sinking -under her. On coming up she said in a plaintive, -melancholy voice: ‘Oh, sir! this is sore, sore, -sore work. I would to God that the first woman -who tried to bear coals had broken her back and -none ever tried it again.’”</p> - -<p>One cannot read of such things as these, of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -slavery that condemned even the babes to a life -of wretched toil in the blackness of the mines, and -then wonder that the great heart of Mrs. Browning -should have been wrenched by the contemplation -of such sorrow until she gave voice to her -feeling in that most pathetic and wonderful of -all her poems, “The Cry of the Children.”</p> - -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers!</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Ere the sorrow comes with years?</div> - <div class="verse indent1">They are leaning their young heads against their mothers,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And <em>that</em> cannot stop their tears.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">The young lambs are bleating in the meadows,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">The young birds are chirping in their nest,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">The young fawns are playing with the shadows,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">The young flowers are blooming toward the west.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">But the young, young children, O my brothers!</div> - <div class="verse indent3">They are weeping bitterly;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">They are weeping in the playtime of the others,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">In the country of the free.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“‘For, oh!’ say the children, ‘we are weary,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And we cannot run or leap;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">If we cared for any meadows, it were merely</div> - <div class="verse indent3">To drop down in them and sleep.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">We fall upon our faces trying to go,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">The reddest flower would look as pale as snow.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">For all day we drag our burden tiring,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Through the coal dark underground,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Or all day we drive the wheels of iron</div> - <div class="verse indent3">In the factories round and round.’</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“‘How long,’ they say, ‘how long, O cruel nation!</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Will you stand to move the world on a child’s heart,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Stifle down, with a mailed heel, its palpitation,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And tread onward to your throne amid the mart?</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span> - <div class="verse indent1">Our blood splashes upward, O gold heaper!</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And your purple shows your path;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">But the child’s sob in the silence curses deeper</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Than the strong man in his wrath.’”</div> - </div> -</div> - -<p>In the United States neither girls nor women -have ever been employed in or about the mines. -The legislative prohibition of such employment, -enacted in Pennsylvania in 1885, was therefore -unnecessary but not inappropriate.</p> - -<p>The general mine law of Pennsylvania of 1870, -which was the first to limit the employment of boys -in the mines according to their age, fixed twelve -years as the age under which a boy might not -work underground; but maintained silence as to -the age at which he might work at a colliery outside. -This provision was amended and enlarged -by the act of 1885, which prohibited the employment -of boys under fourteen years of age inside -the mines, and of boys under twelve years of age -in or about the outside structures or workings of a -colliery.</p> - -<p>The duties of a driver boy are more laborious -than those of a door-tender, but less monotonous -and tiresome than those of a slate picker or breaker-boy. -When the mules are kept in the mines night -and day, as they frequently are in deep workings, -the driver must go down the shaft before seven -o’clock, get his mule from the mine stable, bring -him to the foot of the shaft, and hitch him to a -trip of empty cars. He usually takes in to the -working faces four empty cars and brings out four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -loaded ones. When he is ready to start in with -his trip, he climbs into the forward car, cracks his -whip about the beast’s head, and goes off shouting. -His whip is a long, braided leather lash, attached -to a short stout stick for a handle. He may have -a journey of a mile or more before reaching the -foot of the first chamber he is to supply; but -when he comes to it he unfastens the first car from -the others and drives the mule up the chamber -with it, leaving it at a convenient distance from -the face. He continues this process at each of -the chambers in succession, until his supply of -empty cars is exhausted. At the foot of the last -chamber which he visits he finds a loaded car to -which he attaches his mule, and picking up other -loaded cars on his way back, he makes up his -return trip, and is soon on the long, unbroken -journey to the shaft. There are sidings at intervals -along the heading, where trips going in the -opposite direction are met and passed, and where -there is opportunity to stop for a moment and -talk with or chaff some other driver boy. If -there be a plane on the main road, either ascending -or descending from the first level, two sets of -driver boys and mules are necessary, one set to -draw cars between the breasts and the plane, and -the other set to draw them between the plane and -the shaft. Of course, in steep pitching seams, all -cars are left at the foot of the chamber and are -loaded there. There are two dangers to which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> -driver boys are chiefly subjected; one is that of -being crushed between cars, or between cars and -pillars or props, and the other is that of being -kicked or bitten by vicious mules. The boy must -not only learn to drive, but he must learn to govern -his beast and keep out of harm’s way. He is -generally sufficiently skillful and agile to do this, -but it is not unusual to read of severe injuries to -boys, given by kicking, bucking, or biting mules.</p> - -<p>If the mine in which the boy works is entered -by drift or tunnel, his duties lie partly outside of -it, since he must bring every trip of cars not only -to the mouth of the opening but to the breaker or -other dumping place, which may be located at a -considerable distance from the entrance to the -mine. So that for a greater or less number of -times each day he has from ten minutes to half -an hour in the open air. In the summer time, -when the weather is pleasant, this occasional -glimpse of out-of-doors is very gratifying to him. -He likes to be in the sunlight, to look out over -the woods and fields, to feel the fresh wind blowing -in his face, and to breathe an unpolluted -atmosphere. But in the winter time, when it is -cold, when the storms are raging, when the snow -and sleet are whirled savagely into his face, then -the outside portion of his trip is not pleasant. In -the mine he finds a uniform temperature of about -sixty degrees Fahrenheit. To go from this, within -ten minutes, without additional clothing, into an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -atmosphere in which the mercury stands at zero, -and where the wind is blowing a hurricane, is -necessarily to suffer. It cannot be otherwise. -So there is no lagging outside on winter days; the -driver boy delivers his loads, gets his empty cars, -and hastens back to the friendly shelter of the -mine. At such openings as these the mine stable -is outside, and the boy must go there in the morning -to get his mule, and must leave him there -when he quits work at night. Sometimes, when -the mining is done by shaft or slope, there is a -separate entrance for men and mules, a narrow -tunnel or slope, not too steep, and in this case, -though his duties lie entirely in the mine, the driver -boy must take the mule in from the outside stable -in the morning and bring him back at night.</p> - -<p>One afternoon I chanced to be in a certain -mine in the Wyoming district, in company with -the fire boss. We were standing in a passage -that led to one of these mule ways. In the distance -we heard a clattering of hoofs, growing -louder as it came nearer, and, as we stepped aside, -a mule went dashing by with a boy lying close on -his back, the flame from the little lamp in the -boy’s cap just a tiny backward streak of blue that -gave no light. They had appeared from the intense -darkness and had disappeared into it again -almost while one could draw a breath. I looked -at the fire boss inquiringly.</p> - -<p>“Oh! that’s all right,” he said, “they’ve got<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> -through work and they’re going out, and the mule -is in just as much of a hurry as the boy is.”</p> - -<p>“But the danger,” I suggested, “of racing at -such speed through narrow, winding passages, in -almost total darkness!”</p> - -<p>“Oh!” he replied, “that beast knows the way -out just as well as I do, and he can find it as easy -as if he could see every inch of it, and I don’t -know but what he can. Anyway the boy ain’t -afraid if the mule ain’t.”</p> - -<p>In deep mines, as has already been said, it is -customary to build stables not far from the foot -of the shaft, and to keep the mules there except -when for any reason there is a long suspension -of work. At many mines, however, the greater -convenience of having the stables on the surface -induces the operators to have the mules hoisted -from the shaft every night and taken down every -morning. They step on the carriage very demurely, -and ascend or descend without making -trouble. They are especially glad to go up to -their stables at night. Where mules are fed in -the mine, and especially in those mines that have -stables in them, rats are usually found. How -they get down a shaft is a mystery. The common -explanation is that they go with the hay. But -they take up their quarters in the mine, live, -thrive, increase rapidly, and grow to an enormous -size. They are much like the wharf rats that infest -the wharves of great cities, both in size and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -ugliness. They are very bold and aggressive, and -when attacked will turn on their enemy, whether -man or beast, and fight to the death. There is a -superstition among miners to the effect that when -the rats leave a mine some great disaster is about -to take place in it; probably an extensive fall. -Rats are hardly to be credited, however, with an -instinct that would lead them to forecast such an -event with more certainty than human experience -and skill can do.</p> - -<p>But it is not improbable that the driver boy and -his mule will be superseded, at no distant day, by -electricity. In one instance at least this new -motive power has already been put into use. This -is at the Lykens Valley Colliery of the Lykens -Valley Coal Company, in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>The duty of an outside driver boy is to take the -loaded cars from the head of the shaft or slope to -the breaker, and to bring the empty ones back; -his work being all done in the open air. Of late -this service, especially where the distance is considerable, -is performed by a small locomotive, -which draws trains of as many cars as can well be -held together. The wages paid to inside driver -boys by the Pennsylvania Coal Company in 1888 -were from one dollar to one dollar and ten cents a -day, and to outside driver boys eighty-eight cents -a day.</p> - -<p>The door boys are usually younger and smaller<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -than the driver boys, and though their duty is not -so laborious as that of the latter class, it is far -more monotonous and tiresome. The door boy -must be at his post when the first trip goes in -in the morning, and must remain there till the -last one comes out at night. He is alone all day, -save when other boys and men pass back and -forth through his door, and he has but little opportunity -for companionship. He fashions for himself -a rude bench to sit on; sometimes he has a -rope or other contrivance attached to his door by -which he can open it without rising; but usually -he is glad to move about a little to break the -monotony of his task. There is little he can do -to entertain himself, except perhaps to whittle. -He seldom tries to read; indeed, the light given -forth by a miner’s lamp is too feeble to read by. -In rare cases the door boy extinguishes his light, -on the score of economy, and sits in darkness, performing -his duties by the light of the lamps of -those who pass. But there are few who can endure -this. It is hard enough to bear the oppressive -silence that settles down on the neighborhood -when no cars are passing; if darkness be added -to this the strain becomes too great, the effect too -depressing, a child cannot bear it. The wages of -the door boy are about sixty-five cents per day.</p> - -<p>Although the duties of the breaker boy or slate -picker are more laborious and more monotonous -than those of either driver boy or door tender, he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -does not receive so high a rate of wages as either -of them. His daily compensation is only from -fifty to sixty-five cents, and he works ten hours a -day. At seven o’clock in the morning he must -have climbed the dark and dusty stairway to the -screen room, and taken his place on the little -bench across the long shute. The whistle screams, -the ponderous machinery is set in motion, the iron-teethed -rollers begin to revolve heavily, crunching -the big lumps of coal as they turn, the deafening -noise breaks forth, and then the black, shallow -streams of broken coal start on their journey down -the iron-sheathed shutes, to be screened and -cleaned, and picked and loaded.</p> - -<p>At first glance it would not seem to be a difficult -task to pick slate, but there are several things -to be taken into consideration before a judgment -can properly be made up in the matter. To begin -with, the work is confining and monotonous. The -boy must sit on his bench all day, bending over -constantly to look down at the coal that is passing -beneath him. His tender hands must become -toughened by long and harsh contact with sharp -pieces of slate and coal, and after many cuts and -bruises have left marks and scars on them for a -lifetime. He must breathe an atmosphere thick -with the dust of coal, so thick that one can barely -see across the screen room when the boys are sitting -at their tasks. It is no wonder that a person -long subjected to the irritating presence of this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -dust in his bronchial tubes and on his lungs is -liable to suffer from the disease known as “miner’s -consumption.” In the hot days of summer the -screen-room is a stifling place. The sun pours its -rays upon the broad, sloping roof of the breaker, -just overhead; the dust-laden atmosphere is never -cleared or freshened by so much as a breath of -pure sweet air, and the very thought of green fields -and blossoming flowers and the swaying branches -of trees renders the task here to be performed -more burdensome. Yet even this is not so bad as -it is to work here in the cold days of winter. It -is almost impossible to heat satisfactorily by any -ordinary method so rambling a structure as a -breaker necessarily is, and it is quite impossible to -divide the portion devoted to screening and picking -into closed rooms. The screen-rooms are, -therefore, always cold. Stoves are often set up in -them, but they radiate heat through only a limited -space, and cannot be said to make the room warm. -Notwithstanding the presence of stoves, the boys -on the benches shiver at their tasks, and pick slate -with numb fingers, and suffer from the extreme -cold through many a winter day. But science -and the progress of ideas are coming to their aid. -In some breakers, recently erected, steam-heating -pipes have been introduced into the screen-rooms -with great success; the warmth and comfort given -by them to the little workers is beyond measurement. -Fans have been put into the breakers, also,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -to collect and carry away the dust and keep the air -of the picking-room clean and fresh, and electric -lamps have been swung from the beams to be -lighted in the early mornings and late afternoons, -that the young toilers may see to do their work. -Indeed, such improvements as these pass beyond -the domain of science and progress into that of -humanitarianism.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_fp216"> - <img src="images/i_fp216.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">SLATE PICKERS AT WORK.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>When night comes no laborer is more rejoiced -at leaving his task than is the breaker boy. One -can see his eyes shine and his white teeth gleam -as he starts out into the open air, while all else, -hands, face, clothing, are thickly covered with coal -dust, are black and unrecognizable. But he is -happy because his day’s work is done and he is -free, for a few hours at least, from the tyranny of -the “cracker boss.” For, in the estimation of the -picker boys, the cracker boss is indeed the most -tyrannical of masters. How else could they regard -a man whose sole duty it is to be constantly -in their midst, to keep them at their tasks, to urge -them to greater zeal and care, to repress all boyish -freaks, to rule over them almost literally with -a rod of iron? But, alas! the best commentary -on the severity of his government is that it is -necessary.</p> - -<p>As has already been said, the day is evidently -not far distant when the work which the -breaker boy now does will be performed almost -wholly by machinery. And this will be not alone<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> -because the machine does its work better, more -surely, more economically, than the breaker boy -has done his, but it will be also because the requisite -number of boys for breaker work will not be -obtainable. Even now it is more than difficult to -keep the ranks of the slate pickers full. Parents -in the coal regions of to-day have too much regard -for the health, the comfort, the future welfare of -their children, to send them generally to such -grinding tasks as these. This is one of the signs -of that advancing civilization which has already -lifted girls and women from this, for them, exhausting -and degrading labor at the collieries; -which is lessening, one by one, the hardships of -the boys who still toil there; which, it is fondly -hoped, will in the course of time give to all children -the quiet of the school-room, the freedom of -the play-ground, and the task that love sets, in -place of that irksome toil that stunts the body and -dwarfs the soul. It is now mainly from the homes -of the very poor that the child-workers at the -collieries are recruited, and the scant wages that -they earn may serve to keep bread in the mouths -of the younger children of their households and -clothing on their own backs.</p> - -<p>Accidents to boys employed at the mines are of -frequent occurrence. Scarcely a day passes but -the tender flesh of some poor little fellow is cut or -bruised, or his bones, twisted and broken. It is -only the more serious of these accidents that reach<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -the notice of the mine inspector and are returned -in his annual report. Yet, to the humanitarian -and the lover of children, these annual returns -tell a sad story. The mine inspector’s reports for -1887 show that in the anthracite region alone during -that year eighteen boys fifteen years of age -and under were killed while fulfilling the duties -of their employment in and about the coal mines, -and that seventy-three others were seriously injured, -many of them doubtless maimed for life. -These figures tell their own story of sorrow and of -suffering.</p> - -<p>Yet with all their hardships it cannot be said -that the boys who work in the collieries are wholly -unhappy. It is difficult, indeed, to so limit, confine, -and gird down a boy that he will not snatch -some enjoyment from his life; and these boys seek -to get much.</p> - -<p>One who has been long accustomed to them can -generally tell the nature of their several occupations -by the way in which they try to amuse themselves. -The driver boys are inclined to be rude -and boisterous in their fun, free and impertinent -in their manner, and chafe greatly under restraint. -The slate pickers, confined all day at their tasks, -with no opportunity for sport of any kind, are -inclined to bubble over when night and freedom -come, but, as a rule, they are too tired to display -more than a passing effort at jocularity. Door -boys are quiet and contemplative. Sitting so long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> -alone in the darkness they become thoughtful, -sober, sometimes melancholy. They go silently -to their homes when they leave the mine; they do -not stop to play tricks or to joke with their fellows; -they do not run, nor sing, nor whistle. -Darkness and silence are always depressing, and -so much of it in these young lives cannot help -but sadden without sweetening them. We shall -never see, in America, those horrors of child -slavery that drew so passionate a protest from -the great-hearted Mrs. Browning, but certainly, -looking at the progress already made, it is not too -much to hope for that the day will come when no -child’s hand shall ever again be soiled by the -labor of the mine.</p> - -<p>It will be a fitting close to this chapter, and -will be an act of justice to the memory of a brave -and heroic boy, to relate the story of Martin -Crahan’s sacrifice at the time of the disaster at the -West Pittston shaft. Martin was a driver boy, of -humble parentage, poor and unlearned. He was -in the mine when the fire in the breaker broke -out, and he ran, with others, to the foot of the -shaft. But just as he was about to step on the -carriage that would have taken him in safety to -the surface he bethought him of the men on the -other side of the shaft, who might not have heard -of the fire, and his brave heart prompted him to -go to them with the alarm. He asked another -boy to go with him, but that boy refused. He did<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -not stop to parley; he started at once alone. But -while he ran through the dark passage on his -errand of mercy, the carriage went speeding, for -the last time, up the burning shaft. He gave the -alarm and returned, in breathless haste, with -those whom he had sought; but it was too late, -the cage had already fallen. When the party was -driven away from the foot of the shaft by the -smoke and the gas, he, in some unexplained way, -became separated from the rest, and wandered off -alone. The next day a rescuing party found him -in the mine-stable, dead. He lay there beside the -body of his mule. Deprived of the presence of -human beings in the hours of that dreadful night, -he had sought the company of the beast that had -long been his companion in daily labor—and they -died together.</p> - -<p>But he had thought of those who were dear to -him, for on a rough board near by he had written -with chalk the name of his father and of his -mother, and of a little cousin who had been named -for him. He was only twelve years old when he -died, but the title of hero was never more fairly -earned than it was by him.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<small>MINERS AND THEIR WAGES.</small></h2> -</div> - - -<p>A good miner may be called a “skilled workman,” -and, as such, he is entitled to greater compensation -for his labor than an ordinary workman. -He expects it and gets it. There are two principal -systems by which payments are made to miners. -The first is according to the number of cubic -yards of coal cut, and the second is according to -the number of tons of coal mined and sent out. -The first, which is prevalent in the regions of -steep-pitching seams, is followed because the coal -may remain in the chamber for an indefinite time -after being cut. The second, which in the Wyoming -region is almost universal, is somewhat more -complicated. A chamber is taken by two miners, -but the account on the books of the coal company -is usually kept in the name of only one of them, -who is held to be the responsible member of the -firm. For instance, “Patrick Collins & Co.” -work a chamber in Law Shaft, and the firm is so -designated. The first thing they do is to adopt -some distinctive mark which may be chalked on -the sides of their loaded cars to distinguish them -from the loaded cars from other chambers. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> -letters of the alphabet are frequently used by miners, -but, in default of these, some simple design -that cannot readily be mistaken for any other is -put into service. The triangle ∆ is a very common -symbol with them, so is the long, horizontal -line, crossed by short vertical ones, thus: -—|—|——|—. The miners call this a candle. -When a car has been loaded the symbol is chalked -on the side of it, together with a number which -tells how many cars have been sent from the -chamber during the day. For instance, when a -mine car appears at the surface marked “∆ 5” it -means that the car is from a certain chamber designated -by that symbol, and that this is the fifth -car which has been sent from that chamber during -the day. On its way from the head of the breaker -to the dumping cradle, the loaded car passes over -the platform of the weighing scales and registers -its weight on the scale beam. This weight is -quickly read by the weigh-master, is transferred -to his book, and goes to make up the daily report. -In some districts a system in which tickets -are used instead of chalk marks is in vogue, and -in other districts duplicate checks are employed, -but everywhere the general features remain the -same.</p> - -<p>In order to get a chamber from any of the large -mining corporations, a miner must apply in person -to the mining superintendent. He must come -well recommended, or he must be known as a skillful,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -industrious, and temperate workman. The -responsibility of driving a chamber properly is not -a small one, and mining companies choose to take -as little risk as possible in the selection of their -men. Having accepted an applicant for a chamber, -the company makes a contract with him, -usually a verbal one, to pay him at a certain rate -per ton or yard for the coal mined by him. The -rate, though not wholly uniform, on account of the -greater or less difficulty of cutting coal at the different -collieries, is practically the same throughout -an entire district.</p> - -<p>A miner working at full time and in a good -seam will send out enough coal each month to -amount, at the contract price, to $150. But his -expenses for laborers’ wages, powder, oil, fuse, etc., -will amount to $75 per month, leaving him a net -income of $75 per month. The laborer is also -paid according to the number of tons of coal sent -out, and his wages will probably average $2 per -day. It is not often in these days of thin seams -that these rates of income are exceeded. And -when the mines are in operation only a portion of -the time, as is now often the case, these figures -are seriously reduced.</p> - -<p>The subject of wages frequently has been under -discussion between miners and operators, and the -differences of opinion on it have been prolific of -many strikes. By some corporations and at some -collieries a sliding scale has been adopted. That<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> -is, the miner has been paid, not at a fixed rate, -but at a rate which constantly adjusts itself to -the market price of coal. The objection to this -method is said to be that the great companies who -practically control the anthracite coal business -form syndicates, fix the market price of their coal -for a certain period of time, and then limit the -output of each member of the syndicate to a certain -number of tons during that period.</p> - -<p>It is certain that no scheme of payment has yet -been devised which is perfectly satisfactory to the -great body of workers in the mines. But it is -true also that employer and employee are working -together more harmoniously now than they have -worked at any time in the past, and that long and -stubborn strikes of miners are growing, year by -year, less frequent. It is to be hoped that the -time will come when even the strike will not be -considered necessary as a weapon of defense for -the workman. As a rule strikes result in loss, and -in loss only, to both capital and labor; and, as a -rule also, labor suffers from them more than does -capital, and this is the saddest feature of the case. -Hon. Carroll D. Wright, the National Commissioner -of Labor, has compiled the statistics of miners’ -strikes in Pennsylvania for the years 1881 to -1886 inclusive. His tables show that of 880 such -strikes, which was the total number that occurred -during the period named, 186 succeeded, 52 partly -succeeded, and 642 failed. The loss to employers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -resulting from these strikes was $1,549,219; the -loss to employees was $5,850,382; and the assistance -given to the strikers during the periods of -suspension amounted to $101,053. These figures -form the best commentary to be had on the subject -of strikes; they are eloquent with tales of -hardship, of suffering, and of despair.</p> - -<p>In those regions which have had long immunity -from strikes, and in which work at full time -has been the rule, the mine-workers are not only -comfortable, but frequently are prosperous. They -rarely occupy rooms in the cheap tenement houses -of the towns, even if such occupancy would be to -their convenience. They prefer to live in the outlying -districts, where they can have homes of their -own and gardens that they may cultivate. In the -colliery villages the lots are usually laid out and -sold or rented by the mining company to its workmen. -Rent is not high, and, in case of sale, a -long term contract is given, so that payments are -in easy installments. The miner prefers to own -his house and lot. Such ownership has a tendency -to impress any man with the importance and -responsibility of his duty as a citizen, and the -miner is no exception to the rule. He is apt to -waste neither his time nor his money when he has -property and a family to care for. He tries, too, -to lay by something for a rainy day; he knows that -the probabilities are that either he or his family -will eventually need it. As his hours of labor are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> -comparatively short he has considerable leisure -which he may spend profitably or foolishly as he -will. Many of the men spend this leisure working -in their gardens or about their premises. It is -seldom that any of them go so far as to have regular -extra employment to occupy their time while -out of the mines. Indeed the prevailing tendency -among miners is to do as little work as possible -outside of the mines. The opinion seems to be -prevalent among them that when a miner has cut -his coal he has done his full duty for the day, and -is entitled then to rest and recreation. He does -not take kindly to other kinds of work. He rarely -deserts his occupation of mining to take up any -other calling, and it may be said that after he has -passed middle age he never does. There is a fascination -to the old miner about the dark chambers, -the black walls, the tap of the drill, the -crash of falling coal, the smell of powder smoke -in the air, a fascination that is irresistible. He -would almost rather die in the familiar gloom of -the mine than live and toil in the sunlight on the -surface. Years of walking under the low mine -roofs have bent his back, have thrown his head -and shoulders forward, have given him that long -swinging stride characteristic of old miners. His -face is always pale; this is due, no doubt, to the -absence of sunlight in his working place; but, -as a rule, his general health is good; except when -he has worked for a long time in dry and dusty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> -mines. In that case he is apt to find himself, -sooner or later, a victim to the disease known as -“miner’s consumption.” The miner’s appearance, -as he passes along the street or road on his way -home from his work, is, to eyes unaccustomed to -the sight, anything but favorable. He wears -heavy, hobnailed shoes or boots, flannel shirt, -coarse jacket and pantaloons, all of them black -with coal dirt and saturated with oil. He has a -habit, when he comes from his work, of throwing -his coat loosely about his shoulders, and wearing -it so as he goes to his home. He usually wears a -cap on his head, sometimes a slouch hat, rarely the -helmet or fireman’s hat with which artists are -accustomed to picture him. This latter is too -heavy and clumsy for common use; he only puts -it on when working in places where water comes -down freely on his head. Hooked to the front of -his cap is the little tin lamp already described. -When he goes to or comes from his work in the -dark he allows it to burn and light him on his way. -His face and hands are also black with coal dirt -and powder smoke, and his features are hardly -recognizable. The predominating race among the -mine workers is the Irish, next in point of numbers -comes the Welsh, then follow the Scotch and -English, and, finally, the German. Of late years, -however, Hungarian, Italian, and Russian laborers -have come to the mines in large numbers, especially -in the southern districts. These people can<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -hardly be compared with the English or German -speaking races; they do not become citizens of the -country, have in the main no family life, and are, -in a certain sense, slaves whose masters are their -own countrymen.</p> - -<p>In speaking of the characteristics of the mine -workers as a class, it may be well, and it certainly -is just, to correct a misapprehension concerning -them which has become prevalent. From -reading the descriptions given by newspaper correspondents -and by certain writers of fiction, -many people have come to think that all miners -are little less than outlaws, that they are rude, -ignorant, brutal in their instincts, and blind in -their passions and animosities. This is very far -indeed from the truth. Mine workers, as a class, -are peaceful, law-abiding, intelligent citizens. -That they are economical and industrious is well -attested by the comfortable appearance of their -homes, and the modest deposits that are made, in -large numbers, in the numerous miner’s savings -banks of the different districts. There are, indeed, -among them those who are intemperate, -those who are coarse and violent, a disgrace to -themselves and a menace to society. These are -always the ones who come to the surface at a time -when strained relations exist between employers -and employees, and by their harsh language and -unlawful conduct in the name of oppressed labor -call down just retribution on themselves, but unjust<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> -condemnation on the true mine workers, who -compose ninety-nine one hundredths of the class, -but who do not go about drinking, ranting, destroying -property, and inciting to crime. The proportion -of “good-for-naughts” among the miners, -however, is no greater than it is among any other -class of workmen having the same numbers, and -the same advantages and disadvantages. With -the exception of the Hungarians, Russians, Italians, -and Poles, of whom mention has already -been made, the miners and their families compare -favorably with any class of workers in the -same grade of labor in America. Many of them -indeed attain to prominent and responsible positions -in business and society. Not a few of the -clerks, merchants, contractors, mining engineers, -bankers, lawyers, preachers, of the coal regions -of to-day have stepped into those positions from -the chambers of the mines, and have filled them -admirably. The miner is fond of his family; -his children are dear to him, and, whenever the -grim necessities of life permit, he sends them to -the schools instead of to the mines or breakers. -He wishes to prepare them for a larger enjoyment -of life than he himself has had, even though that -life should be spent in the occupation which he -himself has followed. And, indeed, there are few -other occupations in which the possibilities of advancement -are so great and so favorable. There -must be mine bosses, mine inspectors, mine superintendents,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> -and many of them, and they are, as -a rule, promoted from the ranks. Young men of -character, skill, and judgment are almost sure to -step into the higher places.</p> - -<p>If it were not for two evils that constantly -menace and hamper him, the coal miner of to-day -would be the most favored of workmen. These -twin evils are strikes and lockouts. Abolish them -and there would be no more comfortable, happy, -and generally prosperous class of people in America -than the workers in the coal mines.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">GLOSSARY OF MINING TERMS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p><i><a id="After_damp">After damp.</a></i> The mixture of gases resulting from the -burning of fire damp.</p> - -<p><i>Air shaft.</i> A vertical opening into a mine for the passage -of air.</p> - -<p><i>Airway.</i> Any passage in the mine along which an air current -passes; but the term is commonly applied to that -passage which is driven, for ventilating purposes, parallel -to and simultaneously with the gangway.</p> - -<p><i>Anticlinal.</i> A fold of strata in which the inclination of the -sides of the fold is from the axis downward.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Barrier pillars.</i> Large pillars of coal left at a boundary -line, or on the outskirts of a squeeze.</p> - -<p><i>Basin.</i> The hollow formed by a fold of the seam; any -large area of included coal.</p> - -<p><i>Battery</i>. In steep-pitching seams, a wooden structure built -across the shute to hold the mined coal back.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Bearing_in">Bearing in.</a></i> Cutting a horizontal groove at the bottom or -side of the face of a breast.</p> - -<p><i>Bed.</i> Any separate stratum of rock or coal.</p> - -<p><i>Bench.</i> A horizontal section of the coal seam, included between -partings of slate or shale.</p> - -<p><i>Black damp.</i> Carbonic acid gas; known also as choke -damp.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Blossom">Blossom.</a></i> Decomposed coal, indicating the presence of an -outcrop.</p> - -<p><i>Blower.</i> A forcible and copious discharge of gas from a -cavity in the coal seam.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span></p> - -<p><i>Bony coal.</i> Coal containing in its composition slaty or -argillaceous material.</p> - -<p><i>Bore-hole.</i> A hole of small diameter drilled or bored, either -vertically or horizontally, through the measures or in the -coal; usually, a hole drilled vertically for prospecting -purposes.</p> - -<p><i>Brattice.</i> A partition made of boards or of brattice cloth, -and put up to force the air current to the face of the -workings.</p> - -<p><i>Breaker.</i> A building, with its appliances, used in the preparation -of anthracite coal for the market.</p> - -<p><i>Break-through.</i> A cross-heading or entrance, used in the -bituminous mines.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Breast">Breast.</a></i> The principal excavation in the mine from which -coal is taken; known also as chamber.</p> - -<p><i>Broken coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Buckwheat coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared -anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Buggy.</i> A small car or wagon used for transporting coal -from the working face to the gangway.</p> - -<p><i>Buntons.</i> The timbers placed crosswise of a shaft down its -entire depth, dividing it into vertical compartments.</p> - -<p><i>Butt.</i> In bituminous coal seams, the vertical planes of -cleavage at right angles to the face cleavage.</p> - -<p><i>Butty.</i> A comrade; a fellow-worker in the same chamber.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Cage.</i> See <a href="#Carriage">Carriage.</a></p> - -<p><i><a id="Carriage">Carriage.</a></i> The apparatus on which coal is hoisted in a -shaft.</p> - -<p><i>Cartridge pin.</i> A round stick of wood on which the paper -tube for the cartridge is formed.</p> - -<p><i>Cave-hole.</i> A depression at the surface, caused by a fall of -roof in the mine.</p> - -<p><i>Chain pillars.</i> Heavy pillars of coal, lining one or both<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> -sides of the gangway, and left for the protection of that -passage.</p> - -<p><i>Chamber.</i> See <a href="#Breast">Breast.</a></p> - -<p><i>Chestnut coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Choice damp.</i> See <a href="#After_damp">After-damp.</a></p> - -<p><i>Cleavage.</i> The property of splitting on a certain plane.</p> - -<p><i>Collar.</i> The upper horizontal crosspiece uniting the legs -in the timbering of a drift, tunnel, slope, or gangway.</p> - -<p><i>Colliery.</i> All the workings of one mine, both underground -and at the surface.</p> - -<p><i>Conglomerate.</i> The rock strata lying next beneath the coal -measures.</p> - -<p><i>Counter-gangway.</i> A gangway which is tributary to the -main gangway, and from which a new section of coal is -worked.</p> - -<p><i>Cracker boss.</i> The officer in charge of the screen room in -a breaker.</p> - -<p><i>Creep.</i> A crush in which the pillars are forced down into -the floor or up into the roof of the mine.</p> - -<p><i>Cribbing.</i> The timber lining of a shaft, extending usually -from the surface to bed-rock.</p> - -<p><i>Crop-fall.</i> A caving in of the surface at the outcrop.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Cross_heading">Cross-heading.</a></i> A narrow opening for ventilation, driven -through a wall of coal separating two passages or breasts.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Crush">Crush.</a></i> A settling downward of the strata overlying a portion -of an excavated coal seam.</p> - -<p><i>Culm.</i> All coal refuse finer than buckwheat size.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i><a id="Dip">Dip.</a></i> The angle which any inclined stratum makes with a -horizontal line.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Door_boy">Door boy.</a></i> A boy who opens and shuts the door placed -across any passageway in the mines to control the direction -of the ventilating current.</p> - -<p><i>Double entry.</i> One of the systems by which openings into -the bituminous coal mines are made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span></p> - -<p><i>Downcast.</i> The passage or way through which air is drawn -into a mine.</p> - -<p><i>Drift.</i> A water-level entrance to a mine, driven in from -the surface on the coal.</p> - -<p><i>Drill.</i> Any tool used for boring holes in the rock or coal.</p> - -<p><i>Driving.</i> Excavating any horizontal passage in or into the -mines.</p> - -<p><i>Drum.</i> A revolving cylinder, at the head of any hoisting-way, -on which the winding rope is coiled.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Egg coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Entrance.</i> See <a href="#Cross_heading">Cross-heading.</a></p> - -<p><i>Entry.</i> The main entrance and traveling road in bituminous -mines.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Face.</i> The end wall at the inner or working extremity of -any excavation in or into the mines. In bituminous mines -the vertical plane of cleavage at right angles to the butt -cleavage.</p> - -<p><i>Fan.</i> A machine used to force a ventilating current of air -through a mine.</p> - -<p><i>Fault.</i> A displacement of strata in which the measures on -one side of a fissure are pushed up above the corresponding -measures on the other side.</p> - -<p><i>Fire-board.</i> A blackboard, fixed near the main entrance -of a mine, on which the fire boss indicates each morning -the amount and location of dangerous gases.</p> - -<p><i>Fire boss.</i> An official whose duty it is to examine the workings -for accumulations of dangerous gases.</p> - -<p><i><a id="Fire_clay">Fire clay.</a></i> The geological formation which is usually found -immediately underlying a coal bed.</p> - -<p><i>Fire damp.</i> Light carbureted hydrogen.</p> - -<p><i>Fissure.</i> A separation of rock or coal across the measures.</p> - -<p><i>Floor.</i> The upper surface of the stratum immediately -underlying a coal seam.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span></p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Gangway.</i> An excavation or passageway, driven in the -coal, at a slight grade, forming the base from which the -other workings of the mine are begun.</p> - -<p><i>Gas.</i> Fire damp.</p> - -<p><i>Gob.</i> The refuse separated from the coal and left in the -mine.</p> - -<p><i>Guides.</i> Narrow vertical strips of timber at each side of -the carriage way in shafts, to steady and guide the carriage -in its upward or downward movement.</p> - -<p><i>Gunboat.</i> A car used for hoisting coal on steep slopes.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Head-frame.</i> The frame erected at the head of a shaft to -support the sheaves and hold the carriage.</p> - -<p><i>Heading.</i> Synonymous with gangway. Any separate continuous -passage used as a traveling way or as an airway.</p> - -<p><i>Hopper.</i> A feeding shute or pocket in a breaker.</p> - -<p><i>Horseback.</i> A small ridge in the roof or floor of a coal -seam.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Inside slope.</i> An inclined plane in a mine, on which coal is -hoisted from a lower to a higher level.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Jacket.</i> One of the sections or frames of wire mesh of which -a revolving screen is made up.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i><a id="Keeps">Keeps.</a></i> Projections of wood or iron on which the carriage -rests while it is in place at the head of the shaft.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Lagging.</i> Small timbers or planks driven in behind the -legs and over the collars to give additional support to the -sides and roof of the passage.</p> - -<p><i>Legs.</i> The inclined sticks on which the collar rests in -gangway, tunnel, drift, and slope timbering.</p> - -<p><i>Lift.</i> All the workings driven from one level in a steep-pitching -seam.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span></p> - -<p><i>Loading place.</i> The lowest extremity of the breaker, where -prepared coal is loaded into railway cars.</p> - -<p><i>Lump coal.</i> The largest size of prepared anthracite.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Manway.</i> A passageway in or into the mine, used as a -footway for workmen.</p> - -<p><i>Mouth.</i> The opening, at the surface, of any way into the -mines.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Needle.</i> An instrument used in blasting coal, with which a -channel is formed through the tamping for the entrance -of the squib.</p> - -<p><i>Nut coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of bituminous coal.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Opening.</i> Any excavation in or into a mine.</p> - -<p><i>Operator.</i> The person, firm, or corporation working a colliery.</p> - -<p><i>Outcrop.</i> That portion of any geological stratum which -appears at the surface.</p> - -<p><i>Output.</i> The amount of coal produced from any mine, or -from any area of country.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Parting.</i> The layer of slate or bony coal which separates -two benches of a coal seam.</p> - -<p><i>Pea coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Picking shute.</i> A shute in the breaker from which the -pieces of slate are picked out by a boy as they pass down -with the coal.</p> - -<p><i>Pillar.</i> A column or body of coal left unmined to support -the roof.</p> - -<p><i>Pillar and breast.</i> The name of a common mining method.</p> - -<p><i>Pinch.</i> See <a href="#Crush">Crush.</a></p> - -<p><i>Pitch.</i> See <a href="#Dip">Dip.</a></p> - -<p><i>Plane.</i> Any incline on which a track is laid for the purpose -of lowering or hoisting coal.</p> - -<p><i>Pockets.</i> Receptacles at the lower ends of shutes, in breakers, -from which coal is loaded into railway cars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span></p> - -<p><i>Post.</i> A wooden prop to support the roof in bituminous -mines.</p> - -<p><i>Prop.</i> A timber set at right angles to the seam, in anthracite -mines, to support the roof.</p> - -<p><i>Prospecting.</i> Searching for indications of coal on the surface, -and testing coal seams from the surface.</p> - -<p><i>Pump way.</i> That compartment of a shaft or slope down -which the pump rods and pipes are extended.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Rib.</i> The side of an excavation as distinguished from the -end or face.</p> - -<p><i>Rob.</i> To mine coal from the pillars after the breasts are -worked out.</p> - -<p><i>Rock tunnel.</i> A tunnel driven through rock strata.</p> - -<p><i>Rolls.</i> In breakers, heavy iron or steel cylinders set with -teeth, used for breaking coal.</p> - -<p><i>Roof.</i> The stratum immediately overlying a coal seam. -The rock or coal overhead in any excavation.</p> - -<p><i>Room.</i> Synonymous with breast or chamber; used in bituminous -mines.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Safety lamp.</i> A lamp that can be carried into inflammable -gases without igniting them.</p> - -<p><i>Scraper.</i> A tool used for cleaning out bore holes in -blasting.</p> - -<p><i>Screen.</i> Any apparatus used for separating coal into different -sizes; usually, the revolving cylinder of wire mesh in -a breaker.</p> - -<p><i>Seam.</i> A stratum of coal.</p> - -<p><i>Separator.</i> A machine for picking slate.</p> - -<p><i>Shaft.</i> A vertical entrance into a mine.</p> - -<p><i>Sheave.</i> The wheel in the head-frame that supports the -winding rope.</p> - -<p><i>Shift.</i> The time during which a miner or laborer works -continuously, alternating with some other similar period.</p> - -<p><i>Shute.</i> A narrow passageway through which coal descends<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> -by gravity from the foot of the breast to the gangway; -an inclined trough, in a breaker, down which coal slides -by gravity.</p> - -<p><i>Single entry.</i> One of the systems by which bituminous -mines are entered.</p> - -<p><i>Slack.</i> The dirt from bituminous coal.</p> - -<p><i>Slate picker.</i> A boy who picks slate from coal. A machine -used for the same purpose.</p> - -<p><i>Slope.</i> An entrance to a mine driven down through an -inclined coal seam. Inside slope: a passage in the mine -driven down through the seam, by which to bring coal -up from a lower level.</p> - -<p><i>Slope carriage.</i> A platform on wheels on which cars are -raised and lowered in steep slopes.</p> - -<p><i>Smut.</i> See <a href="#Blossom">Blossom.</a></p> - -<p><i>Split.</i> A branch of a ventilating air current.</p> - -<p><i>Spread.</i> The bottom width of a slope, drift, tunnel, or -gangway between the legs of the timbering.</p> - -<p><i>Squeeze.</i> See <a href="#Crush">Crush.</a></p> - -<p><i>Squib.</i> A powder cracker used for igniting the cartridge -in blasting.</p> - -<p><i>Steamboat coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared -anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Stopping.</i> A wall built across an entrance or any passage -to control the ventilating current.</p> - -<p><i>Stove coal.</i> One of the regular sizes of prepared anthracite.</p> - -<p><i>Strike.</i> The direction of a line drawn horizontally along -any stratum.</p> - -<p><i>Stripping.</i> Mining coal by first removing the surface down -to the coal bed; open working.</p> - -<p><i>Sump.</i> A basin in mines entered by a slope or shaft, in -which the water of the mine is collected to be pumped -out.</p> - -<p><i>Swamp.</i> A depression in the seam.</p> - -<p><i>Synclinal.</i> A fold of strata in which the inclination of the -sides is from the axis upward.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span></p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Tipple.</i> In the bituminous regions, a building in which coal -is dumped, screened, and loaded into boats or cars.</p> - -<p><i>Trapper.</i> See <a href="#Door_boy">Door boy.</a></p> - -<p><i>Traveling way.</i> A passageway for men and mules in or -into the mines.</p> - -<p><i>Trip.</i> The number of cars less than enough to constitute a -train drawn at one time by any motive power.</p> - -<p><i>Tunnel.</i> An opening into a mine driven horizontally across -the measures.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Under-clay.</i> See <a href="#Fire_clay">Fire clay.</a></p> - -<p><i>Underholing.</i> See <a href="#Bearing_in">Bearing in.</a></p> - -<p><i>Upcast.</i> An opening from a mine through which air is -taken out.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Vein.</i> Used (improperly) synonymously with seam, bed, -or stratum.</p> - - -<p class="p2"><i>Wagon.</i> A mine car.</p> - -<p><i>Waste.</i> Gob; coal dirt.</p> - -<p><i>Water level.</i> An entrance into or passage in a mine, driven -with just sufficient grade to carry off water.</p> - -<p><i>White damp.</i> Carbonic oxide.</p> - -<p><i>Wings.</i> See <a href="#Keeps">Keeps.</a></p> - -<p><i>Work.</i> To mine.</p> - -<p><i>Working face.</i> A face at which mining is being done.</p> - -<p><i>Workings.</i> The excavations of a mine, taken as a whole; -or, more particularly, that portion of the mine in which -mining is being done.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Accidents resulting from falls, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">to boys, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Act of 1885, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">After damp, composition of, etc., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Air currents in mines, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Air, deterioration of, in mines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Airways, beginning of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Allen, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancients, use of coal by, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animal life of Carboniferous era, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anthracite coal, analysis of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">commercial sizes of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ignition of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of bituminous origin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skill in mining, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anticlinals, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Appalachian Range, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Archean time, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Areas of coal measures, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Pennsylvania coal fields, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Avondale Mine, disaster at, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Baltimore vein, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basin in a coal seam, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Battery in steep chambers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bearing in, in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Benches in coal seams, <a href="#Page_23">23–115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bituminous coal, analysis of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">process of mining, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black damp, composition, etc., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blasting in mines, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blossom of coal, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blower of gas, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boys, accidents to, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">amusements of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at tipple work, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">duties of, at breaker, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in British coal mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boy door-tenders, duties of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boy drivers, duties of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Braddock’s road, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brattice at face of chamber, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Breaker, description of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">location of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">passage of coal through, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">picking shutes in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">structure and appearance of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Break through, in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Breast. See <a href="#Chamber_idx">Chamber.</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bryden, Alexander, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bryden, Andrew, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buildings at mouth of shaft, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buntons in shaft, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butler, Col. Lord, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butt cleavage in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butty, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Calamites, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Candles, use of, in mines, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cannel coal, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carbondale Mines, fall in, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carboniferous age, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carboniferous era, animal life of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carboniferous plants, <a href="#Page_14">14–16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carriage in shaft, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cartridge, how made and used, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cave holes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cenozoic time, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chain pillars, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Chamber_idx">Chamber</a>, car track in, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">length of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">scene at face of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charcoal, process of formation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles, John, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chest, miner’s, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Choke damp, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cist, Charles, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cist, Jacob, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal, classification of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">originally all bituminous, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">origin of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">production, by corporations, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">specific gravity of, what is it? <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal dust, explosive quality of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal lands, division of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">investments in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">leasing of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">value of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal mining by corporations, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal plants, age of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span>Coal seams, number and thickness of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal-waste, heaps of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conglomerate, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conifers, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corve, in British coal mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cost of different methods of entry, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Counter-gangway, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crahan, Martin, story of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creeping pillars, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creuzot Mine, accident at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crop falls, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cross-headings, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crowbar, miner’s tool, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crust of earth, subsidence of, etc., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Cry of the Children,” Mrs. Browning’s, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culm, its disposition and use, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Curr, John, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Davy, Sir Humphrey, experiments of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Decapitation of coal seams, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware and Hudson gravity railroad, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">canal, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diamond drill, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dip of strata, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Door boy, duties of, etc., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doors in mines, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drainage in mines, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drift, as a mode of entry, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drilling, by diamond drill, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by hand, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by rope method, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by spring pole method, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drill, machine hand, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">miner’s, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Driver boss, his duties, etc., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Driver boy, duties of, etc., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dump shute bars in breaker, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Eagle Shaft, disaster at, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Early mining methods, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eastern middle coal field, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Electricity in breakers, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in mines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enaliosaurs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Entrances in mines, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Entries in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evans, Oliver, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Experiments with anthracite, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Face cleavage in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Face of chamber, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Falls of roof and coal, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fan for ventilation, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fault in strata, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Felling Colliery, disaster at, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fell, Judge Jesse, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Females in British coal mines, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferns of coal era, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire boss, duties of, etc., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fire damp, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explosions of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in abandoned workings, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fishes, age of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Carboniferous age, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fissures in strata, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flanigan, John, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flowers in Carboniferous age, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Gangways, beginning of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">direction of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">driving, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">length of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">walking in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gases not confined to coal measures, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germany, mining of coal in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ginther, Philip, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Girls in British coal mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gore, Obadiah, experiments of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Graff, Frederick, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Great Summit Mine, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guibal, inventor of fan, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guides in shaft, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hammer, miner’s, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Head-frame at mouth of shaft, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Health of mine workers, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hennepin, Father, explorer, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hillegas, Michael, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hoisting apparatus at shaft, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hollenback, Colonel George M., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horsebacks in coal seams, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hosie, John, adventure of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hurrier in British mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Inclined planes in mines, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indians, coal known to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inside slopes, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Invertebrates, age of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Investments in coal lands, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Jenkins, Henry, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Laborers, duties of, etc., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lackawanna region, early coal trade in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lagging, its use, etc., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamp, miner’s, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laplace, astronomer, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lehigh coal, early trade in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lepidodendrids, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leschot, inventor, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lift mining, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Light carbureted hydrogen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lignite, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span>Loading place in breaker, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Localities in which coal is found, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Locomotives in mines, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">London, burning of coal in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long wall mining system, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Loyalsock coal field, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lump coal, bituminous, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Machine for mining soft coal, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mammals, age of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Man, age of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marsh gas, composition of, etc., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mellen and Bishop, experimenters, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mesozoic time, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine, anthracite, number of employees in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine boss, duties, etc., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine car, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine, darkness in a, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in an abandoned, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">silence in a deserted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mine law of 1870 and 1885, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miner, Charles, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miner, appearance of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">character and ambition of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clothing of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">duties of, etc., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">home and outside occupation of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">nativity of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mines, flooding of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miocene period, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mules in mines, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Nanticoke, accident at, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nebular Hypothesis, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Needle, miner’s, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newcastle, carrying coals to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nobles, David, hunter, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Northern coal field, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nut coal, bituminous, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Open quarry mining, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Outcrop of strata, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Paleozoic time, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pannier women in British mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paris, burning of coal in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Partings in coal seams, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peat, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pennsylvania, coal fields of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Picking machine in breaker, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Picking shute in breaker, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pick, miner’s, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pillar and breast mining system, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pillars at foot of shaft, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">creeping, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">robbing of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">slipping, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinch in a coal mine, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pittsburgh, coal beds near, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coal trade of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of coal near, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pittsburg, Kansas, disaster at, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pockets in breaker, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Props, use and setting of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prospecting for coal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pump mining, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pumpway in shaft, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Putter, in British mines, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Rats in mines, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reptiles, age of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhode Island, coal in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rib of coal, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Richmond coal field, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Robbing pillars, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Robinson, John W., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rocky Mountains, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rolls in breaker, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rolls in coal seams, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rooms in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Run of mine, bituminous coal, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Safety carriage, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Safety lamps, how to use, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">invention of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schuylkill region, early coal trade in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scotland, mining of coal in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scraper, in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scraper, use of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Screen, revolving, in breaker, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Semi-anthracite coal, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shaft, compartments of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">descending a, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">foot of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in steep-pitching seams, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">location and depth of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sinking of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">water in, while sinking, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheaves in head-frame, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoemaker, Colonel George, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shovel, miner’s, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sigillariæ, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slack, bituminous waste, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slate picker’s duties, etc., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sledge, miner’s, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slipping pillars, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slope, dimensions of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">entrance by, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in steep-pitching seams, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Abijah, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, John, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smut of coal, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Southern coal field, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sphagnum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Splits of the air current, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Squeeze in a mine, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Squib, use of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stair shaft in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">States in which coal is found, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>Steep-pitching seams, raining in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stigmaria, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stockton Mines, accident at, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strike of strata, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strikes among miners, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Summit Hill Mine, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sump in mine, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Surface, disturbance of, by falls, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Susquehanna River, coal trade, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Swamp in mines, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Symbols marked on cars, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Synclinals, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Tamping, process of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature in mines, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terrace in coal outcrop, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tipple, at the bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tunnel, entrance by, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tunnels in mine interiors, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turnbull, William, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ventilation by fan, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">by open furnace, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in bituminous mines, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">principle of, in mines, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Von Storch, H. C. L., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Wages of miners, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">computing and payment of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of boys, <a href="#Page_213">213–215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sliding scale for computing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waste in coal mining, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the coal measures, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water, driving workings toward, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in mine, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tonnage of, hoisted, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weighing coal, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weiss, Colonel Jacob, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Western middle coal field, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">West Pittston, disaster at, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">White & Hazard, coal trade of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">experiments of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wilcox, Crandal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wings in shaft, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Woodward breaker, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Working pillars, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wright, Joseph, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wurts, William and Maurice, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wyoming coal field, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wyoming valley, discovery of coal in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">early coal trade of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ziegler, Charles W., <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> -</ul> - - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="tnote"> -<p class="noi tntitle">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> - -<p class="smfont">A List of Illustrations has been provided for the convenience of the - reader.</p> - -<p class="smfont">Obvious printer’s, punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were - silently corrected.</p> - -<p class="smfont">Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.</p> - -<p class="smfont">Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COAL AND THE COAL MINES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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